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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Fight For The Republic in China, by
+Bertram Lenox Putnam Weale
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Fight For The Republic in China
+
+Author: Bertram Lenox Putnam Weale
+
+Release Date: December 13, 2004  [eBook #14345]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FIGHT FOR THE REPUBLIC IN
+CHINA***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Jonathan Ingram and the Project Gutenberg Online
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+
+
+
+
+
+THE FIGHT FOR THE REPUBLIC IN CHINA
+
+by
+
+B. L. PUTNAM WEALE
+
+Author of _Indiscreet Letters from Peking_, etc.
+
+With 28 Illustrations
+
+London: Hurst & Blackett, Ltd.
+Paternoster House, E.C.
+
+1918
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: President Li Yuan-Hung.]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This volume tells everything that the student or the casual reader needs
+to know about the Chinese Question. It is sufficiently exhaustive to
+show very clearly the new forces at work, and to bring some realisation
+of the great gulf which separates the thinking classes of to-day from
+the men of a few years ago; whilst, at the same time, it is sufficiently
+condensed not to overwhelm the reader with too great a multitude of
+facts.
+
+Particular attention may be devoted to an unique feature--namely, the
+Chinese and Japanese documentation which affords a sharp contrast
+between varying types of Eastern brains. Thus, in the Memorandum of the
+Black Dragon Society (Chapter VII) we have a very clear and illuminating
+revelation of the Japanese political mind which has been trained to
+consider problems in the modern Western way, but which remains saturated
+with theocratic ideals in the sharpest conflict with the Twentieth
+Century. In the pamphlet of Yang Tu (Chapter VIII) which launched the
+ill-fated Monarchy Scheme and contributed so largely to the dramatic
+death of Yuan Shih-kai, we have an essentially Chinese mentality of the
+reactionary or corrupt type which expresses itself both on home and
+foreign issues in a naïvely dishonest way, helpful to future diplomacy.
+In the Letter of Protest (Chapter X) against the revival of Imperialism
+written by Liang Ch'i-chao--the most brilliant scholar living--we have a
+Chinese of the New or Liberal China, who in spite of a complete
+ignorance of foreign languages shows a marvellous grasp of political
+absolutes, and is a harbinger of the great days which must come again to
+Cathay. In other chapters dealing with the monarchist plot we see the
+official mind at work, the telegraphic despatches exchanged between
+Peking and the provinces being of the highest diplomatic interest. These
+documents prove conclusively that although the Japanese is more
+practical than the Chinese--and more concise--there can be no question
+as to which brain is the more fruitful.
+
+Coupled with this discussion there is much matter giving an insight into
+the extraordinary and calamitous foreign ignorance about present-day
+China, an ignorance which is just as marked among those resident in the
+country as among those who have never visited it. The whole of the
+material grouped in this novel fashion should not fail to bring
+conviction that the Far East, with its 500 millions of people, is
+destined to play an important rôle in _postbellum_ history because of
+the new type of modern spirit which is being there evolved. The
+influence of the Chinese Republic, in the opinion of the writer, cannot
+fail to be ultimately world-wide in view of the practically unlimited
+resources in man-power which it disposes of.
+
+In the Appendices will be found every document of importance for the
+period under examination,--1911 to 1917. The writer desires to record
+his indebtedness to the columns of _The Peking Gazette_, a newspaper
+which under the brilliant editorship of Eugene Ch'en--a pure Chinese
+born and educated under the British flag--has fought consistently and
+victoriously for Liberalism and Justice and has made the Republic a
+reality to countless thousands who otherwise would have refused to
+believe in it.
+
+PUTNAM WEALE.
+
+PEKING, June, 1917.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+    I.--GENERAL INTRODUCTION
+
+   II.--THE ENIGMA OF YUAN SHIH-KAI
+
+  III.--THE DREAM REPUBLIC
+        (From the Manchu Abdication to the dissolution of Parliament)
+
+   IV.--THE DICTATOR AT WORK
+        (From the Coup d'état of the 4th Nov. 1913 to the outbreak of the
+        World-war, 1st August, 1914)
+
+    V.--THE FACTOR OF JAPAN
+
+   VI.--THE TWENTY-ONE DEMANDS
+
+  VII.--THE ORIGIN OF THE TWENTY-ONE DEMANDS
+
+ VIII.--THE MONARCHIST PLOT
+        1º The Pamphlet of Yang Tu
+
+   IX.--THE MONARCHY PLOT
+        2º Dr. Goodnow's Memorandum
+
+    X.--THE MONARCHY MOVEMENT IS OPPOSED
+        The Appeal of the Scholar Liang Chi-chao
+
+   XI.--THE DREAM EMPIRE
+        ("The People's Voice" and the action of the Powers)
+
+  XII.--"THE THIRD REVOLUTION"
+        The Revolt of Yunnan
+
+ XIII.--"THE THIRD REVOLUTION" (_continued_)
+        Downfall and Death of Yuan Shih-kai
+
+  XIV.--THE NEW RÉGIME--FROM 1916 TO 1917
+
+   XV.--THE REPUBLIC IN COLLISION WITH REALITY: TWO TYPICAL INSTANCES OF
+        "FOREIGN AGGRESSION"
+
+  XVI.--CHINA AND THE WAR
+
+ XVII.--THE FINAL PROBLEM:--REMODELLING THE POLITICO-ECONOMIC
+        RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHINA AND THE WORLD
+
+        APPENDICES--DOCUMENTS AND MEMORANDA
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+  President Li Yuan-Hung
+
+  The Funeral of Yuan-Shih-kai: The Procession passing down the great
+  Palace Approach with the famous Ch'ien Men (Gate) in the distance
+
+  The Provincial Troops of General Chang Hsun at his Headquarters of
+  Hsuchowfu
+
+  The Funeral of Yuan Shih-kai: The Catafalque over the Coffin on its
+  way to the Railway Station
+
+  The Funeral of Yuan Shih-kai: The Procession passing down the great
+  Palace Approach with the famous Ch'ien Men (Gate) in the distance
+
+  An Encampment of "The Punitive Expedition" of 1916 on the Upper
+  Yangtsze (_By courtesy of Major Isaac Newell, U.S. Military Attaché_.)
+
+  Revival of the Imperialistic Worship of Heaven by Yuan Shih-kai in
+  1914: Scene on the Altar of Heaven, with Sacrificial Officers clothed
+  in costumes dating from 2,000 years ago.
+
+  A Manchu Country Fair: The figures in the foreground are all Manchu
+  Women and Girls
+
+  A Manchu Woman grinding Grain
+
+  Silk-reeling done in the open under the Walls of Peking
+
+  Modern Peking: A Run on a Bank
+
+  The Re-opening of Parliament on August 1st, 1916, after three years of
+  dictatorial rule
+
+  The Original Constitutional Drafting Committee of 1913, photographed
+  on the Steps of the Temple of Heaven, where the Draft was completed
+
+  A Presidential Review of Troops in the Southern Hungtung Park outside
+  Peking: Arrival of the President
+
+  President Li Yuan-Hung and the General Staff watching the Review
+
+  March-past of an Infantry Division
+
+  Modern Peking: The Palace Entrance lined with Troops. Note the New
+  Type Chinese Policeman in the foreground
+
+  The Premier General Tuan Chi-Jui, Head of the Cabinet which decided to
+  declare war on Germany General Feng Kuo-chang, President of the
+  Republic The Scholar Liang Chi-chao, sometime Minister of Justice, and
+  the foremost "Brain" in China
+
+  General Tsao-ao, the Hero of the Yunnan Rebellion of 1915-16, who died
+  from the effects of the campaign
+
+  Liang Shih-yi, who was the Power behind Yuan Shih-kai, now proscribed
+  and living in exile at Hong-Kong
+
+  The Famous or Infamous General Chang Hsun, the leading Reactionary in
+  China to-day, who still commands a force of 30,000 men astride of the
+  Pukow Railway
+
+  The Bas-relief in a Peking Temple, well illustrating Indo-Chinese
+  Influences
+
+  The Late President Yuan Shih-kai
+
+  President Yuan Shih-kai photographed immediately after his
+  Inauguration as Provisional President, March 10th, 1912
+
+  The National Assembly sitting as a National Convention engaged on the
+  Draft of the Permanent Constitution. (Specially photographed by
+  permission of the Speakers for the Present Work)
+
+  View from rear of the Hall of the National Assembly sitting as a
+  National Convention engaged on the Draft of the Permanent
+  Constitution. (Specially photographed by permission of the Speakers
+  for the Present Work)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+GENERAL INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The revolution which broke out in China on the 10th October, 1911, and
+which was completed with the abdication of the Manchu Dynasty on the
+12th February, 1912, though acclaimed as highly successful, was in its
+practical aspects something very different. With the proclamation of the
+Republic, the fiction of autocratic rule had truly enough vanished; yet
+the tradition survived and with it sufficient of the essential machinery
+of Imperialism to defeat the nominal victors until the death of Yuan
+Shih-kai.
+
+The movement to expel the Manchus, who had seized the Dragon Throne in
+1644 from the expiring Ming Dynasty, was an old one. Historians are
+silent on the subject of the various secret plots which were always
+being hatched to achieve that end, their silence being due to a lack of
+proper records and to the difficulty of establishing the simple truth in
+a country where rumour reigns supreme. But there is little doubt that
+the famous Ko-lao-hui, a Secret Society with its headquarters in the
+remote province of Szechuan, owed its origin to the last of the Ming
+adherents, who after waging a desperate guerilla warfare from the date
+of their expulsion from Peking, finally fell to the low level of
+inciting assassinations and general unrest in the vain hope that they
+might some day regain their heritage. At least, we know one thing
+definitely: that the attempt on the life of the Emperor Chia Ching in
+the Peking streets at the beginning of the Nineteenth Century was a
+Secret Society plot and brought to an abrupt end the pleasant habit of
+travelling among their subjects which the great Manchu Emperors
+K'ang-hsi and Ch'ien Lung had inaugurated and always pursued and which
+had so largely encouraged the growth of personal loyalty to a foreign
+House.
+
+From that day onwards for over a century no Emperor ventured out from
+behind the frowning Walls of the Forbidden City, save for brief annual
+ceremonies, such as the Worship of Heaven on the occasion of the Winter
+Solstice, and during the two "flights"--first in 1860 when Peking was
+occupied by an Anglo-French expedition and the Court incontinently
+sought sanctuary in the mountain Palaces of Jehol; and, again, in 1900,
+when with the pricking of the Boxer bubble and the arrival of the
+International relief armies, the Imperial Household was forced along the
+stony road to far-off Hsianfu.
+
+The effect of this immurement was soon visible; the Manchu rule, which
+was emphatically a rule of the sword, was rapidly so weakened that the
+emperors became no more than _rois fainéants_ at the mercy of their
+minister.[1] The history of the Nineteenth Century is thus logically
+enough the history of successive collapses. Not only did overseas
+foreigners openly thunder at the gateways of the empire and force an
+ingress, but native rebellions were constant and common. Leaving minor
+disturbances out of account, there were during this period two huge
+Mahommedan rebellions, besides the cataclysmic Taiping rising which
+lasted ten years and is supposed to have destroyed the unbelievable
+total of one hundred million persons. The empire, torn by internecine
+warfare, surrendered many of its essential prerogatives to foreigners,
+and by accepting the principle of extraterritoriality prepared the road
+to ultimate collapse.
+
+How in such circumstances was it possible to keep alive absolutism? The
+answer is so curious that we must be explicit and exhaustive.
+
+The simple truth is that save during the period of vigour immediately
+following each foreign conquest (such as the Mongol conquest in the
+Thirteenth Century and the Manchu in the Seventeenth) not only has there
+never been any absolutism properly so-called in China, but that apart
+from the most meagre and inefficient tax-collecting and some
+rough-and-ready policing in and around the cities there has never been
+any true governing at all save what the people did for themselves or
+what they demanded of the officials as a protection against one another.
+Any one who doubts these statements has no inkling of those facts which
+are the crown as well as the foundation of the Chinese group-system, and
+which must be patiently studied in the village-life of the country to be
+fitly appreciated. To be quite frank, absolutism is a myth coming down
+from the days of Kublai Khan when he so proudly built his _Khanbaligh_
+(the Cambaluc of Marco Polo and the forebear of modern Peking) and
+filled it with his troops who so soon vanished like the snows of winter.
+An elaborate pretence, a deliberate policy of make-believe, ever since
+those days invested Imperial Edicts with a majesty which they have never
+really possessed, the effacement of the sovereign during the Nineteenth
+Century contributing to the legend that there existed in the capital a
+Grand and Fearful Panjandrum for whom no miracle was too great and to
+whom people and officials owed trembling obedience.
+
+In reality, the office of Emperor was never more than a
+politico-religious concept, translated for the benefit of the masses
+into socio-economic ordinances. These pronouncements, cast in the form
+of periodic homilies called Edicts, were the ritual of government; their
+purpose was instructional rather than mandatory; they were designed to
+teach and keep alive the State-theory that the Emperor was the High
+Priest of the Nation and that obedience to the morality of the Golden
+Age, which had been inculcated by all the philosophers since Confucius
+and Mencius flourished twenty-five centuries ago, would not only secure
+universal happiness but contribute to national greatness.
+
+The office of Emperor was thus heavenly rather than terrestrial, and
+suasion, not arms, was the most potent argument used in everyday life.
+The amazing reply (_i.e._, amazing to foreigners) made by the great
+Emperor K'ang-hsi in the tremendous Eighteenth Century controversy
+between the Jesuit and the Dominican missionaries, which ruined the
+prospects of China's ever becoming Roman Catholic and which the Pope
+refused to accept--that the custom of ancestor-worship was political and
+not religious--was absolutely correct, _politics in China under the
+Empire being only a system of national control exercised by inculcating
+obedience to forebears_. The great efforts which the Manchus made from
+the end of the Sixteenth Century (when they were still a small
+Manchurian Principality striving for the succession to the Dragon Throne
+and launching desperate attacks on the Great Wall of China) to receive
+from the Dalai Lama, as well as from the lesser Pontiffs of Tibet and
+Mongolia, high-sounding religious titles, prove conclusively that
+dignities other than mere possession of the Throne were held necessary
+to give solidity to a reign which began in militarism and which would
+collapse as the Mongol rule had collapsed by a mere Palace revolution
+unless an effective _moral_ title were somehow won.
+
+Nor was the Manchu military Conquest, even after they had entered
+Peking, so complete as has been represented by historians. The Manchus
+were too small a handful, even with their Mongol and Chinese
+auxiliaries, to do more than defeat the Ming armies and obtain the
+submission of the chief cities of China. It is well-known to students of
+their administrative methods, that whilst they reigned over China they
+_ruled_ only in company with the Chinese, the system in force being a
+dual control which, beginning on the Grand Council and in the various
+great Boards and Departments in the capital, proceeded as far as the
+provincial chief cities, but stopped short there so completely and
+absolutely that the huge chains of villages and burgs had their historic
+autonomy virtually untouched and lived on as they had always lived. The
+elaborate system of examinations, with the splendid official honours
+reserved for successful students which was adopted by the Dynasty, not
+only conciliated Chinese society but provided a vast body of men whose
+interest lay in maintaining the new conquest; and thus Literature, which
+had always been the door to preferment, became not only one of the
+instruments of government, but actually the advocate of an alien rule.
+With their persons and properties safe, and their women-folk protected
+by an elaborate set of capitulations from being requisitioned for the
+harems of the invaders, small wonder if the mass of Chinese welcomed a
+firm administration after the frightful disorders which had torn the
+country during the last days of the Mings.[2]
+
+It was the foreigner, arriving in force in China after the capture of
+Peking and the ratification of the Tientsin Treaties in 1860, who so
+greatly contributed to making the false idea of Manchu absolutism
+current throughout the world; and in this work it was the foreign
+diplomat, coming to the capital saturated with the tradition of European
+absolutism, who played a not unimportant part. Investing the Emperors
+with an authority with which they were never really clothed, save for
+ceremonial purposes (principally perhaps because the Court was entirely
+withdrawn from view and very insolent in its foreign intercourse) a
+conception of High Mightiness was spread abroad reminiscent of the awe
+in which Eighteenth Century nabobs spoke of the Great Mogul of India.
+Chinese officials, quickly discovering that their easiest means of
+defence against an irresistible pressure was to take refuge behind the
+august name of the sovereign, played their rôle so successfully that
+until 1900 it was generally believed by Europeans that no other form of
+government than a despotism _sans phrase_ could be dreamed of. Finding
+that on the surface an Imperial Decree enjoyed the majesty of an Ukaze
+of the Czar, Europeans were ready enough to interpret as best suited
+their enterprises something which they entirely failed to construe in
+terms expressive of the negative nature of Chinese civilization; and so
+it happened that though the government of China had become no
+government at all from the moment that extraterritoriality destroyed the
+theory of Imperial inviolability and infallibility, the miracle of
+turning state negativism into an active governing element continued to
+work after a fashion because of the disguise which the immense distances
+afforded.
+
+Adequately to explain the philosophy of distance in China, and what it
+has meant historically, would require a whole volume to itself; but it
+is sufficient for our purpose to indicate here certain prime essentials.
+The old Chinese were so entrenched in their vastnesses that without the
+play of forces which were supernatural to them, _i.e._, the
+steam-engine, the telegraph, the armoured war-vessel, etc., their daily
+lives could not be affected. Left to themselves, and assisted by their
+own methods, they knew that blows struck across the immense roadless
+spaces were so diminished in strength, by the time they reached the spot
+aimed at, that they became a mere mockery of force; and, just because
+they were so valueless, paved the way to effective compromises. Being
+adepts in the art which modern surgeons have adopted, of leaving wounds
+as far as possible to heal themselves, they trusted to time and to
+nature to solve political differences which western countries boldly
+attacked on very different principles. Nor were they wrong in their
+view. From the capital to the Yangtsze Valley (which is the heart of the
+country), is 800 miles, that is far more than the mileage between Paris
+and Berlin. From Peking to Canton is 1,400 miles along a hard and
+difficult route; the journey to Yunnan by the Yangtsze river is
+upwards of 2,000 miles, a distance greater than the greatest march
+ever undertaken by Napoleon. And when one speaks of the Outer
+Dominions--Mongolia, Tibet, Turkestan--for these hundreds of miles
+it is necessary to substitute thousands, and add thereto difficulties
+of terrain which would have disheartened even Roman Generals.
+
+Now the old Chinese, accepting distance as the supreme thing, had made
+it the starting-point as well as the end of their government. In the
+perfected viceregal system which grew up under the Ming Dynasty, and
+which was taken over by the Manchus as a sound and admirable governing
+principle, though they superimposed their own military system of Tartar
+Generals, we have the plan that nullified the great obstacle. Authority
+of every kind was _delegated_ by the Throne to various distant governing
+centuries in a most complete and sweeping manner, each group of
+provinces, united under a viceroy, being in everything but name so many
+independent linked commonwealths, called upon for matricular
+contributions in money and grain but otherwise left severely alone[3].
+The chain which bound provincial China to the metropolitan government
+was therefore in the last analysis finance and nothing but finance; and
+if the system broke down in 1911 it was because financial reform--to
+discount the new forces of which the steam engine was the symbol--had
+been attempted, like military reform, both too late and in the wrong
+way, and instead of strengthening, had vastly weakened the authority of
+the Throne.
+
+In pursuance of the reform-plan which became popular after the Boxer
+Settlement had allowed the court to return to Peking from Hsianfu, the
+viceroys found their most essential prerogative, which was the control
+of the provincial purse, largely taken from them and handed over to
+Financial Commissioners who were directly responsible to the Peking
+Ministry of Finance, a Department which was attempting to replace the
+loose system of matricular contributions by the European system of a
+directly controlled taxation every penny of which would be shown in an
+annual Budget. No doubt had time been vouchsafed, and had European help
+been enlisted on a large scale, this change could ultimately have been
+made successful. But it was precisely time which was lacking; and the
+Manchus consequently paid the penalty which is always paid by those who
+delay until it is too late. The old theories having been openly
+abandoned, it needed only the promise of a Parliament completely to
+destroy the dignity of the Son of Heaven, and to leave the viceroys as
+mere hostages in the hands of rebels. A few short weeks of rebellion was
+sufficient in 1911 to cause the provinces to revert to their condition
+of the earlier centuries when they had been vast unfettered agricultural
+communities. And once they had tasted the joys of this new independence,
+it was impossible to conceive of their becoming "obedient" again.
+
+Here another word of explanation is necessary to show clearly the
+precise meaning of regionalism in China.
+
+What had originally created each province was the chief city in each
+region, such cities necessarily being the walled repositories of all
+increment. Greedy of territory to enhance their wealth, and jealous of
+their power, these provincial capitals throughout the ages had left no
+stone unturned to extend their influence in every possible direction and
+bring under their economic control as much land as possible, a fact
+which is abundantly proved by the highly diversified system of weights
+and measures throughout the land deliberately drawn-up to serve as
+economic barriers. River-courses, mountain-ranges, climate and soil, no
+doubt assisted in governing this expansion, but commercial and financial
+greed was the principal force. Of this we have an exceedingly
+interesting and conclusive illustration in the struggle still proceeding
+between the three Manchurian provinces, Fengtien, Kirin and
+Heilungchiang, to seize the lion's share of the virgin land of Eastern
+Inner Mongolia which has an "open frontier" of rolling prairies. Having
+the strongest provincial capital--Moukden--it has been Fengtien province
+which has encroached on the Mongolian grasslands to such an extent that
+its jurisdiction to-day envelops the entire western flank of Kirin
+province (as can be seen in the latest Chinese maps) in the form of a
+salamander, effectively preventing the latter province from controlling
+territory that geographically belongs to it. In the same way in the
+land-settlement which is still going on the Mongolian plateau
+immediately above Peking, much of what should be Shansi territory has
+been added to the metropolitan province of Chihli. Though adjustments of
+provincial boundaries have been summarily made in times past, in the
+main the considerations we have indicated have been the dominant factors
+in determining the area of each unit.
+
+Now in many provinces where settlement is age-old, the regionalism which
+results from great distances and bad communications has been greatly
+increased by race-admixture. Canton province, which was largely settled
+by Chinese adventurers sailing down the coast from the Yangtsze and
+intermarrying with Annamese and the older autochthonous races, has a
+population-mass possessing very distinct characteristics, which sharply
+conflict with Northern traits. Fuhkien province is not only as
+diversified but speaks a dialect which is virtually a foreign language.
+And so on North and West of the Yangtsze it is the same story,
+temperamental differences of the highest political importance being
+everywhere in evidence and leading to perpetual bickerings and
+jealousies. For although Chinese civilization resembles in one great
+particular the Mahommedan religion, in that it accepts without question
+all adherents irrespective of racial origin, _politically_ the effect of
+this regionalism has been such that up to very recent times the Central
+Government has been almost as much a foreign government in the eyes of
+many provinces as the government of Japan. Money alone formed the bond
+of union; so long as questions of taxation were not involved, Peking was
+as far removed from daily life as the planet Mars.
+
+As we are now able to see very clearly, fifty years ago--that is at the
+time of the Taiping Rebellion--the old power and spell of the National
+Capital as a military centre had really vanished. Though in ancient days
+horsemen armed with bows and lances could sweep like a tornado over the
+land, levelling everything save the walled cities, in the Nineteenth
+Century such methods had become impossible. Mongolia and Manchuria had
+also ceased to be inexhaustible reservoirs of warlike men; the more
+adjacent portions had become commercialized; whilst the outer regions
+had sunk to depopulated graziers' lands. The Government, after the
+collapse of the Rebellion, being greatly impoverished, had openly fallen
+to balancing province against province and personality against
+personality, hoping that by some means it would be able to regain its
+prestige and a portion of its former wealth. Taking down the ledgers
+containing the lists of provincial contributions, the mandarins of
+Peking completely revised every schedule, redistributed every weight,
+and saw to it that the matricular levies should fall in such a way as to
+be crushing. The new taxation, _likin_, which, like the income-tax in
+England, is in origin purely a war-tax, by gripping inter-provincial
+commerce by the throat and rudely controlling it by the barrier-system,
+was suddenly disclosed as a new and excellent way of making felt the
+menaced sovereignty of the Manchus; and though the system was plainly a
+two-edged weapon, the first edge to cut was the Imperial edge; that is
+largely why for several decades after the Taipings China was relatively
+quiet.
+
+Time was also giving birth to another important development--important
+in the sense that it was to prove finally decisive. It would have been
+impossible for Peking, unless men of outstanding genius had been living,
+to have foreseen that not only had the real bases of government now
+become entirely economic control, but that the very moment that control
+faltered the central government of China would openly and absolutely
+cease to be any government at all. Modern commercialism, already
+invading China at many points through the medium of the treaty-ports,
+was a force which in the long run could not be denied. Every year that
+passed tended to emphasize the fact that modern conditions were cutting
+Peking more and more adrift from the real centres of power--the economic
+centres which, with the single exception of Tientsin, lie from 800 to
+1,500 miles away. It was these centres that were developing
+revolutionary ideas--_i.e._, ideas at variance with the Socio-economic
+principles on which the old Chinese commonwealth had been slowly built
+up, and which foreign dynasties such as the Mongol and the Manchu had
+never touched. The Government of the post-Taiping period still imagined
+that by making their hands lie more heavily than ever on the people and
+by tightening the taxation control--not by true creative work--they
+could rehabilitate themselves.
+
+It would take too long, and would weary the indulgence of the reader to
+establish in a conclusive manner this thesis which had long been a
+subject of inquiry on the part of political students. Chinese society,
+being essentially a society organized on a credit-co-operative system,
+so nicely adjusted that money, either coined or fiduciary, was not
+wanted save for the petty daily purchases of the people, any system
+which boldly clutched the financial establishments undertaking the
+movement of _sycee_ (silver) from province to province for the
+settlement of trade-balances, was bound to be effective so long as those
+financial establishments remained unshaken.
+
+The best known establishments, united in the great group known as the
+Shansi Bankers, being the government bankers, undertook not only all the
+remittances of surpluses to Peking, but controlled by an intricate
+pass-book system the perquisites of almost every office-holder in the
+empire. No sooner did an official, under the system which had grown up,
+receive a provincial appointment than there hastened to him a
+confidential clerk of one of these accommodating houses, who in the name
+of his employers advanced all the sums necessary for the payment of the
+official's post, and then proceeded with him to his province so that
+moiety by moiety, as taxation flowed in, advances could be paid off and
+the equilibrium re-established. A very intimate and far-reaching
+connection thus existed between provincial money-interests and the
+official classes. The practical work of governing China was the
+balancing of tax-books and native bankers' accounts. Even the
+"melting-houses," where _sycee_ was "standardized" for provincial use,
+were the joint enterprises of officials and merchants; bargaining
+governing every transaction; and only when a violent break occurred in
+the machinery, owing to famine or rebellion, did any other force than
+money intervene.
+
+There was nothing exceptional in these practices, in the use of which
+the old Chinese empire was merely following the precedent of the Roman
+Empire. The vast polity that was formed before the time of Christ by the
+military and commercial expansion of Rome in the Mediterranean Basin,
+and among the wild tribes of Northern Europe, depended very largely on
+the genius of Italian financiers and tax-collectors to whom the revenues
+were either directly "farmed," or who "assisted" precisely after the
+Chinese method in financing officials and local administrations, and in
+replenishing a central treasury which no wealth could satisfy. The
+Chinese phenomenon was therefore in no sense new; the dearth of coined
+money and the variety of local standards made the methods used economic
+necessities. The system was not in itself a bad system: its fatal
+quality lay in its woodenness, its lack of adaptability, and in its
+growing weakness in the face of foreign competition which it could never
+understand. Foreign competition--that was the enemy destined to achieve
+an overwhelming triumph and dash to ruins a hoary survival.
+
+War with Japan sounded the first trumpet-blast which should have been
+heeded. In the year 1894, being faced with the necessity of finding
+immediately a large sum of specie for purpose of war, the native bankers
+proclaimed their total inability to do so, and the first great foreign
+loan contract was signed.[4] Little attention was attracted to what is a
+turning-point in Chinese history. There cannot be the slightest doubt
+that in 1894 the Manchus wrote the first sentences of an abdication
+which was only formally pronounced in 1912: they had inaugurated the
+financial thraldom under which China still languishes. Within a period
+of forty months, in order to settle the disastrous Japanese war, foreign
+loans amounting to nearly fifty-five million pounds were completed. This
+indebtedness, amounting to nearly three times the "visible" annual
+revenues of the country--that is, the revenues actually accounted for to
+Peking--was unparalleled in Chinese history. It was a gold indebtedness
+subject to all sorts of manipulations which no Chinese properly
+understood. It had special political meaning and special political
+consequences because the loans were virtually guaranteed by the Powers.
+It was a long-drawn _coup d'état_ of a nature that all foreigners
+understood because it forged external chains.
+
+The _internal_ significance was even greater than the external. The
+loans were secured on the most important "direct" revenues reaching
+Peking--the Customs receipts, which were concerned with the most vital
+function in the new economic life springing up, the steam-borne coasting
+and river-trade as well as the purely foreign trade. That most vital
+function tended consequently to become more and more hall-marked as
+foreign; it no longer depended in any direct sense on Peking for
+protection. The hypothecation of these revenues to foreigners for
+periods running into decades--coupled with their administration by
+foreigners--was such a distinct restriction of the rights of eminent
+domain as to amount to a partial abrogation of sovereignty.
+
+That this was vaguely understood by the masses is now quite certain. The
+Boxer movement of 1900, like the great proletarian risings which
+occurred in Italy in the pre-Christian era as a result of the
+impoverishment and moral disorder brought about by Roman misgovernment,
+was simply a socio-economic catastrophe exhibiting itself in an
+unexpected form. The dying Manchu dynasty, at last in open despair,
+turned the revolt, insanely enough, against the foreigner--that is
+against those who already held the really vital portion of their
+sovereignty. So far from saving itself by this act, the dynasty wrote
+another sentence in its death-warrant. Economically the Manchus had been
+for years almost lost; the Boxer indemnities were the last straw. By
+more than doubling the burden of foreign commitments, and by placing the
+operation of the indemnities directly in the hands of foreign bankers by
+the method of monthly quotas, payable in Shanghai, _the Peking
+Government as far back as fifteen years ago was reduced to being a
+government at thirty days' sight, at the mercy of any shock of events
+which could be protracted over a few monthly settlements_. There is no
+denying this signal fact, which is probably the most remarkable
+illustration of the restrictive power of money which has ever been
+afforded in the history of Asia.
+
+The phenomenon, however, was complex and we must be careful to
+understand its workings. A mercantile curiosity, to find the parallel
+for which we must go back to the Middle Ages in Europe, when "free
+cities" such as those of the Hanseatic League plentifully
+dotted river and coast line, served to increase the general difficulties
+of a situation which no one formula could adequately cover.
+Extraterritoriality, by creating the "treaty port" in China, had been
+the most powerful weapon in undermining native economics; yet at the
+same time it had been the agent for creating powerful new
+counter-balancing interests. Though the increasingly large groups of
+foreigners, residing under their own laws, and building up, under their
+own specially protected system of international exchange, a new and
+imposing edifice, had made the hovel-like nature of Chinese economics
+glaringly evident, the mercantile classes of the New China, being always
+quick to avail themselves of money-making devices, had not only taken
+shelter under this new and imposing edifice, but were rapidly extending
+it of their own accord. In brief, the trading Chinese were identifying
+themselves and their major interests with the treaty-ports; they were
+transferring thither their specie and their credits; making huge
+investments in land and properties, under the aegis of foreign flags in
+which they absolutely trusted. The money-interests of the country knew
+instinctively that the native system was doomed and that with this doom
+there would come many changes; these interests, in the way common to
+money all the world over, were insuring themselves against the
+inevitable.
+
+The force of this--politically--became finally evident in 1911; and what
+we have said in our opening sentences should now be clear. The Chinese
+Revolution was an emotional rising against the Peking System because it
+was a bad and inefficient and retrograde system, just as much as against
+the Manchus, who after all had adopted purely Chinese methods and who
+were no more foreigners than Scotchmen or Irishmen are foreigners to-day
+in England. The Revolution of 1911 derived its meaning and its value--as
+well as its mandate--not from what it proclaimed, but for what it stood
+for. Historically, 1911 was the lineal descendant of 1900, which again
+was the offspring of the economic collapse advertised by the great
+foreign loans of the Japanese war, loans made necessary because the
+Taipings had disclosed the complete disappearance of the only _raison
+d'être_ of Peking sovereignty, _i.e._ the old-time military power. The
+story is, therefore, clear and well-connected and so logical in its
+results that it has about it a finality suggesting the unrolling of the
+inevitable.
+
+During the Revolution the one decisive factor was shown to be almost at
+once--money, nothing but money. The pinch was felt at the end of the
+first thirty days. Provincial remittances ceased; the Boxer quotas
+remained unpaid; a foreign embargo was laid upon the Customs funds. The
+Northern troops, raised and trained by Yuan Shih-kai, when he was
+Viceroy of the Metropolitan province, were, it is true, proving
+themselves the masters of the Yangtsze and South China troops; yet that
+circumstance was meaningless. Those troops were fighting for what had
+already proved itself a lost cause--the Peking System, as well as the
+Manchu dynasty. The fight turned more and more into a money-fight. It
+was foreign money which brought about the first truce and the transfer
+of the so-called republican government from Nanking to Peking. In the
+strictest sense of the words every phase of the settlement then arrived
+at was a settlement in terms of cash.[5]
+
+Had means existed for rapidly replenishing the Chinese Treasury without
+having recourse to European stockmarkets (whose actions are
+semi-officially controlled when distant regions are involved) the
+Republic might have fared better. But placed almost at once through
+foreign dictation under a species of police-control, which while
+nominally derived from Western conceptions, was primarily designed to
+rehabilitate the semblance of the authority which had been so
+sensationally extinguished, the Republic remained only a dream; and the
+world, taught to believe that there could be no real stability until the
+scheme of government approximated to the conception long formed of
+Peking absolutism, waited patiently for the rude awakening which came
+with the Yuan Shih-kai _coup d'état_ of 4th November, 1913. Thus we had
+this double paradox; on the one hand the Chinese people awkwardly trying
+to be western in a Chinese way and failing: on the other, foreign
+officials and foreign governments trying to be Chinese and making the
+confusion worse confounded. It was inevitable in such circumstances
+that the history of the past six years should have been the history of a
+slow tragedy, and that almost every page should be written over with the
+name of the man who was the selected bailiff of the Powers--Yuan
+Shih-kai.
+
+[Illustration: The Funeral of Yuan Shih-kai: The Procession passing
+down the great Palace Approach, with the famous Ch'ien Men (Gate) in the
+distance.]
+
+[Illustration: The Provincial Troops of General Chang Hsun at his
+Headquarters of Hsuchowfu.]
+
+[Illustration: The Funeral of Yuan Shih-kai: The Catafalque over the
+Coffin on its way to the Railway Station.]
+
+[Illustration: The Funeral of Yuan Shih-kai: The Procession passing down
+the great Palace Approach, with the famous Ch'ien Men (Gate) in the
+distance.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] As there is a good deal of misunderstanding on the subject of the
+Manchus an explanatory note is useful.
+
+The Manchu people, who belong to the Mongol or Turanian Group, number at
+the maximum five million souls. Their distribution at the time of the
+revolution of 1911 was roughly as follows: In and around Peking say two
+millions; in posts through China say one-half million,--or possibly
+three-quarters of a million; in Manchuria Proper--the home of the
+race--say two or two and a half millions. The fighting force was
+composed in this fashion: When Peking fell into their hands in 1644 as a
+result of a stratagem combined with dissensions among the Chinese
+themselves, the entire armed strength was reorganized in Eight Banners
+or Army Corps, each corps being composed of three racial divisions, (1)
+pure Manchus, (2) Mongols who had assisted in the conquest and (3)
+Northern Chinese who had gone over to the conquerors. These Eight
+Banners, each commanded by an "iron-capped" Prince, represented the
+authority of the Throne and had their headquarters in Peking with small
+garrisons throughout the provinces at various strategic centres. These
+garrisons had entirely ceased to have any value before the 18th Century
+had closed and were therefore purely ceremonial and symbolic, all the
+fighting being done by special Chinese corps which were raised as
+necessity arose.
+
+[2] This most interesting point--the immunity of Chinese women from
+forced marriage with Manchus--has been far too little noticed by
+historians though it throws a flood of light on the sociological aspects
+of the Manchu conquest. Had that conquest been absolute it would have
+been impossible for the Chinese people to have protected their
+women-folk in such a significant way.
+
+[3] A very interesting proof--and one that has never been properly
+exposed--of the astoundingly rationalistic principles on which the
+Chinese polity is founded is to be seen in the position of priesthoods
+in China. Unlike every other civilization in the world, at no stage of
+the development of the State has it been necessary for religion in China
+to intervene between the rulers and the ruled, saving the people from
+oppression. In Europe without the supernatural barrier of the Church,
+the position of the common people in the Middle Ages would have been
+intolerable, and life, and virtue totally unprotected. Buckle, in his
+"History of Civilization," like other extreme radicals, has failed to
+understand that established religions have paradoxically been most
+valuable because of their vast secular powers, exercised under the mask
+of spiritual authority. Without this ghostly restraint rulers would have
+been so oppressive as to have destroyed their peoples. The two greatest
+monuments to Chinese civilization, then consist of these twin facts;
+first, that the Chinese have never had the need for such supernatural
+restraints exercised by a privileged body, and secondly, that they are
+absolutely without any feeling of class or caste--prince and pauper
+meeting on terms of frank and humorous equality--the race thus being the
+only pure and untinctured democracy the world has ever known.
+
+[4] (a) This loan was the so-called 7 per cent. Silver loan of 1894 for
+Shanghai Taels 10,000,000 negotiated by the Hongkong & Shanghai Bank. It
+was followed in 1895 by a £3,000,000 Gold 6 per cent. Loan, then by two
+more 6 per cent. loans for a million each in the same year, making a
+total of £6,635,000 sterling for the bare war-expenses. The Japanese war
+indemnity raised in three successive issues--from 1895 to 1898--of
+£16,000,000 each, added £48,000,000. Thus the Korean imbroglio cost
+China nearly 55 millions sterling. As the purchasing power of the
+sovereign is eight times larger in China than in Europe, this debt
+economically would mean 440 millions in England--say nearly double what
+the ruinous South African war cost. It is by such methods of comparison
+that the vital nature of the economic factor in recent Chinese history
+is made clear.
+
+[5] There is no doubt that the so-called Belgian loan, £1,800,000 of
+which was paid over in cash at the beginning of 1912, was the instrument
+which brought every one to terms.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE ENIGMA OF YUAN SHIH-KAI
+
+THE HISTORY OF THE MAN FROM THE OPENING OF HIS CAREER IN KOREA IN 1882
+TO THE END OF THE REVOLUTION, 12TH FEBRUARY, 1912
+
+
+Yuan Shih-kai's career falls into two clear-cut parts, almost as if it
+had been specially arranged for the biographer; there is the
+probationary period in Korea, and the executive in North China. The
+first is important only because of the moulding-power which early
+influences exerted on the man's character; but it is interesting in
+another way since it affords glimpses of the sort of things which
+affected this leader's imagination throughout his life and finally
+brought him to irretrievable ruin. The second-period is choke-full of
+action; and over every chapter one can see the ominous point of
+interrogation which was finally answered in his tragic political and
+physical collapse.
+
+Yuan Shih-kai's origin, without being precisely obscure, is unimportant.
+He came of a Honanese family who were nothing more distinguished than
+farmers possessing a certain amount of land, but not too much of the
+world's possessions. The boy probably ran wild in the field at an age
+when the sons of high officials and literati were already pale and
+anaemic from over-much study. To some such cause the man undoubtedly
+owed his powerful physique, his remarkable appetite, his general
+roughness. Native biographers state that as a youth he failed to pass
+his _hsiu-tsai_ examinations--the lowest civil service degree--because
+he had spent too much time in riding and boxing and fencing. An uncle in
+official life early took charge of him; and when this relative died the
+young man displayed filial piety in accompanying the corpse back to the
+family graves and in otherwise manifesting grief. Through official
+connections a place was subsequently found for him in that public
+department under the Manchus which may be called the military
+intendancy, and it was through this branch of the civil service that he
+rose to power. Properly speaking Yuan Shih-kai was never an
+army-officer; he was a military official--his highest rank later on
+being that of military judge, or better, Judicial Commissioner.
+
+Yuan Shih-kai first emerges into public view in 1882 when, as a sequel
+to the opening of Korea through the action of foreign Powers in forcing
+the then Hermit kingdom to sign commercial treaties, China began
+dispatching troops to Seoul. Yuan Shih-kai, with two other officers,
+commanding in all some 3,000 men, arrived from Shantung, where he had
+been in the train of a certain General Wu Chang-ching, and now encamped
+in the Korean capital nominally to preserve order, but in reality, to
+enforce the claims of the suzerain power. For the Peking Government had
+never retreated from the position that Korea had been a vassal state
+ever since the Ming Dynasty had saved the country from the clutches of
+Hideyoshi and his Japanese invaders in the Sixteenth Century. Yuan
+Shih-kai had been personally recommended by this General Wu Chang-ching
+as a young man of ability and energy to the famous Li Hung Chang, who as
+Tientsin Viceroy and High Commissioner for the Northern Seas was
+responsible for the conduct of Korean affairs. The future dictator of
+China was then only twenty-five years old.
+
+His very first contact with practical politics gave him a peculiar
+manner of viewing political problems. The arrival of Chinese troops in
+Seoul marked the beginning of that acute rivalry with Japan which
+finally culminated in the short and disastrous war of 1894-95. China, in
+order to preserve her influence in Korea against the growing influence
+of Japan, intrigued night and day in the Seoul Palaces, allying herself
+with the Conservative Court party which was led by the notorious Korean
+Queen who was afterwards assassinated. The Chinese agents aided and
+abetted the reactionary group, constantly inciting them to attack the
+Japanese and drive them out of the country.
+
+Continual outrages were the consequence. The Japanese legation was
+attacked and destroyed by the Korean mob not once but on several
+occasions during a decade which furnishes one of the most amazing
+chapters in the history of Asia. Yuan Shih-kai, being then merely a
+junior general officer under the orders of the Chinese Imperial
+Resident, is of no particular importance; but it is significant of the
+man that he should suddenly come well under the limelight on the first
+possible occasion. On 6th December, 1884, leading 2,000 Chinese troops,
+and acting in concert with 3,000 Korean soldiers, he attacked the Tong
+Kwan Palace in which the Japanese Minister and his staff, protected by
+two companies of Japanese infantry, had taken refuge owing to the
+threatening state of affairs in the capital. Apparently there was no
+particular plan--it was the action of a mob of soldiery tumbling into a
+political brawl and assisted by their officers for reasons which appear
+to-day nonsensical. The sequel was, however, extraordinary. The Japanese
+held the Palace gates as long as possible, and then being desperate
+exploded a mine which killed numbers of Koreans and Chinese soldiery and
+threw the attack into confusion. They then fought their way out of the
+city escaping ultimately to the nearest sea-port, Chemulpo.
+
+The explanation of this extraordinary episode has never been made
+public. The practical result was that after a period of extreme tension
+between China and Japan which was expected to lead to war, that
+political genius, the late Prince Ito, managed to calm things down and
+arrange workable _modus vivendi_. Yuan Shih-kai, who had gone to
+Tientsin to report in person to Li Hung Chang, returned to Seoul
+triumphantly in October, 1885, as Imperial Resident. He was then
+twenty-eight years old; he had come to the front, no matter by what
+means, in a quite remarkable manner.
+
+The history of the next nine years furnishes plenty of minor incidents,
+but nothing of historic importance. As the faithful lieutenant of Li
+Hung Chang, Yuan Shih-kai's particular business was simply to combat
+Japanese influence and hold the threatened advance in check. He failed,
+of course, since he was playing a losing game; and yet he succeeded
+where he undoubtedly wished to succeed. By rendering faithful service
+he established the reputation he wished to win; and though he did
+nothing great he retained his post right up to the act which led to the
+declaration of war in 1894. Whether he actually precipitated that war is
+still a matter of opinion. On the sinking by the Japanese fleet of the
+British steamer _Kowshing_, which was carrying Chinese reinforcements
+from Taku anchorage to Asan Bay to his assistance, seeing that the game
+was up, he quietly left the Korean capital and made his way overland to
+North China. That swift, silent journey home ends the period of his
+novitiate.
+
+It took him a certain period to weather the storm which the utter
+collapse of China in her armed encounter with Japan brought about--and
+particularly to obtain forgiveness for evacuating Seoul without orders.
+Technically his offence was punishable by death--the old Chinese code
+being most stringent in such matters. But by 1896 he was back in favour
+again, and through the influence of his patron Li Hung Chang, he was at
+length appointed in command of the Hsiaochan camp near Tientsin, where
+he was promoted and given the task of reforming a division of old-style
+troops and making them as efficient as Japanese soldiery. He had already
+earned a wide reputation for severity, for willingness to accept
+responsibility, for nepotism, and for a rare ability to turn even
+disasters to his own advantage--all attributes which up to the last
+moment stood him in good stead.
+
+In the Hsiaochan camp the most important chapter of his life opens;
+there is every indication that he fully realized it. Tientsin has always
+been the gateway to Peking: from there the road to high preferment is
+easily reached. Yuan Shih-kai marched steadily forward, taking the very
+first turning-point in a manner which stamped him for many of his
+compatriots in a way which can never be obliterated.
+
+It is first necessary to say a word about the troops of his command,
+since this has a bearing on present-day politics. The bulk of the
+soldiery were so-called _Huai Chun_--_i.e._, nominally troops from the
+Huai districts, just south of Li Hung Chang's native province Anhui.
+These Kiangu men, mixed with Shantung recruits, had earned a historic
+place in the favour of the Manchus owing to the part they had played in
+the suppression of the Taiping Rebellion, in which great event General
+Gordon and Li Hung Chang had been so closely associated. They and the
+troops of Hunan province, led by the celebrated Marquis Tseng Kuo-fan,
+were "the loyal troops," resembling the Sikhs during the Indian Mutiny;
+they were supposed to be true to their salt to the last man. Certainly
+they gave proofs of uncustomary fidelity.
+
+In those military days of twenty years ago Yuan Shih-kai and his
+henchmen were, however, concerned with simpler problems. It was then a
+question of drill and nothing but drill. In his camp near Tientsin the
+future President of the Chinese Republic succeeded in reorganizing his
+troops so well that in a very short time the Hsiaochan Division became
+known as a _corps d'élite_. The discipline was so stern that there were
+said to be only two ways of noticing subordinates, either by promoting
+or beheading them. Devoting himself to his task Yuan Shih-kai gave
+promise of being able to handle much bigger problems.
+
+His zeal soon attracted the attention of the Manchu Court. The
+circumstances in Peking at that time were peculiar. The famous old
+Empress Dowager, Tzu-hsi, after the Japanese war, had greatly relaxed
+her hold on the Emperor Kwanghsu, who though still in subjection to her,
+nominally governed the empire. A well-intentioned but weak man, he had
+surrounded himself with advanced scholars, led by the celebrated Kang Yu
+Wei, who daily studied with him and filled him with new doctrines,
+teaching him to believe that if he would only exert his power he might
+rescue the nation from international ignominy and make for himself an
+imperishable name.
+
+The sequel was inevitable. In 1898 the oriental world was electrified by
+the so-called Reform Edicts, in which the Emperor undertook to modernize
+China, and in which he exhorted the nation to obey him. The greatest
+alarm was created in Court circles by this action; the whole vast body
+of Metropolitan officialdom, seeing its future threatened, flooded the
+Palace of the Empress Dowager with Secret Memorials praying her to
+resume power. Flattered, she gave her secret assent.
+
+Things marched quickly after that. The Empress, nothing loth, began
+making certain dispositions. Troops were moved, men were shifted here
+and there in a way that presaged action; and the Emperor, now
+thoroughly alarmed and yielding to the entreaties of his followers, sent
+two members of the Reform Party to Yuan Shih-kai bearing an alleged
+autograph order for him to advance instantly on Peking with all his
+troops; to surround the Palace, to secure the person of the Emperor from
+all danger, and then to depose the Empress Dowager for ever from power.
+What happened is equally well-known. Yuan Shih-kai, after an exhaustive
+examination of the message and messengers, as well as other attempts to
+substantiate the genuineness of the appeal, communicated its nature to
+the then Viceroy of Chihli, the Imperial Clansman Jung Lu, whose
+intimacy with the Empress Dowager since the days of her youth has passed
+into history. Jung Lu lost no time in acting. He beheaded the two
+messengers and personally reported the whole plot to the Empress Dowager
+who was already fully warned. The result was the so-called _coup d'état_
+of September, 1898, when all the Reformers who had not fled were
+summarily executed, and the Emperor Kwanghsu himself closely imprisoned
+in the Island Palace within that portion of the Forbidden City known as
+the Three Lakes, having (until the Boxer outbreak of 1900 carried him to
+Hsianfu), as sole companions his two favourites, the celebrated
+odalisques "Pearl" and "Lustre."
+
+This is no place to enter into the controversial aspect of Yuan
+Shih-kai's action in 1898 which has been hotly debated by partisans for
+many years. For onlookers the verdict must always remain largely a
+matter of opinion; certainly this is one of those matters which cannot
+be passed upon by any one but a Chinese tribunal furnished with all the
+evidence. Those days which witnessed the imprisonment of Kwanghsu were
+great because they opened wide the portals of the Romance of History:
+all who were in Peking can never forget the counter-stroke; the arrival
+of the hordes composed of Tung Fu-hsiang's Mahommedan cavalry--men who
+had ridden hard across a formidable piece of Asia at the behest of their
+Empress and who entered the capital in great clouds of dust. It was in
+that year of 1898 also that Legation Guards reappeared in Peking--a few
+files for each Legation as in 1860--and it was then that clear-sighted
+prophets saw the beginning of the end of the Manchu Dynasty.
+
+Yuan Shih-kai's reward for his share in this counter-revolution was his
+appointment to the governorship of Shantung province. He moved thither
+with all his troops in December, 1899. Armed _cap-à-pie_ he was ready
+for the next act--the Boxers, who burst on China in the Summer of 1900.
+These men were already at work in Shantung villages with their
+incantations and alleged witchcraft. There is evidence that their
+propaganda had been going on for months, if not for years, before any
+one had heard of it. Yuan Shih-kai had the priceless opportunity of
+studying them at close range and soon made up his mind about certain
+things. When the storm burst, pretending to see nothing but mad fanatics
+in those who, realizing the plight of their country, had adopted the
+war-cry "Blot out the Manchus and the foreigner," he struck at them
+fiercely, driving the whole savage horde head-long into the metropolitan
+province of Chihli. There, seduced by the Manchus, they suddenly changed
+the inscription on their flags. Their sole enemy became the foreigner
+and all his works, and forthwith they were officially protected. Far and
+wide they killed every white face they could find. They tore up
+railways, burnt churches and chapels and produced a general anarchy
+which could only have one end--European intervention. The man, sitting
+on the edge of Chinese history but not yet identifying himself with its
+main currents because he was not strong enough for that had once again
+not judged wrongly. With his Korean experience to assist him, he had
+seen precisely what the end must inevitably be.
+
+The crash in Peking, when the siege of the Legations had been raised by
+an international army, found him alert and sympathetic--ready with
+advice, ready to shoulder new responsibilities, ready to explain away
+everything. The signature of the Peace Protocol of 1901 was signalized
+by his obtaining the viceroyalty of Chihli, succeeding the great Li Hung
+Chang himself, who had been reappointed to his old post, but had found
+active duties too wearisome. This was a marvellous success for a man but
+little over forty. And when the fugitive Court at length returned from
+Hsianfu in 1902, honours were heaped upon him as a person particularly
+worthy of honour because he had kept up appearances and maintained the
+authority of the distressed Throne. As if in answer to this he flooded
+the Court with memorials praying that in order to restore the power of
+the Dynasty a complete army of modern troops be raised--as numerous as
+possible but above all efficient.
+
+His advice was listened to. From 1902 until 1907 as Minister of the Army
+Reorganization Council--a special post he held simultaneously with that
+of metropolitan Viceroy--Yuan Shih-kai's great effort was concentrated
+on raising an efficient fighting force. In those five years, despite all
+financial embarrassments, North China raised and equipped six excellent
+Divisions of field-troops--75,000 men--all looking to Yuan Shih-kai as
+their sole master. So much energy did he display in pushing military
+reorganization throughout the provinces that the Court, warned by
+jealous rivals of his growing power, suddenly promoted him to a post
+where he would be powerless. One day he was brought to Peking as Grand
+Councillor and President of the Board of Foreign Affairs, and ordered to
+hand over all army matters to his noted rival, the Manchu Tieh Liang.
+The time had arrived to muzzle him. His last phase as a pawn had come.
+
+Few foreign diplomats calling at China's Foreign Office to discuss
+matters during that short period which lasted barely a twelve-month,
+imagined that the square resolute-looking man who as President of the
+Board gave the same energy and attention to consular squabbles as to the
+reorganization of a national-fighting force, was almost daily engaged in
+a fierce clandestine struggle to maintain even his modest position.
+Jealousy, which flourishes in Peking like the upas tree, was for ever
+blighting his schemes and blocking his plans. He had been brought to
+Peking to be tied up; he was constantly being denounced; and even his
+all powerful patroness, the old Empress Dowager, who owed so much to
+him, suffered from constant premonitions that the end was fast
+approaching, and that with her the Dynasty would die.
+
+In the Autumn of 1908 she took sick. The gravest fears quickly spread.
+It was immediately reported that the Emperor Kwanghsu was also very
+ill--an ominous coincidence. Very suddenly both personages collapsed and
+died, the Empress Dowager slightly before the Emperor. There is little
+doubt that the Emperor himself was poisoned. The legend runs that as he
+expired not only did he give his Consort, who was to succeed him in the
+exercise of the nominal power of the Throne, a last secret Edict to
+behead Yuan Shih-kai, but that his faltering hand described circle
+after circle in the air until his followers understood the meaning. In
+the vernacular the name of the great viceroy and the word for circle
+have the same sound; the gesture signified that the dying monarch's last
+wish was revenge on the man who had failed him ten years before.
+
+An ominous calm followed this great break with the past. It was
+understood that the Court was torn by two violent factions regarding the
+succession which the Empress Tzu-hsi had herself decided. The fact that
+another long Regency had become inevitable through the accession of the
+child Hsuan Tung aroused instant apprehensions among foreign observers,
+whilst it was confidently predicted that Yuan Shih-kai's last days had
+come.
+
+The blow fell suddenly on the 2nd January, 1909. In the interval between
+the death of the old Empress and his disgrace, Yuan Shih-kai was
+actually promoted to the highest rank in the gift of the Throne, that
+is, made "Senior Guardian of the Heir Apparent" and placed in charge of
+the Imperial funeral arrangements--a lucrative appointment. During that
+interval it is understood that the new Regent, brother of the Emperor
+Kwanghsu, consulted all the most trusted magnates of the empire
+regarding the manner in which the secret decapitation Decree should be
+treated. All advised him to be warned in time, and not to venture on a
+course of action which would be condemned both by the nation and by the
+Powers. Another Edict was therefore prepared simply dismissing Yuan
+Shih-kai from office and ordering him to return to his native place.
+
+Every one remembers that day in Peking when popular rumour declared that
+the man's last hour had come. Warned on every side to beware, Yuan
+Shih-kai left the Palace as soon as he had read the Edict of dismissal
+in the Grand Council and drove straight to the railway-station, whence
+he entrained for Tientsin, dressed as a simple citizen. Rooms had been
+taken for him at a European hotel, the British Consulate approached for
+protection, when another train brought down his eldest son bearing a
+message direct from the Grand Council Chamber, absolutely guaranteeing
+the safety of his life. Accordingly he duly returned to his native place
+in Honan province, and for two years--until the outbreak of the
+Revolution--devoted himself sedulously to the development of the large
+estate he had acquired with the fruits of office. Living like a
+patriarch of old, surrounded by his many wives and children, he
+announced constantly that he had entirely dropped out of the political
+life of China and only desired to be left in peace. There is reason to
+believe, however, that his henchmen continually reported to him the true
+state of affairs, and bade him bide his time. Certain it is that the
+firing of the first shots on the Yangtsze found him alert and issuing
+private orders to his followers. It was inevitable that he should have
+been recalled to office--and actually within one hundred hours of the
+first news of the outbreak the Court sent for him urgently and
+ungraciously.
+
+From the 14th October, 1911, when he was appointed by Imperial Edict
+Viceroy of Hupeh and Hunan and ordered to proceed at once to the front
+to quell the insurrection, until the 1st November, when he was given
+virtually Supreme Power as President of the Grand Council in place of
+Prince Ching, a whole volume is required to discuss adequately the maze
+of questions involved. For the purposes of this account, however, the
+matter can be dismissed very briefly in this way. Welcoming the
+opportunity which had at last come and determined once for all to settle
+matters decisively, so far as he was personally concerned, Yuan Shih-kai
+deliberately followed the policy of holding back and delaying everything
+until the very incapacity marking both sides--the Revolutionists quite
+as much as the Manchus--forced him, as man of action and man of
+diplomacy, to be acclaimed the sole mediator and saviour of the nation.
+
+The detailed course of the Revolution, and the peculiar manner in which
+Yuan Shih-kai allowed events rather than men to assert their mastery has
+often been related and need not long detain us. It is generally conceded
+that in spite of the bravery of the raw revolutionary levies, their
+capacity was entirely unequal to the trump card Yuan Shih-kai held all
+the while in his hand--the six fully-equipped Divisions of Field Troops
+he himself had organized as Tientsin Viceroy. It was a portion of this
+field-force which captured and destroyed the chief revolutionary base in
+the triple city of Hankow, Hanyang and Wuchang in November, 1911, and
+which he held back just as it was about to give the _coup de grâce_ by
+crossing the river in force and sweeping the last remnants of the
+revolutionary army to perdition. Thus it is correct to declare that had
+he so wished Yuan Shih-kai could have crushed the revolution entirely
+before the end of 1911; but he was sufficiently astute to see that the
+problem he had to solve was not merely military but moral as well. The
+Chinese as a nation were suffering from a grave complaint. Their
+civilization had been made almost bankrupt owing to unresisted foreign
+aggression and to the native inability to cope with the mass of
+accumulated wrongs which a superimposed and exhausted feudalism--the
+Manchu system--had brought about. Yuan Shih-kai knew that the Boxers had
+been theoretically correct in selecting as they first did the watchword
+which they had first placed on their banners--"blot out the Manchus and
+all foreign things." Both had sapped the old civilization to its
+foundations. But the programme they had proposed was idealistic, not
+practical. One element could be cleared away--the other had to be
+endured. Had the Boxers been sensible they would have modified their
+programme to the extent of protecting the foreigners, whilst they
+assailed the Dynasty which had brought them so low. The Court Party, as
+we have said, seduced their leaders to acting in precisely the reverse
+sense.
+
+Yuan Shih-kai was neither a Boxer, nor yet a believer in idealistic
+foolishness. He had realized that the essence of successful rule in the
+China of the Twentieth Century was to support the foreign point of
+view--nominally at least--because foreigners disposed of unlimited
+monetary resources, and had science on their side. He knew that so long
+as he did not openly flout foreign opinion by indulging in bare-faced
+assassinations, he would be supported owing to the international
+reputation he had established in 1900. Arguing from these premises, his
+instinct also told him that an appearance of legality must always be
+sedulously preserved and the aspirations of the nation nominally
+satisfied. For this reason he arranged matters in such a manner as to
+appear always as the instrument of fate. For this reason, although he
+destroyed the revolutionists on the mid-Yangtsze, to equalize matters,
+on the lower Yangtsze he secretly ordered the evacuation of Nanking by
+the Imperialist forces so that he might have a tangible argument with
+which to convince the Manchus regarding the root and branch reform which
+he knew was necessary. That reform had been accepted in principle by the
+Throne when it agreed to the so-called Nineteen Fundamental Articles, a
+corpus of demands which all the Northern Generals had endorsed and had
+indeed insisted should be the basis of government before they would
+fight the rebellious South in 1911. There is reason to believe that
+provided he had been made _de facto_ Regent, Yuan Shih-kai would have
+supported to the end a Manchu Monarchy. But the surprising swiftness of
+the Revolutionary Party's action in proclaiming the Republic at Nanking
+on the 1st January, 1912, and the support which foreign opinion gave
+that venture confused him. He had already consented to peace
+negotiations with the revolutionary South in the middle of December,
+1911, and once he was drawn into those negotiations his policy wavered,
+the armistice in the field being constantly extended because he saw that
+the Foreign Powers, and particularly England, were averse from further
+civil war. Having dispatched a former lieutenant, Tong Shao-yi, to
+Shanghai as his Plenipotentiary, he soon found himself committed to a
+course of action different from what he had originally contemplated.
+South China and Central China insisted so vehemently that the only
+solution that was acceptable to them was the permanent and absolute
+elimination of the Manchu Dynasty, that he himself was half-convinced,
+the last argument necessary being the secret promise that he should
+become the first President of the united Republic. In the circumstances,
+had he been really loyal, it was his duty either to resume his warfare
+or resign his appointment as Prime Minister and go into retirement. He
+did neither. In a thoroughly characteristic manner he sought a middle
+course, after having vaguely advocated a national convention to settle
+the matter. By specious misrepresentation the widow of the Emperor
+Kwanghsu--the Dowager Empress Lung Yu who had succeeded the Prince
+Regent Ch'un in her care of the interests of the child Emperor Hsuan
+Tung--was induced to believe that ceremonial retirement was the only
+course open to the Dynasty if the country was to be saved from
+disruption and partition. There is reason to believe that the Memorial
+of all the Northern Generals which was telegraphed to Peking on the 28th
+January, 1912, and which advised abdication, was inspired by him. In any
+case it was certainly Yuan Shih-kai who drew up the so-called Articles
+of Favourable Treatment for the Manchu House and caused them to be
+telegraphed to the South, whence they were telegraphed back to him as
+the maximum the Revolutionary Party was prepared to concede: and by a
+curious chance the attempt made to assassinate him outside the Palace
+Gates actually occurred on the very day he had submitted an outline of
+these terms on his bended knees to the Empress Dowager and secured their
+qualified acceptance. The pathetic attempt to confer on him as late as
+the 25th January the title of Marquess, the highest rank of nobility
+which could be given a Chinese, an attempt which was four times renewed,
+was the last despairing gesture of a moribund power. Within very few
+days the Throne reluctantly decreed its own abdication in three
+extremely curious Edicts which are worthy of study in the appendix. They
+prove conclusively that the Imperial Family believed that it was only
+abdicating its political power, whilst retaining all ancient ceremonial
+rights and titles. Plainly the conception of a Republic, or a People's
+Government, as it was termed in the native ideographs, was
+unintelligible to Peking.
+
+Yuan Shih-kai had now won everything he wished for. By securing that the
+Imperial Commission to organize the Republic and re-unite the warring
+sections was placed solely in his hands, he prepared to give a type of
+Government about which he knew nothing a trial. It is interesting to
+note that he held to the very end of his life that he derived his powers
+solely from the Last Edicts, and in nowise from his compact with the
+Nanking Republic which had instituted the so-called Provisional
+Constitution. He was careful, however, not to lay this down
+categorically until many months later, when his dictatorship seemed
+undisputed. But from the day of the Manchu Abdication almost, he was
+constantly engaged in calculating whether he dared risk everything on
+one throw of the dice and ascend the Throne himself; and it is precisely
+this which imparts such dramatic interest to the astounding story which
+follows.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE DREAM REPUBLIC
+
+(FROM THE 1st JANUARY, 1912, TO THE DISSOLUTION OF PARLIAMENT)
+
+
+To describe briefly and intelligibly the series of transactions from the
+1st January, 1912, when the Republic was proclaimed at Nanking by a
+handful of provincial delegates, and Dr. Sun Yat Sen elected Provisional
+President, to the _coup d'état_ of 4th November, 1913, when Yuan
+Shih-kai, elected full President a few weeks previously, after having
+acted as Chief Executive for twenty months, boldly broke up Parliament
+and made himself _de facto_ Dictator of China, is a matter of
+extraordinary difficulty.
+
+All through this important period of Chinese history one has the
+impression that one is in dreamland and that fleeting emotions take the
+place of more solid things. Plot and counter-plot follow one another so
+rapidly that an accurate record of them all would be as wearisome as the
+Book of Chronicles itself; whilst the amazing web of financial intrigue
+which binds the whole together is so complex--and at the same time so
+antithetical to the political struggle--that the two stories seem to run
+counter to one another, although they are as closely united as two
+assassins pledged to carry through in common a dread adventure. A huge
+agglomeration of people estimated to number four hundred millions, being
+left without qualified leaders and told that the system of government,
+which had been laid down by the Nanking Provisional Constitution and
+endorsed by the Abdication Edicts, was a system in which every man was
+as good as neighbour, swayed meaninglessly to and fro, vainly seeking to
+regain the equilibrium which had been so sensationally lost. A litigious
+spirit became so universal that all authority was openly derided,
+crimes of every description being so common as to force most respectable
+men to withdraw from public affairs and leave a bare rump of desperadoes
+in power.
+
+Long embarrassed by the struggle to pay her foreign loans and
+indemnities, China was also virtually penniless. The impossibility of
+arranging large borrowings on foreign markets without the open support
+of foreign governments--a support which was hedged round with
+conditions--made necessary a system of petty expedients under which
+practically every provincial administration hypothecated every liquid
+asset it could lay hands upon in order to pay the inordinate number of
+undisciplined soldiery who littered the countryside. The issue of
+unguaranteed paper-money soon reached such an immense figure that the
+market was flooded with a worthless currency which it was unable to
+absorb. The Provincial leaders, being powerless to introduce
+improvement, exclaimed that it was the business of the Central
+Government as representative of the sovereign people to find solutions;
+and so long as they maintained themselves in office they went their
+respective ways with a sublime contempt for the chaos around them.
+
+What was this Central Government? In order successfully to understand an
+unparalleled situation we must indicate its nature.
+
+The manoeuvres to which Yuan Shih-kai had so astutely lent himself from
+the outbreak of the Revolution had left him at its official close
+supreme in name. Not only had he secured an Imperial Commission from the
+abdicating Dynasty to organize a popular Government in obedience to the
+national wish, but having brought to Peking the Delegates of the Nanking
+Revolutionary Body he had received from them the formal offer of the
+Presidency.
+
+These arrangements had, of course, been secretly agreed to _en bloc_
+before the fighting had been stopped and the abdication proclaimed, and
+were part and parcel of the elaborate scenery which officialdom always
+employs in Asia even when it is dealing with matters within the purview
+of the masses. They had been made possible by the so-called "Article of
+Favourable Treatment" drawn-up by Yuan Shih-kai himself, after
+consultation with the rebellious South. In these Capitulations it had
+been clearly stipulated that the Manchu Imperial Family should receive
+in perpetuity a Civil List of $4,000,000 Mexican a year, retaining all
+their titles as a return for the surrender of their political power, the
+bitter pill being gilded in such fashion as to hide its real meaning,
+which alone was a grave political error.
+
+In spite of this agreement, however, great mutual suspicion existed
+between North and South China. Yuan Shih-kai himself was unable to
+forget that the bold attempt to assassinate him in the Peking streets on
+the 17th January, when he was actually engaged in negotiating these very
+terms of the Abdication, had been apparently inspired from Nanking;
+whilst the Southern leaders were daily reminded by the vernacular press
+that the man who held the balance of power had always played the part of
+traitor in the past and would certainly do the same again in the near
+future.
+
+When the Delegates came to Peking in February, by far the most important
+matter which was still in dispute was the question of the oath of office
+which Yuan Shih-kai was called upon to take to insure that he would be
+faithful to the Republic. The Delegates had been charged specifically to
+demand on behalf of the seceding provinces that Yuan Shih-kai should
+proceed with them to Nanking to take that oath, a course of action which
+would have been held tantamount by the nation to surrender on his part
+to those who had been unable to vanquish him in the field. It must also
+not be forgotten that from the very beginning a sharp and dangerous
+cleavage of opinion existed as to the manner in which the powers of the
+new government had been derived. South and Central China claimed, and
+claimed rightly, that the Nanking Provincial Constitution was the
+Instrument on which the Republic was based: Yuan Shih-kai declared that
+the Abdication Edicts, and not the Nanking Instrument had established
+the Republic, and that therefore it lay within his competence to
+organize the new government in the way which he considered most fit.
+
+The discussion which raged was suddenly terminated on the night of the
+29th February (1912) when without any warning there occurred the
+extraordinary revolt of the 3rd Division, a picked Northern corps who
+for forty-eight hours plundered and burnt portions of the capital
+without any attempts at interference, there being little doubt to-day
+that this manoeuvre was deliberately arranged as a means of intimidation
+by Yuan Shih-kai himself. Although the disorders assumed such dimensions
+that foreign intervention was narrowly escaped, the upshot was that the
+Nanking Delegates were completely cowed and willing to forget all about
+forcing the despot of Peking to proceed to the Southern capital. Yuan
+Shih-kai as the man of the hour was enabled on the 10th March, 1912, to
+take his oath in Peking as he had wished thus securing full freedom of
+action during the succeeding years.[6]
+
+[Illustration: An Encampment of "The Punitive Expedition" of 1910 on the
+Upper Yangtsze.
+
+_By courtesy of Major Isaac Newell, U.S. Military Attaché_.]
+
+[Illustration: Revival of the Imperialistic Worship of Heaven by Yuan
+Shih-kai in 1914: Scene on the Altar of Heaven, with Sacrificial
+Officers clothed in costumes dating from 2,000 years ago.]
+
+[Illustration: A Manchu Country Fair: The figures in the foreground are
+all Manchu women and girls.]
+
+[Illustration: A Manchu Woman grinding Grain.]
+
+It was on this astounding basis--by means of an organized revolt--that
+the Central Government was reorganized; and every act that followed
+bears the mark of its tainted parentage. Accepting readily as his
+Ministers in the more unimportant government Departments the nominees of
+the Southern Confederacy (which was now formally dissolved), Yuan
+Shih-kai was careful to reserve for his own men everything that
+concerned the control of the army and the police, as well as the
+all-important ministry of finance. The framework having been thus
+erected, attention was almost immediately concentrated on the problem of
+finding money, an amazing matter which would weary the stoutest reader
+if given in all its detail but which being part and parcel of the
+general problem must be referred to.
+
+Certain essential features can be very rapidly exposed. We have already
+made clear the purely economic nature of the forces which had sapped the
+foundations of Chinese society. Primarily it had been the disastrous
+nature of Chinese gold-indebtedness which had given the new ideas the
+force they required to work their will on the nation. And just because
+the question of this gold-indebtedness had become so serious and such a
+drain on the nation, some months before the outbreak of the Revolution
+an arrangement had been entered into with the bankers of four nations
+for a Currency Loan of £10,000,000 with which to make an organized
+effort to re-establish internal credit. But this loan had never actually
+been floated, as a six months' safety clause had permitted a delay
+during which the Revolution had come. It was therefore necessary to
+begin the negotiations anew; and as the rich prizes to be won in the
+Chinese lottery had attracted general attention in the European
+financial world through the advertisement which the Revolution had given
+the country, a host of alternative loan proposals now lay at the
+disposal of Peking.
+
+Consequently an extraordinary chapter of bargaining commenced. Warned
+that an International Debt Commission was the goal aimed at by official
+finance, Yuan Shih-kai and the various parties who made up the
+Government of the day, though disagreeing on almost every other
+question, were agreed that this danger must be fought as a common enemy.
+Though the Four-Power group alleged that they held the first option on
+all Chinese loans, money had already been advanced by a Franco-Belgian
+Syndicate to the amount of nearly two million pounds during the critical
+days of the Abdication. Furious at the prospect of losing their
+percentages, the Four Power group made the confusion worse confounded by
+blocking all competing proposals and closing every possible door. Russia
+and Japan, who had hitherto not been parties to the official consortium,
+perceiving that participation had become a political necessity, now
+demanded a place which was grudgingly accorded them; and it was in this
+way that the celebrated six-power Group arose.
+
+It was round this group and the proposed issue of a £60,000,000 loan to
+reorganize Chinese finance that the central battle raged. The Belgian
+Syndicate, having been driven out of business by the financial boycott
+which the official group was strong enough to organize on the European
+bourses, it remained for China to see whether she could not find some
+combination or some man who would be bold enough to ignore all
+governments.
+
+Her search was not in vain. In September (1912) a London stockbroker,
+Mr. Birch Crisp, determined to risk a brilliant coup by negotiating by
+himself a Loan of £10,000,000; and the world woke up one morning to
+learn that one man was successfully opposing six governments. The
+recollection of the storm raised in financial circles by this bold
+attempt will be fresh in many minds. Every possible weapon was brought
+into play by international finance to secure that the impudence of
+financial independence should be properly checked; and so it happened
+that although £5,000,000 was secured after an intense struggle it was
+soon plain that the large requirements of a derelict government could
+not be satisfied in this Quixotic manner. Two important points had,
+however, been attained; first, China was kept financially afloat during
+the year 1912 by the independence of a single member of the London Stock
+Exchange; secondly, using this coup as a lever the Peking Government
+secured better terms than otherwise would have been possible from the
+official consortium.
+
+Meanwhile the general internal situation remained deplorable. Nothing
+was done for the provinces whose paper currency was depreciating from
+month to month in an alarming manner; whilst the rivalries between the
+various leaders instead of diminishing seemed to be increasing. The
+Tutuhs, or Military Governors, acting precisely as they saw fit, derided
+the authority of Peking and sought to strengthen their old position by
+adding to their armed forces. In the capital the old Manchu court,
+safely entrenched in the vast Winter Palace from which it has not even
+to-day been ejected (1917) published daily the Imperial Gazette,
+bestowing honours and decorations on courtiers and clansmen and
+preserving all the old etiquette. In the North-western provinces, and in
+Manchuria and Mongolia, the so-called Tsung She Tang, or Imperial Clan
+Society, intrigued perpetually to create risings which would hasten the
+restoration of the fallen House; and although these intrigues never rose
+to the rank of a real menace to the country, the fact that they were
+surreptitiously supported by the Japanese secret service was a continual
+source of anxiety. The question of Outer Mongolia was also harassing the
+Central Government. The Hutuktu or Living Buddha of Urga--the chief city
+of Outer Mongolia--had utilized the revolution to throw off his
+allegiance to Peking; and the whole of this vast region had been thrown
+into complete disorder--which was still further accentuated when Russia
+on the 21st October (1912) recognized its independence. It was known
+that as a pendent to this Great Britain was about to insist on the
+autonomy of Tibet,--a development which greatly hurt Chinese pride.
+
+On the 15th August, 1912, the deplorable situation was well-epitomised
+by an extraordinary act in Peking, when General Chang Cheng-wu, one of
+the "heroes" of the original Wuchang rising, who had been enticed to the
+capital, was suddenly seized after a banquet in his honour and shot
+without trial at midnight.
+
+This event, trivial in itself during times when judicial murders were
+common, would have excited nothing more than passing interest had not
+the national sentiment been so aroused by the chaotic conditions. As it
+was it served to focus attention on the general mal-administration over
+which Yuan Shih-kai ruled as provisional President. "What is my crime?"
+had shrieked the unhappy revolutionist as he had been shot and then
+bayonetted to death. That query was most easily answered. His crime was
+that he was not strong enough or big enough to compete against more
+sanguinary men, his disappearance being consequently in obedience to an
+universal law of nature. Yuan Shih-kai was determined to assert his
+mastery by any and every means; and as this man had flouted him he must
+die.
+
+The uproar which this crime aroused was, however, not easily appeased;
+and the Advisory Council, which was sitting in Peking pending the
+assembling of the first Parliament, denounced the Provisional President
+so bitterly that to show that these reproaches were ill-deserved he
+invited Dr. Sun Yat-sen to the capital treating him with unparalleled
+honours and requesting him to act as intermediary between the rival
+factions. All such manoeuvres, however, were inspired with one
+object,--namely to prove how nobody but the master of Peking could
+regulate the affairs of the country.
+
+Still no Parliament was assembled. Although the Nanking Provisional
+Constitution had stipulated that one was to meet within ten months
+_i.e._ before 1st November, 1912, the elections were purposely delayed,
+the attention of the Central Government being concentrated on the
+problem of destroying all rivals, and everything being subordinate to
+this war on persons. Rascals, getting daily more and more out of hand,
+worked their will on rich and poor alike, discrediting by their actions
+the name of republicanism and destroying public confidence--which was
+precisely what suited Yuan Shih-kai. Dramatic and extraordinary
+incidents continually inflamed the public mind, nothing being too
+singular for those remarkable days.
+
+Very slowly the problem developed, with everyone exclaiming that foreign
+intervention was becoming inevitable. With the beginning of 1913, being
+unable to delay the matter any longer, Yuan Shih-kai allowed elections
+to be held in the provinces. He was so badly beaten at the polls that it
+seemed in spite of his military power that he would be outvoted and
+outmanoeuvred in the new National Assembly and his authority undermined.
+To prevent this a fresh assassination was decided upon. The ablest
+Southern leader, Sung Chiao-jen, just as he was entraining for Peking
+with a number of Parliamentarians at Shanghai, was coolly shot in a
+crowded railway station by a desperado who admitted under trial that he
+had been paid £200 for the job by the highest authority in the land, the
+evidence produced in court including telegrams from Peking which left no
+doubt as to who had instigated the murder.
+
+The storm raised by this evil measure made it appear as if no parliament
+could ever assemble in Peking. But the feeling had become general that
+the situation was so desperate that action had to be taken. Not only was
+their reputation at stake, but the Kuomingtang or Revolutionary Party
+now knew that the future of their country was involved just as much as
+the safety of their own lives; and so after a rapid consultation they
+determined that they would beard the lion in his den. Rather
+unexpectedly on the 7th April (1913) Parliament was opened in Peking
+with a huge Southern majority and the benediction of all Radicals.[7]
+Hopes rose with mercurial rapidity as a solution at last seemed in
+sight. But hardly had the first formalities been completed and Speakers
+been elected to both Houses, than by a single dramatic stroke Yuan
+Shih-kai reduced to nought these labours by stabbing in the back the
+whole theory and practice of popular government.
+
+The method he employed was simplicity itself, and it is peculiarly
+characteristic of the man that he should have been so bluntly cynical.
+Though the Provisional Nanking Constitution, which was the "law" of
+China so far as there was any law at all, had laid down specifically in
+article XIX that all measures affecting the National Treasury must
+receive the assent of Parliament, Yuan Shih-kai, pretending that the
+small Advisory Council which had assisted him during the previous year
+and which had only just been dissolved, had sanctioned a foreign loan,
+peremptorily ordered the signature of the great Reorganization Loan of
+£25,000,000 which had been secretly under negotiation all winter with
+the financial agents of six Powers[8], although the rupture which had
+come in the previous June as a forerunner to the Crisp loan had caused
+the general public to lose sight of the supreme importance of the
+financial factor. Parliament, seeing that apart from the possibility of
+a Foreign Debt Commission being created something after the Turkish and
+Egyptian models, a direct challenge to its existence had been offered,
+raged and stormed and did its utmost to delay the question; but the
+Chief Executive having made up his mind shut himself up in his Palace
+and absolutely refused to see any Parliamentary representatives.
+Although the Minister of Finance himself hesitated to complete the
+transaction in the face of the rising storm and actually fled the
+capital, he was brought back by special train and forced to complete the
+agreement. At four o'clock in the morning on the 25th April the last
+documents were signed in the building of a foreign bank and the Finance
+Minister, galloping his carriage suddenly out of the compound to avoid
+possible bombs, reported to his master that at last--in spite of the
+nominal foreign control which was to govern the disbursement--a vast sum
+was at his disposal to further his own ends.
+
+Safe in the knowledge that possession is nine points of the law, Yuan
+Shih-kai now treated with derision the resolutions which Parliament
+passed that the transaction was illegal and the loan agreement null and
+void. Being openly backed by the agents of the Foreign Powers, he
+immediately received large cash advances which enabled him to extend his
+power in so many directions that further argument with him seemed
+useless. It is necessary to record that the Parliamentary leaders had
+almost gone down on their knees to certain of the foreign Ministers in
+Peking in a vain attempt to persuade them to delay--as they could very
+well have done--the signature of this vital Agreement for forty-eight
+hours so that it could be formally passed by the National Assembly, and
+thus save the vital portion of the sovereignty of the country from
+passing under the heel of one man. But Peking diplomacy is a perverse
+and disagreeable thing; and the Foreign Ministers of those days,
+although accredited to a government which while it had not then been
+formally recognized as a Republic by any Power save the United States,
+was bound to be so very shortly, were determined to be reactionary and
+were at heart delighted to find things running back normally to
+absolutism[9]. High finance had at last got hold of everything it
+required from China and was in no mood to relax the monopoly of the salt
+administration which the Loan Agreement conferred. Nor must the fact be
+lost sight of that of the nominal amount of £25,000,000 which had been
+borrowed, fully half consisted of repayments to foreign Banks and never
+left Europe. According to the schedules attached to the Agreement, Annex
+A, comprising the Boxer arrears and bank advances, absorbed £4,317,778:
+Annex B, being so-called provincial loans, absorbed a further
+£2,870,000: Annex C, being liabilities shortly maturing, amounted to
+£3,592,263: Annex D, for disbandment of troops, amounted to £3,000,000:
+Annex C, to cover current administrative expenses totalled £5,500,000:
+whilst Annex E which covered the reorganization of the Salt
+Administration, absorbed the last £2,000,000; The bank profits on this
+loan alone amounted to 1¼ million pounds; whilst Yuan Shih-kai
+himself was placed in possession by a system of weekly disbursements of
+a sum roughly amounting to ten million sterling, which was amply
+sufficient to allow him to wreak his will on his fellow-countrymen.
+Exasperated to the pitch of despair by this new development, the Central
+and Southern provinces, after a couple of months' vain argument, began
+openly to arm. On the 10th July in Kiangse province on the river
+Yangtsze the Northern garrisons were fired upon from the Hukow forts by
+the provincial troops under General Li Lieh-chun and the so-called
+Second Revolution commenced.
+
+The campaign was short and inglorious. The South, ill-furnished with
+munitions and practically penniless, and always confronted by the same
+well-trained Northern Divisions who had proved themselves invincible
+only eighteen months before fought hard for a while, but never became a
+serious menace to the Central Government owing to the lack of
+co-operation between the various Rebel forces in the field. The Kiangse
+troops under General Li Lieh-chun, who numbered at most 20,000 men,
+fought stiffly, it is true, for a while but were unable to strike with
+any success and were gradually driven far back from the river into the
+mountains of Kiangse where their numbers rapidly melted away. The
+redoubtable revolutionary Huang Hsin, who had proved useful as a
+propagandist and a bomb-thrower in earlier days, but who was useless in
+serious warfare, although he assumed command of the Nanking garrison
+which had revolted to a man, and attempted a march up the Pukow railway
+in the direction of Tientsin, found his effort break down almost
+immediately from lack of organization and fled to Japan. The Nanking
+troops, although deserted by their leader, offered a strenuous
+resistance to the capture of the southern capital which was finally
+effected by the old reactionary General Chang Hsun operating in
+conjunction with General Feng Kuo-chang who had been dispatched from
+Peking with a picked force. The attack on the Shanghai arsenal which had
+been quietly occupied by a small Northern Garrison during the months
+succeeding the great loan transaction, although pushed with vigour by
+the South, likewise ultimately collapsed through lack of artillery and
+proper leadership. The navy, which was wholly Southern in its sympathies
+and which had been counted upon as a valuable weapon in cutting off the
+whole Yangtsze Valley, was at the last moment purchased to neutrality by
+a liberal use of money obtained from the foreign banks, under, it is
+said, the heading of administrative expenses! The turbulent city of
+Canton, although it also rose against the authority of Peking, had been
+well provided for by Yuan Shih-kai. A border General, named Lung
+Chi-kwang, with 20,000 semi-savage Kwangsi troops had been moved near
+the city and at once attacked and overawed the garrison. Appointed
+Military Governor of the province in return for his services, this Lung
+Chi-kwang, who was an infamous brute, for three years ruled the South
+with heartless barbarity, until he was finally ejected by the great
+rising of 1916. Thoroughly disappointed in this and many other
+directions the Southern Party was now emasculated; for the moneyed
+classes had withheld their support to the end, and without money nothing
+is possible in China. The 1913 outbreak, after lasting a bare two
+months, ignominiously collapsed with the flight of every one of the
+leaders on whose heads prices were put. The road was now left open for
+the last step Yuan Shih-kai had in mind, the coup against Parliament
+itself, which although unassociated in any direct way with the rising,
+had undoubtedly maintained secret relations with the rebellious generals
+in the field.
+
+Parliament had further sinned by appointing a Special Constitutional
+Drafting Committee which had held its sittings behind closed doors at
+the Temple of Heaven. During this drafting of the Permanent
+Constitution, admittance had been absolutely refused to Yuan Shih-kai's
+delegates who had been sent to urge a modification of the
+decentralization which had been such a characteristic of the Nanking
+Instrument. Such details as transpired showed that the principle of
+absolute money-control was not only to be the dominant note in the
+Permanent Constitution, but that a new and startling innovation was
+being included to secure that a _de facto_ Dictatorship should be
+rendered impossible. Briefly, it was proposed that when Parliament was
+not actually in session there should be left in Peking a special
+Parliamentary Committee, charged with supervising and controlling the
+Executive, and checking any usurpation of power.
+
+This was enough for Yuan Shih-kai: he felt that he was not only an
+object of general suspicion but that he was being treated with contempt.
+He determined to finish with it all. He was as yet, however, only
+provisional President and it was necessary to show cunning. Once more he
+set to work in a characteristic way. By a liberal use of money
+Parliament was induced to pass in advance of the main body of articles
+the Chapter of the Constitution dealing with the election and term of
+office of the President. When that had been done the two Chambers
+sitting as an Electoral College, after the model of the French
+Parliament, being partly bribed and partly terrorised by a military
+display, were induced to elect him full President.
+
+On the 10th October he took his final oath of office as President for a
+term of five years before a great gathering of officials and the whole
+diplomatic body in the magnificent Throne Room of the Winter Palace.
+Safe now in his Constitutional position nothing remained for him but to
+strike. On the 4th November he issued an arbitrary Mandate, which
+received the counter-signature of the whole Cabinet, ordering the
+unseating of all the so-called Kuomingtang or Radical Senators and
+Representatives on the counts of conspiracy and secret complicity with
+the July rising and vaguely referring to the filling of the vacancies
+thus created by new elections.[10] The Metropolitan Police rigorously
+carried out the order and although no brutality was shown, it was made
+clear that if any of the indicted men remained in Peking their lives
+would be at stake. Having made it impossible for Parliament to sit owing
+to the lack of quorums, Yuan Shih-kai was able to proceed with his work
+of reorganization in the way that best suited him; and the novel
+spectacle was offered of a truly Mexican situation created in the Far
+East by and with the assent of the Powers. It is significant that the
+day succeeding this _coup d'état_ of the 4th November the agreement
+conceding autonomy to Outer Mongolia was signed with Russia, China
+simply retaining the right to station a diplomatic representative at
+Urga.[11]
+
+In spite of his undisputed power, matters however did not improve. The
+police-control, judiciously mingled with assassinations, which was now
+put in full vigour was hardly the administration to make room for which
+the Manchus had been expelled; and the country secretly chafed and
+cursed. But the disillusionment of the people was complete. Revolt had
+been tried in vain; and as the support which the Powers were affording
+to this régime was well understood there was nothing to do but to wait,
+safe in the knowledge that such a situation possessed no elements of
+permanency.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[6] The defective nature of this oath of office will be patent at a
+glance:
+
+"At the beginning of the Republic there are many things to be taken care
+of. I, Yuan Shih-kai, sincerely wish to exert my utmost to promote the
+democratic spirit, to remove the dark blots of despotism, to obey
+strictly the Constitution, and to abide by the wish of the people, so as
+to place the country in a safe, united, strong, and firm position, and
+to effect the happiness and welfare of the divisions of the Chinese
+race. All these wishes I will fulfil without fail. As soon as a new
+President is elected by the National Assembly I shall at once vacate my
+present position. With all sincerity I take this oath before the people
+of China.
+
+"Dated the tenth day of March in the First Year of the Republic of China
+(1912)."
+
+(Signed) Yuan Shih-kai.
+
+[7] The Parliament of China is composed of a House of Representatives
+numbering 596 members and a Senate of 274. The Representatives are
+elected by means of a property and educational franchise which is
+estimated to give about four million voters (1 per cent of the
+population) although in practice relatively few vote. The Senate is
+elected by the Provincial Assemblies by direct ballot. In the opinion of
+the writer, the Chinese Parliament in spite of obvious shortcoming, is
+representative of the country in its present transitional stage.
+
+[8] The American Group at the last moment dropped out of the Sextuple
+combination (prior to the signature of the contract) after President
+Wilson had made his well-known pronouncement deprecating the association
+of Americans in any financial undertakings which impinged upon the
+rights of sovereignty of a friendly Power,--which was his considered
+view of the manner in which foreign governments were assisting their
+nationals to gain control of the Salt Administration The exact language
+the President used was that the conditions of the loan seemed "to touch
+very nearly the administrative independence of China itself," and that a
+loan thus obtained was "obnoxious" to the principles upon which the
+American government rests. It is to be hoped that President Wilson's
+dictum will be universally accepted after the war and that meddling in
+Chinese affairs will cease.
+
+[9] The United States accorded formal recognition to the Republic on the
+election of the Speakers of the two Houses of Parliament: the other
+Treaty Powers delayed recognition until Yuan Shih-kai had been elected
+full President in October. It has been very generally held that the long
+delay in foreign recognition of the Republic contributed greatly to its
+internal troubles by making every one doubt the reality of the Nanking
+transaction. Most important, however, is the historical fact that a
+group of Powers numbering the two great leaders of democracy in
+Europe--England and France--did everything they could in Peking to
+enthrone Yuan Shih-kai as dictator.
+
+[10] According to the official lists published subsequent to the coup
+d'état, 98 Senators and 252 Members of the House of Representatives had
+their Parliamentary Certificates impounded by the police as a result of
+the Mandates of the 4th November, and were ordered to leave the Capital.
+In addition 34 Senators and 54 Members of the Lower House fled from
+Peking before their Certificates could be seized. Therefore the total
+number affected by the proscription was 132 Senators and 306
+Representatives. As the quorums in the case of both Houses are half the
+total membership, any further sittings were thus made impossible.
+
+[11] A full copy of this agreement will be found in the appendix.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE DICTATOR AT WORK
+
+(FROM THE COUP D'ETAT OF THE 4TH NOVEMBER, 1913, TO THE OUTBREAK OF THE
+WORLD-WAR 1ST AUGUST, 1914)
+
+
+With the Parliament of China effectively destroyed, and the turbulent
+Yangtsze Valley dragooned into sullen submission, Yuan Shih-kai's task
+had become so vastly simplified that he held the moment to have arrived
+when he could openly turn his hand to the problem of making himself
+absolutely supreme, _de jure_ as well as _de facto_. But there was one
+remaining thing to be done. To drive the last nail into the coffin of
+the Republic it was necessary to discredit and virtually imprison the
+man who was Vice-President.
+
+It is highly characteristic that although he had received from the hero
+of the Wuchang Rising the most loyal co-operation--a co-operation of a
+very arduous character since the Commander of the Middle Yangtsze had
+had to resist the most desperate attempt? to force him over to the side
+of the rebellion in July, 1913, nevertheless, Yuan Shih-kai was
+determined to bring this man to Peking as a prisoner of state.
+
+It was just the fact that General Li Yuan-hung was a national hero which
+impelled the Dictator to action. In the election which had been carried
+out in October, 1913, by the National Assembly sitting as a National
+Convention, in spite of every effort to destroy his influence, the
+personal popularity of the Vice-President had been such that he had
+received a large number of votes for the office of full President--which
+had necessitated not one but three ballots being taken, making most
+people declare that had there been no bribery or intimidation he would
+have probably been elected to the supreme office in the land, and
+ousted the ambitious usurper. In such circumstances his complete
+elimination was deemed an elementary necessity. To secure that end Yuan
+Shih-kai suddenly dispatched to Wuchang--where the Vice-President had
+resided without break since 1911--the Minister of War, General Tuan
+Chi-jui, with implicit instructions to deal with the problem in any way
+he deemed satisfactory, stopping short of nothing should his victim
+prove recalcitrant.
+
+Fortunately General Tuan Chi-jui did not belong to the ugly breed of men
+Yuan Shih-kai loved to surround himself with; and although he was a
+loyal and efficient officer the politics of the assassin were unknown to
+him. He was therefore able to convince the Vice-President after a brief
+discussion that the easiest way out of the ring of intriguers and
+plotters in which Yuan Shih-kai was rapidly surrounding him in Wuchang
+was to go voluntarily to the capital. There at least he would be in
+daily touch with developments and able to fight his own battles without
+fear of being stabbed in the back; since under the eye of the foreign
+Legations even Yuan Shih-kai was exhibiting a certain timidity. Indeed
+after the outcry which General Chang Cheng-wu's judicial murder had
+aroused he had reserved his ugliest deeds for the provinces, only small
+men being done to death in Peking. Accordingly, General Li Yuan-hung
+packed a bag and accompanied only by an aide-de-camp left abruptly for
+the capital where he arrived on the 11th December, 1913.
+
+A great sensation was caused throughout China by this sudden departure,
+consternation prevailing among the officers and men of the Hupeh
+(Wuchang) army when the newspapers began to hint that their beloved
+chief had been virtually abducted. Although cordially received by Yuan
+Shih-kai and given as his personal residence the. Island Palace where
+the unfortunate Emperor Kwanghsu had been so long imprisoned by the
+Empress Dowager Tsu Hsi after her _coup d'état_ of 1898, it did not take
+long for General Li Yuan-hung to understand that his presence was a
+source of embarrassment to the man who would be king. Being, however,
+gifted with an astounding fund of patience, he prepared to sit down and
+allow the great game which he knew would now unroll to be played to its
+normal ending. What General Li Yuan-hung desired above all was to be
+forgotten completely and absolutely--springing to life when the hour of
+deliverance finally arrived. His policy was shown to be not only
+psychologically accurate, but masterly in a political sense. The
+greatest ally of honesty in China has always been time, the inherent
+decency of the race finally discrediting scoundrelism in every period of
+Chinese history.
+
+The year 1914 dawned with so many obstacles removed that Yuan Shih-kai
+became more and more peremptory in his methods. In February the young
+Empress Lun Yi, widow of the Emperor Kwanghsu, who two years previously
+in her character of guardian of the boy-Emperor Hsuan Tung, had been
+cajoled into sanctioning the Abdication Edicts, unexpectedly expired,
+her death creating profound emotion because it snapped the last link
+with the past. Yuan Shih-kai's position was considerably strengthened by
+this auspicious event which secretly greatly delighted him; and by his
+order for three days the defunct Empress lay in State in the Grand Hall
+of the Winter Palace and received the obeisance of countless multitudes
+who appeared strangely moved by this hitherto unknown procedure. There
+was now only a nine-year old boy between the Dictator and his highest
+ambitions. Two final problems still remained to be dealt with: to give a
+legal form to a purely autocratic rule, and to find money to govern the
+country. The second matter was vastly more important than the first to a
+man who did not hesitate to base his whole polity on the teachings of
+Machiavelli, legality being looked upon as only so much political
+window-dressing to placate foreign opinion and prevent intervention,
+whilst without money even the semblance of the rights of eminent domain
+could not be preserved. Everything indeed hinged on the question of
+finding money.
+
+There was none in China, at least none for the government. Financial
+chaos still reigned supreme in spite of the great Reorganization Loan of
+£25,000,000, which had been carefully arranged more for the purpose of
+wiping-out international indebtedness and balancing the books of foreign
+bankers than to institute a modern government. All the available specie
+in the country had been very quietly remitted in these troubled times by
+the native merchant-guilds from every part of China to the vast emporium
+of Shanghai for safe custody, where a sum not far short of a hundred
+million ounces now choked the vaults of the foreign banks,--being safe
+from governmental expropriation. The collection of provincial revenues
+having been long disorganized, Yuan Shih-kai, in spite of his military
+dictatorship, found it impossible to secure the proper resumption of the
+provincial remittances. Fresh loans became more and more sought after;
+by means of forced domestic issues a certain amount of cash was
+obtained, but the country lived from hand to mouth and everybody was
+unhappy. Added to this by March the formidable insurrection of the
+"White Wolf" bandits in Central China--under the legendary leadership of
+a man who was said to be invulnerable--necessitated the mobilization of
+a fresh army which ran into scores of battalions and which was vainly
+engaged for nearly half a year in rounding-up this replica of the
+Mexican Villa. So demoralized had the army become from long licence that
+this guerrilla warfare was waged with all possible slackness until a
+chance shot mortally wounded the chief brigand and his immense following
+automatically dispersed. During six months these pests had ravaged three
+provinces and menaced one of the most strongly fortified cities in
+Asia--the old capital of China, Hsianfu, whither the Manchu Court had
+fled in 1900.
+
+Meanwhile wholesale executions were carried out in the provinces with
+monotonous regularity and all attempts at rising ruthlessly suppressed.
+In Peking the infamous Chih Fa Chu or Military Court--a sort of Chinese
+Star-Chamber--was continually engaged in summarily dispatching men
+suspected of conspiring against the Dictator, Even the printed word was
+looked upon as seditious, an unfortunate native editor being actually
+flogged to death in Hankow for telling the truth about conditions in the
+riverine districts. These cruelties made men more and more determined to
+pay off the score the very first moment that was possible. Although he
+was increasingly pressed for ready money, Yuan Shih-kai, by the end of
+April, 1914, had the situation sufficiently in hand to bring out his
+supreme surprise,--a brand-new Constitution promulgated under the
+euphonious title of "The Constitutional Compact."
+
+This precious document, which had no more legality behind it as a
+governing instrument than a private letter, can be studied by the
+curious in the appendix where it is given in full: here it is sufficient
+to say that no such hocuspocus had ever been previously indulged in
+China. Drafted by an American legal adviser, Dr. Goodnow, who was later
+to earn unenviable international notoriety as the endorser of the
+monarchy scheme, it erected what it was pleased to call the Presidential
+System; that is, it placed all power directly in the hands of the
+President, giving him a single Secretary of State after the American
+model and reducing Cabinet Ministers to mere Department Chiefs who
+received their instructions from the State Department but had no real
+voice in the actual government. A new provincial system was likewise
+invented for the provinces, the Tutuhs or Governors of the Revolutionary
+period being turned into Chiang Chun or Military Officials on the Manchu
+model and provincial control absolutely centralized in their hands,
+whilst the Provincial Assemblies established under the former dynasty
+were summarily abolished. The worship at the Temple of Heaven was also
+re-established and so was the official worship of Confucius--both
+Imperialistic measures--whilst a brand-new ceremony, the worship of the
+two titulary Military Gods, was ordered so as to inculcate military
+virtue! It was laid down that in the worship of Heaven the President
+would wear the robes of the Dukes of the Chow dynasty, B.C. 1112, a
+novel and interesting republican experiment. Excerpts from two Mandates
+which belong to these days throw a flood of light on the kind of
+reasoning which was held to justify these developments. The first
+declares:
+
+    ... "In a Republic the Sovereign Power is vested in the people, and
+    the main principle is that all things should be determined in
+    accordance with the desires of the majority. These desires may be
+    embraced by two words, namely, existence and happiness. I, the
+    President, came from my farm because I was unable to bear the
+    eternal sufferings of the innocent people. I assumed office and
+    tried vainly to soothe the violent feelings. The greatest evil
+    nowadays is the misunderstanding of true principles. The Republicans
+    on the pretext of public interest try to attain selfish ends, some
+    going so far as to consider the forsaking of parents as a sign of
+    liberty and regarding the violation of the laws as a demonstration
+    of equality. I will certainly do my best to change all this."
+
+In the second Mandate Yuan Shih-kai justifies the re-establishment of
+the Confucian worship in a singular way, incidentally showing how
+utterly incomprehensible to him is the idea of representative
+government, since he would appear to have imagined that by dispatching
+circular telegrams to the provincial capitals and receiving affirmative
+replies from his creatures all that is necessary in the way of a
+national endorsement of high constitutional measures had been obtained.
+
+    ... "China's devotion to Confucius began with the reign of the
+    Emperor Hsiaowu, of the Han dynasty, who rejected the works of the
+    hundred authors, making the six Confucian classics the leading
+    books. Confucius, born in the time of the tyranny of the nobility,
+    in his works declared that after war disturbances comes peace, and
+    with peace real tranquillity and happiness. This, therefore, is the
+    fountain of Republicanism. After studying the history of China and
+    consulting the opinions of scholars, I find that Confucius must
+    remain the teacher for thousands of generations. But in a Republic
+    the people possess sovereign power. Therefore circular telegrams
+    were dispatched to all the provinces to collect opinions, and many
+    affirmative answers have already been received. Therefore, all
+    colleges, schools, and public bodies are ordered to revive the
+    sacrificial ceremony of Confucius, which shall be carefully and
+    minutely ordained." ...
+
+With the formal promulgation of the Constitutional Compact the situation
+had become bizarre in the extreme. Although even the child-mind might
+have known that powers for Constitution-making were vested solely in the
+National Assembly, and that the re-division of authority which was now
+made was wholly illegal, because Yuan Shih-kai as the bailiff of the
+Powers was able to do much as he pleased; and at a moment when Liberal
+Europe was on the eve of plunging into the most terrible war in history
+in defence of right against might, reaction and Prussianism of the most
+repulsive type were passed by unnoticed in China. In a few loosely
+drafted chapters not only was the governance of the country rearranged
+to suit a purely dictational rule, but the actual Parliament was
+permanently extinguished and replaced by a single Legislative Chamber
+(_Li Fa Yuan_) which from its very composition could be nothing but a
+harmless debating Society with no greater significance than a dietine of
+one of the minor German States. Meanwhile, as there was no intention of
+allowing even this chamber to assemble until the last possible moment, a
+Senate was got together as the organ of public opinion, ten Senators
+being chosen to draft yet another Constitution which would be the final
+one. Remarkable steps were taken a little later in the year (1914) to
+secure that the succession to the dictatorship should be left in Yuan
+Shih-kai's own hands. An elaborate ritual was contrived and officially
+promulgated under the title of the Presidential Succession Law on the
+29th December whereby the Chief Executive selected three names which
+were placed in a gold box in a Stone House in the grounds of the
+Palace,--the gold box only to be opened when death or incapacity
+deprived the nation of its self-appointed leader. For the term of the
+presidency was openly converted into one of ten years and made subject
+to indefinite renewal by this precious instrument which was the work of
+the puppet senate. In case of the necessity of an election suddenly
+arising, an Electoral College was to be formed by fifty members drawn
+from the Legislative Chamber and fifty from the Senate, the Presidential
+candidates consisting of the President (if he so desired) and the three
+whose names were in the gold box in the Stone House in the Palace
+grounds. It is not definitely known to whom these provisions were due,
+but it is known that at least they were not the work of the American
+adviser.
+
+His responsibility, however, was very great; for the keynote of all this
+scheme, according to Dr. Goodnow[12], was "centralization of power," a
+parrot-like phrase which has deluded better men than ever came to China
+and which--save as a method necessary during a state of war--should
+have no place in modern politics. But it was precisely this which
+appealed to Yuan Shih-kai. Although as President he was _ex officio_
+Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy, he now turned this office into
+a direct and special organization installed within the precincts of the
+Imperial City. The flags of this new dictatorship constantly floated
+over his palace, whilst scores of officers were appointed to scores of
+departments which were directly concerned with centralizing the control
+of every armed man in the country in the master's hands. Meanwhile in
+order to placate provincial commanders, a "Palace of Generals," was
+created in Peking to which were brought all men it was held desirable to
+emasculate. Here, drawing ample salaries, they could sit in idleness the
+livelong day, discussing the battles they had never fought and
+intriguing against one another, two occupations in which the product of
+the older school of men in China excels. Provincial levies which had any
+military virtue, were gradually disbanded, though many of the rascals
+and rapscallions, who were open menaces to good government were left
+with arms in their hands so as to be an argument in favour of drastic
+police-rule. Thus it is significant of the underlying falseness and
+weakness of the dictator's character that he never dared to touch the
+troops of the reprobate General Chang Hsun, who had made trouble for
+years, and who had nearly embroiled China in war with Japan during the
+so-called Second Revolution (July-August, 1913) by massacring some
+Japanese civilians in the streets of Nanking when the city was
+recaptured. So far from disbanding his men, Chang Hsun managed
+constantly to increase his army of 30,000 men on the plea that the post
+of Inspector-General of the Yangtsze Valley, which had been given to him
+as a reward for refusing to throw in his lot with the Southern rebels,
+demanded larger forces. Yuan Shih-kai, although half afraid of him,
+found him at various periods useful as a counterweight to other generals
+in the provinces; in any case he was not the man to risk anything by
+attempting to crush him. As he was planted with his men astride of the
+strategically important Pukow railway, it was always possible to order
+him at a moment's notice into the Yangtsze Valley which was thus
+constantly under the menace of fire and sword.
+
+Far and wide Yuan Shih-kai now stretched his nets. He even employed
+Americans throughout the United States in the capacity of press-agents
+in order to keep American public opinion favourable to him, hoping to
+invoke their assistance against his life-enemy--Japan--should that be
+necessary. The precise details of this propaganda and the sums spent in
+its prosecution are known to the writer; if he refrains from publishing
+them it is solely for reasons of policy. England it was not necessary to
+deal with in this way. Chance had willed that the British Representative
+in Peking should be an old friend who had known the Dictator intimately
+since his Korean days; and who faithful to the extraordinary English
+love of hero-worship believed that such a surprising character could do
+little wrong. British policy which has always been a somewhat variable
+quantity in China, owing to the spasmodic attention devoted to such a
+distant problem, may be said to have been non-existent during all this
+period--a state of affairs not conducive to international happiness.
+
+Slowly the problem developed in a shiftless, irresolute way. Unable to
+see that China had vastly changed, and that government by rascality had
+become a physical and moral impossibility, the Legations in Peking
+adopted an attitude of indifference leaving Yuan Shih-kai to wreak his
+will on the people. The horde of foreign advisers who had been appointed
+merely as a piece of political window-dressing, although they were
+allowed to do no work, were useful in running backwards and forwards
+between the Legations and the Presidential headquarters and in making
+each Power suppose that its influence was of increasing importance. It
+was made abundantly clear that in Yuan Shih-kai's estimation the
+Legations played in international politics much the same rôle that
+provincial capitals did in domestic politics: so long as you bound both
+to benevolent neutrality the main problem--the consolidation of
+dictatorial power--could be pushed on with as you wished. Money,
+however, remained utterly lacking and a new twenty-five million sterling
+loan was spoken of as inevitable--the accumulated deficit in 1914 being
+alone estimated at thirty-eight million pounds. But although this
+financial dearth was annoying, Chinese resources were sufficient to
+allow the account to be carried on from day to day. Some progress was
+made in railways, building concessions being liberally granted to
+foreign corporations, this policy having received a great impetus from
+the manner in which Dr. Sun Yat Sen had boomed the necessity for better
+communications during the short time he had ruled at a National Railway
+Bureau in Shanghai, an office from which he had been relieved in 1913 on
+it being discovered that he was secretly indenting for quick-firing
+guns. Certain questions proved annoying and insoluble, for instance the
+Tibetan question concerning which England was very resolute, as well as
+the perpetual risings in Inner Mongolia, a region so close to Peking
+that concentrations of troops were necessary. But on the whole as time
+went on there was increasing indifference both among the Foreign Powers
+and Chinese for the extraordinary state of affairs which had been
+allowed to grow up.
+
+There was one notable exception, however, Japan. Never relaxing her grip
+on a complicated problem, watchful and active, where others were
+indifferent and slothful, Japan bided her time. Knowing that the hour
+had almost arrived when it would be possible to strike, Japan was vastly
+active behind the scenes in China long before the outbreak of the
+European war gave her the longed for opportunity; and largely because of
+her the pear, which seemed already almost ripe, finally withered on the
+tree.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[12] It is significant that Dr. Goodnow carried out all his
+Constitutional studies in Germany, specializing in that department known
+as Administrative Law which has no place, fortunately, in Anglo-Saxon
+conceptions of the State.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE FACTOR OF JAPAN
+
+(FROM THE OUTBREAK OF THE WORLD-WAR, 1ST AUGUST, 1914, TO THE FILING OF
+THE TWENTY-ONE DEMANDS, 18TH JANUARY, 1915)
+
+
+The thunderclap of the European war shattered the uneasy calm in China,
+not because the Chinese knew anything of the mighty issues which were to
+be fought out with such desperation and valour, but because the presence
+of the German colony of Kiaochow on Chinese soil and the activity of
+German cruisers in the Yellow Sea brought the war to China's very doors.
+Vaguely conscious that this might spell disaster to his own ambitious
+plans, Yuan Shih-kai was actually in the midst of tentative negotiations
+with the German Legation regarding the retrocession of the Kiaochow
+territory when the news reached him that Japan, after some rapid
+negotiations with her British Ally, had filed an ultimatum on Germany,
+peremptorily demanding the handing-over of all those interests that had
+been forcibly acquired in Shantung province in the great leasing-year of
+1898.
+
+At once Yuan Shih-kai realized that the Nemesis which had dogged his
+footsteps all his life was again close behind him. In the Japanese
+attack on Kiaochow he foresaw a web of complications which even his
+unrivalled diplomacy might be unable to unravel; for he knew well from
+bitter experience that wherever the Japanese sets his foot there he
+remains. It is consequently round this single factor of Japan that the
+history of the two succeeding years revolves. From being indisputably
+the central figure on the Chinese canvas, Yuan Shih-kai suddenly becomes
+subordinate to the terror of Japanese intervention which hangs over him
+constantly like a black cloud, and governs every move he made from the
+15th August, 1914, to the day of his dramatic death on the 6th June,
+1916. We shall attempt to write down the true explanation of why this
+should have been so.
+
+It is extremely hard to discuss the question of Japan for the benefit of
+an exclusively Western audience in a convincing way because Japanese
+policy has two distinct facets which seem utterly contradictory, and yet
+which are in a great measure understandable if the objects of that
+diplomacy are set down. Being endowed with an extraordinary capacity for
+taking detached views, the Statesmen of Tokio long ago discerned the
+necessity of having two independent policies--an Eastern policy for
+Eastern Asia and a Western policy for Western nations--because East and
+West are essentially antithetical, and cannot be treated (at least not
+yet) in precisely the same manner. Whilst the Western policy is frank
+and manly, and is exclusively in the hands of brilliant and attractive
+men who have been largely educated in the schools of Europe and America
+and who are fully able to deal with all matters in accordance with the
+customary traditions of diplomacy, the Eastern policy is the work of
+obscurantists whose imaginations are held by the vast projects which the
+Military Party believes are capable of realization in China. There is
+thus a constant contradiction in the attitude of Japan which men have
+sought in vain to reconcile. It is for this reason that the outer world
+is divided into two schools of thought, one believing implicitly in
+Japan's _bonâ fides_, the other vulgarly covering her with abuse and
+declaring that she is the last of all nations in her conceptions of fair
+play and honourable treatment. Both views are far-fetched. It is as true
+of Japan as it is of every other Government in the world that her
+actions are dictated neither by altruism nor by perfidy, but are merely
+the result of the faulty working of a number of fallible brains and as
+regards the work of administration in Japan itself the position is
+equally extraordinary. Here, at the extreme end of the world, so far
+from being in any way threatened, the principle of Divine Right, which
+is being denounced and dismembered in Europe as a crude survival from
+almost heathen days, stands untouched and still exhibits itself in all
+its pristine glory. A highly aristocratic Court, possessing one of the
+most complicated and jealously protected hierarchies in the world, and
+presided over by a monarch claiming direct descent from the sacred Jimmu
+Tenno of twenty-five hundred years ago, decrees to-day precisely as
+before, the elaborate ritual governing every move, every decision and
+every agreement. There is something so engaging in this political
+curiosity, something so far removed from the vast world-movement now
+rolling fiercely to its conclusion, that we may be pardoned for
+interpolating certain capital considerations which closely affect the
+future of China and therefore cannot fail to be of public interest.
+
+The Japanese, who owe their whole theocratic conception to the Chinese,
+just as they owe all their letters and their learning to them, still
+nominally look upon their ruler as the link between Heaven and Earth,
+and the central fact dominating their cosmogony. Although the vast
+number of well-educated men who to-day crowd the cities of Japan are
+fully conscious of the bizarre nature of this belief in an age which has
+turned its back on superstition, nothing has yet been done to modify it
+because--and this is the important point--the structure of Japanese
+society is such that without a violent upheaval which shall hurl the
+military clan system irremediably to the ground, it is absolutely
+impossible for human equality to be admitted and the man-god theory to
+be destroyed. So long as these two features-exist; that is so long as a
+privileged military caste supports and attempts to make all-powerful the
+man-god theory, so long will Japan be an international danger-spot
+because there will lack those democratic restraints which this war has
+shown are absolutely essential to secure a peaceful understanding among
+the nations. It is for this reason that Japan will fail to attain the
+position the art-genius and industry of her people entitle her to and
+must limp behind the progress of the world unless a very radical
+revision of the constitution is achieved. The disabilities which arise
+from an archaic survival are so great that they will affect China as
+adversely as Japan, and therefore should be universally understood.
+
+Japanese history, if stripped of its superficial aspects, has a certain
+remarkable quality; it seems steeped in heroic blood. The doctrine of
+force, which expresses itself in its crudest forms in Europe, has always
+been in Japan a system of heroic-action so fascinating to humanity at
+large that until recent times its international significance has not
+been realized. The feudal organization of Japanese society which arose
+as a result of the armed conquest of the islands fifteen hundred years
+ago, precluded centralizating measures being taken because the Throne,
+relying on the virtues of Divine Ancestors rather than on any
+well-articulated political theory, was weak in all except certain
+quasisacerdotal qualities, and forced to rely on great chieftains for
+the execution of its mandates as well as for its defence. The military
+title of "barbarian-conquering general," which was first conferred on a
+great clan leader eight centuries ago, was a natural enough development
+when we remember that the autochthonous races were even then not yet
+pushed out of the main island, and were still battling with the
+advancing tide of Japanese civilization which was itself composed of
+several rival streams coming from the Asiatic mainland and from the
+Malayan archipelagoes. This armed settlement saturates Japanese history
+and is responsible for the unending local wars and the glorification of
+the warrior. The conception of triumphant generalship which Hideyoshi
+attempted unsuccessfully to carry into Korea in the Sixteenth Century,
+led directly at the beginning of the Seventeenth Century to the formal
+establishment of the Shogunate, that military dictatorship being the
+result of the backwash of the Korean adventure, and the greatest proof
+of the disturbance which it had brought in Japanese society. The
+persistence of this hereditary military dictatorship for more than two
+and a half centuries is a remarkable illustration of the fact that as in
+China so in Japan the theocratic conception was unworkable save in
+primitive times--civilization demanding organization rather than
+precepts and refusing to bow its head to speechless kings. Although the
+Restoration of 1868 nominally gave back to the Throne all it had been
+forced to leave in other hands since 1603, that transfer of power was
+imaginary rather than real, the new military organization which
+succeeded the Shogun's government being the vital portion of the
+Restoration. In other words, it was the leaders of Japan's conscript
+armies who inherited the real power, a fact made amply evident by the
+crushing of the Satsuma Rebellion by these new corps whose organization
+allowed them to overthrow the proudest and most valorous of the Samurai
+and incidentally to proclaim the triumph of modern firearms.
+
+Now it is important to note that as early as 1874--that is six years
+after the Restoration of the Emperor Meiji--these facts were attracting
+the widest notice in Japanese society, the agitation for a Constitution
+and a popular assembly being very vigorously pushed. Led by the
+well-known and aristocratic Itagaki, Japanese Liberalism had joined
+battle with out-and-out Imperialism more than a quarter of a century
+ago; and although the question of recovering Tariff and Judicial
+autonomy and revising the Foreign Treaties was more urgent in those
+days, the foreign question was often pushed aside by the fierceness of
+the constitutional agitation.
+
+It was not, however, until 1889 that a Constitution was finally granted
+to the Japanese--that instrument being a gift from the Crown, and
+nothing more than a conditional warrant to a limited number of men to
+become witnesses of the processes of government but in no sense its
+controllers. The very first Diet summoned in 1890 was sufficient proof
+of that. A collision at once occurred over questions of finance which
+resulted in the resignation of the Ministry. And ever since those days,
+that is for twenty-seven consecutive years, successive Diets in Japan
+have been fighting a forlorn fight for the power which can never be
+theirs save by revolution, it being only natural that Socialism should
+come to be looked upon by the governing class as Nihilism, whilst the
+mob-threat has been very acute ever since the Tokio peace riots of 1905.
+
+Now it is characteristic of the ceremonial respect which all Japanese
+have for the Throne that all through this long contest the main issue
+should have been purposely obscured. The traditional feelings of
+veneration which a loyal and obedient people feel for a line of
+monarchs, whose origin is lost in the mists of antiquity, are such that
+they have turned what is in effect an ever-growing struggle against the
+archaic principle of divine right into a contest with clan-leaders whom
+they assert are acting "unconstitutionally" whenever they choose to
+assert the undeniable principles of the Constitution. Thus to-day we
+have this paradoxical situation; that although Japanese Liberalism must
+from its very essence be revolutionary, _i.e._, destructive before it
+can hope to be constructive, it feigns blindness, hoping that by suasion
+rather than by force the principle of parliamentary government will
+somehow be grafted on to the body politic and the emperors, being left
+outside the controversy, become content to accept a greatly modified
+rule.
+
+This hope seems a vain one in the light of all history. Militarism and
+the clans are by no means in the last ditch in Japan, and they will no
+more surrender their power than would the Russian bureaucracy. The only
+argument which is convincing in such a case is the last one which is
+ever used; and the mere mention of it by so-called socialists is
+sufficient to cause summary arrest in Japan. Sheltering themselves
+behind the Throne, and nominally deriving their latter-day dictatorship
+from the Imperial mandate, the military chiefs remain adamant, nothing
+having yet occurred to incline them to surrender any of their
+privileges. By a process of adaptation to present-day conditions, a
+formula has now been discovered which it is hoped will serve many a long
+year. By securing by extra-legal means the return of a "majority" in the
+House of Representatives the fiction of national support of the
+autocracy has been re-invigorated, and the doctrine laid down that what
+is good for every other advanced people in the world is bad for the
+Japanese, who must be content with what is granted them and never
+question the superior intelligence of a privileged caste. In the opinion
+of the writer, it is every whit as important for the peace of the world
+that the people of Japan should govern themselves as it is for the
+people of Germany to do so. The persistence of the type of military
+government which we see to-day in Japan is harmful for all alike because
+it is as antiquated as Tsarism and a perpetual menace to a disarmed
+nation such as China. So long as that government remains, so long must
+Japan remain an international suspect and be denied equal rights in the
+council-chambers of the Liberal Powers.
+
+If the situation which arose on the 15th August, 1914, is to be
+thoroughly understood, it is necessary to pick up threads of
+Chino-Japanese relations from a good many years back. First-hand
+familiarity with the actors and the scenes of at least three decades is
+essential to give the picture the completeness, the brilliancy of
+colouring, and withal the suggestiveness inseparable from all true
+works of art. For the Chino-Japanese question is primarily a work of art
+and not merely a piece of jejune diplomacy stretched across the years.
+As the shuttle of Fate has been cast swiftly backwards and forwards, the
+threads of these entwining relations have been woven into patterns
+involving the whole Far East, until to-day we have as it were a complete
+Gobelin tapestry, magnificent with meaning, replete with action, and
+full of scholastic interest.
+
+Let us follow some of the tracery. It has long been the habit to affirm
+that the conflict between China and Japan had its origin in Korea, when
+Korea was a vassal state acknowledging the suzerainty of Peking; and
+that the conflict merited ending there, since of the two protagonists
+contending for empire Japan was left in undisputed mastery. This
+statement, being incomplete, is dangerously false. Dating from that
+vital period of thirty years ago, when Yuan Shih-kai first went to Seoul
+as a general officer in the train of the Chinese Imperial Resident (on
+China being forced to take action in protection of her interests, owing
+to the "opening" of Korea by the American Treaty of 1882) three
+contestants, equally interested in the balance of land-power in Eastern
+Asia were constantly pitted against one another with Korea as their
+common battling-ground--Russia, China and Japan. The struggle, which
+ended in the eclipse of the first two, merely shifted the venue from the
+Korean zone to the Manchurian zone; and from thence gradually extended
+it further and further afield until at last not only was Inner Mongolia
+and the vast belt of country fronting the Great Wall embraced within its
+scope, but the entire aspect of China itself was changed. For these
+important facts have to be noted. Until the Russian war of 1904-05 had
+demonstrated the utter valuelessness of Tsarism as an international
+military factor, Japan had been almost willing to resign herself to a
+subordinate rôle in the Far East. Having eaten bitter bread as the
+result of her premature attempt in 1895 (after the Korean war) to become
+a continental power--an attempt which had resulted in the forced
+retrocession of the Liaotung Peninsula--she had been placed on her good
+behaviour, an attitude which was admirably reflected in 1900 when her
+Peking Expeditionary Force proved itself so well-behaved and so gallant
+as to arouse the world's admiration. But the war with Russia and the
+collapse of the Tsar's Manchurian adventure not only drew her back into
+territory that she never hoped to see again, but placed her in
+possession of a ready-made railway system which carried her almost up to
+the Sungari river and surrendered to her military control vast
+grasslands stretching to the Khingan mountains. This Westernly march so
+greatly enlarged the Japanese political horizon, and so entirely changed
+the Japanese viewpoint, that the statesmen of Tokio in their excitement
+threw off their ancient spectacles and found to their astonishment that
+their eyes were every whit as good as European eyes. Now seeing the
+world as others had long seen it, they understood that just as with the
+individuals so with nations the struggle for existence can most easily
+be conducted by adopting that war-principle of Clausewitz--the restless
+offensive, and not by writing meaningless dispatches. Prior to the
+Russian war they had written to Russia a magnificent series of documents
+in which they had pleaded with sincerity for an equitable
+settlement,--only to find that all was in vain. Forced to battle, they
+had found in combat not only success but a new principle.
+
+The discovery necessitated a new policy. During the eighties, and in a
+lesser degree in the nineties, Japan had apart from everything else been
+content to act in a modest and retiring way, because she wished at all
+costs to avoid testing too severely her immature strength. But owing to
+the successive collapses of her rivals, she now found herself not only
+forced to attack as the safest course of action, but driven to the view
+that the Power that exerts the maximum pressure constantly and
+unremittedly is inevitably the most successful. This conclusion had
+great importance. For just as the first article of faith for England in
+Asia has been the doctrine that no Power can be permitted to seize
+strategic harbours which menace her sea-communications, so did it now
+become equally true of Japan that her dominant policy became not an
+Eastern Monroe doctrine, as shallow men have supposed, but simply the
+Doctrine of Maximum Pressure. To press with all her strength on China
+was henceforth considered vital by every Japanese; and it is in this
+spirit that every diplomatic pattern has been woven since the die was
+cast in 1905. Until this signal fact has been grasped no useful analysis
+can be made of the evolution of present conditions. Standing behind
+this policy, and constantly reinforcing it, are the serried ranks of
+the new democracy which education and the great increase in material
+prosperity have been so rapidly creating. The soaring ambition which
+springs from the sea lends to the attacks developed by such a people the
+aspect of piracies; and it is but natural. In such circumstances that
+for Chinese Japan should not only have the aspect of a sea-monster but
+that their country should appear as hapless Andromeda bound to a rock,
+always awaiting a Perseus who never comes....
+
+The Revolution of 1911 had been entirely unexpected in Japan. Whilst
+large outbreaks had been certainly counted on since the Chinese
+Revolutionary party had for years used Japan as an asylum and a base of
+operations, never had it been anticipated that the fall of an ancient
+Dynasty could be so easily encompassed. Consequently, the abdication of
+the Manchus as the result of intrigues rather than of warfare was looked
+upon as little short of a catastrophe because it hopelessly complicated
+the outlook, broke the pattern which had been so carefully woven for so
+many years, and interjected harsh elements which could not be assigned
+an orderly place. Not only was a well-articulated State-system suddenly
+consigned to the flames, but the ruin threatened to be so general that
+the balance of power throughout the Far East would be twisted out of
+shape. Japanese statesmen had desired a weak China, a China which would
+ultimately turn to them for assistance because they were a kindred race,
+but not a China that looked to the French Revolution for its
+inspiration. To a people as slow to adjust themselves to violent
+surprises as are the Japanese, there was an air of desperation about the
+whole business which greatly alarmed them, and made them determined at
+the earliest possible moment to throw every ounce of their weight in the
+direction which would best serve them by bringing matters back to their
+original starting-point. For this reason they were not only prepared in
+theory in 1911 to lend armed assistance to the Manchus but would have
+speedily done so had not England strongly dissented from such a course
+of action when she was privately sounded about the matter. Even to-day,
+when a temporary adjustment of Japanese policy has been successfully
+arranged, it is of the highest importance for political students to
+remember that the dynastic influences in Tokio have never departed from
+the view that the legitimate sovereignty of China remains vested in the
+Manchu House and that everything that has taken place since 1911 is
+irregular and unconstitutional.
+
+For the time being, however, two dissimilar circumstances demanded
+caution: first, the enthusiasm which the Japanese democracy, fed by a
+highly excited press, exhibited towards the Young China which had been
+so largely grounded in the Tokio schools and which had carried out the
+Revolution: secondly--and far more important--the deep, abiding and
+ineradicable animosity which Japanese of all classes felt for the man
+who had come out of the contest head and shoulders above everybody
+else--Yuan Shih-kai. These two remarkable features ended by completely
+thrusting into the background during the period 1911-1914 every other
+element in Japanese statesmanship; and of the two the second must be
+counted the decisive one. Dating back to Korea, when Yuan Shih-kai's
+extraordinary diplomatic talents constantly allowed him to worst his
+Japanese rivals and to make Chinese counsels supreme at the Korean Court
+up to the very moment when the first shots of the war of 1894 were
+fired, this ancient dislike, which amounted to a consuming hatred, had
+become a fixed idea. Restrained by the world's opinion during the period
+prior to the outbreak of the world-war as well as by the necessity of
+acting financially in concert with the other Powers, it was not until
+August, 1914, that the longed-for opportunity came and that Japan
+prepared to act in a most remarkable way.
+
+The campaign against Kiaochow was unpopular from the outset among the
+Japanese public because it was felt that they were not legitimately
+called upon to interest themselves in such a remote question as the
+balance of power among European nations, which was what British warfare
+against Germany seemed to them to be. Though some ill-will was felt
+against Germany for the part played by her in the intervention of 1895,
+it must not be forgotten that just as the Japanese navy is the child of
+the British navy, so is the Japanese army the child of the German
+army--and that Japanese army chiefs largely control Japan. These men
+were averse from "spoiling their army" in a contest which did not
+interest them. There was also the feeling abroad that England by
+calling upon her Ally to carry out the essential provisions of her
+Alliance had shown that she had the better part of a bargain, and that
+she was exploiting an old advantage in a way which could not fail to
+react adversely on Japan's future world's relationships. Furthermore, it
+is necessary to underline the fact that official Japan was displeased by
+the tacit support an uninterested British Foreign Office had
+consistently given to the Yuan Shih-kai régime. That the Chinese
+experiment was looked upon in England more with amusement than with
+concern irritated the Japanese--more particularly as the British Foreign
+Office was issuing in the form of White Papers documents covering Yuan
+Shih-kai's public declarations as if they were contributions to
+contemporary history. Thus in the preceding year (1913) under the
+nomenclature of "affairs in China" the text of a _démenti_ regarding the
+President of China's Imperial aspirations had been published,--a
+document which Japanese had classified as a studied lie, and as an act
+of presumption because its working showed that its author intended to
+keep his back turned on Japan. The Dictator had declared:--
+
+    ... From my student days, I, Yuan Shih-kai, have admired the
+    example of the Emperors Yao and Shun, who treated the empire as a
+    public trust, and considered that the record of a dynasty in history
+    for good or ill is inseparably bound up with the public spirit or
+    self-seeking by which it has been animated. On attaining middle age
+    I grew more familiar with foreign affairs, was struck by the
+    admirable republican system in France and America, and felt that
+    they were a true embodiment of the democratic precepts of the
+    ancients. When last year the patriotic crusade started in Wuchang
+    its echoes went forth into all the provinces, with the result that
+    this ancient nation with its 2,000 years of despotism adopted with
+    one bound the republican system of government.
+
+    It was my good fortune to see this glorious day at my life's late
+    eve; I cherished the hope that I might dwell in the seclusion of my
+    own home and participate in the blessings of an age of peace.
+
+    But once again my fellow-countrymen honoured me with the pressing
+    request that I should again assume a heavy burden, and on the day on
+    which the Republic was proclaimed I announced to the whole nation
+    that never again should a monarchy be permitted in China. At my
+    inauguration I again took this solemn oath in the sight of heaven
+    above and earth beneath. Yet of late ignorant persons in the
+    provinces have fabricated wild rumours to delude men's minds, and
+    have adduced the career of the First Napoleon on which to base their
+    erroneous speculations. It is best not to inquire as to their
+    motives; in some cases misconception may be the cause, in others
+    deliberate malice.
+
+    The Republic has now been proclaimed for six months; so far there
+    is no prospect of recognition from the Powers, while order is far
+    from being restored in the provinces. Our fate hangs upon a hair;
+    the slightest negligence may forfeit all. I, who bear this arduous
+    responsibility, feel it my bounden duty to stand at the helm in the
+    hope of successfully breasting the wild waves.
+
+    But while those in office are striving with all their might to
+    effect a satisfactory solution, spectators seem to find a difficulty
+    in maintaining a generous forbearance. They forget that I, who have
+    received this charge from my countrymen, cannot possibly look
+    dispassionately on when the fate of the nation is in the balance. If
+    I were aware that the task was impossible and played a part of easy
+    acquiescence, so that the future of the Republic might become
+    irreparable, others might not reproach me, but my own conscience
+    would never leave me alone.
+
+    My thoughts are manifest in the sight of high heaven. But at this
+    season of construction and dire crisis how shall these mutual
+    suspicions find a place? Once more I issue this announcement; if
+    you, my fellow countrymen, do indeed place the safety of China
+    before all other considerations, it behooves you to be large-minded.
+    Beware of lightly heeding the plausible voice of calumny, and of
+    thus furnishing a medium for fostering anarchy. If evilly disposed
+    persons, who are bent on destruction, seize the excuse for sowing
+    dissension to the jeopardy of the situation, I, Yuan Shih-kai, shall
+    follow the behest of my fellow-countrymen in placing such men beyond
+    the pale of humanity.
+
+    A vital issue is involved. It is my duty to lay before you my
+    inmost thought, so that suspicion may be dissipated. Those who know
+    have the right to impose their censure. It is for public opinion to
+    take due notice.
+
+[Illustration: Silk-reeling done in the open under the Walls of Peking.]
+
+[Illustration: Modern Peking: A Run on a Bank.]
+
+[Illustration: The Re-opening of Parliament on August 1st, 1916, after
+three years of dictatorial rule.]
+
+Moreover Yuan Shih-kai had also shown in his selection and use of
+foreign Advisers, that he was determined to proceed in such a manner as
+to advertise his suspicion and enmity of Japan. After the Coup d'état of
+the 4th November, 1913, and the scattering of Parliament, it was an
+American Adviser who was set to work on the new "Constitution"; and
+although a Japanese, Dr. Ariga, who was in receipt of a princely salary,
+aided and abetted this work, his endorsement of the dictatorial rule was
+looked upon as traitorous by the bulk of his countrymen. Similarly, it
+was perfectly well-known that Yuan Shih-kai was spending large sums of
+money in Tokio in bribing certain organs of the Japanese Press and in
+attempting to win adherents among Japanese members of Parliament.
+Remarkable stories are current which compromise very highly-placed
+Japanese but which the writer hesitates to set down in black and white
+as documentary proof is not available. In any case, be this as it may,
+it was felt in Tokio that the time had arrived to give a proper
+definition to the relations between the two states,--the more so as Yuan
+Shih-kai, by publicly proclaiming a small war-zone in Shantung within
+the limits of which the Japanese were alone permitted to wage war
+against the Germans, had shown himself indifferent to the majesty of
+Japan. The Japanese having captured Kiaochow by assault before the end
+of 1914 decided to accept the view that a _de facto_ Dictatorship
+existed in China. Therefore on the 18th of January, 1915, the Japanese
+Minister, Dr. Hioki, personally served on Yuan Shih-kai the now famous
+Twenty-one Demands, a list designed to satisfy every present and future
+need of Japanese policy and to reduce China to a state of vassalage.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE TWENTY-ONE DEMANDS
+
+
+Although the press of the world gave a certain prominence at the time to
+the astounding _démarche_ with which we now have to deal, there was such
+persistent mystery about the matter and so many official _démentis_
+accompanied every publication of the facts that even to this day the
+nature of the assault which Japan delivered on China is not adequately
+realized, nor is the narrow escape assigned its proper place in
+estimates of the future. Briefly, had there not been publication of the
+facts and had not British diplomacy been aroused to action there is
+little doubt that Japan would have forced matters so far that Chinese
+independence would now be virtually a thing of the past. Fortunately,
+however, China in her hour of need found many who were willing to
+succour her; with the result that although she lost something in these
+negotiations, Japan nevertheless failed in a very signal fashion to
+attain her main objective. The Pyrrhic victory which she won with her
+eleventh hour ultimatum will indeed in the end cost her more than would
+have a complete failure, for Chinese suspicion and hostility are now so
+deep-seated that nothing will ever completely eradicate them. It is
+therefore only proper that an accurate record should be here
+incorporated of a chapter of history which has much international
+importance; and if we invite close attention to the mass of documents
+that follow it is because we hold that an adequate comprehension of them
+is essential to securing the future peace of the Far East. Let us first
+give the official text of the original Demands:
+
+    JAPAN'S ORIGINAL TWENTY-ONE DEMANDS
+
+    Translations of Documents Handed to the President, Yuan Shih-kai, by
+    Mr. Hioki, the Japanese Minister, on January 18th, 1915.
+
+
+    GROUP I
+
+    The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government being desirous of
+    maintaining the general peace in Eastern Asia and further
+    strengthening the friendly relations and good neighbourhood existing
+    between the two nations agree to the following articles:--
+
+    Article 1. The Chinese Government engages to give full assent to all
+    matters upon which the Japanese Government may hereafter agree with
+    the German Government relating to the disposition of all rights,
+    interests and concessions, which Germany, by virtue of treaties or
+    otherwise, possesses in relation to the Province of Shantung.
+
+    Article 2. The Chinese Government engages that within the Province
+    of Shantung and along its coast no territory or island will be ceded
+    or leased to a third Power under any pretext.
+
+    Article 3. The Chinese Government consents to Japan's building a
+    railway from Chefoo or Lungkow to join the Kiaochou-Tsinanfu
+    railway.
+
+    Article 4. The Chinese Government engages, in the interest of trade
+    and for the residence of foreigners, to open by herself as soon as
+    possible certain important cities and towns in the Province of
+    Shantung as Commercial Ports. What places shall be opened are to be
+    jointly decided upon in a separate agreement.
+
+
+    GROUP II
+
+    The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government, since the
+    Chinese Government has always acknowledged the special position
+    enjoyed by Japan in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia,
+    agree to the following articles:--
+
+    Article 1. The two Contracting Parties mutually agree that the term
+    of lease of Port Arthur and Dalny and the term of lease of the South
+    Manchurian Railway and the Antung-Mukden Railway shall be extended
+    to the period of 99 years.
+
+    Article 2. Japanese subjects in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner
+    Mongolia shall have the right to lease or own land required either
+    for erecting suitable buildings for trade and manufacture or for
+    farming.
+
+    Article 3. Japanese subjects shall be free to reside and travel in
+    South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia and to engage in business
+    and in manufacture of any kind whatsoever.
+
+    Article 4. The Chinese Government agrees to grant to Japanese
+    subjects the right of opening the mines in South Manchuria and
+    Eastern Inner Mongolia. As regards what mines are to be opened, they
+    shall be decided upon jointly.
+
+    Article 5. The Chinese Government agrees that in respect of the
+    (two) cases mentioned herein below the Japanese Government's consent
+    shall be first obtained before action is taken:--
+
+    (a) Whenever permission is granted to the subject of a third Power
+    to build a railway or to make a loan with a third Power for the
+    purpose of building a railway in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner
+    Mongolia.
+
+    (b) Whenever a loan is to be made with a third Power pledging the
+    local taxes of South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia as
+    security.
+
+    Article 6. The Chinese Government agrees that if the Chinese
+    Government employs political, financial or military advisers or
+    instructors in South Manchuria or Eastern Inner Mongolia, the
+    Japanese Government shall first be consulted.
+
+    Article 7. The Chinese Government agrees that the control and
+    management of the Kirin-Changchun Railway shall be handed over to
+    the Japanese Government for a term of 99 years dating from the
+    signing of this Agreement.
+
+
+    GROUP III
+
+    The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government, seeing that
+    Japanese financiers and the Hanyehping Co. have close relations with
+    each other at present and desiring that the common interests of the
+    two nations shall be advanced, agree to the following articles:--
+
+    Article 1. The two Contracting Parties mutually agree that when the
+    opportune moment arrives the Hanyehping Company shall be made a
+    joint concern of the two nations and they further agree that without
+    the previous consent of Japan, China shall not by her own act
+    dispose of the rights and property of whatsoever nature of the said
+    Company nor cause the said Company to dispose freely of the same.
+
+    Article 2. The Chinese Government agrees that all mines in the
+    neighbourhood of those owned by the Hanyehping Company shall not be
+    permitted, without the consent of the said Company, to be worked by
+    other persons outside of the said Company; and further agrees that
+    if it is desired to carry out any undertaking which, it is
+    apprehended, may directly or indirectly affect the interests of the
+    said Company, the consent of the said Company shall first be
+    obtained.
+
+
+    GROUP IV
+
+    The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government with the object
+    of effectively preserving the territorial integrity of China agree
+    to the following special articles:--
+
+    The Chinese Government engages not to cede or lease to a third Power
+    any harbour or bay or island along the coast of China.
+
+
+    GROUP V
+
+    Article 1. The Chinese Central Government shall employ influential
+    Japanese advisers in political, financial and military affairs.
+
+    Article 2. Japanese hospitals, churches and schools in the interior
+    of China shall be granted the right of owning land.
+
+    Article 3. Inasmuch as the Japanese Government and the Chinese
+    Government have had many cases of dispute between Japanese and
+    Chinese police to settle cases which caused no little
+    misunderstanding, it is for this reason necessary that the police
+    departments of important places (in China) shall be jointly
+    administered by Japanese and Chinese or that the police departments
+    of these places shall employ numerous Japanese, so that they may at
+    the same time help to plan for the improvement of the Chinese Police
+    Service.
+
+    Article 4. China shall purchase from Japan a fixed amount of
+    munitions of war (say 50% or more) of what is needed by the Chinese
+    Government or that there shall be established in China a
+    Sino-Japanese jointly worked arsenal. Japanese technical experts are
+    to be employed and Japanese material to be purchased.
+
+    Article 5. China agrees to grant to Japan the right of constructing
+    a railway connecting Wuchang with Kiukiang and Nanchang, another
+    line between Nanchang and Hanchow, and another between Nanchang and
+    Chaochou.
+
+    Article 6. If China needs foreign capital to work mines, build
+    railways and construct harbour-works (including dock-yards) in the
+    Provinces of Fukien, Japan shall be first consulted.
+
+    Article 7. China agrees that Japanese subjects shall have the right
+    of missionary propaganda in China.[13]
+
+The five groups into which the Japanese divided their demands possess a
+remarkable interest not because of their sequence, or the style of their
+phraseology, but because every word reveals a peculiar and very
+illuminating chemistry of the soul. To study the original Chinese text
+is to pass as it were into the secret recesses of the Japanese brain,
+and to find in that darkened chamber a whole world of things which
+advertise ambitions mixed with limitations, hesitations overwhelmed by
+audacities, greatnesses succumbing to littlenesses, and vanities having
+the appearance of velleities. Given an intimate knowledge of Far Eastern
+politics and Far Eastern languages, only a few minutes are required to
+re-write the demands in the sequence in which they were originally
+conceived as well as to trace the natural history of their genesis.
+Unfortunately a great deal is lost in their official translation, and
+the menace revealed in the Chinese original partly cloaked: for by
+transferring Eastern thoughts into Western moulds, things that are like
+nails in the hands of soft sensitive Oriental beings are made to appear
+to the steel-clad West as cold-blooded, evolutionary necessities which
+may be repellent but which are never cruel. The more the matter is
+studied the more convinced must the political student be that in this
+affair of the 18th January we have an international _coup_ destined to
+become classic in the new text-books of political science. All the way
+through the twenty-one articles it is easy to see the desire for action,
+the love of accomplished facts, struggling with the necessity to observe
+the conventions of a stereotyped diplomacy and often overwhelming those
+conventions. As the thoughts thicken and the plot develops, the effort
+to mask the real intention lying behind every word plainly breaks down,
+and a growing exultation rings louder and louder as if the coveted
+Chinese prize were already firmly grasped. One sees as it were the
+Japanese nation, released from bondage imposed by the Treaties which
+have been binding on all nations since 1860, swarming madly through the
+breached walls of ancient Cathay and disputing hotly the spoils of
+age-old domains.
+
+Group I, which deals with the fruits of victory in Shantung, has little
+to detain us since events which have just unrolled there have already
+told the story of those demands. In Shantung we have a simple and
+easily-understood repeated performance of the history of 1905 and the
+settlement of the Russo-Japanese War. Placed at the very head of the
+list of demands, though its legitimate position should be after
+Manchuria, obviously the purpose of Group I is conspicuously to call
+attention to the fact that Japan had been at war with Germany, and is
+still at war with her. This flourish of trumpets, after the battle is
+over, however, scarcely serves to disguise that the fate of Shantung,
+following so hard on the heels of the Russian débâcle in Manchuria, is
+the great moral which Western peoples are called upon to note. Japan,
+determined as she has repeatedly announced to preserve the peace of the
+Orient by any means she deems necessary, has found the one and only
+formula that is satisfactory--that of methodically annexing everything
+worth fighting about.
+
+So far so good. The insertion of a special preamble to Group II, which
+covers not only South Manchuria but Eastern Inner Mongolia as well, is
+an ingenious piece of work since it shows that the hot mood of conquest
+suitable for Shantung must be exchanged for a certain judicial
+detachment. The preamble undoubtedly betrays the guiding hand of
+Viscount Kato, the then astute Minister of Foreign Affairs, who
+saturated in the great series of international undertakings made by
+Japan since the first Anglo-Japanese Treaty of 1902, clearly believes
+that the stately Elizabethan manner which still characterizes British
+official phrasing is an admirable method to be here employed. The
+preamble is quite English; it is so English that one is almost lulled
+into believing that one's previous reasoning has been at fault and that
+Japan is only demanding what she is entitled to. Yet study Group II
+closely and subtleties gradually emerge. By boldly and categorically
+placing Eastern Inner Mongolia on precisely the same footing as Southern
+Manchuria--though they have nothing in common--the assumption is made
+that the collapse in 1908 of the great Anglo-American scheme to run a
+neutral railway up the flank of Southern Manchuria to Northern Manchuria
+(the once celebrated Chinchow-Aigun scheme), coupled with general
+agreement with Russia which was then arrived at, now impose upon China
+the necessity of publicly resigning herself to a Japanese overlordship
+of that region. In other words, the preamble of Group II lays down that
+Eastern Inner Mongolia has become part and parcel of the Manchurian
+Question because Japan has found a parallel for what she is doing in the
+acts of European Powers.
+
+These things, however, need not detain us. Not that Manchuria or the
+adjoining Mongolian plain is not important; not that the threads of
+destiny are not woven thickly there. For it is certain that the vast
+region immediately beyond the Great Wall of China is the Flanders of the
+Far East--and that the next inevitable war which will destroy China or
+make her something of a nation must be fought on that soil just as two
+other wars have been fought there during the past twenty years. But this
+does not belong to contemporary politics; it is possibly an affair of
+the Chinese army of 1925 or 1935. Some day China will fight for
+Manchuria if it is impossible to recover it in any other way,--nobody
+need doubt that. For Manchuria is absolutely Chinese--people must
+remember. No matter how far the town-dwelling Japanese may invade the
+country during the next two or three decades, no matter what large
+alien garrisons may be planted there, the Chinese must and will remain
+the dominant racial element, since their population which already
+numbers twenty-five millions is growing at the rate of half a million a
+year, and in a few decades will equal the population of a first-class
+European Power.
+
+When we reach Group III we touch matters that are not only immediately
+vital but quite new in their type of audacity and which every one can
+to-day understand since they are politico-industrial. Group III, as it
+stands in the original text, is _simply the plan for the conquest of the
+mineral wealth of the Yangtsze Valley_ which mainly centres round Hankow
+because the vast alluvial plains of the lower reaches of this greatest
+of rivers were once the floor of the Yellow Sea, the upper provinces of
+Hupeh, Hunan, Kiangsi being the region of prehistoric forests clothing
+the coasts, which once looked down upon the slowly-receding waste of
+waters, and which to-day contain all the coal and iron. Hitherto every
+one has always believed that the Yangtsze Valley was _par excellence_
+the British sphere in China; and every one has always thought that that
+belief was enough. It is true that political students, going carefully
+over all published documents, have ended their search by declaring that
+the matter certainly required further elucidation. To be precise, this
+so-called British sphere is not an _enclave_ at all in the proper sense;
+indeed it can only seem one to those who still believe that it is still
+possible to pre-empt provinces by ministerial declarations. The Japanese
+have been the first to dare to say that the preconceived general belief
+was stupid. They know, of course, that it was a British force which
+invaded the Yangtsze Valley seventy-five years ago, and forced the
+signature of the Treaty of Nanking which first opened China to the
+world's trade; but they are by no means impressed with the rights which
+that action has been held to confer, since the mineral resources of this
+region are priceless in their eyes and must somehow be won.
+
+The study of twenty years of history proves this assumption to be
+correct. Ever since 1895, Japan has been driving wedges into the
+Yangtsze Valley of a peculiar kind to form the foundations for her
+sweeping claims of 1915. Thus after the war with China in 1894-95, she
+opened by her Treaty of Peace four ports in the Yangtsze Valley region,
+Soochow, Hangchow, Chungking and Shasi; that is, at the two extreme ends
+of the valley she established politico-commercial _points d'appui_ from
+which to direct her campaign. Whilst the proximity of Soochow and
+Hangchow to the British stronghold of Shanghai made it difficult to
+carry out any "penetration" work at the lower end of the river save in
+the form of subsidized steam-shipping, the case was different in Hunan
+and Hupeh provinces. There she was unendingly busy, and in 1903 by a
+fresh treaty she formally opened to trade Changsha, the capital of the
+turbulent Hunan province. Changsha for years remained a secret centre
+possessing the greatest political importance for her, and serving as a
+focus for most varied activities involving Hunan, Hupeh, and Kiangsi, as
+well as a vast hinterland. The great Tayeh iron-mines, although entirely
+Chinese-owned, were already being tapped to supply iron-ore for the
+Japanese Government Foundry at Wakamatsu on the island of Kiushiu. The
+rich coal mines of Pinghsiang, being conveniently near, supplied the
+great Chinese Government arsenal of Hanyang with fuel; and since Japan
+had very little coal or iron of her own, she decided that it would be
+best to embrace as soon as possible the whole area of interests in one
+categorical demand--that is, to claim a dominant share in the Hanyang
+arsenal, the Tayeh iron-mines and the Pinghsiang collieries.[14] By
+lending money to these enterprises, which were grouped together under
+the name of Hanyehping, she had early established a claim on them which
+she turned at the psychological moment into an international question.
+
+We can pass quickly by Group IV which is of little importance, except to
+say that in taking upon herself, without consultation with the senior
+ally, the duty of asking from China a declaration concerning the future
+non-leasing of harbours and islands, Japan has attempted to assume a
+protectorship of Chinese territory which does not belong to her
+historically. It is well also to note that although Japan wished it to
+appear to the world that this action was dictated by her desire to
+prevent Germany from acquiring a fresh foothold in China after the war,
+in reality Group IV was drafted as a general warning to the nations, one
+point being that she believed that the United States was contemplating
+the reorganization of the Foochow Arsenal in Fuhkien province, and that
+as a corollary to that reorganization would be given the lease of an
+adjoining harbour such as Santuao.
+
+It is not, however, until we reach Group V that the real purpose of the
+Japanese demands becomes unalterably clear, for in this Group we have
+seven sketches of things designed to serve as the _coup de grâce_. Not
+only is a new sphere--Fuhkien province--indicated; not only is the
+mid-Yangtsze, from the vicinity of Kiukiang, to serve as the terminus
+for a system of Japanese railways, radiating from the great river to the
+coasts of South China; but the gleaming knife of the Japanese surgeon is
+to aid the Japanese teacher in the great work of propaganda; the
+Japanese monk and the Japanese policeman are to be dispersed like
+skirmishers throughout the land; Japanese arsenals are to supply all the
+necessary arms, or failing that a special Japanese arsenal is to be
+established; Japanese advisers are to give the necessary advice in
+finance, in politics, in every department--foreshadowing a complete and
+all embracing political control. Never was a more sweeping programme of
+supervision presented, and small wonder if Chinese when they learnt of
+this climax exclaimed that the fate of Korea was to be their own.
+
+For a number of weeks after the presentation of these demands everything
+remained clothed in impenetrable mystery, and despite every effort on
+the part of diplomatists reliable details of what was occurring could
+not be obtained. Gradually, however, the admission was forced that the
+secrecy being preserved was due to the Japanese threat that publicity
+would be met with the harshest reprisals; and presently the veil was
+entirely lifted by newspaper publication and foreign Ambassadors began
+making inquiries in Tokio. The nature and scope of the Twenty-one
+Demands could now be no longer hidden; and in response to the growing
+indignation which began to be voiced by the press and the pressure which
+British diplomacy brought to bear, Japan found it necessary to modify
+some of the most important items. She had held twenty-four meetings at
+the Chinese Foreign Office, and although the Chinese negotiators had
+been forced to give way in such matters as extending the "leasing"
+periods of railways and territories in Manchuria and in admitting the
+Japanese right to succeed to all German interests and rights in Shantung
+(Group I and II), in the essential matters of the Hanyehping concessions
+(Group III) and the noxious demands of Group V China had stood
+absolutely firm, declining even to discuss some of the items.
+
+Accordingly Japanese diplomacy was forced to restate and re-group the
+whole corpus of the demands. On the 26th April, acting under direct
+instructions from Tokio, the Japanese Minister to Peking presented a
+revised list for renewed consideration, the demands being expanded to
+twenty-four articles (in place of the original twenty-one largely
+because discussion had shown the necessity of breaking up into smaller
+units some of the original articles). Most significant, however, is the
+fact that Group V (which in its original form was a more vicious assault
+on Chinese sovereignty than the Austrian Ultimatum to Serbia of June,
+1914), was so remodelled as to convey a very different meaning, the
+group heading disappearing entirely and an innocent-looking exchange of
+notes being asked for. It is necessary to recall that, when taxed with
+making Demands which were entirely in conflict with the spirit of the
+Anglo-Japanese Alliance, the Japanese Government through its ambassadors
+abroad had categorically denied that they had ever laid any such Demands
+on the Chinese Government. It was claimed that there had never been
+twenty-one Demands, as the Chinese alleged, but only fourteen, _the
+seven items of Group V being desiderata which it was in the interests of
+China to endorse but which Japan had no intention of forcing upon her_.
+The writer, being acquainted from first to last with everything that
+took place in Peking from the 18th January to the filing of the Japanese
+ultimatum of the 7th May, has no hesitation in stigmatizing this
+statement as false. The whole aim and object of these negotiations was
+to force through Group V. Japan would have gladly postponed _sine die_
+the discussion of all the other Groups had China assented to provisions
+which would have made her independence a thing of the past. Every
+Chinese knew that, in the main, Group V was simply a repetition of the
+measures undertaken in Korea after the Russo-Japanese war of 1905 as a
+forerunner to annexation; and although obviously in the case of China no
+such rapid surgery could be practised, the endorsement of these measures
+would have meant a virtual Japanese Protectorate. Even a cursory study
+of the text that follows will confirm in every particular these capital
+contentions:
+
+    JAPAN'S REVISED DEMANDS
+
+    Japan's Revised Demands on China, twenty-four in all, presented
+    April 26, 1915.
+
+    _Note on original text_:
+
+    [The revised list of articles is a Chinese translation of the
+    Japanese text. It is hereby declared that when a final decision is
+    reached, there shall be a revision of the wording of the text.]
+
+
+    GROUP I
+
+    The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government, being desirous
+    of maintaining the general peace in Eastern Asia and further
+    strengthening the friendly relations and good neighbourhood existing
+    between the two nations, agree to the following articles:--
+
+    Article 1. The Chinese Government engages to give full assent to all
+    matters upon which the Japanese Government may hereafter agree with
+    the German Government, relating to the disposition of all rights,
+    interests and concessions, which Germany, by virtue of treaties or
+    otherwise, possesses in relation to the Province of Shantung.
+
+    Article 2. (Changed into an exchange of notes.)
+
+    The Chinese Government declares that within the Province of Shantung
+    and along its coast no territory or island will be ceded or leased
+    to any Power under any pretext.
+
+    Article 3. The Chinese Government consents that as regards the
+    railway to be built by China herself from Chefoo or Lungkow to
+    connect with the Kiaochow-Tsinanfu Railway, if Germany is willing to
+    abandon the privilege of financing the Chefoo-Weihsien line, China
+    will approach Japanese capitalists to negotiate for a loan.
+
+    Article 4. The Chinese Government engages, in the interest of trade
+    and for the residence of foreigners, to open by China herself as
+    soon as possible certain suitable places in the Province of Shantung
+    as Commercial Ports.
+
+    (Supplementary Exchange of Notes)
+
+    The places which ought to be opened are to be chosen and the
+    regulations are to be drafted, by the Chinese Government, but the
+    Japanese Minister must be consulted before making a decision.
+
+
+    GROUP II
+
+    The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government, with a view to
+    developing their economic relations in South Manchuria and Eastern
+    Inner Mongolia, agree to the following articles:--
+
+    Article 1. The two contracting Powers mutually agree that the term
+    of lease of Port Arthur and Dalny and the terms of the South
+    Manchuria Railway and the Antung-Mukden Railway shall be extended to
+    99 years.
+
+    (Supplementary Exchange of Notes)
+
+    The term of lease of Port Arthur and Dalny shall expire in the 86th
+    year of the Republic or 1997. The date for restoring the South
+    Manchurian Railway to China shall fall due in the 91st year of the
+    Republic or 2002. Article 12 in the original South Manchurian
+    Railway Agreement stating that it may be redeemed by China after 36
+    years after the traffic is opened is hereby cancelled. The term of
+    the Antung-Mukden Railway shall expire in the 96th year of the
+    Republic or 2007.
+
+    Article 2. Japanese subjects in South Manchuria may lease or
+    purchase the necessary land for erecting suitable buildings for
+    trade and manufacture or for prosecuting agricultural enterprises.
+
+    Article 3. Japanese subjects shall be free to reside and travel in
+    South Manchuria and to engage in business and manufacture of any
+    kind whatsoever.
+
+    Article 3a. The Japanese subjects referred to in the preceding two
+    articles, besides being required to register with the local
+    authorities passports which they must procure under the existing
+    regulations, shall also submit to police laws and ordinances and tax
+    regulations, which are approved by the Japanese consul. Civil and
+    criminal cases in which the defendants are Japanese shall be tried
+    and adjudicated by the Japanese consul; those in which the
+    defendants are Chinese shall be tried and adjudicated by Chinese
+    Authorities. In either case an officer can be deputed to the court
+    to attend the proceedings. But mixed civil cases between Chinese and
+    Japanese relating to land shall be tried and adjudicated by
+    delegates of both nations conjointly in accordance with Chinese law
+    and local usage. When the judicial system in the said region is
+    completely reformed, all civil and criminal cases concerning
+    Japanese subjects shall be tried entirely by Chinese law courts.
+
+    Article 4. (Changed to an exchange of notes.)
+
+    The Chinese Government agrees that Japanese subjects shall be
+    permitted forthwith to investigate, select, and then prospect for
+    and open mines at the following places in South Manchuria, apart
+    from those mining areas in which mines are being prospected for or
+    worked; until the Mining Ordinance is definitely settled methods at
+    present in force shall be followed.
+
+    PROVINCE OF FENG-TIEN
+
+    |Locality               |District                   |Mineral
+    |                       |                           |
+    |Niu Hsin T'ai          |Pen-hsi                    |Coal
+    |Tien Shih Fu Kou       |Pen-hsi                    |Coal
+    |Sha Sung Kang          |Hai-lung                   |Coal
+    |T'ieh Ch'ang           |Tung-hua                   |Coal
+    |Nuan Ti Tang           |Chin                       |Coal
+    |An Shan Chan region    |From Liaoyang to Pen-hsi   |Iron
+
+    PROVINCE OF KIRIN
+
+    (Southern portion)
+
+    |Sha Sung Kang          |Ho-lung                    |Coal and Iron
+    |Kang Yao               |Chi-lin (Kirin)            |Coal
+    |Chia P'i Kou           |Hua-tien                   |Gold
+
+    Article 5. (Changed to an exchange of notes.)
+
+    The Chinese Government declares that China will hereafter provide
+    funds for building railways in South Manchuria; if foreign capital
+    is required, the Chinese Government agrees to negotiate for the loan
+    with Japanese capitalists first.
+
+    Article 5a. (Changed to an exchange of notes.)
+
+    The Chinese Government agrees that hereafter, when a foreign loan is
+    to be made on the security of the taxes of South Manchuria (not
+    including customs and salt revenue on the security of which loans
+    have already been made by the Central Government), it will negotiate
+    for the loan with Japanese capitalists first.
+
+    Article 6. (Changed to an exchange of notes.)
+
+    The Chinese Government declares that hereafter if foreign advisers
+    or instructors on political, financial, military or police matters,
+    are to be employed in South Manchuria, Japanese will be employed
+    first.
+
+    Article 7. The Chinese Government agrees speedily to make a
+    fundamental revision of the Kirin-Changchun Railway Loan Agreement,
+    taking as a standard the provisions in railroad loan agreements made
+    heretofore between China and foreign financiers. If, in future, more
+    advantageous terms than those in existing railway loan agreements
+    are granted to foreign financiers, in connection with railway loans,
+    the above agreement shall again be revised in accordance with
+    Japan's wishes.
+
+    All existing treaties between China and Japan relating to Manchuria
+    shall, except where otherwise provided for by this Convention,
+    remain in force.
+
+    1. The Chinese Government agrees that hereafter when a foreign loan
+    is to be made on the security of the taxes of Eastern Inner
+    Mongolia, China must negotiate with the Japanese Government first.
+
+    2. The Chinese Government agrees that China will herself provide
+    funds for building the railways in Eastern Inner Mongolia; if
+    foreign capital is required, she must negotiate with the Japanese
+    Government first.
+
+    3. The Chinese Government agrees, in the interest of trade and for
+    the residence of foreigners, to open by China herself, as soon as
+    possible, certain suitable places in Eastern Inner Mongolia as
+    Commercial Ports. The places which ought to be opened are to be
+    chosen, and the regulations are to be drafted, by the Chinese
+    Government, but the Japanese Minister must be consulted before
+    making a decision.
+
+    4. In the event of Japanese and Chinese desiring jointly to
+    undertake agricultural enterprises and industries incidental
+    thereto, the Chinese Government shall give its permission.
+
+
+    GROUP III
+
+    The relations between Japan and the Hanyehping Company being very
+    intimate, if those interested in the said Company come to an
+    agreement with the Japanese capitalists for co-operation, the
+    Chinese Government shall forthwith give its consent thereto. The
+    Chinese Government further agrees that, without the consent of the
+    Japanese capitalists, China will not convert the Company into a
+    state enterprise, nor confiscate it, nor cause it to borrow and use
+    foreign capital other than Japanese.
+
+
+    GROUP IV
+
+    China to give a pronouncement by herself in accordance with the
+    following principle:--
+
+    No bay, harbour, or island along the coast of China may be ceded or
+    leased to any Power.
+
+    Notes to be Exchanged
+
+    A
+
+    As regards the right of financing a railway from Wuchang to connect
+    with the Kiu-kiang-Nanchang line, the Nanchang-Hangchow railway, and
+    the Nanchang-Chaochow railway, if it is clearly ascertained that
+    other Powers have no objection, China shall grant the said right to
+    Japan.
+
+    B
+
+    As regards the rights of financing a railway from Wuchang to connect
+    with the Kiu-kiang-Nanchang railway, a railway from Nanchang to
+    Hangchow and another from Nanchang to Chaochow, the Chinese
+    Government shall not grant the said right to any foreign Power
+    before Japan comes to an understanding with the other Power which is
+    heretofore interested therein.
+
+[Illustration: The Original Constitutional Drafting Committee of 1913,
+photographed on the steps of the Temple of Heaven, where the Draft was
+completed.]
+
+[Illustration: A Presidential Review of Troops in the Southern Hungtung
+Park outside Peking: Arrival of the President.]
+
+    NOTES TO BE EXCHANGED
+
+    The Chinese Government agrees that no nation whatever is to be
+    permitted to construct, on the coast of Fukien Province, a dockyard,
+    a coaling station for military use, or a naval base; nor to be
+    authorized to set up any other military establishment. The Chinese
+    Government further agrees not to use foreign capital for setting up
+    the above mentioned construction or establishment.
+
+    Mr. Lu, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, stated as follows:--
+
+    1. The Chinese Government, shall, whenever, in future, it considers
+    this step necessary, engage numerous Japanese advisers.
+
+    2. Whenever, in future, Japanese subjects desire to lease or
+    purchase land in the interior of China for establishing schools or
+    hospitals, the Chinese Government shall forthwith give its consent
+    thereto.
+
+    3. When a suitable opportunity arises in future, the Chinese
+    Government will send military officers to Japan to negotiate with
+    Japanese military authorities the matter of purchasing arms or that
+    of establishing a joint arsenal.
+
+    Mr. Hioki, the Japanese Minister, stated as follows:--
+
+    As relates to the question of the right of missionary propaganda the
+    same shall be taken up again for negotiation in future.
+
+An ominous silence followed the delivery of this document. The Chinese
+Foreign Office had already exhausted itself in a discussion which had
+lasted three months, and pursuant to instructions from the Presidential
+Palace prepared an exhaustive Memorandum on the subject. It was
+understood by now that all the Foreign Offices in the world were
+interesting themselves very particularly in the matter; and that all
+were agreed that the situation which had so strangely developed was very
+serious. On the 1st May, proceeding by appointment to the Waichiaopu
+(Foreign Office) the Japanese Minister had read to him the following
+Memorandum which it is very necessary to grasp as it shows how
+solicitous China had become of terminating the business before there was
+an open international break. It will also be seen that this Memorandum
+was obviously composed for purpose of public record, the fifth group
+being dealt with in such a way as to fix upon Japan the guilt of having
+concealed from her British Ally matters which conflicted vitally with
+the aims and objects of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance Treaty.
+
+    MEMORANDUM
+
+    Read by the Minister of Foreign Affairs to Mr. Hioki, the Japanese
+    Minister, at a Conference held at Wai Chiao Pu, May 1, 1915.
+
+    The list of demands which the Japanese Government first presented to
+    the Chinese Government consists of five groups, the first relating
+    to Shantung, the second relating to South Manchuria and Eastern
+    Inner Mongolia, the third relating to Hanyehping Company, the fourth
+    asking for non-alienation of the coast of the country, and the fifth
+    relating to the questions of national advisers, national police,
+    national arms, missionary propaganda, Yangtsze Valley railways, and
+    Fukien Province. Out of profound regard for the intentions
+    entertained by Japan, the Chinese Government took these momentous
+    demands into grave and careful consideration and decided to
+    negotiate with the Japanese Government frankly and sincerely what
+    were possible to negotiate. This is a manifestation to Japan of the
+    most profound regard which the Chinese Government entertains for the
+    relations between the two nations.
+
+    Ever since the opening of the negotiations China has been doing her
+    best to hasten their progress holding as many as three conferences a
+    week. As regards the articles in the second group, the Chinese
+    Government being disposed to allow the Japanese Government to
+    develop the economic relations of the two countries in South
+    Manchuria, realizing that the Japanese Government attaches
+    importance to its interests in that region, and wishing to meet the
+    hope of Japan, made a painful effort, without hesitation, to agree
+    to the extension of the 25-year lease of Port Arthur and Dalny, the
+    36-year period of the South Manchurian Railway and the 15-year
+    period of the Antung-Mukden Railway, all to 99 years; and to abandon
+    its own cherished hopes to regain control of these places and
+    properties at the expiration of their respective original terms of
+    lease. It cannot but be admitted that this is a most genuine proof
+    of China's friendship for Japan.
+
+    As to the right of opening mines in South Manchuria, the Chinese
+    Government has already agreed to permit Japanese to work mines
+    within the mining areas designated by Japan. China has further
+    agreed to give Japan a right of preference in the event of borrowing
+    foreign capital for building railways or of making a loan on the
+    security of the local taxes in South Manchuria. The question of
+    revising the arrangement for the Kirin-Changchun Railway has been
+    settled in accordance with the proposal made by Japan. The Chinese
+    Government has further agreed to employ Japanese first in the event
+    of employing foreign advisers on political, military, financial and
+    police matters.
+
+    Furthermore, the provision about the repurchase period in the South
+    Manchurian Railway was not mentioned in Japan's original proposal.
+    Subsequently, the Japanese Government alleging that its meaning was
+    not clear, asked China to cancel the provision altogether. Again,
+    Japan at first demanded the right of Japanese to carry on farming in
+    South Manchuria, but subsequently she considered the word "farming"
+    was not broad enough and asked to replace it with the phrase
+    "agricultural enterprises." To these requests the Chinese
+    Government, though well aware that the proposed changes could only
+    benefit Japan, still acceded without delay. This, too, is a proof of
+    China's frankness and sincerity towards Japan.
+
+    As regards matters relating to Shantung the Chinese Government has
+    agreed to a majority of the demands.
+
+    The question of inland residence in South Manchuria is, in the
+    opinion of the Chinese Government, incompatible with the treaties
+    China had entered into with Japan and other Powers, still the
+    Chinese Government did its best to consider how it was possible to
+    avoid that incompatibility. At first, China suggested that the
+    Chinese Authorities should have full rights of jurisdiction over
+    Japanese settlers. Japan declined to agree to it. Thereupon China
+    reconsidered the question and revised her counter-proposal five or
+    six times, each time making some definite concession, and went so
+    far to agree that all civil and criminal cases between Chinese and
+    Japanese should be arranged according to existing treaties. Only
+    cases relating to land or lease contracts were reserved to be
+    adjudicated by Chinese Courts, as a mark of China's sovereignty over
+    the region. This is another proof of China's readiness to concede as
+    much as possible.
+
+    Eastern Inner Mongolia is not an enlightened region as yet, and the
+    conditions existing there are entirely different from those
+    prevailing in South Manchuria. The two places, therefore, cannot be
+    considered in the same light. Accordingly, China agreed to open
+    commercial marts first, in the interests of foreign trade.
+
+    The Hanyehping Company mentioned in the third group is entirely a
+    private company, and the Chinese Government is precluded from
+    interfering with it and negotiating with another government to make
+    any disposal of the same as the Government likes, but having regard
+    for the interests of the Japanese capitalists, the Chinese
+    Government agreed that whenever, in future, the said company and the
+    Japanese capitalists should arrive at a satisfactory arrangement for
+    co-operation, China will give her assent thereto. Thus the interests
+    of the Japanese capitalists are amply safeguarded.
+
+    Although the demand in the fourth group asking for a declaration not
+    to alienate China's coast is an infringement of her sovereign
+    rights, yet the Chinese Government offered to make a voluntary
+    pronouncement so far as it comports with China's sovereign rights.
+    Thus, it is seen that the Chinese Government, in deference to the
+    wishes of Japan, gave a most serious consideration even to those
+    demands, which gravely affect the sovereignty and territorial rights
+    of China as well as the principle of equal opportunity and the
+    treaties with foreign Powers. All this was a painful effort on the
+    part of the Chinese Government to meet the situation--a fact of
+    which the Japanese Government must be aware.
+
+    As regards the demands in the fifth group, they all infringe China's
+    sovereignty, the treaty rights of other Powers or the principle of
+    equal opportunity. Although Japan did not indicate any difference
+    between this group and the preceding four in the list which she
+    presented to China in respect to their character, the Chinese
+    Government, in view of their palpably objectionable features,
+    persuaded itself that these could not have been intended by Japan as
+    anything other than Japan's mere advice to China. Accordingly China
+    has declared from the very beginning that while she entertains the
+    most profound regard for Japan's wishes, she was unable to admit
+    that any of these matters could be made the subject of an
+    understanding with Japan. Much as she desired to pay regard to
+    Japan's wishes, China cannot but respect her own sovereign rights
+    and the existing treaties with other Powers. In order to be rid of
+    the seed for future misunderstanding and to strengthen the basis of
+    friendship, China was constrained to iterate the reasons for
+    refusing to negotiate on any of the articles in the fifth group, yet
+    in view of Japan's wishes China has expressed her readiness to state
+    that no foreign money was borrowed to construct harbour work in
+    Fukien Province. Thus it is clear that China went so far as to see a
+    solution for Japan of a question that really did not admit of
+    negotiation. Was there, then, evasion, on the part of China?
+
+    Now, since the Japanese Government has presented a revised list of
+    demands and declared at the same time, that it will restore the
+    leased territory of Kiaochow, the Chinese Government reconsiders the
+    whole question and herewith submits a new reply to the friendly
+    Japanese Government.
+
+    In this reply the unsettled articles in the first group are stated
+    again for discussion.
+
+    As regards the second group, those articles which have already been
+    initialled are omitted. In connection with the question of inland
+    residence the police regulation clause has been revised in a more
+    restrictive sense. As for the trial of cases relating to land and
+    lease contracts the Chinese Government now permits the Japanese
+    Consul to send an officer to attend the proceedings.
+
+    Of the four demands in connection with that part of Eastern Inner
+    Mongolia which is within the jurisdiction of South Manchuria and the
+    Jehol intendency, China agrees to three.
+
+    China, also, agrees to the article relating to the Hanyehping
+    Company as revised by Japan.
+
+    It is hoped that the Japanese Government will appreciate the
+    conciliatory spirit of the Chinese Government in making this final
+    concession and forthwith give her assent thereto.
+
+    There is one more point. At the beginning of the present
+    negotiations it was mutually agreed to observe secrecy but
+    unfortunately a few days after the presentation of the demands by
+    Japan an Osaka newspaper published an "Extra" giving the text of the
+    demands. The foreign and the Chinese press has since been paying
+    considerable attention to this question and frequently publishing
+    pro-Chinese or pro-Japanese comments in order to call forth the
+    World's conjecture--a matter which the Chinese Government deeply
+    regrets.
+
+    The Chinese Government has never carried on any newspaper campaign
+    and the Chinese Minister of Foreign Affairs has repeatedly declared
+    this to the Japanese Minster.
+
+    In conclusion, the Chinese Government wishes to express its hope
+    that the negotiations now pending between the two countries will
+    soon come to an end and whatever misgivings foreign countries
+    entertain toward the present situation may be quickly dispelled.
+
+The Peking Government, although fully aware of the perils now
+confronting it, had dared to draft a complete reply to the revised
+Demands and had reduced Japanese redundancy to effective limits. Not
+only were various articles made more compact, but the phraseology
+employed conveyed unmistakably, if in a somewhat subtle way, that China
+was not a subordinate State treating with a suzerain. Moreover, after
+dealing succinctly and seriously with Groups I, II and III, the Chinese
+reply terminates abruptly, the other points in the Japanese List being
+left entirely unanswered. It is important to seize these points in the
+text that follows.
+
+    CHINA'S REPLY TO REVISED DEMANDS
+
+    China's Reply of May 1, 1915, to the Japanese Revised Demands of
+    April 26, 1915.
+
+
+    GROUP I
+
+    The Chinese Government and the Japanese Government, being desirous
+    of maintaining the general peace in Eastern Asia and further
+    strengthening the friendly relations and good neighbourhood existing
+    between the two nations, agree to the following articles:--
+
+    Article I. The Chinese Government declares that they will give full
+    assent to all matters upon which the Japanese and German Governments
+    may hereafter mutually agree, relating to the disposition of all
+    interests, which Germany, by virtue of treaties or recorded cases,
+    possesses in relation to the Province of Shantung.
+
+    The Japanese Government declares that when the Chinese Government
+    give their assent to the disposition of interests above referred to,
+    Japan will restore the leased territory of Kiaochow to China; and
+    further recognize the right of the Chinese Government to participate
+    in the negotiations referred to above between Japan and Germany.
+
+    Article 2. The Japanese Government consents to be responsible for
+    the indemnification of all losses occasioned by Japan's military
+    operation around the leased territory of Kiaochow. The customs,
+    telegraphs and post offices within the leased territory of Kiaochow
+    shall, prior to the restoration of the said leased territory to
+    China, be administered as heretofore for the time being. The
+    railways and telegraph lines erected by Japan for military purposes
+    are to be removed forthwith. The Japanese troops now stationed
+    outside the original leased territory of Kiaochow are now to be
+    withdrawn first, those within the original leased territory are to
+    be withdrawn on the restoration of the said leased territory to
+    China.
+
+    Article 3. (Changed to an exchange of notes.)
+
+    The Chinese Government declares that within the Province of Shantung
+    and along its coast no territory or island will be ceded or leased
+    to any Power under any pretext.
+
+    Article 4. The Chinese Government consent that as regards the
+    railway to be built by China herself from Chefoo or Lungkow to
+    connect with the Kiaochow-Tsinanfu railway, if Germany is willing to
+    abandon the privilege of financing the Chefoo-Weihsien line, China
+    will approach Japanese capitalists for a loan.
+
+    Article 5. The Chinese Government engage, in the interest of trade
+    and for the residence of foreigners, to open by herself as soon as
+    possible certain suitable places in the Province of Shantung as
+    Commercial Ports.
+
+    (Supplementary Exchange of Notes)
+
+    The places which ought to be opened are to be chosen, and the
+    regulations are to be drafted by the Chinese Government, but the
+    Japanese Minister must be consulted before making a decision.
+
+    Article 6. If the Japanese and German Governments are not able to
+    come to a definite agreement in future in their negotiations
+    respecting transfer, etc., this provisional agreement contained in
+    the foregoing articles shall be void.
+
+
+    GROUP II[15]
+
+    The Chinese Government and the Japanese Government, with a view to
+    developing their economic relations in South Manchuria, agree to the
+    following articles:--
+
+    Article 2. Japanese subjects in South Manchuria may, by arrangement
+    with the owners, lease land required for erecting suitable buildings
+    for trade and manufacture or agricultural enterprises.
+
+    Article 3. Japanese subjects shall be free to reside and travel in
+    South Manchuria and to engage in business and manufacture of any
+    kind whatsoever.
+
+    Article 3a. The Japanese subjects referred to in the preceding two
+    articles, besides being required to register with the local
+    authorities passports which they must procure under the existing
+    regulations, shall also observe police rules and regulations and pay
+    taxes in the same manner as Chinese. Civil and criminal cases shall
+    be tried and adjudicated by the authorities of the defendant
+    nationality and an officer can be deputed to attend the proceedings.
+    But all cases purely between Japanese subjects and mixed cases
+    between Japanese or Chinese, relating to land or disputes arising
+    from lease contracts, shall be tried and adjudicated by Chinese
+    Authorities and the Japanese Consul may also depute an officer to
+    attend the proceedings. When the judicial system in the said
+    Province is completely reformed, all the civil and criminal cases
+    concerning Japanese subjects shall be tried entirely by Chinese law
+    courts.
+
+    RELATING TO EASTERN INNER MONGOLIA
+
+    (To be Exchanged by Notes)
+
+    1. The Chinese Government declare that China will not in future
+    pledge the taxes, other than customs and salt revenue of that part
+    of Eastern Inner Mongolia under the jurisdiction of South Manchuria
+    and Jehol Intendency, as security for raising a foreign loan.
+
+    2. The Chinese Government declare that China will herself provide
+    funds for building the railways in the part of Eastern Inner
+    Mongolia under the jurisdiction of South Manchuria and the Jehol
+    Intendency; if foreign capital is required, China will negotiate
+    with Japanese capitalists first, provided this does not conflict
+    with agreements already concluded with other Powers.
+
+    The Chinese Government agree, in the interest of trade and for the
+    residence of foreigners, to open by China herself certain suitable
+    places in that part of Eastern Inner Mongolia under the jurisdiction
+    of South Manchurian and the Jehol Intendency, as Commercial Marts.
+
+    The regulations for the said Commercial Marts will be made in
+    accordance with those of other Commercial Marts opened by China
+    herself.
+
+
+    GROUP III
+
+    The relations between Japan and the Hanyehping Company being very
+    intimate, if the said Company comes to an agreement with the
+    Japanese capitalists for co-operation, the Chinese Government shall
+    forthwith give their consent thereto. The Chinese Government further
+    declare that China will not convert the company into a state
+    enterprise, nor confiscate it, nor cause it to borrow and use
+    foreign capital other than Japanese.
+
+    Letter to be addressed by the Japanese Minister to the Chinese
+    Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+    Excellency: I have the honour to state that a report has reached me
+    that the Chinese Government have given permission to foreign nations
+    to construct, on the coast of Fukien Province, dock-yards, coaling
+    stations for military use, naval bases and other establishments for
+    military purposes; and further, that the Chinese Government are
+    borrowing foreign capital for putting up the above-mentioned
+    constructions or establishments. I shall be much obliged if the
+    Chinese Government will inform me whether or not these reports are
+    well founded in fact.
+
+    Reply to be addressed by the Chinese Minister of Foreign Affairs to
+    the Japanese Minister.
+
+    Excellency: I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your
+    Excellency's Note of.... In reply I beg to state that the Chinese
+    Government have not given permission to foreign Powers to construct,
+    on the coast of Fukien Province, dock-yards, coaling stations for
+    military use, naval bases or other establishments for military
+    purposes; nor do they contemplate to borrow foreign capital for
+    putting up such constructions or establishments.
+
+Within forty-eight hours of this passage-at-arms of the 1st May it was
+understood in Peking that Japan was meditating a serious step. That
+vague feeling of unrest which so speedily comes in capitals when
+national affairs reach a crisis was very evident, and the word
+"ultimatum" began to be whispered. It was felt that whilst China had
+held to her rights to the utmost and had received valuable indirect
+support from both England and the United States, the world-situation was
+such that it would be difficult to prevent Japan from proceeding to
+extremities. Accordingly there was little real surprise when on the 7th
+May Japan filed an ultimatum demanding a satisfactory reply within 48
+hours to her Revised Demands--failing which those steps deemed necessary
+would be taken. A perusal of the text of the Ultimatum will show an
+interesting change in the language employed. Coaxing having failed, and
+Japan being _now convinced that so long as she did not seek to annex the
+rights of other Foreign Powers in China open opposition could not be
+offered to her_, states her case very defiantly. One significant point,
+however, must be carefully noted--that she agrees "to detach Group V
+from the present negotiations and to discuss it separately in the
+future." It is this fact which remains the sword of Damocles hanging
+over China's head; and until this sword has been flung back into the
+waters of the Yellow Sea the Far Eastern situation will remain perilous.
+
+    JAPAN'S ULTIMATUM TO CHINA
+
+    Japan's Ultimatum delivered by the Japanese Minister to the Chinese
+    Government, on May 7th, 1915.
+
+    The reason why the Imperial Government opened the present
+    negotiations with the Chinese Government is first to endeavour to
+    dispose of the complications arising out of the war between Japan
+    and China, and secondly to attempt to solve those various questions
+    which are detrimental to the intimate relations of China and Japan
+    with a view to solidifying the foundation of cordial friendship
+    subsisting between the two countries to the end that the peace of
+    the Far East may be effectually and permanently preserved. With this
+    object in view, definite proposals were presented to the Chinese
+    Government in January of this year, and up to to-day as many as
+    twenty-five conferences have been held with the Chinese Government
+    in perfect sincerity and frankness.
+
+    In the course of the negotiation the Imperial Government have
+    consistently explained the aims and objects of the proposals in a
+    conciliatory spirit, while on the other hand the proposals of the
+    Chinese Government, whether important or unimportant, have been
+    attended to without any reserve.
+
+    It may be stated with confidence that no effort has been spared to
+    arrive at a satisfactory and amicable settlement of those questions.
+
+    The discussion of the entire corpus of the proposals was practically
+    at an end at the twenty-fourth conference; that is on the 17th of
+    the last month. The Imperial Government, taking a broad view of the
+    negotiation and in consideration of the points raised by the Chinese
+    Government, modified the original proposals with considerable
+    concessions and presented to the Chinese Government on the 26th of
+    the same month the revised proposals for agreement, and at the same
+    time it was offered that, on the acceptance of the revised
+    proposals, the Imperial Government would, at a suitable opportunity,
+    restore, with fair and proper conditions, to the Chinese Government
+    the Kiaochow territory, in the acquisition of which the Imperial
+    Government had made a great sacrifice.
+
+    On the 1st of May, the Chinese Government delivered the reply to the
+    revised proposals of the Japanese Government, which is contrary to
+    the expectations of the Imperial Government. The Chinese Government
+    not only did not give a careful consideration to the revised
+    proposals but even with regard to the offer of the Japanese
+    Government to restore Kiaochow to the Chinese Government the latter
+    did not manifest the least appreciation for Japan's good will and
+    difficulties.
+
+    From the commercial and military point of view Kiaochow is an
+    important place, in the acquisition of which the Japanese Empire
+    sacrificed much blood and money, and, after the acquisition the
+    Empire incurs no obligation to restore it to China. But with the
+    object of increasing the future friendly relations of the two
+    countries, they went to the extent of proposing its restoration, yet
+    to their great regret, the Chinese Government did not take into
+    consideration the good intention of Japan and manifest appreciation
+    of her difficulties. Furthermore, the Chinese Government not only
+    ignored the friendly feelings of the Imperial Government in offering
+    the restoration of Kiaochow Bay, but also in replying to the revised
+    proposals they even demanded its unconditional restoration; and
+    again China demanded that Japan should bear the responsibility of
+    paying indemnity for all the unavoidable losses and damages
+    resulting from Japan's military operations at Kiaochow; and still
+    further in connection with the territory of Kiaochow China advanced
+    other demands and declared that she has the right of participation
+    at the future peace conference to be held between Japan and Germany.
+    Although China is fully aware that the unconditional restoration of
+    Kiaochow and Japan's responsibility of indemnification for the
+    unavoidable losses and damages can never be tolerated by Japan yet
+    she purposely advanced these demands and declared that this reply
+    was final and decisive.
+
+    Since Japan could not tolerate such demands the settlement of the
+    other questions, however compromising it may be, would not be to her
+    interest. The consequence is that the present reply of the Chinese
+    Government is, on the whole, vague and meaningless.
+
+    Furthermore, in the reply of the Chinese Government to the other
+    proposals in the revised list of the Imperial Government, such as
+    South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia, where Japan particularly
+    has geographical, commercial, industrial and strategic relations, as
+    recognized by all the nations, and made more remarkable in
+    consequence of the two wars in which Japan was engaged the Chinese
+    Government overlooks these facts and does not respect Japan's
+    position in that place. The Chinese Government even freely altered
+    those articles which the Imperial Government, in a compromising
+    spirit, have formulated in accordance with the statement of the
+    Chinese Representatives thereby making the statements of the
+    Representatives an empty talk; and on seeing them conceding with the
+    one hand and withholding with the other it is very difficult to
+    attribute faithfulness and sincerity to the Chinese authorities.
+
+    As regards the articles relating to the employment of advisers, the
+    establishment of schools, and hospitals, the supply of arms and
+    ammunition and the establishment of arsenals and railway concessions
+    in South China in the revised proposals they were either proposed
+    with the proviso that the consent of the Power concerned must be
+    obtained, or they are merely to be recorded in the minutes in
+    accordance with the statements of the Chinese delegates, and thus
+    they are not in the least in conflict either with Chinese
+    sovereignty or her treaties with the Foreign Powers, yet the Chinese
+    Government in their reply to the proposals, alleging that these
+    proposals are incompatible with their sovereign rights and treaties
+    with Foreign Powers, defeat the expectations of the Imperial
+    Government. However, in spite of such attitude of the Chinese
+    Government, the Imperial Government, though regretting to see that
+    there is no room for further negotiations, yet warmly attached to
+    the preservation of the peace of the Far East, is still hoping for a
+    satisfactory settlement in order to avoid the disturbance of the
+    relations.
+
+    So in spite of the circumstances which admitted no patience, they
+    have reconsidered the feelings of the Government of their
+    neighbouring country and, with the exception of the article relating
+    to Fukien which is to be the subject of an exchange of notes as has
+    already been agreed upon by the Representatives of both nations,
+    will undertake to detach the Group V from the present negotiation
+    and discuss it separately in the future. Therefore the Chinese
+    Government should appreciate the friendly feelings of the Imperial
+    Government by immediately accepting without any alteration all the
+    articles of Group I, II, III, and IV and the exchange of notes in
+    connection with Fukien province in Group V as contained in the
+    revised proposals presented on the 26th of April.
+
+    The Imperial Government hereby again offer their advice and hope
+    that the Chinese Government, upon this advice, will give a
+    satisfactory reply by 6 o'clock P.M. on the 9th day of May. It is
+    hereby declared that if no satisfactory reply is received before or
+    at the specified time, the Imperial Government will take steps they
+    may deem necessary.
+
+
+    EXPLANATORY NOTE
+
+    Accompanying Ultimatum delivered to the Minister of Foreign Affairs
+    by the Japanese Minister, May 7th, 1915.
+
+    1. With the exception of the question of Fukien to be arranged by an
+    exchange of notes, the five articles postponed for later negotiation
+    refer to (a) the employment of advisers, (b) the establishment of
+    schools and hospitals, (c) the railway concessions in South China,
+    (d) the supply of arms and ammunition and the establishment of
+    arsenals and (e) right of missionary propaganda.
+
+    2. The acceptance by the Chinese Government of the article relating
+    to Fukien may be either in the form as proposed by the Japanese
+    Minister on the 26th of April or in that contained in the Reply of
+    the Chinese Government of May 1st. Although the Ultimatum calls for
+    the immediate acceptance by China of the modified proposals
+    presented on April 26th, without alteration but it should be noted
+    that it merely states the principle and does not apply to this
+    article and articles 4 and 5 of this note.
+
+    3. If the Chinese Government accept all the articles as demanded in
+    the Ultimatum the offer of the Japanese Government to restore
+    Kiaochow to China, made on the 26th of April, will still hold good.
+
+    4. Article 2 of Group II relating to the lease or purchase of land,
+    the terms "lease" and "purchase" may be replaced by the terms
+    "temporary lease" and "perpetual lease" or "lease on consultation,"
+    which means a long-term lease with its unconditional renewal.
+
+    Article 4 of Group II relating to the approval of police laws and
+    Ordinances and local taxes by the Japanese Council may form the
+    subject of a secret agreement.
+
+    5. The phrase "to consult with the Japanese Government" in
+    connection with questions of pledging the local taxes for raising
+    loans and the loans for the construction of railways, in Eastern
+    Inner Mongolia, which is similar to the agreement in Manchuria
+    relating to the matters of the same kind, may be replaced by the
+    phrase "to consult with the Japanese capitalists."
+
+    The article relating to the opening of trade marts in Eastern Inner
+    Mongolia in respect to location and regulations, may, following
+    their precedent set in Shantung, be the subject of an exchange of
+    notes.
+
+    6. From the phrase "those interested in the Company" in Group III of
+    the revised list of demands, the words "those interested in" may be
+    deleted.
+
+    7. The Japanese version of the Formal Agreement and its annexes
+    shall be the official text or both the Chinese and Japanese shall be
+    the official texts.
+
+Whilst it would be an exaggeration to say that open panic followed the
+filing of this document, there was certainly very acute alarm,--so much
+so that it is to-day known in Peking that the Japanese Legation cabled
+urgently to Tokio that even better terms could be obtained if the matter
+was left to the discretion of the men on the spot. But the Japanese
+Government had by now passed through a sufficiently anxious time itself,
+being in possession of certain unmistakable warnings regarding what was
+likely to happen after a world-peace had come,--if matters were pressed
+too far. Consequently nothing more was done, and on the following day
+China signified her acceptance of the Ultimatum in the following terms.
+
+    _Reply of the Chinese Government to the Ultimatum of the Japanese
+    Government, delivered to the Japanese Minister by the Minister of
+    Foreign Affairs on the 8th of May, 1915._
+
+    On the 7th of this month, at three o'clock P.M. the Chinese
+    Government received an Ultimatum from the Japanese Government
+    together with an Explanatory Note of seven articles. The Ultimatum
+    concluded with the hope that the Chinese Government by six o'clock
+    P.M. on the 9th of May will give a satisfactory reply, and it is
+    hereby declared that if no satisfactory reply is received before or
+    at the specified time, the Japanese Government will take steps she
+    may deem necessary.
+
+    The Chinese Government with a view to preserving the peace of the
+    Far East hereby accepts, with the exception of those five articles
+    of Group V postponed for later negotiation, all the articles of
+    Group I, II, III, and IV and the exchange of notes in connection
+    with Fukien Province in Group V as contained in the revised
+    proposals presented on the 26th of April, and in accordance with the
+    Explanatory Note of seven articles accompanying the Ultimatum of the
+    Japanese Government with the hope that thereby all the outstanding
+    questions are settled, so that the cordial relationship between the
+    two countries may be further consolidated. The Japanese Minister is
+    hereby requested to appoint a day to call at the Ministry of Foreign
+    Affairs to make the literary improvement of the text and sign the
+    Agreement as soon as possible.
+
+Thus ended one of the most extraordinary diplomatic negotiations ever
+undertaken in Peking.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[13] Refers to preaching Buddhism.
+
+[14] The reader will observe, that the expression "Hanyehping
+enterprises" is compounded by linking together characters denoting the
+triple industry.
+
+[15] Six articles found in Japan's Revised Demands are omitted here as
+they had already been initialled by the Chinese Foreign Minister and the
+Japanese Minister.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE ORIGIN OF THE TWENTY-ONE DEMANDS
+
+
+The key to this remarkable business was supplied by a cover sent
+anonymously to the writer during the course of these negotiations with
+no indication as to its origin. The documents which this envelope
+contained are so interesting that they merit attention at the hands of
+all students of history, explaining as they do the psychology of the
+Demands as well as throwing much light on the manner in which the
+world-war has been viewed in Japan.
+
+The first document is purely introductory, but is none the less
+interesting. It is a fragment, or rather a _précis_ of the momentous
+conversation which took place between Yuan Shih-kai and the Japanese
+Minister when the latter personally served the Demands on the Chief
+Executive and took the opportunity to use language unprecedented even in
+the diplomatic history of Peking.
+
+The _précis_ begins in a curious way. After saying that "the Japanese
+Minister tried to influence President Yuan Shih-kai with the following
+words," several long lines of asterisks suggest that after reflection
+the unknown chronicler had decided, for political reasons of the highest
+importance, to allow others to guess how the "conversation" opened. From
+the context it seems absolutely clear that the excised words have to
+deal with the possibility of the re-establishment of the Empire in
+China--a very important conclusion in view of what followed later in the
+year. Indeed there is no reason to doubt that the Japanese Envoy
+actually told Yuan Shih-kai that as he was already virtually Emperor it
+lay within his power to settle the whole business and to secure his
+position at one blow. In any case the _précis_ begins with these
+illuminating sentences:
+
+    ... Furthermore, the Chinese revolutionists are in close touch and
+    have intimate relations with numerous irresponsible Japanese, some
+    of whom have great influence and whose policy is for strong
+    measures. Our Government has not been influenced by this policy, but
+    if your Government does not quickly agree to these stipulations, it
+    will be impossible to prevent some of our irresponsible people from
+    inciting the Chinese revolutionists to create trouble in China.
+
+    The majority of the Japanese people are also opposed to President
+    Yuan and Yuan's Government. They all declare that the President
+    entertains anti-Japanese feeling and adopts the policy of
+    "befriending the Far" (Europe and America) and "antagonizing the
+    Near" (Japan). Japanese public opinion is therefore exceedingly
+    hostile.
+
+    Our Government has all along from first to last exerted its best
+    efforts to help the Chinese Government, and if the Chinese
+    Government will speedily agree to these stipulations it will have
+    thus manifested its friendship for Japan.
+
+    The Japanese people will then be able to say that the President
+    never entertained anti-Japanese feelings, or adopted the policy of
+    "befriending the Far and antagonizing the Near." Will not this then
+    be indeed a bonâ fide proof of our friendly relations?
+
+    The Japanese Government also will then be inclined to render
+    assistance to President Yuan's Government whenever it is
+    necessary....
+
+We are admittedly living in a remarkable age which is making waste paper
+of our dearest principles. But in all the welter which the world war has
+made it would be difficult to find anything more extraordinary than
+these few paragraphs. Japan, through her official representative, boldly
+tears down the veil hiding her ambitions, and using the undoubted menace
+which Chinese revolutionary activities then held for the Peking
+Government, declares in so many words that unless President Yuan
+Shih-kai bows his head to the dictation of Tokio, the duel which began
+in Seoul twenty-five years ago would be openly resumed.
+
+Immediately following the "conversation" is the principal document in
+the dossier. This is nothing less than an exhaustive Memorandum, divided
+into two sections, containing the policy advocated by the Japanese
+secret society, called the Black Dragon Society, which is said to have
+assumed that name on account of the members (military officers) having
+studied the situation in the Heilungchiang (or "Black Dragon") province
+of Manchuria. The memorandum is the most remarkable document dealing
+with the Far East which has come to light since the famous Cassini
+Convention was published in 1896. Written presumably late in the autumn
+of 1914 and immediately presented to the Japanese Government, it may
+undoubtedly be called the fulminate which exploded the Japanese mine of
+the 18th January, 1915. It shows such sound knowledge of
+world-conditions, and is so scientific in its detachment that little
+doubt can exist that distinguished Japanese took part in its drafting.
+It can therefore be looked upon as a genuine expression of the highly
+educated Japanese mind, and as such cannot fail to arouse serious
+misgivings. The first part is a general review of the European War and
+the Chinese Question: the second is concerned with the Defensive
+Alliance between China and Japan, which is looked upon as the one goal
+of all Japanese Diplomacy.
+
+    PART I. THE EUROPEAN WAR AND THE CHINESE QUESTION
+
+    The present gigantic struggle in Europe has no parallel in history.
+    Not only will the equilibrium of Europe be affected and its effect
+    felt all over the globe, but its results will create a New Era in
+    the political and social world. Therefore, whether or not the
+    Imperial Japanese Government can settle the Far Eastern Question and
+    bring to realization our great Imperial policy depends on our being
+    able to skilfully avail ourselves of the world's general trend of
+    affairs so as to extend our influence and to decide upon a course of
+    action towards China which shall be practical in execution. If our
+    authorities and people view the present European War with
+    indifference and without deep concern, merely devoting their
+    attention to the attack on Kiaochow, neglecting the larger issues of
+    the war, they will have brought to nought our great Imperial policy,
+    and committed a blunder greater than which it can not be conceived.
+    We are constrained to submit this statement of policy for the
+    consideration of our authorities, not because we are fond of
+    argument but because we are deeply anxious for our national welfare.
+
+    No one at present can foretell the outcome of the European War. If
+    the Allies meet with reverses and victory shall crown the arms of
+    the Germans and Austrians, German militarism will undoubtedly
+    dominate the European Continent and extend southward and eastward to
+    other parts of the world. Should such a state of affairs happen to
+    take place the consequences resulting therefrom will be indeed great
+    and extensive. On this account we must devote our most serious
+    attention to the subject. If, on the other hand, the Germans and
+    Austrians should be crushed by the Allies, Germany will be deprived
+    of her present status as a Federated State under a Kaiser. The
+    Federation will be disintegrated into separate states, and Prussia
+    will have to be content with the status of a second-rate Power.
+    Austria and Hungary, on account of this defeat, will consequently be
+    divided. What their final fate shall be, no one would now venture
+    to predict. In the meantime Russia will annex Galicia and the
+    Austrian Poland: France will repossess Alsace and Lorraine: Great
+    Britain will occupy the German Colonies in Africa and the South
+    Pacific; Servia and Montenegro will take Bosnia, Herzegovina and a
+    certain portion of Austrian Territory; thus making such great
+    changes in the map of Europe that even the Napoleonic War in 1815
+    could not find a parallel.
+
+    When these events take place, not only will Europe experience great
+    changes, but we should not ignore the fact that they will occur also
+    in China and in the South Pacific. After Russia has replaced Germany
+    in the territories lost by Germany and Austria, she will hold a
+    controlling influence in Europe, and, for a long time to come, will
+    have nothing to fear from her western frontier. Immediately after
+    the war she will make an effort to carry out her policy of expansion
+    in the East and will not relax that effort until she has acquired a
+    controlling influence in China. At the same time Great Britain will
+    strengthen her position in the Yangtsze Valley and prohibit any
+    other country from getting a footing there. France will do likewise
+    in Yunnan province using it as her base of operations for further
+    encroachments upon China and never hesitate to extend her
+    advantages. We must therefore seriously study the situation
+    remembering always that the combined action of Great Britain,
+    Russia, and France will not only affect Europe but that we can even
+    foresee that it will also affect China.
+
+    Whether this combined action on the part of England, France and
+    Russia is to terminate at the end of the war or to continue to
+    operate, we can not now predict. But after peace in Europe is
+    restored, these Powers will certainly turn their attention to the
+    expansion of their several spheres of interest in China, and, in the
+    adjustment, their interests will most likely conflict with one
+    another. If their interests do not conflict, they will work jointly
+    to solve the Chinese Question. On this point we have not the least
+    doubt. If England, France and Russia are actually to combine for the
+    coercion of China, what course is to be adopted by the Imperial
+    Japanese Government to meet the situation? What proper means shall
+    we employ to maintain our influence and extend our interests within
+    this ring of rivalry and competition? It is necessary that we bear
+    in mind the final results of the European War and forestall the
+    trend of events succeeding it so as to be able to decide upon a
+    policy towards China and determine the action to be ultimately
+    taken. If we remain passive, the Imperial Japanese Government's
+    policy towards China will lose that subjective influence and our
+    diplomacy will be checked for ever by the combined force of the
+    other Powers. The peace of the Far East will be thus endangered and
+    even the existence of the Japanese Empire as a nation will no doubt
+    be imperilled. It is therefore our first important duty at this
+    moment to enquire of our Government what course is to be adopted to
+    face that general situation after the war? What preparations are
+    being made to meet the combined pressure of the Allies upon China?
+    What policy has been followed to solve the Chinese Question? When
+    the European War is terminated and peace restored we are not
+    concerned so much with the question whether it be the Dual
+    Monarchies or the Triple Entente which emerge victorious but
+    whether, in anticipation of the future expansion of European
+    influence in the Continents of Europe and Asia, the Imperial
+    Japanese Government should or should not hesitate to employ force to
+    check the movement before this occurrence. Now is the most opportune
+    moment for Japan to quickly solve the Chinese Question. Such an
+    opportunity will not occur for hundreds of years to come. Not only
+    is it Japan's divine duty to act now, but present conditions in
+    China favour the execution of such a plan. We should by all means
+    decide and act at once. If our authorities do not avail themselves
+    of this rare opportunity, great difficulty will surely be
+    encountered in future in the settlement of this Chinese Question.
+    Japan will be isolated from the European Powers after the war, and
+    will be regarded by them with envy and jealousy just as Germany is
+    now regarded. Is it not then a vital necessity for Japan to solve at
+    this very moment the Chinese Question?
+
+No one--not even those who care nothing for politics--can deny that
+there is in this document an astounding disclosure of the mental
+attitude of the Japanese not only towards their enemies but towards
+their friends as well. They trust nobody, befriend nobody, envy nobody;
+they content themselves with believing that the whole world may in the
+not distant future turn against them. The burden of their argument
+swings just as much against their British ally as against Germany and
+Austria; and the one and only matter which preoccupies Japanese who make
+it their business to think about such things is to secure that Japan
+shall forestall Europe in seizing control of China. It is admitted in so
+many words that it is too early to know who is to triumph in the
+gigantic European struggle; it is also admitted that Germany will
+forever be the enemy. At the same time it is expected, should the issue
+of the struggle be clear-cut and decisive in favour of the Allies, that
+a new three-Power combination formed by England, France and Russia may
+be made to operate against Japan. Although the alliance with England,
+twice renewed since 1902, should occupy as important a place in the Far
+East as the _Entente_ between England and France occupies in Europe, not
+one Japanese in a hundred knows or cares anything about such an
+arrangement; and even if he has knowledge of it, he coolly assigns to
+his country's major international commitment a minimum and constantly
+diminishing importance. In his view the British Alliance is nothing but
+a piece of paper which may be consumed in the great bonfire now shedding
+such a lurid light over the world. What is germane to the matter is his
+own plan, his own method of taking up arms in a sea of troubles. The
+second part of the Black Dragon Society's Memorandum, pursuing the
+argument logically and inexorably and disclosing traces of real
+political genius, makes this unalterably clear.
+
+Having established clearly the attitude of Japan towards the world--and
+more particularly towards the rival political combinations now locked
+together in a terrible death-struggle, this second part of the
+Memorandum is concerned solely with China and can be broken into two
+convenient sections. The first section is constructive--the plan for the
+reconstruction of China is outlined in terms suited to the Japanese
+genius. This part begins with an illuminating piece of rhetoric.
+
+    PART II. THE CHINESE QUESTION AND THE DEFENSIVE ALLIANCE
+
+    It is a very important matter of policy whether the Japanese
+    Government, in obedience to its divine mission, shall solve the
+    Chinese Question in a heroic manner by making China voluntarily rely
+    upon Japan. To force China to such a position there is nothing else
+    for the Imperial Japanese Government to do but to take advantage of
+    the present opportunity to seize the reins of political and
+    financial power and to enter by all means into a defensive alliance
+    with her under secret terms as enumerated below:
+
+    _The Secret Terms of the Defensive Alliance_
+
+    The Imperial Japanese Government, with due respect for the
+    Sovereignty and Integrity of China and with the object and hope of
+    maintaining the peace of the Far East, undertakes to share the
+    responsibility of co-operating with China to guard her against
+    internal trouble and foreign invasion and China shall accord to
+    Japan special facilities in the matter of China's National Defence,
+    or the protection of Japan's special rights and privileges and for
+    these objects the following treaty of Alliance is to be entered into
+    between the two contracting parties:
+
+    1. When there is internal trouble in China or when she is at war
+    with another nation or nations, Japan shall send her army to render
+    assistance, to assume the responsibility of guarding Chinese
+    territory and to maintain peace and order in China.
+
+    2. China agrees to recognize Japan's privileged position in South
+    Manchuria and Inner Mongolia and to cede the sovereign rights of
+    these regions to Japan to enable her to carry out a scheme of local
+    defence on a permanent basis.
+
+    3. After the Japanese occupation of Kiaochow, Japan shall acquire
+    all the rights and privileges hitherto enjoyed by the Germans in
+    regard to railways, mines and all other interests, and after peace
+    and order is restored in Tsingtao, the place shall be handed back to
+    China to be opened as an International Treaty port.
+
+    4. For the maritime defence of China and Japan, China shall lease
+    strategic harbours along the coast of the Fukien province to Japan
+    to be converted into naval bases and grant to Japan in the said
+    province all railway and mining rights.
+
+    5. For the reorganization of the Chinese army China shall entrust
+    the training and drilling of the army to Japan.
+
+    6. For the unification of China's firearms and munitions of war,
+    China shall adopt firearms of Japanese pattern, and at the same time
+    establish arsenals (with the help of Japan) in different strategic
+    points.
+
+    7. With the object of creating and maintaining a Chinese Navy, China
+    shall entrust the training of her navy to Japan.
+
+    8. With the object of reorganizing her finances and improving the
+    methods of taxation, China shall entrust the work to Japan, and the
+    latter shall elect competent financial experts who shall act as
+    first-class advisers to the Chinese Government.
+
+    9. China shall engage Japanese educational experts as educational
+    advisers and extensively establish schools in different parts of the
+    country to teach Japanese so as to raise the educational standard of
+    the country.
+
+    10. China shall first consult with and obtain the consent of Japan
+    before she can enter into an agreement with another Power for making
+    loans, the leasing of territory, or the cession of the same.
+
+    From the date of the signing of this Defensive Alliance, Japan and
+    China shall work together hand-in-hand. Japan will assume the
+    responsibility of safeguarding Chinese territory and maintaining the
+    peace and order in China. This will relieve China of all future
+    anxieties and enable her to proceed energetically with her reforms,
+    and, with a sense of territorial security, she may wait for her
+    national development and regeneration. Even after the present
+    European War is over and peace is restored China will absolutely
+    have nothing to fear in the future of having pressure brought
+    against her by the foreign powers. It is only thus that permanent
+    peace can be secured in the Far East.
+
+    But before concluding this Defensive Alliance, two points must first
+    be ascertained and settled, (1) Its bearing on the Chinese
+    Government. (2) Its bearing on those Powers having intimate
+    relations with and great interests in China.
+
+    In considering its effect on the Chinese Government, Japan must try
+    to foresee whether the position of China's present ruler Yuan
+    Shih-kai shall be permanent or not; whether the present Government's
+    policy will enjoy the confidence of a large section of the Chinese
+    people; whether Yuan Shih-kai will readily agree to the Japanese
+    Government's proposal to enter into a treaty of alliance with us.
+    These are points to which we are bound to give a thorough
+    consideration. Judging by the attitude hitherto adopted by Yuan
+    Shih-kai we know he has always resorted to the policy of expediency
+    in his diplomatic dealings, and although he may now outwardly show
+    friendliness towards us, he will in fact rely upon the influence of
+    the different Powers as the easiest check against us and refuse to
+    accede to our demands. Take for a single instance, his conduct
+    towards us since the Imperial Government declared war against
+    Germany and his action will then be clear to all. Whether we can
+    rely upon the ordinary friendly methods of diplomacy to gain our
+    object or not it does not require much wisdom to decide. After the
+    gigantic struggle in Europe is over, leaving aside America which
+    will not press for advantage, China will not be able to obtain any
+    loans from the other Powers. With a depleted treasury, without means
+    to pay the officials and the army, with local bandits inciting the
+    poverty-stricken populace to trouble, with the revolutionists
+    waiting for opportunities to rise, should an insurrection actually
+    occur while no outside assistance can be rendered to quell it we are
+    certain it will be impossible for Yuan Shih-kai, single-handed, to
+    restore order and consolidate the country. The result will be that
+    the nation will be cut up into many parts beyond all hope of remedy.
+    That this state of affairs will come is not difficult to foresee.
+    When this occurs, shall we uphold Yuan's Government and assist him
+    to suppress the internal insurrection with the certain assurance
+    that we could influence him to agree to our demands, or shall we
+    help the revolutionists to achieve a success and realize our object
+    through them? This question must be definitely decided upon this
+    very moment so that we may put it into practical execution. If we do
+    not look into the future fate of China but go blindly to uphold
+    Yuan's Government, to enter into a Defensive Alliance with China,
+    hoping thus to secure a complete realization of our object by
+    assisting him to suppress the revolutionists, it is obviously a
+    wrong policy. Why? Because the majority of the Chinese people have
+    lost all faith in the tottering Yuan Shih-kai who is discredited and
+    attacked by the whole nation for having sold his country. If Japan
+    gives Yuan the support, his Government, though in a very precarious
+    state, may possibly avoid destruction. Yuan Shih-kai belongs to that
+    school of politicians who are fond of employing craftiness and
+    cunning. He may be friendly to us for a time, but he will certainly
+    abandon us and again befriend the other Powers when the European war
+    is at an end. Judging by his past we have no doubt as to what he
+    will do in the future. For Japan to ignore the general sentiment of
+    the Chinese people and support Yuan Shih-kai with the hope that we
+    can settle with him the Chinese Question is a blunder indeed.
+    Therefore in order to secure the permanent peace of the Far East,
+    instead of supporting a Chinese Government which can neither be long
+    continued in power nor assist in the attainment of our object, we
+    should rather support the 400,000,000 Chinese people to renovate
+    their corrupt Government, to change its present form, to maintain
+    peace and order in the land and to usher into China a new era of
+    prosperity so that China and Japan may in fact as well as in name be
+    brought into the most intimate and vital relations with each other.
+    China's era of prosperity is based on the China-Japanese Alliance
+    and this Alliance is the foundational power for the repelling of the
+    foreign aggression that is to be directed against the Far East at
+    the conclusion of the European war. This alliance is also the
+    foundation-stone of the peace of the world. Japan therefore should
+    take this as the last warning and immediately solve this question.
+    Since the Imperial Japanese Government has considered it imperative
+    to support the Chinese people, we should induce the Chinese
+    revolutionists, the Imperialists and other Chinese malcontents to
+    create trouble all over China. The whole country will be thrown into
+    disorder and Yuan's Government will consequently be overthrown. We
+    shall then select a man from amongst the most influential and most
+    noted of the 400,000,000 of Chinese and help him to organize a new
+    form of Government and to consolidate the whole country. In the
+    meantime our army must assist in the restoration of peace and order
+    in the country, and in the protection of the lives and properties of
+    the people, so that they may gladly tender their allegiance to the
+    new Government which will then naturally confide in and rely upon
+    Japan. It is after the accomplishment of only these things that we
+    shall without difficulty gain our object by the conclusion of a
+    Defensive Alliance with China.
+
+    For us to incite the Chinese revolutionists and malcontents to rise
+    in China we consider the present to be the most opportune moment.
+    The reason why these men cannot now carry on an active campaign is
+    because they are insufficiently provided with funds. If the Imperial
+    Government can take advantage of this fact to make them a loan and
+    instruct them to rise simultaneously, great commotion and disorder
+    will surely prevail all over China. We can intervene and easily
+    adjust matters.
+
+    The progress of the European War warns Japan with greater urgency of
+    the imperative necessity of solving this most vital of questions.
+    The Imperial Government cannot be considered as embarking on a rash
+    project. This opportunity will not repeat itself for our benefit. We
+    must avail ourselves of this chance and under no circumstances
+    hesitate. Why should we wait for the spontaneous uprising of the
+    revolutionists and malcontents? Why should we not think out and lay
+    down a plan beforehand? When we examine into the form of Government
+    in China, we must ask whether the existing Republic is well suited
+    to the national temperament and well adapted to the thoughts and
+    aspirations of the Chinese people. From the time the Republic of
+    China was established up to the present moment, if what it has
+    passed through is to be compared to what it ought to be in the
+    matter of administration and unification, we find disappointment
+    everywhere. Even the revolutionists themselves, the very ones who
+    first advocated the Republican form of government, acknowledge that
+    they have made a mistake. The retention of the Republican form of
+    Government in China will be a great future obstacle in the way of a
+    Chino-Japanese Alliance. And why must it be so? Because, in a
+    Republic the fundamental principles of government as well as the
+    social and moral aims of the people are distinctly different from
+    that of a Constitutional Monarchy. Their laws and administration
+    also conflict. If Japan act as a guide to China and China models
+    herself after Japan, it will only then be possible for the two
+    nations to solve by mutual effort the Far East Question without
+    differences and disagreements. Therefore to start from the
+    foundation for the purpose of reconstructing the Chinese
+    Government, of establishing a Chino-Japanese Alliance, of
+    maintaining the permanent peace of the Far East and of realizing the
+    consummation of Japan's Imperial policy, we must take advantage of
+    the present opportunity to alter China's Republican form of
+    Government into a Constitutional Monarchy which shall necessarily be
+    identical, in all its details, to the Constitutional Monarchy of
+    Japan, and to no other. This is really the key and first principle
+    to be firmly held for the actual reconstruction of the form of
+    Government in China. If China changes her Republican form of
+    Government to that of a Constitutional Monarchy, shall we, in the
+    selection of a new ruler, restore the Emperor Hsuan T'ung to his
+    throne or choose the most capable man from the Monarchists or select
+    the most worthy member from among the revolutionists? We think,
+    however, that it is advisable at present to leave this question to
+    the exigency of the future when the matter is brought up for
+    decision. But we must not lose sight of the fact that to actually
+    put into execution this policy of a Chino-Japanese Alliance and the
+    transformation of the Republic of China into a Constitutional
+    Monarchy, is, in reality, the fundamental principle to be adopted
+    for the reconstruction of China.
+
+    We shall now consider the bearing of this Defensive Alliance on the
+    other Powers. Needless to say, Japan and China will in no way impair
+    the rights and interests already acquired by the Powers. At this
+    moment it is of paramount importance for Japan to come to a special
+    understanding with Russia to define our respective spheres in
+    Manchuria and Mongolia so that the two countries may co-operate with
+    each other in the future. This means that Japan after the
+    acquisition of sovereign rights in South Manchuria and Inner
+    Mongolia will work together with Russia after her acquisition of
+    sovereign rights in North Manchuria and Outer Mongolia to maintain
+    the status quo, and endeavour by every effort to protect the peace
+    of the Far East. Russia, since the outbreak of the European War, has
+    not only laid aside all ill-feelings against Japan, but has adopted
+    the same attitude as her Allies and shown warm friendship for us. No
+    matter how we regard the Manchurian and Mongolian Questions in the
+    future she is anxious that we find some way of settlement. Therefore
+    we need not doubt but that Russia, in her attitude towards this
+    Chinese Question, will be able to come to an understanding with us
+    for mutual co-operation.
+
+    The British sphere of influence and interest in China is centred in
+    Tibet and the Yangtsze Valley. Therefore if Japan can come to some
+    satisfactory arrangement with China in regard to Tibet and also give
+    certain privileges to Great Britain in the Yangtsze Valley, with an
+    assurance to protect those privileges, no matter how powerful Great
+    Britain might be, she will surely not oppose Japan's policy in
+    regard to this Chinese Question. While this present European War is
+    going on Great Britain has never asked Japan to render her
+    assistance. That her strength will certainly not enable her to
+    oppose us in the future need not be doubted in the least.
+
+    Since Great Britain and Russia will not oppose Japan's policy
+    towards China, it can readily be seen what attitude France will
+    adopt in regard to the subject. What Japan must now somewhat reckon
+    with is America. But America in her attitude towards us regarding
+    our policy towards China has already declared the principle of
+    maintaining China's territorial integrity and equal opportunity and
+    will be satisfied, if we, do not impair America's already acquired
+    rights and privileges. We think America will also have no cause for
+    complaint. Nevertheless America has in the East a naval force which
+    can be fairly relied upon, though not sufficiently strong to be
+    feared. Therefore in Japan's attitude towards America there is
+    nothing really for us to be afraid of.
+
+    Since China's condition is such on the one hand and the Powers'
+    relation towards China is such on the other hand, Japan should avail
+    herself in the meantime of the European War to definitely decide
+    upon a policy towards China, the most important move being the
+    transformation of the Chinese Government to be followed up by
+    preparing for the conclusion of the Defensive Alliance. The
+    precipitate action on the part of our present Cabinet in acceding to
+    the request of Great Britain to declare war against Germany without
+    having definitely settled our policy towards China has no real
+    connection with our future negotiations with China or affect the
+    political condition in the Far East. Consequently all intelligent
+    Japanese, of every walk of life throughout the land, are very deeply
+    concerned about the matter.
+
+    Our Imperial Government should now definitely change our dependent
+    foreign policy which is being directed by others into an independent
+    foreign policy which shall direct others, proclaiming the same with
+    solemn sincerity to the world and carrying it out with
+    determination. If we do so, even the gods and spirits will give way.
+    These are important points in our policy towards China and the
+    result depends on how we carry them out. Can our authorities firmly
+    make up their mind to solve this Chinese Question by the actual
+    carrying out of this fundamental principle? If they show
+    irresolution while we have this heaven-conferred chance and merely
+    depend on the good will of the other Powers, we shall eventually
+    have greater pressure to be brought against the Far East after the
+    European War is over, when the present equilibrium will be
+    destroyed. That day will then be too late for us to repent of our
+    folly. We are therefore impelled by force of circumstances to urge
+    our authorities to a quicker sense of the situation and to come to a
+    determination.
+
+The first point which leaps out of this extraordinarily frank
+disquisition is that the origin of the Twenty-one Demands is at last
+disclosed. A perusal of the ten articles forming the basis of the
+Defensive alliance proposed by the Black Dragon Society, allows us to
+understand everything that occurred in Peking in the spring of 1915. As
+far back as November, 1914, it was generally rumoured in Peking that
+Japan had a surprise of an extraordinary nature in her diplomatic
+archives, and that it would be merely a matter of weeks before it was
+sprung. Comparing this elaborate memorandum of the Black Dragon Society
+with the original text of the Twenty-one Demands it is plain that the
+proposed plan, having been handed to Viscount Kato, had to be passed
+through the diplomatic filters again and again until all gritty matter
+had been removed, and an appearance of innocuousness given to it. It is
+for this reason that the defensive alliance finally emerges as five
+compact little "groups" of demands, with the vital things directly
+affecting Chinese sovereignty labelled _desiderata_, so that Japanese
+ambassadors abroad could leave very warm assurances at every Foreign
+Office that there was nothing in what Japan desired which in any way
+conflicted with the Treaty rights of the Powers in China. The air of
+mystery which surrounded the whole business from the 18th January to the
+7th May--the day of the ultimatum--was due to the fact that Japan
+attempted to translate the conspiracy into terms of ordinary
+intercourse, only to find that in spite of the "filtering" the
+atmosphere of plotting could not be shaken off or the political threat
+adequately hidden. There is an arresting piece of psychology in this.
+
+The conviction expressed in the first portion of the Memorandum that
+bankruptcy was the rock on which the Peking administration must sooner
+or later split, and that the moment which Japan must seize is the
+outbreak of insurrections, is also highly instructive in view of what
+happened later. Still more subtle is the manner in which the ultimate
+solution is left open: it is consistently admitted throughout the mass
+of reasoning that there is no means of knowing whether suasion or force
+will ultimately be necessary. Force, however, always beckons to Japan
+because that is the simplest formula. And since Japan is the
+self-appointed defender of the dumb four hundred millions, her influence
+will be thrown on the side of the populace in order "to usher into China
+a new era of prosperity" so that China and Japan may in fact as well as
+in name be brought into the most intimate and vital relations with each
+other.
+
+The object of the subsidized insurrections is also clearly stated; it is
+to alter China's republican form of government into a Constitutional
+Monarchy which shall necessarily be identical in all its details to the
+Constitutional Monarchy of Japan and to no other. Who the new Emperor is
+to be is a point left in suspense, although we may here again recall
+that in 1912 in the midst of the revolution Japan privately sounded
+England regarding the advisability of lending the Manchus armed
+assistance, a proposal which was immediately vetoed. But there are other
+things: nothing is forgotten in the Memorandum. Russia is to be
+specially placated, England to be specially negotiated with, thus
+incidentally explaining Japan's recent attitude regarding the Yangtsze
+Railways. Japan, released from her dependent foreign policy, that is
+from a policy which is bound by conventions and treaties which others
+respect, can then carry out her own plans without fear of molestation.
+
+And this brings us to the two last documents of the dossier--the method
+of subsidizing and arranging insurrections in China when and wherever
+necessary.
+
+The first document is a detailed agreement between the Revolutionary
+Party and various Japanese merchants. Trained leaders are to be used in
+the provinces South of the Yellow River, and the matter of result is so
+systematized that the agreement specifies the amount of compensation to
+be paid for every Japanese killed on active service; it declares that
+the Japanese will deliver arms and ammunition in the districts of
+Jihchow in Shantung and Haichow in Kiangsu; and it ends by stating that
+the first instalment of cash, Yen 400,000, had been paid over in
+accordance with the terms of the agreement. The second document is an
+additional loan agreement between the interested parties creating a
+special "trading" corporation, perhaps satirically named "The Europe and
+Asia Trading Company," which in a consideration of a loan of half a
+million yen gives Japanese prior rights over all the mines of China.
+
+    ALLEGED SECRET AGREEMENT MADE BETWEEN SUN WEN (SUN YAT SEN) AND THE
+    JAPANESE
+
+    In order to preserve the peace in the Far East, it is necessary for
+    China and Japan to enter into an offensive and defensive alliance
+    whereby in case of war with any other nation or nations Japan shall
+    supply the military force while China shall be responsible for the
+    finances. It is impossible for the present Chinese Government to
+    work hand in hand with the Japanese Government nor does the Japanese
+    Government desire to co-operate with the former. Consequently
+    Japanese politicians and merchants who have the peace of the Far
+    East at heart are anxious to assist China in her reconstruction. For
+    this object the following Agreement is entered into by the two
+    parties:
+
+    1. Before an uprising is started, Terao, Okura, Tseji Karoku and
+    their associates shall provide the necessary funds, weapons and
+    military force, but the funds so provided must not exceed 1,500,000
+    yen and rifles not to exceed 100,000 pieces.
+
+    2. Before the uprising takes place the loan shall be temporarily
+    secured by 10,000,000 yen worth of bonds to be issued by Sun Wen
+    (Sun Yat Sen). It shall however, be secured afterwards by all the
+    movable properties of the occupied territory. (See Article 14 of
+    this Agreement.)
+
+    3. The funds from the present loan and military force to be provided
+    are for operations in the provinces South of the Yellow River, viz.:
+    Yunnan, Kweichow, Hunan, Hupeh, Szechuan, Kiangsi, Anhuei, Kiangsu
+    Chekiang, Fukien, Kwangsi and Kwangtung. If it is intended to invade
+    the Northern provinces North of the Yellow River, Tseji Karoku and
+    his associates shall participate with the revolutionists in all
+    deliberations connected with such operations.
+
+    4. The Japanese volunteer force shall be allowed from the date of
+    their enrolment active service pay in accordance with the
+    regulations of the Japanese army. After the occupation of a place,
+    the two parties will settle the mode of rewarding the meritorious
+    and compensating the family of the killed, adopting the most
+    generous practice in vogue in China and Japan. In the case of the
+    killed, compensation for each soldier shall, at the least, be more
+    than 1,000 yen.
+
+    5. Wherever the revolutionary army might be located the Japanese
+    military officers accompanying these expeditions shall have the
+    right to advise a continuation or cessation of operations.
+
+    6. After the revolutionary army has occupied a region and
+    strengthened its defences, all industrial undertakings and railway
+    construction and the like, not mentioned in the Treaties with other
+    foreign Powers, shall be worked with joint capital together with the
+    Japanese.
+
+    7. On the establishment of a new Government in China, all Japan's
+    demands on China shall be recognized by the new Government as
+    settled and binding.
+
+    8. All Japanese Military Officers holding the rank of Captain or
+    higher ranks engaged by the Chinese revolutionary army shall have
+    the privilege of being continued in their employment with a limit as
+    to date and shall have the right to ask to be thus employed.
+
+    9. The loan shall be paid over in three instalments. The first
+    instalment will be 400,000 yen, the second instalment ... yen and
+    the third instalment ... yen. After the first instalment is paid
+    over, Okura who advances the loan shall have the right to appoint
+    men to supervise the expenditure of the money.
+
+    10. The Japanese shall undertake to deliver all arms and ammunition
+    in the Districts of Jih Chao and Haichow (in Shantung and Kiangsu,
+    South of Kiaochow).
+
+    11. The payment of the first instalment of the loan shall be made
+    not later than three days after the signing of this Agreement.
+
+    12. All the employed Japanese Military officers and Japanese
+    volunteers are in duty bound to obey the orders of the Commander of
+    the revolutionary army.
+
+    13. The Commander of the revolutionary army shall have the right to
+    send back to Japan those Japanese military officers and Japanese
+    volunteers who disobey his orders and their passage money shall not
+    be paid if such decision meets with the approval of three or more of
+    the Japanese who accompany the revolutionary force.
+
+    14. All the commissariat departments in the occupied territory must
+    employ Japanese experts to co-operate in their management.
+
+    15. This Agreement takes effect immediately it is signed by the two
+    parties.
+
+    The foregoing fifteen articles have been discussed several times
+    between the two parties and signed by them in February. The first
+    instalment of 400,000 yen has been paid according to the terms of
+    this Agreement.
+
+
+    LOAN AGREEMENT MADE BETWEEN THE REVOLUTIONARY PARTY REPRESENTED BY
+    CHANG YAO-CHING AND HIS ASSOCIATES OF THE FIRST PART AND KAWASAKI
+    KULANOSKE OF THE SECOND PART
+
+    1. The Europe and Asia Trading Company undertakes to raise a loan of
+    500,000 yen. After the Agreement is signed and sealed by the
+    contracting parties the Japanese Central Bank shall hand over 3/10
+    of the loan as the first instalment. When Chang Yao-Ching and his
+    associates arrive at their proper destination the sum of 150,000 yen
+    shall be paid over as the second instalment. When final arrangements
+    are made the third and last instalment of 200,000 yen shall be paid.
+
+    2. When money is to be paid out, the Europe and Asia Trading Company
+    shall appoint supervisors. Responsible individuals of the
+    contracting parties shall jointly affix their seals (to the cheques)
+    before money is drawn for expenditure.
+
+    3. The Europe and Asia Trading Company shall secure a volunteer
+    force of 150 men, only retired officers of the Japanese army to be
+    eligible.
+
+    4. On leaving Japan the travelling expenses and personal effects of
+    the volunteers shall be borne by themselves. After reaching China,
+    Chang Yao-Ching and his associates shall give the volunteers the pay
+    of officers of the subordinate grade according to the established
+    regulations of the Japanese army.
+
+    5. If a volunteer is wounded while on duty Chang Yao-Ching and his
+    associates shall pay him a provisional compensation of not exceeding
+    1,000 yen. When wounded seriously a provisional compensation of
+    5,000 yen shall be paid as well as a life pension in accordance with
+    the rules of the Japanese army. If a volunteer meets with an
+    accident, thus losing his life, an indemnity of 50,000 yen shall be
+    paid to his family.
+
+    6. If a volunteer is not qualified for duty Chang Yao-Ching and his
+    associates shall have the power to dismiss him. All volunteers are
+    subject to the orders of Chang Yao-Ching and his associates and to
+    their command in the battlefields.
+
+    7. When volunteers are required to attack a certain selected place
+    it shall be their duty to do so. But the necessary expenses for the
+    undertaking shall be determined beforehand by both parties after
+    investigating into existing conditions.
+
+    8. The volunteer force shall be organized after the model of the
+    Japanese army. Two Japanese officers recommended by the Europe and
+    Asia Trading Company shall be employed.
+
+    9. The Europe and Asia Trading Company shall have the power to
+    dispose of the public properties in the places occupied by the
+    volunteer force.
+
+    10. The Europe and Asia Trading Company shall have the first
+    preference for working the mines in places occupied and protected by
+    the volunteer force.
+
+And here ends this extraordinary collection of papers. Is fiction mixed
+with fact--are these only "trial" drafts, or are they real documents
+signed, sealed, and delivered? The point seems unimportant. The thing of
+importance is the undoubted fact that assembled and treated in the way
+we have treated them they present a complete and arresting picture of
+the aims and ambitions of the ordinary Japanese; of their desire to push
+home the attack to the last gasp and so to secure the infeodation of
+China.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE MONARCHIST PLOT
+
+THE PAMPHLET OF YANG TU
+
+
+A shiver of impotent rage passed over the country when the nature and
+acceptance of the Japanese Ultimatum became generally known. The
+Chinese, always an emotional people, responding with quasi-feminine
+volubility to oppressive acts, cried aloud at the ignominy of the
+diplomacy which had so cruelly crucified them. One and all declared that
+the day of shame which had been so harshly imposed upon them would never
+be forgotten and that Japan would indeed pay bitterly for her policy of
+extortion.
+
+Two movements were started at once: one to raise a National Salvation
+Fund to be applied towards strengthening the nation in any way the
+government might decide; the other, to boycott all Japanese articles of
+commerce. Both soon attained formidable proportions. The nation became
+deeply and fervently interested in the double-idea; and had Yuan
+Shih-kai possessed true political vision there is little doubt that by
+responding to this national call he might have ultimately been borne to
+the highest pinnacles of his ambitions without effort on his part. His
+oldest enemies now openly declared that henceforth he had only to work
+honourably and whole-heartedly in the nation's interest to find them
+supporting him, and to have every black mark set against his name wiped
+out.
+
+In these circumstances what did he do? His actions form one of the most
+incredible and, let it be said, contemptible chapters of contemporary
+history.
+
+In dealing with the origins of the Twenty-one Demands we have already
+discussed the hints the Japan Representative had officially made when
+presenting his now famous Memorandum. Briefly Yuan Shih-kai had been
+told in so many words that since he was already autocrat of all the
+Chinese, he had only to endorse the principle of Japanese guidance in
+his administration to find that his Throne would be as good as publicly
+and solidly established. Being saturated with the doleful diplomacy of
+Korea, and seeing in these proposals a mere trap, Yuan Shih-kai, as we
+have shown, had drawn back in apparent alarm. Nevertheless the words
+spoken had sunk in deep, for the simple and excellent reason that ever
+since the _coup d'état_ of the 4th November, 1913, the necessity of
+"consolidating" his position by something more permanent than a display
+of armed force had been a daily subject of conversation in the bosom of
+his family. The problem, as this misguided man saw it, was simply by
+means of an unrivalled display of cunning to profit by the Japanese
+suggestion, and at the same time to leave the Japanese in the lurch.
+
+His eldest son, an individual of whom it has been said that he had
+absorbed every theory his foreign teachers had taught him without being
+capable of applying a single one, was the leader in this family
+intrigue. The unhappy victim of a brutal attempt to kill him during the
+Revolution, this eldest son had been for years semi-paralyzed: but
+brooding over his disaster had only fortified in him the resolve to
+succeed his father as legitimate Heir. Having saturated himself in
+Napoleonic literature, and being fully aware of how far a bold leader
+can go in times of emergency, he daily preached to his father the
+necessity of plucking the pear as soon as it was ripe. The older man,
+being more skilled and more cautious in statecraft than this youthful
+visionary, purposely rejected the idea so long as its execution seemed
+to him premature. But at last the point was reached when he was
+persuaded to give the monarchy advocates the free hand they solicited,
+being largely helped to this decision by the argument that almost
+anything in China could be accomplished under cover of the war,--_so
+long as vested foreign interests were not jeopardized_.
+
+In accordance with this decision, very shortly after the 18th January,
+the dictator's lieutenants had begun to sound the leaders of public
+opinion regarding the feasibility of substituting for the nominal
+Republic a Constitutional Monarchy. Thus, in a highly characteristic
+way, all through the tortuous course of the Japanese negotiations, to
+which he was supposed to be devoting his sole attention in order to save
+his menaced fatherland, Yuan Shih-kai was assisting his henchmen to
+indoctrinate Peking officialdom with the idea that the salvation of the
+State depended more on restoring on a modified basis the old empire than
+in beating off the Japanese assault. It was his belief that if some
+scholar of national repute could be found, who would openly champion
+these ideas and urge them with such persuasiveness and authority that
+they became accepted as a Categorical Imperative, the game would be as
+good as won, the Foreign Powers being too deeply committed abroad to pay
+much attention to the Far East. The one man who could have produced that
+result in the way Yuan Shih-kai desired to see it, the brilliant
+reformer Liang Chi-chao, famous ever since 1898, however, obstinately
+refused to lend himself to such work; and, sooner than be involved in
+any way in the plot, threw up his post of Minister of Justice and
+retired to the neighbouring city of Tientsin from which centre he was
+destined to play a notable part.
+
+This hitch occasioned a delay in the public propaganda, though not for
+long. Forced to turn to a man of secondary ability, Yuan Shih-kai now
+invoked the services of a scholar who had been known to be his secret
+agent in the Old Imperial Senate under the Manchus--a certain Yang
+Tu--whose constant appeals in that chamber had indeed been the means of
+forcing the Manchus to summon Yuan Shih-kai back to office to their
+rescue on the outbreak of the Wuchang rebellion in 1911. After very
+little discussion everything was arranged. In the person of this
+ex-Senator, whose whole appearance was curiously Machiavellian and
+decadent, the neo-imperialists at last found their champion.
+
+Events now moved quickly enough. In the Eastern way, very few weeks
+after the Japanese Ultimatum, a society was founded called the Society
+for the Preservation of Peace (_Chou An Hui_) and hundreds of
+affiliations opened in the provinces. Money was spent like water to
+secure adherents, and when the time was deemed ripe the now famous
+pamphlet of Yang Tu was published broadcast, being in everybody's hands
+during the idle summer month of August. This document is so remarkable
+as an illustration of the working of that type of Chinese mind which
+has assimilated some portion of the facts of the modern world and yet
+remains thoroughly reactionary and illogical, that special attention
+must be directed to it. Couched in the form of an argument between two
+individuals--one the inquirer, the other the expounder--it has something
+of the Old Testament about it both in its blind faith and in its
+insistence on a few simple essentials. It embodies everything essential
+to an understanding of the old mentality of China which has not yet been
+completely destroyed. From a literary standpoint it has also much that
+is valuable because it is so naïve; and although it is concerned with
+such a distant region of the world as China its treatment of modern
+political ideas is so bizarre and yet so acute that it will repay study.
+
+It was not, however, for some time, that the significance of this
+pamphlet was generally understood. It was such an amazing departure from
+old precedents for the Peking Government to lend itself to public
+propaganda as a revolutionary weapon that the mind of the people refused
+to credit the fatal turn things were taking. But presently when it
+became known that the "Society for the Preservation of Peace" was
+actually housed in the Imperial City and in daily relations with the
+President's Palace; and that furthermore the Procurator-General of
+Peking, in response to innumerable memorials of denunciation, having
+attempted to proceed against the author and publishers of the pamphlet,
+as well as against the Society, had been forced to leave the capital
+under threats against his life, the document was accepted at its
+face-value. Almost with a gasp of incredulity China at last realized
+that Yuan Shih-kai had been seduced to the point of openly attempting to
+make himself Emperor. From those August days of 1915 until the 6th June
+of the succeeding year, when Fate had her own grim revenge, Peking was
+given up to one of the most amazing episodes that has ever been
+chronicled in the dramatic history of the capital. It was as if the old
+city walls, which had looked down on so much real drama, had determined
+to lend themselves to the staging of an unreal comedy. For from first to
+last the monarchy movement had something unreal about it, and might have
+been the scenario of some vast picture-play. It was acting pure and
+simple--acting done in the hope that the people might find it so
+admirable that they would acclaim it as real, and call the Dictator
+their King. But it is time to turn to the arguments of Yang Tu and allow
+a Chinese to picture the state of his country:
+
+    A DEFENCE OF THE MONARCHICAL MOVEMENT
+
+    PART I
+
+    Mr. Ko (or "the stranger"): Since the establishment of the Republic
+    four years have passed, and upon the President depends the
+    preservation of order at home and the maintenance of prestige
+    abroad. I suppose that after improving her internal administration
+    for ten or twenty years, China will become a rich and prosperous
+    country, and will be able to stand in the front rank with western
+    nations.
+
+    Mr. Hu: No! No! If China does not make any change in the form of
+    government there is no hope for her becoming strong and rich; there
+    is even no hope for her having a constitutional government. I say
+    that China is doomed to perish.
+
+    Mr. Ko: Why so?
+
+    Mr. Hu: The republican form of government is responsible. The
+    Chinese people are fond of good names, but they do not care much
+    about the real welfare of the nation. No plan to save the country is
+    possible. The formation of the Republic as a result of the first
+    revolution has prevented that.
+
+    Mr. Ko: Why is it that there is no hope of China's becoming strong?
+
+    Mr. Hu: The people of a republic are accustomed to listen to the
+    talk of equality and freedom which must affect the political and
+    more especially the military administration. In normal circumstances
+    both the military and student classes are required to lay great
+    emphasis upon unquestioned obedience and respect for those who hold
+    high titles. The German and Japanese troops observe strict
+    discipline and obey the orders of their chiefs. That is why they are
+    regarded as the best soldiers in the world. France and America are
+    in a different position. They are rich but not strong. The sole
+    difference is that Germany and Japan are ruled by monarchs while
+    France and America are republics. Our conclusion therefore is that
+    no republic can be strong.
+
+    But since the French and American peoples possess general education
+    they are in a position to assume responsibility for the good
+    government of their nations which they keep in good order. On that
+    account, although these republics are not strong in dealing with the
+    Powers, they can maintain peace at home. China, however, is unlike
+    these countries, for her standard of popular education is very low.
+    Most of the Chinese soldiers declare as a commonplace: "We eat the
+    imperial food and we must therefore serve the imperial master." But
+    now the Imperial family is gone, and for it has been substituted an
+    impersonal republic, of which they know nothing whatsoever. These
+    soldiers are now law-abiding because they have awe-inspiring and
+    respectful feelings for the man at the head of the state. But as the
+    talk of equality and freedom has gradually influenced them, it has
+    become a more difficult task to control them. As an example of this
+    corrupt spirit, the commanders of the Southern troops formerly had
+    to obey their subordinate officers and the subordinate officers had
+    to obey their soldiers. Whenever there was an important question to
+    be discussed, the soldiers demanded a voice and a share in the
+    solution. These soldiers were called the republican army. Although
+    the Northern troops have not yet become so degenerate, still they
+    never hesitate to disobey the order of their superiors whenever they
+    are ordered to proceed to distant localities. Now we have come to
+    the point when we are deeply satisfied if the army of the Republic
+    does not openly mutiny! We cannot expect any more from them save to
+    hope that they will not mutiny and that they will be able to
+    suppress internal disturbances. In the circumstances there is no use
+    talking about resistance of a foreign invasion by these soldiers. As
+    China, a republic, is situated between two countries, Japan and
+    Russia, both of which have monarchical governments, how can we
+    resist their aggression once diplomatic conversations begin? From
+    this it is quite evident that there is nothing which can save China
+    from destruction. Therefore I say there is no hope of China becoming
+    strong.
+
+    Mr. Ko: But why is it that there is no hope of China ever becoming
+    rich?
+
+    Mr. Hu: People may not believe that while France and America are
+    rich China must remain poor. Nevertheless, the reason why France and
+    America are rich is that they were allowed to work out their own
+    salvation without foreign intervention for many years, and that at
+    the same time they were free from internal disturbances. If any
+    nation wishes to become rich, it must depend upon industries for its
+    wealth. Now, what industries most fear is disorder and civil war.
+    During the last two years order has been restored and many things
+    have returned to their former state, but our industrial condition is
+    the same as under the Manchu Dynasty. Merchants who lost their
+    capital during the troublous times and who are now poor have no way
+    of retrieving their losses, while those who are rich are unwilling
+    to invest their money in industrial undertakings, fearing that
+    another civil war may break out at any moment, since they take the
+    recent abortive second revolution as their warning. In future, we
+    shall have disquietude every few years; that is whenever the
+    president is changed. Then our industrial and commercial condition
+    will be in a still worse condition. If our industries are not
+    developed, how can we expect to be strong? Take Mexico as a warning.
+    There is very little difference between that country and China,
+    which certainly cannot be compared with France and America.
+    Therefore I say there is no hope for China ever becoming rich.
+
+    Mr. Ko: Why is it that you say there is no hope for China having a
+    Constitutional Government?
+
+    Mr. Hu: A true republic must be conducted by many people possessing
+    general education, political experience and a certain political
+    morality. Its president is invested with power by the people to
+    manage the general affairs of the state. Should the people desire to
+    elect Mr. A their president to-day and Mr. B to-morrow, it does not
+    make much difference; for the policy of the country may be changed
+    together with the change of the president without there being any
+    danger of disorder or chaos following such change. We have a very
+    different problem to solve in China. The majority of our people do
+    not know what the republic is, nor do they know anything about a
+    Constitution nor have they any true sense of equality and freedom.
+    Having overthrown the Empire and established in its place a republic
+    they believe that from now on they are subservient to no one, and
+    they think they can do as they please. Ambitious men hold that any
+    person may be president, and if they cannot get the presidency by
+    fair means of election they are prepared to fight for it with the
+    assistance of troops and robbers. The second revolution is an
+    illustration of this point. From the moment that the Emperor was
+    deposed, the centralization of power in the government was
+    destroyed; and no matter who may be at the head of the country, he
+    cannot restore peace except by the re-establishment of the monarchy.
+    So at the time when the republic was formed, those who had
+    previously advocated Constitutional Government turned into
+    monarchists. Although we have a Provisional Constitution now and we
+    have all kinds of legislative organs, which give to the country an
+    appearance of a constitutional government, China has a
+    constitutional government in name only and is a monarchy in spirit.
+    Had the government refrained from exercising monarchical power
+    during the last four years, the people could not have enjoyed one
+    day of peace. In short, China's republic must be governed by a
+    monarchy through a constitutional government. If the constitutional
+    government cannot govern the republic, the latter cannot remain. The
+    question of constitutional government is therefore very important,
+    but it will take ten or twenty years before it can be solved.
+
+    Look at the people of China to-day! They know that something
+    terrible is going to come sooner or later. They dare not think of
+    the future. The corrupt official lines his pocket with unrighteous
+    money, preparing to flee to foreign countries or at least to the
+    Foreign Settlements for safety. The cautious work quietly and do not
+    desire to earn merit but merely try to avoid giving offence. The
+    scholars and politicians are grandiloquent and discourse upon their
+    subjects in a sublime vein, but they are no better than the corrupt
+    officials. As for our President, he can remain at the head of the
+    State for a few years. At most he may hold office for several
+    terms,--or perhaps for his whole life. Then questions must arise as
+    to who shall succeed him; how to elect his successor; how many
+    rivals will there be; whether their policies will be different from
+    his, etc., etc. He personally has no idea regarding the solution of
+    these questions. Even if the president is a sagacious and capable
+    man he will not be able to make a policy for the country or fix a
+    Constitution which will last for a hundred years. Because of this he
+    is driven merely to adopt a policy so as to maintain peace in his
+    own country and to keep the nation intact so long as he may live. In
+    the circumstances such a president can be considered the best
+    executive head we can have. Those who are worshippers of the
+    constitutional government cannot do more than he does. Here we find
+    the reason for the silence of the former advocates of a
+    constitutional administration. They have realized that by the
+    formation of the republic the fundamental problem of the country has
+    been left unsolved. In this wise it happens that the situation is
+    something like this. Whilst the country is governed by an able
+    president, the people enjoy peace and prosperity. But once an
+    incapable man assumes the presidency, chaos will become the order of
+    the day, a state of affairs which will finally lead to the overthrow
+    of the president himself and the destruction of the country. In such
+    circumstances, how can you devise a general policy for the country
+    which will last for a hundred years? I say that there is no hope for
+    China establishing a truly constitutional government.
+
+    Mr. Ko: In your opinion there is no hope for China becoming strong
+    and rich or for her acquiring a constitutional government. She has
+    no choice save ultimately to disappear. And yet is there no plan
+    possible whereby she may be saved?
+
+    Mr. Hu: If China wishes to save herself from ultimate disappearance
+    from the face of the earth, first of all she must get rid of the
+    republic. Should she desire wealth and strength, she must adopt a
+    constitutional government. Should she want constitutional government
+    she must first establish a monarchy.
+
+    Mr. Ko: How is it that should China desire wealth and strength she
+    must first adopt the constitutional form of government?
+
+    Mr. Hu: Wealth and strength is the object of the country, and a
+    constitutional government is the means to realizing this object. In
+    the past able rulers could accomplish their purpose without a
+    constitutional government. We refer to Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty
+    and Emperor Tai Chung of the Tang Dynasty. However, when these able
+    rulers died their system of administration died with them. This
+    contention can be supported by numerous historical instances; but
+    suffice to say that in China as well as in Europe, the lack of a
+    constitutional government has been the cause of the weakness of most
+    of the nations in ancient times. Japan was never known as a strong
+    nation until she adopted a constitutional government. The reason is
+    this: when there is no constitutional government, the country cannot
+    continue to carry out a definite policy.
+
+    Within comparatively recent times there was born in Europe the
+    constitutional form of government. European nations adopted it, and
+    they became strong. The most dangerous fate that can confront a
+    nation is that after the death of an able ruler the system of
+    administration he has established disappears with him; but this the
+    constitutional form of government is able to avert. Take for
+    instance William I. of Germany who is dead but whose country
+    continues to this day strong and prosperous. It is because of
+    constitutional government. The same is true of Japan, which has
+    adopted constitutional government and which is becoming stronger and
+    stronger every day. The change of her executive cannot affect her
+    progress in respect of her strength. From this it is quite clear
+    that constitutional government is a useful instrument for building
+    up a country. It is a government with a set of fixed laws which
+    guard the actions of both the people and the president none of whom
+    can overstep the boundary as specified in the laws. No ruler,
+    whether be he a good man or a bad man, can change one iota of the
+    laws. The people reap the benefit of this in consequence. It is easy
+    to make a country strong and rich but it is difficult to establish a
+    constitutional government. When a constitutional government has been
+    established, everything will take care of itself, prosperity
+    following naturally enough. The adoption of a constitutional
+    government at the present moment can be compared to the problem of a
+    derailed train. It is hard to put the train back on the track, but
+    once on the track it is very easy to move the train. What we should
+    worry about is not how to make the country rich and prosperous, but
+    how to form a genuine constitutional government. Therefore I say
+    that if China desires to be strong and prosperous, she should first
+    of all adopt the constitutional form of government.
+
+    Mr. Ko: I do not understand why it is that a monarchy should be
+    established before the constitutional form of government can be
+    formed?
+
+    Mr. Hu: Because if the present system continues there will be
+    intermittent trouble. At every change of the president there will be
+    riot and civil war. In order to avert the possibility of such awful
+    times place the president in a position which is permanent. It
+    follows that the best thing is to make him Emperor. When that bone
+    of contention is removed, the people will settle down to business
+    and feel peace in their hearts, and devote their whole energy and
+    time to the pursuit of their vocations. It is logical to assume that
+    after the adoption of the monarchy they will concentrate their
+    attention on securing a constitutional government which they know is
+    the only salvation for their country. As for the Emperor, knowing
+    that he derives his position from the change from a republic, and
+    filled with the desire of pacifying the people, he cannot help
+    sanctioning the formation of the constitutional form of government
+    which in addition, will insure to his offspring the continuation of
+    the Throne. Should he adopt any other course, he will be exposed to
+    great personal danger. If he is broadminded, he will further
+    recognize the fact that if no constitutional form of government is
+    introduced, his policy will perish after his death. Therefore I say
+    that before the adoption of the constitutional form of government, a
+    monarchy should be established. William I. of Germany and the
+    Emperor Meiji of Japan both tried the constitutional form of
+    government and found it a success.
+
+    Mr. Ko: Please summarize your discussion.
+
+    Mr. Hu: In short, the country cannot be saved except through the
+    establishment of a constitutional form of government. No
+    constitutional government can be formed except through the
+    establishment of a monarchy. The constitutional form of government
+    has a set of fixed laws, and the monarchy has a definite head who
+    cannot be changed, in which matters lies the source of national
+    strength and wealth.
+
+    Mr. Ko: What you have said in regard to the adoption of the
+    constitutional monarchy as a means of saving the country from
+    dismemberment is quite true, but I would like to have your opinion
+    on the relative advantages and disadvantages of a republic and a
+    monarchy, assuming that China adopts the scheme of a monarchy.
+
+    Mr. Hu: I am only too glad to give you my humble opinion on this
+    momentous question.
+
+    Mr. Ko: You have said that China would be devastated by contending
+    armies of rival leaders trying to capture the presidency. At what
+    precise moment will that occur?
+
+    Mr. Hu: The four hundred million people of China now rely upon the
+    President alone for the protection of their lives and property. Upon
+    him likewise falls the burden of preserving both peace and the
+    balance of power in the Far East. There is no time in the history of
+    China that the Head of the State has had to assume such a heavy
+    responsibility for the protection of life and property and for the
+    preservation of peace in Asia; and at no time in our history has the
+    country been in greater danger than at the present moment. China can
+    enjoy peace so long as His Excellency Yuan Shih-kai remains the
+    President, and no longer. Should anything befall the President,
+    every business activity will at once be suspended, shops will be
+    closed, disquietude will prevail, people will become panic-stricken,
+    the troops uncontrollable, and foreign warships will enter our
+    harbours. European and American newspapers will be full of special
+    dispatches about the complicated events in China, and martial law
+    will be declared in every part of the country. All this will be due
+    to the uncertainty regarding the succession to the presidency.
+
+It will be seen from the first section of this long and extraordinary
+pamphlet how the author develops his argument. One of his major premises
+is the inherent unruliness of Republican soldiery,--the armies of
+republics not to be compared with the armed forces of monarchies,--and
+consequently constituting a perpetual menace to good government. Passing
+on from this, he lays down the proposition that China cannot hope to
+become rich so long as the fear of civil war is ever-present; and that
+without a proper universal education a republic is an impossibility. The
+exercise of monarchical power in such circumstances can only be called
+an inevitable development,--the one goal to be aimed at being the
+substitution of Constitutional Government for the dictatorial rule. The
+author deals at great length with the background to this idea, playing
+on popular fears to reinforce his casuistry. For although constitutional
+government is insisted upon as the sole solution, he speedily shows that
+this constitutionalism will depend more on the benevolence of the
+dictator than on the action of the people. And should his advice be not
+heeded, when Fortune wills that Yuan Shih-kai's rule shall end, chaos
+will ensue owing to the "uncertainty" regarding the succession.
+
+Here the discussion reaches its climax--for the demand that salvation be
+sought by enthroning Yuan Shih-kai now becomes clear and unmistakable.
+Let the author speak for himself.
+
+    Mr. Ko: But it is provided in the Constitutional Compact that a
+    president must be selected from among the three candidates whose
+    names are now kept in a golden box locked in a stone room. Do you
+    think this provision is not sufficient to avert the terrible times
+    which you have just described?
+
+    Mr. Hu: The provision you have mentioned is useless. Can you find
+    any person who is able to be at the head of the state besides His
+    Excellency Yuan Shih-kai? The man who can succeed President Yuan
+    must enjoy the implicit confidence of the people and must have
+    extended his influence all over the country and be known both at
+    home and abroad. He must be able to maintain order, and then no
+    matter what the constitution provides, he will be unanimously
+    elected President. He must also be able to assure himself that the
+    two other candidates for the presidency have no hope for success in
+    the presidential campaign. The provision in the constitution, as
+    well as the golden casket in which the names of the three candidates
+    are kept which you have mentioned, are nothing but nominal measures.
+    Moreover there is no man in China who answers the description of a
+    suitable, successor which I have just given. Here arises a difficult
+    problem; and what has been specified in the Constitutional Compact
+    is a vain attempt to solve it. It is pertinent to ask why the
+    law-makers should not have made the law in such a way that the
+    people could exercise their free choice in the matter of the
+    presidential successor? The answer is that there is reason to fear
+    that a bad man may be elected president by manipulations carried out
+    with a masterly hand, thereby jeopardizing the national welfare.
+    This fear has influenced the constitution-makers to settle upon
+    three candidates from among whom the president must be elected. Then
+    it may be asked why not fix upon one man instead of upon three since
+    you have already deprived the people of part of their freedom? The
+    answer is that: there is not a single man whose qualifications are
+    high enough to be the successor. As it is, three candidates of equal
+    qualifications are put forward for the people to their selection. No
+    matter how one may argue this important question from the legal
+    point of view, there is the fact that the law makers fixed upon
+    three candidates for the presidency, believing that we do not
+    possess a suitable presidential successor. The vital question of the
+    day setting aside all paper talk, is whether or not China has a
+    suitable man to succeed President Yuan Shih-kai. Whether or not the
+    constitutional compact can be actually carried out in future I do
+    not know; but I do know that that instrument will eventually become
+    ineffective.
+
+    Mr. Ko: I desire a true picture of the chaos which you have hinted
+    will ensue in this country. Can you tell me anything along that
+    line?
+
+    Mr. Hu: In a time of confusion, the soldiers play the most
+    important part, virtuous and experienced and learned statesmen being
+    unable to cope with the situation. The only qualification which a
+    leader at such a time needs to possess is the control of the
+    military, and the ability to suppress Parliament. Should such a
+    person be made the president, he cannot long hold his enviable post
+    in view of the fact that he cannot possess sufficient influence to
+    control the troops of the whole country. The generals of equal rank
+    and standing will not obey each other, while the soldiers and
+    politicians, seeing a chance in these differences for their
+    advancement, will stir up their feelings and incite one another to
+    fight. They will fight hard among themselves. The rebels, who are
+    now exiles in foreign lands, taking advantage of the chaos in China,
+    will return in very little time to perpetrate the worst crimes known
+    in human history. The royalists who are in retirement will likewise
+    come out to fish in muddy waters. Persons who have the
+    qualifications of leaders will be used as tools to fight for the
+    self-aggrandizement of those who use them. I do not wish to mention
+    names, but I can safely predict that more than ten different parties
+    will arise at the psychological moment. Men who will never be
+    satisfied until they become president, and those who know they
+    cannot get the presidency but who are unwilling to serve others,
+    will come out one after another. Confusion and disturbance will
+    follow with great rapidity. Then foreign countries which have
+    entertained wild ambitions, availing themselves of the distressful
+    situation in China will stir up ill-feelings among these parties and
+    so increase the disturbances. When the proper time comes, various
+    countries, unwilling to let a single country enjoy the privilege of
+    controlling China, will resort to armed intervention. In consequence
+    the eastern problem will end in a rupture of the international
+    peace. Whether China will be turned at that time into a battleground
+    for the Chinese people or for the foreign Powers I cannot tell you.
+    It is too dreadful to think of the future which is enshrouded in a
+    veil of mystery. However, I can tell you that the result of this
+    awful turmoil will be either the slicing of China like a melon or
+    the suppression of internal trouble with foreign assistance which
+    will lead to dismemberment. As to the second result some explanation
+    is necessary. After foreign countries have helped us to suppress
+    internal disturbances, they will select a man of the type of Li Wang
+    of Korea, who betrayed his country to Japan, and make him Emperor of
+    China. Whether this man will be the deposed emperor or a member of
+    the Imperial family or the leader of the rebel party, remains to be
+    seen. In any event he will be a figurehead in whose hand will not be
+    vested political, financial and military power, which will be
+    controlled by foreigners. All the valuable mines, various kinds of
+    industries and our abundant natural resources will likewise be
+    developed by others. China will thus disappear as a nation. In
+    selecting a man of the Li Wang type, the aforesaid foreign countries
+    will desire merely to facilitate the acquisition of China's
+    territory. But there can be easily found such a man who bears
+    remarkable resemblance to Li Wang, and who will be willing to make a
+    treaty with the foreigners whereby he unpatriotically sells his
+    country in exchange for a throne which he can never obtain or keep
+    without outside assistance. His procedure will be something like
+    this: He will make an alliance with a foreign nation by which the
+    latter will be given the power to carry on foreign relations on
+    behalf of his country. In the eyes of foreigners, China will have
+    been destroyed, but the people will continue deceived and made to
+    believe that their country is still in existence. This is the first
+    step. The second step will be to imitate the example of Korea and
+    make a treaty with a certain power, whereby China is annexed and the
+    throne abolished. The imperial figurehead then flees to the foreign
+    country where he enjoys an empty title. Should you then try to make
+    him devise means for regaining the lost territory it will be too
+    late. For China will have been entirely destroyed by that time. This
+    is the second procedure in the annexation of Chinese territory. The
+    reason why that foreign country desires to change the republic into
+    the monarchy is to set one man on the throne and make him witness
+    the whole process of annexation of his country, thereby simplifying
+    the matter. When that time has come, the people will not be
+    permitted to make any comment upon the form of government suitable
+    for China, or upon the destruction of their country. The rebels who
+    raised the standard of the republic have no principles and if they
+    now find that some other tactics will help to increase their power
+    they will adopt these tactics. China's republic is doomed, no matter
+    what happens. If we do not change it ourselves, others will do it
+    for us. Should we undertake the change ourselves we can save the
+    nation: otherwise there is no hope for China to remain a nation. It
+    is to be regretted that our people now assume an attitude of
+    indifference, being reluctant to look forward to the future, and
+    caring not what may happen to them and their country. They are
+    doomed to become slaves after the loss of their national
+    independence.
+
+    Mr. Ko: I am very much frightened by what you have said. You have
+    stated that the adoption of a constitutional monarchy can avert such
+    terrible consequences; but is there not likely to be disturbance
+    during the change of the republic to monarchy, since such
+    disturbance must always accompany the presidential election?
+
+    Mr. Hu: No comparison can be formed between these two things. There
+    may be tumult during the change of the form of government, but it
+    will be better in comparison with the chaos that will some day ensue
+    in the republic. There is no executive head in the country when a
+    republic endeavours to select a presidential successor. At such a
+    time, the ambitious try to improve their future, while the patriotic
+    are at a loss now to do anything which will assist in the
+    maintenance of order. Those who are rebellious rise in revolt while
+    those who are peace-loving are compelled by circumstances to join
+    their rank and file. Should the form of government be transformed
+    into a monarchical one, and should the time for change of the head
+    of the state come, the successor having already been provided for,
+    that will be well-known to the people. Those who are patriotic will
+    exert their utmost to preserve peace, and as result the
+    heir-apparent can peacefully step on the throne. There are persons
+    who will contend for the office of the President, but not for the
+    throne. Those who contend for the office of President do not commit
+    any crime, but those who try to seize the throne are rebels. Who
+    dares to contend for the Throne?
+
+    At the time of the change of the president in a republic, ambitious
+    persons arise with the intention of capturing this most honourable
+    office, but not so when the emperor is changed. Should there be a
+    body of persons hostile to the heir-apparent, that body must be very
+    small. Therefore I say that the enemies of a succeeding Emperor are
+    a few, whilst there are many in the case of a presidential
+    successor. This is the first difference.
+
+    Those who oppose the monarchy are republican enthusiasts or persons
+    who desire to make use of the name of the republic for their own
+    benefit. These persons will raise trouble even without the change of
+    the government. They do not mind disturbing the peace of the country
+    at the present time when the republic exists. It is almost certain
+    that at the first unfurling of the imperial flags they will at once
+    grasp such an opportune moment and try to satisfy their ambition.
+    Should they rise in revolt at the time when the Emperor is changed
+    the Government, supported by the loyal statesmen and officials,
+    whose interests are bound up with the welfare of the imperial family
+    and whose influence has spread far and wide, will be able to deal
+    easily with any situation which may develop. Therefore I declare
+    that the successor to the throne has more supporters while the
+    presidential successor has few. This is the second difference
+    between the republic and the constitutional monarchy.
+
+    Why certain persons will contend for the office of the President can
+    be explained by the fact that there is not a single man in the
+    country whose qualifications are above all the others. Succession to
+    the throne is a question of blood-relation with the reigning
+    Emperor, and not a question of qualifications. The high officials
+    whose qualifications are unusually good are not subservient to
+    others but they are obedient to the succeeding Emperor, because of
+    their gratitude for what the imperial family has done for them, and
+    because their well-being is closely associated with that of the
+    imperial household. I can cite an historical incident to support my
+    contention. Under the Manchu Dynasty, at one time General Chu
+    Chung-tang was entrusted with the task of suppressing the Mohammedan
+    rebellion. He appointed General Liu Sung San generalissimo. Upon the
+    death of General Liu, Chu Chung-tang appointed his subordinate
+    officers to lead the army but the subordinate officers competed for
+    power. Chu Chung-tang finally made the step-son of General Liu the
+    Commander-in-Chief and the officers and soldiers all obeyed his
+    order as they did his father's. But it may be mentioned that this
+    young man was not more able than any of his father's subordinate
+    commanders. Nevertheless prestige counted. He owed his success to
+    his natural qualification, being a step-son to General Liu. So is
+    the case with the emperor whose successor nobody dares openly to
+    defy--to say nothing of actually disputing his right to the throne.
+    This is the third difference between the republic and the monarchy.
+
+    I will not discuss the question: as to whether there being no
+    righteous and able heir-apparent to succeed his Emperor-father,
+    great danger may not confront the nation. However, in order to
+    provide against any such case, I advocate that the formation of a
+    constitutional government should go hand in hand with the
+    establishment of the monarchy. At first it is difficult to establish
+    and carry out a constitutional government, but once it is formed it
+    will be comparatively easy. When the constitutional government has
+    been established, the Emperor will have to seek his fame in such
+    useful things as the defence of his country and the conquest of his
+    enemy. Everything has to progress, and men possessing European
+    education will be made use of by the reigning family. The first
+    Emperor will certainly do all he can to capture the hearts of the
+    people by means of adopting and carrying out in letter as well as in
+    spirit constitutional government. The heir-apparent will pay
+    attention to all new reforms and new things. Should he do so, the
+    people will be able to console themselves by saying that they will
+    aways be the people of a constitutional monarchy even after the
+    succession to the throne of the heir-apparent. When the time comes
+    for the heir-apparent to mount the throne the people will extend to
+    him their cordial welcome, and there will be no need to worry about
+    internal disturbances.
+
+    Therefore, I conclude that the successor to the presidential chair
+    has to prevent chaos by wielding the monarchical power, while the
+    new emperor can avert internal disquietude forever by means of his
+    constitutional government. This is the fourth difference between the
+    republic and the monarchy. These four differences are accountable
+    for the fact that there will not be as much disturbance at the time
+    of the change of emperors as at the time when the president is
+    changed.
+
+    Mr. Ko: I can understand what you have said with regard to the
+    advantages and disadvantages of the republic and the monarchy, but
+    there are many problems connected with the formation of a
+    constitutional monarchy which we have to solve. Why is it that the
+    attempt to introduce constitutional government during the last years
+    of the Manchu Dynasty proved a failure?
+
+    Mr. Hu: The constitutional government of the Manchu Dynasty was one
+    in name only, and as such the forerunner of the revolution of 1911.
+    Towards the end of the Manchu Dynasty, the talk of starting a
+    revolution to overthrow the imperial régime was in everybody's
+    mouth, although the constitutional party endeavoured to accomplish
+    something really useful. At that time His Excellency Yuan Shih-kai
+    was the grand chancellor, and realizing the fact that nothing except
+    the adoption of a constitutional government could save the throne of
+    the Manchus, he assumed the leadership of the constitutional party,
+    which surpassed in strength the revolutionary party as a result of
+    his active support. The people's hearts completely turned to the
+    constitutional party for salvation, while the revolutionary party
+    lost that popular support which it had formerly enjoyed. Then it
+    seemed that the imperial household would soon adopt the
+    constitutional monarchy and the threatening revolution could be
+    averted. Unfortunately, the elaborate plans of His Excellency Yuan
+    Shih-kai regarding the adoption of the constitutional government
+    were not carried out by the imperial household. A great change took
+    place: His Excellency retired to his native province; and after
+    losing this powerful leader the constitutional party was pitilessly
+    shattered. A monarchist party suddenly made its appearance on the
+    political arena to assist the imperial family, which pretended to do
+    its very best for the development of a constitutional government,
+    but secretly exerted itself to the utmost for the possession and
+    retention of the real power. This double-dealing resulted in
+    bringing about the revolution of 1911. For instance, when the people
+    cried for the convening of a parliament, the imperial family said
+    "No." The people also failed to secure the abolition of certain
+    official organs for the imperialists. They lost confidence in the
+    Reigning House, and simultaneously the revolutionary party raised
+    its banner and gathered its supporters from every part of the
+    country. As soon as the revolt started at Wuchang the troops all
+    over the country joined in the movement to overthrow the Manchu
+    Dynasty. The members of the Imperial Senate, most of whom were
+    members of the constitutional party, could not help showing their
+    sympathy with the revolutionists. At last the imperial household
+    issued a proclamation containing Nineteen Articles--a veritable
+    _magna charta_--but it was too late. The constitutional government
+    which was about to be formed was thus laid aside. What the imperial
+    family did was the mere organization of an advisory council. A
+    famous foreign scholar aptly remarked: "A false constitutional
+    government will eventually result in a true revolution." In trying
+    to deceive the people by means of a false constitutional government
+    the imperial house encompassed its own destruction. Once His
+    Excellency Yuan Shih-kai stated in a memorial to the throne that
+    there were only two alternatives: to give the people a
+    constitutional government or to have them revolt. What happened
+    afterwards is a matter of common knowledge. Therefore I say that the
+    government which the imperial family attempted to form was not a
+    constitutional government.
+
+    Mr. Ko: Thank you for your discussion of the attempt of the imperial
+    household to establish a constitutional government; but how about
+    the Provisional Constitution, the parliament and the cabinet in the
+    first and second years of the Republic? The parliament was then so
+    powerful that the government was absolutely at its mercy, thereby
+    disturbing the peaceful condition of the country. The people have
+    tasted much of the bitterness of constitutional government. Should
+    you mention the name of constitutional government again they would
+    be thoroughly frightened. Is that true?
+
+    Mr. Hu: During the first and second years of the Republic, in my
+    many conversations with the members of the Kuo Ming Tang, I said
+    that the republic could not form an efficient method of control, and
+    that there would be an over centration of power through the adoption
+    of monarchical methods of ruling, knowing as well as I did the
+    standards of our people. When the members of the Kuo Ming Tang came
+    to draw up the Provisional Constitution they purposely took
+    precisely the opposite course of action and ignored my suggestion.
+    It may, however, be mentioned that the Provisional Constitution made
+    in Nanking was not so bad, but after the government was removed to
+    Peking, the Kuo Ming Tang people tied the hand and foot of the
+    government by means of the Cabinet System and other restrictions
+    with the intention of weakening the power of the central
+    administration in order that they might be able to start another
+    revolution. From the dissolution of the Nanking government to the
+    time of the second revolution they had this one object in view,
+    namely to weaken the power of the central administration so that
+    they could contend for the office of the president by raising
+    further internal troubles in China. Those members of the Kuo Ming
+    Tang who made the constitution know as well as I that China's
+    republic must be governed through a monarchical administration; and
+    therefore the unreasonable restrictions in the Provisional
+    Constitution were purposely inserted.
+
+    Mr. Ko: What is the difference between the constitutional government
+    which you have proposed and the constitutional government which the
+    Manchu Dynasty intended to adopt?
+
+    Mr. Hu: The difference lies in the proper method of procedure and in
+    honesty of purpose, which are imperative if constitutional
+    government expects to be successful.
+
+    Mr. Ko: What do you mean by the proper method of procedure?
+
+    Mr. Hu: The Provisional Constitution made in Nanking, which was
+    considered good, is not suitable for insertion in the future
+    constitution, should a constitutional monarchy be established. In
+    making a constitution for the future constitutional monarchy we have
+    to consult the constitutions of the monarchies of the world. They
+    can be divided into three classes which are represented by England,
+    Prussia and Japan. England is advanced in its constitutional
+    government, which has been in existence for thousands of years,
+    (_sic_) and is the best of all in the world. The English king enjoys
+    his empty title and the real power of the country is exercised by
+    the parliament, which makes all the laws for the nation. As to
+    Prussia, the constitutional monarchy was established when the people
+    started a revolution. The ruler of Prussia was compelled to convene
+    a parliament and submitted to that legal body a constitution.
+    Prussia's constitution was made by its ruler together with the
+    parliament. Its constitutional government is not so good as the
+    English. As to the Japanese constitutional monarchy, the Emperor
+    made a constitution and then convened a parliament. The
+    constitutional power of the Japanese people is still less than that
+    of the Prussian people. According to the standard of our people we
+    cannot adopt the English constitution as our model, for it is too
+    advanced. The best thing for us to do is to adopt part of the
+    Prussian and part of the Japanese in our constitution-making. As our
+    people are better educated now than ever before, it is decidedly
+    unwise entirely to adopt the Japanese method, that is, for the
+    Emperor to make a constitution without the approval of the
+    parliament and then to convoke a legislative body. In the
+    circumstances China should adopt the Prussian method as described
+    above with some modifications, which will be very suitable to our
+    conditions. As to the contents of the constitution we can copy such
+    articles as those providing the right for the issue of urgent orders
+    and appropriation of special funds, etc., from the Japanese
+    Constitution, so that the power of the ruler can be increased
+    without showing the slightest contempt for the legislative organ. I
+    consider that this is the proper method of procedure for the
+    formation of a constitutional monarchy for China.
+
+    Mr. Ko: Can I know something about the contents of our future
+    constitution in advance?
+
+    Mr. Hu: If you want to know them in detail I recommend you to read
+    the Constitutions of Prussia and Japan. But I can tell you this
+    much. Needless to say that such stipulations as articles
+    guaranteeing the rights of the people and the power of the
+    parliament will surely be worked into the future constitution. These
+    are found in almost every constitution in the world. But as the
+    former Provisional Constitution has so provided that the power of
+    the parliament is unlimited, while that of the president is very
+    small, the Chief Executive, besides conferring decorations and
+    giving Orders of Merit, having almost nothing to do without the
+    approval of the Senate, it is certain that nothing will be taken
+    from that instrument for the future constitution. Nor will the
+    makers of the future constitution take anything from the nineteen
+    capitulations offered by the Manchu Government, which gave too much
+    power to the legislative organ. According to the Nineteen Articles
+    the Advisory Council was to draw up the constitution, which was to
+    be ratified by the parliament; the Premier being elected by the
+    parliament; whilst the use of the army and navy required the
+    parliament's sanction; the making of treaties with foreign countries
+    have likewise to be approved by the parliament, etc., etc. Such
+    strict stipulations which are not even known in such an advanced
+    country in matters constitutional as England were extorted from the
+    imperial family by the advisory council. Therefore it is most
+    unlikely that the makers of the future constitution will take any
+    article from the nineteen capitulations of "confidence." They will
+    use the Constitutions of Japan and Prussia as joint model and will
+    always have in their mind the actual conditions of this country and
+    the standard of the people. In short, they will copy some of the
+    articles in the Japanese constitution, and adopt the Prussian method
+    of procedure for the making of the constitution.
+
+    Mr. Ko: What do you mean by honesty?
+
+    Mr. Hu: It is a bad policy to deceive the people. Individually the
+    people are simple, but they cannot be deceived collectively. The
+    Manchu Government committed an irretrievable mistake by promising
+    the people a constitutional government but never carrying out their
+    promise. This attitude on the part of the then reigning house
+    brought about the first revolution. As the standard of our people at
+    the present time is not very high, they will be satisfied with less
+    power if it is properly given to them. Should any one attempt to
+    deceive them his cause will finally be lost. I do not know how much
+    power the people and the parliament will get in the constitutional
+    monarchy, but I would like to point out here that it is better to
+    give them less power than to deceive them. If they are given less
+    power, and if they want more, they will contend for it. Should the
+    government deem it advisable to give them a little more, well and
+    good. Should they be unfit for the possession of greater power, the
+    government can issue a proclamation giving the reasons for not
+    complying with their request, and they will not raise trouble
+    knowing the true intention of the government. However, honesty is
+    the most important element in the creation of a constitutional
+    monarchy. It is easy and simple to practise it. The parliament must
+    have the power to decide the laws and fix the budgets. Should its
+    decision be too idealistic or contrary to the real welfare of the
+    country, the Government can explain its faults and request it to
+    reconsider its decision. Should the parliament return the same
+    decision, the Government can dissolve it and convoke another
+    parliament. In so doing the Government respects the parliament
+    instead of despising it. But what the parliament has decided should
+    be carried out strictly by the Government, and thus we will have a
+    real constitutional Government. It is easy to talk but difficult to
+    act, but China like all other countries has to go through the
+    experimental stage and face all kinds of difficulties before a
+    genuine constitutional government can be evolved. The beginning is
+    difficult but once the difficulty is over everything will go on
+    smoothly. I emphasize that it is better to give the people less
+    power at the beginning than to deceive them. Be honest with them is
+    my policy.
+
+    Mr. Ko: I thank you very much for what you have said. Your
+    discussion is interesting and I can understand it well. The proper
+    method of procedure and honesty of purpose which you have mentioned
+    will tend to wipe out all former corruption.
+
+    Mr. Ko, or the stranger, then departed.
+
+On this note the pamphleteer abruptly ends. Having discussed _ad
+nauseam_ the inadequacy of all existing arrangements, even those made by
+Yuan Shih-kai himself, to secure a peaceful succession to the
+presidency; and having again insisted upon the evil part soldiery cannot
+fail to play, he introduces a new peril, the certainty that the foreign
+Powers will set up a puppet Emperor unless China solves this problem
+herself, the case of Korea being invoked as an example of the fate of
+divided nations. Fear of Japan and the precedent of Korea, being
+familiar phenomena, are given a capital position in all this debate,
+being secondary only to the crucial business of ensuring the peaceful
+succession to the supreme office. The transparent manner in which the
+history of the first three years of the Republic is handled in order to
+drive home these arguments will be very apparent. A fit crown is put on
+the whole business by the final suggestion that the Constitutional
+Government of China under the new empire must be a mixture of the
+Prussian and Japanese systems, Yang Tu's last words being that it is
+best to be honest with the people!
+
+No more damning indictment of Yuan Shih-kai's régime could possibly have
+been penned.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE MONARCHY PLOT
+
+THE MEMORANDUM OF DR. GOODNOW
+
+
+Although this extraordinary pamphlet was soon accepted by Chinese
+society as a semi-official warning of what was coming, it alone was not
+sufficient to launch a movement which to be successful required the
+benign endorsement of foreign opinion. The Chinese pamphleteer had dealt
+with the emotional side of the case: it was necessary to reinforce his
+arguments with an appeal which would be understood by Western statesmen
+as well as by Eastern politicians. Yuan Shih-kai, still pretending to
+stand aside, had kept his attention concentrated on this very essential
+matter; for, as we have repeatedly pointed out, he never failed to
+understand the superlative value of foreign support in all his
+enterprises,--that support being given an exaggerated value by the
+public thanks to China's reliance on foreign money. Accordingly, as if
+still unconvinced, he now very naïvely requested the opinion of his
+chief legal adviser, Dr. Goodnow, an American who had been appointed to
+his office through the instrumentality of the Board of the Carnegie
+Institute as a most competent authority on Administrative Law.
+
+Even in this most serious matter the element of comedy was not lacking.
+Dr. Goodnow had by special arrangement returned to Peking at the
+psychological moment; for having kicked his heels during many weary
+months in the capital, he had been permitted in 1914 to take up the
+appointment of President of an American University on condition that he
+would be available for legal "advice" whenever wanted. The Summer
+vacation gave him the opportunity of revisiting in the capacity of a
+transient adviser the scenes of his former idleness; and the
+holiday-task set him by his large-hearted patron was to prove in as few
+folios as possible that China ought to be a Monarchy and not a
+Republic--a theme on which every schoolboy could no doubt write with
+fluency. Consequently Dr. Goodnow, arming himself with a limited amount
+of paper and ink, produced in very few days the Memorandum which
+follows,--a document which it is difficult to speak of dispassionately
+since it seems to have been deliberately designed to play into the hands
+of a man who was now openly set on betraying the trust the nation
+reposed in him, and who was ready to wade through rivers of blood to
+satisfy his insensate ambition.
+
+[Illustration: President Li Yuan-Hung and the General Staff watching the
+Review.]
+
+[Illustration: March-past of an Infantry Division.]
+
+Nothing precisely similar to this Goodnow Memorandum has ever been seen
+before in the history of Asia: it was the ultramodern spirit impressed
+into the service of mediaeval minds. In any other capital of the world
+the publication of such a subversive document, following the Yang Tu
+pamphlet, would have led to riot and tumult. In China, the home of
+pacifism, the politicians and people bowed their heads and bided their
+time. Even foreign circles in China were somewhat nonplussed by the
+insouciance displayed by the peripatetic legal authority; and the
+Memorandum was for many days spoken of as an unnecessary
+indiscretion.[16] Fastening at once on the point to which Yang Tu had
+ascribed such importance--the question of succession--Dr. Goodnow in his
+arguments certainly shows a detachment from received principles which
+has an old-world flavour about it, and which has damned him for ever in
+the eyes of the rising generation in China. The version which follows is
+the translation of the Chinese translation, the original English
+Memorandum having been either mislaid or destroyed; and it is best that
+this argument should be carefully digested before we add our comments.
+
+    DR. GOODNOW'S MEMORANDUM
+
+    A country must have a certain form of government, and usually the
+    particular form of government of a particular country is not the
+    result of the choice of the people of that country. There is not any
+    possibility even for the most intellectual to exercise any mental
+    influence over the question. Whether it be a monarchy or republic,
+    it cannot be the creation of human power except when it is suitable
+    to the historical, habitual, social and financial conditions of that
+    country. If an unsuitable form of government is decided upon, it may
+    remain for a short while, but eventually a system better suited will
+    take its place.
+
+    In short, the form of government of a country is usually the natural
+    and only result of its circumstances. The reasons for such an
+    outcome are many, but the principal one is Force. If we study the
+    monarchical countries we will find that usually a dynasty is created
+    by a person who is capable of controlling the force of the entire
+    country and overthrowing other persons opposed to him, working
+    towards his goal with an undaunted spirit. If this man is capable of
+    ruling the nation and if he is a rare genius of the day, and the
+    conditions of the country are suited for a monarchical government,
+    he as a rule creates a new dynasty and his descendants inherit the
+    same from generation to generation.
+
+    If this is so, then the solution of a difficult position of a
+    country is to be found in a monarchy rather than a republic. For on
+    the death of a monarch no doubt exists as to who shall succeed him,
+    and there is no need of an election or other procedure. Englishmen
+    say, "The King is dead, Long live the King." This expresses the
+    point. But in order to attain this point it is necessary that the
+    law of succession be definitely defined and publicly approved;
+    otherwise there will not be lacking, on the death of the monarch,
+    men aspiring to the throne; and as no one is qualified to settle the
+    dispute for power, internal disturbance will be the result.
+
+    Historically speaking no law of succession is so permanently
+    satisfactory as that used by the nations of Europe. According to
+    this system the right of succession belongs to the eldest son of the
+    monarch, or failing him, the nearest and eldest male relative. The
+    right of succession, however, may be voluntarily surrendered by the
+    rightful successor if he so desires; thus if the eldest son declines
+    to succeed to the throne the second son takes his place. This is the
+    rule of Europe.
+
+    If instead of this law of a succession a system is adopted by which
+    the successor is chosen by the monarch from among his sons or
+    relatives without any provision being made for the rights of the
+    eldest son, disturbance will be the inevitable result. There will
+    not be a few who would like to take possession of the throne and
+    they will certainly plot in the very confines of the palace,
+    resulting in an increase of the sufferings of an aged monarch; and,
+    even if the disaster of civil war be avoided, much dispute will
+    arise owing to the uncertainty of the successor--a dangerous
+    situation indeed.
+
+    Such is the lesson we learn from history. The conclusion is,
+    speaking from the viewpoint of the problem of transmission of power,
+    that the superiority of the monarchical system over the republican
+    system is seen in the law of succession,--that is the eldest son of
+    the ruler should succeed to the throne.
+
+    Leaving out the nations of ancient times, the majority of countries
+    in Europe and Asia have adopted the monarchical system. There are,
+    however, exceptions such as _Wen-ni-shih_ (Venice) and Switzerland,
+    which adopted the republican form of government; but they are in the
+    minority while most of the great nations of the world have adopted
+    the monarchical form of government.
+
+    During the recent century and a half the attitude of Europe has
+    undergone a sudden change and the general tendency is to discredit
+    monarchism and adopt republicanism. The one great European power
+    which first attempted to make a trial of republicanism is Great
+    Britain. In the Seventeenth Century a revolution broke out in
+    England and King Charles I. was condemned to death by Parliament and
+    executed as a traitor to the nation. A republic was established and
+    the administration was called republican with Cromwell as regent,
+    _i.e._ President. Cromwell was able to control the power of
+    government because at the head of the revolutionary army he defeated
+    the King. This English republic, however, only existed for a few
+    years and was finally defeated in turn. The reason was that the
+    problem of succession after the death of Cromwell was difficult to
+    solve. Cromwell had a desire to place his son in his place as regent
+    after his death, but as the English people were then unsuited for a
+    republic and his son had not the ability to act as chief executive,
+    the republic of England suddenly disappeared. The British people
+    then abandoned the republican system and readopted the monarchical
+    system. Thus Charles II., the son of Charles I., was made King not
+    only with the support of the army but also with the general consent
+    of the country.
+
+    The second European race which attempted to have a republic was the
+    American. In the Eighteenth Century the United States of America was
+    established in consequence of the success of a revolution. But the
+    American revolution was not at first intended to overthrow the
+    monarchy. What it sought to do was to throw off the yoke of the
+    monarchy and become independent. The revolution, however, succeeded
+    and the circumstances were such that there was no other alternative
+    but to have a republic: for there was no royal or Imperial
+    descendant to shoulder the responsibilities of the state. Another
+    factor was the influence of the advocates of republicanism who came
+    to America in the previous century from England and saturated the
+    minds of the Americans with the ideas of republicanism. The minds of
+    the American people were so imbued with the ideas of republicanism
+    that a republican form of government was the ideal of the entire
+    race. Had General Washington--the leader of the revolutionary
+    army--had the desire to become a monarch himself he would probably
+    have been successful. But Washington's one aim was to respect
+    republicanism and he had no aspiration to become King. Besides he
+    had no son capable of succeeding him on the throne. Consequently on
+    the day independence was won, the republican form of government was
+    adopted without hesitation, and it has survived over a hundred
+    years.
+
+    There is no need to ask whether the result of the establishment of
+    the American Republic has been good or bad. The republican form of
+    government is really the making of the United States of America.
+    But it should be remembered that long before the establishment of
+    the republic, the American people had already learned the good laws
+    and ordinances of England, and the constitution and parliamentary
+    system of England had been long in use in America for over a hundred
+    years. Therefore the change in 1789 from a colony into a Republic
+    was not a sudden change from a monarchy to a republic. Thorough
+    preparations had been made and self-government was well practiced
+    before the establishment of the republic. Not only this, but the
+    intellectual standard of the American people was then already very
+    high; for ever since the beginning of American history attention was
+    given to universal education. No youth could be found who could not
+    read, and the extent of education can thus be gauged.
+
+    Soon after the formation of the American Republic, the French
+    Republic followed in her footsteps. Now in France a monarchical
+    government was in existence before the declaration of independence,
+    and the supreme power of administration was in the hands of the
+    King. The people, having never participated in the administration
+    and lacking experience in self-government, made a poor experiment of
+    the republican system which they suddenly set up. The result was
+    that for many years disorder reigned, and the tyranny of the
+    military governments held sway one after another. After the defeat
+    of Napoleon, the monarchical system was restored as a result of the
+    intervention of other Powers. The second revolution in 1830 again
+    resulted in the restoration of the monarchy but the power of the
+    common people was considerably increased. The monarchy was again
+    overthrown in 1848 and a Republic formed in its stead--the nephew of
+    Napoleon was then made President. This President, however, once more
+    discarded republicanism and set up a monarchy for himself. It was
+    not until after the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 that Napoleon III.
+    was overthrown and the final Republic established which has lived
+    for half a century now, there being every likelihood of its
+    continuing in its present form.
+
+    Indeed the Republic of France has every prospect of being permanent,
+    but the permanency is only the result of a hundred years' political
+    revolution. For a hundred years the foundations were being laid by
+    means of an energetic and persistent campaign of education, which
+    increased the political knowledge of the people. The people were
+    also allowed to participate in political affairs, and so gained
+    experience in self-government. This is why the French Republic is a
+    success. Then in France and America they have found a solution for
+    the difficult problem of the nation, that is the problem of
+    succession of the government in power. The President of France is
+    elected by the Parliament while the President of America is elected
+    by the people. The people of these two countries are all experienced
+    in self-government as a result of participation in political
+    affairs. Furthermore, for the last fifty years these two countries
+    have all laid emphasis on universal education by having an extensive
+    system of schools, subsidized by the Government. The intellectual
+    standard of these two peoples is therefore fairly high.
+
+    As a result of the examples set up by France and America, at the
+    end of the Eighteenth Century the Spanish colonies in Central and
+    South America also declared their independence one after the other.
+    The conditions then prevailing in those countries were somewhat
+    similar to those of America. When their independence was declared,
+    it seemed that the republican system was best suited to their
+    condition. For on the one hand there was no imperial house to direct
+    the people, on the other hand the Republic of North America was a
+    good example to follow. Public opinion was at that time unanimous
+    that since the republican form of government was the ideal form, it
+    was suitable for any country and any people. The idea thus quickly
+    spread and almost every country became a republic. The independence
+    of these countries, however, was secured only at the cost of a hard
+    struggle and once the spirit of rebellion was aroused it became
+    difficult to suppress in a short while. And since education was not
+    then universal the intellect of the people was low. What they were
+    expert in was in autocratic methods. No task is harder than to
+    establish a republic in a country, the intelligence of whose people
+    is low. These republics, therefore, reaped no good results although
+    they tried to retain republicanism unnaturally. The consequence is
+    that the republics of Central and South America have been a living
+    drama of continuous internal disturbance. One after another their
+    military leaders have grasped the power of administration.
+    Occasionally there has been peace but this peace has only been
+    secured by the iron hand of one or two powerful men holding the
+    power. Such powerful men, however, seldom pay any attention to
+    educational matters, and one never hears of their establishing any
+    schools. As to the people under them, they are not allowed to
+    participate in political affairs by which their experience in
+    politics may be ripened. The result is, on the man in power becoming
+    sick or dying--and the iron rule relaxed--that those who wish to
+    usurp the power of the state rise at once; and as the satisfactory
+    solution of the problem of succession cannot be found, those
+    undertakings which have made progress during the time of peace are
+    swept away without a single exception. In extreme cases the
+    disturbances continue to such an extent that the country falls into
+    a state of anarchy. Thus the social and financial factors of the
+    whole country are trodden on and destroyed under foot.
+
+    The conditions now prevailing in Mexico have been many times
+    duplicated in other republics in Central and South America. For this
+    can be the only result from adopting the republican form of
+    government where the political and financial conditions are
+    unsuited. Diaz, a military leader, once held the power of state in
+    his own hand, and when he became the President of Mexico it looked
+    as if the political problem was solved thereby. Diaz, however, did
+    not push education but instead oppressed the people and did not
+    allow them to participate in politics. When he was advanced in age
+    and his influence decreased, he lost entire control once the banner
+    of rebellion was raised. Ever since the overthrow of Diaz, military
+    leaders of that country have been fighting one another and the
+    disturbance is developing even to-day. In the present circumstances
+    there is no other means to solve the political problem of Mexico
+    except by intervention from abroad. (_Sic._)
+
+    Among the republics of Central and South America, however, there are
+    some which have made fairly good progress, the most prominent of
+    which are Argentina, Chili, and Peru. For some time there was
+    disorder in the first two republics immediately after the adoption
+    of the republican system, but later peace was gradually restored and
+    the people have been enjoying peace. As regards Peru, although some
+    disturbances have occurred since the establishment of the republican
+    government, the life of the Republic as a whole has been peaceful.
+    All of these three countries, however, developed constitutional
+    government with the utmost vigour. Even as far back as in the
+    earlier part of the Nineteenth Century Argentina and Chili were
+    already endeavouring to excel each other in their progress, and as
+    for Peru, its people were encouraged even while under the Imperial
+    régime, to participate in political affairs. The success of these
+    three republics is, therefore, not a mere chance happening.
+
+    The study of the experiences of these republics of Central and South
+    America and the history of France and the United States brings
+    forward two points which we should carefully consider:--
+
+    1. In order to make a satisfactory solution of the problem of
+    succession to the chief executive in a republican country, it is
+    necessary that the country be in possession of an extensive system
+    of schools; that the intellect of its people has been brought up to
+    a high standard by means of a patient process of universal
+    education; and that they be given a chance to participate in
+    political affairs for the purpose of gaining the needed experience,
+    before the republican form can be adopted without harm;
+
+    2. It is certain that the adoption of a republican form of
+    government in a country where the people are low in intellect and
+    lack experience and knowledge in political affairs, will not yield
+    any good result. For as the position of the President is not
+    hereditary, and consequently the problem of succession cannot be
+    satisfactorily solved, the result will be a military dictatorship.
+    It might be possible to have a short-lived peace but such a period
+    of peace is usually intermingled with periods of disturbances,
+    during which the unduly ambitious people may rise and struggle with
+    each other for the control of power, and the disaster which will
+    follow will be irremediable.
+
+    This is not all. The present tendency is that the European and other
+    western Powers will not tolerate the existence of a military
+    government in the world; for experience shows that the result of
+    military government is anarchy. Now this is of vital importance to
+    the interests of the European Powers. Since their financial
+    influence has extended so far, their capital as well as their
+    commercial undertakings of all branches and sorts have reached every
+    corner of the world, they will not hesitate to express their views
+    for the sake of peace, as to the system of government a country
+    should adopt, although they have no right to interfere with the
+    adoption of a form of government by another nation. For unless this
+    is done they cannot hope to get the due profit on the capital they
+    have invested. If this view is carried to the extreme, the political
+    independence of a nation may be interfered with or even the
+    Government may be replaced with some other organ. If such steps are
+    necessary to attain their views the Powers will not scruple to take
+    them. Therefore no nation will be allowed hereafter to choose its
+    own form of government if that results in constant revolution, as in
+    the case of South America in the last century. The Governments of
+    the future should, therefore, carefully consider the system to be
+    adopted for the maintenance of peace; otherwise control by
+    foreigners will be unavoidable.
+
+    We will now proceed to consider what significance these points
+    reviewed above have for the political conditions of China. China,
+    owing to the folly of an absolute monarchical system, has neglected
+    the education of the masses, whose intellectual attainments have
+    been consequently of a low standard. Then, there is the additional
+    fact that the people have never had a voice in the doings of their
+    government. Therefore they have not the ability to discuss politics.
+    Four years ago the absolute monarchy was suddenly changed into a
+    Republic. This movement was all too sudden to expect good results.
+    If the Manchus had not been an alien race, which the country wished
+    to overthrow, the best step which could then have been adopted was
+    to retain the Emperor and gradually lead him to a constitutional
+    government. What the Commissioners on Constitutional Government
+    suggested was quite practical if carried out gradually until
+    perfection was reached. Unfortunately the feeling of alien control
+    was bitter to the people and the maintenance of the throne was an
+    utter impossibility. Thus the monarchy was overthrown and the
+    adoption of a republican system was the only alternative.
+
+    Thus we see that China has during the last few years been
+    progressing in constitutional government. The pioneering stage of
+    the process was, however, not ideal. The results could have been
+    much better if a person of royal blood, respected by the people, had
+    come out and offered his service. Under the present conditions China
+    has not yet solved the problem of the succession to the Presidency.
+    What provisions we have now are not perfect. If the President should
+    one day give up his power the difficulties experienced by other
+    nations will manifest themselves again in China. The conditions in
+    other countries are similar to those obtaining in China and the
+    dangers are also the same. It is quite within the bounds of
+    possibility that the situation might threaten China's independence
+    if internal disturbance should occur in connection with this problem
+    and not be immediately put down.
+
+    What attitude then should those who have the good of the nation at
+    heart, take under the present circumstances? Should they advocate
+    the continuance of the Republic or suggest a change for a monarchy?
+    It is difficult to answer these questions. But I have no doubt in
+    saying that the monarchical system is better suited to China than
+    the republican system. For, if China's independence is to be
+    maintained, the government should be constitutional, and in
+    consideration of China's conditions as well as her relations with
+    other Powers, it will be easier to form a constitutional government
+    by adopting a monarchy than a Republic.
+
+    However, it must be remembered that in order to secure the best
+    results from changing the Republic into a Monarchy not a single one
+    of the following points can be dispensed with:
+
+    1. Such a change must not arouse the opposition of the Chinese
+    people or the Foreign Powers, which will cause the disturbances so
+    energetically suppressed by the Republican Government to appear
+    again in China. For the peace now prevailing in the country should
+    be maintained at any price so that no danger may come therefrom.
+
+    2. If the law of succession be not definitely defined in such a way
+    that it will leave no doubts as to the proper successor, no good can
+    come from the change from Republic to Monarchy. I have said enough
+    about the necessity of not allowing the monarch to choose his own
+    successor. Although the power of an Emperor is greater than that of
+    a President, when the majority of the people know nothing, it is
+    more respected by the people. But the reason for such a change will
+    not be valid if the change is brought about merely to add to the
+    power of the chief executive without the question of succession
+    being definitely settled. For the definiteness about succession is
+    the most prominent point of superiority of the monarchical system
+    over the republican system.
+
+    3 If the Government should fail to make provisions for the
+    development of the constitutional government, no permanent benefit
+    will result from the change of a republic into a monarchy. For if
+    China wishes to occupy a suitable place among the world powers, the
+    patriotism of her people must be made to grow so that the government
+    will be more than strong enough to cope with outside aggression. The
+    patriotism of the people will not grow if they are not allowed to
+    participate in political affairs, and without the hearty assistance
+    of the people no government can become strong. For the reason why
+    the people will assist the government is because they feel they are
+    a part of the government. Therefore the government should make the
+    people realize that the government is the organ which aims at
+    bringing blessing to the people, and make the people understand that
+    they have the right to superintend the government before the
+    government can achieve great things.
+
+    Every one of the points mentioned above are indispensable for the
+    change of the Republic into a monarchy. Whether the necessary
+    conditions are present must be left to those who know China well and
+    are responsible for her future progress. If these conditions are all
+    present then I have no doubt that the change of the form of the
+    government will be for the benefit of China.
+
+The first illuminating point, as we have already said, to leap up and
+lock attention to the exclusion of everything else in this memorandum,
+is that the chief difficulty which perplexes Dr. Goodnow is not the
+consolidation of a new government which had been recognized by all the
+Treaty Powers only two years previously but the question of _succession_
+to the supreme office in the land, a point which had already been fully
+provided for in the one chapter of the Permanent Constitution which had
+been legally passed prior to the _Coup d'état_ of the 4th November,
+1913. But Yuan Shih-kai's first care after that _coup d'état_ had been
+to promulgate with the assistance of Dr. Goodnow and others, a bogus
+Law, resting on no other sanction than his personal volition, with an
+elaborate flummery about three candidates whose names were to be
+deposited in the gold box in the Stone House in the gardens of the
+Palace. Therefore since the provisional nature of this prestidigitation
+had always been clear, the learned doctor's only solution is to
+recommend the overthrow of the government; the restoration of the Empire
+under the name of Constitutional Monarchy; and, by means of a fresh plot
+to do in China what all Europe has long been on the point of abandoning,
+namely, to substitute Family rule for National rule.
+
+Now had these suggestions been gravely made in any country but China by
+a person officially employed it is difficult to know what would have
+happened. Even in China had an Englishman published or caused to be
+published--especially after the repeated statements Yuan Shih-kai had
+given out that any attempt to force the sceptre on him would cause him
+to leave the country and end his days abroad[17]--that Englishman, we
+say, would have been liable under the Orders in Council to summary
+imprisonment, the possibility of tumult and widespread internal
+disturbances being sufficient to force a British Court to take action.
+What are the forces which brought an American to say things which an
+Englishman would not dare to say--that in 1915 there was a sanction for
+a fresh revolutionary movement in China? First, an interpretation of
+history so superficial, combined with such an amazing suppression of
+contemporary political thought, that it is difficult to believe that the
+requirements of the country were taken in the least bit seriously;
+secondly, in the comparisons made between China and the Latin republics,
+a deliberate scouting of the all-important racial factor; and, lastly, a
+total ignorance of the intellectual qualities which are by far the most
+outstanding feature of Chinese civilization.
+
+Dr. Goodnow's method is simplicity itself. In order to prove the
+superiority of Monarchism over Republicanism--and thus deliberately
+ignoring the moral of the present cataclysmic war--he ransacks the
+dust-laden centuries. The English Commonwealth, which disappeared nearly
+three hundred years ago, is brought forward as an example of the dangers
+which beset a republic, though it is difficult to see what relation an
+experiment made before the idea of representative government had been
+even understood bears to our times. But there is worse. The statement is
+deliberately made that the reason for the disappearance of that
+Commonwealth was "that the problem of succession after the death of
+Cromwell was difficult to solve." English historians would no doubt have
+numerous remarks to offer on this strange untruth which dismisses a
+remarkably interesting chapter of history in the most misleading way,
+and which tells Chinese political students nothing about the complete
+failure which military government--not republicanism--must always have
+among the Anglo-Saxon peoples and which is the sole reason why
+Cromwellism disappeared. Even when treating the history of his own
+country Dr. Goodnow seems to take pleasure in being absurd. For he says:
+"The mind of the American people was so imbued with the idea of
+republicanism that a republican form of government was the ideal of the
+whole race"; then adding as if to refute his own statements, "Had
+General Washington--the leader of the revolutionary army--had the desire
+to become a monarch he would probably have been successful." We do not
+know how Americans will like this kind of interpretation of their
+history; but at least they will not fail to note what dismal results it
+hastened on in China. With the experimental Eighteenth Century French
+Republic; with the old Spanish Colonies of Central and South America;
+and above all with Mexico, Dr. Goodnow deals in the same vein. Vast
+movements, which can be handled only tentatively even in exhaustive
+essays are dismissed in misleading sentences framed so as to serve as
+mere introduction to the inevitable climax--the Chinese Constitutional
+Monarchy of 1915 with Yuan Shih-kai as Emperor.
+
+Yet this is not all. As if in alarm at the very conclusions he so
+purposely reaches, at the end of his Memorandum he reduces these
+conclusions to naught by stating that three impossible conditions are
+necessary to consummate the Restoration of the Monarchy in China, (1) no
+opposition should be aroused, (2) the law of succession must be properly
+settled, (3) Full provision must be made for the development of
+Constitutional Government. That these conditions were known to be
+impossible, everyone in the Far East had long admitted. Had Dr. Goodnow
+paid the slightest attention to the course of history in China he would
+have known (a) that any usurpation of the Throne would infallibly lead
+to rebellion in China and intervention on the part of Japan, (b) that
+Yuan Shih-kai's power was purely personal and as such could not be
+transmitted to any son by any means known to the human intellect, (c)
+that all Yuan Shih-kai's sons were worthless, the eldest son being
+semi-paralyzed, (d) that constitutional government and the Eastern
+conception of kingship, which is purely theocratic, are so antithetical
+that they cannot possibly co-exist, any re-establishment of the throne
+being _ipso facto_ the re-establishment of a theocracy, (e) that
+although he so constantly speaks of the low political knowledge of the
+people, the Chinese have had a most complete form of local
+self-government from the earliest times, the political problem of the
+day being simply to gather up and express these local forms in some
+centralized system: (f) the so-called non-patriotism of the Chinese is
+non-existent and is an idea which has been spread abroad owing to the
+complete foreign misunderstanding of certain basic facts--for instance
+that under the Empire foreign affairs were the sole concern of the
+Emperors, provincial China prior to 1911 being a socio-economic
+confederation resembling mediaeval contrivances such as the Hanseatic
+League--a provincial confederation not concerning itself with any matter
+which lay outside its everyday economic life, such as territorial
+overlordship or frontier questions or the regulation of sea-port
+intercourse etc., because such matters were meaningless. It was only
+when foreign encroachment in the _post_-Japanese war period (_i.e._
+after 1895) carried problems from the fringes of the Empire into the
+economic life of the people that their pride was touched and that in
+spite of "their lack of experience and knowledge in political affairs"
+they suddenly displayed a remarkable patriotic feeling, the history of
+China during the past two decades being only comprehensible when this
+capital contention, namely the reality of Chinese patriotism, is given
+the central place.
+
+It is useless, however, to pursue the subject: we have said enough to
+disclose the utter levity of those who should have realized from the
+first that the New China is a matter of life and death to the people,
+and that the first business of the foreigner is to uphold the new
+beliefs. The Goodnow Memorandum, immediately it was published, was put
+to precisely those base uses which any one with an elementary knowledge
+of China might have foreseen: it was simply exploited in an unscrupulous
+way, its recommendations being carried out in such a manner as to
+increase one's contempt for the men who were pushing the monarchist plot
+with any means that they could seize hold of, and who were not averse
+from making responsible foreigners their tools.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[16] It is perhaps of importance to note that Dr. Goodnow carried out
+all his studies in Germany.
+
+[17] The most widely-quoted statement on this subject is the remarkable
+interview, published in the first week of July, 1915, throughout the
+metropolitan press, between President Yuan Shih-kai and General Feng
+Kuo-chang, commanding the forces on the lower Yangtsze. This statement
+was telegraphed by foreign correspondents all over the world. Referring
+to the many rumours afloat that titles of nobility would be revived as a
+precursor to the monarchy the President declared that even if he seized
+the Throne that would not increase his powers, whilst as for
+transmitting the Imperial Yellow to his sons none were fitted for that
+honour which would mean the collapse of any new dynasty. Here General
+Feng Kuo-chang interrupted with the remark that the people of South
+China would not oppose such a change ultimately, though they thought it
+was too early to talk about it just now. Thereupon the President's
+features became stern and he declared in a heightened voice: "You and
+others seem still to believe that I harbour secret ambitions. I affirm
+positively that when I sent my sons to study in England, I privately
+ordered the purchase of a small estate there as a possible home. If the
+people of China insist upon my accepting the sceptre I shall leave this
+country and spend the remaining days of my life abroad." This interview,
+so far from being denied, has been affirmed to the present writer as
+being substantially correct.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE MONARCHY MOVEMENT IS OPPOSED
+
+THE APPEAL OF THE SCHOLAR LIANG CH'I-CHAO
+
+
+We have already referred in several places to the extraordinary rôle
+scholarship and the literary appeal play in the governance of China. It
+is necessary to go back to the times of the birth of the Roman Empire,
+and to invoke the great figure of Cicero, to understand how greatly the
+voice of men of recognized intellectual qualities influences the nation.
+Liang Ch'i-chao, a man of some forty-five years, had long been
+distinguished for his literary attainments and for the skill with which,
+though unversed in any Western language, he had expounded the European
+theory and practice of government to his fellow-countrymen. To his brain
+is due the coining of many exact expressions necessary for parliamentary
+government, his mentality having grown with the modern growth of China
+and adapted itself rather marvellously to the requirements of the
+Twentieth Century. A reformer of 1898--that is one of the small devoted
+band of men who under Kang Yu Wei almost succeeded in winning over the
+ill-fated Emperor Kwang Hsu to carrying out a policy of modernizing the
+country in the teeth of fierce mandarin opposition, he possessed in his
+armoury every possible argument against the usurpation Yuan Shih-kai
+proposed to practise. He knew precisely where to strike--and with what
+strength; and he delivered himself over to his task with whole-hearted
+fervour. It having become known that he was engaged in preparing this
+brief for the people of China, every influence was brought to bear to
+prevent such a disastrous publication. Influential deputations were sent
+to him to implore him to remember the parlous international situation
+China found herself in,--a situation which would result in open
+disaster if subjected to the strain of further discords. For a time he
+hesitated launching his counter-stroke. But at length the Republican
+Party persuaded him to deal the tyrant the needed blow; and his now
+famous accusation of the Chief Executive was published.
+
+Its effect was immediate and very far-reaching. Men understood that
+armed revolt was in the air. The almost Biblical fervour which pervades
+this extraordinary document shows an unusual sense of moral outrage. The
+masterly analysis of the Diaz régime in Mexico coupled with the manner
+in which--always pretending to be examining the conduct of the
+Mexican--he stabs at Yuan Shih-kai, won the applause of a race that
+delights in oblique attacks and was ample proof that great trouble was
+brewing. The document was read in every part of China and everywhere
+approved. Although it suffers from translation, the text remains
+singularly interesting as a disclosure of the Chinese mentality; whilst
+the exhaustive examination of political terms it contains shows that
+some day Chinese will carry their inventive genius into fields they have
+hitherto never openly invaded. Especially interesting is it to contrast
+the arguments of such a man with those of a decadent such as Yang Tu.
+
+    FROM REPUBLIC TO MONARCHY
+
+    Before I proceed with my argument I wish to make plain two points.
+    One is that I am not one of those reformers whose ears are their
+    brains, and who are intoxicated with the doctrine of republicanism.
+    I have, therefore, no partiality for the republican form of
+    government nor any bias for or against other forms of government.
+    This can be proved by my literary work during the last ten years.
+    The second point is that I am not one of the veteran conservatives
+    who lay so much stress on the importance of having a dynasty. For
+    such are the thoughts of men who only seek to adjust themselves to
+    existing conditions. If one wishes to consider the present situation
+    of the country without bias or prejudice he must disregard the rise
+    or fall of any particular family. Only those who bear in mind these
+    two points can read my argument with real understanding.
+
+
+    I. THE QUESTION OF KUO-TI
+
+    Some time ago I said that, as political students, we should only
+    care for _Cheng-ti_, _i.e._, the form of government and not for
+    _Kuo-ti_, _i.e._, the form of state. Do not call this trifling with
+    words, for it is a principle which all critics of politics should
+    follow and never depart from. The reason is that critics of politics
+    should not, because they cannot, influence the question of _Kuo-ti_.
+    They should not influence the question of _Kuo-ti_ because so long
+    as the question of _Kuo-ti_ remains unsettled the major portion of
+    the administration remains at a stand-still. Thus there will be no
+    political situation properly so called and there will be no
+    political questions to discuss (here the term political means really
+    administrative). If a critic of politics, therefore, interfere with
+    the question of _Kuo-ti_, he will be leading the nation into a
+    condition of political instability, thus undermining the ground on
+    which the people stand. Such critics can be likened unto a man
+    trying to enter a house without ascending the steps or crossing a
+    river without a boat.
+
+    They cannot influence the question of _Kuo-ti_. The force which
+    drives and steers the change of one form of State or _vice versa_ is
+    generally not derived from mere politics. If the time is not ripe,
+    then no amount of advocacy on the part of critics can hasten it. If
+    the time is ripe, nothing the critics say can prevent it. He who
+    indulges himself in the discussion of the problem of
+    _Kuo-ti_--_i.e._, the form of States, as a political student, is
+    ignorant of his own limitations and capacity. This is as true of the
+    active politicians as of the critics; for the first duty of an
+    active politician is to seek for the improvement and progress of the
+    administration of the existing foundation of government. A step
+    beyond this line is revolution and intrigue, and such cannot be the
+    attitude of a right-minded active politician or statesman. This is
+    looking at it from the negative side.
+
+    From the positive, that is, the progressive point of view, there is
+    also a boundary. Such actions under one form of government are
+    political activities, and under the opposite form of government are
+    also political activities. But these are not questions of political
+    principle. For only when a man sacrifices the ideals which he has
+    advocated and cherished during the whole of his life does the
+    question of principle arise. Therefore the great principle of
+    looking to the actual state of administration of the form of
+    government and leaving the mere form of state in the background is a
+    principle that is applicable under all circumstances and should be
+    followed by all critics of politics.
+
+
+    II. THE ARGUMENT AGAINST CHANGE
+
+    No form of government is ideal. Its reason of existence can only be
+    judged by what it has achieved. It is the height of folly to rely on
+    theoretical conclusions as a basis for artificial arbitration as to
+    what should be accepted and what discarded. Mere folly, however, is
+    not to be seriously condemned. But the danger and harm to the
+    country will be unmeasurable if a person has prejudiced views
+    respecting a certain form of government and in order to prove the
+    correctness of his prejudiced views, creates artificially a
+    situation all by himself. For this reason my view has always been
+    not to oppose any form of government. But I am always opposed to
+    any one who engages in a propaganda in favour of a form of
+    government other than the one under which we actually live. In the
+    past I opposed those who tried to spread the republican form of
+    government while the country was under monarchical government, and
+    the arguments I advanced in support of my views were written in no
+    fewer than 200,000 words. Even so late as the ninth month after the
+    outbreak of the Revolution I issued a pamphlet entitled "The Problem
+    of the Building of the New China," which was my last attempt to
+    express my views respecting the maintenance of the old form of
+    government.
+
+    What obligations had I to the then Imperial House? Did it not heap
+    persecution and humiliation on me to the utmost of its power and
+    resources? I would have been an exile even to this day had it not
+    been for the Revolution. Further, I was no child and I was fully
+    aware of the disappointment which the then Government caused in the
+    minds of the people. Yet I risked the opposition of the whole
+    country and attempted to prolong the life of the dying dynasty. I
+    had no other view in mind except that there would be some
+    possibility of our hope being realized if the whole nation would
+    unite in efforts to improve the administration under the then
+    existing form of government. I believed that because the people were
+    not educated for a change. But if the status of the country should
+    be changed before the people are educated and accustomed to the new
+    order of things, the danger and hardship during the transitional
+    period of several years would be incalculable. In certain
+    circumstances this might lead to the destruction of the nation. Even
+    if we are spared the tragedy of national extinction, the losses
+    sustained by the retarding of the progress of the administration
+    would be unredeemable. It is painful to recall past experiences; but
+    if my readers will read once more my articles in the _Hsin Min Tung
+    Pao_ during the years 1905 and 1906 they will see that all the
+    sufferings which the Republic has experienced bear out the
+    predictions made then. The different stages of the sinister
+    development have been unfolding themselves one by one just as I said
+    they would. It was unfortunate that my words were not heeded
+    although I wept and pleaded. Such has been the consequence of the
+    change of the state of the country--a change of _Kuo-ti_.
+
+    Yet before we have hardly ceased panting, this talk of a second
+    change is on us. I am not in a position to say exactly how this talk
+    had its beginning. Ostensibly it was started by the remarks of Dr.
+    Goodnow. But I am unable to say whether Dr. Goodnow actually gave
+    out such a view or for what purpose he expressed such a view. From
+    what he told the representative of a Peking newspaper he never
+    expressed the views attributed to him. Be this as it may, I cannot
+    help having my doubts. All Dr. Goodnow is alleged to have said
+    bearing on the merits of the monarchical and republican system of
+    government as an abstract subject of discussion, such as the
+    necessity of the form of state (_Kuo-ti_) being suited to the
+    general conditions of the country and the lessons we should learn
+    from the Central and South American republics, are really points of
+    a very simple nature and easily deduced. How strange that among all
+    this large number of politicians and scholars, who are as numerous
+    as the trees in the forest and the perch in the stream, should have
+    failed for all these years to notice these simple points; and now
+    suddenly make a fetish of them because they have come out of the
+    mouth of a foreigner. Is it because no one except a foreign doctor
+    can discover such facts? Why even a humble learner like myself,
+    though not so learned even to the extent of one ten-thousandth part
+    of his knowledge, more than ten years ago anticipated what the good
+    doctor has said; and I said much more and in much more comprehensive
+    terms. I have no desire to talk about my work, but let my readers
+    glance through the copies of the _Hsin Min Tsung Pao, Yin Ping Shih
+    Wen Chi_, the "Fight between Constitutional Advocates" and
+    "Revolutionary Advocates," the "Question of the Building of the New
+    China," etc., etc. My regret is that my eyes are not blue and my
+    hair not brown, and hence my words were not acceptable to the
+    nation!
+
+
+    III. RES JUDICATA
+
+    I do not say that the merits or otherwise of the republican system
+    should not be discussed, but the time for such a discussion has
+    passed. The most opportune time for such a discussion was in 1911
+    when the Revolution had just begun; but since then further
+    discussions should not be tolerated. There might have been some
+    excuse if this subject had been brought up for discussion when the
+    second revolution broke out at Hukow on the Yangtsze river or before
+    the President was formally inaugurated, or before the Powers
+    formally recognized the Republic; but the excuse even then would
+    have been a weak one. Where were you then, advocates of monarchy?
+    Could you not at that time have brought out an essay by one of the
+    great scholars of the world as a subject for discussion? Could you
+    not have cited the cases of American republics as a warning for us
+    that these republics were by no means peaceful? Yet at that time
+    when the heroes of discretion were daily pushing the progress of the
+    republican cause, stating that republicanism was the panacea for all
+    the world's administrations and that republicanism was not a new
+    factor in Chinese history, a humble and ignorant man like myself,
+    then a stranger in a foreign land, was burdened with the fear of the
+    unsuitability of the republican system to China and wrote articles
+    in support of his own views and wept till his eyes were dry.
+
+    Do you not realize that the State is a thing of great importance and
+    should not be disturbed carelessly? How can you then experiment with
+    it and treat it as if you were putting a chest into a dead hole,
+    saying "Let me place it here for the moment and I will see to it
+    later." The status of the State can be likened to marriage between
+    man and woman. The greatest care should be taken during courtship.
+    The lady should then exercise care to see that the man whom she is
+    taking to be a life companion is worthy of her. During this period
+    it is the duty of her relatives and friends to point out to her any
+    danger or misunderstanding even to the extent of offending her
+    feelings. But if you leave her alone at this stage when there is
+    plenty of time to change her course, and--what is more--urge her to
+    tie the knot despite incompatibility, what right have you afterwards
+    to make the impudent suggestion to the wife that her husband is not
+    a man to whom she should cling for life? Is such a course a
+    charitable way of doing things?
+
+    If indeed the republican cause is enough to cause the destruction of
+    the nation then you, the advocates of monarchy, have placed the
+    country in a position from which she has no hope of ever coming out
+    independent. You are the men who--to the best of your
+    ability--inculcated and pressed the adoption of the republican
+    cause. The proverb says, "If now, why not then?" How many days can a
+    person live that you, not satisfied with one great sin, are again to
+    commit another. It is not long since the Republic was first
+    established; yet you, the veterans of republicanism, are the leaders
+    to-day in advocating the overthrow of the Republic. Yes. It is
+    indeed strange that I, a man who once opposed the republican cause,
+    should now be opposing you. Nothing is stranger and nothing is so
+    fateful.
+
+    But our modern critics say we prefer a constitutional monarchy to an
+    autocratic republic. Now whether we are constitutional or not is a
+    question concerning the administration, while the question whether
+    we are republican or not is a question concerning the form or status
+    of the country. We have always held that the question of _Kuo-ti_ is
+    above discussion and that what we should consider is the actual
+    condition of administration. If the administration (government) is
+    constitutional, then it matters not whether the country is a
+    Republic or a Monarchy. If the government is not constitutional then
+    neither a republic nor a monarchy will avail. There is no connexion,
+    therefore, between the question of _Kuo-ti_ and the question of
+    _Cheng-ti_. It is an absurd idea to say that in order to improve the
+    administration we must change the _Kuo-ti_--the status or form of
+    the country--as a necessity. If this idea is to be entertained for a
+    single moment the changes even in constitutional countries will be
+    endless. But the curious paradox is that in former days the critics
+    said that only a republic, not a monarchy, could be constitutional;
+    whereas, the critics now say that a monarchy, not a republic, can
+    alone be constitutional!
+
+
+    IV. THE PRESIDENT AND THE CONSTITUTION
+
+    Let me therefore lay down a simple definition of what a Constitution
+    is before discussing whether the contentions of the critics are
+    reasonable. My opponents will agree with me that the main principle
+    of a constitutional government is that the legislative organ should
+    always balance the executive and that the exercising of the
+    administrative power is always limited to a certain extent. They
+    will also agree that the most important point of a so-called
+    constitutional monarchy is that the monarch should act as a
+    figurehead, and that the establishment of a responsible cabinet is
+    an indispensable accompaniment. If these simple principles are
+    recognized then we must put up the theory for discussion. Let us
+    then raise the question who shall be the monarch. In plain words, is
+    the person in our mind the President? or any other person? (In view
+    of the repeated declarations of the President that he will never
+    consent to become an Emperor, this suggestion on my part is a gross
+    insult to his character, but I crave to excuse myself as this is
+    only mere speculation and supposition.) What shall we do with the
+    President if we find another man? The President, having so long
+    borne the burdens of the State, will certainly be only too willing
+    to vacate his post to live in retirement as far as his own person is
+    concerned, but can we imagine that the country will allow the
+    President to retire? If not, then are we going to ask the President
+    to form a responsible cabinet under a figurehead monarch? Even if we
+    take it for granted that the President, out of love for the country,
+    would be willing to sacrifice his own principles and yield to the
+    wish of the country, it will be dangerous indeed if he--a person on
+    whom the whole nation depends--is placed in the path of parliament.
+    Therefore the contention that a constitutional monarchy will be
+    attained if a person other than the President be made a monarch is
+    false and baseless.
+
+    Shall we then make the present President a monarch? Of course the
+    President will not consent to this. But leaving this aside let us
+    suppose that the President, in consideration of the permanent
+    welfare of the country, is willing to sacrifice everything to
+    satisfy the wish of the people, do we expect that he will become a
+    mere figurehead? A figurehead monarch is, to adapt the saying of the
+    west, a fat porker, a guinea-pig, that is, good as an expensive
+    ornament. Will it be wise to place so valuable a personage in so
+    idle a position at a time when the situation is so extremely
+    critical?
+
+    Even if we are willing to suffer the President to become a
+    figurehead it will remain a question whether a responsible cabinet
+    can ever be formed. I do not say that the President will not allow a
+    responsible cabinet to exist under him. My contention is that there
+    is no one, within my knowledge, who commands respect enough and is
+    capable of taking over the responsibilities of President Yuan. For
+    who can replace the Great President in coping with our numerous
+    difficulties? If we select an ordinary man and make him bear the
+    great burdens, we will find that in addition to his lack of ability
+    rendering him unequal to the occasion, his lack of dominating
+    influence will disqualify him from exercising authority. It was for
+    the purpose of meeting the requirements of the existing conditions
+    that the Cabinet system was changed into a Presidential system--an
+    excellent substitution for a weakened administration. Conditions in
+    the next two or three years will not be very much different from
+    what they are now. Therefore, the contention that the administration
+    will be changed overnight for the better after a change in the form
+    of the State is, if not a wicked untruth to deceive the common
+    people, the ridiculous absurdity of a bookworm. Thus the theory that
+    a constitutional monarchy will immediately follow, if the President
+    consents to become a monarch, is also fallacious.
+
+    Can it be possible that those who are now holding up the
+    constitutional principle as a shield for their monarchical views
+    have a different definition for the term "constitution"? The Ching
+    (Manchu) Dynasty considered itself as possessing a constitution in
+    its last days. Did we recognize it as such? Let me also ask the
+    critics what guarantee they have to offer that the constitution will
+    be put into effect without hindrance as soon as the form of State is
+    changed. If they cannot give any definite guarantee, then what they
+    advocate is merely an absolute monarchy and not a constitutional
+    monarchy. As it is not likely to be a constitutional monarchy, we
+    may safely assume that it will be an imperial autocracy. I cannot
+    regard it as a wise plan if, owing to dislike of its defects, the
+    Republic should be transformed into an Imperial autocracy. Owing to
+    various unavoidable reasons, it is excusable in spite of violent
+    opposition to adopt temporarily autocratic methods in a republican
+    country. But if the plan proposed by present-day critics be put into
+    effect, that on the promise of a constitution we should agree to the
+    adoption of a monarchy, then the promise must be definitely made to
+    the country at the time of transition that a constitutional
+    government will become an actuality. But if, after the promise is
+    made, existing conditions are alleged to justify the continuance of
+    autocratic methods, I am afraid the whole country will not be so
+    tolerant towards the Chief Executive. To assume outwardly the rôle
+    of constitutional government, but in reality to rule in an
+    unconstitutional manner, was the cause of the downfall of the Ching
+    Dynasty. The object lesson is not obscure. Let us take warning by
+    it.
+
+
+    V. FALLACIES OF THE MONARCHISTS
+
+    If, on the other hand, the present-day critics are really in earnest
+    for a constitution, then I am unable to understand why they believe
+    that this cannot be secured under the Republic but must be obtained
+    in a roundabout way by means of a monarchy. In my view the real
+    hindrances to the adoption of a constitution at the present day in
+    China are the existing conditions, viz. the attitude of the
+    officials and the traditions and intellectual standards of the
+    people. But these hindrances have not resulted from the adoption of
+    republicanism. Therefore they cannot be expected to disappear with
+    the disappearance of the Republic. For instance, from the President
+    downward to the minor official of every official organ in the
+    capital or in the provinces, every one inclines to be independent of
+    the law, and considers it convenient to deal with affairs as he
+    pleases. This is the greatest obstacle to constitutional government.
+    Now has that anything to do with the change or not of the form of
+    State? Again, the absence, on the part of the people, of interest in
+    political affairs, of knowledge of politics, of political morality
+    and strength, and their inability to organize proper political
+    parties to make use of an inviolable parliament, are also hindrances
+    to the attainment of a constitution. Now what have these things to
+    do with a change in the form of the States? If I were to go on
+    naming such hindrances one by one, I should count my fingers many
+    times over and I should not be through. Yet it is quite plain that
+    not a single one of these hindrances can be attributed to
+    republicanism.
+
+    To say that what we cannot get under the republic can be secured
+    immediately upon accepting a monarchical régime, or to say that
+    what can be secured under a monarchical régime can never be secured
+    in a republican period is beyond the understanding of a stupid man
+    like myself, although I have searched my brain for a valid reason.
+
+    My view is that if China is really in earnest for a constitution,
+    the President should set the example himself by treating the
+    Constitutional Compact as sacredly inviolable and compel his
+    subordinates to do the same. Every letter of the compact should be
+    carried out and no attempt should be made to step beyond its limits.
+
+    Meantime give the people as many opportunities as possible to
+    acquaint themselves with political affairs, and do not stifle the
+    aspirations of the people or weaken their strength or damp their
+    interest or crush their self-respect. Then within a few years we
+    shall be rewarded with results. If, instead of doing all these
+    things, we vainly blame the form of State, we are, as Chu Tse says,
+    like a boat that blames the creek for its curves.
+
+    The most powerful argument of those who advocate a change to a
+    monarchy is that there is every possibility of disturbance at the
+    time of a Presidential election. This is a real danger. It is for
+    this reason that ten years ago I did not dare to associate myself
+    with the advocates of republicanism. If the critics want to attack
+    me on this point to support of their contentions, I advise them not
+    to write another article but to reprint my articles written some
+    time ago, which, I think, will be more effective. Fortunately,
+    however, we have discovered a comparatively effective remedy. For,
+    according to the latest President Election Law, the term of the
+    President is to all intents and purposes a term for life. It is
+    therefore impossible for such dangers to appear during the life of
+    the President. What concerns us is therefore what will happen after
+    the departure of the present President for another world. This, of
+    course, is a question that we do not wish to touch upon; but since
+    every one, even the patriarchs, must die some day, let us face the
+    matter openly. If Heaven blesses China and allows the Great
+    President to devote himself to the country for ten or more
+    years--during which he will be able to assert the authority of the
+    government, cleanse officialdom, store-up strength, consolidate the
+    country, and banish all hidden dangers--then there will be nothing
+    to choose between a republic or a monarchy. If, on the other hand,
+    Heaven should not be pleased so to favour us and takes away our
+    Great President before he is half through with his great task, then
+    the fate of China is sealed. No changes in the form of State will
+    avail under any circumstances. Therefore the question whether China
+    will be left in peace or not depends entirely on the length of years
+    the Great President will live and what he will be able to accomplish
+    in his lifetime. Whether the country is ruled as a republic or a
+    monarchy, the consequences will be the same.
+
+    Do you still doubt my words? Let me go deeper into the analysis. The
+    difference between a republic and a monarchy lies only in the
+    methods of succession of the head of the nation. It is evident that
+    although a certain law of succession may be made during the lifetime
+    of the Head, it cannot take effect until his death; and whether or
+    not the effect thus intended will come up to expectations will
+    depend on two factors: (1) whether or not the merits and personal
+    influence of the predecessor will continue effective after his
+    death, and (2) whether or not there will be unscrupulous and
+    insubordinate claimants at the death of the Head, and, if any, the
+    number of such men and whether the point of dispute they raise be
+    well-founded. If these are taken as the basis for discerning the
+    future we will arrive at the same conclusion whether the country be
+    a republic or a monarchy.
+
+
+    VI. THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION LAW
+
+    The Presidential Election Law, however, provides that the successor
+    should be nominated by his predecessor, and the name of the
+    successor so nominated is to be locked in the golden box in the
+    stone strong-room. The President may now, on the one hand, multiply
+    his merits and strengthen his personal influence so that the whole
+    country will gladly bow to his wishes to the extent that even after
+    his death they will not want to disobey his last wish, and on the
+    other hand, the President may quietly ascertain the likely causes
+    which would produce dissension, and take suitable steps to prevent
+    and be rid of them. If the seed of dissension is in the ordinances,
+    then alter the ordinances so that they may not be used as a tool by
+    possible claimants. If the seed of dissension is in a person then
+    cultivate that man, lead him to righteousness, place him in a
+    suitable position so that he may be protected from temptation.
+    Meanwhile let the President carefully select his successor on whom
+    he may eventually lay the responsibilities of State (according to
+    the Presidential Election Law the President is at liberty to suggest
+    any one he likes, his own son or some one else). Let the nominee be
+    placed in a responsible position so as to bring him to public
+    notice. Give him real authority so that he may establish his
+    influence. Place his name at the head of other men of little
+    consequence in the golden box. Then there will be absolutely no
+    ground for dispute when the time comes to open the box.
+
+    If every President will do likewise this system can be used without
+    fear of a break for hundreds of years. Otherwise we will have only
+    the Imperial system on paper to rely on for assistance, which is not
+    even to be thought of. A glance through the pages of Chinese history
+    will show the numerous cases in the reign of Emperors when princes
+    fought in the very confines of the Emperor's palace while the corpse
+    of their royal father lay unburied in the hall. Thus it is seen that
+    the hidden cause of the safety or otherwise of the country does not
+    lie with the mere formality of a constitution either in a republic
+    or a monarchy.
+
+
+    VII. THE CASE OF DIAZ, THE DICTATOR
+
+    The critics bring up the example of Mexico where live rivals have
+    been struggling with each other for the presidency, and the internal
+    confusion of the Central and South American republics as well as
+    Portugal, as an unquestionable proof of their contention that a
+    republic is not so good as a monarchy. I imagine that the idea of
+    these critics is that all these disturbances can be avoided if all
+    these republics were changed into monarchies. Let me tell them that
+    Diaz ruled over Mexico for thirty years, and only died as an exile
+    in May last (I am not quite sure of the exact month). If indeed the
+    struggle in Mexico was a fight for succession then the fight should
+    not have begun until this year. And indeed if it were necessary to
+    have a monarch to avoid the disturbance, and supposing that Diaz,
+    thirty years ago, had a man like Dr. Goodnow to make the suggestion,
+    and men like the Chou An Hui to spread it, and suppose that Diaz
+    boldly took the advice and set up an Imperial system for himself,
+    would Mexico then have a peace that would last as long as the ages?
+
+    If Diaz had assumed the throne I am positive he would long ago have
+    been an exile in a foreign country before his imperial system could
+    have come into effect or he himself become the proud founder of a
+    new dynasty. What he would have held as an imperial charter would
+    have become a mere scrap of paper. If he could not prevent rebellion
+    even during his lifetime how can we expect an empty Imperial system
+    to prevent it after his death. Even a child can see this. The
+    disturbances in Mexico were unavoidable no matter under a republic
+    or a monarchy. The reason? It is because Diaz, under the mask of a
+    republic, actually played the rôle of a despot. During all the
+    thirty years he held office he never devoted himself to the
+    strengthening of the fundamental things of State, but diligently
+    strengthened his own position. He massed an enormous number of
+    troops for his own protection so that he might overawe the people.
+    For fear that the troops might become arrogant and insubordinate, he
+    provoked disagreement among them in order that he might play them
+    round his fingers. He banished all those who opposed him, relying on
+    force alone. In dealing with those who were really patriotic, he
+    either corrupted their character by buying them with silver or
+    removed them by assassination. He was a vainglorious man and spent
+    money like water. From the foreign capitalists he borrowed in a most
+    indiscriminate manner, while on the Mexican people he levied all
+    sorts of cruel taxes. Thus the strength of the people was drained
+    and the resources of the country were exhausted, creating a position
+    over which he eventually had no control whatever. Ten years ago I
+    wrote an article in the _Hsin Min Tsung Pao_ remarking that Diaz was
+    a matchless fraud. I said then that a nation-wide calamity would
+    befall Mexico after his death and that the Mexican nation would be
+    reduced to a mere shadow. (My friend Mr. Tang Chio-tun also wrote an
+    article, before the internal strife in Mexico broke out, on the same
+    subject and in an even more comprehensive way.) Luckily for Diaz he
+    ruled under the mask of republicanism, for only by so doing did he
+    manage to usurp and keep the presidential chair for thirty years. He
+    would long ago have disappeared had he attempted to assume the rôle
+    of an emperor. This is also true of the other republics of Central
+    and South America. Their presidents almost without a single
+    exception used military force as a stepping-stone to the
+    presidential chair. We have yet to see the last military aspirant.
+    The unsuitability of the country to the republican system is of
+    course one of the reasons but I cannot agree with those who say that
+    this is the only reason.
+
+    As to Portugal it is true that the change from the monarchy to
+    republic has not stopped internal disturbance; but is it not a fact
+    that Portugal became a republic as a result of internal disturbance
+    and was it not during the existence of the monarch that the
+    disturbance started? It is ridiculous to suppose that a republic
+    will surely court disturbance while a monarchy will surely ensure
+    peace and order. Is not Persia a monarchy? Is not Turkey a monarchy?
+    Is not Russia a monarchy?
+
+    Read their history in recent decades and see how many years of peace
+    they have had. There have been no election of presidents in these
+    countries. Why then such unrest?
+
+    Again, why was the state of affairs during the Sixteen States of the
+    Five Dynasty-Period and the Ten States of the Five Successions as
+    deplorably miserable and disastrous as the state of affairs now
+    prevailing in Mexico, although there was no election of Presidents
+    then? In quoting objective facts as illustrations the critic should
+    not allow his choice to be dictated by his personal like or dislike.
+    Otherwise he will not be deceiving others than himself. Soberly
+    speaking, any form of state is capable of either ensuring a
+    successful government or causing rebellion. And nine cases out of
+    ten the cause of rebellion lies in the conditions of the
+    administration and not in the form of state. It cannot be denied,
+    however, that the chances of rebellion and dissension are more
+    frequent and easier when the form of state does not suit the
+    conditions of the people. That is why I did not advocate
+    republicanism; and even now I am not a blind believer in
+    republicanism. In this I agree with you, the Chou An Hui people.
+
+    The reason why I have not decided to advocate boldly a change in the
+    form of state is because for years my heart has been burdened with
+    an unspeakable sorrow and pain, believing that ever since the
+    mistake made in 1911 the hope for China's future has dwindled to
+    almost nothing. On one hand I have been troubled with our inability
+    to make the Republic a success, and on the other I have been
+    worrying over the fact that it would be impossible to restore the
+    monarchy. The situation has so worked on my troubled mind that at
+    times I seemed to be beside myself. But as the whole country seemed
+    to be already in a state of desperation I have come to the
+    conclusion that it would not do any good to add pain to sorrow.
+    Therefore, instead of uttering pessimistic views I have been
+    speaking words of encouragement to raise our spirits. In this,
+    however, I have exhausted my own strength. My friend, Mr. Hsu Fo-su,
+    told me some five or six years ago that it was impossible for China
+    to escape a revolution, and as a result of the revolution could not
+    escape from becoming a republic, and by becoming a republic China
+    would be bound to disappear as a nation. I have been meditating on
+    these words of ill-omen and sought to help the country to escape
+    from his prediction but I have not yet found the way.
+
+
+    VIII. "DIVINITY DOTH HEDGE A KING"
+
+    Now my friends, you have stated in a worthy manner the reasons why
+    the republican form of state cannot assist China to maintain her
+    existence; now let me state why it is impossible to restore the
+    monarchical system. The maintenance of the dignity of a monarch
+    depends on a sort of mystical, historical, traditional influence or
+    belief. Such an influence was capable of producing unconsciously and
+    spontaneously a kind of effect to assist directly or indirectly in
+    maintaining order and imparting blessing to the country. In this
+    lies the value of a monarchy. But dignity is a thing not to be
+    trifled with. Once it is trodden down it can never rise again. We
+    carve wood or mould clay into the image of a person and call it a
+    god (idol). Place it in a beautiful temple, and seat it in a
+    glorious shrine and the people will worship it and find it
+    miraculously potent. But suppose some insane person should pull it
+    down, tread it under foot and throw it into a dirty pond and suppose
+    some one should discover it and carry it back to its original sacred
+    abode, you will find the charm has gone from it. Ever since the days
+    of monarchical government the people have looked on the monarch with
+    a sort of divine reverence, and never dared to question or criticize
+    his position. After a period of republicanism, however, this
+    attitude on the part of the common people has been abruptly
+    terminated with no possibility of resurrection. A survey of all the
+    republics of the world will tell us that although a large number of
+    them suffered under republican rule, not a single one succeeded in
+    shaking itself free of the republican fetters. Among the world
+    republics only France has had her monarchical system revived twice
+    after the republic was first inaugurated. The monarchy, however,
+    disappeared almost immediately. Thus we may well understand how
+    difficult it is for a country to return to its monarchical state
+    after a republican régime. It may be said that China has had only a
+    short experience of the republican régime; but it must also be
+    remembered that the situation has been developing for more than ten
+    years and in actual existence for about four years. During the
+    period of development the revolutionists denounced the monarch in
+    most extravagant terms and compared him to the devil. Their aim was
+    to kill the mystic belief of the people in the Emperor; for only by
+    diminishing the dignity of the monarch could the revolutionary cause
+    make headway. And during and after the change all the official
+    documents, school text-books, press views and social gossip have
+    always coupled the word monarch with reprobation. Thus for a long
+    while this glorious image has been lying in the dirty pond! Leaving
+    out the question that it is difficult to restore the monarchy at the
+    present day, let us suppose that by arbitrary method we do succeed
+    in restoring it. You will then find that it will be impossible for
+    it to regain in former dignity and influence.
+
+    Turning to another aspect, the most natural course would seem to be
+    a revival of the last dynasty. It might have been possible for a
+    Charles II and Louis XVIII of China to appear again, if not for the
+    hatred of racial domination. But since the last dynasty was Manchu
+    this is out of the question. If a new dynasty were set up it would
+    require many years of hard labour and a great deal of organizing to
+    succeed. Even then only a few have succeeded in this way in
+    prolonging their dynasties by actually convincing the people of
+    their merits. Therefore for several years I have been saying to
+    myself that it would be easier to strengthen the country and place
+    it on a sounder basis if it were possible for us to return to our
+    monarchical state. And to revive the monarchical government there
+    are two ways.
+
+    One is that after thoroughly reforming the internal administration
+    under the leadership of the present Great President, that is, when
+    all the neglected affairs of the country have been well attended to,
+    every family in the land made happy and prosperous, the army
+    well-trained and all the necessary bitterness "eaten," the
+    President, when a suitable opportunity presented itself, should have
+    the rare fortune to gain a decisive victory over a foreign foe; then
+    his achievements would be such that the millions of people would
+    compel him to ascend the throne, and so he would hand his sceptre on
+    to his descendants for endless ages.
+
+    The second possibility is that after a second great internal
+    disturbance, resulting in the whole country being thrown into a
+    state of utter confusion and cut up into small independent states,
+    the President should suppress them and unite the country into one
+    empire. We will, of course, not pray for the second possibility to
+    come about as then there will be little left of the Chinese people.
+    And no one can be certain whether the person who shall succeed in
+    suppressing the internal strife will be a man of our own race or
+    not. Thus the result will not differ very much from national
+    extinction. As to the first possibility, we know that an exceedingly
+    capable man is now in a most powerful position; let him be given
+    time and he will soon show himself to be a man of success. Does not
+    the last ray of hope for China depend on this?
+
+
+    IX. THE UNRIPE PEAR
+
+    This is why I say we should not deliberately create trouble for the
+    Republic at this time to add to the worries of the Great President
+    so that he might devote his puissant thoughts and energies to the
+    institution of great reforms. Then our final hope will be satisfied
+    some day. But what a year and what a day we are now living in? The
+    great crisis (_Note: The reference is to the Japanese demands_) has
+    just passed and we have not yet had time for a respite. By the
+    pressure of a powerful neighbour we have been compelled to sign a
+    "certain" Treaty. Floods, drought, epidemics and locusts visit our
+    country and the land is full of suffering while robbers plunder the
+    people. In ancient times this would have been a day for the Imperial
+    Court to remove their ornaments and live in humiliation. What do the
+    people of our day mean by advising and urging the President to
+    ascend the throne? To pluck the fruit before it is ripe, injures the
+    roots of the tree; and to force the premature birth of a child kills
+    the mother. If the last "ray of hope" for China should be
+    extinguished by the failure of a premature attempt to force matters,
+    how could the advocates of such a premature attempt excuse
+    themselves before the whole country? Let the members of the Chou An
+    Hui meditate on this point.
+
+    The Odes say, "The people are tired. Let them have a respite." In
+    less than four years' time from the 8th moon of the year Hsin Hai we
+    have had many changes. Like a bolt from the blue we had the Manchu
+    Constitution, then "the Republic of Five Races," then the
+    Provisional President, then the formal Presidency, then the
+    Provisional Constitution was promulgated, then it was suddenly
+    amended, suddenly the National Assembly was convoked, suddenly it
+    was dissolved, suddenly we had a Cabinet System, suddenly it was
+    changed to a Presidential System, suddenly it was a short-term
+    Presidency, suddenly it was a life-term Presidency, suddenly the
+    Provisional Constitution was temporarily placed in a legal position
+    as a Permanent Constitution, suddenly the drafting of the Permanent
+    Constitution was pressed. Generally speaking the average life of
+    each new system has been less than six months, after which a new
+    system quite contrary to the last succeeded it. Thus the whole
+    country has been at a loss to know where it stood and how to act;
+    and thus the dignity and credit of the Government in the eyes of the
+    people have been lowered down to the dust. There are many subjects
+    respecting internal and diplomatic affairs which we can profitably
+    discuss. If you wish to serve the country in a patriotic way you
+    have many ways to do so. Why stir the peaceful water and create a
+    sea of troubles by your vain attempt to excite the people and sow
+    seeds of discord for the State?
+
+
+    X. THE ASSEVERATIONS OF THE PRESIDENT
+
+    One or two points more, and I am finished. These will be in the
+    nature of a straight talk to the Chou An Hui. The question I would
+    ask in plain words is, who is the person you have in your mind as
+    the future Emperor? Do you wish to select a person other than the
+    Great President? You know only too well that the moment the
+    President relieves his shoulder of the burdens of State the country
+    will be thrown into confusion. If you entertain this plot with the
+    deliberation of a person bent upon the destruction of the country,
+    then the four hundred million of people will not excuse you.
+
+    Is the man you have in mind the present President? Heaven and earth
+    as well as all living creatures in China and other lands know what
+    the President swore to when he took the oath of office as President.
+    Rumours have indeed been circulated, but whenever they reached the
+    ears of the President he has never hesitated to express his
+    righteous mind, saying that no amount of pressure could compel him
+    to change his determination. All officials who have come into close
+    contact with the President have heard such sentiments from the lips
+    of the President on not a few occasions. To me his words are still
+    ringing in my ears. General Feng Kuo-chang has conveyed to me what
+    he was told by the President. He says that the President has
+    prepared a "few rooms" in England, and that if the people would not
+    spare him he would flee to the refuge he has prepared. Thus we may
+    clearly see how determined the President is. Can it be possible that
+    you have never heard of this and thus raise this extraordinary
+    subject without any cause? If the situation should become such that
+    the President should be compelled to carry out his threat and desert
+    the Palace, what would you say and do then?
+
+    Or, perhaps, you are measuring the lordly conduct of a gentleman
+    with the heart of a mean man, saying to yourself that what the
+    President has been saying cannot be the truth, but, as Confucius has
+    said, "say you are not but make a point to do it," and that, knowing
+    that he would not condemn you, you have taken the risk. If so, then
+    what do you take the President for? To go back on one's words is an
+    act despised by a vagabond. To suggest such an act as being capable
+    of the President is an insult, the hideousness of which cannot be
+    equalled by the number of hairs on one's head. Any one guilty of
+    such an insult should not be spared by the four hundred million of
+    people.
+
+
+    XI. THE CHOU AN HUI AND THE LAW
+
+    Next let me ask if you have read the Provisional Constitution, the
+    Provisional Code, the Meeting and Association Law, the Press
+    Regulations, the various mandates bearing on the punishment of
+    persons who dare conspire against the existing form of state? Do you
+    not know that you, as citizens of the Republic, must in duty bound
+    observe the Constitution and obey the laws and mandates? Yet you
+    have dared openly to call together your partisans and incite a
+    revolution (the recognized definition in political science for
+    revolution is "to change the existing form of state"). As the
+    Judiciary have not been courageous enough to deal with you since you
+    are all so closely in touch with the President, you have become
+    bolder still and carry out your sinister scheme in broad daylight. I
+    do not wish to say what sort of peace you are planning for China;
+    but this much I know, that the law has been violated by you to the
+    last letter. I will be silent if you believe that a nation can be
+    governed without law. Otherwise tell me what you have got to say?
+
+    It is quite apparent that you will not be satisfied with mere
+    shouting and what you aim at is the actual fulfilment of your
+    expectations. That is, you wish that once the expected monarchy is
+    established it may continue for ever. Now by what principle can such
+    a monarchy continue for ever, except that the laws and orders of
+    that dynasty be obeyed, and obeyed implicitly by all, from the Court
+    down to the common people? For one to adopt methods that violate the
+    law while engaged in creating a new dynasty is like a man, who, to
+    secure a wife, induces the virtuous virgin to commit fornication
+    with him, on the plea that as a marriage will be arranged
+    preservation of her virtue need not be insisted upon. Can such a man
+    blame his wife for immorality after marriage? If, while still
+    citizens of a republican country, one may openly and boldly call
+    meetings and organize societies for the overthrow of the Republic,
+    who shall say that we may not in due time openly and boldly call
+    meetings and organize societies for the overthrow of the monarchy?
+    What shall you say if in future there should be another foreign
+    doctor to suggest another theory and another society to engage in
+    another form of activity? The Odes have it, "To prevent the monkey
+    from climbing a tree is like putting mud on a man in the mire." For
+    a person to adopt such methods while engaged in the making of a
+    dynasty is the height of folly. Mencius says, "a Chuntse when
+    creating a dynasty aims at things that can be handed down as good
+    examples." Is it not the greatest misfortune to set up an example
+    that cannot be handed down as a precedent? The present state of
+    affairs is causing me no small amount of anxiety.
+
+
+    XII. A POSTSCRIPT
+
+    A copy of Yang Tu's pamphlet, "Constitutional Monarchy or the
+    Salvation of China" reached me after I had finished writing the
+    above discussion. On a casual glance through it I alighted upon the
+    following passage: "What is known as a constitutional country is a
+    country which has definite laws and in which no one, from the ruler
+    down to the common people, can take any action that is not permitted
+    by law. Good men cannot do good outside of the bounds of law;
+    neither can bad men do evil in violation of it." This is indeed a
+    passage that breathes the very spirit of constitutionalism. Let us
+    ask Mr. Yang if the activities of the Chou An Hui, of which he is
+    the President, are acts within the bounds of law? Mr. Yang is a good
+    man. It is therefore possible for him to believe that he is not
+    doing evil in violation of the law; but has he not at least been
+    doing good outside of the bounds of law? If an advocate of
+    constitutional monarchy is capable of doing such unlawful acts, we
+    may easily imagine what sort of a constitutional monarchy he
+    advocates; and we may also easily imagine what the fate of his
+    constitutional monarchy will be.
+
+    Mencius says, "Am I argumentative? I cannot help it." Who would have
+    thought that a man, who cares not for the question of the form of
+    state like myself and who opposed you--Mr. Yang Tu--during your
+    first campaign for the change in the form of State--you were a
+    Republican then--would be opposing you again now that you are
+    engaged in advocating another change in the form of state? A change
+    in the form of government is a manifestation of progress while a
+    change in the status of the State is a sign of revolution. The path
+    of progress leads to further progress, but the path of revolution
+    leads to more revolution. This is a fact proved by theory as well as
+    actual experience. Therefore a man who has any love for his country,
+    is afraid to mention revolution; and as for myself I am always
+    opposed to revolution. I am now opposing your theory of monarchical
+    revolution, just as I once opposed your theory of republican
+    revolution, in the same spirit, and I am doing the same duty. My
+    belief is that since the country is now in a most weakened state, we
+    may yet fail even if we do all we can at all times to nurse its
+    wound and gather up its scattered strength. How can any one devote
+    his time and energy to the discussion of a question of no importance
+    such as the form of state, and so obstruct the progress of the
+    administration? But this is not all. The whole country is now
+    stirred up to an excited state and is wondering how long this
+    ever-changing situation is going to stop. The loss caused by this
+    state of affairs, though unnoticed, is incalculable. In the Odes,
+    it is written "Alas! my brethren. Befriended of the countrymen. No
+    one wants rebellion. What has no parents?" Let the critics remember
+    this--let them remember.
+
+    Some will say to me that a revolution is an unavoidable thing. Of
+    all things only the facts cannot be undone. Why then should I bother
+    myself especially as my last effort fell on deaf ears. This I
+    realize; but it is not my nature to abandon what is my conviction.
+    Therefore, although aware of the futility of my words, I cannot
+    refrain from uttering them all the same. Chu Yuan drowned himself in
+    the Pilo and Chia Sheng died from his horse. Ask them why they did
+    these things, they will say they did not know. Once I wrote a piece
+    of poetry containing the following lines:
+
+        "Ten years after you will think of me,
+        The country is excited. To whom shall I speak?"
+
+    I have spoken much in my life, and all my words have become subjects
+    for meditation ten years after they were uttered. Never, however,
+    have any of my words attracted the attention of my own countrymen
+    before a decade has spent itself. Is it a misfortune for my words or
+    a misfortune to the Country? My hope is that there will be no
+    occasion for the country to think of my present words ten years
+    hence.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE DREAM EMPIRE
+
+"THE PEOPLE'S VOICE," AND THE ACTION OF THE POWERS (FROM SEPTEMBER TO
+DECEMBER, 1915)
+
+
+The effect of Liang Ch'i-chao's appeal was noticeable at once: there
+were ominous mutterings among all the great class of "intellectuals" who
+form such a remarkable element throughout the country. Nevertheless
+there were no overt acts attempted against the authority of Peking.
+Although literary and liberal China was now thoroughly convinced that
+the usurpation which Yuan Shih-kai proposed to practise would be a
+national disgrace and lead to far-reaching complications, this force
+were too scattered and too much under the power of the military to
+tender at once any active opposition as would have been the case in
+Western countries. Yuan Shih-kai, measuring this situation very
+accurately, and aware that he could easily become an object of popular
+detestation if the people followed the lead of the scholars, decided to
+place himself outside and beyond the controversy by throwing the entire
+responsibility on the Tsan Cheng Yuan, the puppet Senate he had erected
+in place of the parliament destroyed by his _coup d'état_ of the 4th
+November, 1913. In a message issued to that body on the 6th September,
+1915, he declared that although in his opinion the time was
+inappropriate for making any change in the form of State, the matter
+demanded the most careful and serious consideration which he had no
+doubt would be given to it. If a change of so momentous a character as
+was now being publicly advocated were decided in too great a haste it
+might create grave complications: therefore the opinion of the nation
+should be consulted by the method of the ballot. And with this _nunc
+dimittis_ he officially washed his hands of a plot in which he had been
+the prime mover.
+
+The Senate now openly delivered itself over to the accomplishment of the
+scheme which had been broached by Yang Tu, the monarchist pamphleteer.
+Although this individual still posed as the leader of the movement, in
+reality he was nothing but the tool of a remarkable man, one Liang
+Shih-yi, famous throughout the country as the most unscrupulous and
+adroit politician the Revolution had thrown up. This person, who is
+known to have been gravely implicated in many assassinations, and who
+was the instrument used in 1912 by Yuan Shih-kai to persuade the Manchu
+Imperial Family to abdicate, had in a brief four years accumulated a
+vast fortune by the manipulations he had indulged in as Director-General
+of The Bank of Communications, an institution which, because it disposed
+of all the railway receipts, was always in funds even when the Central
+Treasury itself was empty. By making himself financially indispensable
+to Yuan Shih-kai he had become recognized as the power behind the
+Throne; for although, owing to foreign clamour, he had been dismissed
+from his old office of Chief Secretary to the President (which he had
+utilized to effect the sale of offices far and wide) he was a daily
+visitor to the Presidential Palace and his creatures daily pulled all
+the numerous strings.
+
+The scheme now adopted by the Senate was to cause the provinces to flood
+Peking with petitions, sent up through the agency of "The Society for
+the Preservation of Peace," demanding that the Republic be replaced by
+that form of government which the people alone understood, the name
+Constitutional Monarchy being selected merely as a piece of political
+window-dressing to please the foreign world. A vast amount of organizing
+had to be done behind the scenes before the preliminaries were
+completed: but on the 6th October the scheme was so far advanced that in
+response to "hosts of petitions" the Senate, sitting in its capacity of
+Legislative Chamber (_Li Fa Yuan_) passed a so-called King-making bill
+in which elaborate regulations were adopted for referring the question
+under discussion to a provincial referendum. According to this naïve
+document the provinces were to be organized into electoral colleges, and
+the votes of the electors, after being recorded, were to be sent up
+to Peking for scrutiny. Some attempt was made to follow Dr. Goodnow's
+advice to secure as far as possible that the various classes of the
+community should be specially represented: and provision was therefore
+made in the voting for the inclusion of "learned scholars," Chambers of
+Commerce, and "oversea merchants," whose votes were to be directly
+recorded by their special delegates. To secure uniformly satisfactory
+results, the whole election was placed absolutely and without
+restriction in the hands of the high provincial authorities, who were
+invited to bestow on the matter their most earnest attention.
+
+[Illustration: Modern Peking: The Palace Entrance lined with Troops.
+Note the New-type Chinese Policeman in foreground.]
+
+[Illustration: The Premier General Tuan Chi-jui, Head of the Cabinet
+which decided to declare war on Germany.]
+
+In a Mandate, issued in response to this Bill, Yuan Shih-kai merely
+limits himself to handing over the control of the elections and voting
+to the local authorities, safe in the knowledge that every detail of the
+plot had been carefully worked out in advance. By this time the fact
+that a serious and dangerous movement was being actively pushed had been
+well-impressed on the Peking Legations, and some anxiety was publicly
+manifested. It was known that Japan, as the active enemy of Yuan
+Shih-kai, could not remain permanently silent: and on the 28th October
+in association with Great Britain and Russia, she indeed made official
+inquiries at the Chinese Foreign Office regarding the meaning of the
+movement. She was careful, however, to declare that it was her
+solicitude for the general peace that alone dictated her action.[18]
+Nevertheless, her warning had an unmistakable note about it and
+occasioned grave anxiety, since the ultimatum of the previous May in
+connection with the Twenty-one Demands had not been forgotten. At the
+beginning of November the Chinese Minister of Foreign Affairs, replying
+verbally to these representations, alleged that the movement had gone
+too far for it to be stopped and insisted that no apprehensions need be
+felt by the Foreign Powers regarding the public safety. Dissatisfied by
+this reply all the Entente Powers, now including France and Italy,
+renewed their representations, receiving a few days later a formal Note
+in which absolute guarantees were given that law and order would be
+sedulously preserved. Baffled by this firmness, and conscious that
+further intervention in such matter would be fraught with grave
+difficulties, the Entente Powers decided to maintain a watchful attitude
+but to do no more publicly. Consequently events marched forward so
+rapidly that by December the deed was done, and Yuan Shih-kai had
+apparently been elected unanimously Emperor of China by the provincial
+ballot.
+
+The explanation of this extraordinary business was only made public
+months later with the outbreak of the Yunnan rebellion and the secession
+of the Southern provinces. In a remarkable publication, entitled
+satirically "The People's Will," the Southern Republican Party, which
+now possessed access to all the confidential archives of the provinces,
+published in full the secret instructions from Peking which had brought
+about this elaborate comedy. Though considerations of space prevent all
+documents being included in our analysis, the salient ones are here
+textually quoted so as to exhibit in its proper historical light the
+character of the chief actor, and the _régime_ the Powers had
+supported--until they were forced by Japan to be more honest. These
+documents, consisting mainly of telegraphic dispatches sent from Peking
+to the provinces, do more to explain the working of the Government of
+China than a dozen treatises; for they drag into the garish light of day
+the most secret Yamen machinery and show precisely how it is worked.
+
+The play was set in motion by a circular code telegram sent out on the
+30th August by Tuan Chih-kuei, Governor of Moukden and one of Yuan
+Shih-kai's most trusted lieutenants, the device of utilizing a centre
+other than the capital to propagate revolutionary ideas being a
+familiar one and looked upon as a very discreet procedure. This initial
+telegram is a document that speaks for itself:
+
+    CODE TELEGRAM DATED AUGUST 30, 1915, FROM TUAN CHI-KUEI, MILITARY
+    GOVERNOR OF MOUKDEN, ET ALIA, CONTAINING INSTRUCTIONS FOR PRESENTING
+    PETITIONS TO PEKING IN THE NAME OF THE CITIZENS OF THE PROVINCES
+
+    To the Military and Civil Governors of the Provinces:--
+
+    (To be deciphered personally with the Council of State Code)
+
+    The proposal of changing the form of the State into a monarchy
+    having been unanimously agreed to by the provinces, the first step
+    to be taken has now to be decided. We propose that petitions be sent
+    in the name of the citizens of the respective provinces to the
+    Senate acting in the capacity of Legislative Chamber, so as to
+    demonstrate the wish of the people to have a monarchy. The acting
+    Legislative Chamber will then decide upon the course to be adopted.
+
+    The plan suggested is for each province to send in a separate
+    petition, the draft of which will be made in Peking and wired to the
+    respective provinces in due course. If you approve, you will insert
+    your name as well as those of the gentry and merchants of the
+    province who agree to the draft. These petitions are to be presented
+    one by one to the Legislative Chamber, as soon as it is convoked. At
+    all events, the change in the form of the State will have to be
+    effected under the colour of carrying out the people's will.
+
+    As leading members of political and military bodies, we should wait
+    till the opportune moment arrives when we will give collateral
+    support to the movement. Details of the plan will be made known to
+    you from time to time.
+
+This method of circular telegrams, which had been inherited from the
+last days of the Manchus, and vastly extended during the
+_post_-revolutionary period, was now to be used to the very utmost in
+indoctrinating the provinces with the idea that not only was the
+Republic doomed but that prompt steps must be taken to erect the
+Constitutional Monarchy by use of fictitious legal machinery so that it
+should not be said that the whole enterprise was a mere plot.
+Accordingly, on the 10th September, as a sequel to the telegram we have
+just quoted, an enormous circular message of several thousand words was
+sent in code from Peking to all the Military and Civil Governors in the
+provinces instructing them precisely how to act in order to throw a
+cloak over the nefarious deed. After explaining the so-called "Law on
+the General Convention of the Citizens' Representatives" (_i.e._
+national referendum) the following illuminating sentences occur which
+require no comment showing as they do what apt pupils reactionary
+Chinese are in the matter of ballot-fraud.
+
+    ... (1) The fact that no fewer than one hundred petitions for a
+    change in the form of State have been received from people residing
+    in all parts of the country shows that the people are of one mind
+    concerning this matter. Hence the words in the "General Convention
+    Law": "to be decided by the General Convention of the Citizens'
+    Representatives," refer to nothing more than the formal approval of
+    the Convention and are by no means intended to give room for
+    discussion of any kind. Indeed, it was never intended that the
+    citizens should have any choice between a republic and a monarchy.
+    For this reason at the time of voting all the representatives must
+    be made unanimously to advocate a change of the Republic into a
+    Monarchy.
+
+    It behooves you, therefore, prior to the election and voting,
+    privately to search for such persons as are willing to express the
+    people's will in the sense above indicated. You will also make the
+    necessary arrangements beforehand, and devise every means to have
+    such persons elected, so that there may be no divergence of opinion
+    when the time arrives for putting the form of the State to the vote.
+
+    (2) Article 2 provides: "The citizens' representatives shall be
+    elected by separate ballot signed by the person voting. The person
+    who obtains the greatest number of votes cast shall be declared
+    elected."
+
+    The citizens' representatives, though nominally elected by the
+    electors, are really appointed beforehand by you acting in the
+    capacity of Superintendent of Election. The principle of separate
+    signed ballot is adopted in this article with the object of
+    preventing the voters from casting their votes otherwise than as
+    directed, and of awakening in them a sense of responsibility for
+    their votes....
+
+These admirable principles having been officially laid down by Peking,
+it is not hard to understand that the Military and Civil Governors in
+the provinces, being anxious to retain their posts and conciliate the
+great personage who would be king, gave the problem their most earnest
+attention, and left no stone unturned to secure that there should be no
+awkward contretemps. On the 28th September, the Peking Government, being
+now entirely surrendered into the hands of the plotters, thought it
+advisable to give the common people a direct hint of what was coming, by
+sending circular instructions regarding the non-observance of the
+Republican anniversary (10th October). The message in question is so
+frankly ingenuous that it merits inclusion in this singular _dossier_:
+
+    CODE TELEGRAM DATED SEPTEMBER 26, 1915, FROM THE COUNCIL OF STATE TO
+    THE MILITARY AND CIVIL GOVERNORS OF THE PROVINCES RESPECTING THE
+    NON-OBSERVANCE OF THE ANNIVERSARY OF THE REPUBLIC
+
+    To the Military and Civil Governors and the Military Commissioners
+    of the Provinces and the Intendant of Shanghai:--
+
+    (Code Telegram)
+
+    Now that a monarchical form of government has been advocated, the
+    National Anniversary in commemoration of the Republic should, of
+    course, be observed with least possible display, under the pretext
+    either of the necessity for economy owing to the impoverished
+    condition of the people, or of the advisability of celebrating the
+    occasion quietly so as to prevent disturbances arising in
+    consequence of the many rumours now afloat. In this way public peace
+    and order may be maintained on the one hand, money and trouble saved
+    on the other. How to put this suggestion into practice will be left
+    to your discretion.
+
+    (Signed) COUNCIL OF STATE.
+
+By October such progress had been made in Peking in the general work of
+organizing this _coup d'état_ that, as we have seen, the Senate had
+passed on the 6th of that month the so-called "King-making Bill." The
+very next day, so that nothing should be left in doubt, the following
+circular telegram was dispatched to all the provinces:
+
+    CODE TELEGRAM DATED OCTOBER 7, 1915, FROM CHU CHI-CHUN, MINISTER OF
+    THE INTERIOR, ET ALIA, DEVISING PLANS FOR NOMINATING YUAN SHIH-KAI
+    AS EMPEROR
+
+    To the Military and Civil Governors of the Provinces:--
+
+    (To be deciphered with the Hua Code)
+
+    Our telegram of the 12th ult. must have reached you by this time.
+
+    The Administrative Council, at a meeting held on the 4th inst.,
+    passed the Bill for a General Convention of the Citizens'
+    Representatives. Article 12 of the Bill was amended so as to contain
+    the following clause:--"The Superintendent of Election may, in case
+    of necessity, delegate his functions to the several district
+    magistrates." This will soon be communicated officially to the
+    provinces. You are therefore requested to make the necessary
+    preparations beforehand in accordance with the instructions
+    contained in our telegram of the 29th September.
+
+    We propose that the following steps be taken after the votes have
+    been duly polled:--
+
+    (1) After the form of the state has been put to the vote, the
+    result should be reported to the sovereign (meaning Yuan Shih-kai)
+    and to the Administrative Council in the name of the General
+    Convention of the Citizens' Representatives.
+
+    (2) In the telegrams to be sent by the General Convention of the
+    Citizens' Representatives for nominating the emperor, the following
+    words should be specifically used: "We respectfully nominate the
+    present President Yuan Shih-kai as Emperor of the Chinese Empire."
+
+    (3) The telegrams investing the Administrative Council with general
+    powers to act on behalf of the General Convention of the Citizens'
+    Representatives should be dispatched in the name of the General
+    Convention of the Citizens of the Provinces.
+
+    The drafts of the dispatches under the above-mentioned three heads
+    will be wired to you beforehand. As soon as the votes are cast,
+    these are to be shown to the representatives, who will sign them
+    after perusal. Peking should be immediately informed by telegram.
+
+    As for the telegrams to be sent by the commercial, military, and
+    political bodies, they should bear as many signatures as possible,
+    and be wired to the Central Government within three days after the
+    voting.
+
+    When the enthronement is promulgated by edict, letters of
+    congratulation from the General Convention of the Citizens'
+    Representatives, as well as from the commercial, military, and
+    political bodies, will also have to be sent in. You are therefore
+    requested to draw up these letters in advance.
+
+    This is specially wired for your information beforehand. The details
+    will be communicated by letter.
+
+In ordinary circumstances it would have been thought that sufficiently
+implicit instructions had already been given to permit leaving the
+matter in the hands of the provincial authorities. Great anxiety,
+however, was beginning to reign in Peking owing to continual rumours
+that dangerous opposition, both internal and external, was developing.
+It was therefore held necessary to clinch the matter in such a way that
+no possible questions should be raised later. Accordingly, before the
+end of October--and only two days before the "advice" was tendered by
+Japan and her Allies,--the following additional instructions were
+telegraphed wholesale to the provinces, being purposely designed to make
+it absolutely impossible for any slip to occur between cup and lip. The
+careful student will not fail to notice in these remarkable messages
+that as the game develops, all disguise is thrown to the four winds, and
+the central and only important point, namely the prompt election and
+enthronement of Yuan Shih-kai as Emperor, insisted on with almost
+indecent directness, every possible precaution being taken to secure
+that end:
+
+    CODE TELEGRAM DATED OCTOBER 26, 1915, FROM CHU CHI-CHUN, MINISTER OF
+    THE INTERIOR, ET ALIA, RESPECTING THE NOMINATION OF YUAN SHIH-KAI AS
+    EMPEROR
+
+    To the Military and Civil Governors of the Provinces:--
+
+    (To be deciphered with the Hua Code)
+
+    Your telegram of the 24th inst. came duly to hand.
+
+    After the form of the state has been put to the vote, the nomination
+    of Yuan Shih-kai as emperor should be made forthwith without further
+    voting. You should address the representatives and tell them that a
+    monarchy having been decided on, not even a single day should pass
+    without an emperor; that the citizens' representatives present
+    should nominate Yuan Shih-kai as the Great Emperor of the Chinese
+    Empire; and that if they are in favour of the proposal, they should
+    signify their assent by standing up. This done, the text of the
+    proposed letter of nomination from the citizens should be handed to
+    the representatives for their signatures; after which you should
+    again address them to the effect that in all matters concerning the
+    nomination and the petition for immediate enthronement, they may, in
+    the name of the citizens' representatives, invest the acting
+    Legislative Council with general powers to act on their behalf and
+    to do the necessary things until their petition is granted. The text
+    (already prepared) of the proposed telegram from the citizens'
+    representatives to the acting Legislative Council should then be
+    shown to the representatives for approval. Whereupon three separate
+    telegrams are to be drawn up: one giving the number of votes in
+    favour of a change in the form of the state, one containing the
+    original text of the letter of nomination, and the third concerning
+    the vesting of the acting Legislative Council with general powers to
+    act on behalf of the citizens' representatives. These should be sent
+    officially to the acting Legislative Council in the name of the
+    citizens' representatives. You should at the same time wire to the
+    President all that has taken place. The votes and the letter of
+    nomination are to be forwarded to Peking in due course.
+
+    As for the exact words to be inserted in the letter of nomination,
+    they have been communicated to you in our telegram of the 23rd inst.
+    These characters, forty-five in all, must on no account be altered.
+    The rest of the text is left to your discretion.
+
+    We may add that since the letter of nomination and the vesting of
+    the acting Legislative Council with general powers to act on behalf
+    of the citizens' representatives are matters which transgress the
+    bounds of the law, you are earnestly requested not to send to the
+    National Convention Bureau any telegraphic enquiry concerning them,
+    so that the latter may not find itself in the awkward position of
+    having to reply.
+
+Two days after this telegram had been dispatched the longfeared action
+on the part of Japan had been taken and a new situation had been
+created. The Japanese "advice" of the 28th October was in fact a
+veritable bombshell playing havoc with the house of cards which had been
+so carefully erected. But the intrigue had gone so far, and the prizes
+to be won by the monarchical supporters were so great that nothing could
+induce them to retrace their footsteps. For a week and more a desperate
+struggle went on behind the scenes in the Presidential Palace, since
+Yuan Shih-kai was too astute a man not to understand that a most
+perilous situation was being rapidly created and that if things went
+wrong he would be the chief victim. But family influences and the voice
+of the intriguers proved too strong for him, and in the end he gave his
+reluctant consent to a further step. The monarchists, boldly acting on
+the principle that possession is nine points of the law, called upon the
+provinces to anticipate the vote and to substitute the title of Emperor
+for that of President in all government documents and petitions so that
+morally the question would be _chose jugée_.
+
+    CODE TELEGRAM DATED NOVEMBER 7, 1915, FROM CHU CHI-CHUN, MINISTER OF
+    THE INTERIOR, ET ALIA, ENJOINING A STRONG ATTITUDE TOWARDS
+    INTERFERENCE ON THE PART OF A CERTAIN FOREIGN POWER
+
+    To the Military and Civil Governors of the Provinces:--
+
+    (To be deciphered personally with the Council of State Code)
+
+    A certain foreign power, under the pretext that the Chinese people
+    are not of one mind and that troubles are to be apprehended, has
+    lately forced England and Russia to take part in tendering advice to
+    China. In truth, all foreign nations know perfectly well that there
+    will be no trouble, and they are obliged to follow the example of
+    that power. If we accept the advice of other Powers concerning our
+    domestic affairs and postpone the enthronement, we should be
+    recognizing their right to interfere. Hence action should under no
+    circumstance be deferred. When all the votes of the provinces
+    unanimously recommending the enthronement shall have reached Peking,
+    the Government will, of course, ostensibly assume a wavering and
+    compromising attitude, so as to give due regard to international
+    relations. The people, on the other hand, should show their firm
+    determination to proceed with the matter at all costs, so as to let
+    the foreign powers know that our people are of one mind. If we can
+    only make them believe that the change of the republic into a
+    monarchy will not in the least give rise to trouble of any kind, the
+    effects of the advice tendered by Japan will _ipso facto_ come to
+    nought.
+
+    At present the whole nation is determined to nominate Yuan Shih-kai
+    Emperor. All civil and military officers, being the natural leaders
+    of the people, should accordingly give effect to the nomination. If
+    this can be done without friction, the confidence of both Chinese
+    and foreigners in the Government will be greatly strengthened. This
+    is why we suggested to you in a previous telegram the necessity of
+    immediately substituting the title of "Emperor" for "President." We
+    trust you will concur in our suggestion and carry it out without
+    delay.
+
+    We may add that this matter should be treated as strictly
+    confidential.
+
+    A reply is requested.
+
+    (Signed)
+
+The die now being cast all that was left to be done was to rush through
+the voting in the Provinces. Obsequious officials returned to the use of
+the old Imperial phraseology and Yuan Shih-kai, even before his
+"election," was memorialized as though he were the legitimate successor
+of the immense line of Chinese sovereigns who stretch back to the
+mythical days of Yao and Shun (2800 B.C.). The beginning of December saw
+the voting completed and the results telegraphed to Peking; and on the
+11th December, the Senate hastily meeting, and finding that "the
+National Convention of Citizens" had unanimously elected Yuan Shih-kai
+Emperor, formally offered him the Throne in a humble petition. Yuan
+Shih-kai modestly refused: a second petition was promptly handed to him,
+which he was pleased to accept in the following historic document:
+
+    YUAN SHIH-KAI'S ACCEPTANCE OF THE IMPERIAL THRONE
+
+    The prosperity and decline of the country is a part of the
+    responsibility of every individual, and my love for the country is
+    certainly not less than that of others. But the task imposed on me
+    by the designation of the millions of people is of extraordinary
+    magnitude. It is therefore impossible for one without merit and
+    without virtue like myself to shoulder the burdens of State involved
+    in the enhancing of the welfare of the people, the strengthening of
+    the standing of the country, the reformation of the administration
+    and the advancement of civilization. My former declaration was,
+    therefore, the expression of a sincere heart and not a mere
+    expression of modesty. My fear was such that I could not but utter
+    the words which I have expressed. The people, however, have viewed
+    with increasing impatience that declaration and their expectation of
+    me is now more pressing than ever. Thus I find myself unable to
+    offer further argument just as I am unable to escape the position.
+    The laying of a great foundation is, however, a thing of paramount
+    importance and it must not be done in a hurry. I, therefore, order
+    that the different Ministries and Bureaux take concerted action in
+    making the necessary preparations in the affairs in which they are
+    concerned; and when that is done, let the same be reported to me
+    for promulgation. Meanwhile all our citizens should go on peacefully
+    in their daily vocations with the view to obtain mutual benefit. Let
+    not your doubts and suspicions hinder you in your work. All the
+    officials should on their part be faithful at their posts and
+    maintain to the best of their ability peace and order in their
+    localities, so that the ambition of the Great President to work for
+    the welfare of the people may thus be realized. Besides forwarding
+    the memorial of the principal representatives of the Convention of
+    the Representatives of Citizens and that of the provinces and
+    special administrative area to the Cheng Shih Tang and publishing
+    the same by a mandate, I have the honour to notify the acting Li Fan
+    Yuan as the principal representatives of the Convention of the
+    Representatives of Citizens, to this effect.
+
+Cautious to the end, it will be seen that Yuan Shih-kai's very
+acceptance is so worded as to convey the idea that he is being forced to
+a course of action which is against his better instincts. There is no
+word of what came to be called the Grand Ceremony, _i.e._ the
+enthronement. That matter is carefully left in abeyance and the
+government departments simply told to make the necessary preparations.
+The attitude of Peking officialdom is well-illustrated in a circular
+telegram dispatched to the provinces three days later, the analysis of
+Japan's relationship to the Entente Powers being particularly revealing.
+The obsequious note which pervades this document is also particularly
+noticeable and shows how deeply the canker of sycophancy had now eaten
+in.
+
+    CODE TELEGRAM DATED DECEMBER 14, 1915, FROM THE OFFICE OF
+    COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF OF THE LAND AND NAVAL FORCES, RESPECTING CHINA'S
+    ATTITUDE TOWARDS FOREIGN NATIONS
+
+    To the Military and Civil Governors of the Provinces:--
+
+    (To be deciphered with the Hua Code)
+
+    On the 11th inst. the acting Legislature Council submitted a
+    memorial to the Emperor, reporting on the number of votes cast by
+    the people in favour of a monarchy and the letters of nomination of
+    Yuan Shih-kai as Emperor received from all parts of the country, and
+    begged that he would ascend the Throne at an early date. His Majesty
+    was, however, so modest as to decline. The Council presented a
+    second memorial couched in the most entreating terms, and received
+    an order to the effect that all the ministries and departments were
+    to make the necessary preparations for the enthronement. The details
+    of this decision appeared in the Presidential Orders of the past few
+    days, so need not be repeated now.
+
+    The people are unanimously of the opinion that in a republic the
+    foundation of the state is very apt to be shaken and the policy of
+    the government to be changed; and that consequently there is no
+    possibility of enjoying everlasting peace and prosperity, nor any
+    hope for the nation to become powerful. Now that the form of the
+    state has been decided in favour of a monarchy and the person who is
+    to sit on the Throne agreed upon, the country is placed on a secure
+    basis, and the way to national prosperity and strength is thus
+    paved.
+
+    Being the trustworthy ministers and, as it were, the hands and feet
+    of His Majesty, we are united to him by more ties than one. On this
+    account we should with one mind exert our utmost efforts in
+    discharging our duty of loyalty to the country. This should be the
+    spirit which guides us in our action at the beginning of the new
+    dynasty. As for the enthronement, it is purely a matter of ceremony.
+    Whether it takes place earlier or later is of no moment. Moreover
+    His Majesty has always been modest, and does everything with
+    circumspection. We should all appreciate his attitude.
+
+    So far as our external relations are concerned, a thorough
+    understanding must be come to with the foreign nations, so that
+    recognition of the new régime may not be delayed and diplomatic
+    intercourse interrupted. Japan, has, in conjunction with the Entente
+    Powers, tendered advice to postpone the change of the Republic into
+    an empire. As a divergence of opinion exists between Japan and the
+    Entente Powers, the advice is of no great effect. Besides, the
+    Elders and the Military Party in Japan are all opposed to the action
+    taken by their Government. Only the press in Tokio has spread all
+    sorts of threatening rumours. This is obviously the upshot of
+    ingenious plots on the part of irresponsible persons. If we postpone
+    the change we shall be subject to foreign interference, and the
+    country will consequently cease to exist as an independent state. On
+    the other hand, if we proclaim the enthronement forthwith, we shall
+    then be flatly rejecting the advice,--an act which, we apprehend,
+    will not be tolerated by Japan. As a result, she will place
+    obstacles in the way of recognition of the new order of things.
+
+    Since a monarchy has been decided to be the future form of the
+    state, and His Majesty has consented to accept the Throne, the
+    change may be said to be an accomplished fact. There is no question
+    about it. All persons of whatever walk of life can henceforth
+    continue their pursuits without anxiety. In the meantime we will
+    proceed slowly and surely with the enthronement, as it involves many
+    ceremonies and diplomatic etiquette. In this way both our domestic
+    and our foreign policies will remain unchanged.
+
+    We hope you will comprehend our ideas and treat them as strictly
+    confidential.
+
+    (Signed) Office of the Commander-in-Chief of the Land and Naval
+    Force.
+
+After this one last step remained to be taken--it was necessary to burn
+all the incriminating evidence. On the 21st December, the last circular
+telegram in connection with this extraordinary business was dispatched
+from Peking, a delightful naïveté being displayed regarding the
+possibility of certain letters and telegrams having transgressed the
+bounds of the law. All such delinquencies are to be mercifully wiped out
+by the simple and admirable method of invoking the help of the
+kitchen-fires. And in this appropriate way does the monster-play end.
+
+    CODE TELEGRAM DATED DECEMBER 21, 1915, FROM THE NATIONAL CONVENTION
+    BUREAU, ORDERING THE DESTRUCTION OF DOCUMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE
+    ELECTIONS
+
+    To the Military and Civil Governors of the Provinces, the Military
+    Commissioners at Foochow and Kweiyang; the Military Commandants at
+    Changteh, Kweihuating, and Kalgan; and the Commissioner of Defence
+    at Tachienlu:--(To be deciphered with the Hua Code)
+
+    The change in the form of the state is now happily accomplished.
+    This is due not only to the unity of the people's minds, but more
+    especially to the skill with which, in realizing the object of
+    saving the country, you have carried out the propaganda from the
+    beginning, managed affairs according to the exigencies of the
+    occasions, and adapted the law to suit the circumstances. The people
+    have, to be sure, become tired of the Republic; yet unless you had
+    taken the lead, they would not have dared to voice their sentiments.
+    We all appreciate your noble efforts.
+
+    Ever since the monarchical movement was started, the people as well
+    as the high officials in the different localities have repeatedly
+    petitioned for the change, a fact which proves that the people's
+    will is in favour of it. In order to enable the people to express
+    their will through a properly constituted organ, the General
+    Convention of the Citizens' Representatives has been created.
+
+    Since the promulgation of the Law on the Organization of the
+    Citizens' Representatives, we, who are devoted to the welfare of the
+    state, desire to see that the decisions of that Convention do not
+    run counter to the wishes of the people. We are so anxious about the
+    matter that we have striven so to apply the law to meet the
+    circumstances as to carry out our designs. It is out of patriotic
+    motives that we have adopted the policy of adhering to the law,
+    whenever possible, and, at the same time, of yielding to expediency,
+    whenever necessary. During the progress of this scheme there may
+    have been certain letters and telegrams, both official and private,
+    which have transgressed the bounds of the law. They will become
+    absolutely useless after the affair is finished.' Moreover, no
+    matter how carefully their secrets may have been guarded, still they
+    remain as permanent records which might compromise us; and in the
+    event of their becoming known to foreigners, we shall not escape
+    severe criticism and bitter attacks, and, what is worse, should they
+    be handed down as part of the national records, they will stain the
+    opening pages of the history of the new dynasty. The Central
+    Government, after carefully considering the matter, has concluded
+    that it would be better to sort out and burn the documents so as to
+    remove all unnecessary records and prevent regrettable consequences.
+    For these reasons you are hereby requested to sift out all
+    telegrams, letters, and dispatches concerning the change in the form
+    of the state, whether official or private, whether received from
+    Peking or the provinces (excepting those required by law to be filed
+    on record), and cause the same to be burnt in your presence. As for
+    those which have already been communicated to the local officials,
+    you are likewise requested to order them to be returned immediately;
+    to commit them to the flames; and to report to this Bureau for
+    future reference the total number of documents so destroyed.
+
+    The present change in the form of the state constitutes the most
+    glorious episode of our national history. Not only is this far
+    superior to the succession of dynasties by right of conquest or in
+    virtue of voluntary transfer (as in the days of Yao and Shun), but
+    it compares favourably with all the peaceful changes that have taken
+    place in western politics. Everything will be perfect if whatever
+    mars it (meaning the documents) is done away with.
+
+    All of you have acquired greatness in founding the dynasty. You will
+    doubtless concur with us, and will, we earnestly hope, lose no time
+    in cautiously and secretly carrying out our request.
+
+    We respectfully submit this to your consideration and wait for a
+    reply.
+
+    (Signed) NATIONAL CONVENTION BUREAU.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[18] A very remarkable illustration of the manner in which Yuan Shih-kai
+was trapped by official Japan during the monarchist movement has
+recently been extensively quoted in the Far Eastern press. Here is the
+substance of a Japanese (vernacular) newspaper account showing the uses
+to which Japanese politicians put the Press:
+
+"... When that question was being hotly discussed in China Marquis
+Okuma, interviewed by the Press, stated that monarchy was the right form
+of government for China and that in case a monarchical régime was
+revived Yuan Shih-kai was the only suitable person to sit on the Throne.
+When this statement by Marquis Okuma was published in the Japanese
+papers, Yuan Shih-kai naturally concluded that the Japanese Government,
+at the head of which Marquis Okuma was, was favourably disposed towards
+him and the monarchical movement. It can well be imagined, therefore,
+how intense was his surprise when he later received a warning from the
+Japanese Government against the resuscitation of the monarchy in China.
+When this inconsistency in the Marquis's actions was called in question
+in the Japanese House of Representatives, the ex-Premier absolutely
+denied the truth of the statement attributed to him by the Japanese
+papers, without any show of hesitancy, and thus boldly shirked the
+responsibility which, in reality, lay on him...."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+"THE THIRD REVOLUTION"
+
+THE REVOLT OF YUNNAN
+
+
+In all the circumstances it was only natural that the extraordinary
+chapter of history we have just narrated should have marched to its
+appointed end in just as extraordinary a manner as it had commenced.
+Yuan Shih-kai, the uncrowned king, actually enjoyed in peace his empty
+title only for a bare fortnight, the curious air of unreality becoming
+more and more noticeable after the first burst of excitement occasioned
+by his acceptance of the Throne had subsided. Though the year 1915 ended
+with Peking brightly illuminated in honour of the new régime, which had
+adopted in conformity with Eastern precedents a new calendar under the
+style of Hung Hsien or "glorious Constitutionalism," that official joy
+was just as false as the rest had been and awakened the incredulity of
+the crowd.
+
+On Christmas Day ominous rumours had spread in the diplomatic circle
+that dramatic developments in South China had come which not only
+directly challenged the patient plotting of months but made a débâcle
+appear inevitable. Very few days afterwards it was generally known that
+the southernmost province of China, Yunnan--on the borders of
+French-Indo-China--had telegraphed the Central Government a thinly
+veiled ultimatum, that either the monarchy must be cancelled and the
+chief monarchists executed at once or the province would take such steps
+as were deemed advisable. The text of these telegrams which follows was
+published by the courageous editor of the Peking Gazette on the 31st
+December and electrified the capital. The reader will not fail to note
+how richly allegorical they are in spite of their dramatic nature:
+
+    FIRST TELEGRAM
+
+    To the Great President:
+
+    Since the question of _Kuo-ti_ (form of State) was raised
+    consternation has seized the public mind; and on account of the
+    interference of various Powers the spirit of the people has been
+    more and more aroused. They have asked the question:--"Who has
+    invited the disaster, and brought upon us such great disgrace?" Some
+    one must be responsible for the alien insults heaped on us.
+
+    We have learned that each day is given to rapid preparations for the
+    Grand Ceremony; and it is now true that, internally, public opinion
+    has been slighted, and, externally, occasions have been offered to
+    foreigners to encroach on our rights. Our blood runs cold when we
+    face the dangers at the door. Not once but twice hath the President
+    taken the oath to observe and obey the Constitution and protect and
+    maintain the Republic. The oath was sworn before Heaven and Earth;
+    and it is on record in the hearts of millions of people and the
+    words thereof still echo in the ears of the people of all nations.
+    In the Classics it is said that "in dealing with the people of the
+    country, faith is of the essence of great rule." Again it is written
+    that "without faith a people cannot endure as a nation." How then
+    can one rule the people when he "eats" his own words and tears his
+    own oath? Principle has now been cast to the winds and the _Kuo-ti_
+    has been changed. We know not how the country can be administered.
+
+    Since the suspension of the National Assembly and the revision of
+    the Constitution, the powers of Government have been centred in one
+    person, with the implied freedom to do whatever seems meet without
+    let or hindrance. If the Government were to use this power in order
+    to reform the administration and consolidate the foundations of the
+    nation, there would be no fear of failure. For the whole country
+    would submit to the measures of the Central Government. Thus there
+    is not the least necessity to commit treason by changing the
+    _Kuo-ti_.
+
+    But although the recent decision of the Citizens' Representatives in
+    favour of a monarchy and the request of the high local officials for
+    the President's accession to the Throne have been represented as
+    inspired by the unanimous will of the people, it is well known that
+    the same has been the work of ignoble men whose bribery and
+    intimidation have been sanctioned by the authorities. Although inept
+    efforts have been made to disguise the deceit, the same is unhidden
+    to the eyes of the world.
+
+    Fortunately it is said that the President has from the very
+    beginning maintained a calm attitude, speaking not his mind on the
+    subject. It is now as easy to turn the tide as the reversing of the
+    palm. It may be objected that if the "face" of the nation is not
+    preserved in view of the interference of Foreign Powers, there will
+    be great danger in future. But it must be observed that official
+    declaration can only be made in accordance with the will of the
+    people, the tendency of which can easily be ascertained by searching
+    for the facts. If the will of the people that the country should be
+    the common property of the Nation be obeyed and the idea of the
+    President that a Dynasty is as cheap as a worn-out shoe is heeded,
+    the latter has it in his power to loosen the string that suspends
+    the bell just as much as the person who has hung it. If the wrong
+    path is not forsaken, it is feared that as soon as the heart of the
+    people is gone, the country will be broken to pieces and the
+    dismemberment of the Nation will take place when alien pressure is
+    applied to us. We who have hitherto received favours from the
+    President and have received high appointments from him hereby offer
+    our faithful advice in the spirit of men who are sailing in common
+    in a boat that is in danger; we speak as do those who love sincerity
+    and cherish the unbroken word. We hope that the President will, with
+    courage, refuse to listen to the speech of evil counsellors and heed
+    the voice of conscience and of honour. We further hope that he will
+    renew his promise to protect the Republic; and will publicly swear
+    that a monarchical system will never again appear.
+
+    Thus the heart of the people will be settled and the foundations of
+    the Nation will be consolidated. Then by enlisting the services of
+    sagacious colleagues in order to surmount the difficulties of the
+    time and sweeping away all corruption and beginning anew with the
+    people, it may be that the welfare and interest of the Nation will
+    be furthered. In sending this telegram our eyes are wet with tears,
+    knowing not what more to say. We respectfully await the order of the
+    President with our troops under arms.
+
+    (Signed) THE GOVERNORS OF YUNNAN.
+
+
+    SECOND TELEGRAM
+
+    For the Perusal of the Great President:--
+
+    In our humble opinion the reason why the people--Chinese and
+    foreign--cannot excuse the President is because the movement for the
+    change of Kuo-ti has been inspired, and indeed actually originated
+    in Peking, and that the ringleaders of the plot against the _Min
+    Kuo_ are all "bosom-men" of the President. The Chou An Hui,
+    organized by Yang Tu and five other men, set the fire ablaze and the
+    circular telegram sent by Chu Chi-chien and six other persons
+    precipitated the destruction of the Republican structure. The
+    President knew that the bad deed was being done and yet he did
+    nothing to arrest the same or punish the evil-doers. The people
+    therefore, are suspicious. A mandate was issued on the 24th of the
+    11th month of the 3rd year in which it is affirmed: "Democracy and
+    republicanism are laid down in the Constitutional Compact; and there
+    is also a law relating to the punishment of those who spread
+    sedition in order to disturb the minds of the people. If any one
+    Shall hereafter dare to advance strange doctrines and misconstrue
+    the meaning of the Constitution, he will be punished severely in
+    accordance with the law of sedition."
+
+    Yang Tu for having publicly organized the said Society and Chu
+    Chi-chien for having directly plotted by telegram are the principal
+    offenders in the present flagrant case of sedition. As their crimes
+    are obvious and the subject of abundant proof, we hereby ask the
+    President to carry out at once the terms of the said mandate and
+    publicly execute Yang Tu, Sun Yu-yun, Yen Fu, Liu Shih-pei, Li
+    Hsieh-ho, Hu Ying, Chu Chi-chien, Tuan Chih-kuei, Chow Tzu-chi,
+    Liang Shih-yi, Chang Cheng-fang and Yuan Nai-kuan to the end that
+    the whole nation may be pacified. Then, and not till then, will the
+    world believe in the sincerity of the President, in his love for the
+    country and his intention to abide by the law. All the troops and
+    people here are in anger; and unless a substantial proof from the
+    Central Authorities is forthcoming, guaranteeing the maintenance of
+    the Republic, it will be impossible to suppress or pacify them. We
+    await a reply within twenty-four hours.
+
+    (Signed) THE GOVERNORS OF YUNNAN PROVINCE.
+
+[Illustration: General Feng Kuo-chang, President of the Republic.]
+
+[Illustration: The Scholar Liang Chi-chao, sometime Minister of Justice,
+and the foremost "Brain" in China.]
+
+It was evident from the beginning that pride prevented Yuan Shih-kai
+from retreating from the false position he had taken up. Under his
+instructions the State Department sent a stream of powerful telegraphic
+messages to Yunnan attempting to dissuade the Republican leaders from
+revolt. But the die had been cast and very gravely the standard of
+rebellion was raised in the capital city of Yunnan and the people
+exhorted to shed their blood. Everything pointed to the fact that this
+rising was to be very different from the abortive July outbreak of 1913.
+There was a soberness and a deliberation about it all which impressed
+close observers with a sense of the ominous end which was now in sight.
+
+Still Peking remained purblind. During the month of January the
+splendour of the dream empire, which was already dissolving into thin
+air, filled the newspapers. It was reported that an Imperial Edict
+printed on Yellow Paper announcing the enthronement was ready for
+universal distribution: that twelve new Imperial Seals in jade or gold
+were being manufactured: that a golden chair and a magnificent State
+Coach in the style of Louis XV were almost ready. Homage to the portrait
+of Yuan Shih-kai by all officials throughout the country was soon to be
+ordered; sycophantic scholars were busily preparing a volume poetically
+entitled "The Golden Mirror of the Empire," in which the virtues of the
+new sovereign were extolled in high-sounding language. A recondite
+significance, it was said, was to be given to the old ceremonial dress,
+which was to be revived, from the fact that every official would carry a
+Hu or Ivory Tablet to be held against the breast. The very mention of
+this was sufficient to make the local price of ivory leap skywards! In
+the privacy of drawing-rooms the story went the rounds that Yuan
+Shih-kai, now completely deluded into believing in the success of his
+great scheme, had held a full dress rehearsal of a ceremony which would
+be the first one at his new Court when he would invest the numerous
+ladies of his establishment with royal rank. Seated on his Throne he had
+been engaged in instructing these interested females, already robed in
+magnificent costumes, in the parts they were to play, when he had
+noticed the absence of the Korean Lady--a consort he had won, it is
+said, in his Seoul days in competition against the Japanese Envoy
+accredited to Korea, thereby precipitating the war of 1894-95.[19] The
+Korean Lady had refused to enter the Throne-room, he was told, because
+she was dissatisfied with the rank he proposed to confer on her. Sternly
+he sent for her and told her to take her place in the circle. But no
+sooner had she arrived than hysterically she screamed, "You told me when
+you wedded me that no wife would be my superior: now I am counted only a
+secondary consort." With that she hurled herself at the eldest wife who
+was occupying the post of honour and assailed her bitterly. Amidst the
+general confusion the would-be-Emperor hastily descended from his Throne
+and vainly intervened, but the women were not to be parted until their
+robes were in tatters.
+
+In such childishnesses did Peking indulge when a great disaster was
+preparing. To explain what had occurred in Yunnan it is necessary to go
+back and tell the story of a remarkable young Chinese--General Tsao-ao,
+the soul of the new revolt.
+
+In the revolution of 1911 each province had acted on the assumption that
+it possessed inherent autonomous rights and could assume sovereignty as
+soon as local arrangements had allowed the organization of a complete
+provisional government. Yunnan had been one of the earliest provinces to
+follow the lead of the Wuchang rebels and had virtually erected itself
+into a separate republic, which attracted much attention because of the
+iron discipline which was preserved. Possessing a fairly well-organized
+military system, largely owing to the proximity of the French frontier
+and the efforts which a succession of Viceroys had made to provide
+adequate frontier defence, it was amply able to guarantee its newly won
+autonomy. General Tsao-ao, then in command of a division of troops had
+been elected Generalissimo of the province; and bending himself to his
+task in very few weeks he had driven into exile all officials who
+adhered to the Imperialist cause and made all local institutions
+completely self-supporting. Even in 1911 it had been reported that this
+young man dreamed of founding a dynasty for himself in the mountains of
+South China--an ambition by no means impossible of realization since he
+had received a first-class military education in the Tokio Military
+Schools and was thoroughly up-to-date and conversant with modern
+theories of government.
+
+These reports had at the time greatly concerned Yuan Shih-kai who heard
+it stated by all who knew him that the Yunnan leader was a genius in his
+own way. In conformity with his policy of bringing to Peking all who
+might challenge his authority, he had induced General Tsao-ao, since the
+latter had played no part in the rebellion of 1913, to lay down his
+office of Yunnan Governor-General and join him in the capital at the
+beginning of 1914--another high provincial appointment being held out to
+him as a bait.
+
+Once in Peking, however, General Tsao-ao had been merely placed in
+charge of an office concerned with the reorganization of the land-tax,
+nominally a very important piece of work long advocated by foreign
+critics. But as there were no funds available, and as the purpose was
+plainly merely to keep him under observation, he fretted at the
+restraint, and became engaged in secret political correspondence with
+men who had been exiled abroad. As he was soon an open suspect, in order
+to avoid arrest he had taken the bold step at the very inception of the
+monarchy movement of heading the list of Generals in residence in Peking
+who petitioned the Senate to institute a Monarchy, this act securing him
+against summary treatment. But owing to his secret connection with the
+scholar Liang Chi-chao, who had thrown up his post of Minister of
+Justice and left the capital in order to oppose the new movement, he was
+watched more and more carefully--his death being even hinted at.
+
+He was clever enough to meet this ugly development with a masterly
+piece of trickery conceived in the Eastern vein. One day a carefully
+arranged dispute took place between him and his wife, and the police
+were angrily called in to see that his family and all their belongings
+were taken away to Tientsin as he refused any longer to share the same
+roof with them. Being now alone in the capital, he apparently abandoned
+himself to a life of shameless debauch, going nightly to the haunts of
+pleasure and becoming a notorious figure in the great district in the
+Outer City of Peking which is filled with adventure and adventuresses
+and which is the locality from which Haroun al-Raschid obtained through
+the medium of Arab travellers his great story of "Aladdin and the
+Wonderful Lamp." When governmental suspicions were thoroughly lulled, he
+arranged with a singing-girl to let him out by the backdoor of her house
+at dawn from whence he escaped to the railway-station, rapidly reaching
+Tientsin entirely unobserved.
+
+The morning was well-advanced before the detectives who nightly watched
+his movements became suspicious. Then finding that his whereabouts were
+unknown to the coachman dozing on the box of his carriage, they roughly
+entered the house where he had passed the night only to find that the
+bird had flown. Hasty telegrams were dispatched in every direction,
+particularly to Tientsin--the great centre for political refugees--and
+his summary arrest ordered. But fortune favoured him. A bare
+quarter-of-an-hour before the police began their search he had embarked
+with his family on a Japanese steamer lying in the Tientsin river and
+could snap his fingers at Yuan Shih-kai.
+
+Once in Japan he lost no time in assembling his revolutionary friends
+and in a body they embarked for South China. As rapidly as possible he
+reached Yunnan province from Hongkong, travelling by way of the French
+Tonkin railway. Entering the province early in December he found
+everything fairly ready for revolt, though there was a deficiency in
+arms and munitions which had to be made good. Yuan Shih-kai, furious at
+this evasion, had telegraphed to confidential agents in Yunnan to kill
+him at sight, but fortunately he was warned and spared to perform his
+important work. Had a fortnight of grâce been vouchsafed him, he would
+have probably made the most brilliant modern campaign that has been
+witnessed in China, for he was an excellent soldier. Acting from the
+natural fortress of Yunnan it was his plan to descend suddenly on the
+Yangtsze Valley by way of Chungking and to capture the upper river in
+one victorious march thus closing the vast province of Szechuan to the
+Northern troops. But circumstances had made it imperative for him and
+his friends to telegraph the Yunnan ultimatum a fortnight sooner than it
+should have been dispatched, and the warning thus conveyed to the
+Central Government largely crippled the Yunnan offensive.
+
+The circumstances which had made instant action necessary were as
+follows. As we have seen from the record of the previous risings, the
+region of the Yangtsze river has superlative value in Chinese politics.
+Offering as it does an easy road into the heart of the country and
+touching more than half the Provinces, it is indeed a priceless means of
+communication, and for this reason Yuan Shih-kai had been careful after
+the crushing of the rebellion of 1913 to load the river-towns with his
+troops under the command of Generals he believed incorruptible. Chief of
+these was General Feng Kuo-chang at Nanking who held the balance of
+power on the great river, and whose politics, though not entirely above
+suspicion, had been proof against all the tempting offers South China
+made to him until the ill-fated monarchy movement had commenced. But
+during this movement General Feng Kuo-chang had expressed himself in
+such contemptuous terms of the would-be Emperor that orders had been
+given to another high official--Admiral Tseng, Garrison Commissioner at
+Shanghai--to have him assassinated. Instead of obeying his instructions,
+Admiral Tseng had conveyed a warning to his proposed victim, the
+consequence being that the unfortunate admiral was himself brutally
+murdered on the streets of Shanghai by revolver-shots for betraying the
+confidence of his master. After this dénouement it was not very strange
+that General Feng Kuo-chang should have intimated to the Republican
+Party that as soon as they entered the Yangtsze Valley he would throw in
+his lot with them together with all his troops. Of this Yuan Shih-kai
+became aware through his extraordinary system of intelligence; and
+following his usual practice he had ordered General Feng Kuo-chang to
+Peking as Chief of the General Staff--an appointment which would place
+him under direct surveillance. First on one excuse, then on another,
+General Feng Kuo-chang had managed to delay his departure from day to
+day without actually coming under the grave charge of refusing to obey
+orders. But finally the position was such that he telegraphed to General
+Tsao-ao that unless the Yunnan arrangements were hastened he would have
+to leave Nanking--and abandon this important centre to one of Yuan
+Shih-kai's own henchmen--which meant the end of all hopes of the
+Yangtsze Valley rising _en masse_.
+
+It was to save Feng Kuo-chang, then, that the young patriot Tsao-ao
+caused the ultimatum to be dispatched fourteen days too soon, _i.e._,
+before the Yunnan troops had marched over the mountain-barrier into the
+neighbouring province of Szechuan and seized the city of
+Chungking--which would have barred the advance of the Northern troops
+permanently as the river defiles even when lightly defended are
+impassable here to the strongest force. It was largely due to the
+hardships of forced marches conducted over these rugged mountains, which
+raise their precipitous peaks to the heavens, that Tsao-ao subsequently
+lost his life, his health being undermined by exposure, tuberculosis
+finally claiming him. But one thing at least did his resolute action
+secure. With Yunnan in open revolt and several other provinces about to
+follow suit, General Feng Kuo-chang was able to telegraph Peking that it
+was impossible for him to leave his post at Nanking without rebellion
+breaking out. This veiled threat was understood by Yuan Shih-kai. Grimly
+he accepted the checkmate.
+
+Yet all the while he was acting with his customary energy. Troops were
+dispatched towards Szechuan in great numbers, being tracked up the
+rapids of the upper river on board fleets of junks which were ruthlessly
+commandeered. Now commenced an extraordinary race between the Yunnan
+mountaineers and the Northern plainsmen for the strategic city of
+Chungking. For some weeks the result was in doubt; for although Szechuan
+province was held by Northern garrisons, they were relatively speaking
+weak and surrounded by hostile Szechuan troops whose politics were
+doubtful. In the end, however, Yuan Shih-kai's men reached their goal
+first and Chungking was saved. Heavy and continuous mountain-fighting
+ensued, in which the Southern troops were only partially successful.
+Being less well-equipped in mountain artillery and less well-found in
+general supplies they were forced to rely largely on guerrilla warfare.
+There is little accurate record of the desperate fighting which occurred
+in this wild region but it is known that the original Yunnan force was
+nearly annihilated, and that of the remnant numbers perished from
+disease and exposure.
+
+Other events were, however, hastening the débâcle. Kueichow province had
+almost at once followed the example of Yunnan. A third province,
+Kwangsi, under a veteran who was much respected, General Lu Yun Ting,
+was soon added; and gradually as in 1911 it became clear that the army
+was only one chessman in a complicated and very ingenious game.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[19] This story is firmly believed by many, namely that a beautiful
+woman caused the loss of Korea.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+"THE THIRD REVOLUTION" (Continued)
+
+THE DOWNFALL AND DEATH OF YUAN SHIH-KAI
+
+
+As had been the case during the previous revolts, it was not publicly or
+on the battlefield that the most crucial work was performed: the
+decisive elements in this new and conclusive struggle were marshalled
+behind the scenes and performed their task unseen. Though the
+mandarinate, at the head of which stood Yuan Shih-kai, left no stone
+unturned to save itself from its impending fate, all was in vain. Slowly
+but inexorably it was shown that a final reckoning had to be faced.
+
+The reasons are not far to seek. Too long had the moral sense of
+educated men been outraged by common fraud and deceit for any
+continuance of a régime which had disgraced China for four long years to
+be humanly possible. Far and wide the word was rapidly passing that Yuan
+Shih-kai was not the man he had once been; he was in reality feeble and
+choleric--prematurely old from too much history-making and too many
+hours spent in the harem. He had indeed become a mere Colossus with feet
+of clay,--a man who could be hurled to the ground by precisely the same
+methods he had used to destroy the Manchus. Even his foreign supporters
+were becoming tired and suspicious of him, endless trouble being now
+associated with his name, there being no promise that quieter times
+could possibly come so long as he lived. A very full comprehension of
+the general position is given by perusing the valedictory letter of the
+leader of the Chinese intellectuals, that remarkable man--Liang
+Ch'i-chao, who in December had silently and secretly fled from Tientsin
+on information reaching him that his assassination was being planned. On
+the even of his departure he had sent the following brilliant document
+to the Emperor-elect as a reply to an attempt to entrap him to Peking, a
+document the meaning of which was clear to every educated man. Its
+exquisite irony mixed with its bluntness told all that was necessary to
+tell--and forecasted the inevitable fall. It runs:--
+
+    For the Kind Perusal of the Great President:--
+
+    A respectful reading of your kind instructions reveals to me your
+    modesty and the brotherly love which you cherish for your humble
+    servant, who is so moved by your heart-touching sympathy that he
+    does not know how to return your kindness. A desire then seized him
+    to submit his humble views for your wise consideration; though on
+    the one hand he has thought that he might fail to express what he
+    wishes to say if he were to do so in a set of brief words, while on
+    the other hand he has no desire to trouble the busy mind of one on
+    whose shoulders fall myriads of affairs, with views expressed in
+    many words. Furthermore, what Ch'i-chao desires to say relates to
+    what can be likened to the anxiety of one who, fearing that the
+    heavens may some day fall on him, strives to ward off the
+    catastrophe. If his words should be misunderstood, it would only
+    increase his offence. Time and again he has essayed to write; but
+    each time he has stopped short. Now he is going South to visit his
+    parents; and looking at the Palace-Gate from afar, he realizes that
+    he is leaving the Capital indefinitely. The thought that he has been
+    a protégé of the Great President and that dangers loom ahead before
+    the nation as well as his sense of duty and friendly obligations,
+    charge him with the responsibility of saying something. He therefore
+    begs to take the liberty of presenting his humble but extravagant
+    views for the kind consideration of the Great President.
+
+    The problem of _Kuo-ti_ (form of State) appears to have gone too far
+    for reconsideration: the position is like unto a man riding on the
+    back of a wild tiger.... Ch'i-chao therefore at one moment thought
+    he would say no more about it, since added comment thereon might
+    make him all the more open to suspicion. But a sober study of the
+    general situation and a quiet consideration of the possible future
+    make him tremble like an autumn leaf; for the more he meditates, the
+    more dangerous the situation appears. It is true that the minor
+    trouble of "foreign advice" and rebel plotting can be settled and
+    guarded against; but what Ch'i-chao bitterly deplores is that the
+    original intention of the Great President to devote his life and
+    energy to the interest of the country--an intention he has fulfilled
+    during the past four years--will be difficult to explain to the
+    world in future. The trust of the world in the Great President would
+    be shattered with the result that the foundation of the country will
+    be unsettled. Do not the Sages say: "In dealing with the people aim
+    at faithfulness?" If faithfulness to promises be observed by those
+    in authority, then the people will naturally surrender themselves.
+    Once, however, a promise is broken, it will be as hard to win back
+    the people's trust as to ascend to the very Heavens. Several times
+    have oaths of office been uttered; yet even before the lips are dry,
+    action hath falsified the words of promise. In these circumstances,
+    how can one hope to send forth his orders to the country in the
+    future, and expect them to be obeyed? The people will say "he
+    started in righteousness but ended in self-seeking: how can we trust
+    our lives in his hands, if he should choose to pursue even further
+    his love of self-enrichment?" It is possible for Ch'i-chao to
+    believe that the Great President has no desire to make profit for
+    himself by the sacrifice of the country, but how can the mass of the
+    people--who believe only what they are told--understand what
+    Ch'i-chao may, perchance, believe?
+
+    The Great President sees no one but those who are always near him;
+    and these are the people who have tried to win his favour and gain
+    rewards by concocting the alleged unanimous petitions of the whole
+    country urging his accession to the Throne. In reality, however, the
+    will of the people is precisely the opposite. Even the high
+    officials in the Capital talk about the matter in a jeering and
+    sarcastic way. As for the tone of the newspapers outside Peking,
+    that is better left unmentioned. And as for the "small people" who
+    crowd the streets and the market-places, they go about as if
+    something untoward might happen at any moment. If a kingdom can be
+    maintained by mere force, then the disturbance at the time of Ch'in
+    Chih-huang and Sui Yang Ti could not have been successful. If, on
+    the other hand, it is necessary to secure the co-operation and the
+    willing submission of the hearts of the people, then is it not time
+    that our Great President bethinks himself and boldly takes his own
+    stand?
+
+    Some argue that to hesitate in the middle of a course after
+    indulging in much pomp and pageantry at the beginning will result in
+    ridicule and derision and that the dignity of the Chief Executive
+    will be lowered. But do they even know whether the Great President
+    has taken the least part in connection with the phantasies of the
+    past four months? Do they know that the Great President has, on many
+    occasions, sworn fidelity before high Heaven and the noon-day sun?
+    Now if he carries out his sacrosanct promise and is deaf to the
+    unrighteous advice of evil counsellors, his high virtue will be made
+    even more manifest than ever before. Wherein then is there need of
+    doubt or fear?
+
+    Others may even suggest that since the proposal was initiated by
+    military men, the tie that has hitherto bound the latter to the
+    Great President may be snapped in case the pear fails to ripen. But
+    in the humble opinion of Ch'i-chao, the troops are now all fully
+    inspired with a sense of obedience to the Chief Executive. Who then
+    can claim the right to drag our Great President into unrighteousness
+    for the sake of vanity and vainglory? Who will dare disobey the
+    behests of the Great President if he should elect to open his heart
+    and follow the path of honour and unbroken vows? If to-day, as Head
+    of the nation, he is powerless to silence the riotous clamour of the
+    soldiery as happened at Chen-chiao in ancient time, then be sure in
+    the capacity of an Emperor he will not be able to suppress an
+    outbreak of troops even as it happened once at Yuyang in the Tang
+    dynasty.[20] To give them the handle of the sword is simply courting
+    trouble for the future. But can we suspect the troops--so long
+    trained under the Great President--of such unworthy conduct? The
+    ancients say "However a thing is done, do not hurt the feelings of
+    those who love you, or let your enemy have a chance to rejoice."
+    Recently calamities in the forms of drought and flood have
+    repeatedly visited China; and the ancients warn us that in such ways
+    does Heaven manifest its Will regarding great movements in our
+    country. In addition to these we must remember the prevailing evils
+    of a corrupt officialdom, the incessant ravages of robbers, excesses
+    in punishment, the unusually heavy burdens of taxation, as well as
+    the irregularity of weather and rain, which all go to increase the
+    murmurs and complaints of the people. Internally, the rebels are
+    accumulating strength against an opportune time to rise; externally,
+    powerful neighbouring countries are waiting for an opportunity to
+    harass us. Why then should our Great President risk his precious
+    person and become a target of public criticism; or "abandon the rock
+    of peace in search of the tiger's tail"; or discourage the loyalty
+    of faithful ones and encourage the sinister ambitions of the
+    unscrupulous? Ch'i-chao sincerely hopes that the Great President
+    will devote himself to the establishment of a new era which shall be
+    an inspiration to heroism and thus escape the fate of those who are
+    stigmatized in our annals with the name of Traitor. He hopes that
+    the renown of the Great President will long be remembered in the
+    land of _Chung Hua_ (China) and he prays that the fate of China may
+    not end with any abrupt ending that may befall the Great President.
+    He therefore submits his views with a bleeding heart. He realizes
+    that his words may not win the approval of one who is wise and
+    clever; but Ch'i-chao feels that unless he unburdens what is in his
+    heart, he will be false to the duty which bids him speak and be true
+    to the kindness that has been showered on him by the Great
+    President. Whether his loyalty to the Imperative Word will be
+    rewarded with approval or with reproof, the order of the Great
+    President will say.
+
+    There are other words of which Ch'i-chao wishes to tender to the
+    Great President. To be an independent nation to-day, we must need
+    follow the ways of the present age. One who opposes the current of
+    the world and protects himself against the enriching influence of
+    the world-spirit must eventually share the fate of the unselected.
+    It is sincerely hoped that the Great President will refrain to some
+    extent from restoring the old and withal work for real reform. Law
+    can only be made a living force by both the ruler and the people
+    obeying it with sincerity. When the law loses its strength, the
+    people will not know how to act; and then the dignity of Government
+    will disappear. It is hoped that the Great President will keep
+    himself within the bounds of law and not lead the officials and the
+    people to juggle with words. Participation in politics and
+    patriotism are closely related. Bear well in mind that it is
+    impossible to expect the people to share the responsibilities of the
+    country, unless they are given a voice in the transaction of public
+    business. The hope is expressed that the Great President will
+    establish a real organ representing the true will of the people and
+    encourage the natural growth of the free expression of public
+    opinion. Let us not become so arrogant and oppressive that the
+    people will have no chance to express their views, as this may
+    inspire hatred on the part of the people. The relation between the
+    Central Government and the provincial centres is like that between
+    the trunk and branches of a tree. If the branches are all withered,
+    how can the trunk continue to grow? It is hoped that the Great
+    President, while giving due consideration to the maintenance of the
+    dignity of the Central Government, will at the same time allow the
+    local life of the provinces to develop. Ethics, Righteousness,
+    Purity and Conscientiousness are four great principles. When these
+    four principles are neglected, a country dies. If the whole country
+    should come in spirit to be like "concubines and women," weak and
+    open to be coerced and forced along with whomsoever be on the
+    stronger side, how can a State be established? May the Great
+    President encourage principle, and virtue, stimulate purity of
+    character, reject men of covetous and mean character, and grant wise
+    tolerance to those who know no fear in defending the right. Only
+    then will the vitality of the country be retained in some degree;
+    and in time of emergency, there will be a reserve of strength to be
+    drawn upon in support of the State. All these considerations are of
+    the order of obvious truths and it must be assumed that the Great
+    President, who is greatly wise, is not unaware of the same. The
+    reason why Ch'i-chao ventures to repeat them is this. He holds it
+    true that a duty is laid on him to submit whatever humble thoughts
+    are his, and at the same time he believes that the Great President
+    will not condemn a proper physic even though it may be cheap and
+    simple. How fortunate will Ch'i-chao be if advice so tendered shall
+    meet with approval. He is proceeding farther and farther away from
+    the Palace every day and he does not know how soon he will be able
+    to seek an audience again. He writes these words with tears dropping
+    into the ink-slab and he trusts that his words may receive the
+    attention of the Great President.
+
+So ends this remarkable missive which has become an historic document in
+the archives of the Republic. Once again it was whispered that so great
+an impression did this fateful warning produce on the Emperor-elect that
+he was within an ace of cancelling the disastrous scheme which now
+enmeshed him. But in the end family influence won the day; and
+stubbornly and doggedly the doomed man pushed on with his attempt to
+crush revolt and consolidate his crumbling position.
+
+Every possible effort was made to minimize the effect of international
+influence on the situation. As the sycophantic vernacular press of the
+capital, long drilled to blind subservience, had begun to speak of his
+enthronement as a certainty on the 9th February, a Circular Note was
+sent to the Five Allied Powers that no such date had been fixed, and
+that the newspaper reports to that effect were inventions. In order
+specially to conciliate Japan, a high official was appointed to proceed
+on an Embassy to Tokio to grant special industrial concessions--a
+manoeuvre which was met with the official refusal of the Tokio
+Government to be so placated. Peking was coldly informed that owing to
+"court engagements" it would be impossible for the Emperor of Japan to
+receive any Chinese Mission. After this open rebuff attention was
+concentrated on "the punitive expedition" to chastise the disaffected
+South, 80,000 men being put in the field and a reserve of 80,000
+mobilized behind them. An attempt was also made to win over waverers by
+an indiscriminate distribution of patents of nobility. Princes, Dukes,
+Marquises, Viscounts and Barons were created in great batches overnight
+only to be declined in very many cases, one of the most precious
+possessions of the Chinese race being its sense of humour. Every one, or
+almost every one, knew that the new patents were not worth the paper
+they were written on, and that in future years the members of this
+spurious nobility would be exposed to something worse than contempt.
+France was invited to close the Tonkin frontier, but this request also
+met with a rebuff, and revolutionists and arms were conveyed in an
+ever-more menacing manner into the revolted province of Yunnan by the
+French railways. A Princedom was at length conferred on Lung Chi Kwang,
+the Military Governor of Canton, Canton being a pivotal point and Lung
+Chi Kwang, one of the most cold-blooded murderers in China, in the hope
+that this would spur him to such an orgy of crime that the South would
+be crushed. Precisely the opposite occurred, since even murderers are
+able to read the signs of the times. Attempts were likewise made to
+enforce the use of the new Imperial Calendar, but little success crowned
+such efforts, no one outside the metropolis believing for a moment that
+this innovation possessed any of the elements of permanence.
+
+Meanwhile the monetary position steadily worsened, the lack of money
+becoming so marked as to spread panic. Still, in spite of this, the
+leaders refused to take warning, and although the political impasse was
+constantly discussed, the utmost concession the monarchists were willing
+to make was to turn China into a Federal Empire with the provinces
+constituted into self-governing units. The over-issue of paper currency
+to make good the gaps in the National Finance, now slowly destroyed the
+credit of the Central Government and made the suspension of specie
+payment a mere matter of time. By the end of February the province of
+Kueichow was not only officially admitted by the Peking Government to be
+in open revolt as well as Yunnan, but rebel troops were reported to be
+invading the neighbouring province of Hunan. Kwangsi was also reported
+to be preparing for secession whilst in Szechuan local troops were
+revolting in increasing numbers. Rumours of an attempted assassination
+of Yuan Shih-kai by means of bombs now circulated,--and there were many
+arrests and suicides in the capital. Though by a mandate issued on the
+23rd February, the enthronement ceremony was indefinitely postponed,
+that move came too late. The whole country was plainly trembling on the
+edge of a huge outbreak when, less than four weeks later, Yuan Shih-kai
+reluctantly and publicly admitted that the game was up. It is understood
+that a fateful interview he had with the British Minister greatly
+influenced him, though the formal declaration of independence of Kwangsi
+on the 16th March, whither the scholar Liang Ch'i-chao had gone, was
+also a powerful argument. On the 22nd March the Emperor-elect issued the
+mandate categorically cancelling the entire monarchy scheme, it being
+declared that he would now form a Responsible Cabinet. Until that date
+the Government Gazette had actually perpetrated the folly of publishing
+side by side Imperial Edicts and Presidential Mandates--the first for
+Chinese eyes, the second for foreign consumption. Never before even in
+China had such a farce been seen. A rapid perusal of the Mandate of
+Cancellation will show how lamely and poorly the retreat is made:
+
+    DECREE CANCELLING THE EMPIRE (22ND MARCH)
+
+    After the establishment of the _Min Kuo_ (_i.e._ the Republic),
+    disturbances rapidly followed one another; and a man of little
+    virtue like me was called to take up the vast burden of the State.
+    Fearing that disaster might befall us any day, all those who had the
+    welfare of the country at heart advocated the reinstitution of the
+    monarchical system of government to the end that a stop be put to
+    all strife for power and a régime of peace be inaugurated.
+    Suggestions in this sense have unceasingly been made to me since the
+    days of Kuei Chou (the year of the first Revolution, 1911) and each
+    time a sharp rebuke has been administered to the one making the
+    suggestion. But the situation last year was indeed so different from
+    the circumstances of preceding years that it was impossible to
+    prevent the spread of such ideas.
+
+    It was said that China could never hope to continue as a nation
+    unless the constitutional monarchical form of state were adopted;
+    and if quarrels like those occurring in Mexico and Portugal were to
+    take place in China, we would soon share the fate of Annam and
+    Burmah. A large number of people then advocated the restoration of a
+    monarchy and advanced arguments which were reasonable. In this
+    proposal all the military and civil officials, scholars and people
+    concurred; and prayers were addressed to me in most earnest tone by
+    telegram and in petitions. Owing to the position I was at the time
+    holding, which laid on me the duty of maintaining the then existing
+    situation, I repeatedly made declarations resisting the adoption of
+    the advice; but the people did not seem to realize my embarrassment.
+    And so it was decided by the acting Li Fa Yuan (_i.e._ the Senate)
+    that the question of _Kuo-ti_ (form of State) should be settled by
+    the Convention of Citizens' Representatives. As the result, the
+    representatives of the Provinces and of the Special Administrative
+    Areas unanimously decided in favour of a constitutional monarchy,
+    and in one united voice elected me as the Emperor. Since the
+    sovereignty of the country has been vested in the citizens of China
+    and as the decision was made by the entire body of the
+    representatives, there was no room left to me for further
+    discussion. Nevertheless, I continued to be of the conviction that
+    my sudden elevation to the Great Seat would be a violation of my
+    oath and would compromise my good faith, leaving me unable to
+    explain myself; I, therefore, declined in earnest words in order to
+    make clear the view which hath always been mine. The said Senate
+    however, stated with firmness that the oath of the Chief Executive
+    rested on a peculiar sanction and should be observed or discarded
+    according to the will of the people. Their arguments were so
+    irresistible that there was in truth no excuse for me further to
+    decline the offer.
+
+    Therefore I took refuge behind the excuse of "preparations" in order
+    that the desire of the people might be satisfied. But I took no
+    steps actually to carry out the programme. When the trouble in
+    Yunnan and Kueichow arose, a mandate was officially issued
+    announcing the decision to postpone the measure and forbidding
+    further presentation of petitions praying for the enthronement. I
+    then hastened the convocation of the Li Fa Yuan (_i.e._, a new
+    Parliament) in order to secure the views of that body and hoping
+    thus to turn back to the original state of affairs, I, being a man
+    of bitter experiences, had at once given up all ideas of world
+    affairs; and having retired into the obscurity of the river Yuan (in
+    Honan), I had no appetite for the political affairs of the country.
+    As the result of the revolution in Hsin Hai, I was by mistake
+    elected by the people. Reluctantly I came out of my retirement and
+    endeavoured to prop up the tottering structure. I cared for nothing,
+    but the salvation of the country. A perusal of our history of
+    several thousand years will reveal in vivid manner the sad fate of
+    the descendants of ancient kings and emperors. What then could have
+    prompted me to aspire to the Throne? Yet while the representatives
+    of the people were unwilling to believe in the sincerity of my
+    refusal of the offer, a section of the people appear to have
+    suspected me of harbouring the desire of gaining more power and
+    privileges. Such difference in thought has resulted in the creation
+    of an exceedingly dangerous situation. As my sincerity has not been
+    such as to win the hearts of the people and my judgment has not been
+    sound enough to appraise every man, I have myself alone to blame for
+    lack of virtue. Why then should I blame others? The people have been
+    thrown into misery and my soldiers have been made to bear hardships;
+    and further the people have been cast into panic and commerce has
+    rapidly declined. When I search my own heart a measure of sorrow
+    fills it. I shall, therefore, not be unwilling to suppress myself in
+    order to yield to others.
+
+    I am still of the opinion that the "designation petitions" submitted
+    through the Tsan Cheng Yuan are unsuited to the demands of the time;
+    and the official acceptance of the Imperial Throne made on the 11th
+    day of the 12th month of last year (11th December, 1915) is hereby
+    cancelled. "The designation petitions" of the Provinces and of the
+    Special Administrative Areas are hereby all returned through the
+    State Department to the Tsan Cheng Yuan, _i.e._, the acting Li Fa
+    Yuan (Parliament), to be forwarded to the petitioners for
+    destruction; and all the preparations connected therewith are to
+    cease at once. In this wise I hope to imitate the sincerity of the
+    Ancients by taking on myself all the blame so that my action may
+    fall in line with the spirit of humanity which is the expression of
+    the will of Heaven. I now cleanse my heart and wash my thoughts to
+    the end that trouble may be averted and the people may have peace.
+    Those who advocated the monarchical system were prompted by the
+    desire to strengthen the foundation of the country; but as their
+    methods have proved unsuitable their patriotism might harm the
+    country. Those who have opposed the monarchy have done so out of
+    their desire to express their political views. It may be therefore
+    presumed that they would not go to the extreme and so endanger the
+    country. They should, therefore, all hearken to the voice of their
+    own conscience and sacrifice their prejudices, and with one mind and
+    one purpose unite in the effort of saving the situation so that the
+    glorious descendants of the Sacred Continent may be spared the
+    horrors of internal warfare and the bad omens may be changed into
+    lucky signs.
+
+    In brief I now confess that all the faults of the country are the
+    result of my own faults. Now that the acceptance of the Imperial
+    Throne has been cancelled every man will be responsible for his own
+    action if he further disturbs the peace of the locality and thus
+    gives an opportunity to others. I, the Great President, being
+    charged with the duty of ruling over the whole country, cannot
+    remain idle while the country is racing to perdition. At the present
+    moment the homesteads are in misery, discipline has been
+    disregarded, administration is being neglected and real talents have
+    not been given a chance. When I think of such conditions I awake in
+    the darkness of midnight. How can we stand as a nation if such a
+    state of affairs is allowed to continue? Hereafter all officials
+    should thoroughly get rid of their corrupt habits and endeavour to
+    achieve merits. They should work with might and main in their
+    duties, whether in introducing reforms or in abolishing old
+    corruptions. Let all be not satisfied with empty words and entertain
+    no bias regarding any affair. They should hold up as their main
+    principle of administration the policy that only reality will count
+    and deal out reward or punishment with strict promptness. Let all
+    our generals, officials, soldiers and people all, all, act in
+    accordance with this ideal.
+
+This attempt at an _Amende honorable_, so far from being well-received,
+was universally looked upon as an admission that Yuan Shih-kai had
+almost been beaten and that a little more would complete his ruin.
+Though, as we have said, the Northern troops were fighting well in his
+cause on the upper reaches of the great Yangtsze, the movement against
+him was now spreading as though it had been a dread contagious disease,
+the entire South uniting against Peking. His promise to open a proper
+Legislative Chamber on 1st May was met with derision. By the middle of
+April five provinces--Yunnan, Kueichow, Kwangsi, Kwangtung and
+Chekiang--had declared their independence, and eight others were
+preparing to follow suit. A Southern Confederacy, with a Supreme
+Military Council sitting at Canton, was organized, the brutal Governor
+Lung Chi Kwang having been won over against his master, and the scholar
+Liang Ch'i-chao flitting from place to place, inspiring move after move.
+The old parliament of 1913 was reported to be assembling in Shanghai,
+whilst terrorist methods against Peking officials were bruited abroad
+precipitating a panic in the capital and leading to an exodus of
+well-to-do families who feared a general massacre.
+
+An open agitation to secure Yuan Shih-kai's complete retirement and
+exile now commenced. From every quarter notables began telegraphing him
+that he must go,--including General Feng Kuo-chang who still held the
+balance of power on the Yangtsze. Every enemy Yuan Shih-kai had ever had
+was also racing back to China from exile. By the beginning of May the
+situation was so threatening that the Foreign Legations became alarmed
+and talked of concerting measures to insure their safety. On the 6th May
+came the _coup de grâce_. The great province of Szechuan, which has a
+population greater than the population of France, declared its
+independence; and the whole Northern army on the upper reaches of the
+Yangtsze was caught in a trap. The story is still told with bated breath
+of the terrible manner in which Yuan Shih-kai sated his rage when this
+news reached him--Szechuan being governed by a man he had hitherto
+thoroughly trusted--one General Chen Yi. Arming himself with a sword and
+beside himself with rage he burst into the room where his favourite
+concubine was lying with her newly-delivered baby. With a few savage
+blows he butchered them both, leaving them lying in their gore, thus
+relieving the apoplectic stroke which threatened to overwhelm him.
+Nothing better illustrates the real nature of the man who had been so
+long the selected bailiff of the Powers.
+
+On the 12th May it became necessary to suspend specie payment in Peking,
+the government banks having scarcely a dollar of silver left, a last
+attempt to negotiate a loan in America having failed. Meanwhile under
+inspiration of General Feng Kuo-chang, a conference to deal with the
+situation was assembling at Nanking; but on the 11th May, the Canton
+Military Government, representing the Southern Confederacy, had already
+unanimously elected Vice-President Li Yuan Hung as president of the
+Republic, it being held that legally Yuan Shih-kai had ceased to be
+President when he had accepted the Throne on the previous 13th December.
+The Vice-President, who had managed to remove his residence outside the
+Palace, had already received friendly offers of protection from certain
+Powers which he declined, showing courage to the end. Even the Nanking
+Conference, though composed of trimmers and wobblers, decided that the
+retirement of Yuan Shih-kai was a political necessity, General Feng
+Kuo-chang as chairman of the Conference producing at the last moment a
+telegram from the fallen Dictator declaring that he was willing to go if
+his life and property were guaranteed.
+
+A more dramatic collapse was, however, in store. As May drew to an end
+it was plain that there was no government at all left in Peking. The
+last phase had been truly reached. Yuan Shih-kai's nervous collapse was
+known to all the Legations which were exceedingly anxious about the
+possibility of a soldiers' revolt in the capital. The arrival of a first
+detachment of the savage hordes of General Chang Hsun added Byzantine
+touches to a picture already lurid with a sickened ruler and the
+Mephistophelian figure of that ruler's _âme damnée_, the Secretary Liang
+Shih-yi, vainly striving to transmute paper into silver, and find the
+wherewithal to prevent a sack of the capital. It was said at the time
+that Liang Shih-yi had won over his master to trying one last throw of
+the dice. The troops of the remaining loyal Generals, such as Ni
+Shih-chung of Anhui, were transported up the Yangtsze in an attempt to
+restore the situation by a savage display,--but that effort came to
+nought.
+
+The situation had become truly appalling in Peking. It was even said
+that the neighbouring province of Shantung was to become a separate
+state under Japanese protection. Although the Peking administration was
+still nominally the Central Government of China, it was amply clear to
+observers on the spot that by a process of successive collapses all that
+was left of government was simply that pertaining to a city-state of the
+antique Greek type--a mal-administration dominated by the enigmatic
+personality of Liang Shih-yi. The writ of the capital no longer ran more
+than ten miles beyond the city walls. The very Government Departments,
+disgusted with, and distrustful of, the many hidden influences at work,
+had virtually declared their independence and went their own way,
+demanding foreign dollars and foreign banknotes from the public, and
+refusing all Chinese money. The fine residuum of undisputed power left
+in the hands of the Mal-administrator-in-chief, Liang Shih-yi, was the
+control of the copper cash market which he busily juggled with to the
+very end netting a few last thousands for his own purse, and showing
+that men like water inevitably find their true level. In all China's
+tribulations nothing similar had ever been seen. Even in 1900, after the
+Boxer bubble had been pricked and the Court had sought safety in flight,
+there was a certain dignity and majesty left. Then an immense misfortune
+had fallen across the capital; but that misfortune was like a cloak
+which hid the nakedness of the victim; and there was at least no
+pretence at authority. In the Summer of 1916, had it not been for the
+fact that an admirable police and gendarmerie system, comprising 16,000
+men, secured the safety of the people, there can be little doubt that
+firing and looting would have daily taken place and no woman been safe.
+It was the last phase of political collapse with a vengeance: and small
+wonder if all Chinese officials, including even high police officers,
+sent their valuables either out of the city or into the Legation Quarter
+for safe custody. Extraordinary rumours circulated endlessly among the
+common people that there would be great trouble on the occasion of the
+Dragon Festival, the 5th June; and what actually took place was perhaps
+more than a coincidence.
+
+Early on the 6th June an electric thrill ran through Peking--Yuan
+Shih-kai was dead! At first the news was not believed, but by eleven
+o'clock it was definitely known in the Legation Quarter that he had died
+a few minutes after ten o'clock that morning from uraemia of the
+blood--the surgeon of the French Legation being in attendance almost to
+the last. A certificate issued later by this gentleman immediately
+quieted the rumours of suicide, though many still refused to believe
+that he was actually dead. "I did not wish this end," he is reported to
+have whispered hoarsely a few minutes before he expired, "I did not wish
+to be Emperor. Those around me said that the people wanted a king and
+named me for the Throne. I believed and was misled." And in this way did
+his light flicker out. If there are sermons in stones and books in the
+running brooks surely there is an eloquent lesson in this tragedy!
+Before expiring the wretched man issued the following Death Mandate in
+accordance with the ancient tradition, attempting as the long night fell
+on him to make his peace with men:--
+
+    LAST MANDATE OF YUAN SHIH-KAI
+
+    The Min Kuo has been established for five years. Unworthily have I,
+    the Great President, been entrusted with the great task by the
+    citizens. Owing to my lack of virtue and ability I have not been
+    able fully to transform into deeds what I have desired to
+    accomplish; and I blush to say that I have not realized one
+    ten-thousandth part of my original intention to save the country and
+    the people. I have, since my assumption of the office, worked in
+    day and thought in the night, planning for the country. It is true
+    that the foundation of the country is not yet consolidated, the
+    hardships of the people not yet relieved, and innumerable reforms
+    are still unattended to. But by the valuable services of the civil
+    officials and military men, some semblance of peace and order has
+    been maintained in the provinces and friendly relations with the
+    Powers upheld till now.
+
+    While on the one hand I comfort myself with such things
+    accomplished, on the other hand I have much to blame myself for. I
+    was just thinking how I could retire into private life and rest
+    myself in the forest and near the springs in fulfilment of my
+    original desire, when illness has suddenly overtaken me. As the
+    affairs of the State are of gravest importance, the right man must
+    be secured to take over charge of the same. In accordance with
+    Article 29 of the Provisional Constitution, which states that in
+    case the office of the Great President should be vacated for certain
+    reasons or when the Great President is incapacitated from doing his
+    duties, the Vice-President shall exercise authority and power in his
+    stead. I, the Great President, declare in accordance with the
+    Provisional Constitution that the Vice-President shall exercise in
+    an acting capacity, the authority and power of the Great President
+    of the Chung Hua Min Kuo.
+
+    The Vice-President being a man of courtesy, good nature, benevolence
+    and wisdom, will certainly be capable of greatly lessening the
+    difficulties of the day and place the country on the foundation of
+    peace, and so remedy the defects of me, the Great President, and
+    satisfy the expectations of the people of the whole country. The
+    civil and military officials outside of the Capital as well as the
+    troops, police and scholars and people should doubly keep in mind
+    the difficulties and perils of the nation, and endeavour to maintain
+    peace and order to the best of their ability, placing before
+    everything else the welfare of the country. The ancients once said:
+    "It is only when the living do try to become strong that the dead
+    are not dead." This is also the wish of me, the Great President.
+
+    (Signed) TUAN CHI-JUI,
+    Secretary of State and
+    Minister of War
+
+    TSAO JU-LIN,
+    Minister of Foreign Affairs and
+    Communications.
+
+    WANG YI-TANG,
+    Minister of Interior.
+
+    CHOW TZU-CHI,
+    Minister of Finance.
+
+    LIU-KUAN-HSIUNG,
+    Minister of Navy.
+
+    CHANG TSUNG-HSIANG,
+    Minister of Justice and
+    Agriculture and Commerce.
+
+    CHANG KUO-KAN,
+    Minister of Education.
+
+    6th day of the 6th month of the 5th year of Chung Hua Min Kuo.
+
+This tragic dénouement did not fail to awaken within very few days
+among thinking minds a feeling of profound sympathy for the dead man
+coupled with sharp disgust for the part that foreigners had played--not
+all, of course--but a great number of them. Briefly, when all the facts
+are properly grouped it can be said that Yuan Shih-kai was killed by his
+foreign friends--by the sort of advice he has been consistently given in
+Constitutional Law, in Finance, in Politics, in Diplomacy. It is easy to
+trace step by step the broad road he had been tempted to travel, and to
+see how at each turning-point the men who should have taught him how to
+be true and loyal to the Western things the country had nominally
+adhered to from the proclamation of the Republic, showed him how to be
+disloyal and untrue. The tragedy is one which is bound to be deeply
+studied throughout the whole world when the facts are properly known and
+there is time to think about them, and if there is anything to-day left
+to poetic justice the West will know to whom to apportion the blame.
+
+Yuan Shih-kai, the man, when he came out of retirement in 1911, was in
+many ways a wonderful Chinese: he was a fount of energy and of a
+physical sturdiness rare in a country whose governing classes have
+hitherto been recruited from attenuated men, pale from study and the
+lotus life. He had a certain task to which to put his hand, a huge task,
+indeed, since the reformation of four hundred millions was involved, yet
+one which was not beyond him if wisely advised. He was an ignorant man
+in certain matters, but he had had much political experience and
+apparently possessed a marvellous aptitude for learning. The people
+needed a leader to guide them through the great gateway of the West, to
+help them to acquire those jewels of wisdom and experience which are a
+common heritage. An almost Elizabethan eagerness filled them, as if a
+New World they had never dreamed of had been suddenly discovered for
+them and lay open to their endeavours. China, hitherto derided as a
+decaying land, had been born anew; and in single massive gesture had
+proclaimed that she, too, would belong to the elect and be governed
+accordingly.
+
+What was the foreign response--the official response? In every
+transaction into which it was possible to import them, reaction and
+obscurantism were not only commonly employed but heartily recommended.
+Not one trace of genuine statesmanship, not one flash of altruism, was
+ever seen save the American flash in the pan of 1913, when President
+Wilson refused to allow American participation in the great
+Reorganization Loan because he held that the terms on which it was to be
+granted infringed upon China's sovereign rights. Otherwise there was
+nothing but a tacit endorsement of the very policy which has been
+tearing the entrails out of Europe--namely militarism. That was the fine
+fruit which was offered to a hopeful nation--something that would wither
+on the branch or poison the people as they plucked it. They were taught
+to believe that political instinct was the ability to misrepresent in a
+convincing way the actions and arguments of your opponents and to profit
+by their mistakes--not that it is a mighty impulse which can re-make
+nations. The Republic was declared by the actions of Western bureaucrats
+to be a Republic _pour rire_, not a serious thing; and by this false and
+cruel assumption they killed Yuan Shih-kai.
+
+If that epitaph is written on his political tombstone, it will be as
+full of blinding truth as is only possible with Last Things.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[20] The incident of Chen-chiao is very celebrated in Chinese annals. A
+yellow robe, the symbol of Imperial authority, was thrown around General
+Chao Kuang-ying, at a place called Chen-chiao, by his soldiers and
+officers when he commanded a force ordered to the front. Chao returned
+to the Capital immediately to assume the Imperial Throne, and was thus
+"compelled" to become the founder of the famous Sung dynasty.
+
+The "incident of Yuyang" refers to the execution of Yang Kuei-fei, the
+favourite concubine of Emperor Yuan Tsung of the Tang dynasty. The
+Emperor for a long time was under the alluring influence of Yang
+Kuei-fei, who had a paramour named An Lo-hsan. The latter finally
+rebelled against the Emperor. The Emperor left the capital and proceeded
+to another place together with his favourite concubine, guarded by a
+large force of troops. Midway, however, the soldiers threatened to rebel
+unless the concubine was killed on the spot. The clamour was such that
+the Emperor was forced to sacrifice the favourite of his harem, putting
+her to death in the presence of his soldiers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+THE NEW RÉGIME,--FROM 1916 TO 1917
+
+
+Within an hour of the death of Yuan Shih-kai, the veteran General Tuan
+Chi-jui, in his capacity of Secretary of State, had called on
+Vice-President Li Yuan-hung--the man whom years before he had been sent
+to the Yangtsze to bring captive to Peking--and welcomed him as
+President of the Republic. At one o'clock on the same day the Ministers
+of the Allied Powers who had hastily assembled at the Waichiaopu
+(Foreign Office), were informed that General Li Yuan-hung had duly
+assumed office and that the peace and security of the capital were fully
+guaranteed. No unrest of any sort need be apprehended; for whilst
+rumours would no doubt circulate wildly as soon as the populace realized
+the tragic nature of the climax which had come the Gendarmerie Corps and
+the Metropolitan Police--two forces that numbered 18,000 armed men--were
+taking every possible precaution.
+
+In spite of these assurances great uneasiness was felt. The foreign
+Legations, which are very imperfectly informed regarding Chinese affairs
+although living in the midst of them, could not be convinced that
+internal peace could be so suddenly attained after five years of such
+fierce rivalries. Among the many gloomy predictions made at the time,
+the most common to fall from the lips of Foreign Plenipotentiaries was
+the remark that the Japanese would be in full occupation of the country
+within three months--the one effective barrier to their advance having
+been removed. No better illustration could be given of the inadequate
+grasp of politics possessed by those whose peculiar business it should
+be to become expert in the science of cause and effect. In China, as in
+the Balkans, professional diplomacy errs so constantly because it has
+in the main neither the desire nor the training to study dispassionately
+from day to day all those complex phenomena which go to make up modern
+nationalism. Guided in its conduct almost entirely by a policy of
+personal predilections, which is fitfully reinforced by the recollection
+of precedents, it is small wonder if such mountains of mistakes choke
+every Legation dossier. Determined to have nothing whatever to do, save
+in the last resort, with anything that savours of Radicalism, and
+inclining naturally towards ideals which have long been abandoned in the
+workaday world, diplomacy is the instinctive lover of obscurantism and
+the furtive enemy of progress. Distrusting all those generous movements
+which spring from the popular desire to benefit by change, it follows
+from this that the diplomatic brotherhood inclines towards those truly
+detestable things--secret compacts. In the present instance, having been
+bitterly disappointed by the complete collapse of the strong man theory,
+it was only natural that consolation should be sought by casting doubt
+on the future. Never have sensible men been so absurd. The life-story of
+Yuan Shih-kai, and the part European and Japanese diplomacy played in
+that story, form a chapter which should be taught as a warning to all
+who enter politics as a career, since there is exhibited in this history
+a complete compendium of all the more vicious traits of Byzantinism.
+
+The first acts of President Li Yuan-hung rapidly restored confidence and
+advertised to the keen-eyed that the end of the long drawn-out
+Revolution had come. Calling before him all the generals in the capital,
+he told them with sincerity and simplicity that their country's fortunes
+rested in their hands; and he asked them to take such steps as would be
+in the nature of a permanent insurance against foreign interference in
+the affairs of the Republic. He was at once given fervent support. A
+mass meeting of the military was followed by the whole body of
+commissioned men volunteering to hold themselves personally responsible
+for the maintenance of peace and order in the capital. The dreadful
+disorders which had ushered in the Yuan Shih-kai régime were thus made
+impossible; and almost at once men went about their business as usual.
+
+The financial wreckage left by the mad monarchy adventure was, however,
+appalling. Not only was there no money in the capital but hardly any
+food as well; for since the suspension of specie payments country
+supplies had ceased entering the city as farmers refused to accept
+inconvertible paper in payment for their produce. It became necessary
+for the government to sell at a nominal price the enormous quantities of
+grain which had been accumulated for the army and the punitive
+expedition against the South; and for many days a familiar sight was the
+endless blue-coated queues waiting patiently to receive as in war-time
+their stipulated pittance.
+
+Meanwhile, although the troops remained loyal to the new régime, not so
+the monarchist politicians. Seeing that their hour of obliteration had
+come, they spared no effort to sow secret dissensions and prevent the
+provinces from uniting again with Peking. It would be wearisome to give
+in full detail the innumerable schemes which were now hourly formulated,
+to secure that the control of the country should not be exercised in a
+lawful way. Finding that it was impossible to conquer the general
+detestation felt for them, the monarchists, led by Liang Shih-yi,
+changed their tactics and exhausted themselves in attempting to secure
+the issue of a general amnesty decree. But in spite of every argument
+President Li Yuan-hung remained unmoved and refused absolutely to
+consider their pardon. A just and merciful man, it was his intention to
+allow the nation to speak its mind before issuing orders on the subject;
+but to show that he was no advocate of the terrorist methods practised
+by his predecessor, he now issued a Mandate summarily abolishing the
+infamous _Chih Fa Chu_, or Military Court, which Yuan Shih-kai had
+turned into an engine of judicial assassination, and within whose gloomy
+precincts many thousands of unfortunate men had perished practically
+untried in the period 1911-1916.
+
+Meanwhile the general situation throughout the country only slowly
+ameliorated. The Northern Military party, determined to prevent
+political power from passing solely into the hands of the Southern
+Radicals, bitterly opposed the revival of the Nanking Provisional
+Constitution, and denounced the re-convocation of the old Parliament of
+1913, which had already assembled in Shanghai, preparatory to coming up
+to the capital. It needed a sharp manoeuvre to bring them to their
+senses. The Chinese Navy, assembled in the waters near Shanghai, took
+action; and in an ultimatum communicated to Peking by their Admiral,
+declared that so long as the government in the hands of General Tuan
+Chi-jui refused to conform to popular wishes by reviving the Nanking
+Provisional Constitution and resummoning the old Parliament, so long
+would the Navy refuse to recognize the authority of the Central
+Government. With the fleet in the hands of the Southern Confederacy,
+which had not yet been formally dissolved, the Peking Government was
+powerless in the whole region of the Yangtsze; consequently, after many
+vain manoeuvres to avoid this reasonable and proper solution, it was at
+last agreed that things should be brought back precisely where they had
+been before the _coup d'état_ of the 4th November, 1913--the Peking
+Government being reconstituted by means of a coalition cabinet in which
+there would be both nominees of the North and South--the premiership
+remaining in the hands of General Tuan Chi-jui.
+
+On the 28th June a long funeral procession wended its way from the
+Presidential Palace to the railway Station; it was the remains of the
+great dictator being taken to their last resting-place in Honan.
+Conspicuous in this cortege was the magnificent stage-coach which had
+been designed to bear the founder of the new dynasty to his throne but
+which only accompanied him to his grave. The detached attitude of the
+crowds and the studied simplicity of the procession, which was designed
+to be republican, proved more clearly than reams of arguments that
+China--despite herself perhaps--had become somewhat modernized, the
+oldest country in the world being now the youngest republic and timidly
+trying to learn the lessons of youth.
+
+Once Yuan Shih-kai had been buried, a Mandate ordering the summary
+arrest of all the chief monarchist plotters was issued; but the gang of
+corrupt men had already sought safety in ignominious flight; and it was
+understood that so long as they remained on soil under foreign
+jurisdiction, no attempt would be made even to confiscate their goods
+and chattels as would certainly have been done under former governments.
+The days of treachery and double-dealing and cowardly revenge were
+indeed passing away and the new régime was committed to decency and
+fairplay. The task of the new President was no mean one, and in all the
+circumstances if he managed to steer a safe middle course and avoid both
+Caesarism and complete effacement, that is a tribute to his training.
+Born in 1864 in Hupeh, one of the most important mid-Yangtsze provinces,
+President Li Yuan-hung was now fifty-two years old, and in the prime of
+life; but although he had been accustomed to a military atmosphere from
+his earliest youth his policy had never been militaristic. His father
+having been in command of a force in North China for many years, rising
+from the ranks to the post of _Tsan Chiang_ (Lieutenant-Colonel), had
+been constrained to give him the advantage of a thoroughly modern
+training. At the age of 20 he had entered the Naval School at Tientsin;
+whence six years later he had graduated, seeing service in the navy as
+an engineer officer during the Chino-Japanese war of 1894. After that
+campaign he had been invited by Viceroy Chang Chih-tung, then one of the
+most distinguished of the older viceroys, to join his staff at Nanking,
+and had been entrusted with the supervision of the construction of the
+modern forts at the old Southern capital, which played such a notable
+part in the Revolution. When Chang Chih-tung was transferred to the
+Wuchang viceroyalty, General Li Yuan-hung had accompanied him, actively
+participating in the training of the new Hupeh army, and being assisted
+in that work by German instructors. In 1897 he had gone to Japan to
+study educational, military and administrative methods, returning to
+China after a short stay, but again proceeding to Tokio in 1897 as an
+officer attached to the Imperial Guards. In the autumn of the following
+year he had returned to Wuchang and been appointed Commander of the
+Cavalry. Yet another visit was paid by him to Japan in 1902 to attend
+the grand military manoeuvres, these journeys giving him a good working
+knowledge of Japanese, in addition to the English which had been an
+important item in the curriculum of the Naval School, and which he
+understands moderately well. In 1903 he was promoted Brigadier-General,
+being subsequently gazetted as the Commander of the 2nd Division of
+Regulars (_Chang Pei Chun_) of Hupeh. He also constantly held various
+subsidiary posts, in addition to his substantive appointment, connected
+with educational and administrative work of various kinds, and has
+therefore a sound grasp of provincial government. He was
+Commander-in-Chief of the 8th Division during the famous military
+manoeuvres of 1906 at Changtehfu in Honan province, which are said to
+have given birth to the idea of a universal revolt against the Manchus
+by using the army as the chief instrument.
+
+On the memorable day of October 11, 1911, when the standard of revolt
+was raised at Wuchang, somewhat against his will as he was a loyal
+officer, he was elected military Governor, thus becoming the first real
+leader of the Republic. Within the space of ten days his leadership had
+secured the adhesion of fourteen provinces to the Republican cause; and
+though confronted by grave difficulties owing to insufficiency of
+equipment and military supplies, he fought the Northern soldiery for two
+months around Wuchang with varying success. He it was, when the Republic
+had been formally established and the Manchu régime made a thing of the
+past, who worked earnestly to bring about better relations between the
+armies of North and South China which had been arrayed against one
+another during many bitter weeks. It was he, also, who was the first to
+advocate the complete separation of the civil and military
+administration--the administrative powers in the early days of the
+Republic being entirely in the hands of the military governors of the
+provinces who recruited soldiery in total disregard to the wishes of the
+Central Government. Although this reform has even to-day only been
+partially successful, there is no reason to doubt that before the
+Republic is many years older the idea of the military dictating the
+policy and administration of the country will pass away. The so-called
+Second Revolution of 1913 awakened no sympathy in General Li Yuan-hung,
+because he was opposed to internal strife and held that all Chinese
+should work for unity and concerted reform rather than indulge in
+fruitless dissensions. His disapproval of the monarchy movement had been
+equally emphatic in the face of an ugly outlook. He was repeatedly
+approached by the highest personages to give in his adhesion to Yuan
+Shih-kai becoming emperor, but he persistently refused although grave
+fears were publicly expressed that he would be assassinated. Upon the
+formal acceptance of the Throne by Yuan Shih-kai, he had had conferred
+on him a princedom which he steadfastly refused to accept; and when the
+allowances of a prince were brought to him from the Palace he returned
+them with the statement that as he had not accepted the title the money
+was not his. Every effort to break his will proved unavailing, his
+patience and calmness contributing very materially to the vast moral
+opposition which finally destroyed Yuan Shih-kai.
+
+Such was the man who was called upon to preside over the new government
+and parliament which was now assembling in Peking; and certainly it may
+be counted as an evidence of China's traditional luck which brought him
+to the helm. General Li Yuan-hung knew well that the cool and singular
+plan which had been pursued to forge a national mandate for a revival of
+of the empire would take years completely to obliterate, and that the
+octopus-hold of the Military Party--the army being the one effective
+organization which had survived the Revolution--could not be loosened
+in a day,--in fact would have to be tolerated until the nation asserted
+itself and showed that it could and would be master. In the
+circumstances his authority could not but be very limited, disclosing
+itself in passive rather than in active ways. Wishing to be above all a
+constitutional President, he quickly saw that an interregnum must be
+philosophically accepted during which the Permanent Constitution would
+be worked out and the various parties forced to a general agreement; and
+thanks to this decision the year which has now elapsed since Yuan
+Shih-kai's death has been almost entirely eventless, with the exception
+of the crisis which arose over the war-issue, a matter which is fully
+discussed elsewhere.
+
+Meanwhile, in the closing months of 1916, the position was not a little
+singular. Two great political parties had arisen through the
+Revolution--the Kuo Ming Tang or Nationalists, who included all the
+Radical elements, and the Chinputang or Progressives, whose adherents
+were mainly men of the older official classes, and therefore
+conservative. The Yunnan movement, which had led to the overthrow of
+Yuan Shih-kai, had been inspired and very largely directed by the
+scholar Liang Ch'i-chao, a leader of the Chinputang. To this party,
+then, though numerically inferior to the Kuo Ming Tang, was due the
+honour and credit of re-establishing the Republic, the Kuo Ming Tang
+being under a cloud owing to the failure of the Second Revolution of
+1913 which it had engineered. Nevertheless, owing to the Kuo Ming Tang
+being more genuinely republican, since it was mainly composed of younger
+and more modern minds, it was from its ranks that the greatest check to
+militarism sprang; and therefore although its work was necessarily
+confined to the Council-chamber, its moral influence was very great and
+constantly representative of the civilian element as opposed to the
+militarist. By staking everything on the necessity of adhering to the
+Nanking Provisional Constitution until a permanent instrument was drawn
+up, the Kuo Ming Tang rapidly established an ascendancy; for although
+the Nanking Constitution had admittedly failed to bring representative
+government because of the difficulty of defining powers in such a way as
+to make a practical autocracy impossible, it had at least established as
+a basic principle that China could no longer be ruled as a family
+possession, which in itself marked a great advance on all previous
+conceptions. President Li Yuan-hung's policy, in the circumstances, was
+to play the part of a moderator and to seek to bring harmony to a mass
+of heterogeneous elements that had to carry out the practical work of
+government over four hundred millions of people.
+
+His success was at the outset hampered by the appeal the military were
+quick in making to a new method--to offset the power of Parliament in
+Peking. We have already dealt with the evils of the circular telegram in
+China--surely one of the most unexpected results of adapting foreign
+inventions to native life. By means of these telegraphic campaigns a
+rapid exchange of views is made possible among the provincial governors;
+and consequently in the autumn of 1916, inspired by the Military Party,
+a wholly illegal Conference of generals was organized by the redoubtable
+old General Chang Hsun on the Pukow railway for the purpose of overawing
+parliament, and securing that the Military Party retained a controlling
+hand behind the scenes. It is perhaps unnecessary to-day to do more than
+note the fact that the peace of the country was badly strained by this
+procedure; but thanks to moderate counsels and the wisdom of the
+President no open breach occurred and there is reason to believe that
+this experiment will not be repeated,--at least not in the same way.[21]
+
+The difficulty to be solved is of an unique nature. It is not that the
+generals and the Military Party are necessarily reactionary: it is that,
+not belonging to the intellectual-literary portion of the ruling
+elements, they are less advanced and less accustomed to foreign ways,
+and therefore more in touch with the older China which lingers on in the
+vast agricultural districts, and in all those myriad of townships which
+are dotted far and wide across the provinces to the confines of Central
+Asia. Naturally it is hard for a class of men who hold the balance of
+power and carry on much of the actual work of governing to submit to the
+paper decrees of an institution they do not accept as being responsible
+and representative: but many indications are available that when a
+Permanent Constitution has been promulgated, and made an article of
+faith in all the schools, a change for the better will come and the old
+antagonisms gradually disappear.
+
+It is on this Constitution that Parliament has been at work ever since
+it re-assembled in August, 1916, and which is now practically completed.
+Sitting together three times a week as a National Convention, the two
+Houses have subjected the Draft Constitution (which was prepared by a
+Special Parliamentary Drafting Committee) to a very exhaustive
+examination and discussion. Many violent scenes have naturally marked
+the progress of this important work, the two great parties, the Kuo Ming
+Tang and the Chinputang, coming to loggerheads again and again. But in
+the main the debates and the decisions arrived at have been satisfactory
+and important, because they have tended to express in a concrete and
+indisputable form the present state of the Chinese mind and its immense
+underlying commonsense. Remarkable discussions and fierce enmities, for
+instance, marked the final decision not to make the Confucian cult the
+State Religion; but there is not the slightest doubt that in formally
+registering this veritable revolution in the secret stronghold of
+Chinese political thought, a Bastille has been overthrown and the
+ground left clear for the development of individualism and personal
+responsibility in a way which was impossible under the leaden formulae
+of the greatest of the Chinese sages. In defining the relationship which
+must exist between the Central Government and the provinces even more
+formidable difficulties have been encountered, the apostles of
+decentralization and the advocates of centralization refusing for many
+months to agree on the so-called Provincial system, and then fighting a
+battle _à outrance_ on the question of whether this body of law should
+form a chapter in the Constitution or be simply an annexure to the main
+instrument. The agreement which was finally arrived at--to make it part
+and parcel of the Constitution--was masterly in that it has secured that
+the sovereignty of the people will not tend to be expressed in the
+provincial dietines which have now been re-erected (after having been
+summarily destroyed by Yuan Shih-kai), the Central Parliament being left
+the absolute master. This for a number of years will no doubt be more of
+a theory than a practice; but there is every indication that
+parliamentary government will within a limited period be more successful
+in China than in some European countries; and that the Chinese with
+their love of well-established procedure and cautious action, will
+select open debate as the best method of sifting the grain from the
+chaff and deciding every important matter by the vote of the majority.
+Already in the period of 1916-1917 Parliament has more than justified
+its re-convocation by becoming a National Watch Committee.
+Interpellations on every conceivable subject have been constant and
+frequent; fierce verbal assaults are delivered on Cabinet Ministers; and
+slowly but inexorably a real sense of Ministerial responsibility is
+being created, the fear of having to run the gauntlet of Parliament
+abating, if it has not yet entirely destroyed, many malpractices. In the
+opinion of the writer in less than ten years Parliament will have
+succeeded in coalescing the country into an organic whole, and will have
+placed the Cabinet in such close daily relations with it that something
+very similar to the Anglo-Saxon theory of government will be impregnably
+entrenched in Peking. That such a miracle should be possible in extreme
+Eastern Asia is one more proof that there are no victories beyond the
+capacity of the human mind.
+
+[Illustration: General Tsao-ao, the Hero of the Yunnan Rebellion of
+1915-16, who died from the effects of the campaign.]
+
+[Illustration: Liang Shih-yi, who was the Power behind Yuan Shih-kai,
+now proscribed and living in exile at Hong-Kong.]
+
+Meanwhile, for the time being, in China as in countries ten thousand
+miles away, ministerial irresponsibility is the enemy; that is to say
+that so-called Cabinet-rule, with the effacement of the Chief Executive,
+has tended to make Cabinet Ministers removed from effective daily
+control. All sorts of things are done which should not be done and men
+are still in charge of portfolios who should be summarily expelled from
+the capital for malpractices.[22] But although Chinese are slow to take
+action and prefer to delay all decisions until they have about them the
+inexorable quality which is associated with Fate, there is not the
+slightest doubt that in the long run the dishonest suffer, and an
+increasingly efficient body of men take their place. From every point of
+view then there is reason for congratulation in the present position,
+and every hope that the future will unroll peacefully.
+
+A visit to Parliament under the new régime is a revelation to most men:
+the candid come away with an impression which is never effaced from
+their minds. There is a peculiar suggestiveness even in the location of
+the Houses of the National Assembly. They are tucked away in the distant
+Western city immediately under the shadow of the vast Tartar Wall as if
+it had been fully expected when they were called into being that they
+would never justify their existence, and that the crushing weight of the
+great bastion of brick and stone surrounding the capital would soon
+prove to them how futile it was for such palpable intruders to aspire to
+national control. Under Yuan Shih-kai, as under the Manchus, they were
+an exercise in the arm of government, something which was never to be
+allowed to harden into a settled practice. They were first cousins to
+railways, to electrical power, to metalled roadways and all those other
+modern instances beginning to modify an ancient civilization entirely
+based on agriculture; and because they were so distantly related to the
+real China of the farm-yard it was thought that they would always stand
+outside the national life.
+
+That was what the fools believed. Yet in a copy of the rules of
+procedure of the old Imperial Senate (Tzuchengyuan) the writer finds
+this note written in 1910: "The Debates of this body have been
+remarkable during the very first session. They make it seem clear that
+the first National Parliament of 1913 will seize control of China and
+nullify the power of the Throne. Result, revolution--" Though the dating
+is a little confused, the prophecy is worthy of record.
+
+The watchfulness of the special police surrounding the Parliament of
+1916-1917 and the great number of these men also tells a story as
+eloquent as the location of the building. It is not so much that any
+contemplated violence sets these guardians here as the necessity to
+advertise that there has been unconstitutional violence in the past
+which, if possible, will be rigidly defeated in the future. Probably no
+National Assembly in the world has been held up to greater contempt than
+the Parliament of Peking and probably no body deserves it less. An
+afternoon spent in the House of Representatives would certainly surprise
+most open-minded men who have been content to believe that the Chinese
+experiment was what some critics have alleged it to be. The Chinese as a
+people, being used to guild-house proceedings, debates, in which the
+welfare of the majority is decided after an examination of the
+principles at stake, are a very old and well-established custom; and
+though at present there are awkwardnesses and gaucheries to be noted,
+when practice has become better fixed, the common sense of the race will
+abundantly disclose itself and make a lasting mark on contemporary
+history. There can be no doubt about this at all.
+
+Take your seat in the gallery and see for yourself. The first question
+which rises to the lips is--where are the young men, those crude and
+callow youths masquerading as legislators which the vernacular press has
+so excessively lampooned? The majority of the members, so far from being
+young, are men of thirty or forty, or even fifty, with intelligent and
+tired faces that have lost the Spring of youth. Here and there you will
+even see venerable greybeards suffering from rheumy coughs who ought to
+be at home; and though occasionally there is a lithe youngster in
+European clothes with the veneer he acquired abroad not yet completely
+rubbed off, the total impression is that of oldish men who have reached
+years of maturity and who are as representative of the country and as
+good as the country is in a position to-day to provide. No one who knows
+the real China can deny that.
+
+The Continental arrangement of the Members' desks and the raised tribune
+of the Speaker, with its rows of clerks and recorders, make an
+impression of orderliness, tinged nevertheless with a faint
+revolutionary flavour. Perhaps it is the straight black Chinese hair and
+the rich silk clothing, set on a very plain and unadorned background,
+which recall the pictures of the French Revolution. It is somehow
+natural in such circumstances that there should occasionally be dramatic
+outbursts with the blood of offenders bitterly demanded as though we
+were not living in the Twentieth Century when blood alone is admittedly
+no satisfaction. The presence of armed House police at every door, and
+in the front rows of the strangers' gallery as well, contributes to this
+impression which has certain qualities of the theatre about it and is
+oddly stimulating. China at work legislating has already created her
+first traditions: she is proceeding deliberately armed--with the
+lessons of the immediate past fully noted.
+
+This being the home of a literary race, papers and notebooks are on most
+Members' desks. As the electric bells ring sharply an unending
+procession of men file in to take their seats, for there has been a
+recess and the House has been only half-filled. Nearly every one is in
+Chinese dress (_pien-yi_) with the Member's badge pinned conspicuously
+on the breast. The idea speedily becomes a conviction that this after
+all is not extraneous to the nation, but actually of the living flesh, a
+vital and imperative thing. The vastness and audacity of it all cannot
+fail to strike the imaginative mind, for the four or five hundred men
+who are gathered here typify, if they do not yet represent, the four or
+five hundred millions who make up the country. You see as it were the
+nation in profile, a ponderous, slow-moving mass, quickly responsive to
+curious sub-conscious influences--suddenly angry and suddenly calm again
+because Reason has after all always been the great goddess which is
+perpetually worshipped. All are scholarly and deliberate in their
+movements. When the Speaker calls the House in order and the debate
+commences, deep silence comes save for the movement of hundreds of
+nervous hands that touch papers or fidget to and fro. Every man uses
+his hands, particularly when he speaks, not clenched as a European would
+do, but open, with the slim fingers speaking a language of their own,
+twisting, turning, insinuating, deriding, a little history of
+compromises. It would be interesting to write the story of China from a
+study of the hands.
+
+Each man goes to the rostrum to speak, and each has much to say. Soon
+another impression deepens--that the Northerners with their clear-cut
+speech and their fuller voices have an advantage over the Southerners of
+the kind that all public performers know. The mandarin language of
+Peking is after all the mother-language of officialdom, the _madre
+lingua_, less nervous and more precise than any other dialect and
+invested with a certain air of authority which cannot be denied. The
+sharp-sounding, high-pitched Southern voice, though it may argue very
+acutely and rapidly, appears at an increasing disadvantage. There seems
+to be a tendency inherent in it to become querulous, to make its
+pleading sound specious because of over-much speech. These are curious
+little things which have been not without influence in other regions of
+the world.
+
+The applause when it comes proves the same thing as applause does
+everywhere; that if you want to drive home your points in a large
+assembly you must be condensed and simple, using broad, slashing
+arguments. This is precisely what distinguishes melodrama from drama,
+and which explains why excessive analysis is no argument in the popular
+mind. Generally, however, there is not much applause and the voice of
+the speaker wanders through the hall uninterrupted by signs of content
+or discontent. Sometimes, although rather rarely, there is a gust of
+laughter as a point is scored against a hated rival. But it dies away as
+suddenly as it arose--almost before you have noted it, as if it were
+superfluous and must make room for more serious things.
+
+With the closing of a debate there is the vote. An electric bell rings
+again, and with a rough hand the House police close all the exits. The
+clerks come down into the aisles. They seem to move listlessly and
+indifferently; yet very quickly they have checked the membership to
+insure that the excessively large quorum requisite is present. Now the
+Speaker calls for the vote. Massively and stiffly, as at a word of
+command the "ayes" rise in their seats. There is a round of applause;
+the bill has been carried almost unanimously. That, however, is not
+always so. When there is an obstreperous mood abroad, the House will
+decline to proceed with the agenda, and a dozen men will rise at a time
+and speak from behind their desks, trying to talk each other down. The
+Speaker stands patiently wrestling with the problem of procedure--and
+often failing since practice is still in process of being formed. Years
+must elapse before absolutely hard-and-fast rules are established. Still
+the progress already made since August, 1916, is remarkable, and
+something is being learned every day. The business of a Parliament is
+after all to debate--to give voice to the uppermost thoughts in the
+nation's mind; and how those thoughts are expressed is a continual
+exposition of the real state of the nation's political beliefs.
+Parliament is--or should be--a microcosm of the race; parliament is
+never any better or any worse than the mass of the people. The rule of
+the majority as expressed in the voting of the National Assembly must be
+taken as a fundamental thing; China is no exception to the rule--the
+rule of the majority must be decisive. But here another complexity of
+the new Chinese political life enters into the problem. The existence of
+a responsible Cabinet, which is not yet linked to the Legislative body
+in any well-understood way, and which furthermore has frequently acted
+in opposition to the President's office, makes for a daily struggle in
+the administration of the country which is strongly to be condemned and
+which has already led to some ugly clashes. But nevertheless there are
+increasing indications that parliamentary government is making steady
+headway and that when both the Permanent Constitution and the Local
+Government system have been enforced, a new note will be struck. No
+doubt it will need a younger generation in office to secure a complete
+abandonment of all the old ways, but the writer has noted with
+astonishment during the past twelve-month how eager even viceroys
+belonging to the old Manchu régime have become to fall in with the new
+order and to lend their help, a sharp competition to obtain ministerial
+posts being evident in spite of the fact that the gauntlet of Parliament
+has to be run and a majority vote recorded before any appointment is
+valid.
+
+One last anomaly has, however, yet to be done away with in Peking. The
+deposed boy Emperor still resides in the Winter Palace surrounded by a
+miniature court,--a state of affairs which should not be tolerated any
+longer as it no doubt tends to assist the rumours which every now and
+again are mysteriously spread by interested parties that a Restoration
+is imminent. The time has arrived when not only must the Manchu Imperial
+Family be removed far from the capital but a scheme worked out for
+commuting the pension-system of so-called Bannerman families who still
+draw their monthly allowances as under the Manchus, thanks to the
+articles of Favourable Treatment signed at the time of abdication of
+1912. When these two important questions have been settled, imperialism
+in China will tend rapidly to fade into complete oblivion.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[21] Although the events dealt with in Chapter XVI have brought China
+face to face with a new crisis the force of the arguments used here is
+in no wise weakened.
+
+[22] Since this was written two Cabinet Ministers have been summarily
+arrested.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+THE REPUBLIC IN COLLISION WITH REALITY: TWO TYPICAL INSTANCES OF
+"FOREIGN AGGRESSION"
+
+
+Such, then, were the internal conditions which the new administration
+was called upon to face with the death of Yuan Shih-kai. With very
+little money in the National Treasury and with the provinces unable or
+unwilling to remit to the capital a single dollar, it was fortunate that
+at least one public service, erected under foreign pressure, should be
+brilliantly justifying its existence. The Salt Administration,
+efficiently reorganized in the space of three years by the great Indian
+authority, Sir Richard Dane, was now providing a monthly surplus of
+nearly five million dollars; and it was this revenue which kept China
+alive during a troubled transitional period when every one was declaring
+that she must die. By husbanding this hard cash and mixing it liberally
+with paper money, the Central Government has been able since June, 1916,
+to meet its current obligations and to keep the general machinery from
+breaking down.
+
+But in a country such as China new dangers have to be constantly faced
+and smoothed away--the interests of the outer world pressing on the
+country and conflicting with the native interest at a myriad points. And
+in order to illustrate and make clear the sort of daily exacerbation
+which the nation must endure because of the vastness of its territory
+and the octopus-hold of the foreigner we give two typical cases of
+international trouble which have occurred since Yuan Shih-kai's death.
+The first is the well-known Chengchiatun incident which occurred in
+Manchuria in August, 1916: the second is the Lao-hsi-kai affair which
+took place in Tientsin in November of the same year and created a storm
+of rage against France throughout North China which at the moment of
+writing has not yet abated.
+
+The facts about the Chengchiatun incident are incredibly simple and
+merit being properly told. Chengchiatun is a small Mongol-Manchurian
+market-town lying some sixty miles west of the South Manchurian railway
+by the ordinary cart-roads, though as the crow flies the distance is
+much less. The country round about is "new country," the prefecture in
+which Chengchiatun lies being originally purely Mongol territory on
+which Chinese squatted in such numbers that it was necessary to erect
+the ordinary Chinese civil administration. Thirty or forty miles due
+west of the town cultivation practically ceases; and then nothing meets
+the eye but the rolling grasslands of Mongolia, with their sparse
+encampments of nomad horsemen and shepherds which stretch so
+monotonously into the infinities of High Asia.
+
+The region is strategically important because the trade-routes converge
+there from the growing marts of the Taonanfu administration, which is
+the extreme westernly limit of Chinese authority in the Mongolian
+borderland. A rich exchange in hides, furs, skins, cattle and foodstuffs
+has given this frontier town from year to year an increasing importance
+in the eyes of the Chinese who are fully aware of the dangers of a
+laissez aller policy and are determined to protect the rights they have
+acquired by pre-emption. The fact that notorious Mongol brigand-chiefs,
+such as the famous Babachapu who was allied to the Manchu Restoration
+Party and who was said to have been subsidized by the Japanese Military
+Party, had been making Chengchiatun one of their objectives, brought
+concern early in 1916 to the Moukden Governor, the energetic General
+Chang Tso-lin, who in order to cope with the danger promptly established
+a military cordon round the district, with a relatively large reserve
+based on Chengchiatun, drawn from the 28th Army Division. A certain
+amount of desultory fighting months before any one had heard of the town
+had given Chengchiatun the odour of the camp; and when in the summer the
+Japanese began military manoeuvres in the district with various
+scattered detachments, on the excuse that the South Manchuria railway
+zone where they alone had the right under the Portsmouth Peace Treaty to
+be, was too cramped for field exercises, it became apparent that
+dangerous developments might be expected--particularly as a body of
+Japanese infantry was billeted right in the centre of the town.
+
+On the 13th August a Japanese civilian at Chengchiatun--there is a small
+Japanese trading community there--approached a Chinese boy who was
+selling fish. On the boy refusing to sell at the price offered him, the
+Japanese caught hold of him and started beating him. A Chinese soldier
+of the 28th Division who was passing intervened; and a scuffle commenced
+in which other Chinese soldiers joined and which resulted in the
+Japanese being severely handled. After the Chinese had left him, the man
+betook himself to the nearest Japanese post and reported that he had
+been grievously assaulted by Chinese soldiers for no reason whatsoever.
+A Japanese gendarme made a preliminary investigation in company with the
+man; then returning to the Japanese barracks, declared that he could
+find no one in authority; that his attempts at discovering the culprits
+had been resisted; and that he must have help. The Japanese officer in
+command, who was a captain, detailed a lieutenant and twenty men to
+proceed to the Chinese barracks to obtain satisfaction from the Chinese
+Commander--using force if necessary. It was precisely in this way that
+the play was set in motion.
+
+The detachment marched off to the headquarters of the offending Chinese
+detachment, which was billeted in a pawnshop, and tried to force their
+way past a sentry who stood his ground, into the inner courtyards. A
+long parley ensued with lowered bayonets; and at last on the Chinese
+soldier absolutely refusing to give way, the lieutenant gave orders to
+cut him down. There appears to be no doubt about these important
+facts--that is to say, that the act of war was the deliberate attack by
+a Japanese armed detachment on a Chinese sentry who was guarding the
+quarters of his Commander.
+
+A frightful scene followed. It appears that scattered groups of Chinese
+soldiers, some with their arms, and some without, had collected during
+this crisis and point-blank firing at once commenced. The first shots
+appear to have been fired--though this was never proved--by a Chinese
+régimental groom, who was standing with some horses some distance away
+in the gateway of some stabling and who is said to have killed or
+wounded the largest number of Japanese. In any case, seven Japanese
+soldiers were killed outright, five more mortally wounded and four
+severely so, the Chinese themselves losing four killed, besides a number
+of wounded. The remnant of the Japanese detachment after this rude
+reverse managed to retreat with their wounded officer to their own
+barracks where the whole detachment barricaded themselves in, firing for
+many hours at everything that moved on the roads though absolutely no
+attempt was made by the Chinese soldiery to advance against them.
+
+The sound of this heavy firing, and the wild report that many Japanese
+had been killed, had meanwhile spread panic throughout the town, and
+there was a general _sauve qui peut_, a terrible retribution being
+feared. The local Magistrate finally restored some semblance of order;
+and after dark proceeded in person with some notables of the town to the
+Japanese barracks to tender his regrets and to arrange for the removal
+of the Japanese corpses which were lying just as they had fallen, and
+which Chinese custom demanded should be decently cared for, though they
+constituted important and irrefragible evidence of the armed invasion
+which had been practised. The Japanese Commander, instead of meeting
+these conciliatory attempts half-way, thereupon illegally arrested the
+Magistrate and locked him up, being impelled to this action by the
+general fear among his men that a mass attack would be made in the night
+by the Chinese troops in garrison and the whole command wiped out.
+Nothing, however, occurred and on the 14th instant the Magistrate was
+duly released on his sending for his son to take his place as hostage.
+On the 16th the Magistrate had successfully arranged the withdrawal of
+all Chinese troops five miles outside the town to prevent further
+clashes. On the 15th Japanese cavalry and infantry began to arrive in
+large numbers from the South Manchuria railway zone (where they alone
+have the Treaty right to be) and the town of Chengchiatun was
+arbitrarily placed by them in a state of siege.
+
+Here is the stuff of which the whole incident was made: there is nothing
+material beyond the facts stated which illustrate very glaringly the
+manner in which a strong Power acts towards a weak one.
+
+Meanwhile the effect in Tokio of these happenings had been electrical.
+Relying on the well-known Japanese police axiom, that the man who gets
+in his story first is the prosecutor and the accused the guilty party,
+irrespective of what the evidence may be, the newspapers all came out
+with the same account of a calculated attack by "ferocious Chinese
+soldiers" on a Japanese detachment and the general public were asked to
+believe that a number of their enlisted nationals had been deliberately
+and brutally murdered. It was not, however, until more than a week after
+the incident that an official report was published by the Tokio Foreign
+Office, when the following garbled account was distributed far and wide
+as the Japanese case:--
+
+    "When one Kiyokishy Yoshimoto, aged 27, an employé of a Japanese
+    apothecary at Chengchiatun, was passing the headquarters of the
+    Chinese troops on the 13th instant, a Chinese soldier stopped him,
+    and, with some remarks, which were unintelligible to the Japanese,
+    suddenly struck him on the head. Yoshimoto became enraged, but was
+    soon surrounded by a large number of Chinese soldiers and others,
+    who subjected him to all kind of humiliation. As a result of this
+    lawlessness on the part of the Chinese, the Japanese sustained
+    injuries in seven or eight places, but somehow he managed to break
+    away and reach a Japanese police box, where he applied for help. On
+    receipt of this news, a policeman, named Kowase, hastened to the
+    spot, but by the time he arrived there all the offenders had fled.
+    He therefore repaired to the headquarters of the Chinese to lay a
+    complaint, but the sentry stopped him, and presented a pistol at
+    him, and under these circumstances he was obliged to apply to the
+    Japanese Garrison headquarters, where Captain Inone instructed
+    Lieutenant Matsuo with twenty men to escort the policeman to the
+    Chinese headquarters. When the party approached the Chinese
+    headquarters, Chinese troops began to fire, and the policeman and
+    others were either killed or wounded. Despite the fact that the
+    Japanese troops retired, the Chinese troops did not give up firing,
+    but besieged the Japanese garrison, delivering several severe
+    attacks. Soon after the fighting ceased, the Chinese authorities
+    visited the Japanese barracks, and expressed the desire that the
+    affair be settled amicably. It was the original intention of the
+    Japanese troops to fight it out, but they were completely
+    outnumbered, and lest the safety of the Japanese residents be
+    endangered, they stopped fighting. On examination of the dead bodies
+    of seven Japanese soldiers, who were attacked outside the barracks,
+    it was discovered that they had been all slain by the Chinese
+    troops, the bodies bearing marks of violence."
+
+Without entering again into the merits of the case, we would ask those
+who are acquainted with recent history whether it is likely that Chinese
+soldiers, knowing all the pains and penalties attaching to such action,
+would deliberately attack a body of twenty armed Japanese under an
+officer as the Japanese official account states? We believe that no
+impartial tribunal, investigating the matter on the spot, could fail to
+point out the real aggressors and withal lay bare the web of a most
+amazing state of affairs. For in order to understand what occurred, on
+the 13th August, 1916, it is necessary to turn far away from
+Chengchiatun and see what lies behind it all.
+
+At the back of the brain of the Japanese Military Party, which by no
+means represents the Japanese nation or the Japanese Government although
+it exercises a powerful influence on both, is the fixed idea that South
+Manchuria and Inner Mongolia must be turned into a strongly held and
+fortified Japanese _enclave_, if the balance of power in Eastern Asia is
+to be maintained. Pursuant to this idea, Japanese diplomacy was induced
+many months ago to concentrate its efforts on winning--if not
+wringing--from Russia the strategically important strip of railway south
+of the Sungari River, because (and this should be carefully noted) with
+the Sungari as the undisputed dividing-line between the Russian and
+Japanese spheres in Manchuria, and with Japanese shallow-draft gun-boats
+navigating that waterway and entering the Nonni river, it would be easily
+possible for Japan to complete a "Continental quadrilateral" which would
+include Korea, South Manchuria and Inner Mongolia, the extreme western
+barrier of which would be the new system of Inner Mongolian railways
+centring round Taonanfu and terminating at Jehol, for which Japan already
+holds the building rights[23]. Policing rights--in the outer zone of this
+_enclave_,--with a total exclusion of all Chinese garrisons, is the
+preliminary goal towards which the Japanese Military Party has been long
+plainly marching; and long before anybody had heard of Chengchiatun, a
+scheme of reconnoitring detachments had been put in force to spy out the
+land and form working alliances with the Mongol bands in order to harass
+and drive away all the representatives of Chinese authority. What
+occurred, then, at Chengchiatun might have taken place at any one of
+half-a-dozen other places in this vast and little-known region whither
+Japanese detachments have silently gone; and if Chinese diplomacy in the
+month of August, 1916, was faced with a rude surprise, it was only what
+political students had long been expecting. For though Japan should be
+the real defender of Chinese liberties, it is a fact that in Chinese
+affairs Japanese diplomacy has been too long dictated to by the Military
+Party in Tokio and attempts nothing save when violence allows it to tear
+from China some fresh portion of her independence.
+
+And here we reach the crux of the matter. One of the little known
+peculiarities of the day lies in the fact that Japan is the land of
+political inaction _because there is no tradition of action save that
+which has been built up by the military and naval chiefs since the
+Chinese war of_ 1894-95. Having only visualized the world in
+international terms during two short decades, there has been no time for
+a proper tradition to be created by the civil government of Japan; and
+because there is no such tradition, the island empire of the East has no
+true foreign policy and is at the mercy of manufactured crises, being
+too often committed to petty adventures which really range her on the
+side of those in Europe the Allies have set themselves to destroy. It is
+for this reason that the Chinese are consistently treated as though they
+were hewers of wood and drawers of water, helots who are occasionally
+nattered in the columns of the daily press and yet are secretly looked
+upon as men who have been born merely to be cuffed and conquered. The
+Moukden Governor, General Chang Tso-lin, discussing the Chengchiatun
+affair with the writer, put the matter in a nutshell. Striking the table
+he exclaimed: "After all we are not made of wood like this, we too are
+flesh and blood and must defend our own people. A dozen times I have
+said, 'Let them come and take Manchuria openly if they dare, but let
+them cease their childish intrigues.' Why do they not do so? Because
+they are not sure they can swallow us--not at all sure. Do you
+understand? We are weak, we are stupid, we are divided, but we are
+innumerable, and in the end, if they persist, China will burst the
+Japanese stomach."
+
+Such passionate periods are all very well, but when it comes to the
+sober business of the council chamber it is a regrettable fact that
+Chinese, although foreign friends implore them to do so, do not properly
+use the many weapons in their armoury. Thus in this particular case,
+instead of at once hurrying to Chengchiatun some of the many foreign
+advisers who sit kicking their heels in Peking from one end of the year
+to the other and who number competent jurisconsults, China did next to
+nothing. No proper report was drawn up on the spot; sworn statements
+were not gathered, nor were witnesses brought to Peking; and it
+therefore happened that when Japan filed her demands for redress, China
+had not in her possession anything save an utterly inadequate defence.
+Mainly because of this she was forced to agree to forgoing any direct
+discussion of the rights and wrongs of the case, proceeding directly to
+negotiations based on the various claims which Japan filed and which
+were as follows:--
+
+    1. Punishment of the General commanding the 28th Division.
+
+    2. The dismissal of officers at Chengchiatun responsible for the
+    occurrence as well as the severe punishment of those who took direct
+    part in the fracas.
+
+    3. Proclamations to be posted ordering all Chinese soldiers and
+    civilians in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia to refrain
+    from any act calculated to provoke a breach of the peace with
+    Japanese soldiers or civilians.
+
+    4. China to agree to the stationing of Japanese police officers in
+    places in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia where their
+    presence was considered necessary for the protection of Japanese
+    subjects. China also to agree to the engagement by the officials of
+    South Manchuria of Japanese police advisers.
+
+    _And in addition_:--
+
+    1. Chinese troops stationed in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner
+    Mongolia to employ a certain number of Japanese Military officers as
+    advisers.
+
+    2. Chinese Military Cadet schools to employ a certain number of
+    Japanese Military officers as instructors.
+
+    3. The Military Governor of Moukden to proceed personally to Port
+    Arthur to the Japanese Military Governor of Kwantung to apologize
+    for the occurrence and to tender similar personal apologies to the
+    Japanese Consul General in Moukden.
+
+    4. Adequate compensation to be paid by China to the Japanese
+    sufferers and to the families of those killed.
+
+The merest tyro will see at once that so far from caring very much about
+the killing of her soldiery, Japan was bent on utilizing the opportunity
+to gain a certain number of new rights and privileges in the zone of
+Southern Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia--notably an extension of
+her police and military-supervision rights. In spite, however, of the
+faulty procedure to which she had consented, China showed considerable
+tenacity in the course of negotiations which lasted nearly half a year,
+and by the end of January, 1917, had whittled down the question of
+Japanese compensation to fairly meagre proportions. To be precise the
+two governments agreed to embody by the exchange of Notes the five
+following stipulations:--
+
+    1. The General commanding the 28th Division to be reprimanded.
+
+    2. Officers responsible to be punished according to law. If the law
+    provides for severe punishment, such punishment will be inflicted.
+
+    3. Proclamations to be issued enjoining Chinese soldiers and
+    civilians in the districts where there is mixed residence to accord
+    considerate treatment to Japanese soldiers and civilians.
+
+    4. The Military Governor of Moukden to send a representative to Port
+    Arthur to convey his regret when the Military Governor of Kwantung
+    and Japanese Consul General at Moukden are there together.
+
+    5. A solatium of $500 (Five Hundred Dollars) to be given to the
+    Japanese merchant Yoshimoto.
+
+But though the incident was thus nominally closed, and amicable
+relations restored, the most important point--the question of Japanese
+police-rights in Southern Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia--was left
+precisely where it had been before, the most vigorous Chinese protests
+not having induced Japan to abate in the slightest her pretensions.
+During previous years a number of Japanese police-stations and
+police-boxes had been established in defiance of the local authorities
+in these regions, and although China in these negotiations recorded her
+strongest possible objection to their presence as being the principal
+cause of the continual friction between Chinese and Japanese, Japan
+refused to withdraw from her contention that they did not constitute any
+extension of the principle of extraterritoriality, and that indeed
+Japanese police, distributed at such points as the Japanese consular
+authorities considered necessary, must be permanently accepted. Here
+then is a matter which will require careful consideration when the
+Powers meet to revise their Chinese Treaties as they must revise them
+after the world-war; for Japan in Manchuria is fundamentally in no
+different a position from England in the Yangtsze Valley and what
+applies to one must apply to the other. The new Chinese police which are
+being distributed in ever greater numbers throughout China form an
+admirable force and are superior to Japanese police in the performance
+of nearly all their duties. It is monstrous that Japan, as well as other
+Powers, should act in such a reprehensible manner when the Chinese
+administration is doing all it can to provide efficient guardians of the
+peace.
+
+[Illustration: The Famous or Infamous General Chang-Hsun, the leading
+Reactionary in China to-day, who still commands a force of 30,000 men
+astride of the Pukow Railway.]
+
+[Illustration: The Bas-relief in a Peking Temple, well illustrating
+Indo-Chinese influences.]
+
+The second case was one in which French officialdom by a curious act of
+folly gravely alienated Chinese sympathies and gave a powerful weapon to
+the German propaganda in China at the end of 1916. The Lao-hsi-kai
+dispute, which involved a bare 333 acres of land in Tientsin, has now
+taken its place beside the Chengchiatun affair, and has become a leading
+case in that great dossier of griefs which many Chinese declare make up
+the corpus of Euro-Chinese relations. Here again the facts are
+absolutely simple and absolutely undisputed. In 1902 the French consular
+authorities in Tientsin filed a request to have their Concession
+extended on the ground that they were becoming cramped. The Chinese
+authorities, although not wishing to grant the request and indeed
+ignoring it for a long time, were finally induced to begin fitful
+negotiations; and in October, 1916, after having passed through various
+processes of alteration, reduction, and re-statement during the interval
+of fourteen years, the issue had been so fined down that a virtual
+agreement regarding the administration of the new area had been
+reached--an agreement which the Peking Government was prepared to put
+into force subject to one reasonable stipulation, that the local
+opposition to the new grant of territory which was very real, as Chinese
+feel passionately on the subject of the police-control of their
+land-acreage, was first overcome. The whole essence or soul of the
+disputes lay therein: that the lords of the soil, the people of China,
+and in this case more particularly the population of Tientsin, should
+accept the decision arrived at which was that a joint Franco-Chinese
+administration be established under a Chinese Chairman.
+
+When the terms of this proposed agreement were communicated to the
+Tientsin Consulate by the French Legation the arrangement did not please
+the French Consul-General, who was under transfer to Shanghai and who
+proposed to settle the case to the satisfaction of his nationals before
+he left. There is absolutely no dispute about this fact either--namely
+that the main pre-occupation of a consular officer, charged primarily
+under the Treaties with the simple preservation of law and order among
+his nationals, was the closing-up of a vexatious outstanding case, by
+force if necessary, before he handed over his office to his successor.
+It was with this idea that an ultimatum was drawn up by the French
+Consul General and, having been weakly approved by the French Legation,
+was handed to the Chinese local authorities. It gave them a time-limit
+of twenty-four hours in which to effect the complete police evacuation
+of the coveted strip of territory on the ground that the delay in the
+signature of a formal Protocol had been wilful and deliberate and had
+closed the door to further negotiations; and as no response came at the
+end of the time-limit, an open invasion of Chinese territory was
+practised by an armed French detachment; nine uniformed Chinese
+constables on duty being forcibly removed and locked up in French
+barracks and French sentries posted on the disputed boundary.
+
+The result of this misguided action was an enormous Chinese outcry and
+the beginning of a boycott of the French in North China,--and this in
+the middle of a war when France has acted with inspiring nobility. Some
+2,000 native police, servants and employé's promptly deserted the French
+Concession _en masse_; popular unions were formed to keep alive
+resentment; and although in the end the arrested police were set at
+liberty, the friendly intervention of the Allies proved unable to effect
+a settlement of the case which at the moment of writing remains
+precisely where it was a year ago.[24]
+
+Here you have the matter of foreign interests in China explained in the
+sense that they appear to Chinese. It is not too much to say that this
+illustration of the deliberate lawlessness, which has too often been
+practised in the past by consuls who are simply Justices of the Peace,
+would be incredible elsewhere; and yet it is this lawlessness which has
+come to be accepted as part and parcel of what is called "policy" in
+China because in the fifty years preceding the establishment of the
+Republic a weak and effeminate mandarinate consistently sought safety in
+surrenders. It is this lawlessness which must at all costs be suppressed
+if we are to have a happy future. The Chinese people have so far
+contented themselves by pacific retaliation and have not exploded into
+rage; but those who see in the gospel of boycott an ugly manifestation
+of what lies slumbering should give thanks nightly that they live in a
+land where reason is so supreme. Think of what might not happen in China
+if the people were not wholly reasonable! Throughout the length and
+breadth of the land you have small communities of foreigners, mere drops
+in a mighty ocean of four hundred millions, living absolutely secure
+although absolutely at the mercy of their huge swarms of neighbours. All
+such foreigners--or nearly all--have come to China for purposes of
+profit; they depend for their livelihood on co-operation with the
+Chinese; and once that co-operation ceases they might as well be dead
+and buried for all the good residence will do them. In such
+circumstances it would be reasonable to suppose that a certain decency
+would inspire their attitude, and that a policy of give-and-take would
+always be sedulously practised; and we are happy to say that there is
+more of this than there used to be. It is only when incidents such as
+the Chengchiatun and Laihsikai affairs occur that the placid population
+is stirred to action. Even then, instead of turning and rending the many
+little defenceless communities--as European mobs would certainly
+do--they simply confine themselves to boycotting the offenders and
+hoping that this evidence of their displeasure will finally induce the
+world to believe that they are determined to get reasonable treatment.
+The Chinese as a people may be very irritating in the slowness with
+which they do certain things--though they are as quick in business as
+the quickest Anglo-Saxon--but that is no excuse why men who call
+themselves superior should treat them with contempt. The Chinese are the
+first to acknowledge that it will take them a generation at least to
+modernize effectively their country and their government; but they
+believe that having erected a Republic and having declared themselves as
+disciples of the West they are justified in expecting the same treatment
+and consideration which are to be given after the war even to the
+smallest and weakest nations of Europe.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[23] Russian diplomats now deny that the Japanese proposals regarding
+the cession of the railway south of the Sungari river have ever been
+formally agreed to.
+
+[24] A further illustration of the action of French diplomacy in China
+has just been provided (April, 1917) in the protest lodged by France
+against the building of a railway in Kwangsi Province by American
+engineers with American capital--France claiming _exclusive rights_ in
+Kwangsi by virtue of a letter sent by the Chinese Minister of Foreign
+Affairs to the French Legation in 1914 as settlement for a frontier
+dispute in that year. The text of the letter is as follows:
+
+"The dispute that rose in consequence of the disturbance at the border
+of Annam and Kwangsi has been examined into by the Joint Committee
+detailed by both parties concerned, and a conclusion has been reached to
+the effect that all matters relating to the solution of the case would
+be carried out in accordance with the request of Your Excellency.
+
+"In order to demonstrate the especially good friendly relations existing
+between the two countries, the Republican Government assures Your
+Excellency that in case of a railway construction or a mining enterprise
+being undertaken in Kwangsi Province in the future, for which foreign
+capital is required, France would first be consulted for a loan of the
+necessary capital. On such an occasion, the Governor of Kwangsi will
+directly negotiate with a French syndicate and report to the
+Government."
+
+It is high time that the United States raises the whole question of the
+open door in China again, and refuses to tolerate any longer the old
+disruptive and dog-in-the-manger policy of the Powers. America is now
+happily in a position to inaugurate a new era in the Far East as in the
+Far West and to stop exploitation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+CHINA AND THE WAR
+
+
+The question of Chinese sentiments on the subject of the war, as well as
+the precise relations between the Chinese Government and the two groups
+of belligerents, are matters which have been totally misunderstood. To
+those who have grasped the significance of the exhaustive preceding
+account of the Republic in travail, this statement should not cause
+surprise; for China has been in no condition to play anything but an
+insignificant and unsatisfactory rôle in world-politics.
+
+When the world-war broke out China was still in the throes of her
+domestic troubles and without any money at all in her Central Treasury;
+and although Yuan Shih-kai, on being suddenly confronted with an
+unparalleled international situation, did initiate certain negotiations
+with the German Legation with a view to securing a cancellation of the
+Kiaochow lease, the ultimatum which Japan dispatched to Germany on the
+15th August, 1914, completely nullified his tentative proposals. Yuan
+Shih-kai had, indeed, not been in the slightest degree prepared for such
+a sensational development as war between Japan and Germany over the
+question of a cruiser-base established on territory leased from China;
+and although he considered the possibility of sending a Chinese force to
+co-operate in the attack on the German stronghold, that project was
+never matured, whilst his subsequent contrivances, notably the
+establishment of a so-called war-zone in Shantung, were without
+international value, and attracted no attention save in Japan.
+
+Chinese, however, did not remain blind to the trend of events. After the
+fall of Tsingtao and the subsequent complications with Japan, which so
+greatly served to increase the complexities of a nebulous situation,
+certain lines of thought insensibly developed. That the influential
+classes in China should have desired that Germany should by some means
+rehabilitate herself in Europe and so be placed in a position to
+chastise a nation that for twenty years had brought nothing but sorrow
+to them was perhaps only natural; and it is primarily to this one cause
+that so-called sympathy with Germany during the first part of the war
+has been due. But it must also be noticed that the immense German
+propaganda in China during the first two years of the war, coupled with
+the successes won in Russia and elsewhere, powerfully impressed the
+population--not so much because they were attracted by the feats of a
+Power that had enthroned militarism, but because they wrongly supposed
+that sooner or later the effects of this military display would be not
+only to secure the relaxation of the Japanese grip on the country but
+would compel the Powers to re-cast their pre-war policies in China and
+abandon their attempts at placing the country under financial
+supervision. Thus, by the irony of Fate, Germany in Eastern Asia for the
+best part of 1914, 1915 and 1916, stood for the aspirations of the
+oppressed--a moral which we may very reasonably hope will not escape the
+attention of the Foreign Offices of the world. Nor must it be forgotten
+that the modern Chinese army, being like the Japanese, largely
+Germany-trained and Germany-armed, had a natural predilection for
+Teutonism; and since the army, as we have shown, plays a powerful rôle
+in the politics of the Republic, public opinion was greatly swayed by
+what it proclaimed through its accredited organs.
+
+Be this as it may, it was humanly impossible for such a vast country
+with such vast resources in men and raw materials to remain permanently
+quiescent during an universal conflagration when there was so much to be
+salvaged. Slowly the idea became general in China that something had to
+be done; that is that a state of technical neutrality would lead nowhere
+save possibly to Avernus.
+
+As early as November, 1915, Yuan Shih-kai and his immediate henchmen had
+indeed realized the internal advantages to be derived from a formal
+war-partnership with the signatories of the Pact of London, the impulse
+to the movement being given by certain important shipments of arms and
+ammunition from China which were then made. A half-surreptitious
+attempt to discuss terms in Peking caused no little excitement, the
+matter being, however, only debated in very general terms. The principal
+item proposed by the Peking government was characteristically the
+stipulation that an immediate loan of two million pounds should be made
+to China, in return for her technical belligerency. But when the
+proposal was taken to Tokio, Japan rightly saw that its main purpose was
+simply to secure an indirect foreign endorsement of Yuan Shih-kai's
+candidature as Emperor; and for that reason she threw cold-water on the
+whole project. To subscribe to a formula, which besides enthroning Yuan
+Shih-kai would have been a grievous blow to her Continental ambitions,
+was an unthinkable thing; and therefore the manoeuvre was foredoomed to
+failure.
+
+The death of Yuan Shih-kai in the summer of 1916 radically altered the
+situation. Powerful influences were again set to work to stamp out the
+German cult and to incline the minority of educated men who control the
+destinies of the country to see that their real interests could only lie
+with the Allies, who were beginning to export Chinese man-power as an
+auxiliary war-aid and who were very anxious to place the whole matter on
+a sounder footing. Little real progress was, however, made in the face
+of the renewed German efforts to swamp the country with their
+propaganda. By means of war-maps, printed in English and Chinese, and
+also by means of an exhaustive daily telegraphic service which hammered
+home every possible fact illustrative of German invincibility, the
+German position in China, so far from being weakened, was actually
+strengthened during the period when Rumania was being overrun. By a
+singular destiny, any one advocating an alliance with the Allies was
+bitterly attacked not only by the Germans but by the Japanese as
+well--this somewhat naïve identification of Japan's political interest
+with those of an enemy country being an unique feature of the situation
+worthy of permanent record.
+
+It was not until President Wilson sent out his Peace offering of the
+19th December, 1916, that a distinct change came. On this document being
+formally communicated to the Chinese Government great interest was
+aroused, and the old hopes were revived that it would be somehow
+possible for China to gain entry at the definitive Peace Congress which
+would settle beyond repeal the question of the disposal of Kiaochow and
+the whole of German interests in Shantung Province,--a subject of
+burning interest to the country not only because of the harsh treatment
+which had been experienced at the hands of Japan, but because the
+precedent established in 1905 at the Portsmouth Treaty was one which it
+was felt must be utterly shattered if China was not to abandon her claim
+of being considered a sovereign international State. On that occasion
+Japan had simply negotiated direct with Russia concerning all matters
+affecting Manchuria, dispatching a Plenipotentiary to Peking, after the
+Treaty of Peace had been signed, to secure China's adhesion to all
+clauses _en bloc_ without discussion. True enough, by filing the
+Twenty-one Demands on China in 1915--when the war was hardly half-a-year
+old--and by forcing China's assent to all Shantung questions under the
+threat of an Ultimatum, Japan had reversed the Portsmouth Treaty
+procedure and apparently settled the issues at stake for all time;
+nevertheless the Chinese hoped when the facts were properly known to the
+world that this species of diplomacy would not be endorsed, and that
+indeed the Shantung question could be reopened.
+
+Consequently great pains were taken at the Chinese Foreign Office to
+draft a reply to the Wilson Note which would tell its own story. The
+authorized translation of the document handed to the American Legation
+on the 8th January has therefore a peculiar political interest. It runs
+as follows:--
+
+    "I have examined with the care which the gravity of the question
+    demands the note concerning peace which President Wilson has
+    addressed to the Governments of the Allies and the Central Powers
+    now at war and the text of which Your Excellency has been good
+    enough to transmit to me under instructions of your Government.
+
+    "China, a nation traditionally pacific, has recently again
+    manifested her sentiments in concluding treaties concerning the
+    pacific settlement of international disputes, responding thus to the
+    voeux of the Peace Conference held at the Hague.
+
+    "On the other hand, the present war, by its prolongation, has
+    seriously affected the interests of China, more so perhaps than
+    those of other Powers which have remained neutral. She is at present
+    at a time of reorganization which demands economically and
+    industrially the co-operation of foreign countries, a co-operation
+    which a large number of them are unable to accord on account of the
+    war in which they are engaged.
+
+    "In manifesting her sympathy for the spirit of the President's
+    Note, having in view the ending as soon as possible of the
+    hostilities, China is but acting in conformity not only with her
+    interests but also with her profound sentiments.
+
+    "On account of the extent which modern wars are apt to assume and
+    the repercussions which they bring about, their effects are no
+    longer limited to belligerent States. All countries are interested
+    in seeing wars becoming as rare as possible. Consequently China
+    cannot but show satisfaction with the views of the Government and
+    people of the United States of America who declare themselves ready,
+    and even eager, to co-operate when the war is over, by all proper
+    means to assure the respect of the principle of the equality of
+    nations, whatever their power may be, and to relieve them of the
+    peril of wrong and violence. China is ready to join her efforts with
+    theirs for the attainment of such results which can only be obtained
+    through the help of all."
+
+Already, then, before there had been any question of Germany's ruthless
+submarine war necessitating a decisive move, China had commenced to show
+that she could not remain passive during a world-conflict which was
+indirectly endangering her interests. America, by placing herself in
+direct communication with the Peking Government on the subject of a
+possible peace, had given a direct hint that she was solicitous of
+China's future and determined to help her as far as possible. All this
+was in strict accordance with the traditional policy of the United
+States in China, a policy which although too idealistic to have had much
+practical value--being too little supported by battleships and bayonets
+to be respected--has nevertheless for sixty years tempered the wind to
+the shorn lamb. The ground had consequently been well prepared for the
+remarkable dénouement which came on the 9th February, 1917, and which
+surprised all the world.
+
+On the fourth of that month the United States formally communicated with
+China on the subject of the threatened German submarine war against
+neutral shipping and invited her to associate herself with America in
+breaking-off diplomatic relations with Germany. China had meanwhile
+received a telegraphic communication from the Chinese Minister in Berlin
+transmitting a Note from the German Government making known the measures
+endangering all merchant vessels navigating the prescribed zones. The
+effect of these two communications on the mind of the Chinese Government
+was at first admittedly stunning and very varied expressions of opinion
+were heard in Peking. For the first time in the history of the country
+the government had been invited to take a step which meant the
+inauguration of a definite Foreign policy from which there could be no
+retreat. For four days a discussion raged which created the greatest
+uneasiness; but by the 8th February, President Li Yuan-hung had made up
+his mind--the final problem being simply the "conversion" of the
+Military Party to the idea that a decisive step, which would for ever
+separate them from Germany, must at last be taken. It is known that the
+brilliant Scholar Liang Ch'i-chao, who was hastily summoned to Peking,
+proved a decisive influence and performed the seemingly impossible in a
+few hours' discussion. Realizing at once the advantages which would
+accrue from a single masculine decision he advised instant action in
+such a convincing way that the military leaders surrendered. Accordingly
+on the 9th February the presence of the German Minister was requested at
+the Chinese Foreign Office when the following Note was read to him and
+subsequently transmitted telegraphically to Berlin.
+
+    Your Excellency:
+
+    A telegraphic communication has been received from the Chinese
+    Minister at Berlin transmitting a note from the German Government
+    dated February 1st, 1917, which makes known that the measures of
+    blockade newly adopted by the Government of Germany will, from that
+    day, endanger neutral merchant vessels navigating in certain
+    prescribed zones.
+
+    The new measures of submarine warfare, inaugurated by Germany,
+    imperilling the lives and property of Chinese citizens to even a
+    greater extent than the measures previously taken which have already
+    cost so many human lives to China, constitute a violation of the
+    principles of public international law at present in force; the
+    tolerance of their application would have as a result the
+    introduction into international law of arbitrary principles
+    incompatible with even legitimate commercial intercourse between
+    neutral states and between neutral states and belligerent powers.
+
+    The Chinese Government, therefore, protests energetically to the
+    Imperial German Government against the measures proclaimed on
+    February 1st, and sincerely hopes that with a view to respecting the
+    rights of neutral states and to maintaining the friendly relations
+    between these two countries, the said measures will not be carried
+    out.
+
+    In case, contrary to its expectations, its protest be ineffectual
+    the Government of the Chinese Republic will be constrained, to its
+    profound regret, to sever the diplomatic relations at present
+    existing between the two countries. It is unnecessary to add that
+    the attitude of the Chinese Government has been dictated purely by
+    the desire to further the cause of the world's peace and by the
+    maintenance of the sanctity of international law.
+
+    I avail myself of this opportunity to renew to Your Excellency the
+    assurance of my highest consideration.
+
+At the same time the following reply was handed to the American Minister
+in Peking thus definitely clinching the matter:
+
+    Your Excellency:
+
+    I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's
+    Note of the 4th February, 1917, informing me that the Government of
+    the United States of America, in view of the adoption by the German
+    Government of its new policy of submarine warfare on the 1st of
+    February, has decided to take certain action which it judges
+    necessary as regards Germany.
+
+    The Chinese Government, like the President of the United States of
+    America, is reluctant to believe that the German Government will
+    actually carry into execution those measures which imperil the lives
+    and property of citizens of neutral states and jeopardize the
+    commerce, even legitimate, between neutrals as well as between
+    neutrals and belligerents and which tend, if allowed to be enforced
+    without opposition, to introduce a new principle into public
+    international law.
+
+    The Chinese Government being in accord with the principles set forth
+    in Your Excellency's note and firmly associating itself with the
+    Government of the United States, has taken similar action by
+    protesting energetically to the German Government against the new
+    measures of blockade. The Chinese Government also proposes to take
+    such action in the future as will be deemed necessary for the
+    maintenance of the principles of international law.
+
+    I avail myself of this opportunity to renew to Your Excellency the
+    assurance of my highest consideration.
+
+    His Excellency Paul S. Reinsch,
+    Envoy Extraordinary & Minister Plenipotentiary of
+    The United States of America.
+
+When these facts became generally known an extraordinary ferment was
+noticeable. What efforts had to be made to overcome the not
+inconsiderable opposition of the Military Party who were opposed to any
+departure from a policy of passive neutrality need not now be set down;
+but it is sufficient to state that the decision arrived at was in every
+sense a victory of the younger intellectual forces over the older
+mandarinate, whose traditions of _laissez faire_ and spineless diplomacy
+had hitherto cost the country so dear. A definite and far-reaching
+Foreign Policy had at last been inaugurated. By responding rapidly and
+firmly to the invitation of the United States to associate herself with
+the stand taken against Germany's piratical submarine warfare, China has
+undoubtedly won for herself a new place in the world's esteem. Both in
+Europe and America the news of this development awakened
+well-understandable enthusiasm, and convinced men that the Republic at
+last stood for something vital and real. Until the 9th February, 1917,
+what China had been doing was not really to maintain her neutrality,
+since she had been unable to defend her territory from being made a
+common battleground in 1914: she had been engaged in guarding and
+perpetuating her traditional impotency. For whilst it may be accurate to
+declare--a fact which few Westerners have realized--that to the mass of
+the Chinese nation the various members of the European Family are
+undistinguishable from one another, there being little to choose in
+China between a Russian or a German, an Englishman or an Austrian, a
+Frenchman or a Greek, the trade-contact of a century had certainly
+taught to a great many that there was profit in certain directions and
+none in certain others. It was perfectly well-known, for instance, that
+England stood for a sea-empire; that the sea was an universal road; that
+British ships, both mercantile and military, were the most numerous; and
+that other things being equal it must primarily be Britain more than any
+other European country which would influence Chinese destinies. But the
+British Alliance with Japan had greatly weakened the trust which
+originally existed; and this added to the fact that Germany, although
+completely isolated and imprisoned by the sea, still maintained herself
+intact by reason of her marvellous war-machine, which had ploughed
+forward with such horrible results in a number of directions, had made
+inaction seem the best policy. And yet, although the Chinese may be
+pardoned for not forming clear concepts regarding the rights and wrongs
+of the present conflict, they had undoubtedly realized that it was
+absolutely essential for them not to remain outside the circle of
+international friendships when a direct opportunity was offered them to
+step within.
+
+It was a sudden inkling of these things which now dawned on the public
+mind and slowly awakened enthusiasm. For the first time since Treaty
+relations with the Powers had been established Chinese diplomatic action
+had swept beyond the walls of Peking and embraced world-politics within
+its scope. The Confucianist conception of the State, as being simply a
+regional creation, a thing complete in itself and all sufficient because
+it was locked to the past and indifferent to the future, had hitherto
+been supreme, foreign affairs being the result of unwilling contact at
+sea-ports or in the wastes of High Asia where rival empires meet. To
+find Chinese--five years after the inauguration of their Republic--ready
+to accept literally and loyally in the western way all the duties and
+obligations which their rights of eminent domain confer was a great and
+fine discovery. It has been supposed by some that a powerful rôle was
+played in this business by the temptation to benefit materially by an
+astute move: that is that China was greatly influenced in her decision
+by the knowledge that the denouncing of the German treaties would
+instantly suspend the German Boxer indemnity and pour into the depleted
+Central Treasury a monthly surplus of nearly two million Mexican
+dollars. Paradoxical as it may sound in a country notoriously
+hard-pressed for cash, monetary considerations played no part whatever
+in convincing the Peking Government that the hour for action had
+arrived; nor again was there any question of real hostility to a nation
+which is so far removed from the East as to be meaningless to the
+masses. The deep, underlying, decisive influence was simply
+expediency--the most subtle of all political reasons and the hardest to
+define. But just as Britain declared war because the invasion of Belgium
+brought to a head all the vague grounds for opposition to German policy;
+and just as America broke off relations because the scrapping of
+undertaking after undertaking regarding the sea-war made it imperative
+for her to act, so did China choose the right moment to enunciate the
+doctrine of her independence by voicing her determination to hold to the
+whole corpus of international sanctions on which her independence
+finally rests. In the last analysis, then, the Chinese note of the 9th
+February to the German Government was a categorical and unmistakable
+reply to all the insidious attempts which had been made since the
+beginning of the war to place her outside and beyond the operation of
+the Public Law of Europe; and it is solely and entirely in that light
+that her future actions must be judged. The leaders who direct the
+destinies of China became fully prepared for a state of belligerency
+from the moment they decided to speak; but they could not but be
+supremely anxious concerning the expression of that belligerency, since
+their international position had for years been such that a single false
+move might cripple them.
+
+Let us make this clear. Whilst China has been from the first fully
+prepared to co-operate with friendly Powers in the taking of
+war-measures which would ultimately improve her world-position, she has
+not been prepared to surrender the initiative in these matters into
+foreign hands. The argument that the mobilization of her resources could
+only be effectively dealt with by specially designated foreigners, for
+instance, has always been repellent to her because she knows from bitter
+experience that although Japan has played little or no part in the war,
+and indeed classifies herself as a semi-belligerent, the Tokio
+Government would not hesitate to use any opportunity which presented
+itself in China for selfish ends; and by insisting that as she is on the
+spot she is the most competent to insure the effectiveness of Chinese
+co-operation, attempt to tighten her hold on the country. It is a fact
+which is self-evident to observers on the spot that ever since the coup
+of the Twenty-one Demands, many Japanese believe that their country has
+succeeded in almost completely infeodating China and has become the
+sovereign arbitrator of all quarrels, as well as the pacificator of the
+Eastern World. Statements which were incautiously allowed to appear in
+the Japanese Press a few days prior to the Chinese Note of the 9th
+February disclose what Japan really thought on the subject of China
+identifying herself with the Allies. For instance, the following, which
+bears the hall-mark of official inspiration, reads very curiously in the
+light of after-events:
+
+    ... "Dispatches from Peking say that England and France have already
+    started a flanking movement to induce China to join the anti-German
+    coalition. The intention of the Chinese Government has not yet been
+    learned. But it is possible that China will agree, if conditions are
+    favourable, thus gaining the right to voice her views at the coming
+    peace conference. Should the Entente Powers give China a firm
+    guarantee, it is feared here that China would not hesitate to act.
+
+    "The policy of the Japanese Government toward this question cannot
+    yet be learned. It appears, however, that the Japanese Government is
+    not opposed to applying the resolutions of the Paris Economic
+    Conference, in so far as they concern purely economic questions,
+    since Japan desires that German influence in the commerce and
+    finance of the Orient should be altogether uprooted. But should the
+    Entente Powers of Europe try to induce China to join them, Japan may
+    object on the ground that it will create more disturbances in China
+    and lead to a general disturbance of peace in the Orient."
+
+Now there is not the slightest doubt in the writer's mind--and he can
+claim to speak as a student of twenty years' standing--that this
+definition of Japanese aims and objects is a very true one; and that the
+subsequent invitation to China to join the Allies which came from Tokio
+after a meeting between the Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs and the
+Allied Ambassadors was simply made when a new orientation of policy had
+been forced by stress of circumstances. Japan has certainly always
+wished German influence in the Far East to be uprooted if she can take
+the place of Germany; but if she cannot take that place absolutely and
+entirely she would vastly prefer the influence to remain, since it is in
+the nature of counterweight to that of other European Powers and of
+America--foreign influence in China, as Mr. Hioki blandly told the late
+President Yuan Shih-kai in his famous interview of the 18th January,
+1915, being a source of constant irritation to the Japanese people, and
+the greatest stumbling-block to a permanent understanding in the Far
+East.
+
+Chinese suspicion of any invitation coming by way of Tokio has been,
+therefore, in every way justified, if it is a reasonable and legitimate
+thing for a nation of four hundred millions of people to be acutely
+concerned about their independence; for events have already proved up to
+the hilt that so far from the expulsion of Germany from Shantung having
+resulted in the handing-back of interests which were forcibly acquired
+from China in 1898, that expulsion has merely resulted in Japan
+succeeding to such interests and thereby obliterating all trace of her
+original promise to the world in 1914 that she would restore to China
+what was originally taken from her. Here it is necessary to remark that
+not only did Japan in her negotiations over the Twenty-one Demands force
+China to hand over the twelve million pounds of German improvements in
+Shantung province, but that Baron Hayashi, the present Japanese Minister
+to China, has recently declared that Japan would demand from China a
+vast settlement or concession at Tsingtao, thus making even the alleged
+handing-back of the leased territory--which Japan is pledged to force
+from Germany at the Peace Conference--wholly illusory, the formula of a
+Settlement being adopted because twelve years' experience of Port Arthur
+has shown that territorial "leases," with their military garrisons and
+administrative offices, are expensive and antiquated things, and that it
+is easier to push infiltration by means of a multitude of Settlements in
+which police-boxes and policemen form an important element, than to cut
+off slices of territory under a nomenclature which is a clamant
+advertisement of disruptive aims.
+
+Now although these matters appear to be taking us far from the
+particular theme we are discussing, it is not really so. Like a dark
+thunder-cloud on the horizon the menace of Japanese action has rendered
+frank Chinese co-operation, even in such a simple matter as war-measures
+against Germany, a thing of supreme difficulty. The mere rumour that
+China might dispatch an Expeditionary Force to Mesopotamia was
+sufficient to send the host of unofficial Japanese agents in Peking
+scurrying in every direction and insisting that if the Chinese did
+anything at all they should limit themselves to sending troops to
+Russia, where they would be "lost"--a suggestion made because that was
+what Japan herself offered to do when she declined in 1915 the Allies'
+proposal to dispatch troops to Europe. Nor must the fact be lost sight
+of that as in other countries so in China, foreign affairs provide an
+excellent opportunity for influencing the march of internal events.
+Thus, as we have clearly shown, the Military Party, although originally
+averse to any action at all, saw that a strong foreign policy would
+greatly enhance its reputation and allow it to influence the important
+elections for the Parliament of 1918 which, sitting as a National
+Convention, will elect the next President. Thus, in the extraordinary
+way which happens throughout the world, the whole of February was
+consumed in the rival political parties manoeuvring for position, the
+Vice-President, General Feng Kuo-chang, himself coming hastily to Peking
+from Nanking to take part in this elaborate game in which many were now
+participating merely for what they could get out of it.
+
+On the 4th March matters were brought to a climax by an open breach
+between President Li Yuan-hung and the Premier, General Tuan Chi-jui, at
+a Cabinet meeting regarding the procedure to be observed in breaking off
+diplomatic relations with Germany. Although nearly a month had elapsed,
+no reply had been received from Berlin; and of the many plans of action
+proposed nothing had been formally decided. Owing to the pressure Japan
+was exerting from Tokio to get China to come to a definite arrangement,
+popular anxiety was growing. Over the question of certain telegrams to
+be communicated to the Japanese Government, of which he had been kept in
+ignorance, President Li Yuan-hung took a firm stand; with the result
+that the Premier, deeply offended, abruptly left the Council Chamber,
+handed in his resignation and left the capital--a course of action which
+threatened to provoke a national crisis.
+
+Fortunately in President Li Yuan-hung China had a cool and dispassionate
+statesman. At the first grave crisis in his administration he wished at
+all costs to secure that the assent of Parliament should be given to all
+steps taken, and that nothing so speculative as a policy which had not
+been publicly debated should be put into force. He held to this point
+doggedly; and after some negotiations, the Premier was induced to return
+to the capital and resume office, on the understanding that nothing
+final was to be done until a popular endorsement had been secured.
+
+On the 10th March the question was sent to Parliament for decision.
+After a stormy debate of several hours in the Lower House the policy of
+the Government was upheld by 330 votes to 87: on the following day the
+Senate endorsed this decision by 158 votes to 37. By a coincidence which
+was too extraordinary not to have been artificially contrived, the
+long-awaited German reply arrived on the morning of this 10th March,
+copies of the document being circulated wholesale by German agents among
+the Members of Parliament in a last effort to influence their decision.
+The actual text of the German reply was as follows, and it will be seen
+how transparently worded it is:
+
+    _To the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China_:
+
+    YOUR EXCELLENCY: By the instructions of my home Government--which
+    reached me on the 10th inst.--I beg to forward you the following
+    reply to China's protest to the latest blockade policy of Germany:--
+
+    "The Imperial German Government expresses its great surprise at the
+    action threatened by the Government of the Republic of China in its
+    Note of protest. Many other countries have also protested, but
+    China, which has been in friendly relations with Germany, is the
+    only State which has added a threat to its protest. The surprise is
+    doubly great, because of the fact that, as China has no shipping
+    interests in the seas of the barred zones, she will not suffer
+    thereby.
+
+    "The Government of the Republic of China mentions that loss of life
+    of Chinese citizens has occurred as the results of the present
+    method of war. The Imperial German Government wishes to point out
+    that the Government of the Republic of China has never communicated
+    with the Imperial Government regarding a single case of this kind
+    nor has it protested in this connexion before. According to reports
+    received by the Imperial Government, such losses as have been
+    actually sustained by Chinese subjects have occurred in the firing
+    line while they were engaged in digging trenches and in other war
+    services. While thus engaged, they were exposed to the dangers
+    inevitable to all forces engaged in war. The fact that Germany has
+    on several occasions protested against the employment of Chinese
+    citizens for warlike purpose is evidence that the Imperial
+    Government has given excellent proof of its friendly feelings toward
+    China. In consideration of these friendly relations the Imperial
+    Government is willing to treat the matter as if the threat had never
+    been uttered. It is reasonable for the Imperial Government to expect
+    that the Government of the Republic of China will revise its views
+    respecting the question.
+
+    "Germany's enemies were the first to declare a blockade on Germany
+    and the same is being persistently carried out. It is therefore
+    difficult for Germany to cancel her blockade policy. The Imperial
+    Government is nevertheless willing to comply with the wishes of the
+    Government of the Republic of China by opening negotiations to
+    arrive at a plan for the protection of Chinese life and property,
+    with the view that the end may be achieved and thereby the utmost
+    regard be given to the shipping rights of China. The reason which
+    has prompted the Imperial Government to adopt this conciliatory
+    policy is the knowledge that, once diplomatic relations are severed
+    with Germany, China will not only lose a truly good friend but will
+    also be entangled in unthinkable difficulties."
+
+    In forwarding to Your Excellency the above instructions from my home
+    Government, I beg also to state that--if the Government of China be
+    willing--I am empowered to open negotiations for the protection of
+    the shipping rights of China.
+
+    I have the honour to be....
+
+    (Signed by the German Minister.)
+
+    March 10, 1917.
+
+With a Parliamentary endorsement behind them there remained nothing for
+the Peking Government but to take the vital step of severing diplomatic
+relations. Certain details remained to be settled but these were
+expeditiously handled. Consequently, without any further discussion, at
+noon on the 14th March the German Minister was handed his passports,
+with the following covering dispatch from the Chinese Foreign Office. It
+is worthy of record that in the interval between the Chinese Note of the
+9th February and the German reply of the 10th March the French
+mail-steamer _Athos_ had been torpedoed in the Mediterranean and five
+hundred Chinese labourers proceeding to France on board her drowned.
+
+    _Your Excellency_:--
+
+    With reference to the new submarine policy of Germany, the
+    Government of the Republic of China, dictated by the desire to
+    further the cause of world's peace and to maintain the sanctity of
+    International Law, addressed a protest to Your Excellency on
+    February 9th and declared that in case, contrary to its
+    expectations, its protest be ineffectual, it would be constrained to
+    sever the diplomatic relations at present existing between the two
+    countries.
+
+    During the lapse of a month no heed has been paid to the protest of
+    the Government of the Republic in the activities of the German
+    Submarines, activities which have caused the loss of many Chinese
+    lives. On March 10, a reply was received from Your Excellency.
+    Although it states that the Imperial German Government is willing to
+    open negotiations to arrive at a plan for the protection of Chinese
+    life and property, yet it declares that it is difficult for Germany
+    to cancel her blockade policy. It is therefore not in accord with
+    the object of the protest and the Government of the Chinese
+    Republic, to its deep regret, considers its protest to be
+    ineffectual. The Government of the Republic is constrained to sever
+    the diplomatic relations at present existing with the Imperial
+    German Government. I have the honour to send herewith to Your
+    Excellency, the passport for Your Excellency, the members of the
+    German Legation and their families and retinue for protection while
+    leaving Chinese territory. With regard to the Consular Officers of
+    Germany in China, this Ministry has instructed the different
+    Commissioners of Foreign Affairs to issue to them similarly
+    passports for leaving the country.
+
+    I avail myself of this opportunity to renew to Your Excellency the
+    assurance of my highest consideration.
+
+    March 14th, 1917.
+
+It was not until eleven days later--on the 25th March--that the German
+Minister and his suite reluctantly left Peking for Germany via America.
+Meanwhile the Chinese Government remained undecided regarding the taking
+of the final step as a number of important matters had still to be
+settled. Not only had arrangements to be made with the Allies but there
+was the question of adjusting Chinese policy with American action. A
+special commission on Diplomatic affairs daily debated the procedure to
+be observed, but owing to the conflict of opinion in the provinces
+further action was greatly delayed. As it is necessary to show the
+nature of this conflict we give two typical opinions submitted to the
+Government on the question of a formal declaration of war against
+Germany (and Austria). The first Memorandum was written for the
+Diplomatic Commission by the scholar Liang Ch'i-chao and is singularly
+lucid:--
+
+    THE NECESSITY FOR WAR
+
+    "Those who question the necessity for war can only quote the
+    attitude of America as example. The position of China is, however,
+    different from that of America in two points. First, actual warfare
+    will follow immediately after America's declaration of war, so it is
+    necessary for her to make the necessary preparations before taking
+    the step. For this purpose, America has voted several hundred
+    million dollars for an increase of her naval appropriations. America
+    therefore cannot declare war until she has completed every
+    preparation. With China it is different. Even after the declaration
+    of war, there will be no actual warfare. It is therefore unnecessary
+    for us to wait.
+
+    "Secondly, America has no such things as foreign settlements,
+    consular jurisdiction or other unequal treaties with Germany. Under
+    the existing conditions America has no difficulties in safeguarding
+    herself against the Germans residing in America after the severance
+    of diplomatic relations even though war has not yet been actually
+    declared, and as to future welfare, America will have nothing to
+    suffer even though her old treaties with Germany should continue to
+    be operative. It is impossible for China to take the necessary steps
+    to safeguard the country against the Germans residing in China
+    unless the old treaties be cancelled. For unless war is declared it
+    is impossible to cancel the consular jurisdiction of the Germans,
+    and so long as German consular jurisdiction remains in China we will
+    meet with difficulties everywhere whenever we wish to deal with the
+    Germans. If our future is to be considered, unless war is declared,
+    the old treaties will again come into force upon the resumption of
+    diplomatic relations, in which case we shall be held responsible for
+    all the steps which we have taken in contravention of treaties
+    during the rupture. It will be advantageous to China if the old
+    treaties be cancelled by a declaration of war and new treaties be
+    negotiated after the conclusion of peace.
+
+    "In short by severing diplomatic relations with Germany China has
+    already incurred the ill-feelings of that country. We shall not be
+    able to lessen the hostile feelings of the Germans even if we
+    refrain from declaring war on them. It is therefore our obligation
+    to choose the course that will be advantageous to us. This is not
+    reluctantly yielding to the request of the Entente Allies. It is the
+    course we must take in our present situation.
+
+
+    THE REASON FOR DECLARING WAR
+
+    "The presumptuous manner in which Germany has replied to our demand
+    is an open affront to our national integrity. Recently Germany has
+    deliberately shown hostility to our advice by reiterating her
+    determination to carry out the ruthless submarine policy with
+    increased vigour. All these are reasons for diplomatic rupture as
+    well as for declaration of war. Furthermore, the peace of the Far
+    East was broken by the occupation of Kiachow by Germany. This event
+    marked the first step of the German disregard for international law.
+    In the interests of humanity and for the sake of what China has
+    passed through, she should rise and punish such a country, that
+    dared to disregard international law. Such a reason for war is
+    certainly beyond criticism.
+
+
+    THE TIME TO DECLARE WAR
+
+    "War should be declared as soon as possible. The reason for the
+    diplomatic rupture is sufficient reason for declaring war. This has
+    already been explained. It would be impossible for us to find an
+    excuse for declaring war if war be not declared now. According to
+    usual procedure war is declared when the forces of the two countries
+    come into actual conflict. Now such a possibility does not exist
+    between China and Germany. Since it is futile to expect Germany to
+    declare war on us first, we should ask ourselves if war is
+    necessary. If not, then let us go on as we are, otherwise we must
+    not hesitate any more.
+
+    "Some say that China should not declare war on Germany until we have
+    come to a definite understanding with the Entente Allies respecting
+    certain terms. This is indeed a wrong conception of things. We
+    declare war because we want to fight for humanity, international law
+    and against a national enemy. It is not because we are partial
+    towards the Entente or against Germany or Austria. International
+    relations are not commercial connexions. Why then should we talk
+    about exchange of privileges and rights? As to the revision of
+    Customs tariff, it has been our aspiration for more than ten years
+    and a foremost diplomatic question, for which we have been looking
+    for a suitable opportunity to negotiate with the foreign Powers. It
+    is our view that the opportunity has come because foreign Powers are
+    now on very friendly terms with China. It is distinctly a separate
+    thing from the declaration of war. Let no one try to confuse the
+    two.
+
+
+    THE QUESTION OF AUSTRIA
+
+    "If China decides to declare war on Germany the same attitude should
+    be taken towards Austria. We have severed diplomatic relations with
+    Germany but retain the _status quo_ with Austria. This is fraught
+    with danger. German intrigue is to be dreaded. What they have done
+    in America and Mexico is enough to shock us. The danger can easily
+    be imagined when we remember that they have in China the Austrian
+    Legation, Austrian Consulates and Austrian concessions as their
+    bases of operation for intrigue and plotting. Some say we should
+    follow America, which has not yet severed diplomatic relations with
+    Austria. This is a great mistake. America can afford to ignore
+    Austria because there are no Austrian concessions and Austrian
+    consular jurisdiction in America.
+
+    "The question is then what steps should be taken to sever diplomatic
+    relations with and declare war on Austria. The solution is that
+    since Austria has also communicated to our Minister regarding her
+    submarine policy we can serve her with an ultimatum demanding that
+    the submarine policy be cancelled within twenty-four hours. If
+    Austria refuses, China may sever diplomatic relations and declare
+    war at the same time immediately upon the expiry of the twenty-four
+    hour limit.
+
+    "In conclusion I wish to say that whenever a policy is adopted we
+    should carry out the complete scheme. If we should hesitate in the
+    middle and become afraid to go ahead we will soon find ourselves in
+    an embarrassing position. The Government and Parliament should
+    therefore stir up courage and boldly make the decision and take the
+    step."
+
+Unanswerable as seem these arguments to the Western mind, they were by
+no means so to the mass of Chinese who are always fearful lest some
+sudden reshuffling in the relationships existing between foreign Powers
+exposes them to new and greater calamities. This Chinese viewpoint, with
+its ignorance of basic considerations, is well-illustrated by the Second
+Memorandum, which follows. Written by the famous reformer of 1898 Kang
+Yu-wei, it demonstrates how greatly the revolutionists of 1911 are in
+advance of a school which was the vogue less than twenty years ago and
+which is completely out of touch with the thought which the war has made
+world-wide. Nevertheless the line of argument which characterizes this
+utterance is still a political factor in China and must be understood.
+
+    MEMORANDUM
+
+    ... "The breach between the United States and Germany is no concern
+    of ours. But the Government suddenly severed diplomatic relations
+    with Germany and is now contemplating entry into the war. This is to
+    advance beyond the action of the United States which continues to
+    observe neutrality. And if we analyse the public opinion of the
+    country, we find that all peoples--high and low, well-informed and
+    ignorant--betray great alarm when informed of the rupture and the
+    proposal to declare war on Germany, fearing that such a development
+    may cause grave peril to the country. This war-policy is being urged
+    by a handful of politicians, including a few members of Parliament
+    and several party men with the view of creating a diplomatic
+    situation to serve their political ends and to reap great profits.
+
+    "Their arguments are that China--by siding with the Entente--may
+    obtain large loans, the revision of the Customs Tariff and the
+    suspension of the Boxer indemnity to Germany, as well as the
+    recovery of the German concessions, mining and railroad rights and
+    the seizure of German commerce. Pray, how large is Germany's share
+    of the Boxer indemnity? Seeing that German commerce is protected by
+    international law, will China be able to seize it; and does she not
+    know that the Kaiser may in the future exact restitution?
+
+
+    PERILS OF WAR
+
+    "News from Holland tells of a rumoured secret understanding between
+    Germany, Japan and Russia. The Japanese Government is pursuing a
+    policy of friendship toward Germany. This is very disquieting news
+    to us. As to foreign loans and the revision of the Customs Tariff,
+    we can raise these matters at any time. Why then should we traffic
+    for these things at the risk of grave dangers to the nation? My view
+    is that what we are to obtain from the transaction is far less than
+    what we are to give. If it be argued that the policy aims at
+    securing for China her right to live as an unfettered nation, then
+    we ought to ask for the cancellation of the entire Boxer
+    Indemnities, the abolition of exterritoriality, the retrocession of
+    the foreign concessions and the repeal or amendment of all unjust
+    treaties after the war. But none of these have we demanded. If we
+    ourselves cannot improve our internal administration in order to
+    become a strong country, it is absurd to expect our admission to the
+    ranks of the first-class Powers simply by being allowed a seat at
+    the Peace Conference and by taking a side with the Entente!
+
+    "Which side will win the war? I shall not attempt to predict here.
+    But it is undoubted that all the arms of Europe--and the industrial
+    and financial strength of the United States and Japan--have proved
+    unavailing against Germany. On the other hand France has lost her
+    Northern provinces and Belgium, Serbia and Rumania are blotted off
+    the map. Should Germany be victorious, the whole of Europe--not to
+    speak of a weak country like China--would be in great peril of
+    extinction. Should she be defeated, Germany still can--after the
+    conclusion of peace--send a fleet to war against us. And as the
+    Powers will be afraid of a second world-war, who will come to our
+    aid? Have we not seen the example of Korea? There is no such thing
+    as an army of righteousness which will come to the assistance of
+    weak nations. I cannot bear to think of hearing the angry voice of
+    German guns along our coasts!
+
+    "If we allow the Entente to recruit labour in our country without
+    restriction, thousands upon thousands of our fellow countrymen will
+    die for no worthy cause; and if we allow free exportation of
+    foodstuff, in a short time the price of daily necessaries will mount
+    ten to a hundredfold. This is calculated to cause internal troubles.
+    Yea, all gains from this policy will go to the politicians but the
+    people will suffer the evil consequences through no fault of theirs.
+
+
+    DIPLOMACY OF CONFUCIUS
+
+    "In the matter of diplomacy, we do not need to go to the West for
+    the apt learning on the point at issue. Confucius has said: 'Be
+    truthful and cultivate friendship--this is the foundation of human
+    happiness.' Our country being weak and undeveloped, if we strive to
+    be truthful and cultivate friendship, we can still be a civilized
+    nation, albeit hoary with age. But we are now advised to take
+    advantage of the difficulties of Germany and abandon honesty in
+    order that we may profit thereby. Discarding treaties is to be
+    unfaithful, grasping for gains is not the way of a gentleman, taking
+    advantage of another's difficulties is to be mean and joining the
+    larger in numbers is cowardice. How can we be a nation, if we throw
+    away all these fundamental qualities.
+
+    "Even in the press of England and the United States, there is
+    opposition to America entering the war. If we observe neutrality, we
+    are not bound to any side; and when the time comes for peace--as a
+    friend to both sides--we may be able to bring about the ends of the
+    war. Is this not a service to humanity and the true spirit of
+    civilization?
+
+    "Now it is proposed to take the existence of this great nation of
+    five thousand years and four hundred million people in order to
+    serve the interests of politicians in their party struggles. We are
+    now to be bound to foreign nations, without freedom to act for
+    ourselves and running great risks of national destruction. Can you
+    gentlemen bear to see this come to pass? China has severed relations
+    with Germany but the decision for war has not yet been reached. The
+    whole country is telegraphing opposition to the Government's policy
+    and wants to know whether Germany will not in the future take
+    revenge on account of our rupture with her; and if we are not
+    secured against this eventuality, what are the preparations to meet
+    with a contingency? The Government must not stake the fate of the
+    nation as if it be a child's toy, and the people must not be cast
+    into the whirlpool of slaughter. The people are the backbone of a
+    country, and if the people are all opposed to war on Germany, the
+    Government--in spite of the support of Parliament--must call a great
+    citizens' convention to decide the question. We must persist in our
+    neutrality. You gentlemen are patriotic sons of this country and
+    must know that the existence of China as a nation depends upon what
+    she does now in this matter. In tears, I appeal to you.
+
+    "KANG YU-WEI."
+
+March and April were consumed in this fruitless discussion in which
+everybody participated. The Premier, General Tuan Chi-jui, in view of
+the alleged provincial opposition, now summoned to Peking a Conference
+of Provincial Military Governors to endorse his policy, but this action
+although crowned with success so far as the army chiefs were
+concerned--the conference voting solidly for war--was responsible for
+greatly alarming Parliament which saw in this procedure a new attempt
+to undermine its power and control the country by extra-legal means.
+Furthermore, publication in the Metropolitan press of what the Japanese
+were doing behind the scenes created a fear that extraordinary intrigues
+were being indulged in with the object of securing by means of secret
+diplomacy certain guarantees of a personal nature. Apart from being
+associated with the semi-official negotiations of the Entente Powers in
+Peking, Japan was carrying on a second set of negotiations partly by
+means of a confidential agent named Kameio Nishihara dispatched from
+Tokio specially for that purpose by Count Terauchi, the Japanese
+Premier, a procedure which led to the circulation of highly sensational
+stories regarding China's future commitments. When the Premier, General
+Tuan Chi-jui, had made his statement to Parliament on the 10th March,
+regarding the necessity of an immediate rupture with Germany, he had
+implied that China had already received assurances from the Allies that
+there would be a postponement of the Boxer Indemnities for a term of
+years, an immediate increase in the Customs Tariff, and a modification
+of the Peace Protocol of 1901 regarding the presence of Chinese troops
+near Tientsin. Suddenly all these points were declared to be in doubt.
+Round the question of the length of time the Indemnities might be
+postponed, and the actual amount of the increase in the Customs Tariff,
+there appeared to be an inexplicable muddle largely owing to the
+intervention of so many agents and to the fact that the exchange of
+views had been almost entirely verbal, unofficial, and secret. It would
+be wearisome to analyse a dispute which belongs to the peculiar
+atmosphere of Peking diplomacy; but the vast difficulties of making even
+a simple decision in China were glaringly illustrated by this matter.
+With a large section of the Metropolitan press daily insisting that the
+future of democracy in China would be again imperilled should the
+Military Party have its own way, small wonder if the question of a
+formal declaration of war on Germany (and Austria) now assumed an
+entirely different complexion.
+
+On the 1st May, in spite of all these trials and tribulations, being
+pressed by the Premier to do so, the Cabinet unanimously decided that a
+declaration of war was imperative; and on the 7th May, after an
+agreement with the President had been reached, Parliament received the
+following dispatch--this method of communication being the usual one
+between the executive and legislative branches of the Government:
+
+    The President has the honour to communicate to the House of
+    Representatives the following proposal. Since the severance of
+    diplomatic relations with Germany, Germany has continued to violate
+    the rights of the neutral nations and to damage and cause losses in
+    life and property to our people as well as to trample on
+    international law and disregard principles of humanity. For the
+    purpose of hastening peace, upholding international law and
+    protecting the life and property of our people, the President is of
+    the view that it is necessary to declare war on the German
+    Government. In accordance with Article 35 of the Provisional
+    Constitution, he now asks for the approval of the House, and
+    demands--in accordance with Article 21 of the Provisional
+    Constitution--that the meeting in the House be held in secret.
+
+On 8th May, after hearing a statement made in person by the Premier, the
+House of Representatives in secret session referred the question for
+examination to the House sitting as a Committee in order to gain time to
+make up its mind. On the same day the Senate sat on the same question. A
+very heated and bitter discussion followed in the upper House, not
+because of any real disagreement regarding the matter at issue, but
+because a large section of Senators were extremely anxious regarding the
+internal consequences. This is well-explained by the following written
+interpellation which was addressed to the government by a large number
+of parliamentarians:
+
+    We, the undersigned, hereby address this interpellation to the
+    Government. As a declaration of war on Germany has become an object
+    of the foreign policy of the Government, the latter has held
+    informal meetings to ascertain the views of parliament on the
+    question; and efforts are being made by the Government to secure the
+    unanimous support of both Houses for its war policy. In pursuing
+    this course, the Government appears to believe that its call for
+    support will be readily complied with by the Houses. But in our view
+    there are quite a number of members in both Houses who fail
+    thoroughly to understand the war decision of the Government. The
+    reason for this is that, according to recent reports, both foreign
+    and vernacular, the Government has entered into secret treaties with
+    a "neighbouring country." It is also reported that secret agents on
+    both sides are active and are travelling between the two countries.
+    The matter seems to be very grave; and it has already attracted the
+    attention of Parliament, which in the near future will discuss the
+    war-issue.
+
+    Being in doubt as to the truth of such a report, we hereby request
+    the Government for the necessary information in the matter. We also
+    beg to suggest that, if there is any secret diplomatic agreement, we
+    consider it expedient for the Government to submit the matter to
+    Parliament for the latter's consideration. This will enable the
+    members in Parliament to study the question with care and have a
+    clear understanding of the matter. When this is done, Parliament
+    will be able to support the Government in the prosecution of its war
+    policy according to the dictates of conscience. In this event both
+    Parliament and Government will be able to co-operate with each other
+    in the solution of the present diplomatic problem. Troubled not a
+    little with the present diplomatic situation of the country, we
+    hereby address this interpellation to the Government in accordance
+    with law. It is hoped that an answer from the Government will be
+    dispatched to us within three days from date.
+
+On the 10th May Parliament met in secret session and it was plain that a
+crisis had come. Members of the House of Representatives experienced
+great difficulties in forcing their way through a mob of several
+thousand roughs who surrounded the approaches to Parliament, many
+members being hustled if not struck. The mob was so plainly in control
+of a secret organization that the House of Representatives refused to
+sit. Urgent messages were sent to the Police and Gendarmerie
+headquarters for reinforcements of armed men as a protection, whilst the
+presence of the Premier was also demanded. Masses of police were soon on
+the ground, but whilst they prevented the mob from entering Parliament
+and carrying out their threat of burning the buildings, and murdering
+the members, they could not--or would not--disperse the crowds, it
+transpiring subsequently that half a battalion of infantry in plain
+clothes under their officers formed the backbone of the demonstrators.
+
+It was not until nearly dark, after six or seven hours of these
+disorderly scenes, that the Premier finally arrived. Cavalry had
+meanwhile also been massed on the main street; but it was only when the
+report spread that a Japanese reporter had been killed that the order
+was finally given to charge the mob and disperse it by force. This was
+very rapidly done, as apart from the soldiers in plain clothes the mass
+of people belonged to the lowest class, and had no stomach for a fight,
+having only been paid to shout. It was nearly midnight, after twelve
+hours of isolation and a foodless day, that the Representatives were
+able to disperse without having debated the war-question. The upshot
+was that with the exception of the Minister of Education, the Premier
+found that his entire Cabinet had resigned, the Ministers being
+unwilling to be associated with what had been an attempted coercion of
+Parliament carried out by the Military.
+
+The Premier, General Tuan Chi-jui, however, remained determined to carry
+his point, and within a week a second dispatch was sent to the House of
+Representatives demanding, in spite of what had happened, that the
+declaration of war be immediately brought up for debate. Meanwhile
+publication in a leading Peking newspaper of further details covering
+Japan's subterranean activities greatly inflamed the public, and made
+the Liberal political elements more determined than ever to stand firm.
+It was alleged that Count Terauchi was reviving in a more subtle form
+Group V of the Twenty-one Demands of 1915, the latest Japanese proposal
+taking the form of a secret Treaty of twenty articles of which the main
+stipulations were to be a loan of twenty million yen to China to
+reorganize the three main Chinese arsenals under Japanese guidance, and
+a further loan of eighty million yen to be expended on the Japanization
+of the Chinese army. As a result of this publication, which rightly or
+wrongly was declared to be without foundation, the editor of _The Peking
+Gazette_ was seized in the middle of the night and thrown into gaol; but
+Parliament so far from being intimidated passed the very next day (19th
+May) a resolution refusing to consider in any form the declaration of
+war against Germany until the Cabinet had been reorganized--which meant
+the resignation of General Tuan Chi-jui. A last effort was made by the
+reactionary element to jockey the President into submission by
+presenting to the Chief Executive a petition from the Military Governors
+assembled in Peking demanding the immediate dissolution of Parliament.
+On this proposal being absolutely rejected by the President as wholly
+unconstitutional, and the Military Governors soundly rated for their
+interference, an ominous calm followed.
+
+Parliament, however, remained unmoved and continued its work. Although
+the draft of the Permanent Constitution had been practically completed,
+important additions to the text were now proposed, such additions being
+designed to increase parliamentary control and provide every possible
+precaution against arbitrary acts in the future. Thus the new provision
+that a simple vote of want of confidence in the Cabinet must be followed
+by the President either dismissing the Cabinet or dissolving the House
+of Representatives--but that the dissolution of the Lower House could
+not be ordered without the approval of the Senate--was generally
+recognized as necessary to destroy the last vestiges of the Yuan
+Shih-kai régime. Furthermore a new article, conferring on the President
+the right to dismiss the Premier summarily by Presidential Mandate
+without the counter-signature of the other Cabinet Ministers, completed
+the disarray of the conservatives who saw in this provision the dashing
+of their last hopes.[25]
+
+By the 21st May, the last remaining Cabinet Minister--the Minister of
+Education--had resigned and the Premier was left completely isolated. On
+the 23rd May the President, relying on the general support of the
+nation, summarily dismissed General Tuan Chi-jui from the Premiership
+and appointed the veteran diplomat Dr. Wu Ting-fang to act during the
+interim period in his stead, at the same time placing the metropolitan
+districts under four trustworthy Generals who were vested with
+provost-marshals' powers under a system which gave them command of all
+the so-called "precautionary troops" holding the approaches to the
+capital. The Military Governors, who a few hours before these events had
+left Peking precipitately in a body on the proclaimed mission of allying
+themselves with the redoubtable General Chang Hsun at Hsuchowfu, and
+threatening the safety of the Republic, were, however, coolly received
+in the provinces in spite of all their most bitter attempts to stir up
+trouble. This, however, as will be shown, had no influence on their
+subsequent conduct. The quiet disappearance of the ex-Premier in the
+midst of this upheaval caused the report to spread that all the members
+of the corrupt camarilla which had surrounded him were to be arrested,
+but the President soon publicly disclaimed any intention of doing
+so,--which appears to have been a fatal mistake. It is disheartening to
+have to state that nearly all the Allied Legations in Peking had been in
+intimate relations with this gang--always excepting the American
+Legation whose attitude is uniformly correct--the French Minister going
+so far as to entertain the Military Governors and declare, according to
+reports in the native press, that Parliament was of no importance at
+all, the only important thing being for China promptly to declare war.
+That some sort of public investigation into Peking diplomacy is
+necessary before there can be any hope of decent relations between China
+and the Powers seems indisputable.[26]
+
+Before the end of May the militarists being now desperate, attempted the
+old game of inciting the provincial capitals "to declare their
+independence," although the mass of the nation was plainly against them.
+Some measure of success attended this move, since the soldiery of the
+northern provinces obediently followed their leaders and there was a
+sudden wild demand for a march on Peking. A large amount of
+rolling-stock on the main railways was seized with this object, the
+confusion being made worse confounded by the fierce denunciations which
+now came from the southernmost provinces, coupled with their threats to
+attack the Northern troops all along the line as soon as they could
+mobilize.
+
+The month of June opened with the situation more threatening than it had
+been for years. Emissaries of the recalcitrant Military Governors,
+together with all sorts of "politicals" and disgruntled generals,
+gathered in Tientsin--which is 80 miles from Peking--and openly
+established a Military Headquarters which they declared would be
+converted into a Provisional Government which would seek the recognition
+of the Powers. Troops were moved and concentrated against Peking; fresh
+demands were made that the President should dissolve Parliament; whilst
+the Metropolitan press was suddenly filled with seditious articles. The
+President, seeing that the situation was becoming cataclysmic, was
+induced, through what influences is not known, to issue a mandate
+summoning General Chang Hsun to Peking to act as a mediator, which was
+another fatal move. He arrived in Tientsin with many troops on the 7th
+June where he halted and was speedily brought under subversive
+influences, sending at once up to Peking a sort of ultimatum which was
+simply the old demand for the dissolution of Parliament.
+
+Meanwhile on the 5th June, the United States, which had been alarmed by
+these occurrences, had handed China the following Note hoping thereby to
+steady the situation:
+
+    The Government of the United States learns with the most profound
+    regret of the dissension in China and desires to express the most
+    sincere desire that tranquillity and political co-ordination may be
+    forthwith re-established.
+
+    The entry of China into war with Germany--or the continuance of the
+    _status quo_ of her relations with that Government--are matters of
+    secondary consideration.
+
+    The principal necessity for China is to resume and continue her
+    political entity, to proceed along the road of national development
+    on which she has made such marked progress.
+
+    With the form of Government in China or the personnel which
+    administers that Government, the United States has an interest only
+    in so far as its friendship impels it to be of service to China. But
+    in the maintenance by China of one Central United and alone
+    responsible Government, the United States is deeply interested, and
+    now expresses the very sincere hope that China, in her own interest
+    and in that of the world, will immediately set aside her factional
+    political disputes, and that all parties and persons will work for
+    the re-establishment of a co-ordinate Government and the assumption
+    of that place among the Powers of the World to which China is so
+    justly entitled, but the full attainment of which is impossible in
+    the midst of internal discord.
+
+The situation had, however, developed so far and so rapidly that this
+expression of opinion had little weight. The Vice-President of the
+Republic, General Feng Kuo-chang, unwilling or unable to do anything,
+had already tendered his resignation from Nanking, declaring that he
+would maintain the "neutrality" of the important area of the lower
+Yangtsze during this extraordinary struggle; and his action, strange as
+it may seem, typified the vast misgivings which filled every one's mind
+regarding the mad course of action which the rebellious camarilla had
+decided upon.
+
+Until Saturday the 9th June, the President had seemed adamant. On that
+day he personally saw foreign press correspondents and assured them
+that, in spite of every threat, he would in no conceivable
+circumstances attempt the unconstitutional step of dissolving
+Parliament,--unconstitutional because the Nanking Provisional
+Constitution under which the country was still governed pending the
+formal passage of the Permanent Constitution through Parliament, only
+provided for the creation of Parliament as a grand constitutional
+Drafting Committee but gave no power to the Chief Executive to dissolve
+it during its "life" which was three years. As we have already shown,
+the period between the _coup d'état_ of 4th November, 1913, and the
+re-convocation of Parliament on 1st August, 1916, had been treated as a
+mere interregnum: therefore until 1918, if the law were properly
+construed, no power in the land could interrupt the Parliamentary
+sessions except Parliament itself. Parliament, in view of these
+threatening developments, had already expressed its willingness (a) to
+reconsider certain provisions of the draft constitution in such a
+conciliatory manner as to insure the passage of the whole instrument
+through both houses within two weeks; (b) to alter the Election Law in
+such fashion as to conciliate the more conservative elements in the
+country; (c) to prorogue the second session (1916-1917) immediately
+these things were done and after a very short recess to open the third
+session (1917-1918) and close it within three months, allowing new
+elections to be held in the early months of 1918,--the new Parliament to
+be summoned in April, 1918, to form itself into a National Convention
+and elect the President for the quinquennial period 1918-1923.
+
+All these reasonable plans were knocked on the head on Sunday, the 10th
+June, by the sudden report that the President having been peremptorily
+told that the dissolution of Parliament was the sole means of saving the
+Republic and preventing the sack of Peking, as well as an open armed
+attempt to restore the boy-emperor Hsuan Tung, had at last made up his
+mind to surrender to the inevitable. He had sealed a Mandate decreeing
+the dissolution of Parliament which would be promulgated as soon as it
+had received the counter-signature of the acting Premier, Dr. Wu
+Ting-fang, such counter-signature being obligatory under Article 45 of
+the Provisional Constitution.
+
+At once it became clear again, as happens a thousand times during every
+year in the East, that what is not nipped in the bud grows with such
+malignant swiftness as finally to blight all honest intentions. Had
+steps been taken on or about the 23rd May to detain forcibly in Peking
+the ringleader of the recalcitrant Military Governors, one General Ni
+Shih-chung of Anhui, history would have been very different and China
+spared much national and international humiliation. Six years of stormy
+happenings had certainly bred in the nation a desire for
+constitutionalism and a detestation of military domination. But this
+desire and detestation required firm leadership. Without that leadership
+it was inchoate and powerless, and indeed made furtive by the constant
+fear of savage reprisals. A great opportunity had come and a great
+opportunity had been lost. President Li Yuan-hung's personal argument,
+communicated to the writer, was that in sealing the Mandate dissolving
+Parliament he had chosen the lesser of two evils, for although South
+China and the Chinese Navy declared they would defend Parliament to the
+last, they were far away whilst large armies were echeloned along the
+railways leading into Peking and daily threatening action. The events of
+the next year or so must prove conclusively, in spite of what has
+happened in this month of June, 1917, that the corrupt power of the
+sword can no longer even nominally rule China.
+
+[Illustration: The Late President Yuan Shih-kai]
+
+[Illustration: President Yuan Shi-kai photographed immediately after his
+Inauguration as Provisional President, March 10th, 1912.]
+
+Meanwhile the veteran Dr. Wu Ting-fang, true to his faith, declared that
+no power on earth would cause him to sign a Mandate possessing no
+legality behind it; and he indeed obstinately resisted every attempt to
+seduce him. Although his resignation was refused he stood his ground
+manfully, and it became clear that some other expedient would have to be
+resorted to. In the small hours of the 13th June what this was was made
+clear: by a rapid reshuffling of the cards Dr. Wu Ting-fang's
+resignation was accepted and the general officer commanding the Peking
+Gendarmerie, a genial soul named General Chiang Chao-tsung, who had
+survived unscathed the vicissitudes of six years of revolution, was
+appointed to act in his stead and duly counter-signed the fateful
+Mandate which was at once printed and promulgated at four o'clock in the
+morning. It has been stated to the writer that had it not been so issued
+four battalions of Chang Hsun's savage pigtailed soldiery, who had been
+bivouacked for some days in the grounds of the Temple of Heaven, would
+have been let loose on the capital. The actual text of the Mandate
+proves conclusively that the President had no hand in its drafting--one
+argument being sufficient to prove that, namely the deliberate ignoring
+of the fact that Parliament had been called into being by virtue of
+article 53 of the Nanking Provisional Constitution and that under
+article 54 its specific duty was to act as a grand constitutional
+conference to draft and adopt the Permanent Constitution, article 55
+furthermore giving Parliament the right summarily to amend the
+Provisional Constitution before the Promulgation of the permanent
+instrument, should that be necessary. Provisions of this sort would
+naturally carry no weight with generals of the type of Chang Hsun, of
+whom it is said that until recent years he possessed only the most
+elementary education; but it is a dismal thing to have to record that
+the Conservative Party in China should have adopted a platform of brute
+force in the year of grâce, 1917.
+
+    MANDATE DISSOLVING PARLIAMENT
+
+    In the 6th month of last year I promulgated a Mandate stating that
+    in order to make a Constitution it was imperative that Parliament
+    should be convened. The Republic was inaugurated five years ago and
+    yet there was no Constitution, which should be the fundamental law
+    of a nation, therefore it was ordered that Parliament be re-convened
+    to make the Constitution, etc., at once.
+
+    Therefore the main object for the re-convocation of Parliament was
+    to make a formal constitution for the country. Recently a petition
+    was received from Meng En-yuen, Tu-chun of Kirin, and others, to the
+    effect that "in the articles passed by the Constitution Conference
+    there were several points as follows: 'when the House of
+    Representatives passes a vote of want of confidence against the
+    Cabinet Ministers, the President may dismiss the Cabinet Ministers,
+    or dissolve the said House, but the dissolution of the House shall
+    have the approval of the Senate.' Again, 'When the President
+    dismisses his Prime Minister, it is unnecessary for him to secure
+    the counter-signature of the Cabinet Ministers.' Again 'when a bill
+    is passed by the Two Houses it shall have the force of the law.' We
+    were surprised to read the above provisions.
+
+    "According to the precedents of other nations the Constitution has
+    never been made by Parliament. If we should desire a good and
+    workable Constitution, we should seek a fundamental solution. Indeed
+    Parliament is more important than any other organ in the country;
+    but when the national welfare is imperilled, we must take action. As
+    the present Parliament does not care about the national welfare, it
+    is requested that in view of the critical condition of the country,
+    drastic measures be taken and both the House of Representatives and
+    the Senate be dissolved so that they may be reorganized and the
+    Constitution may be made without any further delay. Thus the form of
+    the Republican Government be preserved, etc."
+
+    Of late petitions and telegrams have been received from the military
+    and civil officials, merchants, scholars, etc., containing similar
+    demands. The Senate and the House of Representatives have held the
+    Constitution Conference for about one year, and the Constitution has
+    not yet been completed. Moreover at this critical time most of the
+    M.P.'s of both Houses have tendered their resignation. Hence it is
+    impossible to secure quorums to discuss business. There is therefore
+    no chance to revise the articles already passed. Unless means be
+    devised to hasten the making of the Constitution, the heart of the
+    people will never be satisfied.
+
+    I, the President, who desire to comply with the will of the populace
+    and to consolidate the foundation of the nation, grant the request
+    of the Tuchuns and the people. It is hereby ordered that the Senate
+    and the House of Representatives be dissolved, and that another
+    election be held immediately. Thus a Constitutional Government can
+    be maintained. It must be pointed out that the object for the
+    reorganization of Parliament is to hasten the making of the
+    Constitution, and not to abolish the Legislative Organ of the
+    Republic. I hope all the citizens of the Republic will understand my
+    motives.
+
+A great agitation and much public uneasiness followed the publication of
+this document; and the parliamentarians, who had already been leaving
+Peking in small numbers, now evacuated the capital _en masse_ for the
+South. The reasonable and wholly logical attitude of the
+Constitutionalists is well-exhibited in the last Memorandum they
+submitted to the President some days prior to his decision to issue the
+Mandate above-quoted; and a perusal of this document will show what may
+be expected in the future. It will be noted that the revolting Military
+Governors are boldly termed rebels and that the constitutional view of
+everything they may contrive as from the 13th June, 1917, is that it
+will be bereft of all legality and simply mark a fresh interregnum.
+Furthermore, it is important to note that the situation is brought back
+by the Mandate of the 13th June to where it was on the 6th June, 1916,
+with the death of Yuan Shih-kai, and that a period of civil commotion
+seems inevitable.
+
+    MEMORANDUM
+
+    To the President: Our previous memorandum to Your Excellency must
+    have received your attention. We now beg further to inform you that
+    the rebels are now practically in an embarrassing predicament on
+    account of internal differences, the warning of the friendly Powers,
+    and the protest of the South-western provinces. Their position is
+    becoming daily more and more untenable. If Your Excellency strongly
+    holds out for another ten days or so, their movement will collapse.
+
+    Some one, however, has the impudence to suggest that with the entry
+    of Chang Hsun's troops into the Capital, and delay in the settlement
+    of the question will mean woe and disaster. But to us, there need be
+    no such fear. As the troops in the Capital have no mind to oppose
+    the rebels, Tsao Kun and his troops alone will be adequate for their
+    purposes in the Capital. But now the rebel troops have been halting
+    in the neighbourhood of the Capital for the last ten days. This
+    shows that they dare not open hostilities against the Government,
+    which step will certainly bring about foreign intervention and incur
+    the strong opposition of the South-western provinces. Having refused
+    to participate in the rebellion at the invitation of Ni Shih-chung
+    and Chang Tso-lin, Chang Hsun will certainly not do what Tsao Kun
+    has not dared to do. But the rebels have secret agents in the
+    Capital to circulate rumours to frighten the public and we hope that
+    the President will remain calm and unperturbed, lest it will give an
+    opportunity for the rebel agents to practise their evil tricks.
+
+    Respecting Parliament, its re-assembly was one of the two most
+    important conditions by means of which the political differences
+    between the North and the South last year were healed. The
+    dissolution of Parliament would mean the violation of the terms of
+    settlement entered into between the North and the South last year
+    and an open challenge to the South. Would the South remain silent
+    respecting this outrageous measure? If the South rises in arms
+    against this measure, what explanation can the Central Government
+    give? It will only serve to hasten the split between the North and
+    the South. From a legal point of view, the Power of Government is
+    vested in the Provisional Constitution. When the Government
+    exercises power which is not provided for by the Constitution, it
+    simply means high treason.
+
+    Some one has suggested that it would not be an illegal act for the
+    Government to dissolve Parliament, since it is not provided in the
+    Provisional Constitution as to how Parliament should be dissolved,
+    nor does that instrument specifically prohibit the Government from
+    dissolving Parliament. But this is a misinterpretation. For
+    instance, the Provisional Constitution has not provided that the
+    President shall not proclaim himself Emperor, nor does it prohibit
+    him from so doing. According to such interpretation, it would not be
+    illegal, if the President were to proclaim himself Emperor of the
+    country.
+
+    In short, the action taken by Ni Shih-chung and others is nothing
+    short of open rebellion. From the legal point of view, any
+    suggestion of compromise would be absurd. It has already been a
+    fatal mistake for the President to have allowed them to do what they
+    like, and if he again yields to their pressure by dissolving
+    Parliament, he will be held responsible, when the righteous troops
+    rise and punish the rebels. If the President, deceived by ignoble
+    persons, take upon himself to dissolve the assembly, his name will
+    go down in history as one committing high treason against the
+    Government, and the author of the break between the North and the
+    South. The President has been known as the man by whose hands the
+    Republic was built. We have special regard for his benevolent
+    character and kind disposition. We are reluctant to see him
+    intimidated and misled by evil counsels to take a step which will
+    undo all his meritorious services to the county and shatter the
+    unique reputation he has enjoyed.
+
+The unrolling of these dramatic events was the signal for the greatest
+subterranean activity on the part of the Japanese, who were now
+everywhere seen rubbing their hands and congratulating themselves on the
+course history was taking. General Tanaka, Vice-Chief of the Japanese
+General Staff, who had been on an extensive tour of inspection in China,
+so _planned as to include every arsenal north of the Yangtsze_ had
+arrived at the psychological moment in Peking and was now deeply engaged
+through Japanese field-officers in the employ of the Chinese Government,
+in pulling every string and in trying to commit the leaders of this
+unedifying plot in such a way as to make them puppets of Japan. The
+Japanese press, seizing on the American Note of the 5th June as an
+excuse, had been belabouring the United States for some days for its
+"interference" in Chinese affairs, and also for having ignored Japan's
+"special position" in China, which according to these publicists
+demanded that no Power take any action in the Far East, or give any
+advice, without first consulting Japan. That a stern correction will
+have to be offered to this presumption as soon as the development of the
+war permits it is certain. But not only Japanese military officers and
+journalists were endlessly busy: so-called Japanese advisers to the
+Chinese Government had done their utmost to assist the confusion. Thus
+Dr. Ariga, the Constitutional expert, when called in at the last moment
+for advice by President Li Yuan-hung had flatly contradicted Dr.
+Morrison, who with an Englishman's love of justice and constitutionalism
+had insisted that there was only one thing for the President to do--to
+be bound by legality to the last no matter what it might cost him. Dr.
+Ariga had falsely stated that the issue was a question of expediency,
+thus deliberately assisting the forces of disruption. This is perhaps
+only what was to be expected of a man who had advised Yuan Shih-kai to
+make himself Emperor--knowing full well that he could never succeed and
+that indeed the whole enterprise from the point of view of Japan was an
+elaborate trap.
+
+The provincial response to the action taken on the 13th June became what
+every one had expected: the South-western group of provinces, with their
+military headquarters at Canton, began openly concerting measures to
+resist not the authority of the President, who was recognized as a just
+man surrounded by evil-minded persons who never hesitated to betray him,
+but to destroy the usurping generals and the corrupt camarilla behind
+them; whilst the Yangtsze provinces, with their headquarters at Nanking,
+which had hitherto been pledged to "neutrality," began secretly
+exchanging views with the genuinely Republican South. The group of
+Tientsin generals and "politicals," confused by these developments,
+remained inactive; and this was no doubt responsible for the mad coup
+attempted by the semi-illiterate General Chang Hsun. In the small hours
+of July 1st General Chang Hsun, relying on the disorganization in the
+capital which we have dealt with in our preceding account entered the
+Imperial City with his troops by prearrangement with the Imperial Family
+and at 4 o'clock on the morning of the 1st July the Manchu boy-emperor
+Hsuan Tung, who lost the Throne on the 12th February, 1912, was
+enthroned before a small assembly of Manchu nobles, courtiers and
+sycophantic Chinese. The capital woke up to find military patrols
+everywhere and to hear incredulously that the old order had returned.
+The police, obeying instructions, promptly visited all shops and
+dwelling-houses and ordered every one to fly the Dragon Flag. In the
+afternoon of the same day the following Restoration Edict was issued,
+its statements being a tissue of falsehoods, the alleged memorial from
+President Li Yuan-hung, which follows the principal document, being a
+bare-faced forgery, whilst no single name inserted in the text save that
+of Chang Hsun had any right to be there. There is also every reason to
+believe that the Manchu court party was itself coerced, terror being
+felt from the beginning regarding the consequences of this mad act which
+was largely possible because Peking is a Manchu city.
+
+    IMPERIAL EDICT
+
+    Issued the 13th day of the 5th Moon of the 9th year of Hsuan Tung.
+
+    While yet in our boyhood the inheritance of the great domain was
+    unfortunately placed in our possession; and since we were then all
+    alone, we were unable to weather the numerous difficulties. Upon the
+    outbreak of the uprising in the year of Hsin Hai, (1911) Our
+    Empress, Hsiao Ting Chin, owing to her Most High Virtue and Most
+    Deep Benevolence was unwilling to allow the people to suffer, and
+    courageously placed in the hands of the late Imperial Councillor,
+    Yuan Shih-kai, the great dominion which our forefathers had built
+    up, and with it the lives of the millions of Our People, with orders
+    to establish a provisional government.
+
+    The power of State was thus voluntarily given to the whole country
+    with the hope that disputes might disappear, disturbances might stop
+    and the people enabled to live in peace. But ever since the form of
+    State was changed into a Republic, continuous strife has prevailed
+    and several wars have taken place. Forcible seizure, excessive
+    taxation and bribery have been of everyday occurrence. Although the
+    annual revenue has increased to 400 millions this amount is still
+    insufficient to meet the needs. The total amount of foreign
+    obligations has reached a figure of more than ten thousand millions
+    yet more loans are being contracted. The people within the seas are
+    shocked by this state of affairs and interest in life has forsaken
+    them. The step reluctantly taken by Our Empress Hsiao Ting Chin for
+    the purpose of giving respite to the people has resulted untowardly
+    in increasing the burdens of Our People. This indeed Our Empress
+    Hsiao Ting Chin was unable to foresee, and the result must have made
+    her Spirit in Heaven to weep sorely. And it is owing to this that we
+    have been praying to Heaven day and night in the close confines of
+    the palace, meditating and weeping in silent suffering.
+
+    Recently party strife has resulted in war and the country has
+    remained too long in an unsettled condition. The Republic has fallen
+    to pieces and means of remedy have been exhausted.
+
+    Chang Hsun, Feng Kuo-chang and Lu Yung-ting have jointly
+    memorialized the Throne stating that the minds of people are
+    disturbed and they are longing to see the old régime restored, and
+    asking that the throne be reoccupied in order to comfort the people.
+
+    Chu Hung-chi and others have also memorialized us stating that the
+    country is in imminent danger and that the people have lost their
+    faith in the Republic, and asking that we ascend the Throne in
+    obedience to the mandate of Heaven and man.
+
+    Li Yuan-hung has also memorialized the throne, returning the great
+    power of State to us in order to benefit the country and save the
+    people.
+
+    A perusal of the said memorials, which are worded in earnest terms,
+    has filled our heart with regret and fear. On the one hand We, being
+    yet in Our boyhood, are afraid to assume the great responsibilities
+    for the existence of the country but on the other hand We are
+    unwilling to turn our head away from the welfare of the millions
+    simply because the step might affect Our own safety.
+
+    After weighing the two sides and considering the mandates of Heaven
+    and man, we have decided reluctantly to comply with the prayers, and
+    have again occupied the Court to attend to the affairs of State
+    after resuming possession of the great power on the 13th day of the
+    5th moon of the 9th year of Hsuan Tung.
+
+    A new beginning will be made with our people. Hereafter the
+    principles of morality and the sacred religion shall be our
+    constitution in spirit, and order, righteousness, honesty and
+    conscience will be practised to rebind the minds of the people who
+    are now without bonds. People high and low will be uniformly treated
+    with sincerity, and will not depend on obedience of law alone as the
+    means of co-operation. Administration and orders will be based on
+    conscientious realization and no one will be allowed to treat the
+    form of State as material for experiment. At this time of exhaustion
+    when its vitality is being wasted to the last drop and the existence
+    of the country is hanging in the balance, we, as if treading on thin
+    ice over deep waters, dare not in the slightest degree indulge in
+    license on the principle that the Sovereign is entitled to
+    enjoyment. It is our wish therefore that all officials, be they high
+    or low, should purify their hearts and cleanse themselves of all
+    forms of old corruption; constantly keeping in mind the real
+    interests of the people. Every bit of vitality of the people they
+    shall be able to preserve shall go to strengthen the life of the
+    country for whatever it is worth. Only by doing so can the danger be
+    averted and Heaven moved by our sincerity.
+
+
+    THE NINE ARTICLES
+
+    Herewith we promulgate the following principal things, which we must
+    either introduce as reforms or abolish as undesirable in
+    restoration.
+
+    1. We shall obey the edict of Emperor Teh Tsung Chin (Kuang Hsu),
+    namely, that the sovereign power shall be controlled by the Court
+    (state) but the detailed administration shall be subject to public
+    opinion. The country shall be called The Empire of Ta Ching; and the
+    methods of other constitutional monarchies shall be carefully
+    copied.
+
+    2. The allowance for the Imperial House shall be the same as before,
+    namely, $4,000,000 per year. The sum shall be paid annually and not
+    a single cent is to be added.
+
+    3. We shall strictly obey the instructions of our forefathers to the
+    extent that no member of the imperial family shall be allowed to
+    interfere with administrative affairs.
+
+    4. The line of demarcation between Man (Manchu) and Han (Chinese)
+    shall be positively obliterated. All Manchurian and Mongolian posts
+    which have already been abolished shall not be restored. As to
+    intermarriage and change of customs the officials concerned are
+    hereby commanded to submit their views on the points concerning them
+    respectively.
+
+    5. All treaties and loan agreements, money for which has already
+    been paid, formally concluded and signed with any eastern and
+    western countries before this 13th day of the 5th Moon of the 9th
+    year of Hsuan Tung, shall continue to be valid.
+
+    6. The stamp duty which was introduced by the Republic is hereby
+    abolished so that the people may be relieved of their burdens. As to
+    other petty taxes and contributions the Viceroys and Governors of
+    the provinces are hereby commanded to make investigations and report
+    on the same for their abolition.
+
+    7. The criminal code of the Republic is unsuited to this country. It
+    is hereby abolished. For the time being the provisional criminal
+    code as adopted in the first year of Hsuan Tung shall be observed.
+
+    8. The evil custom of political parties is hereby forbidden. Old
+    political offenders are all pardoned. We shall, however, not be able
+    to pardon those who deliberately hold themselves aloof and disturb
+    peace and order.
+
+    9. All of our people and officials shall be left to decide for
+    themselves the custom of wearing or cutting their queues as
+    commanded in the 9th moon of the 3rd year of Hsuan Tung.
+
+    We swear that we and our people shall abide by these articles. The
+    Great Heaven and Earth bear witness to our words. Let this be made
+    known to all.
+
+    Counter-signed by Chang Hsun,
+    Member of the Imperial Privy Council.
+
+    ALLEGED MEMORIAL BY PRESIDENT LI YUAN-HUNG
+
+    In a memorial submitted this day, offering to return the sovereign
+    power of State and praying that we again ascend the throne to
+    control the great empire, Li Yuan-hung states that some time ago he
+    was forced by mutinous troops to steal the great throne and falsely
+    remained at the head of the administration but failed to do good to
+    the difficult situation. He enumerates the various evils in the
+    establishment of a Republic and prays that we ascend the throne to
+    again control the Empire with a view that the people may thereby be
+    saved. As to himself he awaits punishment by the properly instituted
+    authorities, etc. As his words are so mournful and full of remorse
+    they must have been uttered from a sincere heart. Since it was not
+    his free choice to follow the rebellion, the fact that he has
+    returned the great power of administration to us shows that he knows
+    the great principle of righteousness. At this time of national
+    danger and uncertainty, he has taken the lead of the people in
+    obeying their sovereign, and decided before others the plan to save
+    the country from ruin. The merit is indeed great, and we are highly
+    pleased with his achievement. Li Yuan-hung is hereby to have
+    conferred on him the dignity of Duke of the first class so as to
+    show our great appreciation. Let him accept our Edict and for ever
+    receive our blessings.
+
+    Counter-signed by Chang Hsun,
+    Member of the Privy Council.
+
+
+    PRIVY COUNCIL
+
+    At this time of restoration a Privy Council is hereby established in
+    order that we may be assisted in our duties and that responsibility
+    may be made definite. Two Under-Secretaries of the Council are also
+    created. Other officials serving outside of the capital shall remain
+    as under the system in force during the first year of Hsuan Tung.
+    All civil and military officials who are now serving at their
+    various posts are hereby commanded to continue in office as
+    hitherto.
+
+    Counter-signed by Chang Hsun.
+
+(Hereafter follow many appointments of reactionary Chinese officials.)
+
+The general stupefaction at the madness of this act and the military
+occupation of all posts and telegraph-offices in Peking allowed 48 hours
+to go by before the reaction came. On the 2nd July Edicts still
+continued to appear attempting to galvanize to life the corpse of
+Imperialism and the puzzled populace flew the Dragon Flag. On the
+morning of the 3rd, however, the news suddenly spread that President Li
+Yuan-hung, who had virtually been made a prisoner in the Presidential
+Palace, had escaped at nine o'clock the night before by motorcar
+accompanied by two aides-de-camp, and after attempting to be received at
+the French Hospital in the Legation Quarter, had proceeded to the
+Japanese Legation where he was offered a suitable residence. On the
+evening of the 3rd the Japanese Legation issued the following official
+communique (in French) defining its attitude:
+
+
+    TRANSLATION
+
+    President Li, accompanied by two members of his staff, came at 9.30
+    on the evening of July 2 to the residence of General Saito, Military
+    Attaché of the Japanese Legation, and asked protection from him. He
+    arrived in a spontaneous manner and without previous notice.
+
+    Under these circumstances, the Imperial Japanese Legation, following
+    international usage, has decided to accord him the necessary
+    protection and has placed at his disposal a part of the military
+    barracks.
+
+    The Legation further declares that as long as President Li remains
+    there, it will not permit any political action on his part.
+
+Following this sensational development it became known that President Li
+Yuan-hung had completely frustrated the efforts of the Imperialists by
+sending away a number of important telegraphic Mandates by courier to
+Tientsin as well as the Presidential Seal. By a masterly move in one of
+these Mandates General Tuan Chi-jui was reappointed Premier, whilst
+Vice-President Feng Kuo-chang was asked to officiate as President, the
+arrangements being so complete as at once to catch Chang Hsun in his own
+net.
+
+Here is the text of these four historically important messages:
+
+    (1) Dated July 1. To-day Inspector General Chang Hsun entered the
+    city with his troops and actually restored the monarchy. He stopped
+    traffic and sent Liang Ting-fen and others to my place to persuade
+    me. Yuan-hung refused in firm language and swore that he would not
+    recognize such a step. It is his hope that the Vice-President and
+    others will take effective means to protect the Republic.
+
+    Li Yuan-hung.
+
+    (2) Dated July 1. As Heaven does not scorn calamity so has the
+    monarchy been restored. It is said that in an edict issued by the
+    Ching House it is stated that Yuan-hung had actually memorialized to
+    return the power of State to the said House. This is an
+    extraordinary announcement. China changed from autocracy to a
+    Republic by the unanimous wish of the five races of the country.
+    Since Yuan-hung was entrusted by the people with the great
+    responsibilities it is his natural duty to maintain the Republic to
+    the very end. Nothing more or less than this will he care to say. He
+    is sending this in order to avoid misunderstanding.
+
+    Li Yuan-hung.
+
+    (3) The President to the Vice-President.
+
+    To the Vice-President Feng at Nanking--It is to be presumed that the
+    two telegrams sent on the 1st have safely reached you. I state with
+    deepest regret and greatest sorrow that as the result of my lack of
+    ability to handle the situation the political crisis has eventually
+    affected the form of government. For this Yuan-hung realizes that he
+    owes the country apology. The situation in Peking is daily becoming
+    more precarious. Since Yuan-hung is now unable to exercise his power
+    the continuity of the Republic may be suddenly interrupted. You are
+    also entrusted by the citizens with great responsibilities; I ask
+    you to temporarily exercise the power and functions of the President
+    in your own office in accordance with the provisions of Article 42
+    of the Provisional Constitution and Article 5 of the Presidential
+    Election Law. As the means of communication is effectively blocked
+    it is feared that the sending of my seal will meet with difficulty
+    and obstruction. Tuan Chih-chuan (Tuan Chi-jui) has been appointed
+    Premier, and is also ordered to temporarily protect the seal, and
+    later to devise a means to forward it on to you. Hereafter
+    everything pertaining to the important question of saving the
+    country shall be energetically pushed by you and Chih-chuan with
+    utmost vigour. The situation is pressing and your duty is clear. In
+    great anxiety and expectation I am sending you this telegram.
+
+    Li Yuan-hung.
+
+    (4) Dated July 3. To Vice-President Feng, Tu Chuns and Governors of
+    the Provinces, Provincial Assemblies, Inspector General Lu:--I
+    presume that the two telegrams dated 1st and one dated 3rd inst.
+    have safely reached your place. With bitter remorse to myself I now
+    make the statement that the political crisis has resulted in
+    affecting the form of government. Tuan Chih-chuan has been appointed
+    on the 1st inst. as Premier; and the Vice-President has been asked
+    to exercise the power and functions of the President in accordance
+    of office by the Vice-President. Premier Tuan is authorized to act
+    at his discretion. All the seal and documents have been sent to
+    Tientsin, and Premier Tuan has been told to keep and guard the same
+    for the time being. He has also been asked to forward the same to
+    the Vice-President. The body guards of the President's Office have
+    suddenly been replaced and I have been pressed to give up the Three
+    Lakes. Yuan-hung has therefore removed to a sanctuary. As regards
+    the means to save the country I trust that you will consult and work
+    unitedly with Vice-President Feng and Premier Tuan. In great
+    expectation, and with much of my heart not poured out.
+
+    Li Yuan-hung.
+
+Meanwhile, whilst these dramatic events were occurring in Peking, others
+no less sensational were taking place in the provinces. The Tientsin
+group, suddenly realizing that the country was in danger, took action
+very swiftly, disclosing that in spite of all disputes Republicanism had
+become very dear to every thinking man in the country, and that at last
+it was possible to think of an united China. The Scholar Liang Chi Chao,
+spokesman of Chinese Liberalism, in an extraordinarily able message
+circularized the provinces in terms summarizing everything of
+importance. Beginning with the fine literary flight that "heaven has
+refused to sympathize with our difficulties by allowing traitors to be
+born" he ends with the astounding phrase that although he had proposed
+to remain silent to the end of his days, "at the sight of the fallen
+nest he has, however, spat the stopper out of his throat," and he calls
+upon all China to listen to his words which are simply that the Republic
+must be upheld or dissolution will come.
+
+Arms now united with Literature. General Tuan Chi-jui, immediately
+accepting the burden placed on him, proceeded to the main entrenched
+camp outside Tientsin and assumed command of the troops massed there,
+issuing at the same time the following manifesto:
+
+    TUAN CHI-JUI'S MANIFESTO
+
+    To Vice-President Feng Kuo-chang, Inspector General of Wumin, Tu
+    Chuns, Governors, Tu-tungs....
+
+    Heaven is chastening this country by the series of disturbances that
+    have taken place. Chang Hsun, filled with sinister designs, has
+    occupied the capital by bringing up his troops under the pretext of
+    effecting a compromise with the astounding result that last night
+    the Republican form of government was overthrown. The question of
+    the form of Government is the very fundamental principle on which
+    the national existence depends. It requires assiduous efforts to
+    settle the form of government and once a decision has been reached
+    on the subject, any attempt to change the same is bound to bring on
+    unspeakable disasters to the country. To-day the people of China are
+    much more enlightened and democratic in spirit than ever before. It
+    is, therefore, absolutely impossible to subjugate the millions by
+    holding out to the country the majesty of any one family.
+
+    When the Republic of China was being founded, the Ching House, being
+    well aware of the general inclinations of modern peoples, sincerely
+    and modestly abdicated its power. Believing that such spirit
+    deserved handsome recognition the people were willing to place the
+    Ching House under the protection of special treatment and actually
+    recorded the covenant on paper, whereby contentment and honour were
+    vouchsafed the Ching House. Of the end of more than 20 dynasties of
+    Chinese history, none can compare with the Ching dynasty for peace
+    and safety.
+
+    Purely for sake of satisfying his ambitions of self-elevation Chang
+    Hsun and others have audaciously committed a crime of inconceivable
+    magnitude and are guilty of high treason. Like Wang Mang and Tung
+    Tso he seeks to sway the whole nation by utilizing a young and
+    helpless emperor. Moreover he has given the country to understand
+    that Li Yuan-hung has memorialized the Ching House that many evils
+    have resulted from republicanism and that the ex-emperor should be
+    restored to save the masses. That Chang Hsun has been guilty of
+    usurpation and forging documents is plain and the scandal is one
+    that shocks all the world.
+
+    Can it be imagined that Chang Hsun is actuated by a patriotic
+    motive? Surely despotism is no longer tolerated in this stage of
+    modern civilization. Such a scheme can only provoke universal
+    opposition. Five years have already passed since the friendly Powers
+    accorded their recognition of the Chinese Republic and if we think
+    we could afford to amuse ourselves with changes in the national
+    fabric, we could not expect foreign powers to put up with such
+    childishness. Internal strife is bound to invite foreign
+    intervention and the end of the country will then be near.
+
+    Can it be possible that Chang Hsun has acted in the interest of the
+    Ching House? The young boy-emperor lives in peace and contentment
+    and has not the slightest idea of ever ruling China again. It is
+    known that his tutors have been warning him of the dangers of
+    intriguing for power. That the boy-emperor has been dragged on the
+    throne entirely against his own wishes is undeniable. History tells
+    us that no dynasty can live for ever. It is an unprecedented
+    privilege for the Ching dynasty to be able to end with the gift of
+    special treatment. How absurd to again place the Tsing house on the
+    top of a high wall so that it may fall once more and disappear for
+    ever.
+
+    Chi-jui, after his dismissal, resolved not to participate in
+    political affairs, but as he has had a share, however insignificant,
+    in the formation of the Chinese Republic, and having served the
+    Republic for so long he cannot bear to see its destruction without
+    stretching out a helping hand. Further, he has been a recipient of
+    favours from the defunct dynasty, and he cannot bear to watch
+    unmoved, the sight of the Ching House being made the channel of
+    brigandage with suicidal results. Wherever duty calls, Chi-jui will
+    go in spite of the danger of death. You, gentlemen, are the pillars
+    of the Republic of China and therefore have your own duties to
+    perform. In face of this extraordinary crisis, our indignation must
+    be one. For the interest of the country we should abide by our oath
+    of unstinted loyalty; and for the sake of the Tsing House let us
+    show our sympathy by sane and wise deeds. I feel sure you will put
+    forth every ounce of your energy and combine your efforts to combat
+    the great disaster. Though I am a feeble old soldier, I will follow
+    you on the back of my steed.
+
+    (Sgd) TUAN CHI-JUI.
+
+Following the publication of this manifesto a general movement of troops
+began. On the 5th July the important Peking-Tientsin railway was
+reported interrupted forty miles from the capital--at Langfang which is
+the station where Admiral Seymour's relief expedition in 1900 was nearly
+surrounded and exterminated. Chang Hsun, made desperate by the swift
+answer to his coup, had moved out of Peking in force stiffening his own
+troops with numbers of Manchu soldiery, and announcing that he would
+fight it out to the bitter end, although this proved as false as the
+rest had been. The first collision occurred on the evening of the 5th
+July and was disastrous for the King-maker. The whole Northern army,
+with the exception of a Manchu Division in Peking, was so rapidly
+concentrated on the two main railways leading to the capital that Chang
+Hsun's army, hopelessly outnumbered and outmanoeuvred, fell back after a
+brief resistance. Chang Hsun himself was plainly stupefied by the
+discovery that imperialism of the classic type was as much out of date
+in the North as in the South; and within one week of his _coup_ he was
+prepared to surrender if his life and reputation were spared. By the 9th
+July the position was this: the Republican forces had surrounded
+Peking: Chang Hsun had resigned every appointment save the command of
+his own troops: the Manchu Court party had drafted a fresh Edict of
+Renunciation, but being terrorized by the pigtailed troops surrounding
+the Palace did not dare to issue it.
+
+The usual bargaining now commenced with the Legation Quarter acting as a
+species of middleman. No one was anxious to see warfare carried into the
+streets of Peking, as not only might this lead to the massacres of
+innocent people, but to foreign complications as well. The novelty had
+already been seen of a miniature air-raid on the Imperial city, and the
+panic that exploding bombs had carried into the hearts of the Manchu
+Imperial Family made them ready not only to capitulate but to run away.
+The chief point at issue was, however, not the fate of the monarchy,
+which was a dead thing, but simply what was going to happen to Chang
+Hsun's head--a matter which was profoundly distressing Chang Hsun. The
+Republican army had placed a price of £10,000 on it, and the firebrands
+were advocating that the man must be captured, dead or alive, and suffer
+decapitation in front of the Great Dynastic Gate of the Palace as a
+revenge for his perfidy. Round this issue a subtle battle raged which
+was not brought to a head until the evening of the 11th July, when all
+attempts at forcing Chang Hsun to surrender unconditionally having
+failed, it was announced that a general attack would be made on his
+forces at daylight the next morning.
+
+Promptly at dawn on the 12th July a gun-signal heralded the assault.
+Large Republican contingents entered the city through various Gates, and
+a storm of firing aroused terror among the populace. The main body of
+Chang Hsun's men, entrenched in the great walled enclosure of the Temple
+of Heaven, were soon surrounded, and although it would have been
+possible for them to hold out for several days, after a few hours'
+firing a parley began and they quietly surrendered. Similarly in the
+Imperial city, where Chang Hsun had taken up his residence, this leader,
+in spite of his fire-eating declarations, soon fled to the Legation
+Quarter and besought an asylum. His men held out until two in the
+afternoon, when their resistance collapsed and the cease-fire sounded.
+The number of casualties on both sides was infinitesimal, and thus after
+eleven days' farce the Manchu dynasty found itself worse off than ever
+before. It is necessary, however, not to lose sight of the main problem
+in China, which is the establishment of a united government and a
+cessation of internecine warfare,--issues which have been somewhat
+simplified by Chang Hsun's escapade, but not solved. That a united
+government will ultimately be established is the writer's belief, based
+on a knowledge of all the facts. But to attain that further provincial
+struggles are inevitable, since China is too large a unit to find common
+ground without much suffering and bitterness. President Li Yuan-hung
+having declared that nothing would induce him to resume office,
+Vice-President Feng Kuo-chang has become the legal successor and has
+quietly assumed office. Chang Hsun's abortive coup has already cleared
+the air in North China to this extent: that the Manchu Imperial Family
+is to be removed from Peking and the Imperial allowance greatly reduced,
+whilst the proscription of such out-and-out imperialists as Kang Yu-wei
+has destroyed the last vestiges of public support. Finally the
+completion of China's foreign policy, _i.e._ the declaration of war
+against Germany and Austria, has at last been made on the 14th August,
+1917, and a consistent course of action mapped out.
+
+[Illustration: The National Assembly sitting as a National Convention
+engaged on the Draft of the Permanent Constitution.
+
+_Specially photographed by permission of the Speakers for the Present
+Work_.]
+
+[Illustration: View from rear of Hall of the National Assembly sitting
+as a National Convention engaged on the Draft of the Permanent
+Constitution.
+
+_Specially photographed by permission of the Speakers for the Present
+Work_.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[25] The final text of the Permanent Constitution as it stood on the
+28th May, 1917, will be found in the appendix. Its accuracy has been
+guaranteed to the writer by the speakers of the two Houses.
+
+[26] Since this was written certain diplomatists in Peking have been
+forced to resign.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+THE FINAL PROBLEM:--REMODELLING THE POLITICO-ECONOMIC RELATIONSHIP
+BETWEEN CHINA AND THE WORLD
+
+
+The careful narrative we have made--supported as it is by documents--of
+the history of China since the inception of the Republic six years ago
+should not fail to awaken profound astonishment among those who are
+interested in the spread of good government throughout the world. Even
+casual readers will have no difficulty in realizing how many lives have
+been lost and how greatly the country has been crippled both owing to
+the blind foreign support given to Yuan Shih-kai during four long and
+weary years and to the stupid adhesion to exploded ideas, when a little
+intelligence and a little generosity and sympathy would have guided the
+nation along very different paths. To have to go back, as China was
+forced to do in 1916, and begin over again the work which should have
+been performed in 1912 is a handicap which only persistent resolution
+can overcome; for the nation has been so greatly impoverished that years
+must elapse before a complete recovery from the disorders which have
+upset the internal balance can be chronicled: and when we add that the
+events of the period May-July, 1917, are likely still further to
+increase the burden the nation carries, the complicated nature of the
+outlook will be readily understood.
+
+Happily foreign opinion has lately taken turn for the better. Whilst the
+substitution of a new kind of rule in place of the Yuan Shih-kai régime,
+with its thinly disguised Manchuism and its secret worship of fallen
+gods, was at first looked upon as a political collapse tinged with
+tragedy--most foreigners refusing to believe in an Asiatic Republic--the
+masculine decision of the 9th February, 1917, which diplomatically
+ranged China definitely on the side of the Liberal Powers, has caused
+something of a _volte face_. Until this decision had been made it was
+the fashion to declare that China was not only not fit to be a Republic
+but that her final dissolution was only a matter of time. Though the
+empire disappeared because it had become an impossible rule in the
+modern world--being womanish, corrupt, and mediaeval--to the foreign
+mind the empire remained the acme of Chinese civilization; and to kill
+it meant to lop off the head of the Chinese giant and to leave lying on
+the ground nothing but a corpse. It was in vain to insist that this
+simile was wrong and that it was precisely because Chinese civilization
+had exhausted itself that a new conception of government had to be
+called in to renew the vitality of the people. Men, and particularly
+diplomats, refused to understand that this embodied the heart and soul
+of the controversy, and that the sole mandate for the Republic, as well
+as the supreme reason why it had to be upheld if the country was not to
+dissolve, has always lain in the fact that it postulates something which
+is the very antithesis of the system it has replaced and which should be
+wholly successful in a single generation, if courage is shown and the
+whip unflinchingly used.
+
+The chief trouble, in the opinion of the writer, has been the simplicity
+of the problem and not its complexity. By eliminating the glamour which
+surrounded the Throne, and by kicking away all the pomp and circumstance
+which formed the age-old ritual of government, the glaring simplicity
+and _barrenness_ of Chinese life--when contrasted with the complex
+West--has been made evident. Bathed in the hard light of modern
+realities, the poetic China which Haroun al-Raschid painted in his
+Aladdin, and which still lives in the beautiful art of the country, has
+vanished for ever and its place has been taken by a China of prose. To
+those who have always pictured Asia in terms of poetry this has no doubt
+been a very terrible thing--a thing synonymous with political death. And
+yet in point of fact the elementary things remain much as they have
+always been before, and if they appear to have acquired new meaning it
+is simply because they have been moved into the foreground and are no
+longer masked by a gaudy superstructure.
+
+For if you eliminate questions of money and suppose for a moment that
+the national balance-sheet is entirely in order, China is the old China
+although she is stirred by new ideas. Here you have by far the greatest
+agricultural community in the world, living just as it has always lived
+in the simplest possible manner, and remitting to the cities (of which
+there are not ten with half-a-million inhabitants) the increment which
+the harvests yield. These cities have made much municipal progress and
+developed an independence which is confessedly new. Printing presses
+have spread a noisy assertiveness, as well as a very critical and
+litigious spirit, which tends to resent and oppose authority.[27] Trade,
+although constantly proclaimed to be in a bad way, is steadily growing
+as new wants are created and fashions change. An immense amount of new
+building has been done, particularly in those regions which the
+Revolution of 1911 most devastated. The archaic fiscal system, having
+been tumbled into open ruin, has been partially replaced by European
+conceptions which are still only half-understood, but which are not
+really opposed. The country, although boasting a population which is
+only some fifty millions less than the population of the nineteen
+countries of Europe, has an army and a police-force so small as to allow
+one to say that China is virtually disarmed since there are only 900,000
+men with weapons in their hands. Casting about to discover what really
+tinges the outlook, that must simply be held to be the long delay the
+world has made in extending the same treatment to China as is now
+granted to the meanest community of Latin America. It has been almost
+entirely this, coupled with the ever-present threat of Japanese
+chauvinism, which has given China the appearance of a land that is
+hopelessly water-logged, although the National Debt is relatively the
+smallest in the world and the people the most industrious and
+law-abiding who have ever lived. In such circumstances that ideas of
+collapse should have spread so far is simply due to a faulty estimate
+of basic considerations.
+
+For we have to remember that in a country in which the thoroughly
+English doctrine of _laissez faire_ has been so long practised that it
+has become second nature, and in which the philosophic spirit is so
+undisputed that the pillars of society are just as much the beggars who
+beg as the rich men who support them, influences of a peculiar character
+play an immense rôle and can be only very slowly overcome. Passivity has
+been so long enthroned that of the Chinese it may be truly said that
+they are not so much too proud to fight as too indifferent,--which is
+not a fruitful state of affairs. Looking on the world with callous
+detachment the masses go their own way, only pausing in their work on
+their ancient Festival days which they still celebrate just as they have
+always celebrated them since the beginning of their history. The petty
+daily activities of a vast legion of people grouped together in this
+extraordinary way, and actuated by impulses which seem sharply to
+conflict with the impulses of the other great races of the world, appear
+incredible to Westerners who know what the outer perils really are, and
+who believe that China is not only at bay but encircled--caught in a
+network of political agreements and commitments which have permanently
+destroyed her power of initiative and reduced her to inanition. To find
+her lumbering on undisturbed, ploughing the fields, marrying and giving
+in marriage, buying, selling, cursing and laughing, carrying out
+rebellions and little plots as though the centuries that stretch ahead
+were still her willing slaves, has in the end become to onlookers a
+veritable nightmare. Puzzled by a phenomenon which is so disconcerting
+as to be incapable of any clear definition, they have ended by declaring
+that an empty Treasury is an empty rule, adding that as it is solely
+from this monetary viewpoint that the New China ought to be judged,
+their opinion is the one which will finally be accepted as
+authoritative. The situation is admittedly dangerous; and it is
+imperative that a speedy remedy be sought; for the heirs and assigns of
+an estate which has been mismanaged to the brink of bankruptcy must
+secure at all costs that no public receivership is made.
+
+What is the remedy? That must consist simply enough in attacking the
+grand simplicities directly; in recognizing, as we have clearly shown,
+that the bases of Chinese life having collapsed through Euro-Japanese
+pressure, the politico-economic relationship between the Republic and
+the world must be remodelled at the earliest possible opportunity, every
+agreement which has been made since the Treaties of 1860 being carefully
+and completely revised.[28]
+
+To say this is to give utterance to nothing very new or brilliant: it is
+the thought which has been present in everyone's mind for a number of
+years. So far back as 1902, when Great Britain negotiated with China the
+inoperative Mackay Commercial Treaty, provision was not only made for a
+complete reform of the Tariff--import duties to be made two and a
+half times as large in return for a complete abolition of _likin_
+or inter-provincial trade-taxation--but for the abolition of
+extraterritoriality when China should have erected a modern and efficient
+judicial system. And although matters equally important, such as the
+funding of all Chinese indemnities and loans into one Consolidated Debt,
+as well as the withdrawal of the right of foreign banks to make banknote
+issues in China, were not touched upon, the same principles would
+undoubtedly have been applied in these instances, as being conducive to
+the re-establishment of Chinese autonomy, had Chinese negotiators been
+clever enough to urge them as being of equal importance to the older
+issues. For it is primarily debt, and the manipulation of debt, which is
+the great enemy.
+
+Three groups of indebtedness and three groups of restrictions,
+corresponding with the three vital periods in Chinese history, lie
+to-day like three great weights on the body of the Chinese giant. First,
+there is the imbroglio of the Japanese war of 1894-5; second, the
+settlement following the Boxer explosion of 1900; and third, the cost of
+the revolution of 1911-1912. We have already discussed so exhaustively
+the Boxer Settlement and the finance of the Revolutionary period that it
+is necessary to deal with the first period only.
+
+In that first period China, having been rudely handled by Japan,
+recovered herself only by indulging in the sort of diplomacy which had
+become traditional under the Manchus. Thankful for any help in her
+distress, she invited and welcomed the intervention of Russia, which
+gave her back the Liaotung Peninsula and preserved for her the shadow of
+her power when the substance had already been so sensationally lost. Men
+are apt to forget to-day that the financial accommodation which allowed
+China to liquidate the Japanese war-debt was a remarkable transaction in
+which Russia formed the controlling element. In 1895 the Tsar's
+Government had intervened for precisely the same motives that animate
+every State at critical times in history, that is, for reasons of
+self-interest. The rapid victory which Japan had won had revived in an
+acute form the whole question of the future of the vast block of
+territory which lies south of the Amur regions and is bathed by the
+Yellow Sea. Russian statesmen suddenly became conscious that the policy
+of which Muravieff-Amurski in the middle of the nineteenth century had
+been the most brilliant exponent--the policy of reaching "warm
+water"--was in danger of being crucified, and the work of many years
+thrown away. Action on Russia's part was imperative; she was great
+enough to see that; and so that it should not be said that she was
+merely depriving a gallant nation of the fruits of victory and thereby
+issuing to her a direct challenge, she invited the chief Powers in
+Treaty relations with China to co-operate with her in readjusting what
+she described as the threatened balance. France and Germany responded to
+that invitation; England demurred. France did so because she was already
+the devoted Ally of a nation that was a guarantee for the security of
+her European frontiers: Germany because she was anxious to see that
+Russia should be pushed into Asiatic commitments and drawn away from the
+problems of the Near East. England on her part very prudently declined
+to be associated with a transaction which, while not opposed to her
+interests, was filled with many dubious elements.
+
+It was in Petrograd that this account was liquidated. The extraordinary
+chapter which only closed with the disastrous Peace of Portsmouth opened
+for Russia in a very brilliant way. The presence in Moscow of the
+veteran statesman Li Hung-chang on the occasion of the Tsar's Coronation
+afforded an opportunity for exhaustively discussing the whole problem of
+the Far East. China required money: Russia required the acceptance of
+plans which ultimately proved so disastrous to her. Under Article IV of
+the Treaty of Shimonoseki (April, 1895) China had agreed to pay Japan as
+a war-indemnity 200 million Treasury taels in eight instalments: that is
+50 million taels within six months, a further 50 millions within twelve
+months, and the remaining 100 millions in six equal instalments spread
+over seven years, as well as an additional sum of 50 millions for the
+retrocession of the Liaotung Peninsula.
+
+China, therefore, needed at once 80 million taels. Russia undertook to
+lend her at the phenomenally low rate of 4 per cent. the sum of
+£16,000,000 sterling--the interest and capital of which the Tsar's
+Government guaranteed to the French bankers undertaking the flotation.
+In return for this accommodation, the well known Russo-Chinese
+Declaration of the 24th June (6th July), 1895, was made in which the
+vital article IX states that--"In consideration of this Loan the Chinese
+Government declares that it will not grant to any foreign Power any
+right or privilege of no matter what description touching the control or
+administration of the revenues of the Chinese Empire. Should, however,
+the Chinese Government grant to any foreign Power rights of this nature,
+it is understood that the mere fact of having done so will extend those
+rights to the Russian Government."
+
+This clause has a monumental significance: it started the scramble in
+China: and all the history of the past 22 years is piled like a pyramid
+on top of it. Now that the Romanoffs have been hurled from the throne,
+Russia must prove eager to reverse the policy which brought Japan to her
+Siberian frontiers and which pinned a brother democracy to the ground.
+
+For China, instead of being nearly bankrupt as so many have asserted,
+has, thanks to the new scale of indebtedness which the war has
+established, become one of the most debt-free countries in the world,
+her entire national debt (exclusive of railway debt) amounting to less
+than 150 millions sterling, or seven shillings per head of population,
+which is certainly not very terrible. No student who has given due
+attention to the question can deny that it is primarily on the proper
+handling of this nexus of financial interests, and not by establishing
+any artificial balance of power between foreign nations, that the peace
+of the Far East really hinges. The method of securing national
+redemption is ready-made: Western nations should use the Parliament of
+China as an instrument of reform, and by limiting themselves to this one
+method secure that civil authority is reinforced to such a point that
+its behests have behind them all the wealth of the West. In questions of
+currency, taxation, railways and every other vexatious problem, it is
+solely by using this instrument that satisfactory results can be
+attained.[29] For once Chinese realize that parliamentary government is
+not merely an experimental thing but the last chance the country is to
+be given to govern itself, they will rally to the call and prove that
+much of the trouble and turmoil of past years has been due to the
+misunderstanding of the internal problem by Western minds which has
+incited the population to intrigue against one another and remain
+disunited. And if we insist that there is urgent need for a settlement
+of these matters in the terms we have indicated, it is because we know
+very precisely what Japanese thought on this subject really is.
+
+What is that thought--whither does it lead?
+
+It may be broadly said that Japanese activities throughout the Far East
+are based on a thorough and adequate appreciation of the fact that apart
+from the winning of the hegemony of China, there is the far more
+difficult and knotty problem of overshadowing and ultimately dislodging
+the huge network of foreign interests--particularly British
+interests--which seventy-five years of Treaty intercourse have entwined
+about the country. These interests, growing out of the seed planted in
+the early Canton Factory days, had their origin in the termination by
+the act of the British Government of the trading monopoly enjoyed until
+the thirties of last century by the East India Company. Left without
+proper definition until the Treaty of Nanking in 1842 had formally won
+the principle of trading-rights at five open ports, and thus established
+a first basis of agreement between England and China (to which all the
+trading powers hastened to subscribe), these interests expanded in a
+half-hearted way until 1860, when in order to terminate friction, the
+principle of extraterritoriality was boldly borrowed from the Turkish
+Capitulations, and made the rock on which the entire fabric of
+international dealings in China was based. These treaties, with their
+always-recurring "most-favoured nation" clause, and their implication of
+equal treatment for all Powers alike, constitute the Public Law of the
+Far East, just as much as the Treaties between the Nations constitute
+the Public Law of Europe; and any attempt to destroy, cripple, or limit
+their scope and function has been very generally deemed an assault on
+all the High Contracting Parties alike. By a thoroughly Machiavellian
+piece of reasoning, those who have been responsible for the framing of
+recent Japanese policy, have held it essential to their plan to keep the
+world chained to the principle of extraterritoriality and Chinese Tariff
+and economic subjection because these things, imposing as they
+necessarily do restrictions and limitations in many fields, leave it
+free to the Japanese to place themselves outside and beyond these
+restrictions and limitations; and, by means of special zones and secret
+encroachments, to extend their influence so widely that ultimately
+foreign treaty-ports and foreign interests may be left isolated and at
+the mercy of the "Higher machinery" which their hegemony is installing.
+The Chinese themselves, it is hoped, will be gradually cajoled into
+acquiescing in this very extraordinary state of affairs, because being
+unorganized and split into suspicious groups, they can be manipulated in
+such a way as to offer no effective mass resistance to the Japanese
+advance, and in the end may be induced to accept it as inevitable.
+
+If the reader keeps these great facts carefully in mind a new light will
+dawn on him and the urgency of the Chinese question will be disclosed.
+The Japanese Demands of 1915, instead of being fantastic and
+far-fetched, as many have supposed, are shown to be very intelligently
+drawn-up, the entire Treaty position in China having been most
+exhaustively studied, and every loophole into the vast region left
+untouched by the ex-territorialized Powers marked down for invasion. For
+Western nations, in spite of exorbitant demands at certain periods in
+Chinese history, having mainly limited themselves to acquiring coastal
+and communication privileges, which were desired more for genuine
+purposes of trade than for encompassing the destruction of Chinese
+autonomy, are to-day in a disadvantageous position which the Japanese
+have shown they thoroughly understand by not only tightening their hold
+on Manchuria and Shantung, but by going straight to the root of the
+matter and declaring on every possible occasion that they alone are
+responsible for the peace and safety of the Far East--and this in spite
+of the fact that their plan of 1915 was exposed and partially
+frustrated. But the chief force behind the Japanese Foreign Office, it
+should be noted, is militarist; and it is a point of honour for the
+Military Party to return to the charge in China again and again until
+there is definite success or definite failure.
+
+Now in view of the facts which have been so voluminously set forth in
+preceding chapters, it is imperative for men to realize that the
+struggle in the Far East is like the Balkan Question a thing rooted in
+geography and peoples, and cannot be brushed aside or settled by
+compromises. The whole future of Chinese civilization is intimately
+bound up with the questions involved, and the problem instead of
+becoming easier to handle must become essentially more difficult from
+day to day. Japan's real objective being the termination of the implied
+trusteeship which Europe and America still exercise in the Far East, the
+course of the European war must intimately effect the ultimate outcome.
+If that end is satisfactory for democracies, China may reasonably claim
+to share in the resulting benefits; if on the other hand the Liberal
+Powers do not win an overwhelming victory which shall secure the
+sanctity of Treaties for all time, it will go hard for China. Outwardly,
+the immediate goal which Japan seeks to attain is merely to become the
+accredited spokesman of Eastern Asia, the official representative; and,
+using this attorneyship as a cloak for the advancement of objects which
+other Powers would pursue on different principles, so impregnably to
+entrench herself where she has no business to be that no one will dare
+to attempt to turn her out. For this reason we see revived in Manchuria
+on a modified scale the Eighteenth Century device, once so essential a
+feature of Dutch policy in the struggle against Louis XIV, namely the
+creation of "barrier-cities" for closing and securing a frontier by
+giving them a special constitution which withdraws them from ordinary
+jurisdiction and places foreign garrisons in them. This is precisely
+what is going on from the Yalu to Eastern Mongolia, and this procedure
+no doubt will be extended in time to other regions as opportunities
+arise. Already in Shantung the same policy is being pursued and there
+are indications that it is being thought of in Fuhkien; whilst the
+infantry garrison which was quietly installed at Hankow--600 miles up
+the Yangtsze river--at the time of the Revolution of 1911 is apparently
+to be made permanent. Allowing her policy to be swayed by men who know
+far too little of the sea, Japan stands in imminent danger of forgetting
+the great lesson which Mahan taught, that for island-peoples sea-power
+is everything and that land conquests which diminish the efficacy of
+that power are merely a delusion and snare. Plunging farther and farther
+into the vast regions of Manchuria and Mongolia which have been the
+graves of a dozen dynasties, Japan is displaying increasing indifference
+for the one great lesson which the war has yielded--the overwhelming
+importance of the sea.[30] Necessarily guardian of the principles on
+which intercourse in Asia is based, because she framed those principles
+and fought for them and has built up great edifices under their
+sanction, British sea-power--now allied for ever, let us hope, with
+American power--nevertheless remains and will continue to remain, in
+spite of what may be half-surreptitiously done to-day, the dominant
+factor in the Far East as it is in the Far West. Withdrawn from view for
+the time being, because of the exigencies of the hour and because the
+Anglo-Japanese Alliance is still counted a binding agreement, Western
+sea-power nevertheless stands there, a heavy cloud in the offing, full
+of questionings regarding what is going on in the Orient, and fully
+determined, let us pray, one day to receive frank answers. For the right
+of every race, no matter how small or weak, to enjoy the inestimable
+benefits of self-government and independence may be held to have been so
+absolutely established that it is a mere question of time for the
+doctrine not only to be universally accepted but to be universally
+applied. In many cases, it is true, the claims of certain races are as
+yet incapable of being expressed in practical state-forms; but where
+nationalities have long been well-defined, there can be no question
+whatsoever that a properly articulated autonomy must be secured in such
+a way as to preclude the possibility of annexations.
+
+Now although in their consideration of Asia it is notorious that Western
+statesmen have not cared to keep in mind political concepts which have
+become enthroned in Europe, owing to the fact that an active element of
+opposition to such concepts was to be found in their own policies, a
+vast change has undoubtedly been recently worked, making it certain
+that the claims of nationalism are soon to be given the same force and
+value in the East as in the West. But before there can be any question
+of Asia for the Asiatics being adopted as a root principle by the whole
+world, it will have to be established in some unmistakable form that the
+surrender of the policy of conquest which Europe has pursued for four
+centuries East of the Suez Canal will not lead to its adoption by an
+Asiatic Power under specious forms which hide the glittering sword. If
+that can be secured, then the present conflict will have truly been a
+War of Liberation for the East as well as for the West. For although
+Japan has been engaged for some years in declaring to all Asiatics under
+her breath that she holds out the hand of a brother to them, and dreams
+of the days when the age of European conquests will be nothing but a
+distant memory, her actions have consistently belied her words and shown
+that she has not progressed in political thought much beyond the crude
+conceptions of the Eighteenth Century. Thus Korea, which fell under her
+sway because the nominal independence of the country had long made it
+the centre of disastrous international intrigues, is governed to-day as
+a conquered province by a military viceroy without a trace of autonomy
+remaining and without any promise that such a régime is only temporary.
+Although nothing in the undertakings made with the Powers has ever
+admitted that a nation which boasts of an ancient line of kings, and
+which gave Japan much of her own civilization, should be stamped under
+foot in such manner, the course which politics have taken in Korea has
+been disastrous in the extreme ever since Lord Lansdowne in 1905, as
+British Secretary for Foreign Affairs, pointed out in a careful dispatch
+to the Russian Government that Korea was a region which fell naturally
+under the sway of Japan. Not only has a tragic fate overcome the sixteen
+million inhabitants of that country, but there has been a covert
+extension of the principles applied to them to the people of China.
+
+Now if as we say European concepts are to have universal meaning, and if
+Japan desires European treatment, it is time that it is realized that
+the policy followed in Korea, combined with the attempt to extend that
+treatment to soil where China rightly claims undisputed sovereignty,
+forms an insuperable barrier to Japan being admitted to the inner
+council of the nations.[31] No one wishes to deny to Japan her proper
+place in the world, in view of her marvellous industrial progress, but
+that place must be one which fits in with modern conceptions and is not
+one thing to the West and another to the East. Even the saying which was
+made so much of during the Russian war of 1904, that Korea in foreign
+hands was a dagger pointed at the heart of Japan--has been shown to be
+inherently false by the lessons of the present struggle, the Korean
+dagger-point being 120 sea miles from the Japanese coast. Such arguments
+clearly show that if the truce which was hastily patched up in 1905 is
+to give way to a permanent peace, that can be evolved only by locking on
+to the Far East the principles which are in process of being vindicated
+in Europe. In other words, precisely as Poland is to be given autonomy,
+so must Korea enjoy the same privileges, the whole Japanese theory of
+suzerainty on the Eastern Asiatic Continent being abandoned. To
+re-establish a proper balance of power in the Far East, the Korean
+nation, which has had a known historical existence of 1,500 years, must
+be reinstated in something resembling its old position; for Korea has
+always been the keystone of the Far Eastern arch, and it is the
+destruction of that arch more than anything else which has brought the
+collapse of China so perilously near.
+
+Once the legitimate aspirations of the Korean people have been
+satisfied, the whole Manchurian-Mongolian question will assume a
+different aspect, and a true peace between China and Japan will be made
+possible. It is to no one's interest to have a Polish question in the
+Far East with all the bitterness and the crimes which such a question
+must inevitably lead to; and the time to obviate the creation of such a
+question is at the very beginning before it has become an obsession and
+a great international issue. Although the Japanese annexation may be
+held to have settled the question once and for all, we have but to point
+to Poland to show that a race can pass through every possible
+humiliation and endure every possible species of truncation without
+dying or abating by one whit its determination to enjoy what happier
+races have won.
+
+The issue is a vital one. China by her recent acts has given a
+categorical and unmistakable reply to all the insidious attempts to
+place her outside and beyond the operation of international law and all
+those sanctions which make life worth living; and because of the formal
+birth of a Foreign Policy it can be definitely expected that this
+nation, despite its internal troubles and struggles, will never rest
+content until she has created a new nexus of world-relationships which
+shall affirm and apply every one of the principles experience elsewhere
+has proved are the absolute essentials to peace and happiness. China is
+already many decades ahead of Japan in her theory of government, no
+matter what the practice may be, the marvellous revolution of 1911
+having given back to this ancient race its old position of leader in
+ideas on the shores of the Yellow Sea. The whole dream Japan has
+cherished, and has sought to give form to during the war, is in the last
+analysis antiquated and forlorn and must ultimately dissolve into thin
+air; for it is monstrous to suppose, in an age when European men have
+sacrificed everything to free themselves from the last vestiges of
+feudalism, that in the Far East the cult of Sparta should remain a
+hallowed and respected doctrine. Japan's policy in the Far East during
+the period of the war has been uniformly mischievous and is largely
+responsible for the fierce hatreds which burst out in 1917 over the war
+issue; and China will be forced to raise at the earliest possible moment
+the whole question of the validity of the undertakings extorted from her
+in 1915 under the threat of an ultimatum. Although the precise nature
+of Anglo-Japanese diplomacy during the vital eleven days from the 4th to
+the 15th August, 1914 [_i.e._ from the British declaration of war on
+Germany to the Japanese ultimatum regarding Kiaochow] remains a sealed
+book, China suspects that Japan from the very beginning of the present
+war world-struggle has taken advantage of England's vast commitments and
+acted _ultra vires_. China hopes and believes that Britain will never
+again renew the Japanese alliance, which expires in 1921, in its present
+form, particularly now that an Anglo-American agreement has been made
+possible. China knows that in spite of all coquetting with both the
+extreme radical and military parties which is going on daily in Peking
+and the provinces the secret object of Japanese diplomacy is either the
+restoration of the Manchu dynasty, or the enthronement of some pliant
+usurper, a puppet-Emperor being what is needed to repeat in China the
+history of Korea. Japan would be willing to go to any lengths to secure
+the attainment of this reactionary object. Faithful to her "divine
+mission," she is ceaselessly stirring up trouble and hoping that time
+may still be left her to consolidate her position on the Asiatic
+mainland, one of her latest methods being to busy herself at distant
+points in the Pacific so that Western men for the sake of peace may be
+ultimately willing to abandon the shores of the Yellow Seas to her
+unchallenged mastery.
+
+The problem thus outlined becomes a great dramatic thing. The lines
+which trace the problem are immense, stretching from China to every
+shore bathed by the Pacific and then from there to the distant west.
+Whenever there is a dull calm, that calm must be treated solely as an
+intermission, an interval between the acts, a preparation for something
+more sensational than the last episode, but not as a permanent
+settlement which can only come by the methods we have indicated. For the
+Chinese question is no longer a local problem, but a great world-issue
+which statesmen must regulate by conferences in which universal
+principles will be vindicated if they wish permanently to eliminate what
+is almost the last remaining international powder-magazine. A China that
+is henceforth not only admitted to the family of nations on terms of
+equality but welcomed as a representative of Liberalism and a subscriber
+to all those sanctions on which the civilization of peace rests, will
+directly tend to adjust every other Asiatic problem and to prevent a
+recrudescence of those evil phenomena which are the enemies of progress
+and happiness. Is it too much to dream of such a consummation? We think
+not. It is to America and to England that China looks to rehabilitate
+herself and to make her Republic a reality. If they lend her their help,
+if they are consistent, there is still no reason why this democracy on
+the shores of the Yellow Sea should not be reinstated in the proud
+position it occupied twenty centuries ago, when it furnished the very
+silks which clothed the daughters of the Caesars.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[27] The growth of the Chinese press is remarkable. Although no complete
+statistics are available there is reason to believe that the number of
+periodicals in China now approximates 10,000, the daily vernacular
+newspapers in Peking alone exceeding 60. Although no newspaper in China
+prints more than 20,000 copies a day, the reading public is growing at a
+phenomenal rate, it being estimated that at least 50 million people read
+the daily publications, or hear what they say,--a fact which is deemed
+so politically important that all political parties and groups have
+their chains of organs throughout the country.
+
+[28] The mediaeval condition of Chinese trade taxation is well
+illustrated by a Memorandum which the reader will find in the appendix.
+One example may be quoted. Timber shipped from the Yalu river, _i.e._
+from Chinese territory, to Peking, pays duties at _five_ different
+places, the total amount of which aggregates 20 per cent. of its market
+value; whilst timber from America, with transit dues and Peking Octroi
+added, only pays 10 per cent.! China is probably the only country that
+has ever existed that discriminates against its own goods and gives
+preference to the foreigner,--through the operation of the Treaties.
+
+[29] We need only give a single example of what we mean. If, in the
+matter of the reform of the currency, instead of authorizing
+trade-agencies, _i.e._ the foreign Exchange Banks, to make a loan to
+China, which is necessarily hedged round with conditions favourable to
+such trade-agencies, the Powers took the matter directly in their own
+hands; and selecting the Bank of China--the national fiscal agent--as
+the instrument of reform agreed to advance all the sums necessary,
+_provided_ a Banking Law was passed by the Parliament of China of a
+satisfying nature, and the necessary guarantees were forthcoming, it
+would soon be possible to have a uniform National Currency which would
+be everywhere accepted and lead to a phenomenal trade expansion. It
+should be noted that China is still on a Copper Standard basis,--the
+people's buying and selling being conducted in multiples of copper
+cent-pieces of which there has been an immense over-issue, the latest
+figures showing that there are no less than 22,000,000,000 1-cent, ten
+cash pieces in circulation or 62 coins per head of population--roughly
+twenty-five millions sterling in value,--or 160,000 tons of copper! The
+number of silver dollars and subsidiary silver coins is not accurately
+known,--nor is the value of the silver bullion; but it certainly cannot
+greatly exceed this sum. In addition there is about £15,000,000 of paper
+money. A comprehensive scheme of reform, placed in the hands of the Bank
+of China, would require at least £15,000,000; but this sum would be
+sufficient to modernize the currency and establish a universal silver
+dollar standard.
+
+The Bank of China requires at least 600 branches throughout the country
+to become a true fiscal agent. It has to-day one-tenth of this number.
+
+[30] It should be carefully noted that not only has Japan no unfriendly
+feelings for Germany but that German Professors have been appointed to
+office during the war. In the matter of enemy trading Japan's policy has
+been even more extraordinary. Until there was a popular outcry among the
+Entente Allies, German merchants were allowed to trade more or less as
+usual. They were not denied the use of Japanese steamers, shipping
+companies being simply "advised" not to deal with them, the two German
+banks in Yokohama and Kobe being closed only in the Autumn of 1916. It
+was not until April, 1917, that Enemy Trading Regulations were formally
+promulgated and enforced,--that is when the war was very far
+advanced--the action of China against Germany being no doubt largely
+responsible for this step.
+
+That the Japanese nation greatly admires the German system of government
+and is in the main indifferent to the results of the war has long been
+evident to observers on the spot.
+
+[31] A very remarkable confirmation of these statements is afforded in
+the latest Japanese decision regarding Manchuria which will be
+immediately enforced. The experience of the past three years having
+proved conclusively that the Chinese, in spite of their internal strife,
+are united to a man in their determination to prevent Japan from
+tightening her hold on Manchuria and instituting an open Protectorate,
+the Tokio Government has now drawn up a subtle scheme which it is
+believed will be effective. A Bill for the unification of administration
+in South Manchuria has passed the Japanese Cabinet Conference and will
+soon be formally promulgated. Under the provisions of this Bill, the
+Manchuria Railway Company will become the actual organ of Japanese
+administration in South Manchuria; the Japanese Consular Service will be
+subordinate to the administration of the Railway; and all the powers
+hitherto vested in the Consular Service, political, commercial, judicial
+and administrative, will be made part of the organization of the South
+Manchuria Railway. This is not all. From another Japanese source we
+learn that a law is about to take effect by which the administration of
+the South Manchuria Railway will be transferred directly to the control
+of the Government-General of Korea, thus making the Railway at once an
+apparently commercial but really political organization. In future the
+revenues of the South Manchuria Railway are to be paid direct to the
+Government-General of Korea; and the yearly appropriation for the upkeep
+and administration of the Railway is to be fixed at Yen 12,000,000.
+These arrangements, especially the amalgamation of the South Manchuria
+Railway, are to take effect from the 1st July, 1917, and are an attempt
+to do in the dark what Japan dares not yet attempt in the open.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+DOCUMENTS IN GROUP I
+
+
+(1) The so-called Nineteen Articles, being the grant made by the Throne
+after the outbreak of the Wuchang Rebellion in 1911 in a vain attempt to
+satisfy the nation.
+
+(2) The Abdication Edicts issued on the 12th February, 1912, endorsing
+the establishment of the Republic.
+
+(3) The terms of abdication, generally referred to as "The articles of
+Favourable Treatment," in which special provision is made for the
+"rights" of Manchus, Mongols, Mohammedans and Tibetans, who are
+considered as being outside the Chinese nation.
+
+
+THE NINETEEN ARTICLES
+
+1. The Ta-Ching Dynasty shall reign for ever.
+
+2. The person of the Emperor shall be inviolable.
+
+3. The power of the Emperor shall be limited by a Constitution.
+
+4. The order of the succession shall be prescribed in the Constitution.
+
+5. The Constitution shall be drawn up and adopted by the National
+Assembly, and promulgated by the Emperor.
+
+6. The power of amending the Constitution belongs to Parliament.
+
+7. The members of the Upper House shall be elected by the people from
+among those particularly eligible for the position.
+
+8. Parliament shall select, and the Emperor shall appoint, the Premier,
+who will recommend the other members of the Cabinet, these also being
+appointed by the Emperor. The Imperial Princes shall be ineligible as
+Premier, Cabinet Ministers, or administrative heads of provinces.
+
+9. If the Premier, on being impeached by Parliament, does not dissolve
+Parliament he must resign but one Cabinet shall not be allowed to
+dissolve Parliament more than once.
+
+10. The Emperor shall assume direct control of the army and navy, but
+when that power is used with regard to internal affairs, he must observe
+special conditions, to be decided upon by Parliament, otherwise he is
+prohibited from exercising such power.
+
+11. Imperial decrees cannot be made to replace the law except in the
+event of immediate necessity in which case decrees in the nature of a
+law may be issued in accordance with special conditions, but only when
+they are in connection with the execution of a law or what has by law
+been delegated.
+
+12. International treaties shall not be concluded without the consent
+of Parliament, but the conclusion of peace or a declaration of war may
+be made by the Emperor if Parliament is not sitting, the approval of
+Parliament to be obtained afterwards.
+
+13. Ordinances in connection with the administration shall be settled by
+Acts of Parliament.
+
+14. In case the Budget fails to receive the approval of Parliament the
+Government cannot act upon the previous year's Budget, nor may items of
+expenditure not provided for in the Budget be appended to it. Further,
+the Government shall not be allowed to adopt extraordinary financial
+measures outside the Budget.
+
+15. Parliament shall fix the expenses of the Imperial household, and any
+increase or decrease therein.
+
+16. Regulations in connection with the Imperial family must not conflict
+with the Constitution.
+
+17. The two Houses shall establish the machinery of an administrative
+court.
+
+18. The Emperor shall promulgate the decisions of Parliament.
+
+19. The National Assembly shall act upon Articles 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14,
+15 and 18 until the opening of Parliament.
+
+
+EDICTS OF ABDICATION
+
+I
+
+We (the Emperor) have respectfully received the following Imperial Edict
+from Her Imperial Majesty the Empress Dowager Lung Yu:--
+
+As a consequence of the uprising of the Republican Army, to which the
+different provinces immediately responded, the Empire seethed like a
+boiling cauldron and the people were plunged into utter misery. Yuan
+Shih-kai was, therefore, especially commanded some time ago to dispatch
+commissioners to confer with the representatives of the Republican Army
+on the general situation and to discuss matters pertaining to the
+convening of a National Assembly for the decision of the suitable mode
+of settlement. Separated as the South and the North are by great
+distances, the unwillingness of either side to yield to the other can
+result only in the continued interruption of trade and the prolongation
+of hostilities, for, so long as the form of government is undecided, the
+Nation can have no peace. It is now evident that the hearts of the
+majority of the people are in favour of a republican form of government:
+the provinces of the South were the first to espouse the cause, and the
+generals of the North have since pledged their support. From the
+preference of the people's hearts, the Will of Heaven can be discerned.
+How could We then bear to oppose the will of the millions for the glory
+of one Family! Therefore, observing the tendencies of the age on the one
+hand and studying the opinions of the people on the other, We and His
+Majesty the Emperor hereby vest the sovereignty in the People and decide
+in favour of a republican form of constitutional government. Thus we
+would gratify on the one hand the desires of the whole nation who, tired
+of anarchy, are desirous of peace, and on the other hand would follow in
+the footsteps of the Ancient Sages, who regarded the Throne as the
+sacred trust of the Nation.
+
+Now Yuan Shih-kai was elected by the Tucheng-yuan to be the Premier.
+During this period of transference of government from the old to the
+new, there should be some means of uniting the South and the North. Let
+Yuan Shih-kai organize with full powers a provisional republican
+government and confer with the Republican Army as to the methods of
+union, thus assuring peace to the people and tranquillity to the Empire,
+and forming the one Great Republic of China by the union as heretofore,
+of the five peoples, namely, Manchus, Chinese, Mongols, Mohammedans, and
+Tibetans together with their territory in its integrity. We and His
+Majesty the Emperor, thus enabled to live in retirement, free from
+responsibilities, and cares and passing the time in ease and comfort,
+shall enjoy without interruption the courteous treatment of the Nation
+and see with Our own eyes the consummation of an illustrious government.
+Is not this highly advisable?
+
+Bearing the Imperial Seal and Signed by
+  Yuan Shih-kai, the Premier;
+  Hoo Wei-teh, Acting Minister of Foreign Affairs;
+  Chao Ping-chun, Minister of the Interior;
+  Tan Hsuen-heng, Acting Minister of Navy;
+  Hsi Yen, Acting Minister of Agriculture, Works and Commerce;
+  Liang Shih-yi, Acting Minister of Communications;
+  Ta Shou, Acting Minister of the Dependencies.
+
+25th day of the 12th moon of the 3rd year of Hsuan Tung.
+
+II
+
+We have respectfully received the following Imperial Edict from Her
+Imperial Majesty the Empress Dowager Lung Yu:--
+
+On account of the perilous situation of the State and the intense
+sufferings of the people, We some time ago commanded the Cabinet to
+negotiate with the Republican Army the terms for the courteous treatment
+of the Imperial House, with a view to a peaceful settlement. According
+to the memorial now submitted to Us by the Cabinet embodying the
+articles of courteous treatment proposed by the Republican Army, they
+undertake to hold themselves responsible for the perpetual offering of
+sacrifices before the Imperial Ancestral Temples and the Imperial
+Mausolea and the completion as planned of the Mausoleum of His Late
+Majesty the Emperor Kuang Hsu. His Majesty the Emperor is understood to
+resign only his political power, while the Imperial Title is not
+abolished. There have also been concluded eight articles for the
+courteous treatment of the Imperial House, four articles for the
+favourable treatment of Manchus, Mongols, Mohammedans, and Tibetans. We
+find the terms of perusal to be fairly comprehensive. We hereby proclaim
+to the Imperial Kinsmen and the Manchus, Mongols, Mohammedans, and
+Tibetans that they should endeavour in the future to fuse and remove
+all racial differences and prejudices and maintain law and order with
+united efforts. It is our sincere hope that peace will once more be seen
+in the country and all the people will enjoy happiness under a
+republican government.
+
+Bearing the Imperial Seal and Signed by
+  Yuan Shih-kai, the Premier;
+  Hoo Wei-teh, Acting Minister of Foreign Affairs;
+  Chao Ping-chun, Minister of the Interior;
+  Tan Hsuen-heng, Acting Minister of the Navy;
+  Hsi Yen, Acting Minister of Agriculture, Works and Commerce;
+  Liang Shih-yi, Acting Minister of Communications;
+  Ta Shou, Acting Minister of the Dependencies.
+
+25th day of the 12th moon of the 3rd year of Hsuan Tung.
+
+III
+
+We have respectfully received the following Edict from Her Imperial
+Majesty the Empress Dowager Lung Yu:--
+
+In ancient times the ruler of a country emphasized the important duty of
+protecting the lives of his people, and as their shepherd could not have
+the heart to cause them injury. Now the newly established form of
+government has for its sole object the appeasement of the present
+disorder with a view to the restoration of peace. If, however, renewed
+warfare were to be indefinitely maintained, by disregarding the opinion
+of the majority of the people, the general condition of the country
+might be irretrievably ruined, and there might follow mutual slaughter
+among the people, resulting in the horrible effects of a racial war. As
+a consequence, the spirits of Our Imperial Ancestors might be greatly
+disturbed and millions of people might be terrorized. The evil
+consequences cannot be described. Between the two evils, We have adopted
+the lesser one. Such is the motive of the Throne in modelling its policy
+in accordance with the progress of time, the change of circumstances,
+and the earnest desires of Our People. Our Ministers and subjects both
+in and out of the Metropolis should, in conformity with Our idea,
+consider most carefully the public weal and should not cause the country
+and the people to suffer from the evil consequences of a stubborn pride
+and of prejudiced opinions.
+
+The Ministry of the Interior, the General Commandant of the Gendarmerie,
+Chiang Kuei-ti, and Feng Kuo-chang, are ordered to take strict
+precautions, and to make explanations to the peoples so clearly and
+precisely as to enable every and all of them to understand the wish of
+the Throne to abide by the ordinance of heaven, to meet the public
+opinion of the people and to be just and unselfish.
+
+The institution of the different offices by the State has been for the
+welfare of the people, and the Cabinet, the various Ministries in the
+Capital, the Vice-royalties, Governorships, Commissionerships, and
+Taotaiships, have therefore been established for the safe protection of
+the people, and not for the benefit of one man or of one family.
+Metropolitan and Provincial officials of all grades should ponder over
+the present difficulties and carefully perform their duties. We hereby
+hold it the duty of the senior officials earnestly to advise and warn
+their subordinates not to shirk their responsibilities, in order to
+conform with Our original sincere intention to love and to take care of
+Our people.
+
+Bearing the Imperial Seal and Signed by
+  Yuan Shih-kai, the Premier;
+  Hoo Wei-teh, Minister of Foreign Affairs;
+  Chao Ping-chun, Minister of the Interior;
+  Tan Hsuen-heng, Acting Minister of the Navy;
+  Hsi Yen, Acting Minister of Agriculture, Works and Commerce;
+  Liang Shih-yi, Acting Minister of Communications;
+  Ta Shou, Acting Minister of the Dependencies.
+
+25th day of the 12th moon of the 3rd year of Hsuan Tung.
+
+
+TERMS OF ABDICATION
+
+N.B. These terms are generally referred to in China as "The Articles of
+Favourable Treatment."
+
+A.--Concerning the Emperor.
+
+The Ta Ching Emperor having proclaimed a republican form of government,
+the Republic of China will accord the following treatment to the Emperor
+after his resignation and retirement.
+
+Article 1. After abdication the Emperor may retain his title and shall
+receive from the Republic of China the respect due to a foreign
+sovereign.
+
+Article 2. After the abdication the Throne shall receive from the
+Republic of China an annuity of Tls. 4,000,000 until the establishment
+of a new currency, when the sum shall be $4,000,000.
+
+Article 3. After abdication the Emperor shall for the present be allowed
+to reside in the Imperial Palace, but shall later remove to the Eho
+Park, retaining his bodyguards at the same strength as hitherto.
+
+Article 4. After abdication the Emperor shall continue to perform the
+religious ritual at the Imperial Ancestral Temples and Mausolea, which
+shall be protected by guards provided by the Republic of China.
+
+Article 5. The Mausoleum of the late Emperor not being completed, the
+work shall be carried out according to the original plans, and the
+services in connection with the removal of the remains of the late
+Emperor to the new Mausoleum shall be carried out as originally
+arranged, the expense being borne by the Republic of China.
+
+Article 6. All the retinue of the Imperial Household shall be employed
+as hitherto, but no more eunuchs shall be appointed.
+
+Article 7. After abdication all the private property of the Emperor
+shall be respected and protected by the Republic of China.
+
+Article 8. The Imperial Guards will be retained without change in
+members or emolument, but they will be placed under the control of the
+Department of War of the Republic of China.
+
+B.--Concerning the Imperial Clansmen.
+
+Article 1. Princes, Dukes and other hereditary nobility shall retain
+their titles as hitherto.
+
+Article 2. Imperial Clansmen shall enjoy public and private rights in
+the Republic of China on an equality with all other citizens.
+
+Article 3. The private property of the Imperial Clansmen shall be duly
+protected.
+
+Article 4. The Imperial Clansmen shall be exempt from military service.
+
+C.--Concerning Manchus, Mongols, Mohammedans and Tibetans.
+
+The Manchus, Mongols, Mohammedans and Tibetans having accepted the
+Republic, the following terms are accorded to them:--
+
+Article 1. They shall enjoy full equality with Chinese.
+
+Article 2. They shall enjoy the full protection of their private
+property.
+
+Article 3. Princes, Dukes and other hereditary nobility shall retain
+their titles as hitherto.
+
+Article 4. Impoverished Princes and Dukes shall be provided with means
+of livelihood.
+
+Article 5. Provision for the livelihood of the Eight Banners, shall with
+all dispatch be made, but until such provision has been made the pay of
+the Eight Banners shall be continued as hitherto.
+
+Article 6. Restrictions regarding trade and residence that have hitherto
+been binding on them are abolished, and they shall now be allowed to
+reside and settle in any department or district.
+
+Article 7. Manchus, Mongols, Mohammedans and Tibetans shall enjoy
+complete religious freedom.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+DOCUMENTS IN GROUP II
+
+
+(1) The Provisional Constitution passed at Nanking in January, 1912.
+
+(2) The Presidential Election Law passed on the 4th October, 1913, by
+the full Parliament, under which Yuan Shih-kai was elected
+President,--and now formally incorporated as a separate chapter in the
+Permanent Constitution.
+
+(3) The Constitutional Compact, promulgated on 1st May, 1914. This "law"
+which was the first result of the _coup d'état_ of 4th November, 1913,
+and designed to take the place of the Nanking Constitution is wholly
+illegal and disappeared with the death of Yuan Shih-kai.
+
+(4) The Presidential Succession Law.
+
+This instrument, like the Constitutional Compact, was wholly illegal and
+drawn up to make Yuan Shih-kai dictator for life.
+
+
+THE PROVISIONAL CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF CHINA
+
+_Passed at Nanking in 1912, currently referred to as the old Constitution_
+
+CHAPTER I.--GENERAL PROVISIONS
+
+Article 1. The Republic of China is composed of the Chinese people.
+
+Art. 2. The sovereignty of the Chinese Republic is vested in the people.
+
+Art. 3. The territory of the Chinese Republic consists of the 18
+provinces, Inner and Outer Mongolia, Tibet and Chinghai.
+
+Art. 4. The sovereignty of the Chinese Republic is exercised by the
+National Council, the Provisional President, the Cabinet and the
+Judiciary.
+
+CHAPTER II.--CITIZENS
+
+Art. 5. Citizens of the Chinese Republic are all equal, and there shall
+be no racial, class or religious distinctions.
+
+Art. 6. Citizens shall enjoy the following rights:--
+
+(a) The person of the citizens shall not be arrested, imprisoned, tried
+or punished except in accordance with law.
+
+(b) The habitations of citizens shall not be entered or searched except
+in accordance with law.
+
+(c) Citizens shall enjoy the right of the security of their property and
+the freedom of trade.
+
+(d) Citizens shall have the freedom of speech, of composition, of
+publication, of assembly and of association.
+
+(e) Citizens shall have the right of the secrecy of their letters.
+
+(f) Citizens shall have the liberty of residence and removal.
+
+(g) Citizens shall have the freedom of religion.
+
+Art. 7. Citizens shall have the right to petition the Parliament.
+
+Art. 8. Citizens shall have the right of petitioning the executive
+officials.
+
+Art. 9. Citizens shall have the right to institute proceedings before
+the Judiciary, and to receive its trial and judgment.
+
+Art. 10. Citizens shall have the right of suing officials in the
+Administrative Courts for violation of law or against their rights.
+
+Art. 11. Citizens shall have the right of participating in civil
+examinations.
+
+Art. 12. Citizens shall have the right to vote and to be voted for.
+
+Art. 13. Citizens shall have the duty to pay taxes according to law.
+
+Art. 14. Citizens shall have the duty to enlist as soldiers according to
+law.
+
+Art. 15. The rights of citizens as provided in the present Chapter shall
+be limited or modified by laws, provided such limitation or modification
+shall be deemed necessary for the promotion of public welfare, for the
+maintenance of public order, or on account of extraordinary exigency.
+
+CHAPTER III.--THE NATIONAL COUNCIL
+
+Art. 16. The legislative power of the Chinese Republic is exercised by
+the National Council.
+
+Art. 17. The Council shall be composed of members elected by the several
+districts as provided in Article 18.
+
+Art. 18. The Provinces, Inner and Outer Mongolia, and Tibet shall each
+elect and depute five members to the Council, and Chinghai shall elect
+one member.
+
+The election districts and methods of elections shall be decided by the
+localities concerned.
+
+During the meeting of the Council each member shall have one vote.
+
+Art. 19. The National Council shall have the following powers:
+
+(a) To pass all Bills.
+
+(b) To pass the budgets of the Provisional Government.
+
+(c) To pass laws of taxation, of currency, and weights and measures for
+the whole country.
+
+(d) To pass measures for the calling of public loans and to conclude
+contracts affecting the National Treasury.
+
+(e) To give consent to matters provided in Articles 34, 35 and 40.
+
+(f) To reply to inquiries from, the Provisional Government.
+
+(g) To receive and consider petitions of citizens.
+
+(h) To make suggestions to the Government on legal or other matters.
+
+(i) To introduce interpellations to members of the Cabinet, and to
+insist on their being present in the Council in making replies thereto.
+
+(j) To insist on the Government investigating into any alleged bribery
+and infringement of laws by officials.
+
+(k) To impeach the Provisional President for high treason by a majority
+vote of three-fourths of the quorum consisting of more than four-fifths
+of the total number of the members.
+
+(l) To impeach members of the Cabinet for failure to perform their
+official duties or for violation of the law by majority votes of
+two-thirds of the quorum consisting of over three-fourths of the total
+number of the members.
+
+Art. 20. The National Council shall itself convoke, conduct and adjourn
+its own meetings.
+
+Art. 21. The meetings of the Advisory Council shall be conducted
+publicly, but secret meetings may be held at the suggestion of members
+of the Cabinet or by the majority vote of its quorum.
+
+Art. 22. Matters passed by the Advisory Council shall be communicated to
+the Provisional President for promulgation and execution.
+
+Art. 23. If the Provisional President should veto matters passed by the
+National Council he shall, within ten days after he has received such
+resolutions, return the same with stated reasons to the Council for
+reconsideration. If by a two-thirds vote of the quorum of the Council,
+it shall be dealt with in accordance with Article 22.
+
+Art. 24. The Chairman of the National Council shall be elected by
+ballots signed by the voting members and the one receiving more than
+one-half of the total number of the votes cast shall be elected.
+
+Art. 25. Members of the National Council shall not, outside the Council,
+be responsible for their opinion expressed and votes cast in the
+Council.
+
+Art. 26. Members of the Council shall not be arrested without the
+permission of the Chairman of the Council except for crimes pertaining
+to civil and international warfare.
+
+Art. 27. Procedure of the National Council shall be decided by its own
+members.
+
+Art. 28. The National Council shall be dissolved on the day of the
+convocation of the National Assembly, and its powers shall be exercised
+by the latter.
+
+CHAPTER IV.--THE PROVISIONAL PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENT
+
+Art. 29. The Provisional President and Vice-President shall be elected
+by the National Council, and he who receives two-thirds of the total
+number of votes cast by a sitting of the Council consisting of over
+three-fourths of the total number of members shall be elected.
+
+Art. 30. The Provisional President represents the Provisional Government
+as the fountain of all executive powers and for promulgating all laws.
+
+Art. 31. The Provisional President may issue or cause to be issued
+orders for the execution of laws and of powers delegated to him by the
+law.
+
+Art. 32. The Provisional President shall be the Commander-in-Chief of
+the Army and Navy of the whole of China.
+
+Art. 33. The Provisional President shall ordain and establish the
+administrative system and official regulations, but he must first submit
+them to the National Council for its approval.
+
+Art. 34. The Provisional President shall appoint and remove civil and
+military officials, but in the appointment of Members of the Cabinet,
+Ambassadors and Ministers he must have the concurrence of the National
+Council.
+
+Art. 35. The Provisional President shall have power, with the
+concurrence of the National Council, to declare war and conclude
+treaties.
+
+Art. 36. The Provisional President may, in accordance with law, declare
+a state of siege.
+
+Art. 37. The Provisional President shall, representing the whole
+country, receive Ambassadors and Ministers of foreign countries.
+
+Art. 38. The Provisional President may introduce Bills into the National
+Council.
+
+Art. 39. The Provisional President may confer decorations and other
+insignia of honour.
+
+Art. 40. The Provisional President may declare general amnesty, grant
+special pardon, commute punishment, and restore rights, but in the case
+of a general amnesty he must have the concurrence of the National
+Council.
+
+Art. 41. In case the Provisional President is impeached by the National
+Council he shall be tried by a special Court consisting of nine judges
+elected among the justices of the Supreme Court of the realm.
+
+Art. 42. In case the Provisional President vacates his office for
+various reasons, or is unable to discharge the powers and duties of the
+said office, the Provisional Vice-President shall take his place.
+
+CHAPTER V.--MEMBERS OF THE CABINET
+
+Art. 43. The Premier and the Chiefs of the Government Departments shall
+be called Members of the Cabinet (literally, Secretaries of State
+Affairs).
+
+Art. 44. Members of the Cabinet shall assist the Provisional President
+in assuming responsibilities.
+
+Art. 45. Members of the Cabinet shall countersign all Bills introduced
+by the Provisional President, and all laws and orders issued by him.
+
+Art. 46. Members of the Cabinet and their deputies may be present and
+speak in the National Council.
+
+Art. 47. Upon members of the Cabinet having been impeached by the
+National Council, the Provisional President may remove them from office,
+but such removal shall be subject to the reconsideration of the National
+Council.
+
+CHAPTER VI.--THE JUDICIARY
+
+Art. 48. The Judiciary shall be composed of those judges appointed by
+the Provisional President and the Minister of Justice.
+
+The organization of the Courts and the qualifications of judges shall be
+determined by law.
+
+Art. 49. The Judiciary shall try civil and criminal cases, but cases
+involving administrative affairs or arising from other particular causes
+shall be dealt with according to special laws.
+
+Art. 50. The trial of cases in the law Courts shall be conducted
+publicly, but those affecting public safety and order may be _in
+camera_.
+
+Art. 51. Judges shall be independent, and shall not be subject to the
+interference of higher officials.
+
+Art. 52. Judges during their continuance in office shall not have their
+emoluments decreased and shall not be transferred to other offices, nor
+shall they be removed from office except when they are convicted of
+crimes, or of offences punishable according to law by removal from
+office.
+
+Regulations for the punishment of judges shall be determined by law.
+
+CHAPTER VII.--SUPPLEMENTARY ARTICLES
+
+Art. 53. Within ten months after the promulgation of this Provisional
+Constitution the Provisional President shall convene a National
+Assembly, the organization of which and the laws for the election of
+whose members shall be decided by the National Council.
+
+Art. 54. The Constitution of the Republic of China shall be adopted by
+the National Assembly, but before the promulgation of the Constitution,
+the Provisional Constitution shall be as effective as the Constitution
+itself.
+
+Art. 55. The Provisional Constitution may be amended by the assent of
+two-thirds of the members of the National Council or upon the
+application of the Provisional President and being passed by over
+three-fourths of the quorum of the Council consisting of over
+four-fifths of the total number of its members.
+
+Art. 56. The present Provisional Constitution shall take effect on the
+date of its promulgation, and the fundamental articles for the
+organization of the Provisional Government shall cease to be effective
+on the same date.
+
+Sealed by
+
+THE NATIONAL COUNCIL.
+
+
+THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION LAW
+
+_Passed October 4 1913, by the National Assembly and promulgated by the
+then Provisional President on October 5 of the same year_.
+
+Article 1. A citizen of the Chinese Republic, who is entitled to all the
+rights of citizenship, is 40 years or more in age and has resided in
+China for not less than ten years, is eligible for election as
+President.
+
+Art. 2. The President shall be elected by an Electoral College organized
+by the members of the National Assembly of the Chinese Republic.
+
+The said election shall be held by a quorum of two-thirds or more of the
+entire membership of the said Electoral College and shall be conducted
+by secret ballot. A candidate shall be deemed elected when the number of
+votes in his favour shall not be less than three-fourths of the total
+number of votes cast at the election. If no candidate secures the
+requisite number of votes after two ballotings, a final balloting shall
+be held with the two persons, securing the greatest number of votes at
+the second balloting, as candidates. The one securing a majority of
+votes shall be elected.
+
+Art. 3. The term of office of the President shall be five years; and if
+re-elected, he may hold office for one more term.
+
+Three months previous to the expiration of the term, the members of the
+National Assembly shall convene and organize by themselves the Electoral
+College to elect the President for the next period.
+
+Art. 4. The President on taking office shall make oath as follows:
+
+"I hereby swear that I will most sincerely obey the constitution and
+faithfully discharge the duties of the President."
+
+Art. 5. Should the post of the President become vacant, the
+Vice-President shall succeed to the same _to the end of the term of the
+original President_.
+
+Should the President be unable to discharge his duties for any cause the
+Vice-President shall act in his stead.
+
+Should the Vice-President vacate his post at the same time, the Cabinet
+shall officiate for the President. In this event the members of the
+National Assembly of the Chinese Republic shall convene themselves
+within three months to organize an Electoral College to elect a new
+President.
+
+Art. 6. The President shall vacate office on the expiry of his term.
+Should the election of the next President or Vice-President be not
+effected for any cause, or having been elected should they be unable to
+be inaugurated, the President and Vice-President whose terms have
+expired shall quit their posts and the Cabinet shall officiate for them.
+
+Art. 7. The election of the Vice-President shall be according to the
+fixed regulations for the election of the President, and the election of
+the Vice-President shall take place at the same time when the President
+is elected. Should there be a vacancy for the Vice-Presidency a
+Vice-President shall be elected according to the provisions herein set
+forth.
+
+APPENDIX
+
+Before the completion of the Formal Constitution, with regard to the
+duties and privileges of the President the Provisional Constitution
+regarding the same shall temporarily be followed.
+
+
+"THE CONSTITUTIONAL COMPACT"
+
+_Drafted by Dr. Frank Johnson Goodnow, Legal Adviser to Yuan Shih-kai,
+and promulgated on May 1, 1914_
+
+CHAPTER I.--THE NATION
+
+Article 1. The Chung Hua Min Kuo is organized by the people of Chung
+Hua.
+
+Art. 2. The sovereignty of Chung Hua Min Kuo originates from the whole
+body of the citizens.
+
+Art. 3. The territory of the Chung Hua Min Kuo is the same as that
+possessed by the former Empire.
+
+CHAPTER II.--THE PEOPLE
+
+Art. 4. The people of the Chung Hua Min Kuo are all equal in law,
+irrespective of race, caste, or religion.
+
+Art. 5. The people are entitled to the following rights of liberty:--
+
+(1) No person shall be arrested, imprisoned, tried, or punished except
+in accordance with law.
+
+(2) The habitation of any person shall not be entered or searched except
+in accordance with law.
+
+(3) The people have the right of possession and protection of property
+and the freedom of trade within the bounds of law.
+
+(4) The people have the right of freedom of speech, of writing and
+publication, of meeting and organizing association, within the bounds of
+law.
+
+(5) The people have the right of the secrecy of correspondence within
+the bounds of law.
+
+(6) The people have the liberty of residence and removal, within the
+bounds of law.
+
+(7) The people have freedom of religious belief, within the bounds of
+law.
+
+Art. 6. The people have the right to memorialize the Li Fa Yuan
+according to the provisions of law.
+
+Art. 7. The people have the right to institute proceedings at the
+judiciary organ in accordance with the provisions of law.
+
+Art. 8. The people have the right to petition the administrative organs
+and lodge protests with the Administrative Court in accordance with the
+provisions of law.
+
+Art. 9. The people have the right to attend examinations held for
+securing officials and to join the public service in accordance with the
+provisions of law.
+
+Art. 10. The people have the right to vote and to be voted for in
+accordance with the provisions of law.
+
+Art. 11. The people have the obligation to pay taxes according to the
+provisions of law.
+
+Art. 12. The people have the obligation to serve in a military capacity
+in accordance with the provisions of law.
+
+Art. 13. The provisions made in this Chapter, except when in conflict
+with the Army or Naval orders and rules, shall be applicable to military
+and naval men.
+
+CHAPTER III.--THE PRESIDENT
+
+Art. 14. The President is the Head of the nation, and controls the power
+of the entire administration.
+
+Art. 15. The President represents the Chung Hua Min Kuo.
+
+Art. 16. The President is responsible to the entire body of citizens.
+
+Art. 17. The President convokes the Li Fa Yuan, declares the opening,
+the suspension and the closing of the sessions.
+
+The President may dissolve the Li Fa Yuan with the approval of the Tsan
+Cheng Yuan; but in that case he must have the new members elected and
+the House convoked within six months from the day of dissolution.
+
+Art. 18. The President shall submit Bills of Law and the Budget to the
+Li Fa Yuan.
+
+Art. 19. For the purposes of improving the public welfare or enforcing
+law or in accordance with the duties imposed upon him by law, the
+President may issue orders and cause orders to be issued, but he shall
+not alter the law by his order.
+
+Art. 20. In order to maintain public peace or to prevent extraordinary
+calamities at a time of great emergency when time will not permit the
+convocation of the Li Fa Yuan, the President may, with the approval of
+the Tsan Cheng Yuan [Senate], issue provisional orders which shall have
+the force of law; but in that case he shall ask the Li Fa Yuan [House of
+Representatives] for indemnification at its next session.
+
+The provisional orders mentioned above shall immediately become void
+when they are rejected by the Li Fa Yuan.
+
+Art. 21. The President shall fix the official systems and official
+regulations. The President shall appoint and dismiss military and civil
+officials.
+
+Art. 22. The President shall declare war and conclude peace.
+
+Art. 23. The President is the Commander-in-Chief of, and controls, the
+Army and Navy of the whole country. The President shall decide the
+system of organization and the respective strength of the Army and Navy.
+
+Art. 24. The President shall receive the Ambassadors and Ministers of
+the foreign countries.
+
+Art. 25. The President makes treaties.
+
+But the approval of the Li Fa Yuan must be secured if the articles
+should change the territories or increase the burdens of the citizens.
+
+Art. 26. The President may, according to law, declare Martial Law.
+
+Art. 27. The President may confer titles of nobility, decorations and
+other insignia of honour.
+
+Art. 28. The President may declare general amnesty, special pardon,
+commutation of punishment, or restoration of rights. In case of general
+amnesty the approval of the Li Fa Yuan must be secured.
+
+Art. 29. When the President, for any cause, vacates his post or is
+unable to attend to his duties, the Vice-President shall assume his
+duties and authority in his stead.
+
+CHAPTER IV.--THE LEGISLATURE
+
+Art. 30. Legislation shall be done by the Legislature organized with the
+members elected by the people.
+
+The organization of the Legislature and the method of electing the
+legislative members shall be fixed by the Provisional Constitution
+Conference.
+
+Art. 31. The duties and authorities of the Li Fa Yuan shall be as
+follows:
+
+(1) To discuss and pass all bills of law.
+
+(2) To discuss and pass the Budget.
+
+(3) To discuss and pass or approve articles relating to raising of
+public loans and national financial responsibilities.
+
+(4) To reply to the inquiries addressed to it by the Government.
+
+(5) To receive petitions of the people.
+
+(6) To bring up bills on law.
+
+(7) To bring up suggestions and opinions before the President regarding
+law and other affairs.
+
+(8) To bring out the doubtful points of the administration and request
+the President for an explanation; but when the President deems it
+necessary for a matter to be kept secret he may refuse to give the
+answer.
+
+(9) Should the President attempt treason the Li Fa Yuan may institute
+judicial proceedings in the Supreme Court against him by a three-fourths
+or more vote of a four-fifths attendance of the total membership.
+
+Regarding the clauses from 1 to 8 and articles 20, 25, 28, 55 and 27,
+the approval of a majority of more than half of the attending members
+will be required to make a decision.
+
+Art. 32. The regular annual session of the Li Fa Yuan will be four
+months in duration; but when the President deems it necessary it may be
+prolonged. The President may also call special sessions when it is not
+in session.
+
+Art. 33. The meetings of the Li Fa Yuan shall be "open sessions," but
+they may be held in secret at the request of the President or the
+decision of the majority of more than half of the members present.
+
+Art. 34. The law bills passed by the Li Fa Yuan shall be promulgated by
+the President and enforced.
+
+When the President vetoes a law bill passed by the Li Fa Yuan he must
+give the reason and refer it again to the Li Fa Yuan for
+reconsideration. If such bill should be again passed by a two-thirds
+vote of the members present at the Li Fa Yuan but at the same time the
+President should firmly hold that it would greatly harm the internal
+administration or diplomacy to enforce such law or there will be great
+and important obstacles against enforcing it, he may withhold
+promulgation with the approval of the Tsan Cheng Yuan.
+
+Art. 35. The Speaker and vice-Speaker of the Li Fa Yuan shall be elected
+by and from among the members themselves by ballot. The one who secures
+more than half of the votes cast shall be considered elected.
+
+Art. 36. The members of the Li Fa Yuan shall not be held responsible to
+outsiders for their speeches, arguments and voting in the House.
+
+Art. 37. Except when discovered in the act of committing a crime or for
+internal rebellion or external treason, the members of the Li Fa Yuan
+shall not be arrested during the session period without the permission
+of the House.
+
+Art. 38. The House laws of the Li Fa Yuan shall be made by the House
+itself.
+
+CHAPTER V.--THE ADMINISTRATION
+
+Art. 39. The President shall be the Chief of the Administration. A
+Secretary of State shall be provided to assist him.
+
+Art. 40. The affairs of the Administration shall be separately
+administered by the Ministries of Foreign Affairs, of Interior, of
+Finance, of Army, of Navy, of Justice, of Education, of Agriculture and
+Commerce and of Communications.
+
+Art. 41. The Minister of each Ministry shall control the affairs in
+accordance with law and orders.
+
+Art. 42. The Secretary of State, Ministers of the Ministries and the
+special representative of the President may take seats in the Li Fa Yuan
+and express their views.
+
+Art. 43. The Secretary of State or any of the Ministers when they commit
+a breach of law shall be liable to impeachment by the Censorate
+(Suchengting) and trial by the Administrative Court.
+
+CHAPTER VI.--THE JUDICIARY
+
+Art. 44. The judicial power shall be administered by the Judiciary
+formed by the judicial officials appointed by the President.
+
+The organization of the Judiciary and the qualifications of the Judicial
+officials shall be fixed by law.
+
+Art. 45. The Judiciary shall independently try and decide cases of civil
+and criminal law suits according to law. But with regard to
+administrative law suits and other special law cases they shall be
+attended to according to the provisions of this law.
+
+Art. 46. As to the procedure the Supreme Court should adopt for the
+impeachment case stated in clause 9 of article 31, special rules will be
+made by law.
+
+Art. 47. The trial of law suits in the judicial courts should be open to
+the public; but when they are deemed to be harmful to peace and order or
+good custom, they may be held _in camera_.
+
+Art. 48. The judicial officials shall not be given a reduced salary or
+shifted from their posts when functioning as such, and except when a
+sentence has been passed upon him for punishment or he is sentenced to
+be removed, a judicial official shall not be dismissed from his post.
+
+The regulations regarding punishment shall be fixed by law.
+
+CHAPTER VII.--THE TSAN CHENG YUAN
+
+Art. 49. The Tsan Cheng Yuan shall answer the inquiries of the President
+and discuss important administrative affairs.
+
+The organization of the Tsan Cheng Yuan shall be fixed by the
+Provisional Constitution Conference.
+
+CHAPTER VIII.--FINANCES
+
+Art. 50. Levying of new taxes and dues and change of tariff shall be
+decided by law.
+
+The taxes and dues which are now in existence shall continue to be
+collected as of old except as changed by law.
+
+Art. 51. With regard to the annual receipts and expenditures of the
+nation, they shall be dealt with in accordance with the Budget approved
+by the Li Fa Yuan.
+
+Art. 52. For special purposes continuous expenditures for a specified
+number of years may be included in the budget.
+
+Art. 53. To prepare for any deficiency of the budget and expenses needed
+outside of the estimates in the budget, a special reserve fund must be
+provided in the budget.
+
+Art. 54. The following items of expenditures shall not be cancelled or
+reduced except with the approval of the President:--
+
+1. Any duties belonging to the nation according to law.
+
+2. Necessities stipulated by law.
+
+3. Necessities for the purpose of carrying out the treaties.
+
+4. Expenses for the Army and Navy.
+
+Art. 55. For national war or suppression of internal disturbance or
+under unusual circumstances when time will not permit to convoke the Li
+Fa Yuan, the President may make emergency disposal of finance with the
+approval of the Tsan Cheng Yuan, but in such case he shall ask the Li Fa
+Yuan for indemnification at its next session.
+
+Art. 56. When a new Budget cannot be established, the Budget of the
+previous year will be used. The same procedure will be adopted when the
+Budget fails to pass at the time when the fiscal year has begun.
+
+Art. 57. When the closed accounts of the receipts and expenditures of
+the nation have been audited by the Board of Audit, they shall be
+submitted by the President to the Li Fa Yuan for approval.
+
+Art. 58. The organization of the Board of Audit shall be fixed by the
+Provisional Constitution Conference.
+
+CHAPTER IX.--PROCEDURE OF CONSTITUTION MAKING
+
+Art. 59. The Constitution of Chung Hua Min Kuo shall be drafted by the
+Constitution Draft Committee, which shall be organized with the members
+elected by and from among the members of the Tsan Cheng Yuan. The number
+of such drafting Committee shall be limited to ten.
+
+Art. 60. The Bill on the Constitution of Chung Hua Min Kuo shall be
+fixed by the Tsan Cheng Yuan.
+
+Art. 61. When the Bill on the Constitution of the Chung Hua Min Kuo has
+been passed by the Tsan Cheng Yuan, it shall be submitted by the
+President to the Citizens' Conference for final passage.
+
+The organization of the Citizens' Conference shall be fixed by the
+Provisional Constitution Conference.
+
+Art. 62. The Citizens' Conference shall be convoked and dissolved by the
+President.
+
+Art. 63. The Constitution of Chung Hua Min Kuo shall be promulgated by
+the President.
+
+CHAPTER X.--APPENDIX
+
+Art. 64.--Before the Constitution of Chung Hua Min Kuo comes into force
+this Provisional Constitution shall have equal force to the Permanent
+Constitution.
+
+The order and instructions in force before the enforcement of this
+Provisional Constitution shall continue to be valid, provided that they
+do not come into conflict with the provisions of this Provisional
+Constitution.
+
+Art. 65. The articles published on the 12th of the Second Month of the
+First Year of Chung Hua Min Kuo, regarding the favourable treatment of
+the Ta Ching Emperor after his abdication, and the special treatment of
+the Ching Imperial Clan, as well as the special treatment of the
+Manchus, Mongols, Mahommedans and Tibetans shall never lose their
+effect.
+
+As to the Articles dealing with the special treatment of Mongols in
+connexion with the special treatment articles, it is guaranteed that
+they shall continue to be effective, and that the same will not be
+changed except by law.
+
+Art. 66. This Provisional Constitution may be amended at the request of
+two-thirds of the members of the Li Fa Yuan, or the proposal of the
+President, by a three-fourths majority of a quorum consisting of
+four-fifths or more of the whole membership of the House. The
+Provisional Constitution Conference will then be convoked by the
+President to undertake the amendment.
+
+Art. 67. Before the establishment of the Li Fa Yuan the Tsan Cheng Yuan
+shall have the duty and authority of the former and function in its
+stead.
+
+Art. 68. This Provisional Constitution shall come into force from the
+date of promulgation. The Temporary Provisional Constitution promulgated
+on the 11th day of the Third Month of the First Year of the Min Kuo
+shall automatically cease to have force from the date on which this
+Provisional Constitution comes into force.
+
+
+THE PRESIDENTIAL SUCCESSION
+
+_Passed by a puppet political body and promulgated by Yuan Shih-kai on
+December 29, 1914_
+
+Article 1. A male citizen of the Republic of Chung Hua, possessing the
+rights of citizenship, 40 or more years of age and having resided in the
+Republic for not less than 20 years shall be eligible for election as
+President.
+
+Art. 2. The Presidential term shall be ten years with eligibility for
+re-election.
+
+Art. 3. At the time of the Presidential Election the then President
+shall, representing the opinion of the people carefully and reverently
+nominate (recommend) three persons, with the qualifications stated in
+the first Article, as candidates for the Presidential Office.
+
+The names of these nominated persons shall be written by the then
+President on a gold Chia-ho-plate, sealed with the National Seal and
+placed in a gold box, which shall be placed in a stone house in the
+residence of the President.
+
+The key of the box will be kept by the President while the keys to the
+Stone House shall be kept separately by the President, the Chairman of
+the Tsan Cheng Yuan and the Secretary of State. The Stone House may not
+be opened without an order from the President.
+
+Art. 4. The Presidential Electoral College shall be organized with the
+following members:
+
+1. Fifty members elected from the Tsan Cheng Yuan.
+
+2. Fifty members elected from the Li Fa Yuan.
+
+The said members shall be elected by ballot among the members
+themselves. Those who secure the largest number of votes shall be
+elected. The election shall be presided over by the Minister of
+Interior. If it should happen that the Li Fa Yuan is in session at the
+time of the organization of the Presidential Electoral College, the
+fifty members heading the roll of the House and then in the Capital,
+shall be automatically made members of the Electoral College.
+
+Art. 5. The Electoral College shall be convocated by the President and
+organized within three days before the election.
+
+Art. 6. The house of the Tsan Cheng Yuan shall be used as a meeting
+place for the Presidential Electoral College. The chairman of the Tsan
+Cheng Yuan shall act as the chairman of the College.
+
+If the Vice-President is the chairman of the Tsan Cheng Yuan or for
+other reasons, the chairman of the Li Fa Yuan shall act as the chairman.
+
+Art. 7. On the day of the Presidential Election the President shall
+respectfully make known to the Presidential Electoral College the names
+of the persons recommended by him as qualified candidates for the
+Presidential office.
+
+Art. 8. The Electoral College may vote for the re-election of the then
+President, besides three candidates recommended by him.
+
+Art. 9. The single ballot system will be adopted for the Presidential
+Election. There should be an attendance of not less than three-fourths
+of the total membership. One who receives a two-thirds majority or
+greater of the total number of votes cast shall be elected. If no one
+secures a two-thirds majority the two persons receiving the largest
+number of votes shall be put to the final vote.
+
+Art. 10. When the year of election arrives should the members of the
+Tsan Cheng Yuan consider it a political necessity, the then President
+may be re-elected for another term by a two-thirds majority of the Tsan
+Cheng Yuan without a formal election. The decision shall then be
+promulgated by the President.
+
+Art. 11. Should the President vacate his post before the expiration of
+his term of office a special Presidential Electoral College shall be
+organized within three days. Before the election takes place the
+Vice-President shall officiate as President according to the provisions
+of Article 29 of the Constitutional Compact and if the Vice-President
+should also vacate his post at the same time, or be absent from the
+Capital or for any other reasons be unable to take up the office, the
+Secretary of State shall officiate but he shall not assume the duties of
+clauses I and 2, either as a substitute or a temporary executive.
+
+Art. 12. On the day of the Presidential Election, the person officiating
+as President or carrying on the duties as a substitute shall notify the
+Chairman of the Special Presidential Electoral College to appoint ten
+members as witnesses to the opening of the Stone House or the Gold Box,
+which shall be carried reverently to the House and opened before the
+assembly and its contents made known to them. Votes shall then be
+forthwith cast for the election of one of the three candidates
+recommended as provided for in article 9.
+
+Art. 13. Whether at the re-election of the old President or the
+assumption of office of the new President, he shall take oath in the
+following words at the time of taking over the office:
+
+"I swear that I shall with all sincerity adhere to the Constitution and
+execute the duties of the President. I reverently swear."
+
+Before the promulgation of the Constitution it shall be specifically
+stated in the oath that the President shall adhere to the Constitutional
+Compact.
+
+Art. 14. The term of office for the Vice-President shall be the same as
+that of the President. Upon the expiration of the term, three
+candidates, possessing the qualifications of article 1, shall be
+nominated by the re-elected or the new President, for election. The
+regulations governing the election of the President shall be applicable.
+
+Should the Vice-President vacate his post before the expiration of his
+term for some reasons, the President shall proceed according to the
+provisions of the preceding article.
+
+Art. 15. The Law shall be enforced from the date of promulgation.
+
+On the day of enforcement of this Law the Law on the Election of the
+President as promulgated on the 5th day of the 10th Month of the 2nd
+Year of the Min Kuo shall be cancelled.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+DOCUMENTS IN GROUP III
+
+
+(1) The Russo-Chinese agreement of 5th November, 1913, which affirmed
+the autonomy of Outer Mongolia.
+
+(2) The Russo-Chinese-Mongolian tripartite agreement of the 7th June,
+1915, ratifying the agreement of the 5th November, 1913.
+
+(3) The Chino-Japanese Treaties and annexes of the 25th May, 1915, in
+settlement of the Twenty-one Demands of the 18th January, 1915.
+
+
+THE RUSSO-CHINESE AGREEMENT REGARDING OUTER MONGOLIA
+
+(Translation from the official French Text)
+
+DECLARATION
+
+The Imperial Russian Government having formulated the principles on
+which its relations with China on the subject of Outer Mongolia should
+be based; and the Government of the Republic of China having signified
+its approval of the aforesaid principles, the two Governments have come
+to the following agreement:
+
+Article I. Russia recognizes that Outer Mongolia is placed under the
+suzerainty of China.
+
+Art. II. China recognizes the autonomy of Outer Mongolia.
+
+Art. III. Similarly, recognizing the exclusive right of the Mongols of
+Outer Mongolia to carry on the internal administration of autonomous
+Mongolia and to regulate all commercial and industrial questions
+affecting that country, China undertakes not to interfere in these
+matters, nor to dispatch troops to Outer Mongolia nor to appoint any
+civil or military officer nor to carry out any colonization scheme in
+this region. It is nevertheless understood that an envoy of the Chinese
+Government may reside at Urga and be accompanied by the necessary staff
+as well as an armed escort. In addition the Chinese Government may, in
+case of necessity, maintain her agents for the protection of the
+interests of her citizens at certain points in Outer Mongolia to be
+agreed upon during the exchange of views provided for in Article V of
+this agreement. Russia on her part undertakes not to quarter troops in
+Outer Mongolia, excepting Consular Guards, nor to interfere in any
+question affecting the administration of the country and will likewise
+abstain from all colonization.
+
+Art. IV. China declares herself ready to accept the good offices of
+Russia in order to establish relations in conformity with the principles
+mentioned above and with the stipulations of the Russo-Mongolian
+Commercial Treaty of the 21st October, 1912.
+
+Art. V. Questions affecting the interests of Russia and China in Outer
+Mongolia which have been created by the new conditions of affairs in
+that country shall be discussed at subsequent meetings. In witness
+whereof the undersigned, duly authorized to that effect, have signed and
+sealed the Present Declaration. Done in Duplicate in Peking on the 5th
+November, 1913, corresponding to the 5th Day of the 11th Month of the
+Second Year of the Republic of China.
+
+(Signed) B. KRUPENSKY.
+
+(Signed) SUN PAO CHI.
+
+ADDENDUM
+
+In signing the Declaration of to-day's date covering Outer Mongolia, the
+undersigned Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of His
+Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias, duly authorized to that effect,
+has the honour to declare in the name of his Government to His
+Excellency Monsieur Sun Pao Chi, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the
+Republic of China as follows:
+
+I. Russia recognizes that the territory of Outer Mongolia forms part of
+the territory of China.
+
+II. In all questions affecting matters of a political or territorial
+nature, the Chinese Government will come to an understanding with the
+Russian Government by means of negotiations at which the authorities of
+Outer Mongolia shall take part.
+
+III. The discussions which have been provided for in Article V of the
+Declaration shall take place between the three contracting parties at a
+place to be designated by them for that purpose for the meeting of their
+delegates.
+
+IV. Autonomous Outer Mongolia comprises the regions hitherto under the
+jurisdiction of the Chinese Amban of Urga, the Tartar General of
+Uliasoutai and the Chinese Amban of Kobdo. In view of the fact that
+there are no detailed maps of Mongolia, and that the boundaries of the
+administrative divisions of this country are ill-defined, it is hereby
+agreed that the precise boundaries of Outer Mongolia, as well as the
+delimitation of the district of Kobdo and the district of Altai, shall
+be the subject of subsequent negotiations as provided for by Article V
+of the Declaration.
+
+The undersigned seizes the present occasion to renew to His Excellency
+Sun Pao Chi the assurance of his highest consideration.
+
+(Signed) B. KRUPENSKY.
+
+In signing the Declaration of to-day's date covering Outer Mongolia, the
+undersigned Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China, duly
+authorized to that effect, has the honour to declare in the name of his
+Government to His Excellency Monsieur Krupensky, Envoy Extraordinary and
+Minister Plenipotentiary of His Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias
+as follows:
+
+I. Russia recognizes that the territory of Outer Mongolia forms part of
+the territory of China.
+
+II. In all questions affecting matters of a political or territorial
+nature, the Chinese Government will come to an understanding with the
+Russian Government by means of negotiations at which the authorities of
+Outer Mongolia shall take part.
+
+III. The discussions which have been provided for in Article V of the
+Declaration shall take place between the three contracting parties at a
+place to be designated by them for that purpose for the meeting of their
+delegates.
+
+IV. Autonomous Outer Mongolia comprises the regions hitherto under the
+jurisdiction of the Chinese Amban of Urga, the Tartar General of
+Uliasoutai and the Chinese Amban of Kobdo. In view of the fact that
+there are no detailed maps of Mongolia, and that the boundaries of the
+administrative divisions of this country are ill-defined, it is hereby
+agreed that the precise boundaries of Outer Mongolia, as well as the
+delimitation of the district of Kobdo and the district of Altai, shall
+be the subject of subsequent negotiations as provided for by Article V
+of the Declaration.
+
+The Undersigned seizes the present occasion to renew to His Excellency
+Monsieur Krupensky the assurance of his highest consideration.
+
+(Signed) SUN PAO CHI.
+
+
+SINO-RUSSO MONGOLIAN AGREEMENT
+
+(Translation from the French)
+
+The President of the Republic of China, His Imperial Majesty the Emperor
+of all Russias, and His Holiness the Bogdo Djembzoun Damba Khoutoukhtou
+Khan of Outer Mongolia, animated by a sincere desire to settle by mutual
+agreement various questions created by a new state of things in Outer
+Mongolia, have named for that purpose their Plenipotentiary Delegates,
+that is to say:
+
+The President of the Republic of China, General Py-Koue-Fang and
+Monsieur Tcheng-Loh, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of
+China to Mexico;
+
+His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of all Russias, His Councillor of
+State, Alexandre Miller, Diplomatic Agent and Consul-General in
+Mongolia; and His Holiness the Bogdo Djembzoun Damba Khoutoukhtou Khan
+of Outer Mongolia, Erdeni Djonan Beise Shirnin Damdin, Vice-Chief of
+Justice, and Touchetou Tsing Wang Tchakdourjab, Chief of Finance, who
+having verified their respective full powers found in good and due form,
+have agreed upon the following:
+
+Article 1. Outer Mongolia recognizes the Sino-Russian Declaration and
+the Notes exchanged between China and Russia of the fifth day of the
+eleventh month of the second year of the Republic of China (23rd
+October, 1913. Old style).
+
+Art. 2. Outer Mongolia recognizes China's suzerainty. China and Russia
+recognize the autonomy of Outer Mongolia forming part of Chinese
+territory.
+
+Art. 3. Autonomous Mongolia has no right to conclude international
+treaties with foreign powers respecting political and territorial
+questions.
+
+As respects questions of a political and territorial nature in Outer
+Mongolia, the Chinese Government engages to conform to Article II of the
+Note exchanged between China and Russia on the fifth day of the eleventh
+month of the second year of the Republic of China, 23rd October, 1913.
+
+Art. 4. The title: "Bogdo Djembzonn Damba Khoutoukhtou Khan of Outer
+Mongolia" is conferred by the President of the Republic of China. The
+calendar of the Republic as well as the Mongol calendar of cyclical
+signs are to be used in official documents.
+
+Art. 5. China and Russia, conformably to Article 2 and 3 of the
+Sino-Russian Declaration of the fifth day of the eleventh month of the
+second year of the Republic of China, 23rd October, 1913, recognize the
+exclusive right of the autonomous government of Outer Mongolia to attend
+to all the affairs of its internal administration and to conclude with
+foreign powers international treaties and agreements respecting
+questions of a commercial and industrial nature concerning autonomous
+Mongolia.
+
+Art. 6. Conformably to the same Article III of the Declaration, China
+and Russia engage not to interfere in the system of autonomous internal
+administration existing in Outer Mongolia.
+
+Art. 7. The military escort of the Chinese Dignitary at Urga provided
+for by Article III of the above-mentioned Declaration is not to exceed
+two hundred men. The military escorts of his assistants at Ouliassoutai,
+at Kobdo, and at the Mongolian-Kiachta are not to exceed fifty men each.
+If, by agreement with the autonomous government of Outer Mongolia,
+assistants of the Chinese Dignitary are appointed in other localities of
+Outer Mongolia, their military escorts are not to exceed fifty men each.
+
+Art. 8. The Imperial Government of Russia is not to send more than one
+hundred and fifty men as consular guard for its representative at Urga.
+The military escorts of the Imperial consulates and vice-consulates of
+Russia, which have already been established or which may be established
+by agreement with the autonomous government of Outer Mongolia, in other
+localities of Outer Mongolia, are not to exceed fifty men each.
+
+Art. 9. On all ceremonial or official occasions the first place of
+honour is due to the Chinese Dignitary. He has the right, if necessary,
+to present himself in private audience with His Holiness Bogdo Djembzoun
+Damba Khoutoukhtou Khan of Outer Mongolia. The Imperial Representative
+of Russia enjoys the same right of private audience.
+
+Art. 10. The Chinese Dignitary at Urga and his assistants in the
+different localities of Outer Mongolia provided for by Article VII of
+this agreement are to exercise general control lest the acts of the
+autonomous government of Outer Mongolia and its subordinate authorities
+may impair the suzerain rights and the interests of China and her
+subjects in autonomous Mongolia.
+
+Art. 11. Conformably to Article IV of the Note exchanged between China
+and Russia on the fifth day of the eleventh month of the second year of
+the Republic of China (23rd October, 1915), the territory of autonomous
+Outer Mongolia comprises the regions which were under the jurisdiction
+of the Chinese Amban at Ourga, or the Tartar-General at Ouliassoutai and
+of the Chinese Amban at Kobdo; and connects with the boundary of China
+by the limits of the banners of the four aimaks of Khalkha and of the
+district of Kobdo, bounded by the district of Houloun-Bourie on the
+east, by Inner Mongolia on the south, by the Province of Sinkiang on the
+southwest, and by the districts of Altai on the West.
+
+The formal delimitation between China and autonomous Mongolia is to be
+carried out by a special commission of delegates of China, Russia and
+autonomous Outer Mongolia, which shall set itself to the work of
+delimitation within a period of two years from the date of signature of
+the present Agreement.
+
+Art. 12. It is understood that customs duties are not to be established
+for goods of whatever origin they may be, imported by Chinese merchants
+into autonomous Outer Mongolia. Nevertheless, Chinese merchants shall
+pay all the taxes on internal trade which have been established in
+autonomous Outer Mongolia and which may be established therein in the
+future, payable by the Mongols of autonomous Outer Mongolia. Similarly
+the merchants of autonomous Outer Mongolia, when importing any kind of
+goods of local production into "Inner China," shall pay all the taxes on
+trade which have been established in "Inner China" and which may be
+established therein in the future, payable by Chinese merchants. Goods
+of foreign origin imported from autonomous Outer Mongolia into "Inner
+China" shall be subject to the customs duties stipulated in the
+regulations for land trade of the seventh year of the reign of
+Kouang-Hsu (1881).
+
+Art. 13. Civil and criminal actions arising between Chinese subjects
+residing in autonomous Outer Mongolia are to be examined and adjudicated
+by the Chinese Dignitary at Urga and by his assistants in the other
+localities of autonomous Outer Mongolia.
+
+Art. 14. Civil and criminal actions arising between Mongols of
+autonomous Outer Mongolia and Chinese subjects residing therein are to
+be examined and adjudicated by the Chinese Dignitary at Urga and his
+assistants in the other localities of autonomous Outer Mongolia, or
+their delegates, and the Mongolian authorities. If the defendant or
+accused is of autonomous Outer Mongolia, the joint examination and
+decision of the case are to be held at the Chinese Dignitary's place at
+Niga and that of his assistants in the other localities of autonomous
+Outer Mongolia; if the defendant or the accused is a Mongol of
+autonomous Outer Mongolia and the claimant or the complainant is a
+Chinese subject, the case is to be examined and decided in the same
+manner in the Mongolian yamen. The guilty are to be punished according
+to their own laws. The interested parties are free to arrange their
+disputes amicably by means of arbitrators chosen by themselves.
+
+Art. 15. Civil and criminal actions arising between Mongols of
+autonomous Outer Mongolia and Russian subjects residing therein are to
+be examined and decided conformably to the stipulations of Article XVI
+of the Russo-Mongolian Commercial protocol of 21st October, 1912.
+
+Art. 16. All civil and criminal actions arising between Chinese and
+Russian subjects in autonomous Outer Mongolia are to be examined and
+decided in the following manner: in an action wherein the claimant or
+the complainant is a Russian subject and the defendant or accused is a
+Chinese subject, the Russian Consul personally or through his delegate
+participates in the judicial trial, enjoying the same right as the
+Chinese Dignitary at Urga or his delegate or his assistants in the other
+localities of autonomous Outer Mongolia. The Russian Consul or his
+delegate proceeds to the hearing of the claimant and the Russian
+witnesses in the court in session, and interrogates the defendant and
+the Chinese witnesses through the medium of the Chinese Dignitary at
+Urga or his delegates or of his assistants in the other localities of
+autonomous Outer Mongolia; the Russian Consul or his delegate examines
+the evidence presented, demands security for "revindication" and has
+recourse to the opinion of experts, if he considers such expert opinion
+necessary for the elucidation of the rights of the parties, etc.; he
+takes part in deciding and in the drafting of the judgment, which he
+signs with the Chinese Dignitary at Urga or his delegates or his
+assistants in the other localities of Autonomous Outer Mongolia. The
+execution of the judgment constitutes a duty of the Chinese authorities.
+
+The Chinese Dignitary at Urga and his Assistants in the other localities
+of autonomous Outer Mongolia may likewise personally or through their
+delegates be present at the hearing of an action in the Consulates of
+Russia wherein the defendant or the accused is a Russian subject and the
+claimant or the complainant is a Chinese subject. The execution of the
+judgment constitutes a duty of the Russian authorities.
+
+Art. 17. Since a section of the Kiachta-Urga-Kalgan telegraph line lies
+in the territory of autonomous Outer Mongolia, it is agreed that the
+said section of the said telegraph line constitutes the complete
+property of the Autonomous Government of Outer Mongolia. The details
+respecting the establishment on the borders of that country and Inner
+Mongolia of a station to be administered by Chinese and Mongolian
+employés for the transmission of telegrams, as well as the questions of
+the tariff for telegrams transmitted and of the apportionment of the
+receipts, etc., are to be examined and settled by a special commission
+of technical delegates of China, Russia and Autonomous Outer Mongolia.
+
+Art. 18. The Chinese postal institutions at Urga and Mongolian Kiachta
+remain in force on the old basis.
+
+Art. 19. The Autonomous Government of Outer Mongolia will place at the
+disposal of the Chinese Dignitary at Urga and of his assistants at
+Ouliassoutai, Kobdo and Mongolian-Kiachta as well as of their staff the
+necessary houses, which are to constitute the complete property of the
+Government of the Republic of China. Similarly, necessary grounds in the
+vicinity of the residences of the said staff are to be granted for their
+escorts.
+
+Art. 20. The Chinese Dignitary at Urga and his assistants in the other
+localities of autonomous Outer Mongolia and also their staff are to
+enjoy the right to use the courier stations of the autonomous Mongolian
+Government conformably to the stipulations of Article XI of the
+Russo-Mongolian Protocol of 21st October, 1912.
+
+Art. 21. The stipulations of the Sino-Russian declaration and the Notes
+exchanged between China and Russia of the 5th day of the 11th month of
+the 2nd year of the Republic of China, 23rd October, 1913, as well as
+those of the Russo-Mongolian Commercial Protocol of the 21st October,
+1912, remain in full force.
+
+Art. 22. The present Agreement, drawn up in triplicate in Chinese,
+Russian, Mongolian and French languages, comes into force from the day
+of its signature. Of the four texts which have been duly compared and
+found to agree, the French text shall be authoritative in the
+interpretation of the Present Agreement.
+
+Done at Kiachta the 7th day of the Sixth Month of the Fourth year of the
+Republic of China, corresponding to the Twenty-fifth of May, Seventh of
+June, One Thousand Nine Hundred Fifteen.
+
+
+CHINO-JAPANESE TREATIES AND ANNEXES
+
+COMPLETE ENGLISH TEXT OF THE DOCUMENTS
+
+_The following is an authoritative translation of the two Treaties and
+thirteen Notes exchanged between His Excellency the President of the
+Republic of China and His Majesty the Emperor of Japan through their
+respective plenipotentiaries_:
+
+TREATY RESPECTING THE PROVINCE OF SHANTUNG
+
+His Excellency the President of the Republic of China and His Majesty
+the Emperor of Japan, having resolved to conclude a Treaty with a view
+to the maintenance of general peace in the Extreme East and the further
+strengthening of the relations of friendship and good neighbourhood now
+existing between the two nations, have for that purpose named as their
+Plenipotentiaries, that is to say:
+
+His Excellency the President of the Republic of China, Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+_Chung-ching_, First Class _Chia Ho_ Decoration, Minister of Foreign
+Affairs.
+
+And His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, Hioki Eki, _Jushii_, Second Class
+of the Imperial Order of the Sacred Treasure, Minister Plenipotentiary,
+and Envoy Extraordinary:
+
+Who, after having communicated to each other their full powers and found
+them to be in good and due form, have agreed upon and concluded the
+following Articles:--
+
+Article 1. The Chinese Government agrees to give full assent to all
+matters upon which the Japanese Government may hereafter agree with the
+German Government relating to the disposition of all rights, interests
+and concessions which Germany, by virtue of treaties or otherwise,
+possesses in relation to the Province of Shantung.
+
+Art. 2. The Chinese Government agrees that as regards the railway to be
+built by China herself from Chefoo or Lungkow to connect with the
+Kiaochow-Tsinanfu railway, if Germany abandons the privilege of
+financing the Chefoo-Weihsien line, China will approach Japanese
+capitalists to negotiate for a loan.
+
+Art. 3. The Chinese Government agrees in the interest of trade and for
+the residence of foreigners, to open by China herself as soon as
+possible certain suitable places in the Province of Shantung as
+Commercial Ports.
+
+Art. 4. The present treaty shall come into force on the day of its
+signature.
+
+The present treaty shall be ratified by His Excellency the President of
+the Republic of China and His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, and the
+ratification thereof shall be exchanged at Tokio as soon as possible.
+
+In witness whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries of the High
+Contracting Parties have signed and sealed the present Treaty, two
+copies in the Chinese language and two in Japanese.
+
+Done at Peking this twenty-fifth day of the fifth month of the fourth
+year of the Republic of China, corresponding to the same day of the same
+month of the fourth year of Taisho.
+
+EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING SHANTUNG
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre.
+
+In the name of the Chinese Government I have the honour to make the
+following declaration to your Government:--"Within the Province of
+Shantung or along its coast no territory or island will be leased or
+ceded to any foreign Power under any pretext."
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+
+Excellency,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you made the following declaration in the
+name of the Chinese Government:--"Within the Province of Shantung or
+along its coast no territory or island will be leased or ceded to any
+foreign Power under any pretext."
+
+In reply I beg to state that I have taken note of this declaration.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) HIOKI EKI.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE OPENING OF PORTS IN SHANTUNG
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre.
+
+I have the honour to state that the places which ought to be opened as
+Commercial Ports by China herself, as provided in Article 3 of the
+Treaty respecting the Province of Shantung signed this day, will be
+selected and the regulations therefor, will be drawn up, by the Chinese
+Government itself, a decision concerning which will be made after
+consulting the Minister of Japan.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+
+Excellency,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you stated "that the places which ought to
+be opened as Commercial Ports by China herself, as provided in Article 3
+of the Treaty respecting the province of Shantung signed this day, will
+be selected and the regulations therefor, will be drawn up by the
+Chinese Government itself, a decision concerning which will be made
+after consulting the Minister of Japan."
+
+In reply, I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) HIOKI EKI.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE RESTORATION OF THE LEASED TERRITORY OF
+KIAOCHOW BAY
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+
+Excellency,
+
+In the name of my Government I have the honour to make the following
+declaration to the Chinese Government:--
+
+When, after the termination of the present war, the leased territory of
+Kiaochow Bay is completely left to the free disposal of Japan, the
+Japanese Government will restore the said leased territory to China
+under the following conditions:--
+
+1. The whole of Kiaochow Bay to be opened as a Commercial Port.
+
+2. A concession under the exclusive jurisdiction of Japan to be
+established at a place designated by the Japanese Government.
+
+3. If the foreign Powers desire it, an international concession may be
+established.
+
+4. As regards the disposal to be made of the buildings and properties of
+Germany and the conditions and procedure relating thereto, the Japanese
+Government and the Chinese Government shall arrange the matter by mutual
+agreement before the restoration.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) HIOKI EKI.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you made the following declaration in the
+name of your Government:--
+
+"When, after the termination of the present war the leased territory of
+Kiaochow Bay is completely left to the free disposal of Japan, the
+Japanese Government will restore the said leased territory to China
+under the following conditions:--
+
+"1. The whole of Kiaochow Bay to be opened as a Commercial Port.
+
+"2. A concession under the exclusive jurisdiction of Japan to be
+established at a place designated by the Japanese Government.
+
+"3. If the foreign Powers desire it, an international concession may be
+established.
+
+"4. As regards the disposal to be made of the buildings and properties of
+Germany and the conditions and procedure relating thereto, the Japanese
+Government and the Chinese Government shall arrange the matter by mutual
+agreement before the restoration."
+
+In reply, I beg to state that I have taken note of this declaration.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) Lou Tseng-tsiang.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+TREATY RESPECTING SOUTH MANCHURIA AND EASTERN INNER MONGOLIA
+
+His Excellency the President of the Republic of China and His Majesty
+the Emperor of Japan, having resolved to conclude a Treaty with a view
+to developing their economic relations in South Manchuria and Eastern
+Inner Mongolia, have for that purpose named as their Plenipotentiaries,
+that is to say;
+
+His Excellency the President of the Republic of China, Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+_Chung-ching_, First Class _Chia-ho_ Decoration, and Minister of Foreign
+Affairs; And His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, Hioki Eki, _Jushii_,
+Second Class of the Imperial Order of the Sacred Treasure, Minister
+Plenipotentiary and Envoy Extraordinary;
+
+Who, after having communicated to each other their full powers, and
+found them to be in good and due form, have agreed upon and concluded
+the following Articles:--
+
+Article 1. The two High Contracting Parties agree that the term of lease
+of Port Arthur and Dalny and the terms of the South Manchuria Railway
+and the Antung-Mukden Railway, shall be extended to 99 years.
+
+Art. 2. Japanese subjects in South Manchuria may, by negotiation, lease
+land necessary for erecting suitable buildings for trade and manufacture
+or for prosecuting agricultural enterprises.
+
+Art. 3. Japanese subjects shall be free to reside and travel in South
+Manchuria and to engage in business and manufacture of any kind
+whatsoever.
+
+Art. 4. In the event of Japanese and Chinese desiring jointly to
+undertake agricultural enterprises and industries incidental thereto,
+the Chinese Government may give its permission.
+
+Art. 5. The Japanese subjects referred to in the preceding three
+articles, besides being required to register with the local Authorities
+passports which they must procure under the existing regulations, shall
+also submit to the police laws and ordinances and taxation of China.
+
+Civil and criminal cases in which the defendants are Japanese shall be
+tried and adjudicated by the Japanese Consul: those in which the
+defendants are Chinese shall be tried and adjudicated by Chinese
+Authorities. In either case an officer may be deputed to the court to
+attend the proceedings. But mixed civil cases between Chinese and
+Japanese relating to land shall be tried and adjudicated by delegates of
+both nations conjointly in accordance with Chinese law and local usage.
+
+When, in future, the judicial system in the said region is completely
+reformed, all civil and criminal cases concerning Japanese subjects
+shall be tried and adjudicated entirely by Chinese law courts.
+
+Art. 6. The Chinese Government agrees, in the interest of trade and for
+the residence of foreigners, to open by China herself, as soon as
+possible, certain suitable places in Eastern Inner Mongolia as
+Commercial Ports.
+
+Art. 7. The Chinese Government agrees speedily to make a fundamental
+revision of the Kirin-Changchun Railway Loan Agreement, taking as a
+standard the provisions in railway loan agreements made heretofore
+between China and foreign financiers.
+
+When in future, more advantageous terms than those in existing railway
+loan agreements are granted to foreign financiers in connection with
+railway loans, the above agreement shall again be revised in accordance
+with Japan's wishes.
+
+Art. 8. All existing treaties between China and Japan relating to
+Manchuria shall, except where otherwise provided for by this Treaty,
+remain in force.
+
+Art. 9. The present Treaty shall come into force on the date of its
+signature. The present Treaty shall be ratified by His Excellency the
+President of the Republic of China and His Majesty the Emperor of Japan,
+and the ratifications thereof shall be exchanged at Tokio as soon as
+possible.
+
+In witness whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries of the two High
+Contracting Parties have signed and sealed the present Treaty, two
+copies in the Chinese language and two in Japanese.
+
+Done at Peking this twenty-fifth day of the fifth month of the fourth
+year of the Republic of China, corresponding to the same day of the same
+month of the fourth year of Taisho.
+
+EXCHANGE OF NOTES
+
+_Respecting the Terms of Lease of Port Arthur and Dalny and the Terms of
+South Manchurian and Antung-Mukden Railways_.
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre,
+
+I have the honour to state that, respecting the provisions contained in
+Article I of the Treaty relating to South Manchuria and Eastern Inner
+Mongolia, signed this day, the term of lease of Port Arthur and Dalny
+shall expire in the 86th year of the Republic or 1997. The date for
+restoring the South Manchuria Railway to China shall fall due in the
+91st year of the Republic or 2002. Article 12 in the original South
+Manchurian Railway Agreement providing that it may be redeemed by China
+after 36 years from the day on which the traffic is opened is hereby
+cancelled. The term of the Antung-Mukden Railway shall expire in the
+96th year of the Republic or 2007.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) Lou Tseng-tsiang.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+
+Excellency,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date, in which you stated that respecting the provisions
+contained in Article I of the Treaty relating to South Manchuria and
+Eastern Inner Mongolia, signed this day, the term of lease of Port
+Arthur and Dalny shall expire in the 86th year of the Republic or 1997.
+The date for restoring the South Manchurian Railway to China shall fall
+due in the 91st year of the Republic or 2002. Article 12 in the original
+South Manchurian Railway Agreement providing that it may be redeemed by
+China after 36 years from the day on which the traffic is opened, is
+hereby cancelled. The term of the Antung-Mukden Railway shall expire in
+the 96th year of the Republic or 2007.
+
+In reply I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) Hioki Eki.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE OPENING OF PORTS IN EASTERN INNER
+MONGOLIA
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre,
+
+I have the honour to state that the places which ought to be opened as
+Commercial Ports by China herself, as provided in Article 6 of the
+Treaty respecting South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia signed this
+day, will be selected, and the regulations therefor, will be drawn up
+by the Chinese Government itself, a decision concerning which will be
+made after consulting the Minister of Japan.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) Lou TSENG-TSIANG.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+
+Excellency,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you stated "that the places which ought to
+be opened as Commercial Ports by China herself, as provided in Article 6
+of the Treaty respecting South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia
+signed this day, will be selected, and the regulations therefor, will be
+drawn up, by the Chinese Government itself, a decision concerning which
+will be made after consulting the Minister of Japan."
+
+In reply, I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) HIOKO EKI.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+SOUTH MANCHURIA
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre,
+
+I have the honour to state that Japanese subjects shall, as soon as
+possible, investigate and select mines in the mining areas in South
+Manchuria specified hereinunder, except those being prospected for or
+worked, and the Chinese Government will then permit them to prospect or
+work the same; but before the Mining regulations are definitely settled,
+the practice at present in force shall be followed. Provinces
+Fengtien:--
+
+  |Locality            |District                 |Mineral
+  |                    |                         |
+  |Niu Hsin T'ai       |Pen-hsi                  |Coal
+  |Tien Shih Fu Kou    |Pen-hsi                  |Coal
+  |Sha Sung Kang       |Hai-lung                 |Coal
+  |T'ieh Ch'ang        |Tung-hua                 |Coal
+  |Nuan Ti T'ang       |Chin                     |Coal
+  |An Shan Chan region |From Liaoyang to Pen-hsi |Iron
+
+KIRIN (_Southern portion_)
+
+  |Locality            |District                 |Mineral
+  |                    |                         |
+  |Sha Sung Kang       |Ho-lung                  |C. & I.
+  |Kang Yao Chia       |Chi-lin (Kirin)          |Coal
+  |P'i Kou             |Hua-tien                 |Gold
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+Excellency,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day respecting the opening of mines in South Manchuria, stating;
+"Japanese subjects shall, as soon as possible, investigate and select
+mines in the mining areas in South Manchuria specified hereinunder,
+except those being prospected for or worked, and the Chinese Government
+will then permit them to prospect or work the same; but before the
+Mining regulations are definitely settled, the practice at present in
+force shall be followed.
+
+1 Provinces Fengtien.
+
+  |Locality               |District                 |Mineral
+  |                       |                         |
+  |1. Niu Hsin T'ai       |Pen-hsi                  |Coal
+  |2. Tien Shih Fu Kou    |Pen-hsi                  |Coal
+  |3. Sha Sung Kang       |Hai-lung                 |Coal
+  |4. T'ieh Ch'ang        |Tung-hua                 |Coal
+  |5. Nuan Ti T'ang       |Chin                     |Coal
+  |6. An Shan Chan region |From Liaoyang to Pen-hsi |Iron
+
+KIRIN (_Southern portion_)
+
+  |1. Sha Sung Kang       |Ho-lung                  |C. & I.
+  |2. Kang Yao            |Chi-lin (Kirin)          |Coal
+  |3. Chia P'i Kou        |Hua-tien                 |Gold
+
+"I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) "HIOKI EKI."
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China.
+
+EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING RAILWAYS AND TAXES IN SOUTH MANCHURIA AND
+EASTERN INNER MONGOLIA
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre,
+
+In the name of my Government.
+
+I have the honour to make the following declaration to your
+Government:--
+
+China will hereafter provide funds for building necessary railways in
+South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia; if foreign capital is
+required China may negotiate for a loan with Japanese capitalists first;
+and further, the Chinese Government, when making a loan in future on the
+security of the taxes in the above-mentioned places (excluding the salt
+and customs revenue which has already been pledged by the Chinese
+Central Government) may negotiate for it with Japanese capitalists
+first.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+
+Excellency,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date respecting railways and taxes in South Manchuria and
+Eastern Inner Mongolia in which you stated:
+
+"China will hereafter provide funds for building necessary railways in
+South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia; if foreign capital is
+required China may negotiate for a loan with Japanese capitalists first;
+and further, the Chinese Government, when making a loan in future on the
+security of taxes in the above mentioned places (excluding the salt and
+customs revenue which has already been pledged by the Chinese Central
+Government) may negotiate for it with Japanese capitalists first."
+
+In reply I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) HIOKO EKI.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE EMPLOYMENT OF ADVISERS IN SOUTH
+MANCHURIA
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre,
+
+In the name of the Chinese Government, I have the honour to make the
+following declaration to your Government:--
+
+"Hereafter, if foreign advisers or instructors on political, financial,
+military or police matters are to be employed in South Manchuria,
+Japanese may be employed first."
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+
+Excellency,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you made the following declaration in the
+name of your Government:--
+
+"Hereafter if foreign advisers or instructors in political, financial,
+military or police matters are to be employed in South Manchuria,
+Japanese may be employed first."
+
+In reply, I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) HIOKI EKI.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE EXPLANATION OF "LEASE BY NEGOTIATION"
+IN SOUTH MANCHURIA
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+
+Excellency,
+
+I have the honour to state that the term lease by negotiation contained
+in Article 2 of the Treaty respecting South Manchuria and Eastern Inner
+Mongolia signed this day shall be understood to imply a long-term lease
+of not more than thirty years and also the possibility of its
+unconditional renewal.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) HIOKI EKI.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you state.
+
+"The term lease by negotiation contained in Article 2 of the Treaty
+respecting South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia signed this day
+shall be understood to imply a long-term lease of not more than thirty
+years and also the possibility of its unconditional renewal."
+
+In reply I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE ARRANGEMENT FOR POLICE LAWS AND
+ORDINANCES AND TAXATION IN SOUTH MANCHURIA AND EASTERN INNER MONGOLIA
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre,
+
+I have the honour to state that the Chinese Authorities will notify the
+Japanese Consul of the police laws and ordinances and the taxation to
+which Japanese subjects shall submit according to Article 5 of the
+Treaty respecting South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia signed this
+day so as to come to an understanding with him before their enforcement.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+
+Excellency,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you state:
+
+"The Chinese Authorities will notify the Japanese Consul of the Police
+laws and ordinances and the taxation to which Japanese subjects shall
+submit according to Article 5 of the Treaty respecting South Manchuria
+and Eastern Inner Mongolia signed this day so as to come to an
+understanding with him before their enforcement."
+
+In reply, I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) HIOKI EKI.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre,
+
+I have the honour to state that, inasmuch as preparations have to be
+made regarding Articles 2, 3, 4 and 5 of the Treaty respecting South
+Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia signed this day, the Chinese
+Government proposes that the operation of the said Articles be postponed
+for a period of three months beginning from the date of the signing of
+the said Treaty.
+
+I hope your Government will agree to this proposal.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+
+Excellency,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you stated that "inasmuch as preparations
+have to be made regarding Articles 2, 3, 4 and 5 of the Treaty
+respecting South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia signed this day,
+the Chinese Government proposes that the operation of the said Articles
+be postponed for a period of three months beginning from the date of
+the signing of the said Treaty."
+
+In reply, I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) HIOKI EKI.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE MATTER OF HANYEHPING
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre,
+
+I have the honour to state that if in future the Hanyehping Company and
+the Japanese capitalists agree upon co-operation, the Chinese
+Government, in view of the intimate relations subsisting between the
+Japanese capitalists and the said Company, will forthwith give its
+permission. The Chinese Government further agrees not to confiscate the
+said Company, nor, without the consent of the Japanese capitalists to
+convert it into a state enterprise, nor cause it to borrow and use
+foreign capital other than Japanese.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+
+Excellency,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you state:
+
+"If in future the Hanyehping Company and the Japanese capitalists agree
+upon co-operation, the Chinese Government, in view of the intimate
+relations subsisting between the Japanese capitalists and the said
+Company, will forthwith give its permission. The Chinese Government
+further agrees not to confiscate the said Company, nor, without the
+consent of the Japanese capitalists to convert it into a state
+enterprise, nor cause it to borrow and use foreign capital other than
+Japanese."
+
+In reply, I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) HIOKI EKI.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE FUKIEN QUESTION
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Excellency,
+
+A report has reached me to the effect that the Chinese Government has
+the intention of permitting foreign nations to establish, on the coast
+of Fukien Province, dock-yards, coaling stations for military use, naval
+bases, or to set up other military establishments; and also of borrowing
+foreign capital for the purpose of setting up the above-mentioned
+establishments.
+
+I have the honour to request that Your Excellency will be good enough to
+give me reply stating whether or not the Chinese Government really
+entertains such an intention.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) HIOKI EKI.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date which I have noted.
+
+In reply I beg to inform you that the Chinese Government hereby declares
+that it has given no permission to foreign nations to construct, on the
+coast of Fukien Province, dock-yards, coaling stations for military use,
+naval bases, or to set up other military establishments; nor does it
+entertain an intention of borrowing foreign capital for the purpose of
+setting up the above-mentioned establishments.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+DOCUMENTS IN GROUP IV
+
+
+(1) The Draft of the Permanent Constitution completed in May, 1917.
+
+(2) The proposed Provincial System, _i.e._, the local government law.
+
+(3) Memorandum by the Ministry of Commerce on Tariff Revision,
+illustrating the anomalies of present trade taxation.
+
+(4) The leading outstanding cases between China and the Foreign Powers.
+
+
+DRAFT OF THE NATIONAL CONSTITUTION OF CHINA
+
+(As it stood on May 28th, 1917, in its second reading at the
+Constitutional Conference.)
+
+The Constitutional Conference of the Republic of China, in order to
+enhance the national dignity, to unite the national dominion, to advance
+the interest of society and to uphold the sacredness of humanity, hereby
+adopt the following constitution which shall be promulgated to the whole
+country, to be universally observed, and handed down unto the end of
+time.
+
+CHAPTER I. THE FORM OF GOVERNMENT
+
+Article 1. The Republic of China shall for ever be a consolidated
+Republic.
+
+CHAPTER II. NATIONAL TERRITORY
+
+Art. 2. The National Territory of the Republic of China shall be in
+accordance with the dominion hithertofore existing.
+
+No change in National Territory and its divisions can be made save in
+accordance with the law.
+
+CHAPTER ... GOVERNING AUTHORITY
+
+Art ... The power of Government of the Republic of China shall be
+derived from the entire body of citizens.
+
+CHAPTER III. THE CITIZENS
+
+Art. 3. Those who are of Chinese nationality according to law shall be
+called the citizens of the Republic of China.
+
+Art. 4. Among the citizens of the Republic of China, there shall be, in
+the eyes of the law, no racial, class, or religious distinctions, but
+all shall be equal.
+
+Art. 5. No citizens of the Republic of China shall be arrested,
+detained, tried, or punished save in accordance with the law. Whoever
+happens to be detained in custody shall be entitled, on application
+therefore, to the immediate benefit of the writ of habeas corpus,
+bringing him before a judicial court of competent jurisdiction for an
+investigation of the case and appropriate action according to law.
+
+Art. 6. The private habitations of the citizens of the Republic of China
+shall not be entered or searched except in accordance with the law.
+
+Art. 7. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have the right of
+secrecy of correspondence, which may not be violated except as provided
+by law.
+
+Art. 8. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have liberty of
+choice of residence and of profession which shall be unrestricted except
+in accordance with law.
+
+Art. 9. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have liberty to call
+meetings or to organize societies which shall be unrestricted except in
+accordance with the law.
+
+Art. 10. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have freedom of
+speech, writing and publication which shall be unrestricted except in
+accordance with the law.
+
+Art. 11. The citizens of the Republic of China shall be entitled to
+honour Confucius and shall enjoy freedom of religious belief which shall
+be unrestricted except in accordance with the law.
+
+Art. 12. The citizens of the Republic of China shall enjoy the
+inviolable right to the security of their property and any measure to
+the contrary necessitated by public interest shall be determined by law.
+
+Art. ... The citizens of the Republic of China shall enjoy all other
+forms of freedom aside from those hithertofore mentioned, provided they
+are not contrary to the spirit of the Constitution.
+
+Art. 13. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have the right to
+appeal to the Judicial Courts according to law.
+
+Art. 14. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have the right to
+submit petitions or make complaints according to law.
+
+Art. 15. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have the right to
+vote and to be voted for according to law.
+
+Art. 16. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have the right to
+hold official posts according to law.
+
+Art. 17. The citizens of the Republic of China shall perform the
+obligation of paying taxes according to law.
+
+Art. 18. The citizens of the Republic of China shall perform the
+obligation of military service according to law.
+
+Art. 19. The citizens of the Republic of China shall be under the
+obligation to receive primary education according to law.
+
+CHAPTER IV. THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY
+
+Art. 20. The legislative power of the Republic of China shall be
+exercised by the National Assembly exclusively.
+
+Art. 21. The National Assembly shall consist of a Senate and House of
+Representatives.
+
+Art. 22. The Senate shall be composed of the Senators elected by the
+highest local legislative assemblies and other electoral bodies.
+
+Art. 23. The House of Representatives shall be composed of the
+representatives elected by the various electoral districts in proportion
+to the population.
+
+Art. 24. The members of both Houses shall be elected according to law.
+
+Art. 25. In no case shall one person be a member of both Houses
+simultaneously.
+
+Art. 26. No member of either House shall hold any official post, civil
+or military during his term.
+
+Art. 27. The qualifications of the members of either House shall be
+determined by the respective Houses.
+
+Art. 28. The term of office for a member of the Senate shall be six
+years. One-third of the members shall retire and new ones be elected
+every two years.
+
+Art. 29. The term of office for a member of the House of Representatives
+shall be three years.
+
+Art. 30. Each House shall have a President and a Vice-President who
+shall be elected from among its members.
+
+Art. 31. The National Assembly shall itself convene, open and close its
+sessions, but as to extraordinary sessions, they shall be called under
+one of the following circumstances:
+
+(1) A signed request of more than one-third of the members of each
+House.
+
+(2) A mandate of the President.
+
+Art. 32. The ordinary sessions of the National Assembly shall begin on
+the first day of the eighth month in each year.
+
+Art. 33. The period for the ordinary session of the National Assembly
+shall be four months which may be prolonged, but the prolonged period
+shall not exceed the length of the ordinary session.
+
+Art. 34. (Eliminated.)
+
+Art. 35. Both Houses shall meet in joint session at the opening and
+closing of the National Assembly.
+
+If one House suspends its session, the other House shall do likewise
+during the same period.
+
+When the House of Representatives is dissolved, the Senate shall
+adjourn during the same period.
+
+Art. 36. The work of the National Assembly shall be conducted in the
+Houses separately. No bill shall be introduced in both Houses
+simultaneously.
+
+Art. 37. Unless there be an attendance of over half of the total number
+of members of either House, no sitting shall be held.
+
+Art. 38. Any subject discussed in either House shall be decided by the
+votes of the majority of members attending the sitting. The President of
+each House shall have a deciding vote in case of a tie.
+
+Art. 39. A decision of the National Assembly shall require the decision
+of both Houses.
+
+Art. 40. The sessions of both Houses shall be held in public, except on
+request of the government, or decision of the Houses when secret
+sessions may be held.
+
+Art. 41. Should the House of Representatives consider either the
+President or the Vice-President of the Republic of China has committed
+treason, he may be impeached by the decision of a majority of over
+two-thirds of the members present, there being a quorum of over
+two-thirds of the total membership of the House.
+
+Art. 42. Should the House of Representatives consider that the Cabinet
+Ministers have violated the law, an impeachment may be instituted with
+the approval of over two-thirds of the members present.
+
+Art. 43. The House of Representatives may pass a vote of want of
+Confidence in the Cabinet Ministers.
+
+Art. 44. The Senate shall try the impeached President, Vice-President
+and Cabinet Ministers.
+
+With regard to the above-mentioned trial, no judgment of guilt or
+violation of the law shall be passed without the approval of over
+two-thirds of the members present.
+
+When a verdict of "Guilty" is pronounced on the President or
+Vice-President, he shall be deprived of his post, but the infliction of
+punishment shall be determined by the Supreme Court of Justice.
+
+When the verdict of "Guilty" is pronounced upon a Cabinet Minister, he
+shall be deprived of his office and may forfeit his public rights.
+Should the above penalty be insufficient for his offence, he shall be
+tried by the Judicial Court.
+
+Art. ... Either of the two Houses shall have power to request the
+government to inquire into any case of delinquency or unlawful act on
+the part of any official and to punish him accordingly.
+
+Art. 45. Both Houses shall have the right to offer suggestions to the
+Government.
+
+Art. 46. Both Houses shall receive and consider the petitions of the
+citizens.
+
+Art. 47. Members of either House may introduce interpellations to the
+members of the Cabinet and demand their attendance in the House to reply
+thereto.
+
+Art. 48. Members of either House shall not be responsible to those
+outside the House for opinions expressed and votes cast in the House.
+
+Art. 49. No member of either House during session shall be arrested or
+detained in custody without the permission of his respective House,
+unless he be arrested in the commission of the offence or act.
+
+When any member of either House has been so arrested, the government
+should report the cause to his respective House. Such member's House,
+during session, may with the approval of its members demand for the
+release of the arrested member and for temporary suspension of the legal
+proceedings.
+
+Art. 50. The annual allowance and other expenses of the members of both
+Houses shall be fixed by law.
+
+(CHAPTER V. on Resident Committee of the National Assembly with 4
+articles has been eliminated.)
+
+CHAPTER VI. THE PRESIDENT
+
+Art. 55. The administrative power of the Republic of China shall be
+vested in the President with the assistance of the Cabinet Ministers.
+
+* Art. 56. A person of the Republic of China in the full enjoyment
+of public rights, of the age of forty years or more, and resident in
+China for at least ten years, is eligible for election as President.
+
+* Art. 57. The President shall be elected by a Presidential
+Election Convention, composed of the members of the National Assembly.
+
+For the above election, an attendance of at least two-thirds of the
+number of electors shall be required, and the voting shall be performed
+by secret ballot. The person obtaining three-fourths of the total votes
+cast shall be elected; but should no definite result be obtained after
+the second ballot, the two candidates obtaining the most votes in the
+second ballot shall be voted for and the candidate receiving the
+majority vote shall be elected.
+
+* Art. 58. The period of office of the President shall be five
+years, and if re-elected, he may hold office for another term.
+
+Three months previous to the expiration of the term, the members of the
+National Assembly of the Republic shall themselves convene and organize
+the President Election Convention to elect a President for the next
+term.
+
+* Art. 59. When the President is being inaugurated, he shall make
+an oath as follows: "I hereby solemnly swear that I will most faithfully
+obey the Constitution and discharge the duties of the President."
+
+* Art. 60. Should the post of the President become vacant, the
+Vice-President shall succeed him until the expiration of the term of
+office of the President. Should the President be unable to discharge his
+duties for any cause, the Vice-President shall act for him.
+
+Should the Vice-President vacate his post at the same time, the Cabinet
+shall officiate for the President, but at the same time, the members of
+the National Assembly shall within three months convene themselves and
+organize the Presidential Election Convention to elect a new President.
+
+* Art. 61. The President shall be relieved of his office at the
+expiration of his term of his office. If, at the end of the period, the
+new President has not been elected, or, having been elected, be unable
+to assume office and when the Vice-President is also unable to act as
+President, the Cabinet shall officiate for the President.
+
+* Art. 62. The election of the Vice-President shall be in
+accordance with the regulations fixed for the election of the President;
+and the election of the Vice-President shall take place simultaneously
+with the election of the President. Should the post of the
+Vice-President become vacant, a new Vice-President shall be elected.
+
+Art. 63. The President shall promulgate all laws and supervise and
+secure their enforcement.
+
+Art. 64. The President may issue and publish mandates for the execution
+of laws in accordance with the powers delegated to him by the law.
+
+Art. 65. (Eliminated.)
+
+Art. 66. The President shall appoint and remove all civil and military
+officials, with the exception of those specially provided for by the
+Constitution or laws.
+
+Art. 67. The President shall be the Commander-in-Chief of the Army and
+Navy of the Republic.
+
+The organization of the Army and Navy shall be fixed by law.
+
+Art. 68. In intercourse with foreign countries, the President shall be
+the representative of the Republic.
+
+Art. 69. The President may, with the concurrence of the National
+Assembly, declare war, but, in case of defence against foreign invasion,
+he may request recognition of the National Assembly after the
+declaration of the war.
+
+Art. 70. The President may conclude treaties; but with regard to
+treaties of peace, and those affecting legislation, they shall not be
+valid, if the consent of the National Assembly is not obtained.
+
+Art. 71. The President may proclaim martial law according to law; but if
+the National Assembly should consider that there is no such necessity,
+he should declare the withdrawal of the martial law.
+
+Art. 72. (Eliminated.)
+
+Art. 73. The President may, with the concurrence of the Supreme Court of
+Justice, grant pardons, commute punishment, and restore rights; but with
+regard to a verdict of impeachment, unless with the concurrence of the
+National Assembly, he shall not make any announcement of the restoration
+of rights.
+
+Art. 74. The President may suspend the session of either the Senate or
+the House of Representatives for a period not exceeding ten days, but
+during any one session, he may not exercise this right more than once.
+
+Art. 75. With the concurrence of two-thirds or more of the members of
+the Senate present, the President may dissolve the House of
+Representatives, but there must not be a second dissolution during the
+period of the same session.
+
+When the House of Representatives is dissolved by the President,
+another election shall take place immediately, and the convocation of
+the House at a fixed date within five months should be effected to
+continue the session.
+
+Art. 76. With the exception of high treason, no criminal charges shall
+be brought against the President before he has vacated his office.
+
+Art. 77. The salaries of the President and Vice-President shall be fixed
+by law.
+
+CHAPTER VII. THE CABINET
+
+Art. 78. The Cabinet shall be composed of the Cabinet Ministers.
+
+Art. 79. The Premier and the Ministers of the various ministries shall
+be called the Cabinet Ministers.
+
+Art. 80. The appointment of the Premier shall be approved by the House
+of Representatives.
+
+Should a vacancy in the Premiership occur during the time of adjournment
+of the National Assembly, the President may appoint an Acting-Premier,
+but it shall be required that the appointment must be submitted to the
+House of Representatives for approval within seven days after the
+convening of the next session.
+
+Art. 81. Cabinet Ministers shall assist the President and shall be
+responsible to the House of Representatives.
+
+Without the counter-signature of the Cabinet Minister to whose Ministry
+the Mandate or dispatch applies, the mandate or dispatch of the
+President in connection with State affairs shall not be valid; but this
+shall not apply to the appointment or dismissal of the Premier.
+
+Art. 82. When a vote of want of confidence in the Cabinet Ministers is
+passed, if the President does not dissolve the House of Representatives
+according to the provisions made in Art. 75, he should remove the
+Cabinet Ministers.
+
+Art. 83. The Cabinet Ministers shall be allowed to attend both Houses
+and make speeches, but in case of introducing bills for the Executive
+Department, their delegates may act for them.
+
+CHAPTER VIII. COURTS OF JUSTICE
+
+Art. 84. The Judicial authority of the Republic of China shall be
+exercised by the Courts of Justice exclusively.
+
+Art. 85. The organization of the Courts of Justice and the
+qualifications of the Judges shall be fixed by law.
+
+The appointment of the Chief-Justice of the Supreme Court should have
+the approval of the Senate.
+
+Art. 86. The Judiciary shall attend to and settle all civil, criminal,
+administrative and other cases, but this does not include those cases
+which have been specially provided for by the Constitution or law.
+
+Art. 87. The trial of cases in the law courts shall be conducted
+publicly, but those affecting public peace and order or propriety may be
+held in camera.
+
+Art. 88. The Judges shall be independent in the conducting of trials
+and none shall be allowed to interfere.
+
+Art. 89. Except in accordance with law, judges, during their
+continuation of office shall not have their emoluments decreased, nor be
+transferred to other offices, nor shall they be removed from office.
+
+During his tenure of office, no judge shall be deprived of his office
+unless he is convicted of crime, or for offences punishable by law. But
+the above does not include cases of reorganization of Judicial Courts
+and when the qualification of the Judges are modified. The punishments
+and fines of the Judicial Officials shall be fixed by law.
+
+CHAPTER IX. LEGISLATION
+
+Art. 90. The members of both Houses and the Executive Department may
+introduce bills of law, but if any bill of law is rejected by the House
+it shall not be re-introduced during the same session.
+
+Art. 91. Any bill of law which has been passed by the National Assembly
+shall be promulgated by the President within 15 days after receipt of
+the same.
+
+Art. 92. Should the President disapprove of any bill of law passed by
+the National Assembly, he shall within the period allowed for
+promulgation, state the reason of his disapproval and request the
+reconsideration of the same by the National Assembly.
+
+If a bill of law has not yet been submitted with a request for
+consideration and the period for promulgation has passed; it shall
+become law. But the above shall not apply to the case when the session
+of the National Assembly is adjourned, or, the House of Representatives
+dissolved before the period for the promulgation is ended.
+
+Art. 93. The law shall not be altered or repealed except in accordance
+with the law.
+
+Art. 94. Any law that is in conflict with the Constitution shall not be
+valid.
+
+CHAPTER X. NATIONAL FINANCE
+
+Art. 95. The introduction of new taxes and alterations in the rate of
+taxation shall be fixed by law.
+
+Art. 96. (Eliminated.)
+
+Art. 97. The approval of the National Assembly must be obtained for
+National loans, or the conclusion of agreements which tend to increase
+the burden of the National Treasury.
+
+Art. ... Financial bills involving direct obligation on the part of the
+citizens shall first be submitted to the House of Representatives.
+
+Art. 98. The Executive Department of the Government shall prepare a
+budget setting forth expenditures and receipts of the Nation for the
+fiscal year which shall be submitted to the House of Representatives
+within 15 days after the opening of the session of the National
+Assembly.
+
+Should the Senate amend or reject the budget passed by the House of
+Representatives, it shall request the concurrence of the House of
+Representatives in its amendment or rejection, and, if such concurrence
+is not obtained, the budget shall be considered as passed.
+
+Art. 99. In case of special provisions, the Executive Department may fix
+in advance in the budget the period over which the appropriations are to
+be spread and may provide for the successive appropriations continuing
+over this period.
+
+Art. 100. In order to provide for a safe margin for under-estimates or
+for items left out of the budget, the Executive Department may include
+contingent items in the budget under the heading of Reserve Fund. The
+sum expended under the above provision shall be submitted to the House
+of Representatives at the next session for recognition.
+
+Art. 101. Unless approved by the Executive Department, the National
+Assembly shall have no right to abolish or curtail any of the following
+items:
+
+(1) Items in connection with obligations of the Government according to
+law.
+
+(2) Items necessitated by the observance of treaties.
+
+(3) Items legally fixed.
+
+(4) Successive appropriations continuing over a period.
+
+Art. 102. The National Assembly shall not increase the annual
+expenditures as set down in the budget.
+
+Art. 103. In case the budget is not yet passed, when the fiscal year
+begins, the Executive Department may, during this period, follow the
+budget for the preceding year by limiting its expenditures and receipts
+by one-twelfth of the total amount for each month.
+
+Art. 104. Should there be a defensive war against foreign invasion, or
+should there be a suppression of internal rebellion, or to provide
+against extraordinary calamity, when it is impossible to issue writs for
+summoning the National Assembly, the Executive Department may adopt
+financial measures for the emergency, but it should request the
+recognition thereof by the House of Representatives within seven days
+after the convening of the next session of the National Assembly.
+
+Art. 105. Orders on the Treasury for payments on account of the annual
+expenditures of the Government shall first be passed by the Auditing
+Department.
+
+Art. 106. Accounts of the annual expenditures and annual receipts for
+each year should first be referred to the Auditing Department for
+investigation and then the Executive Department shall report the same to
+the National Assembly.
+
+If the account be rejected by the House of Representatives, the Cabinet
+shall be held responsible.
+
+Art. 107. The method of organization of the Auditing Department and the
+qualification of the Auditors shall be fixed by law.
+
+During his tenure of office, the auditor shall not be dismissed or
+transferred to any other duty or his salary be reduced except in
+accordance with the law.
+
+The manner of punishment of Auditors shall be fixed by law.
+
+Art. 108. The Chief of the Auditing Department shall be elected by the
+Senate. The Chief of the Auditing Department may attend sittings of both
+Houses and report on the Audit with explanatory statements.
+
+CHAPTER XI. AMENDMENTS, INTERPRETATION AND INVIOLABILITY OF THE
+CONSTITUTION
+
+Art. 109. The National Assembly may bring up bills for the amendment of
+the National Constitution.
+
+Bills of this nature shall not take effect unless approved by two-thirds
+of the members of each House present.
+
+No bill for the amendment of the Constitution shall be introduced unless
+signed by one-fourth of the members of each House.
+
+Art. 110. The amendment of the National Constitution shall be discussed
+and decided by the National Constitutional Conference.
+
+Art. 111. No proposal for a change of the form of Government shall be
+allowed as a subject for amendment.
+
+Art. 112. Should there be any doubt as to the meaning of the text of the
+Constitution, it shall be interpreted by the National Constitutional
+Conference.
+
+Art. 113. The National Constitutional Conference shall be composed of
+the members of the National Assembly.
+
+Unless there be a quorum of two-thirds of the total number of the
+members of the National Assembly, no Constitutional Conference shall be
+held, and unless three-fourths of the members present vote in favour, no
+amendment shall be passed. But with regard to the interpretation of the
+Constitution, only two-thirds of the members present is required to
+decide an issue.
+
+Art. ... The National Constitution shall be the Supreme Law of the Land
+and shall be inviolable under any circumstances unless duly amended in
+accordance with the procedure specified in this Constitution.
+
+[Symbol: tick mark] A Chapter on Provincial or local organization is to
+be inserted under Chapter ..., providing for certain powers and rights
+to be given to local governments with the residual power left in the
+hands of the central government. The exact text is not yet settled.
+
+Note: The Mark (*) indicates that the article has already been
+formally adopted as a part of the finished Constitution.
+
+The Mark ([Symbol: tick mark]) indicates that the article has not yet
+passed through the second reading.
+
+Those without marks have passed through the second reading on May 28th,
+1917. Articles bearing no number are additions to the original draft as
+presented to the Conference by the Drafting Committee.
+
+
+THE LOCAL SYSTEM
+
+DRAFT SUBMITTED TO PARLIAMENT
+
+The following Regulations on the Local System have been referred to the
+Parliamentary Committee for consideration:--
+
+Article 1. The Local System shall embrace provinces and hsien districts.
+
+Any change for the existing division of provinces and hsien districts
+shall be decided by the Senate. As to Mongolia, Tibet, Chinghai and
+other places where no provinces and hsien districts have been fixed,
+Parliament shall enforce these regulations there in future.
+
+Art. 2. A province shall have the following duties and rights: (a) To
+fix local laws. (b) To manage provincial properties. (c) To attend to
+the affairs in connexion with police organization, sanitation,
+conservancy, roads, and public works. (d) To develop education and
+industry in accordance with the order and mandates of the Central
+Government. (e) To improve its navigation and telegraphic lines, or to
+undertake such enterprises with the co-operation of other provinces. (f)
+To organize precautionary troops for the protection of local interests,
+the method of whose organization, uniforms and arms shall be similar to
+those of the National Army. With the exception of the matter of
+declaring war against foreign countries, the President shall have no
+power to transfer these troops to other provinces: and unless the
+province is unable to suppress its own internal troubles, it shall not
+ask the Central Government for the service of the National Army. (g) The
+province shall defray its own expenses for the administration and the
+maintenance of precautionary troops; but the provinces which have
+hitherto received subsidies, shall continue to receive same from the
+National Treasury with the approval of Parliament. (h) Land, Title Deed,
+License, Mortgage, Tobacco and Wine, Butchery, Fishery and all other
+principal and additional taxes shall be considered as local revenues.
+(i) The province may fix rates for local tax or levy additional tax on
+the National Taxes. (j) The province shall have a provincial treasury.
+(k) It may raise provincial public loans. (l) It shall elect a certain
+number of Senators. (m) It shall fix regulations for the smaller local
+Self-Governing Bodies.
+
+Art. 3. Besides the above rights and privileges, a province shall bear
+the following responsibilities:
+
+(a) In case of financial difficulties of the Central Government, it
+shall share the burden according to the proportion of its revenue. (b)
+It shall enforce the laws and mandates promulgated by the Central
+Government. (c) It shall enforce the measures entrusted by the Central
+Government, but the latter shall bear the expenses. (d) In case the
+local laws and regulations are in conflict with those of the Central
+Government the latter may with the approval of Parliament cancel or
+modify the same. (e) In case of great necessity the provincial
+telegraph, railway, etc., may be utilized by the Central Government. (f)
+In case of negligence, or blunder made by the provincial authorities,
+which injures the interests of the nation, the Central Government, with
+the approval of Parliament, may reprimand and rectify same. (g) It shall
+not make laws on the grant of monopoly and of copyrights; neither issue
+bank notes, manufacture coins, make implements of weights and measures;
+neither grant the right to local banks to manage the Government
+Treasury; nor sign contracts with foreigners on the purchase or sale of
+lands and mines, or mortgage land tax to them or construct naval
+harbours or arsenals. (h) All local laws, budgets, and other important
+matters shall be reported to the President from time to time. (i) The
+Central Government may transfer to itself the ownership of enterprises
+or rights which Parliament has decided should become national. (j) In
+case of a quarrel arising between the Central Government and the
+province, or between provinces, it shall be decided by Parliament. (k)
+In case of refusal to obey the orders of the Central Government, the
+President with the approval of Parliament may change the Shenchang
+(Governor) or dissolve the Provincial Assembly. (l) The President with
+the approval of Parliament may suppress by force any province which
+defies the Central Authorities.
+
+Art 4. A Shenchang shall be appointed for each province to represent the
+Central Government in the supervision of the local administration. The
+appointment shall be made with the approval of the Senate, the term, of
+office for the Shenchang shall be four years, and his annual salary
+shall be $24,000, which shall be paid out of the National Treasury.
+
+Art. 5. The administration measures entrusted by the Government to the
+Shenchang shall be enforced by the administrative organs under his
+supervision, and he shall be responsible for same.
+
+Art. 6. In the enforcement of the laws and mandates of the Central
+Government, or of the laws and regulations of his province, he may issue
+orders.
+
+Art. 7. The province shall establish the following five Departments,
+namely Interior, Police, Finance, Education and Industry. There shall be
+one Department Chief for each Department, to be appointed by the
+Shenchang.
+
+Art. 8. A Provincial Council shall be organized to assist the Shenchang
+to enforce the administrative measures, and it shall be responsible to
+the Provincial Assembly for same.
+
+This Council shall be composed of all the Departmental Chiefs, and five
+members elected out of the Provincial Assembly. It shall discuss the
+Bills on Budget, on administration, and on the organization of police
+forces, submitted by the Shenchang.
+
+Art. 9. If one member of the Council be impeached by the Provincial
+Assembly, the Shenchang shall replace him, but if the whole body of the
+Council be impeached, the Shenchang shall either dissolve the Assembly
+or dismiss all his Departmental Chiefs. In one session the Assembly
+shall not be dissolved twice, and after two months of the dissolution,
+it shall be convened again.
+
+Art. 10. The organization and election of the Provincial Assembly shall
+be fixed by law.
+
+Art. 11. The Provincial Assembly shall have the following duties and
+powers: (a) It may pass such laws as allowed by the Constitution. (b) It
+may pass the bills on the provincial Budget and Accounts. (c) It may
+impeach the members of the Provincial Council. (d) It may address
+interpellations or give suggestions to the Provincial Council. (e) It
+may elect Members for the Provincial Council. (f) It may attend to the
+petitions submitted by the public.
+
+Art. 12. A Magistrate shall be appointed for each hsien district to
+enforce administrative measures. He shall be appointed directly by the
+Shenchang, and his term of office shall be three years.
+
+Art. 13. The Central Government shall hold examinations in the provinces
+for candidates for the Magistracy. In a province half of the total
+number of magistrates shall be natives of the province and the other
+half of other provinces; but a native shall hold office of Magistrate
+300 _li_ away from his home.
+
+Art. 14. The organization for the legislative organ of the hsien
+district shall be fixed by law.
+
+
+TARIFF REVISION IN CHINA
+
+The following is a translation of a memorandum prepared by the Ministry
+of Agriculture and Commerce regarding abolition of likin and an increase
+of the Customs duties:--
+
+THE MEMORANDUM
+
+"Disproportionate taxation on commodities at inland towns and cities
+tends to cripple the productive power of a country. Acting upon this
+principle, France in the 17th, England, America, Germany and Austria in
+the 18th Century abolished such kind of taxation, the Customs tariff
+remaining, which is a levy on imports at the first port of entry. Its
+purpose is to increase the cost of production of imported goods and to
+serve as a protection of native products (sic). Raw materials from
+abroad are, however, exempt from Customs duty in order to provide cheap
+material for home manufactures. An altogether different state of
+affairs, however, exists in this country. Likin stations are found
+throughout the country, while raw materials are taxed. Take the Hangchow
+silk for instance. When transported to the Capital for sale, it has to
+pay a tax on raw material of 18 per cent. Foreign imported goods on the
+other hand, are only taxed at the rate of five per cent _ad valorem_
+Customs duty at the first port of entry with another 2.5 per cent
+transit duty at one of the other ports through which the goods pass.
+Besides these only landing duty is imposed upon imported goods at the
+port of destination. Upon timber being shipped from Fengtien and Antung
+to Peking, it has to pay duties at five different places, the total
+amount of which aggregates 20 per cent of its market value, while timber
+from America is taxed only ten per cent. Timber from Jueichow to Hankow
+and Shanghai is taxed at six different places, the total amount of duty
+paid aggregating 17.5 per cent., while timber imported from abroad to
+these ports is required to pay Customs duty only one-third thereof. The
+above-mentioned rates on native goods are the minimum. Not every
+merchant can, however, obtain such special 'exemption,' without a long
+negotiation and special arrangements with the authorities. Otherwise, a
+merchant must pay 25 per cent of the market value of his goods as duty.
+For this reason the import of timber into this country has greatly
+increased within the last few years, the total amount of which being
+valued at $13,000,000 a year. Is this not a great injustice to native
+merchants?
+
+THE CHINESE METHOD
+
+"Respecting the improvement of the economic condition of the people, a
+country can hardly attain this object without developing its foreign
+commerce. The United States of America, Germany and Japan have one by
+one abolished their export duty as well as made appropriations for
+subsidies to encourage the export of certain kinds of commodities. We,
+on the other hand, impose likin all along the line upon native
+commodities destined for foreign markets in addition to export duty.
+Goods for foreign markets are more heavily taxed than for home
+consumption. Take the Chekiang silk for instance. Silk for export is
+more heavily taxed than that for home use. Different rates of taxation
+are imposed upon tea for foreign and home markets. Other kinds of native
+products for export are also heavily taxed with the result that, within
+the last two decades, the annual exports of this country are exceeded by
+imports by over Tls. 640,000,000,000. From the 32nd year of the reign of
+Kuang Hsu to the 4th year of the Republic, imports exceed exports on the
+average by Tls. 120,000,000. These, figures speak for themselves.
+
+LIKIN
+
+"Likin stations have been established at places where railway
+communication is available. This has done a good deal of harm to
+transportation and the railway traffic. Lately a proposal has been made
+in certain quarters that likin stations along the railways be abolished;
+and the measure has been adopted by the Peking-Tientsin and
+Tientsin-Pukow Railways at certain places. When the towns and cities
+throughout the country are connected by railways, there will be no place
+for likin stations. With the increase in the number of treaty ports, the
+'likin zone' will be gradually diminished. Thencefrom the proceeds from
+likin will be decreased year by year.
+
+"Owing to the collection of likin the development of both home and
+foreign trade has been arrested and the people are working under great
+disadvantages. Hence in order to develop foreign and home trade the
+Government must do away with likin, which will bring back business
+prosperity, and in time the same will enable the Government to obtain
+new sources of revenues.
+
+"From the above-mentioned considerations, the Government can hardly
+develop and encourage trade without the abolition of likin. By treaty
+with Great Britain, America and Japan, the Government can increase the
+rate of Customs tariff to cover losses due to the abolition of likin.
+The question under consideration is not a new one. But the cause which
+has prevented the Government from reaching a prompt decision upon this
+question is the fear that, after the abolition of likin, the proceeds
+from the increased Customs tariff would not be sufficient to cover the
+shortage caused by the abolition of likin.
+
+COST OF ABOLITION OF LIKIN
+
+"But such a fear should disappear when the Authorities remember the
+following facts:--
+
+"(a) The loss as the result of the abolition of likin: $38,900,000.
+
+"(b) The loss as the result of the abolition of a part of duty collected
+by the native Customs houses: $7,300,000.
+
+"(c) Annual proceeds from different kinds of principal and miscellaneous
+taxes which shall be done away with the abolition of likin $11,800,000.
+
+"The above figures are determined by comparing the actual amount of
+proceeds collected by the Government in the 3rd and 4th years of the
+Republic with the estimated amount in the Budget of the fifth year. The
+total amount of loss caused by the abolition of likin will be
+$58,000,000.
+
+INCREASE OF CUSTOMS TARIFF
+
+"The amount of increase in the Customs tariff which the Government
+expects to collect is as follows:--(a) The increase in import duties
+$29,000,000. (b) The increase in export duties Tls. 6,560,000.
+
+"The above figures are determined according to the Customs returns of
+the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th years of the Republic. By deducting Tls. 2,200,000
+of transit duty, the net increase will be Tls. 33,600,000, which is
+equal to $48,500,000. For the sake of prudence, allowance of five per
+cent. of the total amount is made against any incidental shortage. The
+net revenue thus increased would amount to $46,100,000. Against the loss
+of $58,000,000, there will be a shortage of some $11,900,000. This,
+however, will not be difficult to make good by new sources of revenue as
+the result of a tariff revision:--(a) Tax on goods at the time of
+manufacture $800,000. (b) Tax on goods at the time of sale $8,000,000.
+(c) Tax on cattle and slaughtering houses $2,000,000. (d) Tax on
+foodstuffs $4,000,000.
+
+"Under (a) and (b) are the taxes to be collected on native made foreign
+imitation goods and various kinds of luxurious articles. Under (c) and
+(d) are taxes which are already enforced in the provinces but which can
+be increased to that much by reorganizing the method of collection. The
+total sum of the proceeds set forth under above items will amount to
+$14,800,000. These will be quite sufficient to cover the loss caused by
+the abolition of likin.
+
+A VITAL INTEREST
+
+"As the abolition of likin concerns the vital interest of the merchants
+and manufacturers, it should be carried out without delay. The
+commercial and industrial enterprises of the country can only thrive
+after likin is abolished and only then can new sources of revenue be
+obtained. This measure will form the fundamental factor of our
+industrial and economical development. But one thing to which we should
+like to call the special attention of the Government is the procedure to
+be adopted to negotiate with the Foreign countries respecting the
+adoption of this measure. The first step in this connection should be
+the increase of the present Customs tariff to the actual five per cent
+_ad valorem_ rate. When this is done, proposals should be made to the
+Powers having treaty relations with us concerning the abolition of likin
+and revision of Customs tariff. The transit destination duties on
+imported goods should at the same time be done away with. This would not
+entail any disadvantage to the importers of foreign goods and any
+diplomatic question would not be difficult of solution. Meantime
+preparatory measures should be devised for reorganizing the method of
+collecting duties set forth above so that the abolition of likin can
+take place as soon as the Government obtains the consent of the foreign
+Powers respecting the increase of Customs tariff."
+
+MEMORANDUM
+
+THE LEADING OUTSTANDING CASES BETWEEN CHINA AND THE FOREIGN POWERS
+
+(Author's note. The following memorandum was drawn up by Dr. C.C. Wu,
+Councillor at the Chinese Foreign Office and son of Dr. Wu Ting-fang,
+the Foreign Minister, and is a most competent and precise statement. It
+is a noteworthy fact that not only is Dr. C.C. Wu a British barrister
+but he distinguished himself above all his fellows in the year he was
+called to the Bar. It is also noteworthy that the Lao Hsi-kai case does
+not figure in this summary, China taking the view that French action
+throughout was _ultra vires_, and beyond discussion.)
+
+BY DR. C.C. WU
+
+Republican China inherited from imperial China the vast and rich
+territory of China Proper and its Dependencies, but the inheritance was
+by no means free from incumbrances as in the case of Outer Mongolia,
+Tibet and Manchuria, and other impediments in the form of unfavourable
+treaty obligations and a long list of outstanding foreign cases
+affecting sovereign and territorial rights.
+
+I have been asked by the Editor of the _North-China Daily News_ to
+contribute an article on some of the outstanding questions between China
+and foreign powers, instancing Tibet, Manchuria, Mongolia, and to give
+the Chinese point of view on these questions. Although the subject is a
+delicate one to handle, particularly in the press, being as it is one in
+which international susceptibilities are apt to be aroused, I have yet
+accepted the invitation in the belief that a calm and temperate
+statement of the Chinese case will hurt no one whose case will bear
+public discussion but will perhaps do some good by bringing about a
+clear understanding of the points at issue between China and the foreign
+Powers concerned, and thus facilitating an early settlement which is so
+earnestly desired by China. I may say that I have appreciated the
+British sense of justice and fairplay displayed by the "North-China
+Daily News" in inviting a statement of the Chinese case in its own
+columns on questions one of which concerns British interests in no small
+degree, and the discussion cannot be conducted under a better spirit
+than that expressed in the motto of the senior British journal in the
+Far East: "Impartial not Neutral."
+
+1º MANCHURIA
+
+The treaty between China and Japan of 1915 respecting South Manchuria
+and Eastern Inner Mongolia giving that power special rights and
+privileges in those regions has given rise to many knotty problems for
+the diplomatists of the two countries to solve. Two of such problems are
+mentioned here.
+
+JAPANESE POLICE BOXES IN MANCHURIA AND MONGOLIA
+
+Since the last days of the Tsings, the Japanese have been establishing
+police boxes in different parts of South Manchuria and Eastern Inner
+Mongolia always under protest of the local and Peking authorities. Since
+the treaty of 1915, a new reason has become available in the right of
+mixed residence given to Japanese in these regions. It is said that for
+the protection and control of their subjects, and indeed for the
+interest of the Chinese themselves, it is best that this measure should
+be taken. It is further contended that the stationing of police officers
+is but a corollary to the right of exterritoriality, and that it is in
+no way a derogation of Chinese sovereignty.
+
+It is pointed out by the Chinese Government that in the treaty of 1915,
+express provision is made for Japanese in South Manchuria and Eastern
+Inner Mongolia to submit to the police laws and ordinances and taxation
+of China (Article 5). This leaves the matter in no doubt. If the
+Japanese wish to facilitate the Chinese police in their duty of
+protection and control of the Japanese, they have many means at their
+command for so doing. It is unnecessary to point out that the
+establishment of foreign police on Chinese soil (except in foreign
+settlements and concessions where it is by the permission of the Chinese
+Government) is, to our thinking, at any rate, a very grave derogation to
+China's sovereign rights. Furthermore, from actual experience, we know
+that the activities of these foreign police will not be confined to
+their countrymen; in a dispute between a Chinese and a Japanese both
+will be taken to the Japanese station by the Japanese policeman. This
+existence of an imperium in imperio, so far from accomplishing its
+avowed object of "improving the relations of the countries and bringing
+about the development of economic interests to no small degree," will,
+it is feared, be the cause of continual friction between the officials
+and people of the two countries.
+
+As to the legal contention that the right of police control is a natural
+corollary to the right of exterritoriality, it must be said that ever
+since the grant of consular jurisdiction to foreigners by China in her
+first treaties, this is the first time that such a claim has been
+seriously put forward. We can only say that if this interpretation of
+exterritoriality is correct the other nations enjoying exterritoriality
+in China have been very neglectful in the assertion of their just
+rights.
+
+In the Chengchiatun case, the claim of establishing police boxes
+wherever the Japanese think necessary was made one of the demands. The
+Chinese Government in its final reply which settled the case took the
+stand as above outlined.
+
+It may be mentioned in passing that in Amoy the Japanese have also
+endeavoured to establish similar police rights. The people of that city
+and province, and indeed of the whole country, as evidenced by the
+protests received from all over China, have been very much exercised
+over the matter. It is sincerely hoped that with the undoubted
+improvement of relations between the two countries within the last
+several months, the matter will be smoothly and equitably settled.
+
+LEGAL STATUS OF KOREANS IN CHIENTAO
+
+The region which goes by the name of Chientao, a Japanese denomination,
+comprises several districts in the Yenchi Circuit of Kirin Province
+north of the Tumen Kiang (or the Tiumen River) which here forms the
+boundary between China and Korea. For over thirty years Koreans have
+been allowed here to cultivate the waste lands and acquire ownership
+therein, a privilege which has not been permitted to any other
+foreigners in China and which has been granted to these Koreans on
+account of the peculiar local conditions. According to reliable sources,
+the Korean population now amounts to over 200,000 which is more than the
+Chinese population itself. In 1909 an Agreement, known as the Tumen
+Kiang Boundary Agreement, was arrived at between China and Japan, who
+was then the acknowledged suzerain of Korea, dealing, inter alia, with
+the status of these Koreans. It was provided that while Koreans were to
+continue to enjoy protection of their landed property, they were to be
+subject to Chinese laws and to the jurisdiction of Chinese courts. The
+subsequent annexation of Korea did not affect this agreement in point of
+international law, and as a matter of practice Japan has adhered to it
+until September, 1915. Then the Japanese Consul suddenly interfered in
+the administration of justice by the local authorities over the Koreans
+and claimed that he should have jurisdiction.
+
+The Japanese claim is based on the Treaty Respecting South Manchuria and
+Eastern Inner Mongolia signed in May, 1915, article 5 of which provides
+that civil and criminal cases in which the defendants are Japanese shall
+be tried and adjudicated by the Japanese consul.
+
+The Chinese view is that this article is inapplicable to Koreans in this
+region and that the Tumen Kiang Agreement continues in force. This view
+is based on a saving clause in article 8 of the Treaty of 1915 which
+says that "all existing treaties between China and Japan relating to
+Manchuria shall, except where otherwise provided for by treaty, remain
+in force."
+
+In the first place, the origin of the Tumen Kiang Agreement supports
+this view. When the Japanese assumed suzerainty over Korea they raised
+certain questions as to the boundary between China and Korea. There were
+also outstanding several questions regarding railways and mines between
+China and Japan. Japan insisted that the boundary question and the
+railway and mining questions be settled at the same time. As a result,
+two agreements were concluded in 1909 one respecting the boundary
+question, the Tumen Kiang Agreement, and the other respecting railways
+and mines whereby Japan obtained many new and valuable privileges and
+concessions, such as the extension of the Kirin-Changchun Railway to the
+Korean frontier, the option on the Hsinminfu-Fakumen line, and the
+working of the Fushun and Yentai mines, while in return China obtained a
+bare recognition of existing rights, namely the boundary between China
+and Korea and the jurisdiction over the Koreans in the Yenchi region.
+The two settlements were in the nature of quid pro quo though it is
+clear that the Japanese side of the scale heavily outweighed that of the
+Chinese. Now Japan endeavours to repudiate, for no apparent reason so
+far as we can see, the agreement which formed the consideration whereby
+she obtained so many valuable concessions.
+
+Secondly, while Koreans are now Japanese subjects, it is contended by
+the Chinese that the particular Koreans inhabiting the Yenchi region
+are, as regards China, in a different position from Japanese subjects
+elsewhere. These Koreans enjoy the rights of free residence and of
+cultivating and owning land in the interior of China, rights denied to
+other foreigners, including Japanese who, even by the new treaty, may
+only lease land in South Manchuria. For this exceptional privilege, they
+are subject to the jurisdiction of Chinese laws and Chinese courts, a
+duty not imposed on other foreigners. It would be "blowing hot and cold
+at the same time" in the language of English lawyers if it is sought to
+enjoy the special privileges without performing the duties.
+
+Thirdly, Japanese under the Treaty of 1915 are required to register
+their passports with the local authorities. On the other hand, Koreans
+in Yenchi have never been nor are they now required to procure
+passports. This would seem to be conclusive proof that Koreans in that
+region are not within the provisions of the treaty of 1915 but are still
+governed by the Tumen Kiang Agreement.
+
+The question is something more than one of academic or even merely
+judicial importance. As has been stated, the Koreans in Yenchi outnumber
+the Chinese and the only thing that has kept the region Chinese
+territory in fact as well as in name is the possession by the Chinese of
+jurisdiction over every inhabitant, whether Chinese or Korean. Were
+China to surrender that jurisdiction over a majority of those
+inhabitants, it would be tantamount to a cession of territory.
+
+2º MACAO
+
+The dispute between China and Portugal over the Macao question has been
+one of long standing. The first treaty of commerce signed between them
+on August 13, 1862, at Tientsin, was not ratified in consequence of a
+dispute respecting the Sovereignty of Macao. By a Protocol signed at
+Lisbon on March 26, 1887, China formally recognized the perpetual
+occupation and government of Macao and its dependencies by Portugal, as
+any other Portuguese possession; and in December of the same year, when
+the formal treaty was signed, provision was made for the appointment of
+a Commission to delimit the boundaries of Macao; "but as long as the
+delimitation of the boundaries is not concluded, everything in respect
+to them shall continue as at present without addition, diminution or
+alteration by either of the Parties."
+
+In the beginning of 1908, a Japanese steamer, the _Tatsu Maru_, engaged
+in gun-running was captured by a Chinese customs cruiser near the
+Kauchau archipelago (Nove Ilhas). The Portuguese authorities demanded
+her release on the ground that she was seized in Portuguese territorial
+waters thus raising the question of the status of the waters surrounding
+Macao.
+
+In the same year the Portuguese authorities of Macao attempted the
+imposition of land tax in Maliaoho, and proposed to dredge the waterways
+in the vicinity of Macao. The Chinese Government thereupon instructed
+its Minister in France, who was also accredited to Portugal, to make
+personal representations to the Portuguese Foreign Office in regard to
+the unwarrantable action of the local Portuguese authorities. The
+Portuguese Government requested the withdrawal of Chinese troops on the
+Island of Lappa as a quid pro quo for the appointment of a new
+Demarcation Commissioner, reserving to itself the right to refer to The
+Hague Tribunal any dispute that may arise between the Commissioners
+appointed by the respective Governments.
+
+After protracted negotiations it was agreed between the Chinese Minister
+and the Portuguese Government by an exchange of notes that the
+respective Governments should each appoint a Demarcation Commissioner to
+delimit the boundaries of Macao and its dependencies in pursuance of the
+Lisbon Protocol and Article 2 of the Sino-Portuguese Treaty of 1887,
+subject to the decision of their respective Governments.
+
+THE PORTUGUESE CLAIM
+
+In February, 1909, Portugal appointed General Joaquim Machado and China
+Mr. Kao Erh-chien as their respective Commissioners and they met at
+Hongkong in June of the same year.
+
+The Portuguese claim consisted of the whole of the Peninsula of Macao as
+far north as Portas do Cerco, the Island of Lappa, Green Island (Ilha
+Verde), Ilhas de Taipa, Ilha de Coloane, Ilha Macarira, Ilha da
+Tai-Vong-Cam, other small islands, and the waters of Porto Interior.
+The Portuguese Commissioner also demanded that the portion of Chinese
+territory between Portas de Cerco and Peishanling be neutralized.
+
+In the absence of evidence, documentary or otherwise, China could not
+admit Portugal's title to half the territory claimed, but was prepared
+to concede all that part of the Peninsula of Macao south of Portas do
+Cerco which was already beyond the limits of the original Portuguese
+Possession of Macao, and also to grant the developed parts of Ilhas de
+Coloane as Portuguese settlements. The ownership of territorial waters
+was to remain vested in China.
+
+The negotiations having proved fruitless were transferred to Lisbon but
+on the outbreak of the Revolution in Portugal they were suspended. No
+material progress has been made since.
+
+3º TIBET
+
+In November, 1911, the Chinese garrison in Lhassa, in sympathy with the
+revolutionary cause in China, mutinied against Amban Lien-yu, a Chinese
+Bannerman, and a few months later the Tibetans, by order of the Dalai
+Lama, revolted and besieged the Chinese forces in Lhassa till they were
+starved out and eventually evacuated Tibet. Chinese troops in Kham were
+also ejected. An expedition was sent from Szechuan and Yunnan to Tibet,
+but Great Britain protested and caused its withdrawal.
+
+In August, 1912, the British Minister in Peking presented a Memorandum
+to the Chinese Government outlining the attitude of Great Britain
+towards the Tibetan question. China was asked to refrain from
+dispatching a military expedition into Tibet, as the re-establishment of
+Chinese authority would, it is stated, constitute a violation of the
+Anglo-Chinese Treaty of 1906. Chinese suzerainty in regard to Tibet was
+recognized. But Great Britain could not consent to the assertion of
+Chinese sovereignty over a State enjoying independent treaty relations
+with her. In conclusion, China was invited to come to an agreement
+regarding Tibet on the lines indicated in the Memorandum, such agreement
+to be antecedent to Great Britain's recognition of the Republic. Great
+Britain also imposed an embargo on the communications between China and
+Tibet via India.
+
+In deference to the wishes of the British Government, China at once
+issued orders that the expeditionary force should not proceed beyond
+Giamda. In her reply she declared that the Chinese Government had no
+intention of converting Tibet into another province of China and that
+the preservation of the traditional system of Tibetan government was as
+much the desire of China as of Great Britain. The dispatch of troops
+into Tibet was, however, necessary for the fulfilment of the
+responsibilities attaching to China's treaty obligations with Great
+Britain, which required her to preserve peace and order throughout that
+vast territory, but she did not contemplate the idea of stationing an
+unlimited number of soldiers in Tibet. China considered that the
+existing treaties defined the status of Tibet with sufficient clearness,
+and therefore there was no need to negotiate a new treaty. She
+expressed the regret that the Indian Government had placed an embargo on
+the communications between China and Tibet via India, as China was at
+peace with Great Britain and regretted that Great Britain should
+threaten to withhold recognition of the Republic, such recognition being
+of mutual advantage to both countries. Finally, the Chinese Government
+hoped that the British Government would reconsider its attitude.
+
+THE SIMLA CONFERENCE
+
+In May, 1913, the British Minister renewed his suggestion of the
+previous year that China should come to an agreement on the Tibetan
+question, and ultimately a Tripartite Conference was opened on October
+13, at Simla with Mr. Ivan Chen, Sir Henry McMahon, and Lonchen Shatra
+as plenipotentiaries representing China, Great Britain, and Tibet,
+respectively.
+
+The following is the substance of the Tibetan proposals:--
+
+1. Tibet shall be an independent State, repudiating the Anglo-Chinese
+Convention of 1906.
+
+2. The boundary of Tibet in regard to China includes that portion of
+Sinkiang south of Kuenlun Range and Altyn Tagh, the whole territory of
+Chinghai, the western portion of Kansuh and Szechuan, including
+Tachienlu and the northwestern portion of Yunnan, including Atuntzu.
+
+3. Great Britain and Tibet to negotiate, independent of China, new trade
+regulations.
+
+4. No Chinese officials and troops to be stationed in Tibet.
+
+5. China to recognize Dalai Lama as the head of the Buddhist Religion
+and institutions in Mongolia and China.
+
+6. China to compensate Tibet for forcible exactions of money or property
+taken from the Tibetan Government.
+
+The Chinese Plenipotentiary made the following counter-proposals:--
+
+1. Tibet forms an integral part of Chinese territory and Chinese rights
+of every description which have existed in consequence of this integrity
+shall be respected by Tibet and recognized by Great Britain. China
+engages not to convert Tibet into a province and Great Britain not to
+annex Tibet or any portion of it.
+
+2. China to appoint a Resident at Lhassa with an escort of 2,600
+soldiers.
+
+3. Tibet undertakes to be guided by China in her foreign and military
+affairs and not to enter into negotiations with any foreign Power except
+through the intermediary of China but this engagement does not exclude
+direct relations between British Trade Agents and Tibetan authorities as
+provided in the Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1906.
+
+4. Tibet to grant amnesty to those Tibetans known for their pro-Chinese
+inclinations and to restore to them their property.
+
+5. Clause 5 of Tibetan claims can be discussed.
+
+6. Revision of Trade Regulations of 1893 and 1908, if found necessary,
+must be made by all the parties concerned.
+
+7. In regard to the limits of Tibet China claims Giamda and all the
+places east of it.
+
+THE BOUNDARY DEADLOCK
+
+The British plenipotentiary sustained in the main the Tibetan view
+concerning the limits of Tibet. He suggested the creation of Inner and
+Outer Tibet by a line drawn along the Kuenlun Range to the 96th
+longitude, turning south reaching a point south of the 34th latitude,
+then in south-easterly direction to Niarong, passing Hokow, Litang,
+Batang in a western and then southern and southwestern direction to
+Rima, thus involving the inclusion of Chiamdo in Outer Tibet and the
+withdrawal of the Chinese garrison stationed there. He proposed that
+recognition should be accorded to the autonomy of Outer Tibet whilst
+admitting the right of the Chinese to re-establish such a measure of
+control in Inner Tibet as would restore and safeguard their historic
+position there, without in any way infringing the integrity of Tibet as
+a geographical and political entity. Sir Henry McMahon also submitted to
+the Conference a draft proposal of the Convention to the
+plenipotentiaries. After some modification this draft was initialled by
+the British and Tibetan delegates but the Chinese delegate did not
+consider himself authorized to do so. Thereupon the British member after
+making slight concessions in regard to representation in the Chinese
+Parliament and the boundary in the neighbourhood of Lake Kokonor
+threatened, in the event of his persisting in his refusal, to eliminate
+the clause recognizing the suzerainty of China, and ipso facto the
+privileges appertaining thereto from the draft Convention already
+initialled by the British and Tibetan plenipotentiaries. In order to
+save the situation, the Chinese delegate initialled the documents, but
+on the clear understanding that to initial and to sign were two
+different things and that to sign he must obtain instructions from his
+Government.
+
+China, dissatisfied with the suggested division into an Inner and Outer
+Tibet the boundaries of which would involve the evacuation of those
+districts actually in Chinese effective occupation and under its
+administration, though otherwise in accord with the general principles
+of the draft Convention, declared that the initialled draft was in no
+way binding upon her and took up the matter with the British Government
+in London and with its representative in Peking. Protracted negotiations
+took place thereafter, but, in spite of repeated concessions from the
+Chinese side in regard to the boundary question, the British Government
+would not negotiate on any basis other than the initialled convention.
+On July 3 an Agreement based on the terms of the draft Convention but
+providing special safe-guards for the interests of Great Britain and
+Tibet in the event of China continuing to withhold her adherence, was
+signed between Great Britain and Tibet, not, however, before Mr. Ivan
+Chen had declared that the Chinese Government would recognize any treaty
+or similar document that might then or thereafter be signed between
+Great Britain and Tibet.
+
+CHINA'S STANDPOINT
+
+With the same spirit of compromise and a readiness to meet the wishes of
+the British Government and even to the extent of making considerable
+sacrifices in so far as they were compatible with her dignity, China has
+more than once offered to renew negotiations with the British Government
+but the latter has up to the present declined to do so. China wants
+nothing more than the re-establishment of Chinese suzerainty over Tibet,
+with recognition of the autonomy of the territory immediately under the
+control of the Lhassa Government; she is agreeable to the British idea
+of forming an effective buffer territory in so far as it is consistent
+with equity and justice; she is anxious that her trade interest should
+be looked after by her trade agents as do the British, a point which is
+agreeable even to the Tibetans, though apparently not to the British; in
+other words, she expects that Great Britain would at least make with her
+an arrangement regarding Tibet which should not be any less
+disadvantageous to her than that made with Russia respecting Outer
+Mongolia.
+
+Considering that China has claimed and exercised sovereign rights over
+Tibet, commanded the Tibetan army, supervised Tibetan internal
+administration, and confirmed the appointments of Tibetan officials,
+high and low, secular and even ecclesiastical, such expectations are
+modest enough, surely. At the present moment, with communication via
+India closed, with no official representative or agent present, with
+relations unsettled and unregulated, the position of China _vis-à-vis_
+Tibet is far from satisfactory and altogether anomalous, while as
+between China and Great Britain there is always this important question
+outstanding. An early settlement in a reciprocal spirit of give and take
+and giving reasonable satisfaction to the legitimate aspirations and
+claims of all parties is extremely desirable.
+
+4º OUTER MONGOLIA
+
+The world is more or less acquainted with the events in Urga in
+December, 1911, and the proclamation of independence of Outer Mongolia
+with Jetsun Dampa Hutukhtu as its ruler. By the Russo-Chinese
+Declaration of November 5, 1913, and the Tripartite Convention of
+Kiakhta of 1914 China has re-established her suzerainty over Outer
+Mongolia and obtained the acknowledgment that it forms a part of the
+Chinese territory. There remains the demarcation of boundary between
+Inner and Outer Mongolia which will take place shortly, and the
+outstanding question of the status of Tannu Uriankhai where Russia is
+lately reported to be subjecting the inhabitants to Russian jurisdiction
+and expelling Chinese traders.
+
+The Tannu Uriankhai lands, according to the Imperial Institutes of the
+Tsing Dynasty, were under the control of the Tartar General of
+Uliasutai, the Sain Noin Aimak, the Jasaktu Khan Aimak and the Jetsun
+Dampa Hutkhta, and divided into forty-eight somons (tsoling).
+Geographically, according to the same authority, Tannu Uriankhai is
+bounded on the north by Russia, east by Tushetu Khan Aimak, west by the
+various aimaks of Kobdo, and south by Jasaktu Khan Aimak. By a Joint
+Demarcation Commission in 1868 the Russo Chinese boundary in respect to
+Uriankhai was demitted and eight wooden boundary posts were erected to
+mark their respective frontiers.
+
+In 1910, however, a Russian officer removed and burnt the boundary post
+at Chapuchi Yalodapa. The matter was taken up by the then Waiwupu with
+the Russian Minister. He replied to the effect that the limits of
+Uriankhai were an unsettled question and the Russian Government would
+not entertain the Chinese idea of taking independent steps to remark the
+boundary or to replace the post and expressed dissatisfaction with the
+work of the Joint Demarcation Commission of 1868, a dissatisfaction
+which would seem to be somewhat tardily expressed, to say the least. The
+case was temporarily dropped on account of the secession of Uliasutai
+from China in the following year.
+
+While Uriankhai forms part of Autonomous Outer Mongolia, yet since Outer
+Mongolia is under China's suzerainty, and its territory is expressly
+recognized to form part of that of China, China cannot look on with
+indifference to any possible cession of territory by Outer Mongolia to
+Russia. Article 3 of the Kaikhta Agreement, 1915, prohibiting Outer
+Mongolia from concluding treaties with foreign powers respecting
+political and territorial questions acknowledges China's right to
+negotiate and make such treaties. It is the firm intention of the
+Chinese Government to maintain its territorial integrity basing its case
+on historical records, on treaty rights and finally on the principle of
+nationality. It is notorious that the Mongols will be extremely
+unwilling to see Uriankhai incorporated into the Russian Empire. While
+Russia is spending countless lives and incalculable treasure in fighting
+for the sacred principle of nationality in Europe, we cannot believe
+that the will deliberately violate the same principle in Asia.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Abdication Edict of 1912, text of
+Absolutism, the myth of
+Agreement between the Revolutionary Party and Europe and Asia Trading Co.
+America drops out of the Six-Power group
+American press agents
+  treaty opening Korea
+America's Chinese policy
+Anglo-Japanese treaty
+Annuity of Manchu Imperial Family
+Antung-Mukden railway
+Ariga, Dr.
+Army Reorganization Council
+"Articles of Favourable Treatment for the Manchus"
+  text of
+
+Babachapu
+Bannerman families
+Belgian loan, the
+  Syndicate
+Black Dragon Society, the
+  memorandum of
+Black Dragon Society's review of European war issues
+Boycott on Japanese commerce
+Boxer Indemnities postponed
+  rebellion, the
+  and European intervention
+British policies in China
+  position towards the Yuan Shih-kai régime
+
+Cambaluc of Marco Polo, the
+Canton province
+Cassini Convention, the
+Catholic, Roman, controversies
+Central Government, organization of
+Chang Cheng-wu, Gen.
+  execution of
+Chang Chih-tung
+Chang Hsun, Gen.
+Chang Kuo-kan
+Chang Tso-lin, Gen.
+Chang, Tsung-hsiang
+Chang Yao Ching and the Europe
+  and Asia Trading Co.
+Chen Yi, Gen.
+Chengchiatun incident, the
+Chekiang revolts against Yuan Shih-kai
+Chia Ching, emperor
+Chiang Chao-tsung, Gen.
+Chiang Chun, the
+Ch'ien Lung, emperor
+Chih Fa Chu, or Military Court, at Pekin
+Chihli province
+China,
+  and her foreign residents
+  and the Foreign Powers, outstanding
+  cases between
+  and the German submarine war
+  considers war with Germany
+  declares war against Germany
+China's,
+  break with Germany, causes leading to
+  economics, weakness of
+  financial reorganization
+  future in Manchuria
+  Imperial Government, negativeness
+  disguised
+  indignation at Japan's ultimatum
+  note to Germany severing relations
+  neutrality position
+  new régime
+  passivity
+  polity, principles of
+  protest against submarine war
+  reception of Wilson's Peace note
+  reply to Demands of Japan
+  reply to Japan's ultimatum
+  reply to President Wilson
+  tariff question
+Chinese army,
+  German trained
+  boycott of the French
+  intrigues in Korea
+Ching, Prince
+Chino-Japanese,
+  relations
+  secret alliance proposed
+  treaties of 1915, text of
+Chinputang, the (Progressives)
+_Chou An Hui_ (Society for the Preservation of Peace)
+Chow Tzu-chi
+Chu Chi-chun's telegram devising plans for electing Yuan Shih-kai as
+    Emperor
+Ch'un, Prince Regent
+Chungking, open port
+Clausewitz, war-principle of
+Conference of Governors on the war question
+Confucian worship re-established by Yuan Shih-kai
+Conquest,
+  Manchu, of XVIIth Century
+  Mongol, of XIIIth Century
+Consolidating national debt
+Constitution,
+  first granted in Japan
+  Permanent, work on
+"Constitutional Compact"
+  of Yuan Shih-kai
+  text of
+  monarchy planned
+Continental quadrilateral, the, of Japan
+_Coup d'état_, the, of Sept., 1898
+_Coup d'état_, the parliamentary of 1913
+Crisp, Birch, attempts to float loan
+
+Dane, Sir Richard
+Death of Empress Lun Yi
+Decree cancelling the Empire
+Defence of the monarchial movement,
+  by Yang Tu
+  by Dr. Goodnow
+_Dementi_, 1913, of Yuan Shih-kai
+Diet of Japan, first summoned
+Diplomatic relations with China broken
+Distance in China, philosophy of
+
+Eastern Asia, contestants for land-power in
+Election,
+  of 1913
+  of Yuan Shih-kai as emperor, machinery of
+  the, of 1915
+  records ordered burnt
+Electoral College, provision for
+Emperor,
+  analysis of powers of
+  Chia Ching
+  Ch'ien Lung
+  Hsiaouri
+  Hsuan Tung
+  K'ang-hsi
+  Kwanghsu
+Emperors, immurement of in Forbidden City
+Empire, the dissolution of
+Empress,
+  Lun Yi, death of
+  Tsu Hsi
+Europe and Asia Trading Co., the
+European War,
+  the, its effect in China
+  China's predilection for Teutonism
+  consideration of war-partnership with the Allies
+  Japan's opposition
+  German propaganda
+  Pres. Wilson's Peace Note
+  China's reply
+  the submarine question
+  note to Germany
+  reply to
+America
+  Chinese diplomacy enters a new field
+  Japan's policies
+  China considers breaking diplomatic relations with Germany
+  Parliament's action
+  Germany's reply to China's note
+  diplomatic relations severed
+  German Minister leaves Pekin
+  Liang Ch'i-chao's Memorandum
+  Kang Yu-wei's Memorandum
+  Cabinet decides on war
+  interpellation to the Government
+  Parliament mobbed
+  Cabinet resigns
+  Japan's subterranean activities
+  note of the United States
+  war against Germany declared
+Europeans failed to recognize true state of Chinese government
+
+Feng Kuo-chang, Gen.
+Fengtien, Manchurian province
+Feudal organization of Japan
+Finance,
+  between the provinces
+  the binding chain between provincial
+  and metropolitan China
+Financial troubles
+Foochow arsenal
+Forbidden City, immurement of emperors in
+Foreign Debt Commission
+  intervention threatened
+  loan, the first
+  loans
+Foreigners in China, position of
+Four-Power group, the
+France's status after the war
+Franco-Belgian Syndicate
+French,
+  diplomacy in China
+  Republic, Goodnow review of
+  the, and the Lao-hsi-kai dispute
+  the, Chinese boycott of
+Fuhkien province
+
+German,
+  Boxer indemnity
+  diplomatic relations broken
+  minister leaves Pekin
+  negotiations with Yuan Shih-kai
+  propaganda in China
+  reply to China's protest
+  war declaration considered
+Germany, war against declared
+Germany's status after the war
+Goodnow, Dr.
+  legal adviser of Yuan Shih-kai
+  memorandum of
+Gordon, General
+Government, the Central, definition of
+Governmental system of the Manchu dynasty
+Great Britain's status after the war
+
+Hankow editor flogged to death
+Hangchow, open port
+Hanyang arsenal
+Hanyehping Company, the
+Heilungchiang, Manchurian province
+Hioki, Dr., Japanese Minister
+Hsianfu flight, the
+Hsaiochan camp, the
+  Division, the
+Hsiaowu, emperor
+Hsuan Tung,
+  boy emperor
+  enthroned
+_Huai Chun_, the
+Huang Hsin
+Hutuktu, the Living Buddha of Urga
+
+Imperial Clan Society
+Imperialist-Republican conflict of 1917
+Inner Mongolia, political unrest in
+Insurrection of the "White Wolfs"
+International Debt Commission
+  financial contests
+Interpellation to the government on
+  the question of war with Germany
+Ito, Prince
+
+Japan,
+  and Korea
+  and the Kiaochow campaign
+  demands participation in loan
+  demands the Kiaochow territory from Germany
+  feudal organization of
+  first Diet summoned
+  forced to revise the Twenty-one Demands
+  forecasts result of European War
+  formation of the Shogunate in
+  inquires as to the monarchial movement
+  militarism in
+  receives fugitive President Li Yuan-hung
+  recognizes Yuan Shih-kai as Dictator
+  socialism in
+  the new Far Eastern policy after Russian war
+Japan-China secret alliance proposed
+Japanese,
+  Constitution first granted
+  driven from Tong Kwan Palace
+  incident at Chengchiatun
+  intrigues
+  Liberalism vs. Imperialism
+  merchants and Lun Yat Sen, alleged secret agreement
+  war indemnity
+  war of 1894
+Japan's,
+  activities in the Yangtsze Valley
+  account of the Chengchiatun incident
+  alarm at the Chinese revolution
+  animosity towards Yuan Shih-kai
+  attitude toward Yuan Shih-kai
+  Chinese policy
+  "Continental quadrilateral"
+  Doctrine of Maximum Pressure
+  Far East activities
+  German policy
+  government foundry at Wakamatsu
+  influence in China on European war question
+  influence on the monarchial election
+  influence over China's war measures
+  original Twenty-one Demands
+  Pekin Expeditionary Force
+  police rights in Manchuria
+  political history
+  pressure on Yuan Shih-kai
+  subterranean activities in China in 1916
+  ultimatum to China, 88-91; China's reply
+  ultimatum, China's indignation at
+  Twenty-four Demands
+Jehol, mountain palaces of
+Jung Lu, viceroy of Chihli
+
+Kameio Nishihara
+Kang Yu Wei
+K'ang-hsi, emperor
+Kato, Japanese Viscount
+Kawasaki Kulanoske
+Kiaochow campaign,
+  unpopularity of, in Japan
+  demanded by Japan
+Kirin, Manchurian province
+Kirin-Changchun railway
+Kiushiu, island of
+Ko-lao-hui, the, origin of
+Korea, the opening of
+Korean question, the
+_Kowshing_, British steamer, sinking of
+Kublai Khan
+Kueichow province, revolt of
+Kuomingtang, the
+Kuo-ti,
+  the question of
+Kwanghsu, emperor
+Kwangsi province, revolt of
+Kwangtung revolts against Yuan Shih-kai
+Lansdowne, Lord
+Lao-hsi-kai dispute, the
+Legations in Pekin,
+  their attitude towards Yuan Shih-kai
+  inquire as to the monarchial movement
+Li Hung Chang
+Li Lieh-chun, Gen.
+Li Yuan-hung
+  elected President
+  assumes the office
+  first presidential acts
+  monarchists plot against him
+  his early life and career
+  his position as to breaking diplomatic relations with Germany
+  he dissolves Parliament
+  escapes from Pekin
+  his important telegrams
+Liang Ch'i-chao,
+  resigns from Ministry of Justice
+  his accusation of Yuan Shih-kai
+  his address to Yuan Shih-kai
+  opposes the movement
+  directs the Yunnan revolt
+  writes note to Germany on the submarine war
+  his Memorandum on the war question
+  upholds the Republic
+Liang Shih-yi, political power of
+_Likin_ taxation, introduction of
+Liu-Kuan-hsiung
+Loan Agreement,
+  details of
+  first foreign
+  foreign, struggles over
+Local Government Law, draft of
+Lu Yun Ting, Gen.
+Lun Yi, empress, death of
+Lung Chi-Kwang, Gen.
+  created Prince
+Lung Yu, Empress
+Mahommedan rebellions
+Manchu conquest, the,
+  of XVIIth Century
+  dynasty, governmental system of
+  plots against
+  Imperial Family annuity
+  people, number and distribution
+Manchuria,
+  Chinese domination of
+  Japan's intrigues in
+Manchurian policy of the Twenty-One
+  Demands
+Mandate of Cancellation,
+  the
+  Yuan Shih-kai's last
+Manifesto of Gen. Tuan Chi-jui
+Marco Polo
+Marriage, immunity of Chinese women,
+  with Manchus
+Meiji, Japanese Emperor
+Memorandum,
+  of Dr. Goodnow
+  of policy of the Black Dragon Society
+  on Tariff Revision, draft of
+Militarism in Japan
+Military Governors,
+  independence of
+  attempt to coerce Parliament
+  leave Pekin
+  assemble in rebellion at Tientsin
+  party opposition to New Republic
+Mining privileges demanded by Japan
+Ministerial irresponsibility
+Modern commercialism, invasion of
+Monarchial movement,
+  Yang Tu's defence of
+  Dr. Goodnow's defence of
+Monarchy adopts a new calendar
+Monarchy vs. Republicanism, memorandum
+  by Dr. Goodnow
+Monetary confusion in the new Republic
+Money the bond of Chinese union
+Mongol conquest, the, of XIIIth Century
+Mongolian policy of the Twenty-one Demands
+Nanking
+  Conference, the
+  Delegates
+  Provisional Constitution
+National debt, consolidation of
+  Salvation Fund
+Nationalists, the (Kuomingtang)
+New calendar adopted
+New Republic,
+  organization of
+  opposition of the Military party
+Neutrality position of China
+Ni Shih-chung, Gen.
+Nineteen Articles, the, text of
+  Fundamental Articles, the
+
+Oath of office, presidential
+Outer Mongolia question
+  autonomy conceded to
+
+"Palace of Generals"
+Pamphlet of Yang Tu
+Parliament,
+  composition of
+  provides for election of President
+  Radical members unseated
+  session of 1916
+  dissensions over dissolution
+  is dissolved
+Parliamentary,
+  change by the "Constitutional Compact"
+  struggles
+Peace note, President Wilson's, China's
+  reply to
+Peace of Portsmouth
+Pekin, distances from
+Peking System vs. Manchu Dynasty
+Permanent Constitution
+  draft of
+Pinghsiang collieries
+Presidential,
+  Election Law of 1913
+  oath of office
+  Succession Law, the
+    text of
+Progressives, the (Chinputang)
+Provincial capitals, influence and power of
+  financial system
+  system of government
+Provisional Constitution of 1912,
+  text of
+  Nanking Constitution, the
+
+Railway concessions demanded by Japan
+  construction, progress of, under Yuan Shih-kai
+Rebellion of 1813
+Referendum arranged for by Senate
+Reform Edicts of 1898
+Religious provisions of "The Constitutional Compact"
+Reorganization loan, the
+Republic proclaimed
+  recognition of by the Powers
+Republic's anniversary, non-observance of
+  review of in Goodnow Memorandum
+Republican-Imperialist Conflict of 1917
+Restoration Edict of Hsuan Tung
+Revolt of February, 1912
+Revolution of 1911
+  effect on Japan
+Revolutionary base at Hankow, Hanyang and Wuchang
+  Party and the Europe and Asia Trading Co. agreement
+Rioting in Pekin
+Russia demands participation in loan
+  recognizes the independence of Tibet
+  agrees to autonomy of Outer Mongolia
+Russian loan, the
+Russia's Chinese policy
+  rôle in the Far East
+  status after the war
+Russo-Chinese Agreement of 1913, text of
+  Declaration, the
+  -Mongolian tripartite agreement of 1915, text of
+
+Salt Administration, the
+Santuao harbour
+Secret society plots
+Sectional dispute
+Senate, rules of
+Shanghai, specie hoarded at
+Shansi Bankers
+Shantung and the Twenty-One Demands
+  province, Yuan Shih-kai appointed governor
+Shasi, open port
+Shogunate, establishment of, in Japan
+Six-Power group, the
+Socialism in Japan
+Society for the Preservation of Peace (Chou An Hui)
+Soochow, open port
+South Manchurian railway
+Southern Confederacy formed
+  dissolution of
+  Rebellion, the
+Special Constitutional Drafting Committee
+Specie payment suspended in Pekin
+Submarine war question
+Sun Yat Sen, Dr.
+  his alleged secret agreement with Japan
+Sung Chiao-jen, assassination of
+Sungari River
+Szechuan province revolts against Yuan Shih-kai
+
+Taiping rebellion
+Tanaka, Gen.
+Taonanfu administration
+Tariff reformation
+Tax collection
+Tayeh iron mines
+Tibet, independence of recognized by Russia
+Tieh Liang
+Tientsin rebellion of the Military Governors
+Tong Kwan Palace, the battle at
+Tong Shao-yi
+Treaty of Shimonoseki
+Treaty-ports, economical effects of
+Tsao-ao, Gen.
+Tsao Ju-lin
+Tsan Cheng Yuan, passes a "king-making" bill
+Tseng Kuo-fan, Marquis
+Tsung She Tang, the
+Tuan Chi-jui, Gen.
+Tung Fu-hsiang
+Twenty-Four Demands,
+  Japan's revised
+  China's reply to
+Twenty-One Demands of Japan
+  Japan forced to revise
+  the psychology of
+  China's reply to
+Tzu-Hsi, Empress
+
+United States, Goodnow's review of
+
+Viceroy's, prerogatives of in Chinese government
+
+Wai Chiao Pu conference
+Wakamatsu, Japanese government foundry at
+Wang Yi-tang
+War memorandums
+"White Wolfs," insurrection of
+Wilson, President
+Wu, C.C., Dr.
+Wu Chang-ching, Gen.
+Wu Ting-fang, Dr.
+
+Yang Tu,
+  champion of neo-imperialists
+  publisher famous pamphlet
+  the pamphlet
+Yangtsze Valley, Japanese activities in
+Yuan Shih-kai
+  the bailiff of the Powers
+  his early life
+  first emerges into public view
+  in Seoul
+  appointed Imperial Resident at Seoul
+  leaves Korea
+  in command of Hsaiochan camp
+  refuses to depose Empress Tzu-Hsi
+  appointed Governor of Shantung
+  defeats the Boxers
+  made Viceroy of Chihli
+  reorganizes the army
+  made Grand Councillor and President of
+  the Board of Foreign Affairs
+  made "Senior Guardian of the Heir Apparent"
+  dismissed from Pekin
+  appointed Viceroy of Hupeh and Hunan
+  appointed President of Grand Council
+  schemes for the abdication of the Manchu Dynasty
+  attempted, assassination of
+  commissioned to organize the Republic
+  elected Provisional President
+  takes oath of office
+  negotiates the Reorganization loan
+  negotiates and controls the great foreign loan
+  suppresses the Southern rebellion
+  elected full President
+  unseats Radical members of Parliament
+  entices Vice-President to Pekin
+  position strengthened by death of
+  Empress Lun Yi
+  ruthless suppression of opposition
+  brings out the Constitutional Compact
+  promulgates the Presidential Succession law
+  creates a "Palace of Generals"
+  negotiates with Germany
+  animosity of Japan
+  his _démenti_ of
+  bribes the Japanese press
+  his Dictatorship recognized by Japan
+  the _précis_ of Japanese Minister's coercive conversation
+  reviewed in Black Dragon Society's Memorandum
+  intrigues of his family
+  he yields to advocates of monarchy
+  invokes services of Yang-tu
+  his interview with Gen. Feng Kuo-chang
+  his accusation by Liang Chi-chao
+  throws responsibility on the Senate
+  his Mandate for a referendum
+  elected Emperor
+  substitutes title of Emperor for President
+  refuses, then accepts the throne
+  the revolt of Yunnan
+  he rehearses court ceremonies
+  his position weakens
+  the communication from Liang Ch'i-chao
+  attempts to placate Japan
+  distributes patents of nobility
+  financial troubles
+  issues the Mandate of Cancellation
+  his retirement sought
+  he offers to resign
+  his death
+  his last mandate
+  his funeral
+  his policy towards the European War
+Yunnan revolt of 1916
+
+
+
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Fight For The Republic in China, by
+Bertram Lenox Putnam Weale</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: The Fight For The Republic in China</p>
+<p>Author: Bertram Lenox Putnam Weale</p>
+<p>Release Date: December 13, 2004  [eBook #14345]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FIGHT FOR THE REPUBLIC IN CHINA***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4 class="center">E-text prepared by Jonathan Ingram<br />
+                   and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+	<hr class="full" />
+	<p>&nbsp;</p>
+		<h1>THE FIGHT<br />
+		    FOR THE REPUBLIC<br />
+		    IN CHINA</h1>
+		<h2 class="center">By B. L. Putnam Weale</h2>
+		<h3 class="center">Author of <i>Indiscreet Letters from Peking</i>, etc.</h3>
+		<h3 class="center">WITH 28 ILLUSTRATIONS</h3>
+		<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+		<h6 class="center">London: Hurst &amp; Blackett, Ltd.<br />
+		Paternoster House, E.C.</h6>
+		<h3 class="center">1918</h3>
+		<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE01" id="IMAGE01"></a>
+			<a href="images/image01.jpg">
+				<img src="images/image01.jpg" width="70%" alt="President Li Yuan-Hung." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>President Li Yuan-Hung.</p>
+		</div>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+		<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2>
+		<p>This volume tells everything that the student or the casual reader needs
+to know about the Chinese Question. It is sufficiently exhaustive to
+show very clearly the new forces at work, and to bring some realisation
+of the great gulf which separates the thinking classes of to-day from
+the men of a few years ago; whilst, at the same time, it is sufficiently
+condensed not to overwhelm the reader with too great a multitude of
+facts.</p>
+		<p>Particular attention may be devoted to an unique feature&mdash;namely, the
+Chinese and Japanese documentation which affords a sharp contrast
+between varying types of Eastern brains. Thus, in the Memorandum of the
+Black Dragon Society (Chapter VII) we have a very clear and illuminating
+revelation of the Japanese political mind which has been trained to
+consider problems in the modern Western way, but which remains saturated
+with theocratic ideals in the sharpest conflict with the Twentieth
+Century. In the pamphlet of Yang Tu (Chapter VIII) which launched the
+ill-fated Monarchy Scheme and contributed so largely to the dramatic
+death of Yuan Shih-kai, we have an essentially Chinese mentality of the
+reactionary or corrupt type which expresses itself both on home and
+foreign issues in a na&iuml;vely dishonest way, helpful to future diplomacy.
+In the Letter of Protest (Chapter X) against the revival of Imperialism
+written by Liang Ch'i-chao&mdash;the most brilliant scholar living&mdash;we have a
+Chinese of the New or Liberal China, who in spite of a complete
+ignorance of foreign languages shows a marvellous grasp of political
+absolutes, and is a harbinger of the great days which must come again to
+Cathay. In other chapters dealing with the monarchist plot we see the
+official mind at work, the telegraphic despatches exchanged between
+Peking and the provinces being of the highest diplomatic interest. These
+documents prove conclusively that although the Japanese is more
+practical than the Chinese&mdash;and more concise&mdash;there can be no question
+as to which brain is the more fruitful.</p>
+		<p>Coupled with this discussion there is much matter giving an insight into
+the extraordinary and calamitous foreign ignorance about present-day
+China, an ignorance which is just as marked among those resident in the
+country as among those who have never visited it. The whole of the
+material grouped in this novel fashion should not fail to bring
+conviction that the Far East, with its 500 millions of people, is
+destined to play an important r&ocirc;le in <i>postbellum</i> history because of
+the new type of modern spirit which is being there evolved. The
+influence of the Chinese Republic, in the opinion of the writer, cannot
+fail to be ultimately world-wide in view of the practically unlimited
+resources in man-power which it disposes of.</p>
+		<p>In the Appendices will be found every document of importance for the
+period under examination,&mdash;1911 to 1917. The writer desires to record
+his indebtedness to the columns of <i>The Peking Gazette</i>, a newspaper
+which under the brilliant editorship of Eugene Ch'en&mdash;a pure Chinese
+born and educated under the British flag&mdash;has fought consistently and
+victoriously for Liberalism and Justice and has made the Republic a
+reality to countless thousands who otherwise would have refused to
+believe in it.</p>
+		<p>PUTNAM WEALE.</p>
+		<p>PEKING, June, 1917.</p>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+		<h2>
+			<a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+		<p>
+			<a href="#CHAPTER_I">I.&mdash;GENERAL INTRODUCTION</a>
+			<br />
+			<br />
+			<a href="#CHAPTER_II">II.&mdash;THE ENIGMA OF YUAN SHIH-KAI</a>
+			<br />
+			<br />
+			<a href="#CHAPTER_III">III.&mdash;THE DREAM REPUBLIC</a>
+			<br />
+(From the Manchu Abdication to the dissolution of Parliament)<br />
+			<br />
+			<a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV.&mdash;THE DICTATOR AT WORK</a>
+			<br />
+(From the Coup d'&eacute;tat of the 4th Nov. 1913 to the outbreak of the<br />
+World-war, 1st August, 1914)<br />
+			<br />
+			<a href="#CHAPTER_V">V.&mdash;THE FACTOR OF JAPAN</a>
+			<br />
+			<br />
+			<a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI.&mdash;THE TWENTY-ONE DEMANDS</a>
+			<br />
+			<br />
+			<a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII.&mdash;THE ORIGIN OF THE TWENTY-ONE DEMANDS</a>
+			<br />
+			<br />
+			<a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">VIII.&mdash;THE MONARCHIST PLOT</a>
+			<br />
+1<sup>o</sup> The Pamphlet of Yang Tu<br />
+			<br />
+			<a href="#CHAPTER_IX">IX.&mdash;THE MONARCHY PLOT</a>
+			<br />
+2<sup>o</sup> Dr. Goodnow's Memorandum<br />
+			<br />
+			<a href="#CHAPTER_X">X.&mdash;THE MONARCHY MOVEMENT IS OPPOSED</a>
+			<br />
+The Appeal of the Scholar Liang Chi-chao<br />
+			<br />
+			<a href="#CHAPTER_XI">XI.&mdash;THE DREAM EMPIRE</a>
+			<br />
+(&quot;The People's Voice&quot; and the action of the Powers)<br />
+			<br />
+			<a href="#CHAPTER_XII">XII.&mdash;&quot;THE THIRD REVOLUTION&quot;</a>
+			<br />
+The Revolt of Yunnan<br />
+			<br />
+			<a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">XIII.&mdash;&quot;THE THIRD REVOLUTION&quot; (<i>continued</i>)</a>
+			<br />
+Downfall and Death of Yuan Shih-kai<br />
+			<br />
+			<a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">XIV.&mdash;THE NEW R&Eacute;GIME&mdash;FROM 1916 TO 1917</a>
+			<br />
+			<br />
+			<a href="#CHAPTER_XV">XV.&mdash;THE REPUBLIC IN COLLISION WITH REALITY: TWO TYPICAL INSTANCES OF<br />
+&quot;FOREIGN AGGRESSION&quot;</a>
+			<br />
+			<br />
+			<a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">XVI.&mdash;CHINA AND THE WAR</a>
+			<br />
+			<br />
+			<a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">XVII.&mdash;THE FINAL PROBLEM:&mdash;REMODELLING THE POLITICO-ECONOMIC<br />
+RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHINA AND THE WORLD</a>
+			<br />
+			<br />
+			<a href="#APPENDIX">APPENDICES&mdash;DOCUMENTS AND MEMORANDA</a>
+			<br />
+		</p>
+		<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+		<h2><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image01.jpg">President Li Yuan-Hung</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image02.jpg" >The Funeral of Yuan-Shih-kai: The Procession passing down the great
+  Palace Approach with the famous Ch'ien Men (Gate) in the distance</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image03.jpg" >The Provincial Troops of General Chang Hsun at his Headquarters of
+  Hsuchowfu</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image04.jpg" >The Funeral of Yuan Shih-kai: The Catafalque over the Coffin on its
+  way to the Railway Station</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image05.jpg" >The Funeral of Yuan Shih-kai: The Procession passing down the great
+  Palace Approach with the famous Ch'ien Men (Gate) in the distance</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image06.jpg" >An Encampment of &quot;The Punitive Expedition&quot; of 1916 on the Upper
+  Yangtsze (<i>By courtesy of Major Isaac Newell, U.S. Military Attach&eacute;</i>.)</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image07.jpg" >Revival of the Imperialistic Worship of Heaven by Yuan Shih-kai in
+  1914: Scene on the Altar of Heaven, with Sacrificial Officers clothed
+  in costumes dating from 2,000 years ago.</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image08.jpg" >A Manchu Country Fair: The figures in the foreground are all Manchu
+  Women and Girls</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image09.jpg" >A Manchu Woman grinding Grain</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image10.jpg" >Silk-reeling done in the open under the Walls of Peking</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image11.jpg" >Modern Peking: A Run on a Bank</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image12.jpg" >The Re-opening of Parliament on August 1st, 1916, after three years of
+  dictatorial rule</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image13.jpg" >The Original Constitutional Drafting Committee of 1913, photographed
+  on the Steps of the Temple of Heaven, where the Draft was completed</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image14.jpg" >A Presidential Review of Troops in the Southern Hungtung Park outside
+  Peking: Arrival of the President</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image15.jpg" >President Li Yuan-Hung and the General Staff watching the Review</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image16.jpg" >March-past of an Infantry Division</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image17.jpg" >Modern Peking: The Palace Entrance lined with Troops. Note the New
+  Type Chinese Policeman in the foreground</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image18.jpg" >The Premier General Tuan Chi-Jui, Head of the Cabinet which decided to
+  declare war on Germany.</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image19.jpg" >General Feng Kuo-chang, President of the
+  Republic.</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image20.jpg" >The Scholar Liang Chi-chao, sometime Minister of Justice, and
+  the foremost &quot;Brain&quot; in China</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image21.jpg" >General Tsao-ao, the Hero of the Yunnan Rebellion of 1915-16, who died
+  from the effects of the campaign</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image22.jpg" >Liang Shih-yi, who was the Power behind Yuan Shih-kai, now proscribed
+  and living in exile at Hong-Kong</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image23.jpg" >The Famous or Infamous General Chang Hsun, the leading Reactionary in
+  China to-day, who still commands a force of 30,000 men astride of the
+  Pukow Railway</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image24.jpg" >The Bas-relief in a Peking Temple, well illustrating Indo-Chinese
+  Influences</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image25.jpg" >The Late President Yuan Shih-kai</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image26.jpg" >President Yuan Shih-kai photographed immediately after his
+  Inauguration as Provisional President, March 10th, 1912</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image27.jpg" >The National Assembly sitting as a National Convention engaged on the
+  Draft of the Permanent Constitution. (Specially photographed by
+  permission of the Speakers for the Present Work)</a>
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a href="images/image28.jpg" >View from rear of the Hall of the National Assembly sitting as a
+  National Convention engaged on the Draft of the Permanent
+  Constitution. (Specially photographed by permission of the Speakers
+  for the Present Work) </a>
+		</p>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+		<p><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">1</span></p>
+		<h2>
+		<a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>
+		CHAPTER I</h2>
+		<h3>GENERAL INTRODUCTION</h3>
+		<p>The revolution which broke out in China on the 10th October, 1911, and
+which was completed with the abdication of the Manchu Dynasty on the
+12th February, 1912, though acclaimed as highly successful, was in its
+practical aspects something very different. With the proclamation of the
+Republic, the fiction of autocratic rule had truly enough vanished; yet
+the tradition survived and with it sufficient of the essential machinery
+of Imperialism to defeat the nominal victors until the death of Yuan
+Shih-kai.</p>
+		<p>The movement to expel the Manchus, who had seized the Dragon Throne in
+1644 from the expiring Ming Dynasty, was an old one. Historians are
+silent on the subject of the various secret plots which were always
+being hatched to achieve that end, their silence being due to a lack of
+proper records and to the difficulty of establishing the simple truth in
+a country where rumour reigns supreme. But there is little doubt that
+the famous Ko-lao-hui, a Secret Society with its headquarters in the
+remote province of Szechuan, owed its origin to the last of the Ming
+adherents, who after waging a desperate guerilla warfare from the date
+of their expulsion from Peking, finally fell to the low level of
+inciting assassinations and general unrest in the vain hope that they
+might some day regain their heritage.
+<a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">2</span>
+At least, we know one thing
+definitely: that the attempt on the life of the Emperor Chia Ching in
+the Peking streets at the beginning of the Nineteenth Century was a
+Secret Society plot and brought to an abrupt end the pleasant habit of
+travelling among their subjects which the great Manchu Emperors
+K'ang-hsi and Ch'ien Lung had inaugurated and always pursued and which
+had so largely encouraged the growth of personal loyalty to a foreign
+House.</p>
+		<p>From that day onwards for over a century no Emperor ventured out from
+behind the frowning Walls of the Forbidden City, save for brief annual
+ceremonies, such as the Worship of Heaven on the occasion of the Winter
+Solstice, and during the two &quot;flights&quot;&mdash;first in 1860 when Peking was
+occupied by an Anglo-French expedition and the Court incontinently
+sought sanctuary in the mountain Palaces of Jehol; and, again, in 1900,
+when with the pricking of the Boxer bubble and the arrival of the
+International relief armies, the Imperial Household was forced along the
+stony road to far-off Hsianfu.</p>
+		<p>The effect of this immurement was soon visible; the Manchu rule, which
+was emphatically a rule of the sword, was rapidly so weakened that the
+emperors became no more than <i>rois fain&eacute;ants</i> at the mercy of their
+minister.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> The history of the Nineteenth Century is thus logically
+enough the history of successive collapses. Not only did overseas
+foreigners openly thunder at the gateways of the empire and force an
+ingress, but native rebellions were constant and common. Leaving minor
+disturbances out
+<a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">3</span>
+of account, there were during this period two huge
+Mahommedan rebellions, besides the cataclysmic Taiping rising which
+lasted ten years and is supposed to have destroyed the unbelievable
+total of one hundred million persons. The empire, torn by internecine
+warfare, surrendered many of its essential prerogatives to foreigners,
+and by accepting the principle of extraterritoriality prepared the road
+to ultimate collapse.</p>
+		<p>How in such circumstances was it possible to keep alive absolutism? The
+answer is so curious that we must be explicit and exhaustive.</p>
+		<p>The simple truth is that save during the period of vigour immediately
+following each foreign conquest (such as the Mongol conquest in the
+Thirteenth Century and the Manchu in the Seventeenth) not only has there
+never been any absolutism properly so-called in China, but that apart
+from the most meagre and inefficient tax-collecting and some
+rough-and-ready policing in and around the cities there has never been
+any true governing at all save what the people did for themselves or
+what they demanded of the officials as a protection against one another.
+Any one who doubts these statements has no inkling of those facts which
+are the crown as well as the foundation of the Chinese group-system, and
+which must be patiently studied in the village-life of the country to be
+fitly appreciated. To be quite frank, absolutism is a myth coming down
+from the days of Kublai Khan when he so proudly built his <i>Khanbaligh</i>
+(the Cambaluc of Marco Polo and the forebear of modern Peking) and
+filled it with his troops who so soon vanished like the snows of winter.
+An elaborate pretence, a deliberate policy of make-believe, ever since
+those days invested Imperial Edicts with a majesty which they have never
+really possessed, the effacement of the sovereign during the Nineteenth
+Century contributing to the legend that there existed in the capital a
+Grand and Fearful Panjandrum for whom no miracle was too great and to
+whom people and officials owed trembling obedience.</p>
+		<p>In reality, the office of Emperor was never more than a
+politico-religious concept, translated for the benefit of the masses
+into socio-economic ordinances. These pronouncements, cast in the form
+of periodic homilies called Edicts, were the ritual of government; their
+purpose was instructional rather than mandatory;
+<a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">4</span>
+they were designed to
+teach and keep alive the State-theory that the Emperor was the High
+Priest of the Nation and that obedience to the morality of the Golden
+Age, which had been inculcated by all the philosophers since Confucius
+and Mencius flourished twenty-five centuries ago, would not only secure
+universal happiness but contribute to national greatness.</p>
+		<p>The office of Emperor was thus heavenly rather than terrestrial, and
+suasion, not arms, was the most potent argument used in everyday life.
+The amazing reply (<i>i.e.</i>, amazing to foreigners) made by the great
+Emperor K'ang-hsi in the tremendous Eighteenth Century controversy
+between the Jesuit and the Dominican missionaries, which ruined the
+prospects of China's ever becoming Roman Catholic and which the Pope
+refused to accept&mdash;that the custom of ancestor-worship was political and
+not religious&mdash;was absolutely correct, <i>politics in China under the
+Empire being only a system of national control exercised by inculcating
+obedience to forebears</i>. The great efforts which the Manchus made from
+the end of the Sixteenth Century (when they were still a small
+Manchurian Principality striving for the succession to the Dragon Throne
+and launching desperate attacks on the Great Wall of China) to receive
+from the Dalai Lama, as well as from the lesser Pontiffs of Tibet and
+Mongolia, high-sounding religious titles, prove conclusively that
+dignities other than mere possession of the Throne were held necessary
+to give solidity to a reign which began in militarism and which would
+collapse as the Mongol rule had collapsed by a mere Palace revolution
+unless an effective <i>moral</i> title were somehow won.</p>
+		<p>Nor was the Manchu military Conquest, even after they had entered
+Peking, so complete as has been represented by historians. The Manchus
+were too small a handful, even with their Mongol and Chinese
+auxiliaries, to do more than defeat the Ming armies and obtain the
+submission of the chief cities of China. It is well-known to students of
+their administrative methods, that whilst they reigned over China they
+<i>ruled</i> only in company with the Chinese, the system in force being a
+dual control which, beginning on the Grand Council and in the various
+great Boards and Departments in the capital, proceeded as far as the
+provincial chief cities, but stopped short there so completely and
+absolutely that the huge chains of villages and burgs had their historic
+<a name="Page_5" id="Page_5"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">5</span>
+autonomy virtually untouched and lived on as they had always lived. The
+elaborate system of examinations, with the splendid official honours
+reserved for successful students which was adopted by the Dynasty, not
+only conciliated Chinese society but provided a vast body of men whose
+interest lay in maintaining the new conquest; and thus Literature, which
+had always been the door to preferment, became not only one of the
+instruments of government, but actually the advocate of an alien rule.
+With their persons and properties safe, and their women-folk protected
+by an elaborate set of capitulations from being requisitioned for the
+harems of the invaders, small wonder if the mass of Chinese welcomed a
+firm administration after the frightful disorders which had torn the
+country during the last days of the Mings.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2"><sup>[2]</sup></a></p>
+		<p>It was the foreigner, arriving in force in China after the capture of
+Peking and the ratification of the Tientsin Treaties in 1860, who so
+greatly contributed to making the false idea of Manchu absolutism
+current throughout the world; and in this work it was the foreign
+diplomat, coming to the capital saturated with the tradition of European
+absolutism, who played a not unimportant part. Investing the Emperors
+with an authority with which they were never really clothed, save for
+ceremonial purposes (principally perhaps because the Court was entirely
+withdrawn from view and very insolent in its foreign intercourse) a
+conception of High Mightiness was spread abroad reminiscent of the awe
+in which Eighteenth Century nabobs spoke of the Great Mogul of India.
+Chinese officials, quickly discovering that their easiest means of
+defence against an irresistible pressure was to take refuge behind the
+august name of the sovereign, played their r&ocirc;le so successfully that
+until 1900 it was generally believed by Europeans that no other form of
+government than a despotism <i>sans phrase</i> could be dreamed of. Finding
+that on the surface an Imperial Decree enjoyed the majesty of an Ukaze
+of the Czar, Europeans were ready enough to interpret as best suited
+their enterprises something which they entirely failed to construe in
+terms expressive of the negative nature of Chinese civilization; and so it
+<a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">6</span>
+happened that though the government of China had become no
+government at all from the moment that extraterritoriality destroyed the
+theory of Imperial inviolability and infallibility, the miracle of
+turning state negativism into an active governing element continued to
+work after a fashion because of the disguise which the immense distances
+afforded.</p>
+		<p>Adequately to explain the philosophy of distance in China, and what it
+has meant historically, would require a whole volume to itself; but it
+is sufficient for our purpose to indicate here certain prime essentials.
+The old Chinese were so entrenched in their vastnesses that without the
+play of forces which were supernatural to them, <i>i.e.</i>, the
+steam-engine, the telegraph, the armoured war-vessel, etc., their daily
+lives could not be affected. Left to themselves, and assisted by their
+own methods, they knew that blows struck across the immense roadless
+spaces were so diminished in strength, by the time they reached the spot
+aimed at, that they became a mere mockery of force; and, just because
+they were so valueless, paved the way to effective compromises. Being
+adepts in the art which modern surgeons have adopted, of leaving wounds
+as far as possible to heal themselves, they trusted to time and to
+nature to solve political differences which western countries boldly
+attacked on very different principles. Nor were they wrong in their
+view. From the capital to the Yangtsze Valley (which is the heart of the
+country), is 800 miles, that is far more than the mileage between Paris
+and Berlin. From Peking to Canton is 1,400 miles along a hard and
+difficult route; the journey to Yunnan by the Yangtsze river is upwards
+of 2,000 miles, a distance greater than the greatest march ever
+undertaken by Napoleon. And when one speaks of the Outer Dominions&mdash;Mongolia,
+Tibet, Turkestan&mdash;for these hundreds of miles it is necessary
+to substitute thousands, and add thereto difficulties of terrain which
+would have disheartened even Roman Generals.</p>
+		<p>Now the old Chinese, accepting distance as the supreme thing, had made
+it the starting-point as well as the end of their government. In the
+perfected viceregal system which grew up under the Ming Dynasty, and
+which was taken over by the Manchus as a sound and admirable governing
+principle, though they superimposed their own military system of Tartar
+Generals, we have
+<a name="Page_7" id="Page_7"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">7</span>
+the plan that nullified the great obstacle. Authority
+of every kind was <i>delegated</i> by the Throne to various distant governing
+centuries in a most complete and sweeping manner, each group of
+provinces, united under a viceroy, being in everything but name so many
+independent linked commonwealths, called upon for matricular
+contributions in money and grain but otherwise left severely alone<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_3_3"><sup>[3]</sup></a>.
+The chain which bound provincial China to the metropolitan government
+was therefore in the last analysis finance and nothing but finance; and
+if the system broke down in 1911 it was because financial reform&mdash;to
+discount the new forces of which the steam engine was the symbol&mdash;had
+been attempted, like military reform, both too late and in the wrong
+way, and instead of strengthening, had vastly weakened the authority of
+the Throne.</p>
+		<p>In pursuance of the reform-plan which became popular after the Boxer
+Settlement had allowed the court to return to Peking from Hsianfu, the
+viceroys found their most essential prerogative, which was the control
+of the provincial purse, largely taken from them and handed over to
+Financial Commissioners who were directly responsible to the Peking
+Ministry of Finance, a Department which was attempting to replace the
+loose system of matricular contributions by the European system of a
+directly controlled taxation every penny of which would be shown in an
+annual Budget. No doubt had time been vouchsafed, and had European help
+been enlisted on a large scale, this change could ultimately have been
+made successful. But it was precisely time which was lacking; and the
+Manchus consequently paid the
+<a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">8</span>
+penalty which is always paid by those who
+delay until it is too late. The old theories having been openly
+abandoned, it needed only the promise of a Parliament completely to
+destroy the dignity of the Son of Heaven, and to leave the viceroys as
+mere hostages in the hands of rebels. A few short weeks of rebellion was
+sufficient in 1911 to cause the provinces to revert to their condition
+of the earlier centuries when they had been vast unfettered agricultural
+communities. And once they had tasted the joys of this new independence,
+it was impossible to conceive of their becoming &quot;obedient&quot; again.</p>
+		<p>Here another word of explanation is necessary to show clearly the
+precise meaning of regionalism in China.</p>
+		<p>What had originally created each province was the chief city in each
+region, such cities necessarily being the walled repositories of all
+increment. Greedy of territory to enhance their wealth, and jealous of
+their power, these provincial capitals throughout the ages had left no
+stone unturned to extend their influence in every possible direction and
+bring under their economic control as much land as possible, a fact
+which is abundantly proved by the highly diversified system of weights
+and measures throughout the land deliberately drawn-up to serve as
+economic barriers. River-courses, mountain-ranges, climate and soil, no
+doubt assisted in governing this expansion, but commercial and financial
+greed was the principal force. Of this we have an exceedingly
+interesting and conclusive illustration in the struggle still proceeding
+between the three Manchurian provinces, Fengtien, Kirin and
+Heilungchiang, to seize the lion's share of the virgin land of Eastern
+Inner Mongolia which has an &quot;open frontier&quot; of rolling prairies. Having
+the strongest provincial capital&mdash;Moukden&mdash;it has been Fengtien province
+which has encroached on the Mongolian grasslands to such an extent that
+its jurisdiction to-day envelops the entire western flank of Kirin
+province (as can be seen in the latest Chinese maps) in the form of a
+salamander, effectively preventing the latter province from controlling
+territory that geographically belongs to it. In the same way in the
+land-settlement which is still going on the Mongolian plateau
+immediately above Peking, much of what should be Shansi territory has
+been added to the metropolitan province of Chihli. Though adjustments of
+provincial boundaries
+<a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">9</span>
+have been summarily made in times past, in the
+main the considerations we have indicated have been the dominant factors
+in determining the area of each unit.</p>
+		<p>Now in many provinces where settlement is age-old, the regionalism which
+results from great distances and bad communications has been greatly
+increased by race-admixture. Canton province, which was largely settled
+by Chinese adventurers sailing down the coast from the Yangtsze and
+intermarrying with Annamese and the older autochthonous races, has a
+population-mass possessing very distinct characteristics, which sharply
+conflict with Northern traits. Fuhkien province is not only as
+diversified but speaks a dialect which is virtually a foreign language.
+And so on North and West of the Yangtsze it is the same story,
+temperamental differences of the highest political importance being
+everywhere in evidence and leading to perpetual bickerings and
+jealousies. For although Chinese civilization resembles in one great
+particular the Mahommedan religion, in that it accepts without question
+all adherents irrespective of racial origin, <i>politically</i> the effect of
+this regionalism has been such that up to very recent times the Central
+Government has been almost as much a foreign government in the eyes of
+many provinces as the government of Japan. Money alone formed the bond
+of union; so long as questions of taxation were not involved, Peking was
+as far removed from daily life as the planet Mars.</p>
+		<p>As we are now able to see very clearly, fifty years ago&mdash;that is at the
+time of the Taiping Rebellion&mdash;the old power and spell of the National
+Capital as a military centre had really vanished. Though in ancient days
+horsemen armed with bows and lances could sweep like a tornado over the
+land, levelling everything save the walled cities, in the Nineteenth
+Century such methods had become impossible. Mongolia and Manchuria had
+also ceased to be inexhaustible reservoirs of warlike men; the more
+adjacent portions had become commercialized; whilst the outer regions
+had sunk to depopulated graziers' lands. The Government, after the
+collapse of the Rebellion, being greatly impoverished, had openly fallen
+to balancing province against province and personality against
+personality, hoping that by some means it would be able to regain its
+prestige and a portion of its former <a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">10</span>wealth. Taking down the ledgers
+containing the lists of provincial contributions, the mandarins of
+Peking completely revised every schedule, redistributed every weight,
+and saw to it that the matricular levies should fall in such a way as to
+be crushing. The new taxation, <i>likin</i>, which, like the income-tax in
+England, is in origin purely a war-tax, by gripping inter-provincial
+commerce by the throat and rudely controlling it by the barrier-system,
+was suddenly disclosed as a new and excellent way of making felt the
+menaced sovereignty of the Manchus; and though the system was plainly a
+two-edged weapon, the first edge to cut was the Imperial edge; that is
+largely why for several decades after the Taipings China was relatively
+quiet.</p>
+		<p>Time was also giving birth to another important development&mdash;important
+in the sense that it was to prove finally decisive. It would have been
+impossible for Peking, unless men of outstanding genius had been living,
+to have foreseen that not only had the real bases of government now
+become entirely economic control, but that the very moment that control
+faltered the central government of China would openly and absolutely
+cease to be any government at all. Modern commercialism, already
+invading China at many points through the medium of the treaty-ports,
+was a force which in the long run could not be denied. Every year that
+passed tended to emphasize the fact that modern conditions were cutting
+Peking more and more adrift from the real centres of power&mdash;the economic
+centres which, with the single exception of Tientsin, lie from 800 to
+1,500 miles away. It was these centres that were developing
+revolutionary ideas&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, ideas at variance with the Socio-economic
+principles on which the old Chinese commonwealth had been slowly built
+up, and which foreign dynasties such as the Mongol and the Manchu had
+never touched. The Government of the post-Taiping period still imagined
+that by making their hands lie more heavily than ever on the people and
+by tightening the taxation control&mdash;not by true creative work&mdash;they
+could rehabilitate themselves.</p>
+		<p>It would take too long, and would weary the indulgence of the reader to
+establish in a conclusive manner this thesis which had long been a
+subject of inquiry on the part of political students. Chinese society,
+being essentially a society organized <a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">11</span>on a credit-co-operative system,
+so nicely adjusted that money, either coined or fiduciary, was not
+wanted save for the petty daily purchases of the people, any system
+which boldly clutched the financial establishments undertaking the
+movement of <i>sycee</i> (silver) from province to province for the
+settlement of trade-balances, was bound to be effective so long as those
+financial establishments remained unshaken.</p>
+		<p>The best known establishments, united in the great group known as the
+Shansi Bankers, being the government bankers, undertook not only all the
+remittances of surpluses to Peking, but controlled by an intricate
+pass-book system the perquisites of almost every office-holder in the
+empire. No sooner did an official, under the system which had grown up,
+receive a provincial appointment than there hastened to him a
+confidential clerk of one of these accommodating houses, who in the name
+of his employers advanced all the sums necessary for the payment of the
+official's post, and then proceeded with him to his province so that
+moiety by moiety, as taxation flowed in, advances could be paid off and
+the equilibrium re-established. A very intimate and far-reaching
+connection thus existed between provincial money-interests and the
+official classes. The practical work of governing China was the
+balancing of tax-books and native bankers' accounts. Even the
+&quot;melting-houses,&quot; where <i>sycee</i> was &quot;standardized&quot; for provincial use,
+were the joint enterprises of officials and merchants; bargaining
+governing every transaction; and only when a violent break occurred in
+the machinery, owing to famine or rebellion, did any other force than
+money intervene.</p>
+		<p>There was nothing exceptional in these practices, in the use of which
+the old Chinese empire was merely following the precedent of the Roman
+Empire. The vast polity that was formed before the time of Christ by the
+military and commercial expansion of Rome in the Mediterranean Basin,
+and among the wild tribes of Northern Europe, depended very largely on
+the genius of Italian financiers and tax-collectors to whom the revenues
+were either directly &quot;farmed,&quot; or who &quot;assisted&quot; precisely after the
+Chinese method in financing officials and local administrations, and in
+replenishing a central treasury which no wealth could satisfy. The
+Chinese phenomenon was <a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">12</span>therefore in no sense new; the dearth of coined
+money and the variety of local standards made the methods used economic
+necessities. The system was not in itself a bad system: its fatal
+quality lay in its woodenness, its lack of adaptability, and in its
+growing weakness in the face of foreign competition which it could never
+understand. Foreign competition&mdash;that was the enemy destined to achieve
+an overwhelming triumph and dash to ruins a hoary survival.</p>
+		<p>War with Japan sounded the first trumpet-blast which should have been
+heeded. In the year 1894, being faced with the necessity of finding
+immediately a large sum of specie for purpose of war, the native bankers
+proclaimed their total inability to do so, and the first great foreign
+loan contract was signed.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> Little
+attention was attracted to what is a
+turning-point in Chinese history. There cannot be the slightest doubt
+that in 1894 the Manchus wrote the first sentences of an abdication
+which was only formally pronounced in 1912: they had inaugurated the
+financial thraldom under which China still languishes. Within a period
+of forty months, in order to settle the disastrous Japanese war, foreign
+loans amounting to nearly fifty-five million pounds were completed. This
+indebtedness, amounting to nearly three times the &quot;visible&quot; annual
+revenues of the country&mdash;that is, the revenues actually accounted for to
+Peking&mdash;was unparalleled in Chinese history. It was a gold indebtedness
+subject to all sorts of manipulations which no Chinese properly
+understood. It had special political meaning and special political
+consequences because the loans were virtually guaranteed by the Powers.
+It was a long-drawn <i>coup d'&eacute;tat</i> of a nature that all foreigners
+understood because it forged external chains.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">13</span>The <i>internal</i> significance was even greater than the external. The
+loans were secured on the most important &quot;direct&quot; revenues reaching
+Peking&mdash;the Customs receipts, which were concerned with the most vital
+function in the new economic life springing up, the steam-borne coasting
+and river-trade as well as the purely foreign trade. That most vital
+function tended consequently to become more and more hall-marked as
+foreign; it no longer depended in any direct sense on Peking for
+protection. The hypothecation of these revenues to foreigners for
+periods running into decades&mdash;coupled with their administration by
+foreigners&mdash;was such a distinct restriction of the rights of eminent
+domain as to amount to a partial abrogation of sovereignty.</p>
+		<p>That this was vaguely understood by the masses is now quite certain. The
+Boxer movement of 1900, like the great proletarian risings which
+occurred in Italy in the pre-Christian era as a result of the
+impoverishment and moral disorder brought about by Roman misgovernment,
+was simply a socio-economic catastrophe exhibiting itself in an
+unexpected form. The dying Manchu dynasty, at last in open despair,
+turned the revolt, insanely enough, against the foreigner&mdash;that is
+against those who already held the really vital portion of their
+sovereignty. So far from saving itself by this act, the dynasty wrote
+another sentence in its death-warrant. Economically the Manchus had been
+for years almost lost; the Boxer indemnities were the last straw. By
+more than doubling the burden of foreign commitments, and by placing the
+operation of the indemnities directly in the hands of foreign bankers by
+the method of monthly quotas, payable in Shanghai, <i>the Peking
+Government as far back as fifteen years ago was reduced to being a
+government at thirty days' sight, at the mercy of any shock of events
+which could be protracted over a few monthly settlements</i>. There is no
+denying this signal fact, which is probably the most remarkable
+illustration of the restrictive power of money which has ever been
+afforded in the history of Asia.</p>
+		<p>The phenomenon, however, was complex and we must be careful to
+understand its workings. A mercantile curiosity, to find the parallel
+for which we must go back to the Middle Ages in Europe, when &quot;free
+cities&quot; such as those of the <a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">14</span>Hanseatic League plentifully dotted river
+and coast line, served to increase the general difficulties of a
+situation which no one formula could adequately cover.
+Extraterritoriality, by creating the &quot;treaty port&quot; in China, had been
+the most powerful weapon in undermining native economics; yet at the
+same time it had been the agent for creating powerful new
+counter-balancing interests. Though the increasingly large groups of
+foreigners, residing under their own laws, and building up, under their
+own specially protected system of international exchange, a new and
+imposing edifice, had made the hovel-like nature of Chinese economics
+glaringly evident, the mercantile classes of the New China, being always
+quick to avail themselves of money-making devices, had not only taken
+shelter under this new and imposing edifice, but were rapidly extending
+it of their own accord. In brief, the trading Chinese were identifying
+themselves and their major interests with the treaty-ports; they were
+transferring thither their specie and their credits; making huge
+investments in land and properties, under the aegis of foreign flags in
+which they absolutely trusted. The money-interests of the country knew
+instinctively that the native system was doomed and that with this doom
+there would come many changes; these interests, in the way common to
+money all the world over, were insuring themselves against the
+inevitable.</p>
+		<p>The force of this&mdash;politically&mdash;became finally evident in 1911; and what
+we have said in our opening sentences should now be clear. The Chinese
+Revolution was an emotional rising against the Peking System because it
+was a bad and inefficient and retrograde system, just as much as against
+the Manchus, who after all had adopted purely Chinese methods and who
+were no more foreigners than Scotchmen or Irishmen are foreigners to-day
+in England. The Revolution of 1911 derived its meaning and its value&mdash;as
+well as its mandate&mdash;not from what it proclaimed, but for what it stood
+for. Historically, 1911 was the lineal descendant of 1900, which again
+was the offspring of the economic collapse advertised by the great
+foreign loans of the Japanese war, loans made necessary because the
+Taipings had disclosed the complete disappearance of the only <i>raison
+d'&ecirc;tre</i> of Peking sovereignty, <i>i.e.</i> the old-time military power.
+<a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">15</span>The
+story is, therefore, clear and well-connected and so logical in its
+results that it has about it a finality suggesting the unrolling of the
+inevitable.</p>
+		<p>During the Revolution the one decisive factor was shown to be almost at
+once&mdash;money, nothing but money. The pinch was felt at the end of the
+first thirty days. Provincial remittances ceased; the Boxer quotas
+remained unpaid; a foreign embargo was laid upon the Customs funds. The
+Northern troops, raised and trained by Yuan Shih-kai, when he was
+Viceroy of the Metropolitan province, were, it is true, proving
+themselves the masters of the Yangtsze and South China troops; yet that
+circumstance was meaningless. Those troops were fighting for what had
+already proved itself a lost cause&mdash;the Peking System, as well as the
+Manchu dynasty. The fight turned more and more into a money-fight. It
+was foreign money which brought about the first truce and the transfer
+of the so-called republican government from Nanking to Peking. In the
+strictest sense of the words every phase of the settlement then arrived
+at was a settlement in terms of cash.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5"><sup>[5]</sup></a>
+		</p>
+		<p>Had means existed for rapidly replenishing the Chinese Treasury without
+having recourse to European stockmarkets (whose actions are
+semi-officially controlled when distant regions are involved) the
+Republic might have fared better. But placed almost at once through
+foreign dictation under a species of police-control, which while
+nominally derived from Western conceptions, was primarily designed to
+rehabilitate the semblance of the authority which had been so
+sensationally extinguished, the Republic remained only a dream; and the
+world, taught to believe that there could be no real stability until the
+scheme of government approximated to the conception long formed of
+Peking absolutism, waited patiently for the rude awakening which came
+with the Yuan Shih-kai <i>coup d'&eacute;tat</i> of 4th November, 1913. Thus we had
+this double paradox; on the one hand the Chinese people awkwardly trying
+to be western in a Chinese way and failing: on the other, foreign
+officials and foreign governments trying to be Chinese and making the
+confusion <a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">16</span>worse confounded. It was inevitable in such circumstances
+that the history of the past six years should have been the history of a
+slow tragedy, and that almost every page should be written over with the
+name of the man who was the selected bailiff of the Powers&mdash;Yuan
+Shih-kai.</p>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE02" id="IMAGE02"></a>
+			<a href="images/image02.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image02.jpg" width="70%" alt="The Funeral of Yuan Shih-kai: The Procession passing down the great Palace Approach, with the famous Ch&#39;ien Men (Gate) in the distance." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>The Funeral of Yuan Shih-kai: The Procession passing
+down the great Palace Approach, with the famous Ch&#39;ien Men (Gate) in the
+distance.</p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE03" id="IMAGE03"></a>
+			<a href="images/image03.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image03.jpg" width="70%" alt="The Provincial Troops of General Chang Hsun at his Headquarters of Hsuchowfu." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>The Provincial Troops of General Chang Hsun at his Headquarters of Hsuchowfu.</p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE04" id="IMAGE04"></a>
+			<a href="images/image04.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image04.jpg" width="70%" alt="The Funeral of Yuan Shih-kai: The Catafalque over the Coffin on its way to the Railway Station." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>The Funeral of Yuan Shih-kai: The Catafalque over the
+Coffin on its way to the Railway Station.</p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE05" id="IMAGE05"></a>
+			<a href="images/image05.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image05.jpg" width="70%" alt="The Funeral of Yuan Shih-kai: The Procession passing down the great Palace Approach, with the famous Ch&#39;ien Men (Gate) in the distance." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>The Funeral of Yuan Shih-kai: The Procession passing down
+the great Palace Approach, with the famous Ch&#39;ien Men (Gate) in the
+distance.</p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="footnotes">
+			<p class="center">FOOTNOTES:</p>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_1_1">
+						<span class="label">[1]</span></a> As there is a good deal of misunderstanding on the subject
+of the Manchus an explanatory note is useful.
+</p>
+				<p>
+The Manchu people, who belong to the Mongol or Turanian Group, number at
+the maximum five million souls. Their distribution at the time of the
+revolution of 1911 was roughly as follows: In and around Peking say two
+millions; in posts through China say one-half million,&mdash;or possibly
+three-quarters of a million; in Manchuria Proper&mdash;the home of the
+race&mdash;say two or two and a half millions. The fighting force was
+composed in this fashion: When Peking fell into their hands in 1644 as a
+result of a stratagem combined with dissensions among the Chinese
+themselves, the entire armed strength was reorganized in Eight Banners
+or Army Corps, each corps being composed of three racial divisions, (1)
+pure Manchus, (2) Mongols who had assisted in the conquest and (3)
+Northern Chinese who had gone over to the conquerors. These Eight
+Banners, each commanded by an &quot;iron-capped&quot; Prince, represented the
+authority of the Throne and had their headquarters in Peking with small
+garrisons throughout the provinces at various strategic centres. These
+garrisons had entirely ceased to have any value before the 18th Century
+had closed and were therefore purely ceremonial and symbolic, all the
+fighting being done by special Chinese corps which were raised as
+necessity arose.</p>
+			</div>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_2_2">
+						<span class="label">[2]</span>
+					</a> This most interesting point&mdash;the immunity of Chinese women
+from forced marriage with Manchus&mdash;has been far too little noticed by
+historians though it throws a flood of light on the sociological aspects
+of the Manchu conquest. Had that conquest been absolute it would have
+been impossible for the Chinese people to have protected their
+women-folk in such a significant way.</p>
+			</div>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_3_3">
+						<span class="label">[3]</span>
+					</a> A very interesting proof&mdash;and one that has never been
+properly exposed&mdash;of the astoundingly rationalistic principles on which
+the Chinese polity is founded is to be seen in the position of
+priesthoods in China. Unlike every other civilization in the world, at
+no stage of the development of the State has it been necessary for
+religion in China to intervene between the rulers and the ruled, saving
+the people from oppression. In Europe without the supernatural barrier
+of the Church, the position of the common people in the Middle Ages
+would have been intolerable, and life, and virtue totally unprotected.
+Buckle, in his &quot;History of Civilization,&quot; like other extreme radicals,
+has failed to understand that established religions have paradoxically
+been most valuable because of their vast secular powers, exercised under
+the mask of spiritual authority. Without this ghostly restraint rulers
+would have been so oppressive as to have destroyed their peoples. The
+two greatest monuments to Chinese civilization, then consist of these
+twin facts; first, that the Chinese have never had the need for such
+supernatural restraints exercised by a privileged body, and secondly,
+that they are absolutely without any feeling of class or caste&mdash;prince
+and pauper meeting on terms of frank and humorous equality&mdash;the race
+thus being the only pure and untinctured democracy the world has ever
+known.</p>
+			</div>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_4_4">
+						<span class="label">[4]</span>
+					</a> (a) This loan was the so-called 7 per cent. Silver loan of
+1894 for Shanghai Taels 10,000,000 negotiated by the Hongkong &amp; Shanghai
+Bank. It was followed in 1895 by a &pound;3,000,000 Gold 6 per cent. Loan,
+then by two more 6 per cent. loans for a million each in the same year,
+making a total of &pound;6,635,000 sterling for the bare war-expenses. The
+Japanese war indemnity raised in three successive issues&mdash;from 1895 to
+1898&mdash;of &pound;16,000,000 each, added &pound;48,000,000. Thus the Korean imbroglio
+cost China nearly 55 millions sterling. As the purchasing power of the
+sovereign is eight times larger in China than in Europe, this debt
+economically would mean 440 millions in England&mdash;say nearly double what
+the ruinous South African war cost. It is by such methods of comparison
+that the vital nature of the economic factor in recent Chinese history
+is made clear.</p>
+			</div>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_5_5">
+						<span class="label">[5]</span>
+					</a> There is no doubt that the so-called Belgian loan,
+&pound;1,800,000 of which was paid over in cash at the beginning of 1912, was
+the instrument which brought every one to terms.</p>
+			</div>
+		</div>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">17</span></p>
+		<h2>
+		<a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>
+		CHAPTER II</h2>
+		<h3>THE ENIGMA OF YUAN SHIH-KAI</h3>
+		<h3>THE HISTORY OF THE MAN FROM THE OPENING OF HIS CAREER IN KOREA IN 1882
+TO THE END OF THE REVOLUTION, 12TH FEBRUARY, 1912</h3>
+		<p>Yuan Shih-kai's career falls into two clear-cut parts, almost as if it
+had been specially arranged for the biographer; there is the
+probationary period in Korea, and the executive in North China. The
+first is important only because of the moulding-power which early
+influences exerted on the man's character; but it is interesting in
+another way since it affords glimpses of the sort of things which
+affected this leader's imagination throughout his life and finally
+brought him to irretrievable ruin. The second-period is choke-full of
+action; and over every chapter one can see the ominous point of
+interrogation which was finally answered in his tragic political and
+physical collapse.</p>
+		<p>Yuan Shih-kai's origin, without being precisely obscure, is unimportant.
+He came of a Honanese family who were nothing more distinguished than
+farmers possessing a certain amount of land, but not too much of the
+world's possessions. The boy probably ran wild in the field at an age
+when the sons of high officials and literati were already pale and
+anaemic from over-much study. To some such cause the man undoubtedly
+owed his powerful physique, his remarkable appetite, his general
+roughness. Native biographers state that as a youth he failed to pass
+his <i>hsiu-tsai</i> examinations&mdash;the lowest civil service degree&mdash;because
+he had spent too much time in riding and boxing and fencing. An uncle in
+official life early took charge of him; and when this relative died the
+young man displayed <a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">18</span>filial piety in accompanying the corpse back to the
+family graves and in otherwise manifesting grief. Through official
+connections a place was subsequently found for him in that public
+department under the Manchus which may be called the military
+intendancy, and it was through this branch of the civil service that he
+rose to power. Properly speaking Yuan Shih-kai was never an
+army-officer; he was a military official&mdash;his highest rank later on
+being that of military judge, or better, Judicial Commissioner.</p>
+		<p>Yuan Shih-kai first emerges into public view in 1882 when, as a sequel
+to the opening of Korea through the action of foreign Powers in forcing
+the then Hermit kingdom to sign commercial treaties, China began
+dispatching troops to Seoul. Yuan Shih-kai, with two other officers,
+commanding in all some 3,000 men, arrived from Shantung, where he had
+been in the train of a certain General Wu Chang-ching, and now encamped
+in the Korean capital nominally to preserve order, but in reality, to
+enforce the claims of the suzerain power. For the Peking Government had
+never retreated from the position that Korea had been a vassal state
+ever since the Ming Dynasty had saved the country from the clutches of
+Hideyoshi and his Japanese invaders in the Sixteenth Century. Yuan
+Shih-kai had been personally recommended by this General Wu Chang-ching
+as a young man of ability and energy to the famous Li Hung Chang, who as
+Tientsin Viceroy and High Commissioner for the Northern Seas was
+responsible for the conduct of Korean affairs. The future dictator of
+China was then only twenty-five years old.</p>
+		<p>His very first contact with practical politics gave him a peculiar
+manner of viewing political problems. The arrival of Chinese troops in
+Seoul marked the beginning of that acute rivalry with Japan which
+finally culminated in the short and disastrous war of 1894-95. China, in
+order to preserve her influence in Korea against the growing influence
+of Japan, intrigued night and day in the Seoul Palaces, allying herself
+with the Conservative Court party which was led by the notorious Korean
+Queen who was afterwards assassinated. The Chinese agents aided and
+abetted the reactionary group, constantly inciting them to attack the
+Japanese and drive them out of the country.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">19</span>Continual outrages were the consequence. The Japanese legation was
+attacked and destroyed by the Korean mob not once but on several
+occasions during a decade which furnishes one of the most amazing
+chapters in the history of Asia. Yuan Shih-kai, being then merely a
+junior general officer under the orders of the Chinese Imperial
+Resident, is of no particular importance; but it is significant of the
+man that he should suddenly come well under the limelight on the first
+possible occasion. On 6th December, 1884, leading 2,000 Chinese troops,
+and acting in concert with 3,000 Korean soldiers, he attacked the Tong
+Kwan Palace in which the Japanese Minister and his staff, protected by
+two companies of Japanese infantry, had taken refuge owing to the
+threatening state of affairs in the capital. Apparently there was no
+particular plan&mdash;it was the action of a mob of soldiery tumbling into a
+political brawl and assisted by their officers for reasons which appear
+to-day nonsensical. The sequel was, however, extraordinary. The Japanese
+held the Palace gates as long as possible, and then being desperate
+exploded a mine which killed numbers of Koreans and Chinese soldiery and
+threw the attack into confusion. They then fought their way out of the
+city escaping ultimately to the nearest sea-port, Chemulpo.</p>
+		<p>The explanation of this extraordinary episode has never been made
+public. The practical result was that after a period of extreme tension
+between China and Japan which was expected to lead to war, that
+political genius, the late Prince Ito, managed to calm things down and
+arrange workable <i>modus vivendi</i>. Yuan Shih-kai, who had gone to
+Tientsin to report in person to Li Hung Chang, returned to Seoul
+triumphantly in October, 1885, as Imperial Resident. He was then
+twenty-eight years old; he had come to the front, no matter by what
+means, in a quite remarkable manner.</p>
+		<p>The history of the next nine years furnishes plenty of minor incidents,
+but nothing of historic importance. As the faithful lieutenant of Li
+Hung Chang, Yuan Shih-kai's particular business was simply to combat
+Japanese influence and hold the threatened advance in check. He failed,
+of course, since he was playing a losing game; and yet he succeeded
+where he undoubtedly wished to succeed. By rendering faithful service
+<a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">20</span>he established the reputation he wished to win; and though he did
+nothing great he retained his post right up to the act which led to the
+declaration of war in 1894. Whether he actually precipitated that war is
+still a matter of opinion. On the sinking by the Japanese fleet of the
+British steamer <i>Kowshing</i>, which was carrying Chinese reinforcements
+from Taku anchorage to Asan Bay to his assistance, seeing that the game
+was up, he quietly left the Korean capital and made his way overland to
+North China. That swift, silent journey home ends the period of his
+novitiate.</p>
+		<p>It took him a certain period to weather the storm which the utter
+collapse of China in her armed encounter with Japan brought about&mdash;and
+particularly to obtain forgiveness for evacuating Seoul without orders.
+Technically his offence was punishable by death&mdash;the old Chinese code
+being most stringent in such matters. But by 1896 he was back in favour
+again, and through the influence of his patron Li Hung Chang, he was at
+length appointed in command of the Hsiaochan camp near Tientsin, where
+he was promoted and given the task of reforming a division of old-style
+troops and making them as efficient as Japanese soldiery. He had already
+earned a wide reputation for severity, for willingness to accept
+responsibility, for nepotism, and for a rare ability to turn even
+disasters to his own advantage&mdash;all attributes which up to the last
+moment stood him in good stead.</p>
+		<p>In the Hsiaochan camp the most important chapter of his life opens;
+there is every indication that he fully realized it. Tientsin has always
+been the gateway to Peking: from there the road to high preferment is
+easily reached. Yuan Shih-kai marched steadily forward, taking the very
+first turning-point in a manner which stamped him for many of his
+compatriots in a way which can never be obliterated.</p>
+		<p>It is first necessary to say a word about the troops of his command,
+since this has a bearing on present-day politics. The bulk of the
+soldiery were so-called <i>Huai Chun</i>&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, nominally troops from the
+Huai districts, just south of Li Hung Chang's native province Anhui.
+These Kiangu men, mixed with Shantung recruits, had earned a historic
+place in the favour of the Manchus owing to the part they had played in
+the suppression of the <a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">21</span>Taiping Rebellion, in which great event General
+Gordon and Li Hung Chang had been so closely associated. They and the
+troops of Hunan province, led by the celebrated Marquis Tseng Kuo-fan,
+were &quot;the loyal troops,&quot; resembling the Sikhs during the Indian Mutiny;
+they were supposed to be true to their salt to the last man. Certainly
+they gave proofs of uncustomary fidelity.</p>
+		<p>In those military days of twenty years ago Yuan Shih-kai and his
+henchmen were, however, concerned with simpler problems. It was then a
+question of drill and nothing but drill. In his camp near Tientsin the
+future President of the Chinese Republic succeeded in reorganizing his
+troops so well that in a very short time the Hsiaochan Division became
+known as a <i>corps d'&eacute;lite</i>. The discipline was so stern that there were
+said to be only two ways of noticing subordinates, either by promoting
+or beheading them. Devoting himself to his task Yuan Shih-kai gave
+promise of being able to handle much bigger problems.</p>
+		<p>His zeal soon attracted the attention of the Manchu Court. The
+circumstances in Peking at that time were peculiar. The famous old
+Empress Dowager, Tzu-hsi, after the Japanese war, had greatly relaxed
+her hold on the Emperor Kwanghsu, who though still in subjection to her,
+nominally governed the empire. A well-intentioned but weak man, he had
+surrounded himself with advanced scholars, led by the celebrated Kang Yu
+Wei, who daily studied with him and filled him with new doctrines,
+teaching him to believe that if he would only exert his power he might
+rescue the nation from international ignominy and make for himself an
+imperishable name.</p>
+		<p>The sequel was inevitable. In 1898 the oriental world was electrified by
+the so-called Reform Edicts, in which the Emperor undertook to modernize
+China, and in which he exhorted the nation to obey him. The greatest
+alarm was created in Court circles by this action; the whole vast body
+of Metropolitan officialdom, seeing its future threatened, flooded the
+Palace of the Empress Dowager with Secret Memorials praying her to
+resume power. Flattered, she gave her secret assent.</p>
+		<p>Things marched quickly after that. The Empress, nothing loth, began
+making certain dispositions. Troops were moved, men were shifted here
+and there in a way that presaged action; <a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">22</span>and the Emperor, now
+thoroughly alarmed and yielding to the entreaties of his followers, sent
+two members of the Reform Party to Yuan Shih-kai bearing an alleged
+autograph order for him to advance instantly on Peking with all his
+troops; to surround the Palace, to secure the person of the Emperor from
+all danger, and then to depose the Empress Dowager for ever from power.
+What happened is equally well-known. Yuan Shih-kai, after an exhaustive
+examination of the message and messengers, as well as other attempts to
+substantiate the genuineness of the appeal, communicated its nature to
+the then Viceroy of Chihli, the Imperial Clansman Jung Lu, whose
+intimacy with the Empress Dowager since the days of her youth has passed
+into history. Jung Lu lost no time in acting. He beheaded the two
+messengers and personally reported the whole plot to the Empress Dowager
+who was already fully warned. The result was the so-called <i>coup d'&eacute;tat</i>
+of September, 1898, when all the Reformers who had not fled were
+summarily executed, and the Emperor Kwanghsu himself closely imprisoned
+in the Island Palace within that portion of the Forbidden City known as
+the Three Lakes, having (until the Boxer outbreak of 1900 carried him to
+Hsianfu), as sole companions his two favourites, the celebrated
+odalisques &quot;Pearl&quot; and &quot;Lustre.&quot;</p>
+		<p>This is no place to enter into the controversial aspect of Yuan
+Shih-kai's action in 1898 which has been hotly debated by partisans for
+many years. For onlookers the verdict must always remain largely a
+matter of opinion; certainly this is one of those matters which cannot
+be passed upon by any one but a Chinese tribunal furnished with all the
+evidence. Those days which witnessed the imprisonment of Kwanghsu were
+great because they opened wide the portals of the Romance of History:
+all who were in Peking can never forget the counter-stroke; the arrival
+of the hordes composed of Tung Fu-hsiang's Mahommedan cavalry&mdash;men who
+had ridden hard across a formidable piece of Asia at the behest of their
+Empress and who entered the capital in great clouds of dust. It was in
+that year of 1898 also that Legation Guards reappeared in Peking&mdash;a few
+files for each Legation as in 1860&mdash;and it was then that clear-sighted
+prophets saw the beginning of the end of the Manchu Dynasty.</p>
+		<p>Yuan Shih-kai's reward for his share in this counter-revolution <a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">23</span>was his
+appointment to the governorship of Shantung province. He moved thither
+with all his troops in December, 1899. Armed <i>cap-&agrave;-pie</i> he was ready
+for the next act&mdash;the Boxers, who burst on China in the Summer of 1900.
+These men were already at work in Shantung villages with their
+incantations and alleged witchcraft. There is evidence that their
+propaganda had been going on for months, if not for years, before any
+one had heard of it. Yuan Shih-kai had the priceless opportunity of
+studying them at close range and soon made up his mind about certain
+things. When the storm burst, pretending to see nothing but mad fanatics
+in those who, realizing the plight of their country, had adopted the
+war-cry &quot;Blot out the Manchus and the foreigner,&quot; he struck at them
+fiercely, driving the whole savage horde head-long into the metropolitan
+province of Chihli. There, seduced by the Manchus, they suddenly changed
+the inscription on their flags. Their sole enemy became the foreigner
+and all his works, and forthwith they were officially protected. Far and
+wide they killed every white face they could find. They tore up
+railways, burnt churches and chapels and produced a general anarchy
+which could only have one end&mdash;European intervention. The man, sitting
+on the edge of Chinese history but not yet identifying himself with its
+main currents because he was not strong enough for that had once again
+not judged wrongly. With his Korean experience to assist him, he had
+seen precisely what the end must inevitably be.</p>
+		<p>The crash in Peking, when the siege of the Legations had been raised by
+an international army, found him alert and sympathetic&mdash;ready with
+advice, ready to shoulder new responsibilities, ready to explain away
+everything. The signature of the Peace Protocol of 1901 was signalized
+by his obtaining the viceroyalty of Chihli, succeeding the great Li Hung
+Chang himself, who had been reappointed to his old post, but had found
+active duties too wearisome. This was a marvellous success for a man but
+little over forty. And when the fugitive Court at length returned from
+Hsianfu in 1902, honours were heaped upon him as a person particularly
+worthy of honour because he had kept up appearances and maintained the
+authority of the distressed Throne. As if in answer to this he flooded
+the Court with memorials praying that in order to restore the power of
+the Dynasty a complete <a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">24</span>army of modern troops be raised&mdash;as numerous as
+possible but above all efficient.</p>
+		<p>His advice was listened to. From 1902 until 1907 as Minister of the Army
+Reorganization Council&mdash;a special post he held simultaneously with that
+of metropolitan Viceroy&mdash;Yuan Shih-kai's great effort was concentrated
+on raising an efficient fighting force. In those five years, despite all
+financial embarrassments, North China raised and equipped six excellent
+Divisions of field-troops&mdash;75,000 men&mdash;all looking to Yuan Shih-kai as
+their sole master. So much energy did he display in pushing military
+reorganization throughout the provinces that the Court, warned by
+jealous rivals of his growing power, suddenly promoted him to a post
+where he would be powerless. One day he was brought to Peking as Grand
+Councillor and President of the Board of Foreign Affairs, and ordered to
+hand over all army matters to his noted rival, the Manchu Tieh Liang.
+The time had arrived to muzzle him. His last phase as a pawn had come.</p>
+		<p>Few foreign diplomats calling at China's Foreign Office to discuss
+matters during that short period which lasted barely a twelve-month,
+imagined that the square resolute-looking man who as President of the
+Board gave the same energy and attention to consular squabbles as to the
+reorganization of a national-fighting force, was almost daily engaged in
+a fierce clandestine struggle to maintain even his modest position.
+Jealousy, which flourishes in Peking like the upas tree, was for ever
+blighting his schemes and blocking his plans. He had been brought to
+Peking to be tied up; he was constantly being denounced; and even his
+all powerful patroness, the old Empress Dowager, who owed so much to
+him, suffered from constant premonitions that the end was fast
+approaching, and that with her the Dynasty would die.</p>
+		<p>In the Autumn of 1908 she took sick. The gravest fears quickly spread.
+It was immediately reported that the Emperor Kwanghsu was also very
+ill&mdash;an ominous coincidence. Very suddenly both personages collapsed and
+died, the Empress Dowager slightly before the Emperor. There is little
+doubt that the Emperor himself was poisoned. The legend runs that as he
+expired not only did he give his Consort, who was to succeed him in the
+exercise of the nominal power of the Throne, a last secret Edict to
+behead Yuan Shih-kai, but that his faltering hand <a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">25</span>described circle
+after circle in the air until his followers understood the meaning. In
+the vernacular the name of the great viceroy and the word for circle
+have the same sound; the gesture signified that the dying monarch's last
+wish was revenge on the man who had failed him ten years before.</p>
+		<p>An ominous calm followed this great break with the past. It was
+understood that the Court was torn by two violent factions regarding the
+succession which the Empress Tzu-hsi had herself decided. The fact that
+another long Regency had become inevitable through the accession of the
+child Hsuan Tung aroused instant apprehensions among foreign observers,
+whilst it was confidently predicted that Yuan Shih-kai's last days had
+come.</p>
+		<p>The blow fell suddenly on the 2nd January, 1909. In the interval between
+the death of the old Empress and his disgrace, Yuan Shih-kai was
+actually promoted to the highest rank in the gift of the Throne, that
+is, made &quot;Senior Guardian of the Heir Apparent&quot; and placed in charge of
+the Imperial funeral arrangements&mdash;a lucrative appointment. During that
+interval it is understood that the new Regent, brother of the Emperor
+Kwanghsu, consulted all the most trusted magnates of the empire
+regarding the manner in which the secret decapitation Decree should be
+treated. All advised him to be warned in time, and not to venture on a
+course of action which would be condemned both by the nation and by the
+Powers. Another Edict was therefore prepared simply dismissing Yuan
+Shih-kai from office and ordering him to return to his native place.</p>
+		<p>Every one remembers that day in Peking when popular rumour declared that
+the man's last hour had come. Warned on every side to beware, Yuan
+Shih-kai left the Palace as soon as he had read the Edict of dismissal
+in the Grand Council and drove straight to the railway-station, whence
+he entrained for Tientsin, dressed as a simple citizen. Rooms had been
+taken for him at a European hotel, the British Consulate approached for
+protection, when another train brought down his eldest son bearing a
+message direct from the Grand Council Chamber, absolutely guaranteeing
+the safety of his life. Accordingly he duly returned to his native place
+in Honan province, and for two years&mdash;until the outbreak of the
+Revolution&mdash;devoted himself sedulously to the development of the large
+estate he had acquired with the fruits of office. <a name="Page_26" id="Page_26"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">26</span>Living like a
+patriarch of old, surrounded by his many wives and children, he
+announced constantly that he had entirely dropped out of the political
+life of China and only desired to be left in peace. There is reason to
+believe, however, that his henchmen continually reported to him the true
+state of affairs, and bade him bide his time. Certain it is that the
+firing of the first shots on the Yangtsze found him alert and issuing
+private orders to his followers. It was inevitable that he should have
+been recalled to office&mdash;and actually within one hundred hours of the
+first news of the outbreak the Court sent for him urgently and
+ungraciously.</p>
+		<p>From the 14th October, 1911, when he was appointed by Imperial Edict
+Viceroy of Hupeh and Hunan and ordered to proceed at once to the front
+to quell the insurrection, until the 1st November, when he was given
+virtually Supreme Power as President of the Grand Council in place of
+Prince Ching, a whole volume is required to discuss adequately the maze
+of questions involved. For the purposes of this account, however, the
+matter can be dismissed very briefly in this way. Welcoming the
+opportunity which had at last come and determined once for all to settle
+matters decisively, so far as he was personally concerned, Yuan Shih-kai
+deliberately followed the policy of holding back and delaying everything
+until the very incapacity marking both sides&mdash;the Revolutionists quite
+as much as the Manchus&mdash;forced him, as man of action and man of
+diplomacy, to be acclaimed the sole mediator and saviour of the nation.</p>
+		<p>The detailed course of the Revolution, and the peculiar manner in which
+Yuan Shih-kai allowed events rather than men to assert their mastery has
+often been related and need not long detain us. It is generally conceded
+that in spite of the bravery of the raw revolutionary levies, their
+capacity was entirely unequal to the trump card Yuan Shih-kai held all
+the while in his hand&mdash;the six fully-equipped Divisions of Field Troops
+he himself had organized as Tientsin Viceroy. It was a portion of this
+field-force which captured and destroyed the chief revolutionary base in
+the triple city of Hankow, Hanyang and Wuchang in November, 1911, and
+which he held back just as it was about to give the <i>coup de gr&acirc;ce</i> by
+crossing the river in force and sweeping the last remnants of the
+revolutionary army to perdition. Thus it is <a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">27</span>correct to declare that had
+he so wished Yuan Shih-kai could have crushed the revolution entirely
+before the end of 1911; but he was sufficiently astute to see that the
+problem he had to solve was not merely military but moral as well. The
+Chinese as a nation were suffering from a grave complaint. Their
+civilization had been made almost bankrupt owing to unresisted foreign
+aggression and to the native inability to cope with the mass of
+accumulated wrongs which a superimposed and exhausted feudalism&mdash;the
+Manchu system&mdash;had brought about. Yuan Shih-kai knew that the Boxers had
+been theoretically correct in selecting as they first did the watchword
+which they had first placed on their banners&mdash;&quot;blot out the Manchus and
+all foreign things.&quot; Both had sapped the old civilization to its
+foundations. But the programme they had proposed was idealistic, not
+practical. One element could be cleared away&mdash;the other had to be
+endured. Had the Boxers been sensible they would have modified their
+programme to the extent of protecting the foreigners, whilst they
+assailed the Dynasty which had brought them so low. The Court Party, as
+we have said, seduced their leaders to acting in precisely the reverse
+sense.</p>
+		<p>Yuan Shih-kai was neither a Boxer, nor yet a believer in idealistic
+foolishness. He had realized that the essence of successful rule in the
+China of the Twentieth Century was to support the foreign point of
+view&mdash;nominally at least&mdash;because foreigners disposed of unlimited
+monetary resources, and had science on their side. He knew that so long
+as he did not openly flout foreign opinion by indulging in bare-faced
+assassinations, he would be supported owing to the international
+reputation he had established in 1900. Arguing from these premises, his
+instinct also told him that an appearance of legality must always be
+sedulously preserved and the aspirations of the nation nominally
+satisfied. For this reason he arranged matters in such a manner as to
+appear always as the instrument of fate. For this reason, although he
+destroyed the revolutionists on the mid-Yangtsze, to equalize matters,
+on the lower Yangtsze he secretly ordered the evacuation of Nanking by
+the Imperialist forces so that he might have a tangible argument with
+which to convince the Manchus regarding the root and branch reform which
+he knew was necessary. That reform had been accepted in principle by the
+Throne when it <a name="Page_28" id="Page_28"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">28</span>agreed to the so-called Nineteen Fundamental Articles, a
+corpus of demands which all the Northern Generals had endorsed and had
+indeed insisted should be the basis of government before they would
+fight the rebellious South in 1911. There is reason to believe that
+provided he had been made <i>de facto</i> Regent, Yuan Shih-kai would have
+supported to the end a Manchu Monarchy. But the surprising swiftness of
+the Revolutionary Party's action in proclaiming the Republic at Nanking
+on the 1st January, 1912, and the support which foreign opinion gave
+that venture confused him. He had already consented to peace
+negotiations with the revolutionary South in the middle of December,
+1911, and once he was drawn into those negotiations his policy wavered,
+the armistice in the field being constantly extended because he saw that
+the Foreign Powers, and particularly England, were averse from further
+civil war. Having dispatched a former lieutenant, Tong Shao-yi, to
+Shanghai as his Plenipotentiary, he soon found himself committed to a
+course of action different from what he had originally contemplated.
+South China and Central China insisted so vehemently that the only
+solution that was acceptable to them was the permanent and absolute
+elimination of the Manchu Dynasty, that he himself was half-convinced,
+the last argument necessary being the secret promise that he should
+become the first President of the united Republic. In the circumstances,
+had he been really loyal, it was his duty either to resume his warfare
+or resign his appointment as Prime Minister and go into retirement. He
+did neither. In a thoroughly characteristic manner he sought a middle
+course, after having vaguely advocated a national convention to settle
+the matter. By specious misrepresentation the widow of the Emperor
+Kwanghsu&mdash;the Dowager Empress Lung Yu who had succeeded the Prince
+Regent Ch'un in her care of the interests of the child Emperor Hsuan
+Tung&mdash;was induced to believe that ceremonial retirement was the only
+course open to the Dynasty if the country was to be saved from
+disruption and partition. There is reason to believe that the Memorial
+of all the Northern Generals which was telegraphed to Peking on the 28th
+January, 1912, and which advised abdication, was inspired by him. In any
+case it was certainly Yuan Shih-kai who drew up the so-called Articles
+of Favourable Treatment for the Manchu House and caused them <a name="Page_29" id="Page_29"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">29</span>to be
+telegraphed to the South, whence they were telegraphed back to him as
+the maximum the Revolutionary Party was prepared to concede: and by a
+curious chance the attempt made to assassinate him outside the Palace
+Gates actually occurred on the very day he had submitted an outline of
+these terms on his bended knees to the Empress Dowager and secured their
+qualified acceptance. The pathetic attempt to confer on him as late as
+the 25th January the title of Marquess, the highest rank of nobility
+which could be given a Chinese, an attempt which was four times renewed,
+was the last despairing gesture of a moribund power. Within very few
+days the Throne reluctantly decreed its own abdication in three
+extremely curious Edicts which are worthy of study in the appendix. They
+prove conclusively that the Imperial Family believed that it was only
+abdicating its political power, whilst retaining all ancient ceremonial
+rights and titles. Plainly the conception of a Republic, or a People's
+Government, as it was termed in the native ideographs, was
+unintelligible to Peking.</p>
+		<p>Yuan Shih-kai had now won everything he wished for. By securing that the
+Imperial Commission to organize the Republic and re-unite the warring
+sections was placed solely in his hands, he prepared to give a type of
+Government about which he knew nothing a trial. It is interesting to
+note that he held to the very end of his life that he derived his powers
+solely from the Last Edicts, and in nowise from his compact with the
+Nanking Republic which had instituted the so-called Provisional
+Constitution. He was careful, however, not to lay this down
+categorically until many months later, when his dictatorship seemed
+undisputed. But from the day of the Manchu Abdication almost, he was
+constantly engaged in calculating whether he dared risk everything on
+one throw of the dice and ascend the Throne himself; and it is precisely
+this which imparts such dramatic interest to the astounding story which
+follows.</p>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">30</span></p>
+		<h2>
+
+		<a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>
+		CHAPTER III</h2>
+		<h3>THE DREAM REPUBLIC</h3>
+		<h3>(FROM THE 1st JANUARY, 1912, TO THE DISSOLUTION OF PARLIAMENT)</h3>
+		<p>To describe briefly and intelligibly the series of transactions from the
+1st January, 1912, when the Republic was proclaimed at Nanking by a
+handful of provincial delegates, and Dr. Sun Yat Sen elected Provisional
+President, to the <i>coup d'&eacute;tat</i> of 4th November, 1913, when Yuan
+Shih-kai, elected full President a few weeks previously, after having
+acted as Chief Executive for twenty months, boldly broke up Parliament
+and made himself <i>de facto</i> Dictator of China, is a matter of
+extraordinary difficulty.</p>
+		<p>All through this important period of Chinese history one has the
+impression that one is in dreamland and that fleeting emotions take the
+place of more solid things. Plot and counter-plot follow one another so
+rapidly that an accurate record of them all would be as wearisome as the
+Book of Chronicles itself; whilst the amazing web of financial intrigue
+which binds the whole together is so complex&mdash;and at the same time so
+antithetical to the political struggle&mdash;that the two stories seem to run
+counter to one another, although they are as closely united as two
+assassins pledged to carry through in common a dread adventure. A huge
+agglomeration of people estimated to number four hundred millions, being
+left without qualified leaders and told that the system of government,
+which had been laid down by the Nanking Provisional Constitution and
+endorsed by the Abdication Edicts, was a system in which every man was
+as good as neighbour, swayed meaninglessly to and fro, vainly seeking to
+regain the equilibrium which had been so sensationally lost. A litigious
+<a name="Page_31" id="Page_31"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">31</span>spirit became so universal that all authority was openly derided,
+crimes of every description being so common as to force most respectable
+men to withdraw from public affairs and leave a bare rump of desperadoes
+in power.</p>
+		<p>Long embarrassed by the struggle to pay her foreign loans and
+indemnities, China was also virtually penniless. The impossibility of
+arranging large borrowings on foreign markets without the open support
+of foreign governments&mdash;a support which was hedged round with
+conditions&mdash;made necessary a system of petty expedients under which
+practically every provincial administration hypothecated every liquid
+asset it could lay hands upon in order to pay the inordinate number of
+undisciplined soldiery who littered the countryside. The issue of
+unguaranteed paper-money soon reached such an immense figure that the
+market was flooded with a worthless currency which it was unable to
+absorb. The Provincial leaders, being powerless to introduce
+improvement, exclaimed that it was the business of the Central
+Government as representative of the sovereign people to find solutions;
+and so long as they maintained themselves in office they went their
+respective ways with a sublime contempt for the chaos around them.</p>
+		<p>What was this Central Government? In order successfully to understand an
+unparalleled situation we must indicate its nature.</p>
+		<p>The manoeuvres to which Yuan Shih-kai had so astutely lent himself from
+the outbreak of the Revolution had left him at its official close
+supreme in name. Not only had he secured an Imperial Commission from the
+abdicating Dynasty to organize a popular Government in obedience to the
+national wish, but having brought to Peking the Delegates of the Nanking
+Revolutionary Body he had received from them the formal offer of the
+Presidency.</p>
+		<p>These arrangements had, of course, been secretly agreed to <i>en bloc</i>
+before the fighting had been stopped and the abdication proclaimed, and
+were part and parcel of the elaborate scenery which officialdom always
+employs in Asia even when it is dealing with matters within the purview
+of the masses. They had been made possible by the so-called &quot;Article of
+Favourable Treatment&quot; drawn-up by Yuan Shih-kai himself, after
+consultation <a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">32</span>with the rebellious South. In these Capitulations it had
+been clearly stipulated that the Manchu Imperial Family should receive
+in perpetuity a Civil List of $4,000,000 Mexican a year, retaining all
+their titles as a return for the surrender of their political power, the
+bitter pill being gilded in such fashion as to hide its real meaning,
+which alone was a grave political error.</p>
+		<p>In spite of this agreement, however, great mutual suspicion existed
+between North and South China. Yuan Shih-kai himself was unable to
+forget that the bold attempt to assassinate him in the Peking streets on
+the 17th January, when he was actually engaged in negotiating these very
+terms of the Abdication, had been apparently inspired from Nanking;
+whilst the Southern leaders were daily reminded by the vernacular press
+that the man who held the balance of power had always played the part of
+traitor in the past and would certainly do the same again in the near
+future.</p>
+		<p>When the Delegates came to Peking in February, by far the most important
+matter which was still in dispute was the question of the oath of office
+which Yuan Shih-kai was called upon to take to insure that he would be
+faithful to the Republic. The Delegates had been charged specifically to
+demand on behalf of the seceding provinces that Yuan Shih-kai should
+proceed with them to Nanking to take that oath, a course of action which
+would have been held tantamount by the nation to surrender on his part
+to those who had been unable to vanquish him in the field. It must also
+not be forgotten that from the very beginning a sharp and dangerous
+cleavage of opinion existed as to the manner in which the powers of the
+new government had been derived. South and Central China claimed, and
+claimed rightly, that the Nanking Provincial Constitution was the
+Instrument on which the Republic was based: Yuan Shih-kai declared that
+the Abdication Edicts, and not the Nanking Instrument had established
+the Republic, and that therefore it lay within his competence to
+organize the new government in the way which he considered most fit.</p>
+		<p>The discussion which raged was suddenly terminated on the night of the
+29th February (1912) when without any warning there occurred the
+extraordinary revolt of the 3rd Division, a picked Northern corps who
+for forty-eight hours plundered and
+<a name="Page_33" id="Page_33"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">33</span>
+burnt portions of the capital
+without any attempts at interference, there being little doubt to-day
+that this manoeuvre was deliberately arranged as a means of intimidation
+by Yuan Shih-kai himself. Although the disorders assumed such dimensions
+that foreign intervention was narrowly escaped, the upshot was that the
+Nanking Delegates were completely cowed and willing to forget all about
+forcing the despot of Peking to proceed to the Southern capital. Yuan
+Shih-kai as the man of the hour was enabled on the 10th March, 1912, to
+take his oath in Peking as he had wished thus securing full freedom of
+action during the succeeding years.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6"><sup>[6]</sup></a>
+		</p>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE06" id="IMAGE06"></a>
+			<a href="images/image06.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image06.jpg" width="70%" alt="An Encampment of &quot;The Punitive Expedition&quot; of 1910 on the Upper Yangtsze.
+
+By courtesy of Major Isaac Newell, U.S. Military Attach&eacute;." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>An Encampment of &quot;The Punitive Expedition&quot; of 1910 on the
+Upper Yangtsze.</p>
+			<p>By courtesy of Major Isaac Newell, U.S. Military Attach&eacute;.</p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE07" id="IMAGE07"></a>
+			<a href="images/image07.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image07.jpg" width="70%" alt="Revival of the Imperialistic Worship of Heaven by Yuan Shih-kai in 1914: Scene on the Altar of Heaven, with Sacrificial Officers clothed in costumes dating from 2,000 years ago." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>Revival of the Imperialistic Worship of Heaven by Yuan
+Shih-kai in 1914: Scene on the Altar of Heaven, with Sacrificial
+Officers clothed in costumes dating from 2,000 years ago.</p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE08" id="IMAGE08"></a>
+			<a href="images/image08.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image08.jpg" width="70%" alt="A Manchu Country Fair: The figures in the foreground are
+all Manchu women and girls." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>A Manchu Country Fair: The figures in the foreground are
+all Manchu women and girls.</p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE09" id="IMAGE09"></a>
+			<a href="images/image09.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image09.jpg" width="70%" alt="A Manchu Woman grinding Grain." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>A Manchu Woman grinding Grain.</p>
+		</div>
+		<p>It was on this astounding basis&mdash;by means of an organized revolt&mdash;that
+the Central Government was reorganized; and every act that followed
+bears the mark of its tainted parentage. Accepting readily as his
+Ministers in the more unimportant government Departments the nominees of
+the Southern Confederacy (which was now formally dissolved), Yuan
+Shih-kai was careful to reserve for his own men everything that
+concerned the control of the army and the police, as well as the
+all-important ministry of finance. The framework having been thus
+erected, attention was almost immediately concentrated on the problem of
+finding money, an amazing matter which would weary the stoutest reader
+if given in all its detail but which being part and parcel of the
+general problem must be referred to.</p>
+		<p>Certain essential features can be very rapidly exposed. We have already
+made clear the purely economic nature of the forces which had sapped the
+foundations of Chinese society. Primarily it had been the disastrous
+nature of Chinese gold-indebtedness which had given the new ideas the
+force they <a name="Page_34" id="Page_34"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">34</span>required to work their will on the nation. And just because
+the question of this gold-indebtedness had become so serious and such a
+drain on the nation, some months before the outbreak of the Revolution
+an arrangement had been entered into with the bankers of four nations
+for a Currency Loan of &pound;10,000,000 with which to make an organized
+effort to re-establish internal credit. But this loan had never actually
+been floated, as a six months' safety clause had permitted a delay
+during which the Revolution had come. It was therefore necessary to
+begin the negotiations anew; and as the rich prizes to be won in the
+Chinese lottery had attracted general attention in the European
+financial world through the advertisement which the Revolution had given
+the country, a host of alternative loan proposals now lay at the
+disposal of Peking.</p>
+		<p>Consequently an extraordinary chapter of bargaining commenced. Warned
+that an International Debt Commission was the goal aimed at by official
+finance, Yuan Shih-kai and the various parties who made up the
+Government of the day, though disagreeing on almost every other
+question, were agreed that this danger must be fought as a common enemy.
+Though the Four-Power group alleged that they held the first option on
+all Chinese loans, money had already been advanced by a Franco-Belgian
+Syndicate to the amount of nearly two million pounds during the critical
+days of the Abdication. Furious at the prospect of losing their
+percentages, the Four Power group made the confusion worse confounded by
+blocking all competing proposals and closing every possible door. Russia
+and Japan, who had hitherto not been parties to the official consortium,
+perceiving that participation had become a political necessity, now
+demanded a place which was grudgingly accorded them; and it was in this
+way that the celebrated six-power Group arose.</p>
+		<p>It was round this group and the proposed issue of a &pound;60,000,000 loan to
+reorganize Chinese finance that the central battle raged. The Belgian
+Syndicate, having been driven out of business by the financial boycott
+which the official group was strong enough to organize on the European
+bourses, it remained for China to see whether she could not find some
+combination or some man who would be bold enough to ignore all
+governments.</p>
+		<p>Her search was not in vain. In September (1912) a London <a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">35</span>stockbroker,
+Mr. Birch Crisp, determined to risk a brilliant coup by negotiating by
+himself a Loan of &pound;10,000,000; and the world woke up one morning to
+learn that one man was successfully opposing six governments. The
+recollection of the storm raised in financial circles by this bold
+attempt will be fresh in many minds. Every possible weapon was brought
+into play by international finance to secure that the impudence of
+financial independence should be properly checked; and so it happened
+that although &pound;5,000,000 was secured after an intense struggle it was
+soon plain that the large requirements of a derelict government could
+not be satisfied in this Quixotic manner. Two important points had,
+however, been attained; first, China was kept financially afloat during
+the year 1912 by the independence of a single member of the London Stock
+Exchange; secondly, using this coup as a lever the Peking Government
+secured better terms than otherwise would have been possible from the
+official consortium.</p>
+		<p>Meanwhile the general internal situation remained deplorable. Nothing
+was done for the provinces whose paper currency was depreciating from
+month to month in an alarming manner; whilst the rivalries between the
+various leaders instead of diminishing seemed to be increasing. The
+Tutuhs, or Military Governors, acting precisely as they saw fit, derided
+the authority of Peking and sought to strengthen their old position by
+adding to their armed forces. In the capital the old Manchu court,
+safely entrenched in the vast Winter Palace from which it has not even
+to-day been ejected (1917) published daily the Imperial Gazette,
+bestowing honours and decorations on courtiers and clansmen and
+preserving all the old etiquette. In the North-western provinces, and in
+Manchuria and Mongolia, the so-called Tsung She Tang, or Imperial Clan
+Society, intrigued perpetually to create risings which would hasten the
+restoration of the fallen House; and although these intrigues never rose
+to the rank of a real menace to the country, the fact that they were
+surreptitiously supported by the Japanese secret service was a continual
+source of anxiety. The question of Outer Mongolia was also harassing the
+Central Government. The Hutuktu or Living Buddha of Urga&mdash;the chief city
+of Outer Mongolia&mdash;had utilized the revolution to throw off his
+allegiance to Peking; and the <a name="Page_36" id="Page_36"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">36</span>whole of this vast region had been thrown
+into complete disorder&mdash;which was still further accentuated when Russia
+on the 21st October (1912) recognized its independence. It was known
+that as a pendent to this Great Britain was about to insist on the
+autonomy of Tibet,&mdash;a development which greatly hurt Chinese pride.</p>
+		<p>On the 15th August, 1912, the deplorable situation was well-epitomised
+by an extraordinary act in Peking, when General Chang Cheng-wu, one of
+the &quot;heroes&quot; of the original Wuchang rising, who had been enticed to the
+capital, was suddenly seized after a banquet in his honour and shot
+without trial at midnight.</p>
+		<p>This event, trivial in itself during times when judicial murders were
+common, would have excited nothing more than passing interest had not
+the national sentiment been so aroused by the chaotic conditions. As it
+was it served to focus attention on the general mal-administration over
+which Yuan Shih-kai ruled as provisional President. &quot;What is my crime?&quot;
+had shrieked the unhappy revolutionist as he had been shot and then
+bayonetted to death. That query was most easily answered. His crime was
+that he was not strong enough or big enough to compete against more
+sanguinary men, his disappearance being consequently in obedience to an
+universal law of nature. Yuan Shih-kai was determined to assert his
+mastery by any and every means; and as this man had flouted him he must
+die.</p>
+		<p>The uproar which this crime aroused was, however, not easily appeased;
+and the Advisory Council, which was sitting in Peking pending the
+assembling of the first Parliament, denounced the Provisional President
+so bitterly that to show that these reproaches were ill-deserved he
+invited Dr. Sun Yat-sen to the capital treating him with unparalleled
+honours and requesting him to act as intermediary between the rival
+factions. All such manoeuvres, however, were inspired with one
+object,&mdash;namely to prove how nobody but the master of Peking could
+regulate the affairs of the country.</p>
+		<p>Still no Parliament was assembled. Although the Nanking Provisional
+Constitution had stipulated that one was to meet within ten months
+<i>i.e.</i> before 1st November, 1912, the elections were purposely delayed,
+the attention of the Central Government being concentrated on the
+problem of destroying all rivals, <a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">37</span>and everything being subordinate to
+this war on persons. Rascals, getting daily more and more out of hand,
+worked their will on rich and poor alike, discrediting by their actions
+the name of republicanism and destroying public confidence&mdash;which was
+precisely what suited Yuan Shih-kai. Dramatic and extraordinary
+incidents continually inflamed the public mind, nothing being too
+singular for those remarkable days.</p>
+		<p>Very slowly the problem developed, with everyone exclaiming that foreign
+intervention was becoming inevitable. With the beginning of 1913, being
+unable to delay the matter any longer, Yuan Shih-kai allowed elections
+to be held in the provinces. He was so badly beaten at the polls that it
+seemed in spite of his military power that he would be outvoted and
+outmanoeuvred in the new National Assembly and his authority undermined.
+To prevent this a fresh assassination was decided upon. The ablest
+Southern leader, Sung Chiao-jen, just as he was entraining for Peking
+with a number of Parliamentarians at Shanghai, was coolly shot in a
+crowded railway station by a desperado who admitted under trial that he
+had been paid &pound;200 for the job by the highest authority in the land, the
+evidence produced in court including telegrams from Peking which left no
+doubt as to who had instigated the murder.</p>
+		<p>The storm raised by this evil measure made it appear as if no parliament
+could ever assemble in Peking. But the feeling had become general that
+the situation was so desperate that action had to be taken. Not only was
+their reputation at stake, but the Kuomingtang or Revolutionary Party
+now knew that the future of their country was involved just as much as
+the safety of their own lives; and so after a rapid consultation they
+determined that they would beard the lion in his den. Rather
+unexpectedly on the 7th April (1913) Parliament was opened in Peking
+with a huge Southern majority and the benediction of all Radicals.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7"><sup>[7]</sup></a>
+Hopes rose with mercurial rapidity as a solution at last seemed in
+sight. But hardly <a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">38</span>had the first formalities been completed and Speakers
+been elected to both Houses, than by a single dramatic stroke Yuan
+Shih-kai reduced to nought these labours by stabbing in the back the
+whole theory and practice of popular government.</p>
+		<p>The method he employed was simplicity itself, and it is peculiarly
+characteristic of the man that he should have been so bluntly cynical.
+Though the Provisional Nanking Constitution, which was the &quot;law&quot; of
+China so far as there was any law at all, had laid down specifically in
+article XIX that all measures affecting the National Treasury must
+receive the assent of Parliament, Yuan Shih-kai, pretending that the
+small Advisory Council which had assisted him during the previous year
+and which had only just been dissolved, had sanctioned a foreign loan,
+peremptorily ordered the signature of the great Reorganization Loan of
+&pound;25,000,000 which had been secretly under negotiation all winter with
+the financial agents of six Powers<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8"><sup>[8]</sup></a>, although the rupture which had
+come in the previous June as a forerunner to the Crisp loan had caused
+the general public to lose sight of the supreme importance of the
+financial factor. Parliament, seeing that apart from the possibility of
+a Foreign Debt Commission being created something after the Turkish and
+Egyptian models, a direct challenge to its existence had been offered,
+raged and stormed and did its utmost to delay the question; but the
+Chief Executive having made up his mind shut himself up in his Palace
+and absolutely refused to see any Parliamentary representatives.
+Although the Minister of Finance himself hesitated to complete the
+transaction in the face of the rising storm and actually fled the
+capital, he was brought back by special train and forced to complete the
+agreement. At four o'clock in the morning on the 25th April the <a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">39</span>last
+documents were signed in the building of a foreign bank and the Finance
+Minister, galloping his carriage suddenly out of the compound to avoid
+possible bombs, reported to his master that at last&mdash;in spite of the
+nominal foreign control which was to govern the disbursement&mdash;a vast sum
+was at his disposal to further his own ends.</p>
+		<p>Safe in the knowledge that possession is nine points of the law, Yuan
+Shih-kai now treated with derision the resolutions which Parliament
+passed that the transaction was illegal and the loan agreement null and
+void. Being openly backed by the agents of the Foreign Powers, he
+immediately received large cash advances which enabled him to extend his
+power in so many directions that further argument with him seemed
+useless. It is necessary to record that the Parliamentary leaders had
+almost gone down on their knees to certain of the foreign Ministers in
+Peking in a vain attempt to persuade them to delay&mdash;as they could very
+well have done&mdash;the signature of this vital Agreement for forty-eight
+hours so that it could be formally passed by the National Assembly, and
+thus save the vital portion of the sovereignty of the country from
+passing under the heel of one man. But Peking diplomacy is a perverse
+and disagreeable thing; and the Foreign Ministers of those days,
+although accredited to a government which while it had not then been
+formally recognized as a Republic by any Power save the United States,
+was bound to be so very shortly, were determined to be reactionary and
+were at heart delighted to find things running back normally to
+absolutism<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9"><sup>[9]</sup></a>. High finance had at last got hold of everything it
+required from China and was in no mood to relax the monopoly of the salt
+administration which the Loan Agreement conferred. Nor must the fact be
+lost sight of that of the nominal amount of &pound;25,000,000 which had been
+borrowed, fully half consisted of repayments to <a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">40</span>foreign Banks and never
+left Europe. According to the schedules attached to the Agreement, Annex
+A, comprising the Boxer arrears and bank advances, absorbed &pound;4,317,778:
+Annex B, being so-called provincial loans, absorbed a further
+&pound;2,870,000: Annex C, being liabilities shortly maturing, amounted to
+&pound;3,592,263: Annex D, for disbandment of troops, amounted to &pound;3,000,000:
+Annex C, to cover current administrative expenses totalled &pound;5,500,000:
+whilst Annex E which covered the reorganization of the Salt
+Administration, absorbed the last &pound;2,000,000; The bank profits on this
+loan alone amounted to 1-1/4 million pounds; whilst Yuan Shih-kai
+himself was placed in possession by a system of weekly disbursements of
+a sum roughly amounting to ten million sterling, which was amply
+sufficient to allow him to wreak his will on his fellow-countrymen.
+Exasperated to the pitch of despair by this new development, the Central
+and Southern provinces, after a couple of months' vain argument, began
+openly to arm. On the 10th July in Kiangse province on the river
+Yangtsze the Northern garrisons were fired upon from the Hukow forts by
+the provincial troops under General Li Lieh-chun and the so-called
+Second Revolution commenced.</p>
+		<p>The campaign was short and inglorious. The South, ill-furnished with
+munitions and practically penniless, and always confronted by the same
+well-trained Northern Divisions who had proved themselves invincible
+only eighteen months before fought hard for a while, but never became a
+serious menace to the Central Government owing to the lack of
+co-operation between the various Rebel forces in the field. The Kiangse
+troops under General Li Lieh-chun, who numbered at most 20,000 men,
+fought stiffly, it is true, for a while but were unable to strike with
+any success and were gradually driven far back from the river into the
+mountains of Kiangse where their numbers rapidly melted away. The
+redoubtable revolutionary Huang Hsin, who had proved useful as a
+propagandist and a bomb-thrower in earlier days, but who was useless in
+serious warfare, although he assumed command of the Nanking garrison
+which had revolted to a man, and attempted a march up the Pukow railway
+in the direction of Tientsin, found his effort break down almost
+immediately from lack of organization and <a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">41</span>fled to Japan. The Nanking
+troops, although deserted by their leader, offered a strenuous
+resistance to the capture of the southern capital which was finally
+effected by the old reactionary General Chang Hsun operating in
+conjunction with General Feng Kuo-chang who had been dispatched from
+Peking with a picked force. The attack on the Shanghai arsenal which had
+been quietly occupied by a small Northern Garrison during the months
+succeeding the great loan transaction, although pushed with vigour by
+the South, likewise ultimately collapsed through lack of artillery and
+proper leadership. The navy, which was wholly Southern in its sympathies
+and which had been counted upon as a valuable weapon in cutting off the
+whole Yangtsze Valley, was at the last moment purchased to neutrality by
+a liberal use of money obtained from the foreign banks, under, it is
+said, the heading of administrative expenses! The turbulent city of
+Canton, although it also rose against the authority of Peking, had been
+well provided for by Yuan Shih-kai. A border General, named Lung
+Chi-kwang, with 20,000 semi-savage Kwangsi troops had been moved near
+the city and at once attacked and overawed the garrison. Appointed
+Military Governor of the province in return for his services, this Lung
+Chi-kwang, who was an infamous brute, for three years ruled the South
+with heartless barbarity, until he was finally ejected by the great
+rising of 1916. Thoroughly disappointed in this and many other
+directions the Southern Party was now emasculated; for the moneyed
+classes had withheld their support to the end, and without money nothing
+is possible in China. The 1913 outbreak, after lasting a bare two
+months, ignominiously collapsed with the flight of every one of the
+leaders on whose heads prices were put. The road was now left open for
+the last step Yuan Shih-kai had in mind, the coup against Parliament
+itself, which although unassociated in any direct way with the rising,
+had undoubtedly maintained secret relations with the rebellious generals
+in the field.</p>
+		<p>Parliament had further sinned by appointing a Special Constitutional
+Drafting Committee which had held its sittings behind closed doors at
+the Temple of Heaven. During this drafting of the Permanent
+Constitution, admittance had been absolutely refused to Yuan Shih-kai's
+delegates who had been sent to urge a modification of the
+decentralization which had <a name="Page_42" id="Page_42"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">42</span>been such a characteristic of the Nanking
+Instrument. Such details as transpired showed that the principle of
+absolute money-control was not only to be the dominant note in the
+Permanent Constitution, but that a new and startling innovation was
+being included to secure that a <i>de facto</i> Dictatorship should be
+rendered impossible. Briefly, it was proposed that when Parliament was
+not actually in session there should be left in Peking a special
+Parliamentary Committee, charged with supervising and controlling the
+Executive, and checking any usurpation of power.</p>
+		<p>This was enough for Yuan Shih-kai: he felt that he was not only an
+object of general suspicion but that he was being treated with contempt.
+He determined to finish with it all. He was as yet, however, only
+provisional President and it was necessary to show cunning. Once more he
+set to work in a characteristic way. By a liberal use of money
+Parliament was induced to pass in advance of the main body of articles
+the Chapter of the Constitution dealing with the election and term of
+office of the President. When that had been done the two Chambers
+sitting as an Electoral College, after the model of the French
+Parliament, being partly bribed and partly terrorised by a military
+display, were induced to elect him full President.</p>
+		<p>On the 10th October he took his final oath of office as President for a
+term of five years before a great gathering of officials and the whole
+diplomatic body in the magnificent Throne Room of the Winter Palace.
+Safe now in his Constitutional position nothing remained for him but to
+strike. On the 4th November he issued an arbitrary Mandate, which
+received the counter-signature of the whole Cabinet, ordering the
+unseating of all the so-called Kuomingtang or Radical Senators and
+Representatives on the counts of conspiracy and secret complicity with
+the July rising and vaguely referring to the filling of the vacancies
+thus created by new
+elections.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10"><sup>[10]</sup></a> The
+Metropolitan <a name="Page_43" id="Page_43"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">43</span>Police rigorously
+carried out the order and although no brutality was shown, it was made
+clear that if any of the indicted men remained in Peking their lives
+would be at stake. Having made it impossible for Parliament to sit owing
+to the lack of quorums, Yuan Shih-kai was able to proceed with his work
+of reorganization in the way that best suited him; and the novel
+spectacle was offered of a truly Mexican situation created in the Far
+East by and with the assent of the Powers. It is significant that the
+day succeeding this <i>coup d'&eacute;tat</i> of the 4th November the agreement
+conceding autonomy to Outer Mongolia was signed with Russia, China
+simply retaining the right to station a diplomatic representative at
+Urga.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11"><sup>[11]</sup></a>
+		</p>
+		<p>In spite of his undisputed power, matters however did not improve. The
+police-control, judiciously mingled with assassinations, which was now
+put in full vigour was hardly the administration to make room for which
+the Manchus had been expelled; and the country secretly chafed and
+cursed. But the disillusionment of the people was complete. Revolt had
+been tried in vain; and as the support which the Powers were affording
+to this r&eacute;gime was well understood there was nothing to do but to wait,
+safe in the knowledge that such a situation possessed no elements of
+permanency.</p>
+		<div class="footnotes">
+			<p class="center">FOOTNOTES:</p>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_6_6">
+						<span class="label">[6]</span>
+					</a> The defective nature of this oath of office will be patent
+at a glance:
+</p>
+				<p>
+&quot;At the beginning of the Republic there are many things to be taken care
+of. I, Yuan Shih-kai, sincerely wish to exert my utmost to promote the
+democratic spirit, to remove the dark blots of despotism, to obey
+strictly the Constitution, and to abide by the wish of the people, so as
+to place the country in a safe, united, strong, and firm position, and
+to effect the happiness and welfare of the divisions of the Chinese
+race. All these wishes I will fulfil without fail. As soon as a new
+President is elected by the National Assembly I shall at once vacate my
+present position. With all sincerity I take this oath before the people
+of China.
+</p>
+				<p>
+&quot;Dated the tenth day of March in the First Year of the Republic of China
+(1912).&quot;
+</p>
+				<p>
+(Signed) Yuan Shih-kai.</p>
+			</div>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_7_7">
+						<span class="label">[7]</span>
+					</a> The Parliament of China is composed of a House of
+Representatives numbering 596 members and a Senate of 274. The
+Representatives are elected by means of a property and educational
+franchise which is estimated to give about four million voters (1 per
+cent of the population) although in practice relatively few vote. The
+Senate is elected by the Provincial Assemblies by direct ballot. In the
+opinion of the writer, the Chinese Parliament in spite of obvious
+shortcoming, is representative of the country in its present
+transitional stage.</p>
+			</div>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_8_8">
+						<span class="label">[8]</span>
+					</a> The American Group at the last moment dropped out of the
+Sextuple combination (prior to the signature of the contract) after
+President Wilson had made his well-known pronouncement deprecating the
+association of Americans in any financial undertakings which impinged
+upon the rights of sovereignty of a friendly Power,&mdash;which was his
+considered view of the manner in which foreign governments were
+assisting their nationals to gain control of the Salt Administration The
+exact language the President used was that the conditions of the loan
+seemed &quot;to touch very nearly the administrative independence of China
+itself,&quot; and that a loan thus obtained was &quot;obnoxious&quot; to the principles
+upon which the American government rests. It is to be hoped that
+President Wilson's dictum will be universally accepted after the war and
+that meddling in Chinese affairs will cease.</p>
+			</div>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_9_9">
+						<span class="label">[9]</span>
+					</a> The United States accorded formal recognition to the
+Republic on the election of the Speakers of the two Houses of
+Parliament: the other Treaty Powers delayed recognition until Yuan
+Shih-kai had been elected full President in October. It has been very
+generally held that the long delay in foreign recognition of the
+Republic contributed greatly to its internal troubles by making every
+one doubt the reality of the Nanking transaction. Most important,
+however, is the historical fact that a group of Powers numbering the two
+great leaders of democracy in Europe&mdash;England and France&mdash;did everything
+they could in Peking to enthrone Yuan Shih-kai as dictator.</p>
+			</div>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_10_10">
+						<span class="label">[10]</span>
+					</a> According to the official lists published subsequent to
+the coup d'&eacute;tat, 98 Senators and 252 Members of the House of
+Representatives had their Parliamentary Certificates impounded by the
+police as a result of the Mandates of the 4th November, and were ordered
+to leave the Capital. In addition 34 Senators and 54 Members of the
+Lower House fled from Peking before their Certificates could be seized.
+Therefore the total number affected by the proscription was 132 Senators
+and 306 Representatives. As the quorums in the case of both Houses are
+half the total membership, any further sittings were thus made
+impossible.</p>
+			</div>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_11_11">
+						<span class="label">[11]</span>
+					</a> A full copy of this agreement will be found in the
+appendix.</p>
+			</div>
+		</div>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">44</span></p>
+		<h2>
+
+		<a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>
+		CHAPTER IV</h2>
+		<h3>THE DICTATOR AT WORK</h3>
+		<h3>(FROM THE COUP D'ETAT OF THE 4TH NOVEMBER, 1913, TO THE OUTBREAK OF THE
+WORLD-WAR 1ST AUGUST, 1914)</h3>
+		<p>With the Parliament of China effectively destroyed, and the turbulent
+Yangtsze Valley dragooned into sullen submission, Yuan Shih-kai's task
+had become so vastly simplified that he held the moment to have arrived
+when he could openly turn his hand to the problem of making himself
+absolutely supreme, <i>de jure</i> as well as <i>de facto</i>. But there was one
+remaining thing to be done. To drive the last nail into the coffin of
+the Republic it was necessary to discredit and virtually imprison the
+man who was Vice-President.</p>
+		<p>It is highly characteristic that although he had received from the hero
+of the Wuchang Rising the most loyal co-operation&mdash;a co-operation of a
+very arduous character since the Commander of the Middle Yangtsze had
+had to resist the most desperate attempt? to force him over to the side
+of the rebellion in July, 1913, nevertheless, Yuan Shih-kai was
+determined to bring this man to Peking as a prisoner of state.</p>
+		<p>It was just the fact that General Li Yuan-hung was a national hero which
+impelled the Dictator to action. In the election which had been carried
+out in October, 1913, by the National Assembly sitting as a National
+Convention, in spite of every effort to destroy his influence, the
+personal popularity of the Vice-President had been such that he had
+received a large number of votes for the office of full President&mdash;which
+had necessitated not one but three ballots being taken, making most
+people declare that had there been no bribery or intimidation he would
+have probably been elected to the supreme office in <a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">45</span>the land, and
+ousted the ambitious usurper. In such circumstances his complete
+elimination was deemed an elementary necessity. To secure that end Yuan
+Shih-kai suddenly dispatched to Wuchang&mdash;where the Vice-President had
+resided without break since 1911&mdash;the Minister of War, General Tuan
+Chi-jui, with implicit instructions to deal with the problem in any way
+he deemed satisfactory, stopping short of nothing should his victim
+prove recalcitrant.</p>
+		<p>Fortunately General Tuan Chi-jui did not belong to the ugly breed of men
+Yuan Shih-kai loved to surround himself with; and although he was a
+loyal and efficient officer the politics of the assassin were unknown to
+him. He was therefore able to convince the Vice-President after a brief
+discussion that the easiest way out of the ring of intriguers and
+plotters in which Yuan Shih-kai was rapidly surrounding him in Wuchang
+was to go voluntarily to the capital. There at least he would be in
+daily touch with developments and able to fight his own battles without
+fear of being stabbed in the back; since under the eye of the foreign
+Legations even Yuan Shih-kai was exhibiting a certain timidity. Indeed
+after the outcry which General Chang Cheng-wu's judicial murder had
+aroused he had reserved his ugliest deeds for the provinces, only small
+men being done to death in Peking. Accordingly, General Li Yuan-hung
+packed a bag and accompanied only by an aide-de-camp left abruptly for
+the capital where he arrived on the 11th December, 1913.</p>
+		<p>A great sensation was caused throughout China by this sudden departure,
+consternation prevailing among the officers and men of the Hupeh
+(Wuchang) army when the newspapers began to hint that their beloved
+chief had been virtually abducted. Although cordially received by Yuan
+Shih-kai and given as his personal residence the. Island Palace where
+the unfortunate Emperor Kwanghsu had been so long imprisoned by the
+Empress Dowager Tsu Hsi after her <i>coup d'&eacute;tat</i> of 1898, it did not take
+long for General Li Yuan-hung to understand that his presence was a
+source of embarrassment to the man who would be king. Being, however,
+gifted with an astounding fund of patience, he prepared to sit down and
+allow the great game which he knew would now unroll to be played to its
+normal ending. What General Li Yuan-hung desired above all was <a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">46</span>to be
+forgotten completely and absolutely&mdash;springing to life when the hour of
+deliverance finally arrived. His policy was shown to be not only
+psychologically accurate, but masterly in a political sense. The
+greatest ally of honesty in China has always been time, the inherent
+decency of the race finally discrediting scoundrelism in every period of
+Chinese history.</p>
+		<p>The year 1914 dawned with so many obstacles removed that Yuan Shih-kai
+became more and more peremptory in his methods. In February the young
+Empress Lun Yi, widow of the Emperor Kwanghsu, who two years previously
+in her character of guardian of the boy-Emperor Hsuan Tung, had been
+cajoled into sanctioning the Abdication Edicts, unexpectedly expired,
+her death creating profound emotion because it snapped the last link
+with the past. Yuan Shih-kai's position was considerably strengthened by
+this auspicious event which secretly greatly delighted him; and by his
+order for three days the defunct Empress lay in State in the Grand Hall
+of the Winter Palace and received the obeisance of countless multitudes
+who appeared strangely moved by this hitherto unknown procedure. There
+was now only a nine-year old boy between the Dictator and his highest
+ambitions. Two final problems still remained to be dealt with: to give a
+legal form to a purely autocratic rule, and to find money to govern the
+country. The second matter was vastly more important than the first to a
+man who did not hesitate to base his whole polity on the teachings of
+Machiavelli, legality being looked upon as only so much political
+window-dressing to placate foreign opinion and prevent intervention,
+whilst without money even the semblance of the rights of eminent domain
+could not be preserved. Everything indeed hinged on the question of
+finding money.</p>
+		<p>There was none in China, at least none for the government. Financial
+chaos still reigned supreme in spite of the great Reorganization Loan of
+&pound;25,000,000, which had been carefully arranged more for the purpose of
+wiping-out international indebtedness and balancing the books of foreign
+bankers than to institute a modern government. All the available specie
+in the country had been very quietly remitted in these troubled times by
+the native merchant-guilds from every part of China to the vast emporium
+of Shanghai for safe custody, where a sum <a name="Page_47" id="Page_47"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">47</span>not far short of a hundred
+million ounces now choked the vaults of the foreign banks,&mdash;being safe
+from governmental expropriation. The collection of provincial revenues
+having been long disorganized, Yuan Shih-kai, in spite of his military
+dictatorship, found it impossible to secure the proper resumption of the
+provincial remittances. Fresh loans became more and more sought after;
+by means of forced domestic issues a certain amount of cash was
+obtained, but the country lived from hand to mouth and everybody was
+unhappy. Added to this by March the formidable insurrection of the
+&quot;White Wolf&quot; bandits in Central China&mdash;under the legendary leadership of
+a man who was said to be invulnerable&mdash;necessitated the mobilization of
+a fresh army which ran into scores of battalions and which was vainly
+engaged for nearly half a year in rounding-up this replica of the
+Mexican Villa. So demoralized had the army become from long licence that
+this guerrilla warfare was waged with all possible slackness until a
+chance shot mortally wounded the chief brigand and his immense following
+automatically dispersed. During six months these pests had ravaged three
+provinces and menaced one of the most strongly fortified cities in
+Asia&mdash;the old capital of China, Hsianfu, whither the Manchu Court had
+fled in 1900.</p>
+		<p>Meanwhile wholesale executions were carried out in the provinces with
+monotonous regularity and all attempts at rising ruthlessly suppressed.
+In Peking the infamous Chih Fa Chu or Military Court&mdash;a sort of Chinese
+Star-Chamber&mdash;was continually engaged in summarily dispatching men
+suspected of conspiring against the Dictator, Even the printed word was
+looked upon as seditious, an unfortunate native editor being actually
+flogged to death in Hankow for telling the truth about conditions in the
+riverine districts. These cruelties made men more and more determined to
+pay off the score the very first moment that was possible. Although he
+was increasingly pressed for ready money, Yuan Shih-kai, by the end of
+April, 1914, had the situation sufficiently in hand to bring out his
+supreme surprise,&mdash;a brand-new Constitution promulgated under the
+euphonious title of &quot;The Constitutional Compact.&quot;</p>
+		<p>This precious document, which had no more legality behind it as a
+governing instrument than a private letter, can be studied <a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">48</span>by the
+curious in the appendix where it is given in full: here it is sufficient
+to say that no such hocuspocus had ever been previously indulged in
+China. Drafted by an American legal adviser, Dr. Goodnow, who was later
+to earn unenviable international notoriety as the endorser of the
+monarchy scheme, it erected what it was pleased to call the Presidential
+System; that is, it placed all power directly in the hands of the
+President, giving him a single Secretary of State after the American
+model and reducing Cabinet Ministers to mere Department Chiefs who
+received their instructions from the State Department but had no real
+voice in the actual government. A new provincial system was likewise
+invented for the provinces, the Tutuhs or Governors of the Revolutionary
+period being turned into Chiang Chun or Military Officials on the Manchu
+model and provincial control absolutely centralized in their hands,
+whilst the Provincial Assemblies established under the former dynasty
+were summarily abolished. The worship at the Temple of Heaven was also
+re-established and so was the official worship of Confucius&mdash;both
+Imperialistic measures&mdash;whilst a brand-new ceremony, the worship of the
+two titulary Military Gods, was ordered so as to inculcate military
+virtue! It was laid down that in the worship of Heaven the President
+would wear the robes of the Dukes of the Chow dynasty, B.C. 1112, a
+novel and interesting republican experiment. Excerpts from two Mandates
+which belong to these days throw a flood of light on the kind of
+reasoning which was held to justify these developments. The first
+declares:</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<p>... &quot;In a Republic the Sovereign Power is vested in the people, and
+    the main principle is that all things should be determined in
+    accordance with the desires of the majority. These desires may be
+    embraced by two words, namely, existence and happiness. I, the
+    President, came from my farm because I was unable to bear the
+    eternal sufferings of the innocent people. I assumed office and
+    tried vainly to soothe the violent feelings. The greatest evil
+    nowadays is the misunderstanding of true principles. The Republicans
+    on the pretext of public interest try to attain selfish ends, some
+    going so far as to consider the forsaking of parents as a sign of
+    liberty and regarding the violation of the laws as a demonstration
+    of equality. I will certainly do my best to change all this.&quot; </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>In the second Mandate Yuan Shih-kai justifies the re-establishment of
+the Confucian worship in a singular way, incidentally <a name="Page_49" id="Page_49"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">49</span>showing how
+utterly incomprehensible to him is the idea of representative
+government, since he would appear to have imagined that by dispatching
+circular telegrams to the provincial capitals and receiving affirmative
+replies from his creatures all that is necessary in the way of a
+national endorsement of high constitutional measures had been obtained.</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<p>... &quot;China's devotion to Confucius began with the reign of the
+    Emperor Hsiaowu, of the Han dynasty, who rejected the works of the
+    hundred authors, making the six Confucian classics the leading
+    books. Confucius, born in the time of the tyranny of the nobility,
+    in his works declared that after war disturbances comes peace, and
+    with peace real tranquillity and happiness. This, therefore, is the
+    fountain of Republicanism. After studying the history of China and
+    consulting the opinions of scholars, I find that Confucius must
+    remain the teacher for thousands of generations. But in a Republic
+    the people possess sovereign power. Therefore circular telegrams
+    were dispatched to all the provinces to collect opinions, and many
+    affirmative answers have already been received. Therefore, all
+    colleges, schools, and public bodies are ordered to revive the
+    sacrificial ceremony of Confucius, which shall be carefully and
+    minutely ordained.&quot; ... </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>With the formal promulgation of the Constitutional Compact the situation
+had become bizarre in the extreme. Although even the child-mind might
+have known that powers for Constitution-making were vested solely in the
+National Assembly, and that the re-division of authority which was now
+made was wholly illegal, because Yuan Shih-kai as the bailiff of the
+Powers was able to do much as he pleased; and at a moment when Liberal
+Europe was on the eve of plunging into the most terrible war in history
+in defence of right against might, reaction and Prussianism of the most
+repulsive type were passed by unnoticed in China. In a few loosely
+drafted chapters not only was the governance of the country rearranged
+to suit a purely dictational rule, but the actual Parliament was
+permanently extinguished and replaced by a single Legislative Chamber
+(<i>Li Fa Yuan</i>) which from its very composition could be nothing but a
+harmless debating Society with no greater significance than a dietine of
+one of the minor German States. Meanwhile, as there was no intention of
+allowing even this chamber to assemble until the last possible moment, a
+Senate was got together as the organ of public opinion, ten Senators
+being chosen to draft yet another Constitution which would be the final
+one. Remarkable steps <a name="Page_50" id="Page_50"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">50</span>were taken a little later in the year (1914) to
+secure that the succession to the dictatorship should be left in Yuan
+Shih-kai's own hands. An elaborate ritual was contrived and officially
+promulgated under the title of the Presidential Succession Law on the
+29th December whereby the Chief Executive selected three names which
+were placed in a gold box in a Stone House in the grounds of the
+Palace,&mdash;the gold box only to be opened when death or incapacity
+deprived the nation of its self-appointed leader. For the term of the
+presidency was openly converted into one of ten years and made subject
+to indefinite renewal by this precious instrument which was the work of
+the puppet senate. In case of the necessity of an election suddenly
+arising, an Electoral College was to be formed by fifty members drawn
+from the Legislative Chamber and fifty from the Senate, the Presidential
+candidates consisting of the President (if he so desired) and the three
+whose names were in the gold box in the Stone House in the Palace
+grounds. It is not definitely known to whom these provisions were due,
+but it is known that at least they were not the work of the American
+adviser.</p>
+		<p>His responsibility, however, was very great; for the keynote of all this
+scheme, according to Dr. Goodnow<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12"><sup>[12]</sup></a>, was &quot;centralization of power,&quot; a
+parrot-like phrase which has deluded better men than ever came to China
+and which&mdash;save as a method necessary during a state of war&mdash;should have
+no place in modern politics. But it was precisely this which appealed to
+Yuan Shih-kai. Although as President he was <i>ex officio</i>
+Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy, he now turned this office into
+a direct and special organization installed within the precincts of the
+Imperial City. The flags of this new dictatorship constantly floated
+over his palace, whilst scores of officers were appointed to scores of
+departments which were directly concerned with centralizing the control
+of every armed man in the country in the master's hands. Meanwhile in
+order to placate provincial commanders, a &quot;Palace of Generals,&quot; was
+created in Peking to which were brought all men it was held desirable to
+emasculate. Here, drawing ample salaries, they could sit in idleness the
+livelong<a name="Page_51" id="Page_51"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">51</span> day, discussing the battles they had never fought and
+intriguing against one another, two occupations in which the product of
+the older school of men in China excels. Provincial levies which had any
+military virtue, were gradually disbanded, though many of the rascals
+and rapscallions, who were open menaces to good government were left
+with arms in their hands so as to be an argument in favour of drastic
+police-rule. Thus it is significant of the underlying falseness and
+weakness of the dictator's character that he never dared to touch the
+troops of the reprobate General Chang Hsun, who had made trouble for
+years, and who had nearly embroiled China in war with Japan during the
+so-called Second Revolution (July-August, 1913) by massacring some
+Japanese civilians in the streets of Nanking when the city was
+recaptured. So far from disbanding his men, Chang Hsun managed
+constantly to increase his army of 30,000 men on the plea that the post
+of Inspector-General of the Yangtsze Valley, which had been given to him
+as a reward for refusing to throw in his lot with the Southern rebels,
+demanded larger forces. Yuan Shih-kai, although half afraid of him,
+found him at various periods useful as a counterweight to other generals
+in the provinces; in any case he was not the man to risk anything by
+attempting to crush him. As he was planted with his men astride of the
+strategically important Pukow railway, it was always possible to order
+him at a moment's notice into the Yangtsze Valley which was thus
+constantly under the menace of fire and sword.</p>
+		<p>Far and wide Yuan Shih-kai now stretched his nets. He even employed
+Americans throughout the United States in the capacity of press-agents
+in order to keep American public opinion favourable to him, hoping to
+invoke their assistance against his life-enemy&mdash;Japan&mdash;should that be
+necessary. The precise details of this propaganda and the sums spent in
+its prosecution are known to the writer; if he refrains from publishing
+them it is solely for reasons of policy. England it was not necessary to
+deal with in this way. Chance had willed that the British Representative
+in Peking should be an old friend who had known the Dictator intimately
+since his Korean days; and who faithful to the extraordinary English
+love of hero-worship believed that such a surprising character could do
+little wrong. <a name="Page_52" id="Page_52"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">52</span>British policy which has always been a somewhat variable
+quantity in China, owing to the spasmodic attention devoted to such a
+distant problem, may be said to have been non-existent during all this
+period&mdash;a state of affairs not conducive to international happiness.</p>
+		<p>Slowly the problem developed in a shiftless, irresolute way. Unable to
+see that China had vastly changed, and that government by rascality had
+become a physical and moral impossibility, the Legations in Peking
+adopted an attitude of indifference leaving Yuan Shih-kai to wreak his
+will on the people. The horde of foreign advisers who had been appointed
+merely as a piece of political window-dressing, although they were
+allowed to do no work, were useful in running backwards and forwards
+between the Legations and the Presidential headquarters and in making
+each Power suppose that its influence was of increasing importance. It
+was made abundantly clear that in Yuan Shih-kai's estimation the
+Legations played in international politics much the same r&ocirc;le that
+provincial capitals did in domestic politics: so long as you bound both
+to benevolent neutrality the main problem&mdash;the consolidation of
+dictatorial power&mdash;could be pushed on with as you wished. Money,
+however, remained utterly lacking and a new twenty-five million sterling
+loan was spoken of as inevitable&mdash;the accumulated deficit in 1914 being
+alone estimated at thirty-eight million pounds. But although this
+financial dearth was annoying, Chinese resources were sufficient to
+allow the account to be carried on from day to day. Some progress was
+made in railways, building concessions being liberally granted to
+foreign corporations, this policy having received a great impetus from
+the manner in which Dr. Sun Yat Sen had boomed the necessity for better
+communications during the short time he had ruled at a National Railway
+Bureau in Shanghai, an office from which he had been relieved in 1913 on
+it being discovered that he was secretly indenting for quick-firing
+guns. Certain questions proved annoying and insoluble, for instance the
+Tibetan question concerning which England was very resolute, as well as
+the perpetual risings in Inner Mongolia, a region so close to Peking
+that concentrations of troops were necessary. But on the whole as time
+went on there was increasing indifference both among the <a name="Page_53" id="Page_53"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">53</span>Foreign Powers
+and Chinese for the extraordinary state of affairs which had been
+allowed to grow up.</p>
+		<p>There was one notable exception, however, Japan. Never relaxing her grip
+on a complicated problem, watchful and active, where others were
+indifferent and slothful, Japan bided her time. Knowing that the hour
+had almost arrived when it would be possible to strike, Japan was vastly
+active behind the scenes in China long before the outbreak of the
+European war gave her the longed for opportunity; and largely because of
+her the pear, which seemed already almost ripe, finally withered on the
+tree.</p>
+		<div class="footnotes">
+			<p class="center">FOOTNOTES:</p>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_12_12">
+						<span class="label">[12]</span>
+					</a> It is significant that Dr. Goodnow carried out all his
+Constitutional studies in Germany, specializing in that department known
+as Administrative Law which has no place, fortunately, in Anglo-Saxon
+conceptions of the State.</p>
+			</div>
+		</div>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p>	<a name="Page_54" id="Page_54"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">54</span></p>
+		<h2>
+
+		<a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>
+		CHAPTER V</h2>
+		<h3>THE FACTOR OF JAPAN</h3>
+		<h3>(FROM THE OUTBREAK OF THE WORLD-WAR, 1ST AUGUST, 1914, TO THE FILING OF
+THE TWENTY-ONE DEMANDS, 18TH JANUARY, 1915)</h3>
+		<p>The thunderclap of the European war shattered the uneasy calm in China,
+not because the Chinese knew anything of the mighty issues which were to
+be fought out with such desperation and valour, but because the presence
+of the German colony of Kiaochow on Chinese soil and the activity of
+German cruisers in the Yellow Sea brought the war to China's very doors.
+Vaguely conscious that this might spell disaster to his own ambitious
+plans, Yuan Shih-kai was actually in the midst of tentative negotiations
+with the German Legation regarding the retrocession of the Kiaochow
+territory when the news reached him that Japan, after some rapid
+negotiations with her British Ally, had filed an ultimatum on Germany,
+peremptorily demanding the handing-over of all those interests that had
+been forcibly acquired in Shantung province in the great leasing-year of
+1898.</p>
+		<p>At once Yuan Shih-kai realized that the Nemesis which had dogged his
+footsteps all his life was again close behind him. In the Japanese
+attack on Kiaochow he foresaw a web of complications which even his
+unrivalled diplomacy might be unable to unravel; for he knew well from
+bitter experience that wherever the Japanese sets his foot there he
+remains. It is consequently round this single factor of Japan that the
+history of the two succeeding years revolves. From being indisputably
+the central figure on the Chinese canvas, Yuan Shih-kai suddenly becomes
+subordinate to the terror of Japanese intervention which hangs over him
+constantly like a black cloud, and governs <a name="Page_55" id="Page_55"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">55</span>every move he made from the
+15th August, 1914, to the day of his dramatic death on the 6th June,
+1916. We shall attempt to write down the true explanation of why this
+should have been so.</p>
+		<p>It is extremely hard to discuss the question of Japan for the benefit of
+an exclusively Western audience in a convincing way because Japanese
+policy has two distinct facets which seem utterly contradictory, and yet
+which are in a great measure understandable if the objects of that
+diplomacy are set down. Being endowed with an extraordinary capacity for
+taking detached views, the Statesmen of Tokio long ago discerned the
+necessity of having two independent policies&mdash;an Eastern policy for
+Eastern Asia and a Western policy for Western nations&mdash;because East and
+West are essentially antithetical, and cannot be treated (at least not
+yet) in precisely the same manner. Whilst the Western policy is frank
+and manly, and is exclusively in the hands of brilliant and attractive
+men who have been largely educated in the schools of Europe and America
+and who are fully able to deal with all matters in accordance with the
+customary traditions of diplomacy, the Eastern policy is the work of
+obscurantists whose imaginations are held by the vast projects which the
+Military Party believes are capable of realization in China. There is
+thus a constant contradiction in the attitude of Japan which men have
+sought in vain to reconcile. It is for this reason that the outer world
+is divided into two schools of thought, one believing implicitly in
+Japan's <i>bon&acirc; fides</i>, the other vulgarly covering her with abuse and
+declaring that she is the last of all nations in her conceptions of fair
+play and honourable treatment. Both views are far-fetched. It is as true
+of Japan as it is of every other Government in the world that her
+actions are dictated neither by altruism nor by perfidy, but are merely
+the result of the faulty working of a number of fallible brains and as
+regards the work of administration in Japan itself the position is
+equally extraordinary. Here, at the extreme end of the world, so far
+from being in any way threatened, the principle of Divine Right, which
+is being denounced and dismembered in Europe as a crude survival from
+almost heathen days, stands untouched and still exhibits itself in all
+its pristine glory. A highly aristocratic Court, possessing one of the
+most complicated <a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">56</span>and jealously protected hierarchies in the world, and
+presided over by a monarch claiming direct descent from the sacred Jimmu
+Tenno of twenty-five hundred years ago, decrees to-day precisely as
+before, the elaborate ritual governing every move, every decision and
+every agreement. There is something so engaging in this political
+curiosity, something so far removed from the vast world-movement now
+rolling fiercely to its conclusion, that we may be pardoned for
+interpolating certain capital considerations which closely affect the
+future of China and therefore cannot fail to be of public interest.</p>
+		<p>The Japanese, who owe their whole theocratic conception to the Chinese,
+just as they owe all their letters and their learning to them, still
+nominally look upon their ruler as the link between Heaven and Earth,
+and the central fact dominating their cosmogony. Although the vast
+number of well-educated men who to-day crowd the cities of Japan are
+fully conscious of the bizarre nature of this belief in an age which has
+turned its back on superstition, nothing has yet been done to modify it
+because&mdash;and this is the important point&mdash;the structure of Japanese
+society is such that without a violent upheaval which shall hurl the
+military clan system irremediably to the ground, it is absolutely
+impossible for human equality to be admitted and the man-god theory to
+be destroyed. So long as these two features-exist; that is so long as a
+privileged military caste supports and attempts to make all-powerful the
+man-god theory, so long will Japan be an international danger-spot
+because there will lack those democratic restraints which this war has
+shown are absolutely essential to secure a peaceful understanding among
+the nations. It is for this reason that Japan will fail to attain the
+position the art-genius and industry of her people entitle her to and
+must limp behind the progress of the world unless a very radical
+revision of the constitution is achieved. The disabilities which arise
+from an archaic survival are so great that they will affect China as
+adversely as Japan, and therefore should be universally understood.</p>
+		<p>Japanese history, if stripped of its superficial aspects, has a certain
+remarkable quality; it seems steeped in heroic blood. The doctrine of
+force, which expresses itself in its crudest forms in Europe, has always
+been in Japan a system of heroic-action <a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">57</span>so fascinating to humanity at
+large that until recent times its international significance has not
+been realized. The feudal organization of Japanese society which arose
+as a result of the armed conquest of the islands fifteen hundred years
+ago, precluded centralizating measures being taken because the Throne,
+relying on the virtues of Divine Ancestors rather than on any
+well-articulated political theory, was weak in all except certain
+quasisacerdotal qualities, and forced to rely on great chieftains for
+the execution of its mandates as well as for its defence. The military
+title of &quot;barbarian-conquering general,&quot; which was first conferred on a
+great clan leader eight centuries ago, was a natural enough development
+when we remember that the autochthonous races were even then not yet
+pushed out of the main island, and were still battling with the
+advancing tide of Japanese civilization which was itself composed of
+several rival streams coming from the Asiatic mainland and from the
+Malayan archipelagoes. This armed settlement saturates Japanese history
+and is responsible for the unending local wars and the glorification of
+the warrior. The conception of triumphant generalship which Hideyoshi
+attempted unsuccessfully to carry into Korea in the Sixteenth Century,
+led directly at the beginning of the Seventeenth Century to the formal
+establishment of the Shogunate, that military dictatorship being the
+result of the backwash of the Korean adventure, and the greatest proof
+of the disturbance which it had brought in Japanese society. The
+persistence of this hereditary military dictatorship for more than two
+and a half centuries is a remarkable illustration of the fact that as in
+China so in Japan the theocratic conception was unworkable save in
+primitive times&mdash;civilization demanding organization rather than
+precepts and refusing to bow its head to speechless kings. Although the
+Restoration of 1868 nominally gave back to the Throne all it had been
+forced to leave in other hands since 1603, that transfer of power was
+imaginary rather than real, the new military organization which
+succeeded the Shogun's government being the vital portion of the
+Restoration. In other words, it was the leaders of Japan's conscript
+armies who inherited the real power, a fact made amply evident by the
+crushing of the Satsuma Rebellion by these new corps whose organization
+allowed them to overthrow the proudest and most <a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">58</span>valorous of the Samurai
+and incidentally to proclaim the triumph of modern firearms.</p>
+		<p>Now it is important to note that as early as 1874&mdash;that is six years
+after the Restoration of the Emperor Meiji&mdash;these facts were attracting
+the widest notice in Japanese society, the agitation for a Constitution
+and a popular assembly being very vigorously pushed. Led by the
+well-known and aristocratic Itagaki, Japanese Liberalism had joined
+battle with out-and-out Imperialism more than a quarter of a century
+ago; and although the question of recovering Tariff and Judicial
+autonomy and revising the Foreign Treaties was more urgent in those
+days, the foreign question was often pushed aside by the fierceness of
+the constitutional agitation.</p>
+		<p>It was not, however, until 1889 that a Constitution was finally granted
+to the Japanese&mdash;that instrument being a gift from the Crown, and
+nothing more than a conditional warrant to a limited number of men to
+become witnesses of the processes of government but in no sense its
+controllers. The very first Diet summoned in 1890 was sufficient proof
+of that. A collision at once occurred over questions of finance which
+resulted in the resignation of the Ministry. And ever since those days,
+that is for twenty-seven consecutive years, successive Diets in Japan
+have been fighting a forlorn fight for the power which can never be
+theirs save by revolution, it being only natural that Socialism should
+come to be looked upon by the governing class as Nihilism, whilst the
+mob-threat has been very acute ever since the Tokio peace riots of 1905.</p>
+		<p>Now it is characteristic of the ceremonial respect which all Japanese
+have for the Throne that all through this long contest the main issue
+should have been purposely obscured. The traditional feelings of
+veneration which a loyal and obedient people feel for a line of
+monarchs, whose origin is lost in the mists of antiquity, are such that
+they have turned what is in effect an ever-growing struggle against the
+archaic principle of divine right into a contest with clan-leaders whom
+they assert are acting &quot;unconstitutionally&quot; whenever they choose to
+assert the undeniable principles of the Constitution. Thus to-day we
+have this paradoxical situation; that although Japanese Liberalism must
+from its very essence be revolutionary, <i>i.e.</i>, destructive before <a name="Page_59" id="Page_59"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">59</span>it
+can hope to be constructive, it feigns blindness, hoping that by suasion
+rather than by force the principle of parliamentary government will
+somehow be grafted on to the body politic and the emperors, being left
+outside the controversy, become content to accept a greatly modified
+rule.</p>
+		<p>This hope seems a vain one in the light of all history. Militarism and
+the clans are by no means in the last ditch in Japan, and they will no
+more surrender their power than would the Russian bureaucracy. The only
+argument which is convincing in such a case is the last one which is
+ever used; and the mere mention of it by so-called socialists is
+sufficient to cause summary arrest in Japan. Sheltering themselves
+behind the Throne, and nominally deriving their latter-day dictatorship
+from the Imperial mandate, the military chiefs remain adamant, nothing
+having yet occurred to incline them to surrender any of their
+privileges. By a process of adaptation to present-day conditions, a
+formula has now been discovered which it is hoped will serve many a long
+year. By securing by extra-legal means the return of a &quot;majority&quot; in the
+House of Representatives the fiction of national support of the
+autocracy has been re-invigorated, and the doctrine laid down that what
+is good for every other advanced people in the world is bad for the
+Japanese, who must be content with what is granted them and never
+question the superior intelligence of a privileged caste. In the opinion
+of the writer, it is every whit as important for the peace of the world
+that the people of Japan should govern themselves as it is for the
+people of Germany to do so. The persistence of the type of military
+government which we see to-day in Japan is harmful for all alike because
+it is as antiquated as Tsarism and a perpetual menace to a disarmed
+nation such as China. So long as that government remains, so long must
+Japan remain an international suspect and be denied equal rights in the
+council-chambers of the Liberal Powers.</p>
+		<p>If the situation which arose on the 15th August, 1914, is to be
+thoroughly understood, it is necessary to pick up threads of
+Chino-Japanese relations from a good many years back. First-hand
+familiarity with the actors and the scenes of at least three decades is
+essential to give the picture the completeness, the brilliancy of
+colouring, and withal the suggestiveness inseparable <a name="Page_60" id="Page_60"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">60</span>from all true
+works of art. For the Chino-Japanese question is primarily a work of art
+and not merely a piece of jejune diplomacy stretched across the years.
+As the shuttle of Fate has been cast swiftly backwards and forwards, the
+threads of these entwining relations have been woven into patterns
+involving the whole Far East, until to-day we have as it were a complete
+Gobelin tapestry, magnificent with meaning, replete with action, and
+full of scholastic interest.</p>
+		<p>Let us follow some of the tracery. It has long been the habit to affirm
+that the conflict between China and Japan had its origin in Korea, when
+Korea was a vassal state acknowledging the suzerainty of Peking; and
+that the conflict merited ending there, since of the two protagonists
+contending for empire Japan was left in undisputed mastery. This
+statement, being incomplete, is dangerously false. Dating from that
+vital period of thirty years ago, when Yuan Shih-kai first went to Seoul
+as a general officer in the train of the Chinese Imperial Resident (on
+China being forced to take action in protection of her interests, owing
+to the &quot;opening&quot; of Korea by the American Treaty of 1882) three
+contestants, equally interested in the balance of land-power in Eastern
+Asia were constantly pitted against one another with Korea as their
+common battling-ground&mdash;Russia, China and Japan. The struggle, which
+ended in the eclipse of the first two, merely shifted the venue from the
+Korean zone to the Manchurian zone; and from thence gradually extended
+it further and further afield until at last not only was Inner Mongolia
+and the vast belt of country fronting the Great Wall embraced within its
+scope, but the entire aspect of China itself was changed. For these
+important facts have to be noted. Until the Russian war of 1904-05 had
+demonstrated the utter valuelessness of Tsarism as an international
+military factor, Japan had been almost willing to resign herself to a
+subordinate r&ocirc;le in the Far East. Having eaten bitter bread as the
+result of her premature attempt in 1895 (after the Korean war) to become
+a continental power&mdash;an attempt which had resulted in the forced
+retrocession of the Liaotung Peninsula&mdash;she had been placed on her good
+behaviour, an attitude which was admirably reflected in 1900 when her
+Peking Expeditionary Force proved itself so well-behaved and so gallant
+as to arouse the world's admiration. But the war with <a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">61</span>Russia and the
+collapse of the Tsar's Manchurian adventure not only drew her back into
+territory that she never hoped to see again, but placed her in
+possession of a ready-made railway system which carried her almost up to
+the Sungari river and surrendered to her military control vast
+grasslands stretching to the Khingan mountains. This Westernly march so
+greatly enlarged the Japanese political horizon, and so entirely changed
+the Japanese viewpoint, that the statesmen of Tokio in their excitement
+threw off their ancient spectacles and found to their astonishment that
+their eyes were every whit as good as European eyes. Now seeing the
+world as others had long seen it, they understood that just as with the
+individuals so with nations the struggle for existence can most easily
+be conducted by adopting that war-principle of Clausewitz&mdash;the restless
+offensive, and not by writing meaningless dispatches. Prior to the
+Russian war they had written to Russia a magnificent series of documents
+in which they had pleaded with sincerity for an equitable
+settlement,&mdash;only to find that all was in vain. Forced to battle, they
+had found in combat not only success but a new principle.</p>
+		<p>The discovery necessitated a new policy. During the eighties, and in a
+lesser degree in the nineties, Japan had apart from everything else been
+content to act in a modest and retiring way, because she wished at all
+costs to avoid testing too severely her immature strength. But owing to
+the successive collapses of her rivals, she now found herself not only
+forced to attack as the safest course of action, but driven to the view
+that the Power that exerts the maximum pressure constantly and
+unremittedly is inevitably the most successful. This conclusion had
+great importance. For just as the first article of faith for England in
+Asia has been the doctrine that no Power can be permitted to seize
+strategic harbours which menace her sea-communications, so did it now
+become equally true of Japan that her dominant policy became not an
+Eastern Monroe doctrine, as shallow men have supposed, but simply the
+Doctrine of Maximum Pressure. To press with all her strength on China
+was henceforth considered vital by every Japanese; and it is in this
+spirit that every diplomatic pattern has been woven since the die was
+cast in 1905. Until this signal fact has been grasped no useful analysis
+can be made of the evolution of present conditions. Standing behind
+<a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">62</span>this policy, and constantly reinforcing it, are the serried ranks of
+the new democracy which education and the great increase in material
+prosperity have been so rapidly creating. The soaring ambition which
+springs from the sea lends to the attacks developed by such a people the
+aspect of piracies; and it is but natural. In such circumstances that
+for Chinese Japan should not only have the aspect of a sea-monster but
+that their country should appear as hapless Andromeda bound to a rock,
+always awaiting a Perseus who never comes....</p>
+		<p>The Revolution of 1911 had been entirely unexpected in Japan. Whilst
+large outbreaks had been certainly counted on since the Chinese
+Revolutionary party had for years used Japan as an asylum and a base of
+operations, never had it been anticipated that the fall of an ancient
+Dynasty could be so easily encompassed. Consequently, the abdication of
+the Manchus as the result of intrigues rather than of warfare was looked
+upon as little short of a catastrophe because it hopelessly complicated
+the outlook, broke the pattern which had been so carefully woven for so
+many years, and interjected harsh elements which could not be assigned
+an orderly place. Not only was a well-articulated State-system suddenly
+consigned to the flames, but the ruin threatened to be so general that
+the balance of power throughout the Far East would be twisted out of
+shape. Japanese statesmen had desired a weak China, a China which would
+ultimately turn to them for assistance because they were a kindred race,
+but not a China that looked to the French Revolution for its
+inspiration. To a people as slow to adjust themselves to violent
+surprises as are the Japanese, there was an air of desperation about the
+whole business which greatly alarmed them, and made them determined at
+the earliest possible moment to throw every ounce of their weight in the
+direction which would best serve them by bringing matters back to their
+original starting-point. For this reason they were not only prepared in
+theory in 1911 to lend armed assistance to the Manchus but would have
+speedily done so had not England strongly dissented from such a course
+of action when she was privately sounded about the matter. Even to-day,
+when a temporary adjustment of Japanese policy has been successfully
+arranged, it is of the highest importance for political students to
+remember that the dynastic influences <a name="Page_63" id="Page_63"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">63</span>in Tokio have never departed from
+the view that the legitimate sovereignty of China remains vested in the
+Manchu House and that everything that has taken place since 1911 is
+irregular and unconstitutional.</p>
+		<p>For the time being, however, two dissimilar circumstances demanded
+caution: first, the enthusiasm which the Japanese democracy, fed by a
+highly excited press, exhibited towards the Young China which had been
+so largely grounded in the Tokio schools and which had carried out the
+Revolution: secondly&mdash;and far more important&mdash;the deep, abiding and
+ineradicable animosity which Japanese of all classes felt for the man
+who had come out of the contest head and shoulders above everybody
+else&mdash;Yuan Shih-kai. These two remarkable features ended by completely
+thrusting into the background during the period 1911-1914 every other
+element in Japanese statesmanship; and of the two the second must be
+counted the decisive one. Dating back to Korea, when Yuan Shih-kai's
+extraordinary diplomatic talents constantly allowed him to worst his
+Japanese rivals and to make Chinese counsels supreme at the Korean Court
+up to the very moment when the first shots of the war of 1894 were
+fired, this ancient dislike, which amounted to a consuming hatred, had
+become a fixed idea. Restrained by the world's opinion during the period
+prior to the outbreak of the world-war as well as by the necessity of
+acting financially in concert with the other Powers, it was not until
+August, 1914, that the longed-for opportunity came and that Japan
+prepared to act in a most remarkable way.</p>
+		<p>The campaign against Kiaochow was unpopular from the outset among the
+Japanese public because it was felt that they were not legitimately
+called upon to interest themselves in such a remote question as the
+balance of power among European nations, which was what British warfare
+against Germany seemed to them to be. Though some ill-will was felt
+against Germany for the part played by her in the intervention of 1895,
+it must not be forgotten that just as the Japanese navy is the child of
+the British navy, so is the Japanese army the child of the German
+army&mdash;and that Japanese army chiefs largely control Japan. These men
+were averse from &quot;spoiling their army&quot; in a contest which did not
+interest them. There was also the feeling abroad <a name="Page_64" id="Page_64"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">64</span>that England by
+calling upon her Ally to carry out the essential provisions of her
+Alliance had shown that she had the better part of a bargain, and that
+she was exploiting an old advantage in a way which could not fail to
+react adversely on Japan's future world's relationships. Furthermore, it
+is necessary to underline the fact that official Japan was displeased by
+the tacit support an uninterested British Foreign Office had
+consistently given to the Yuan Shih-kai r&eacute;gime. That the Chinese
+experiment was looked upon in England more with amusement than with
+concern irritated the Japanese&mdash;more particularly as the British Foreign
+Office was issuing in the form of White Papers documents covering Yuan
+Shih-kai's public declarations as if they were contributions to
+contemporary history. Thus in the preceding year (1913) under the
+nomenclature of &quot;affairs in China&quot; the text of a <i>d&eacute;menti</i> regarding the
+President of China's Imperial aspirations had been published,&mdash;a
+document which Japanese had classified as a studied lie, and as an act
+of presumption because its working showed that its author intended to
+keep his back turned on Japan. The Dictator had declared:&mdash;</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<p>... From my student days, I, Yuan Shih-kai, have admired the
+    example of the Emperors Yao and Shun, who treated the empire as a
+    public trust, and considered that the record of a dynasty in history
+    for good or ill is inseparably bound up with the public spirit or
+    self-seeking by which it has been animated. On attaining middle age
+    I grew more familiar with foreign affairs, was struck by the
+    admirable republican system in France and America, and felt that
+    they were a true embodiment of the democratic precepts of the
+    ancients. When last year the patriotic crusade started in Wuchang
+    its echoes went forth into all the provinces, with the result that
+    this ancient nation with its 2,000 years of despotism adopted with
+    one bound the republican system of government.</p>
+			<p>It was my good fortune to see this glorious day at my life's late
+    eve; I cherished the hope that I might dwell in the seclusion of my
+    own home and participate in the blessings of an age of peace.</p>
+			<p>But once again my fellow-countrymen honoured me with the pressing
+    request that I should again assume a heavy burden, and on the day on
+    which the Republic was proclaimed I announced to the whole nation
+    that never again should a monarchy be permitted in China. At my
+    inauguration I again took this solemn oath in the sight of heaven
+    above and earth beneath. Yet of late ignorant persons in the
+    provinces have fabricated wild rumours to delude men's minds, and
+    have adduced the career of the First Napoleon on which to base their
+    erroneous speculations. It is best not to inquire as to their
+    motives; in some cases misconception may be the cause, in others
+    deliberate malice.</p>
+			<p>
+				<a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">65</span>
+    The Republic has now been proclaimed for six months; so far there
+    is no prospect of recognition from the Powers, while order is far
+    from being restored in the provinces. Our fate hangs upon a hair;
+    the slightest negligence may forfeit all. I, who bear this arduous
+    responsibility, feel it my bounden duty to stand at the helm in the
+    hope of successfully breasting the wild waves.</p>
+			<p>But while those in office are striving with all their might to
+    effect a satisfactory solution, spectators seem to find a difficulty
+    in maintaining a generous forbearance. They forget that I, who have
+    received this charge from my countrymen, cannot possibly look
+    dispassionately on when the fate of the nation is in the balance. If
+    I were aware that the task was impossible and played a part of easy
+    acquiescence, so that the future of the Republic might become
+    irreparable, others might not reproach me, but my own conscience
+    would never leave me alone.</p>
+			<p>My thoughts are manifest in the sight of high heaven. But at this
+    season of construction and dire crisis how shall these mutual
+    suspicions find a place? Once more I issue this announcement; if
+    you, my fellow countrymen, do indeed place the safety of China
+    before all other considerations, it behooves you to be large-minded.
+    Beware of lightly heeding the plausible voice of calumny, and of
+    thus furnishing a medium for fostering anarchy. If evilly disposed
+    persons, who are bent on destruction, seize the excuse for sowing
+    dissension to the jeopardy of the situation, I, Yuan Shih-kai, shall
+    follow the behest of my fellow-countrymen in placing such men beyond
+    the pale of humanity.</p>
+			<p>  A vital issue is involved. It is my duty to lay before you my
+    inmost thought, so that suspicion may be dissipated. Those who know
+    have the right to impose their censure. It is for public opinion to
+    take due notice. </p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE10" id="IMAGE10"></a>
+			<a href="images/image10.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image10.jpg" width="70%" alt="Silk-reeling done in the open under the Walls of Peking." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>Silk-reeling done in the open under the Walls of Peking.</p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE11" id="IMAGE11"></a>
+			<a href="images/image11.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image11.jpg" width="70%" alt="Modern Peking: A Run on a Bank." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>Modern Peking: A Run on a Bank.</p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE12" id="IMAGE12"></a>
+			<a href="images/image12.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image12.jpg" width="100%" alt="The Re-opening of Parliament on August 1st, 1916, after
+three years of dictatorial rule." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>The Re-opening of Parliament on August 1st, 1916, after
+three years of dictatorial rule.</p>
+		</div>
+		<p>Moreover Yuan Shih-kai had also shown in his selection and use of
+foreign Advisers, that he was determined to proceed in such a manner as
+to advertise his suspicion and enmity of Japan. After the Coup d'&eacute;tat of
+the 4th November, 1913, and the scattering of Parliament, it was an
+American Adviser who was set to work on the new &quot;Constitution&quot;; and
+although a Japanese, Dr. Ariga, who was in receipt of a princely salary,
+aided and abetted this work, his endorsement of the dictatorial rule was
+looked upon as traitorous by the bulk of his countrymen. Similarly, it
+was perfectly well-known that Yuan Shih-kai was spending large sums of
+money in Tokio in bribing certain organs of the Japanese Press and in
+attempting to win adherents among Japanese members of Parliament.
+Remarkable stories are current which compromise very highly-placed
+Japanese but which the writer hesitates to set down in black and white
+as documentary proof is not available. In any case, be this as it may,
+<a name="Page_66" id="Page_66"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">66</span>it was felt in Tokio that the time had arrived to give a proper
+definition to the relations between the two states,&mdash;the more so as Yuan
+Shih-kai, by publicly proclaiming a small war-zone in Shantung within
+the limits of which the Japanese were alone permitted to wage war
+against the Germans, had shown himself indifferent to the majesty of
+Japan. The Japanese having captured Kiaochow by assault before the end
+of 1914 decided to accept the view that a <i>de facto</i> Dictatorship
+existed in China. Therefore on the 18th of January, 1915, the Japanese
+Minister, Dr. Hioki, personally served on Yuan Shih-kai the now famous
+Twenty-one Demands, a list designed to satisfy every present and future
+need of Japanese policy and to reduce China to a state of vassalage.</p>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">67</span></p>
+		<h2>
+
+		<a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>
+		CHAPTER VI</h2>
+		<h3>THE TWENTY-ONE DEMANDS</h3>
+		<p>Although the press of the world gave a certain prominence at the time to
+the astounding <i>d&eacute;marche</i> with which we now have to deal, there was such
+persistent mystery about the matter and so many official <i>d&eacute;mentis</i>
+accompanied every publication of the facts that even to this day the
+nature of the assault which Japan delivered on China is not adequately
+realized, nor is the narrow escape assigned its proper place in
+estimates of the future. Briefly, had there not been publication of the
+facts and had not British diplomacy been aroused to action there is
+little doubt that Japan would have forced matters so far that Chinese
+independence would now be virtually a thing of the past. Fortunately,
+however, China in her hour of need found many who were willing to
+succour her; with the result that although she lost something in these
+negotiations, Japan nevertheless failed in a very signal fashion to
+attain her main objective. The Pyrrhic victory which she won with her
+eleventh hour ultimatum will indeed in the end cost her more than would
+have a complete failure, for Chinese suspicion and hostility are now so
+deep-seated that nothing will ever completely eradicate them. It is
+therefore only proper that an accurate record should be here
+incorporated of a chapter of history which has much international
+importance; and if we invite close attention to the mass of documents
+that follow it is because we hold that an adequate comprehension of them
+is essential to securing the future peace of the Far East. Let us first
+give the official text of the original Demands:<a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">68</span>
+		</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>JAPAN'S ORIGINAL TWENTY-ONE DEMANDS</h3>
+			<p>  Translations of Documents Handed to the President, Yuan Shih-kai, by
+    Mr. Hioki, the Japanese Minister, on January 18th, 1915.</p>
+			<h4>  GROUP I</h4>
+			<p>  The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government being desirous of
+    maintaining the general peace in Eastern Asia and further
+    strengthening the friendly relations and good neighbourhood existing
+    between the two nations agree to the following articles:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  Article 1. The Chinese Government engages to give full assent to all
+    matters upon which the Japanese Government may hereafter agree with
+    the German Government relating to the disposition of all rights,
+    interests and concessions, which Germany, by virtue of treaties or
+    otherwise, possesses in relation to the Province of Shantung.</p>
+			<p>  Article 2. The Chinese Government engages that within the Province
+    of Shantung and along its coast no territory or island will be ceded
+    or leased to a third Power under any pretext.</p>
+			<p>  Article 3. The Chinese Government consents to Japan's building a
+    railway from Chefoo or Lungkow to join the Kiaochou-Tsinanfu
+    railway.</p>
+			<p>  Article 4. The Chinese Government engages, in the interest of trade
+    and for the residence of foreigners, to open by herself as soon as
+    possible certain important cities and towns in the Province of
+    Shantung as Commercial Ports. What places shall be opened are to be
+    jointly decided upon in a separate agreement.</p>
+			<h4>  GROUP II</h4>
+			<p>  The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government, since the
+    Chinese Government has always acknowledged the special position
+    enjoyed by Japan in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia,
+    agree to the following articles:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  Article 1. The two Contracting Parties mutually agree that the term
+    of lease of Port Arthur and Dalny and the term of lease of the South
+    Manchurian Railway and the Antung-Mukden Railway shall be extended
+    to the period of 99 years.</p>
+			<p>  Article 2. Japanese subjects in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner
+    Mongolia shall have the right to lease or own land required either
+    for erecting suitable buildings for trade and manufacture or for
+    farming.</p>
+			<p>  Article 3. Japanese subjects shall be free to reside and travel in
+    South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia and to engage in business
+    and in manufacture of any kind whatsoever.</p>
+			<p>  Article 4. The Chinese Government agrees to grant to Japanese
+    subjects the right of opening the mines in South Manchuria and
+    Eastern Inner Mongolia. As regards what mines are to be opened, they
+    shall be decided upon jointly.</p>
+			<p>
+				<a name="Page_69" id="Page_69"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">69</span>Article 5. The Chinese Government agrees that in respect of the
+    (two) cases mentioned herein below the Japanese Government's consent
+    shall be first obtained before action is taken:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  (a) Whenever permission is granted to the subject of a third Power
+    to build a railway or to make a loan with a third Power for the
+    purpose of building a railway in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner
+    Mongolia.</p>
+			<p>  (b) Whenever a loan is to be made with a third Power pledging the
+    local taxes of South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia as
+    security.</p>
+			<p>  Article 6. The Chinese Government agrees that if the Chinese
+    Government employs political, financial or military advisers or
+    instructors in South Manchuria or Eastern Inner Mongolia, the
+    Japanese Government shall first be consulted.</p>
+			<p>  Article 7. The Chinese Government agrees that the control and
+    management of the Kirin-Changchun Railway shall be handed over to
+    the Japanese Government for a term of 99 years dating from the
+    signing of this Agreement.</p>
+			<h4>  GROUP III</h4>
+			<p>  The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government, seeing that
+    Japanese financiers and the Hanyehping Co. have close relations with
+    each other at present and desiring that the common interests of the
+    two nations shall be advanced, agree to the following articles:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  Article 1. The two Contracting Parties mutually agree that when the
+    opportune moment arrives the Hanyehping Company shall be made a
+    joint concern of the two nations and they further agree that without
+    the previous consent of Japan, China shall not by her own act
+    dispose of the rights and property of whatsoever nature of the said
+    Company nor cause the said Company to dispose freely of the same.</p>
+			<p>  Article 2. The Chinese Government agrees that all mines in the
+    neighbourhood of those owned by the Hanyehping Company shall not be
+    permitted, without the consent of the said Company, to be worked by
+    other persons outside of the said Company; and further agrees that
+    if it is desired to carry out any undertaking which, it is
+    apprehended, may directly or indirectly affect the interests of the
+    said Company, the consent of the said Company shall first be
+    obtained.</p>
+			<h4>  GROUP IV</h4>
+			<p>  The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government with the object
+    of effectively preserving the territorial integrity of China agree
+    to the following special articles:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  The Chinese Government engages not to cede or lease to a third Power
+    any harbour or bay or island along the coast of China.</p>
+			<h4>  GROUP V</h4>
+			<p>  Article 1. The Chinese Central Government shall employ influential
+    Japanese advisers in political, financial and military affairs.</p>
+			<p>
+				<a name="Page_70" id="Page_70"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">70</span>Article 2. Japanese hospitals, churches and schools in the interior
+    of China shall be granted the right of owning land.</p>
+			<p>  Article 3. Inasmuch as the Japanese Government and the Chinese
+    Government have had many cases of dispute between Japanese and
+    Chinese police to settle cases which caused no little
+    misunderstanding, it is for this reason necessary that the police
+    departments of important places (in China) shall be jointly
+    administered by Japanese and Chinese or that the police departments
+    of these places shall employ numerous Japanese, so that they may at
+    the same time help to plan for the improvement of the Chinese Police
+    Service.</p>
+			<p>  Article 4. China shall purchase from Japan a fixed amount of
+    munitions of war (say 50% or more) of what is needed by the Chinese
+    Government or that there shall be established in China a
+    Sino-Japanese jointly worked arsenal. Japanese technical experts are
+    to be employed and Japanese material to be purchased.</p>
+			<p>  Article 5. China agrees to grant to Japan the right of constructing
+    a railway connecting Wuchang with Kiukiang and Nanchang, another
+    line between Nanchang and Hanchow, and another between Nanchang and
+    Chaochou.</p>
+			<p>  Article 6. If China needs foreign capital to work mines, build
+    railways and construct harbour-works (including dock-yards) in the
+    Provinces of Fukien, Japan shall be first consulted.</p>
+			<p>  Article 7. China agrees that Japanese subjects shall have the right
+    of missionary propaganda in China.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13"><sup>[13]</sup></a>
+			</p>
+		</div>
+		<p>The five groups into which the Japanese divided their demands possess a
+remarkable interest not because of their sequence, or the style of their
+phraseology, but because every word reveals a peculiar and very
+illuminating chemistry of the soul. To study the original Chinese text
+is to pass as it were into the secret recesses of the Japanese brain,
+and to find in that darkened chamber a whole world of things which
+advertise ambitions mixed with limitations, hesitations overwhelmed by
+audacities, greatnesses succumbing to littlenesses, and vanities having
+the appearance of velleities. Given an intimate knowledge of Far Eastern
+politics and Far Eastern languages, only a few minutes are required to
+re-write the demands in the sequence in which they were originally
+conceived as well as to trace the natural history of their genesis.
+Unfortunately a great deal is lost in their official translation, and
+the menace revealed in the Chinese original partly cloaked: for by
+transferring Eastern thoughts into Western moulds, things that are like
+nails in the hands of soft sensitive Oriental beings are made to appear
+to <a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">71</span>the steel-clad West as cold-blooded, evolutionary necessities which
+may be repellent but which are never cruel. The more the matter is
+studied the more convinced must the political student be that in this
+affair of the 18th January we have an international <i>coup</i> destined to
+become classic in the new text-books of political science. All the way
+through the twenty-one articles it is easy to see the desire for action,
+the love of accomplished facts, struggling with the necessity to observe
+the conventions of a stereotyped diplomacy and often overwhelming those
+conventions. As the thoughts thicken and the plot develops, the effort
+to mask the real intention lying behind every word plainly breaks down,
+and a growing exultation rings louder and louder as if the coveted
+Chinese prize were already firmly grasped. One sees as it were the
+Japanese nation, released from bondage imposed by the Treaties which
+have been binding on all nations since 1860, swarming madly through the
+breached walls of ancient Cathay and disputing hotly the spoils of
+age-old domains.</p>
+		<p>Group I, which deals with the fruits of victory in Shantung, has little
+to detain us since events which have just unrolled there have already
+told the story of those demands. In Shantung we have a simple and
+easily-understood repeated performance of the history of 1905 and the
+settlement of the Russo-Japanese War. Placed at the very head of the
+list of demands, though its legitimate position should be after
+Manchuria, obviously the purpose of Group I is conspicuously to call
+attention to the fact that Japan had been at war with Germany, and is
+still at war with her. This flourish of trumpets, after the battle is
+over, however, scarcely serves to disguise that the fate of Shantung,
+following so hard on the heels of the Russian d&eacute;b&acirc;cle in Manchuria, is
+the great moral which Western peoples are called upon to note. Japan,
+determined as she has repeatedly announced to preserve the peace of the
+Orient by any means she deems necessary, has found the one and only
+formula that is satisfactory&mdash;that of methodically annexing everything
+worth fighting about.</p>
+		<p>So far so good. The insertion of a special preamble to Group II, which
+covers not only South Manchuria but Eastern Inner Mongolia as well, is
+an ingenious piece of work since it <a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">72</span>shows that the hot mood of conquest
+suitable for Shantung must be exchanged for a certain judicial
+detachment. The preamble undoubtedly betrays the guiding hand of
+Viscount Kato, the then astute Minister of Foreign Affairs, who
+saturated in the great series of international undertakings made by
+Japan since the first Anglo-Japanese Treaty of 1902, clearly believes
+that the stately Elizabethan manner which still characterizes British
+official phrasing is an admirable method to be here employed. The
+preamble is quite English; it is so English that one is almost lulled
+into believing that one's previous reasoning has been at fault and that
+Japan is only demanding what she is entitled to. Yet study Group II
+closely and subtleties gradually emerge. By boldly and categorically
+placing Eastern Inner Mongolia on precisely the same footing as Southern
+Manchuria&mdash;though they have nothing in common&mdash;the assumption is made
+that the collapse in 1908 of the great Anglo-American scheme to run a
+neutral railway up the flank of Southern Manchuria to Northern Manchuria
+(the once celebrated Chinchow-Aigun scheme), coupled with general
+agreement with Russia which was then arrived at, now impose upon China
+the necessity of publicly resigning herself to a Japanese overlordship
+of that region. In other words, the preamble of Group II lays down that
+Eastern Inner Mongolia has become part and parcel of the Manchurian
+Question because Japan has found a parallel for what she is doing in the
+acts of European Powers.</p>
+		<p>These things, however, need not detain us. Not that Manchuria or the
+adjoining Mongolian plain is not important; not that the threads of
+destiny are not woven thickly there. For it is certain that the vast
+region immediately beyond the Great Wall of China is the Flanders of the
+Far East&mdash;and that the next inevitable war which will destroy China or
+make her something of a nation must be fought on that soil just as two
+other wars have been fought there during the past twenty years. But this
+does not belong to contemporary politics; it is possibly an affair of
+the Chinese army of 1925 or 1935. Some day China will fight for
+Manchuria if it is impossible to recover it in any other way,&mdash;nobody
+need doubt that. For Manchuria is absolutely Chinese&mdash;people must
+remember. No matter how far the town-dwelling Japanese may invade the
+country during <a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">73</span>the next two or three decades, no matter what large
+alien garrisons may be planted there, the Chinese must and will remain
+the dominant racial element, since their population which already
+numbers twenty-five millions is growing at the rate of half a million a
+year, and in a few decades will equal the population of a first-class
+European Power.</p>
+		<p>When we reach Group III we touch matters that are not only immediately
+vital but quite new in their type of audacity and which every one can
+to-day understand since they are politico-industrial. Group III, as it
+stands in the original text, is <i>simply the plan for the conquest of the
+mineral wealth of the Yangtsze Valley</i> which mainly centres round Hankow
+because the vast alluvial plains of the lower reaches of this greatest
+of rivers were once the floor of the Yellow Sea, the upper provinces of
+Hupeh, Hunan, Kiangsi being the region of prehistoric forests clothing
+the coasts, which once looked down upon the slowly-receding waste of
+waters, and which to-day contain all the coal and iron. Hitherto every
+one has always believed that the Yangtsze Valley was <i>par excellence</i>
+the British sphere in China; and every one has always thought that that
+belief was enough. It is true that political students, going carefully
+over all published documents, have ended their search by declaring that
+the matter certainly required further elucidation. To be precise, this
+so-called British sphere is not an <i>enclave</i> at all in the proper sense;
+indeed it can only seem one to those who still believe that it is still
+possible to pre-empt provinces by ministerial declarations. The Japanese
+have been the first to dare to say that the preconceived general belief
+was stupid. They know, of course, that it was a British force which
+invaded the Yangtsze Valley seventy-five years ago, and forced the
+signature of the Treaty of Nanking which first opened China to the
+world's trade; but they are by no means impressed with the rights which
+that action has been held to confer, since the mineral resources of this
+region are priceless in their eyes and must somehow be won.</p>
+		<p>The study of twenty years of history proves this assumption to be
+correct. Ever since 1895, Japan has been driving wedges into the
+Yangtsze Valley of a peculiar kind to form the foundations for her
+sweeping claims of 1915. Thus after the war with <a name="Page_74" id="Page_74"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">74</span>China in 1894-95, she
+opened by her Treaty of Peace four ports in the Yangtsze Valley region,
+Soochow, Hangchow, Chungking and Shasi; that is, at the two extreme ends
+of the valley she established politico-commercial <i>points d'appui</i> from
+which to direct her campaign. Whilst the proximity of Soochow and
+Hangchow to the British stronghold of Shanghai made it difficult to
+carry out any &quot;penetration&quot; work at the lower end of the river save in
+the form of subsidized steam-shipping, the case was different in Hunan
+and Hupeh provinces. There she was unendingly busy, and in 1903 by a
+fresh treaty she formally opened to trade Changsha, the capital of the
+turbulent Hunan province. Changsha for years remained a secret centre
+possessing the greatest political importance for her, and serving as a
+focus for most varied activities involving Hunan, Hupeh, and Kiangsi, as
+well as a vast hinterland. The great Tayeh iron-mines, although entirely
+Chinese-owned, were already being tapped to supply iron-ore for the
+Japanese Government Foundry at Wakamatsu on the island of Kiushiu. The
+rich coal mines of Pinghsiang, being conveniently near, supplied the
+great Chinese Government arsenal of Hanyang with fuel; and since Japan
+had very little coal or iron of her own, she decided that it would be
+best to embrace as soon as possible the whole area of interests in one
+categorical demand&mdash;that is, to claim a dominant share in the Hanyang
+arsenal, the Tayeh iron-mines and the Pinghsiang collieries.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14"><sup>[14]</sup></a> By
+lending money to these enterprises, which were grouped together under
+the name of Hanyehping, she had early established a claim on them which
+she turned at the psychological moment into an international question.</p>
+		<p>We can pass quickly by Group IV which is of little importance, except to
+say that in taking upon herself, without consultation with the senior
+ally, the duty of asking from China a declaration concerning the future
+non-leasing of harbours and islands, Japan has attempted to assume a
+protectorship of Chinese territory which does not belong to her
+historically. It is well also to note that although Japan wished it to
+appear to the world that this action was dictated by her desire to
+prevent Germany from <a name="Page_75" id="Page_75"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">75</span>acquiring a fresh foothold in China after the war,
+in reality Group IV was drafted as a general warning to the nations, one
+point being that she believed that the United States was contemplating
+the reorganization of the Foochow Arsenal in Fuhkien province, and that
+as a corollary to that reorganization would be given the lease of an
+adjoining harbour such as Santuao.</p>
+		<p>It is not, however, until we reach Group V that the real purpose of the
+Japanese demands becomes unalterably clear, for in this Group we have
+seven sketches of things designed to serve as the <i>coup de gr&acirc;ce</i>. Not
+only is a new sphere&mdash;Fuhkien province&mdash;indicated; not only is the
+mid-Yangtsze, from the vicinity of Kiukiang, to serve as the terminus
+for a system of Japanese railways, radiating from the great river to the
+coasts of South China; but the gleaming knife of the Japanese surgeon is
+to aid the Japanese teacher in the great work of propaganda; the
+Japanese monk and the Japanese policeman are to be dispersed like
+skirmishers throughout the land; Japanese arsenals are to supply all the
+necessary arms, or failing that a special Japanese arsenal is to be
+established; Japanese advisers are to give the necessary advice in
+finance, in politics, in every department&mdash;foreshadowing a complete and
+all embracing political control. Never was a more sweeping programme of
+supervision presented, and small wonder if Chinese when they learnt of
+this climax exclaimed that the fate of Korea was to be their own.</p>
+		<p>For a number of weeks after the presentation of these demands everything
+remained clothed in impenetrable mystery, and despite every effort on
+the part of diplomatists reliable details of what was occurring could
+not be obtained. Gradually, however, the admission was forced that the
+secrecy being preserved was due to the Japanese threat that publicity
+would be met with the harshest reprisals; and presently the veil was
+entirely lifted by newspaper publication and foreign Ambassadors began
+making inquiries in Tokio. The nature and scope of the Twenty-one
+Demands could now be no longer hidden; and in response to the growing
+indignation which began to be voiced by the press and the pressure which
+British diplomacy brought to bear, Japan found it necessary to modify
+some of the most important items. She had held twenty-four meetings at
+the <a name="Page_76" id="Page_76"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">76</span>Chinese Foreign Office, and although the Chinese negotiators had
+been forced to give way in such matters as extending the &quot;leasing&quot;
+periods of railways and territories in Manchuria and in admitting the
+Japanese right to succeed to all German interests and rights in Shantung
+(Group I and II), in the essential matters of the Hanyehping concessions
+(Group III) and the noxious demands of Group V China had stood
+absolutely firm, declining even to discuss some of the items.</p>
+		<p>Accordingly Japanese diplomacy was forced to restate and re-group the
+whole corpus of the demands. On the 26th April, acting under direct
+instructions from Tokio, the Japanese Minister to Peking presented a
+revised list for renewed consideration, the demands being expanded to
+twenty-four articles (in place of the original twenty-one largely
+because discussion had shown the necessity of breaking up into smaller
+units some of the original articles). Most significant, however, is the
+fact that Group V (which in its original form was a more vicious assault
+on Chinese sovereignty than the Austrian Ultimatum to Serbia of June,
+1914), was so remodelled as to convey a very different meaning, the
+group heading disappearing entirely and an innocent-looking exchange of
+notes being asked for. It is necessary to recall that, when taxed with
+making Demands which were entirely in conflict with the spirit of the
+Anglo-Japanese Alliance, the Japanese Government through its ambassadors
+abroad had categorically denied that they had ever laid any such Demands
+on the Chinese Government. It was claimed that there had never been
+twenty-one Demands, as the Chinese alleged, but only fourteen, <i>the
+seven items of Group V being desiderata which it was in the interests of
+China to endorse but which Japan had no intention of forcing upon her</i>.
+The writer, being acquainted from first to last with everything that
+took place in Peking from the 18th January to the filing of the Japanese
+ultimatum of the 7th May, has no hesitation in stigmatizing this
+statement as false. The whole aim and object of these negotiations was
+to force through Group V. Japan would have gladly postponed <i>sine die</i>
+the discussion of all the other Groups had China assented to provisions
+which would have made her independence a thing of the past. Every
+Chinese knew that, in the main, Group V was simply a repetition <a name="Page_77" id="Page_77"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">77</span>of the
+measures undertaken in Korea after the Russo-Japanese war of 1905 as a
+forerunner to annexation; and although obviously in the case of China no
+such rapid surgery could be practised, the endorsement of these measures
+would have meant a virtual Japanese Protectorate. Even a cursory study
+of the text that follows will confirm in every particular these capital
+contentions:</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>  JAPAN'S REVISED DEMANDS</h3>
+			<p>  Japan's Revised Demands on China, twenty-four in all, presented
+    April 26, 1915.</p>
+			<p>
+				<i>Note on original text</i>:</p>
+			<p>  [The revised list of articles is a Chinese translation of the
+    Japanese text. It is hereby declared that when a final decision is
+    reached, there shall be a revision of the wording of the text.]</p>
+			<h4>  GROUP I</h4>
+			<p>  The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government, being desirous
+    of maintaining the general peace in Eastern Asia and further
+    strengthening the friendly relations and good neighbourhood existing
+    between the two nations, agree to the following articles:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  Article 1. The Chinese Government engages to give full assent to all
+    matters upon which the Japanese Government may hereafter agree with
+    the German Government, relating to the disposition of all rights,
+    interests and concessions, which Germany, by virtue of treaties or
+    otherwise, possesses in relation to the Province of Shantung.</p>
+			<p>  Article 2. (Changed into an exchange of notes.)</p>
+			<p>  The Chinese Government declares that within the Province of Shantung
+    and along its coast no territory or island will be ceded or leased
+    to any Power under any pretext.</p>
+			<p>  Article 3. The Chinese Government consents that as regards the
+    railway to be built by China herself from Chefoo or Lungkow to
+    connect with the Kiaochow-Tsinanfu Railway, if Germany is willing to
+    abandon the privilege of financing the Chefoo-Weihsien line, China
+    will approach Japanese capitalists to negotiate for a loan.</p>
+			<p>  Article 4. The Chinese Government engages, in the interest of trade
+    and for the residence of foreigners, to open by China herself as
+    soon as possible certain suitable places in the Province of Shantung
+    as Commercial Ports.</p>
+			<h5>  (Supplementary Exchange of Notes)</h5>
+			<p>  The places which ought to be opened are to be chosen and the
+    regulations are to be drafted, by the Chinese Government, but the
+    Japanese Minister must be consulted before making a decision.</p>
+			<a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">78</span>
+			<h4>  GROUP II</h4>
+			<p>  The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government, with a view to
+    developing their economic relations in South Manchuria and Eastern
+    Inner Mongolia, agree to the following articles:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  Article 1. The two contracting Powers mutually agree that the term
+    of lease of Port Arthur and Dalny and the terms of the South
+    Manchuria Railway and the Antung-Mukden Railway shall be extended to
+    99 years.</p>
+			<h5>  (Supplementary Exchange of Notes)</h5>
+			<p>  The term of lease of Port Arthur and Dalny shall expire in the 86th
+    year of the Republic or 1997. The date for restoring the South
+    Manchurian Railway to China shall fall due in the 91st year of the
+    Republic or 2002. Article 12 in the original South Manchurian
+    Railway Agreement stating that it may be redeemed by China after 36
+    years after the traffic is opened is hereby cancelled. The term of
+    the Antung-Mukden Railway shall expire in the 96th year of the
+    Republic or 2007.</p>
+			<p>  Article 2. Japanese subjects in South Manchuria may lease or
+    purchase the necessary land for erecting suitable buildings for
+    trade and manufacture or for prosecuting agricultural enterprises.</p>
+			<p>  Article 3. Japanese subjects shall be free to reside and travel in
+    South Manchuria and to engage in business and manufacture of any
+    kind whatsoever.</p>
+			<p>  Article 3a. The Japanese subjects referred to in the preceding two
+    articles, besides being required to register with the local
+    authorities passports which they must procure under the existing
+    regulations, shall also submit to police laws and ordinances and tax
+    regulations, which are approved by the Japanese consul. Civil and
+    criminal cases in which the defendants are Japanese shall be tried
+    and adjudicated by the Japanese consul; those in which the
+    defendants are Chinese shall be tried and adjudicated by Chinese
+    Authorities. In either case an officer can be deputed to the court
+    to attend the proceedings. But mixed civil cases between Chinese and
+    Japanese relating to land shall be tried and adjudicated by
+    delegates of both nations conjointly in accordance with Chinese law
+    and local usage. When the judicial system in the said region is
+    completely reformed, all civil and criminal cases concerning
+    Japanese subjects shall be tried entirely by Chinese law courts.</p>
+			<p>  Article 4. (Changed to an exchange of notes.)</p>
+			<p>  The Chinese Government agrees that Japanese subjects shall be
+    permitted forthwith to investigate, select, and then prospect for
+    and open mines at the following places in South Manchuria, apart
+    from those mining areas in which mines are being prospected for or
+    worked; until the Mining Ordinance is definitely settled methods at
+    present in force shall be followed.</p>
+			<a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">79</span>
+			<h4>  PROVINCE OF FENG-TIEN</h4>
+			<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+				<tr>
+					<td align="left">Locality</td>
+					<td align="left">District</td>
+					<td align="left">Mineral</td>
+				</tr>
+				<tr>
+					<td align="left">Niu Hsin T'ai</td>
+					<td align="left">Pen-hsi</td>
+					<td align="left">Coal</td>
+				</tr>
+				<tr>
+					<td align="left">Tien Shih Fu Kou</td>
+					<td align="left">Pen-hsi</td>
+					<td align="left">Coal</td>
+				</tr>
+				<tr>
+					<td align="left">Sha Sung Kang</td>
+					<td align="left">Hai-lung</td>
+					<td align="left">Coal</td>
+				</tr>
+				<tr>
+					<td align="left">T'ieh Ch'ang</td>
+					<td align="left">Tung-hua</td>
+					<td align="left">Coal</td>
+				</tr>
+				<tr>
+					<td align="left">Nuan Ti Tang</td>
+					<td align="left">Chin</td>
+					<td align="left">Coal</td>
+				</tr>
+				<tr>
+					<td align="left">An Shan Chan region</td>
+					<td align="left">From Liaoyang to Pen-hsi</td>
+					<td align="left">Iron</td>
+				</tr>
+			</table>
+			<h4>PROVINCE OF KIRIN (Southern portion)</h4>
+			<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+				<tr>
+					<td align="left">Locality</td>
+					<td align="left">District</td>
+					<td align="left">Mineral</td>
+				</tr>
+				<tr>
+					<td align="left">Sha Sung Kang</td>
+					<td align="left">Ho-lung</td>
+					<td align="left">Coal and Iron</td>
+				</tr>
+				<tr>
+					<td align="left">Kang Yao</td>
+					<td align="left">Chi-lin (Kirin)</td>
+					<td align="left">Coal</td>
+				</tr>
+				<tr>
+					<td align="left">Chia P'i Kou</td>
+					<td align="left">Hua-tien</td>
+					<td align="left">Gold</td>
+				</tr>
+			</table>
+			<p>  Article 5. (Changed to an exchange of notes.)</p>
+			<p>  The Chinese Government declares that China will hereafter provide
+funds for building railways in South Manchuria; if foreign capital
+is required, the Chinese Government agrees to negotiate for the loan
+with Japanese capitalists first.</p>
+			<p>  Article 5a. (Changed to an exchange of notes.)</p>
+			<p>  The Chinese Government agrees that hereafter, when a foreign loan is
+to be made on the security of the taxes of South Manchuria (not
+including customs and salt revenue on the security of which loans
+have already been made by the Central Government), it will negotiate
+for the loan with Japanese capitalists first.</p>
+			<p>  Article 6. (Changed to an exchange of notes.)</p>
+			<p>  The Chinese Government declares that hereafter if foreign advisers
+or instructors on political, financial, military or police matters,
+are to be employed in South Manchuria, Japanese will be employed
+first.</p>
+			<p>  Article 7. The Chinese Government agrees speedily to make a
+fundamental revision of the Kirin-Changchun Railway Loan Agreement,
+taking as a standard the provisions in railroad loan agreements made
+heretofore between China and foreign financiers. If, in future, more
+advantageous terms than those in existing railway loan agreements
+are granted to foreign financiers, in connection with railway loans,
+the above agreement shall again be revised in accordance with
+Japan's wishes.</p>
+			<p>  All existing treaties between China and Japan relating to Manchuria
+shall, except where otherwise provided for by this Convention,
+remain in force.</p>
+			<p>  1. The Chinese Government agrees that hereafter when a foreign loan
+is to be made on the security of the taxes of Eastern Inner
+Mongolia, China must negotiate with the Japanese Government first.</p>
+			<p>
+				<a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">80</span>
+  2. The Chinese Government agrees that China will herself provide
+funds for building the railways in Eastern Inner Mongolia; if
+foreign capital is required, she must negotiate with the Japanese
+Government first.</p>
+			<p>  3. The Chinese Government agrees, in the interest of trade and for
+the residence of foreigners, to open by China herself, as soon as
+possible, certain suitable places in Eastern Inner Mongolia as
+Commercial Ports. The places which ought to be opened are to be
+chosen, and the regulations are to be drafted, by the Chinese
+Government, but the Japanese Minister must be consulted before
+making a decision.</p>
+			<p>  4. In the event of Japanese and Chinese desiring jointly to
+undertake agricultural enterprises and industries incidental
+thereto, the Chinese Government shall give its permission.</p>
+			<h4>  GROUP III</h4>
+			<p>  The relations between Japan and the Hanyehping Company being very
+intimate, if those interested in the said Company come to an
+agreement with the Japanese capitalists for co-operation, the
+Chinese Government shall forthwith give its consent thereto. The
+Chinese Government further agrees that, without the consent of the
+Japanese capitalists, China will not convert the Company into a
+state enterprise, nor confiscate it, nor cause it to borrow and use
+foreign capital other than Japanese.</p>
+			<h4>  GROUP IV</h4>
+			<p>  China to give a pronouncement by herself in accordance with the
+following principle:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  No bay, harbour, or island along the coast of China may be ceded or
+leased to any Power.</p>
+			<h5>  Notes to be Exchanged</h5>
+			<h5>  A</h5>
+			<p>  As regards the right of financing a railway from Wuchang to connect
+with the Kiu-kiang-Nanchang line, the Nanchang-Hangchow railway, and
+the Nanchang-Chaochow railway, if it is clearly ascertained that
+other Powers have no objection, China shall grant the said right to
+Japan.</p>
+			<h5>  B</h5>
+			<p>  As regards the rights of financing a railway from Wuchang to connect
+with the Kiu-kiang-Nanchang railway, a railway from Nanchang to
+Hangchow and another from Nanchang to Chaochow, the Chinese
+Government shall not grant the said right to any foreign Power
+before Japan comes to an understanding with the other Power which is
+heretofore interested therein. </p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE13" id="IMAGE13"></a>
+			<a href="images/image13.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image13.jpg" width="100%" alt="The Original Constitutional Drafting Committee of 1913,
+photographed on the steps of the Temple of Heaven, where the Draft was
+completed." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>The Original Constitutional Drafting Committee of 1913,
+photographed on the steps of the Temple of Heaven, where the Draft was
+completed.</p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE14" id="IMAGE14"></a>
+			<a href="images/image14.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image14.jpg" width="100%" alt="A Presidential Review of Troops in the Southern Hungtung
+Park outside Peking: Arrival of the President." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>A Presidential Review of Troops in the Southern Hungtung
+Park outside Peking: Arrival of the President.</p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">81</span>
+			<h3>NOTES TO BE EXCHANGED</h3>
+			<p>  The Chinese Government agrees that no nation whatever is to be
+    permitted to construct, on the coast of Fukien Province, a dockyard,
+    a coaling station for military use, or a naval base; nor to be
+    authorized to set up any other military establishment. The Chinese
+    Government further agrees not to use foreign capital for setting up
+    the above mentioned construction or establishment.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Lu, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, stated as follows:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  1. The Chinese Government, shall, whenever, in future, it considers
+    this step necessary, engage numerous Japanese advisers.</p>
+			<p>  2. Whenever, in future, Japanese subjects desire to lease or
+    purchase land in the interior of China for establishing schools or
+    hospitals, the Chinese Government shall forthwith give its consent
+    thereto.</p>
+			<p>  3. When a suitable opportunity arises in future, the Chinese
+    Government will send military officers to Japan to negotiate with
+    Japanese military authorities the matter of purchasing arms or that
+    of establishing a joint arsenal.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Hioki, the Japanese Minister, stated as follows:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  As relates to the question of the right of missionary propaganda the
+    same shall be taken up again for negotiation in future. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>An ominous silence followed the delivery of this document. The Chinese
+Foreign Office had already exhausted itself in a discussion which had
+lasted three months, and pursuant to instructions from the Presidential
+Palace prepared an exhaustive Memorandum on the subject. It was
+understood by now that all the Foreign Offices in the world were
+interesting themselves very particularly in the matter; and that all
+were agreed that the situation which had so strangely developed was very
+serious. On the 1st May, proceeding by appointment to the Waichiaopu
+(Foreign Office) the Japanese Minister had read to him the following
+Memorandum which it is very necessary to grasp as it shows how
+solicitous China had become of terminating the business before there was
+an open international break. It will also be seen that this Memorandum
+was obviously composed for purpose of public record, the fifth group
+being dealt with in such a way as to fix upon Japan the guilt of having
+concealed from her British Ally matters which conflicted vitally with
+the aims and objects of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance Treaty.</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">82</span>
+			<h3>MEMORANDUM</h3>
+			<p>  Read by the Minister of Foreign Affairs to Mr. Hioki, the Japanese
+    Minister, at a Conference held at Wai Chiao Pu, May 1, 1915.</p>
+			<p>  The list of demands which the Japanese Government first presented to
+    the Chinese Government consists of five groups, the first relating
+    to Shantung, the second relating to South Manchuria and Eastern
+    Inner Mongolia, the third relating to Hanyehping Company, the fourth
+    asking for non-alienation of the coast of the country, and the fifth
+    relating to the questions of national advisers, national police,
+    national arms, missionary propaganda, Yangtsze Valley railways, and
+    Fukien Province. Out of profound regard for the intentions
+    entertained by Japan, the Chinese Government took these momentous
+    demands into grave and careful consideration and decided to
+    negotiate with the Japanese Government frankly and sincerely what
+    were possible to negotiate. This is a manifestation to Japan of the
+    most profound regard which the Chinese Government entertains for the
+    relations between the two nations.</p>
+			<p>  Ever since the opening of the negotiations China has been doing her
+    best to hasten their progress holding as many as three conferences a
+    week. As regards the articles in the second group, the Chinese
+    Government being disposed to allow the Japanese Government to
+    develop the economic relations of the two countries in South
+    Manchuria, realizing that the Japanese Government attaches
+    importance to its interests in that region, and wishing to meet the
+    hope of Japan, made a painful effort, without hesitation, to agree
+    to the extension of the 25-year lease of Port Arthur and Dalny, the
+    36-year period of the South Manchurian Railway and the 15-year
+    period of the Antung-Mukden Railway, all to 99 years; and to abandon
+    its own cherished hopes to regain control of these places and
+    properties at the expiration of their respective original terms of
+    lease. It cannot but be admitted that this is a most genuine proof
+    of China's friendship for Japan.</p>
+			<p>  As to the right of opening mines in South Manchuria, the Chinese
+    Government has already agreed to permit Japanese to work mines
+    within the mining areas designated by Japan. China has further
+    agreed to give Japan a right of preference in the event of borrowing
+    foreign capital for building railways or of making a loan on the
+    security of the local taxes in South Manchuria. The question of
+    revising the arrangement for the Kirin-Changchun Railway has been
+    settled in accordance with the proposal made by Japan. The Chinese
+    Government has further agreed to employ Japanese first in the event
+    of employing foreign advisers on political, military, financial and
+    police matters.</p>
+			<p>  Furthermore, the provision about the repurchase period in the South
+    Manchurian Railway was not mentioned in Japan's original proposal.
+    Subsequently, the Japanese Government alleging that its meaning was
+    not clear, asked China to cancel the provision altogether. Again,
+    Japan at first demanded the right of Japanese to carry on farming in
+    South Manchuria, but subsequently she considered the word &quot;farming&quot;
+    was not broad enough and asked to replace it with the phrase
+    &quot;agricultural
+    <a name="Page_83" id="Page_83"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">83</span>
+    enterprises.&quot; To these requests the Chinese
+    Government, though well aware that the proposed changes could only
+    benefit Japan, still acceded without delay. This, too, is a proof of
+    China's frankness and sincerity towards Japan.</p>
+			<p>  As regards matters relating to Shantung the Chinese Government has
+    agreed to a majority of the demands.</p>
+			<p>  The question of inland residence in South Manchuria is, in the
+    opinion of the Chinese Government, incompatible with the treaties
+    China had entered into with Japan and other Powers, still the
+    Chinese Government did its best to consider how it was possible to
+    avoid that incompatibility. At first, China suggested that the
+    Chinese Authorities should have full rights of jurisdiction over
+    Japanese settlers. Japan declined to agree to it. Thereupon China
+    reconsidered the question and revised her counter-proposal five or
+    six times, each time making some definite concession, and went so
+    far to agree that all civil and criminal cases between Chinese and
+    Japanese should be arranged according to existing treaties. Only
+    cases relating to land or lease contracts were reserved to be
+    adjudicated by Chinese Courts, as a mark of China's sovereignty over
+    the region. This is another proof of China's readiness to concede as
+    much as possible.</p>
+			<p>  Eastern Inner Mongolia is not an enlightened region as yet, and the
+    conditions existing there are entirely different from those
+    prevailing in South Manchuria. The two places, therefore, cannot be
+    considered in the same light. Accordingly, China agreed to open
+    commercial marts first, in the interests of foreign trade.</p>
+			<p>  The Hanyehping Company mentioned in the third group is entirely a
+    private company, and the Chinese Government is precluded from
+    interfering with it and negotiating with another government to make
+    any disposal of the same as the Government likes, but having regard
+    for the interests of the Japanese capitalists, the Chinese
+    Government agreed that whenever, in future, the said company and the
+    Japanese capitalists should arrive at a satisfactory arrangement for
+    co-operation, China will give her assent thereto. Thus the interests
+    of the Japanese capitalists are amply safeguarded.</p>
+			<p>  Although the demand in the fourth group asking for a declaration not
+    to alienate China's coast is an infringement of her sovereign
+    rights, yet the Chinese Government offered to make a voluntary
+    pronouncement so far as it comports with China's sovereign rights.
+    Thus, it is seen that the Chinese Government, in deference to the
+    wishes of Japan, gave a most serious consideration even to those
+    demands, which gravely affect the sovereignty and territorial rights
+    of China as well as the principle of equal opportunity and the
+    treaties with foreign Powers. All this was a painful effort on the
+    part of the Chinese Government to meet the situation&mdash;a fact of
+    which the Japanese Government must be aware.</p>
+			<p>  As regards the demands in the fifth group, they all infringe China's
+    sovereignty, the treaty rights of other Powers or the principle of
+    equal opportunity. Although Japan did not indicate any difference
+    between this group and the preceding four in the list which she
+    presented to China in respect to their character, the Chinese
+    Government, in view of their
+<a name="Page_84" id="Page_84"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">84</span>
+    palpably objectionable features,
+    persuaded itself that these could not have been intended by Japan as
+    anything other than Japan's mere advice to China. Accordingly China
+    has declared from the very beginning that while she entertains the
+    most profound regard for Japan's wishes, she was unable to admit
+    that any of these matters could be made the subject of an
+    understanding with Japan. Much as she desired to pay regard to
+    Japan's wishes, China cannot but respect her own sovereign rights
+    and the existing treaties with other Powers. In order to be rid of
+    the seed for future misunderstanding and to strengthen the basis of
+    friendship, China was constrained to iterate the reasons for
+    refusing to negotiate on any of the articles in the fifth group, yet
+    in view of Japan's wishes China has expressed her readiness to state
+    that no foreign money was borrowed to construct harbour work in
+    Fukien Province. Thus it is clear that China went so far as to see a
+    solution for Japan of a question that really did not admit of
+    negotiation. Was there, then, evasion, on the part of China?</p>
+			<p>  Now, since the Japanese Government has presented a revised list of
+    demands and declared at the same time, that it will restore the
+    leased territory of Kiaochow, the Chinese Government reconsiders the
+    whole question and herewith submits a new reply to the friendly
+    Japanese Government.</p>
+			<p>  In this reply the unsettled articles in the first group are stated
+    again for discussion.</p>
+			<p>  As regards the second group, those articles which have already been
+    initialled are omitted. In connection with the question of inland
+    residence the police regulation clause has been revised in a more
+    restrictive sense. As for the trial of cases relating to land and
+    lease contracts the Chinese Government now permits the Japanese
+    Consul to send an officer to attend the proceedings.</p>
+			<p>  Of the four demands in connection with that part of Eastern Inner
+    Mongolia which is within the jurisdiction of South Manchuria and the
+    Jehol intendency, China agrees to three.</p>
+			<p>  China, also, agrees to the article relating to the Hanyehping
+    Company as revised by Japan.</p>
+			<p>  It is hoped that the Japanese Government will appreciate the
+    conciliatory spirit of the Chinese Government in making this final
+    concession and forthwith give her assent thereto.</p>
+			<p>  There is one more point. At the beginning of the present
+    negotiations it was mutually agreed to observe secrecy but
+    unfortunately a few days after the presentation of the demands by
+    Japan an Osaka newspaper published an &quot;Extra&quot; giving the text of the
+    demands. The foreign and the Chinese press has since been paying
+    considerable attention to this question and frequently publishing
+    pro-Chinese or pro-Japanese comments in order to call forth the
+    World's conjecture&mdash;a matter which the Chinese Government deeply
+    regrets.</p>
+			<p>  The Chinese Government has never carried on any newspaper campaign
+    and the Chinese Minister of Foreign Affairs has repeatedly declared
+    this to the Japanese Minster.</p>
+			<p>  In conclusion, the Chinese Government wishes to express its hope
+<a name="Page_85" id="Page_85"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">85</span>
+    that the negotiations now pending between the two countries will
+    soon come to an end and whatever misgivings foreign countries
+    entertain toward the present situation may be quickly dispelled. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>The Peking Government, although fully aware of the perils now
+confronting it, had dared to draft a complete reply to the revised
+Demands and had reduced Japanese redundancy to effective limits. Not
+only were various articles made more compact, but the phraseology
+employed conveyed unmistakably, if in a somewhat subtle way, that China
+was not a subordinate State treating with a suzerain. Moreover, after
+dealing succinctly and seriously with Groups I, II and III, the Chinese
+reply terminates abruptly, the other points in the Japanese List being
+left entirely unanswered. It is important to seize these points in the
+text that follows.</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>CHINA'S REPLY TO REVISED DEMANDS</h3>
+			<p>  China's Reply of May 1, 1915, to the Japanese Revised Demands of
+    April 26, 1915.</p>
+			<h4>  GROUP I</h4>
+			<p>  The Chinese Government and the Japanese Government, being desirous
+    of maintaining the general peace in Eastern Asia and further
+    strengthening the friendly relations and good neighbourhood existing
+    between the two nations, agree to the following articles:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  Article I. The Chinese Government declares that they will give full
+    assent to all matters upon which the Japanese and German Governments
+    may hereafter mutually agree, relating to the disposition of all
+    interests, which Germany, by virtue of treaties or recorded cases,
+    possesses in relation to the Province of Shantung.</p>
+			<p>  The Japanese Government declares that when the Chinese Government
+    give their assent to the disposition of interests above referred to,
+    Japan will restore the leased territory of Kiaochow to China; and
+    further recognize the right of the Chinese Government to participate
+    in the negotiations referred to above between Japan and Germany.</p>
+			<p>  Article 2. The Japanese Government consents to be responsible for
+    the indemnification of all losses occasioned by Japan's military
+    operation around the leased territory of Kiaochow. The customs,
+    telegraphs and post offices within the leased territory of Kiaochow
+    shall, prior to the restoration of the said leased territory to
+    China, be administered as heretofore for the time being. The
+    railways and telegraph lines erected by Japan for military purposes
+    are to be removed forthwith. The Japanese troops now stationed
+    outside the original leased territory of Kiaochow are now to be
+    withdrawn first, those within the original leased territory
+<a name="Page_86" id="Page_86"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">86</span>
+    are to
+    be withdrawn on the restoration of the said leased territory to
+    China.</p>
+			<p>  Article 3. (Changed to an exchange of notes.)</p>
+			<p>  The Chinese Government declares that within the Province of Shantung
+    and along its coast no territory or island will be ceded or leased
+    to any Power under any pretext.</p>
+			<p>  Article 4. The Chinese Government consent that as regards the
+    railway to be built by China herself from Chefoo or Lungkow to
+    connect with the Kiaochow-Tsinanfu railway, if Germany is willing to
+    abandon the privilege of financing the Chefoo-Weihsien line, China
+    will approach Japanese capitalists for a loan.</p>
+			<p>  Article 5. The Chinese Government engage, in the interest of trade
+    and for the residence of foreigners, to open by herself as soon as
+    possible certain suitable places in the Province of Shantung as
+    Commercial Ports.</p>
+			<h5>  (Supplementary Exchange of Notes)</h5>
+			<p>  The places which ought to be opened are to be chosen, and the
+    regulations are to be drafted by the Chinese Government, but the
+    Japanese Minister must be consulted before making a decision.</p>
+			<p>  Article 6. If the Japanese and German Governments are not able to
+    come to a definite agreement in future in their negotiations
+    respecting transfer, etc., this provisional agreement contained in
+    the foregoing articles shall be void.</p>
+			<h4>  GROUP II<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15"><sup>[15]</sup></a>
+			</h4>
+			<p>  The Chinese Government and the Japanese Government, with a view to
+    developing their economic relations in South Manchuria, agree to the
+    following articles:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  Article 2. Japanese subjects in South Manchuria may, by arrangement
+    with the owners, lease land required for erecting suitable buildings
+    for trade and manufacture or agricultural enterprises.</p>
+			<p>  Article 3. Japanese subjects shall be free to reside and travel in
+    South Manchuria and to engage in business and manufacture of any
+    kind whatsoever.</p>
+			<p>  Article 3a. The Japanese subjects referred to in the preceding two
+    articles, besides being required to register with the local
+    authorities passports which they must procure under the existing
+    regulations, shall also observe police rules and regulations and pay
+    taxes in the same manner as Chinese. Civil and criminal cases shall
+    be tried and adjudicated by the authorities of the defendant
+    nationality and an officer can be deputed to attend the proceedings.
+    But all cases purely between Japanese subjects and mixed cases
+    between Japanese or Chinese, relating to land or disputes
+<a name="Page_87" id="Page_87"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">87</span>
+    arising
+    from lease contracts, shall be tried and adjudicated by Chinese
+    Authorities and the Japanese Consul may also depute an officer to
+    attend the proceedings. When the judicial system in the said
+    Province is completely reformed, all the civil and criminal cases
+    concerning Japanese subjects shall be tried entirely by Chinese law
+    courts.</p>
+			<h5>  RELATING TO EASTERN INNER MONGOLIA</h5>
+			<p>  (To be Exchanged by Notes)</p>
+			<p>  1. The Chinese Government declare that China will not in future
+    pledge the taxes, other than customs and salt revenue of that part
+    of Eastern Inner Mongolia under the jurisdiction of South Manchuria
+    and Jehol Intendency, as security for raising a foreign loan.</p>
+			<p>  2. The Chinese Government declare that China will herself provide
+    funds for building the railways in the part of Eastern Inner
+    Mongolia under the jurisdiction of South Manchuria and the Jehol
+    Intendency; if foreign capital is required, China will negotiate
+    with Japanese capitalists first, provided this does not conflict
+    with agreements already concluded with other Powers.</p>
+			<p>  The Chinese Government agree, in the interest of trade and for the
+    residence of foreigners, to open by China herself certain suitable
+    places in that part of Eastern Inner Mongolia under the jurisdiction
+    of South Manchurian and the Jehol Intendency, as Commercial Marts.</p>
+			<p>  The regulations for the said Commercial Marts will be made in
+    accordance with those of other Commercial Marts opened by China
+    herself.</p>
+			<h4>  GROUP III</h4>
+			<p>  The relations between Japan and the Hanyehping Company being very
+    intimate, if the said Company comes to an agreement with the
+    Japanese capitalists for co-operation, the Chinese Government shall
+    forthwith give their consent thereto. The Chinese Government further
+    declare that China will not convert the company into a state
+    enterprise, nor confiscate it, nor cause it to borrow and use
+    foreign capital other than Japanese.</p>
+			<p>  Letter to be addressed by the Japanese Minister to the Chinese
+    Minister of Foreign Affairs.</p>
+			<p>  Excellency: I have the honour to state that a report has reached me
+    that the Chinese Government have given permission to foreign nations
+    to construct, on the coast of Fukien Province, dock-yards, coaling
+    stations for military use, naval bases and other establishments for
+    military purposes; and further, that the Chinese Government are
+    borrowing foreign capital for putting up the above-mentioned
+    constructions or establishments. I shall be much obliged if the
+    Chinese Government will inform me whether or not these reports are
+    well founded in fact.</p>
+			<p>  Reply to be addressed by the Chinese Minister of Foreign Affairs to
+    the Japanese Minister.</p>
+			<p>
+				<a name="Page_88" id="Page_88"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">88</span>
+Excellency: I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your
+    Excellency's Note of.... In reply I beg to state that the Chinese
+    Government have not given permission to foreign Powers to construct,
+    on the coast of Fukien Province, dock-yards, coaling stations for
+    military use, naval bases or other establishments for military
+    purposes; nor do they contemplate to borrow foreign capital for
+    putting up such constructions or establishments. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>Within forty-eight hours of this passage-at-arms of the 1st May it was
+understood in Peking that Japan was meditating a serious step. That
+vague feeling of unrest which so speedily comes in capitals when
+national affairs reach a crisis was very evident, and the word
+&quot;ultimatum&quot; began to be whispered. It was felt that whilst China had
+held to her rights to the utmost and had received valuable indirect
+support from both England and the United States, the world-situation was
+such that it would be difficult to prevent Japan from proceeding to
+extremities. Accordingly there was little real surprise when on the 7th
+May Japan filed an ultimatum demanding a satisfactory reply within 48
+hours to her Revised Demands&mdash;failing which those steps deemed necessary
+would be taken. A perusal of the text of the Ultimatum will show an
+interesting change in the language employed. Coaxing having failed, and
+Japan being <i>now convinced that so long as she did not seek to annex the
+rights of other Foreign Powers in China open opposition could not be
+offered to her</i>, states her case very defiantly. One significant point,
+however, must be carefully noted&mdash;that she agrees &quot;to detach Group V
+from the present negotiations and to discuss it separately in the
+future.&quot; It is this fact which remains the sword of Damocles hanging
+over China's head; and until this sword has been flung back into the
+waters of the Yellow Sea the Far Eastern situation will remain perilous.</p>
+		<div class="blockquot"><h3>JAPAN'S ULTIMATUM TO CHINA</h3>
+			<p>  Japan's Ultimatum delivered by the Japanese Minister to the Chinese
+    Government, on May 7th, 1915.</p>
+			<p>  The reason why the Imperial Government opened the present
+    negotiations with the Chinese Government is first to endeavour to
+    dispose of the complications arising out of the war between Japan
+    and China, and secondly to attempt to solve those various questions
+    which are detrimental to the intimate relations of China and Japan
+    with a view to solidifying the foundation of cordial friendship
+    subsisting between the
+<a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">89</span>
+two countries to the end that the peace of
+    the Far East may be effectually and permanently preserved. With this
+    object in view, definite proposals were presented to the Chinese
+    Government in January of this year, and up to to-day as many as
+    twenty-five conferences have been held with the Chinese Government
+    in perfect sincerity and frankness.</p>
+			<p>  In the course of the negotiation the Imperial Government have
+    consistently explained the aims and objects of the proposals in a
+    conciliatory spirit, while on the other hand the proposals of the
+    Chinese Government, whether important or unimportant, have been
+    attended to without any reserve.</p>
+			<p>  It may be stated with confidence that no effort has been spared to
+    arrive at a satisfactory and amicable settlement of those questions.</p>
+			<p>  The discussion of the entire corpus of the proposals was practically
+    at an end at the twenty-fourth conference; that is on the 17th of
+    the last month. The Imperial Government, taking a broad view of the
+    negotiation and in consideration of the points raised by the Chinese
+    Government, modified the original proposals with considerable
+    concessions and presented to the Chinese Government on the 26th of
+    the same month the revised proposals for agreement, and at the same
+    time it was offered that, on the acceptance of the revised
+    proposals, the Imperial Government would, at a suitable opportunity,
+    restore, with fair and proper conditions, to the Chinese Government
+    the Kiaochow territory, in the acquisition of which the Imperial
+    Government had made a great sacrifice.</p>
+			<p>  On the 1st of May, the Chinese Government delivered the reply to the
+    revised proposals of the Japanese Government, which is contrary to
+    the expectations of the Imperial Government. The Chinese Government
+    not only did not give a careful consideration to the revised
+    proposals but even with regard to the offer of the Japanese
+    Government to restore Kiaochow to the Chinese Government the latter
+    did not manifest the least appreciation for Japan's good will and
+    difficulties.</p>
+			<p>  From the commercial and military point of view Kiaochow is an
+    important place, in the acquisition of which the Japanese Empire
+    sacrificed much blood and money, and, after the acquisition the
+    Empire incurs no obligation to restore it to China. But with the
+    object of increasing the future friendly relations of the two
+    countries, they went to the extent of proposing its restoration, yet
+    to their great regret, the Chinese Government did not take into
+    consideration the good intention of Japan and manifest appreciation
+    of her difficulties. Furthermore, the Chinese Government not only
+    ignored the friendly feelings of the Imperial Government in offering
+    the restoration of Kiaochow Bay, but also in replying to the revised
+    proposals they even demanded its unconditional restoration; and
+    again China demanded that Japan should bear the responsibility of
+    paying indemnity for all the unavoidable losses and damages
+    resulting from Japan's military operations at Kiaochow; and still
+    further in connection with the territory of Kiaochow China advanced
+    other demands and declared that she has the right of participation
+    at the future peace conference to be held between Japan and Germany.
+    Although China is fully aware that the unconditional restoration of
+    Kiaochow and Japan's
+<a name="Page_90" id="Page_90"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">90</span>
+responsibility of indemnification for the
+    unavoidable losses and damages can never be tolerated by Japan yet
+    she purposely advanced these demands and declared that this reply
+    was final and decisive.</p>
+			<p>  Since Japan could not tolerate such demands the settlement of the
+    other questions, however compromising it may be, would not be to her
+    interest. The consequence is that the present reply of the Chinese
+    Government is, on the whole, vague and meaningless.</p>
+			<p>  Furthermore, in the reply of the Chinese Government to the other
+    proposals in the revised list of the Imperial Government, such as
+    South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia, where Japan particularly
+    has geographical, commercial, industrial and strategic relations, as
+    recognized by all the nations, and made more remarkable in
+    consequence of the two wars in which Japan was engaged the Chinese
+    Government overlooks these facts and does not respect Japan's
+    position in that place. The Chinese Government even freely altered
+    those articles which the Imperial Government, in a compromising
+    spirit, have formulated in accordance with the statement of the
+    Chinese Representatives thereby making the statements of the
+    Representatives an empty talk; and on seeing them conceding with the
+    one hand and withholding with the other it is very difficult to
+    attribute faithfulness and sincerity to the Chinese authorities.</p>
+			<p>  As regards the articles relating to the employment of advisers, the
+    establishment of schools, and hospitals, the supply of arms and
+    ammunition and the establishment of arsenals and railway concessions
+    in South China in the revised proposals they were either proposed
+    with the proviso that the consent of the Power concerned must be
+    obtained, or they are merely to be recorded in the minutes in
+    accordance with the statements of the Chinese delegates, and thus
+    they are not in the least in conflict either with Chinese
+    sovereignty or her treaties with the Foreign Powers, yet the Chinese
+    Government in their reply to the proposals, alleging that these
+    proposals are incompatible with their sovereign rights and treaties
+    with Foreign Powers, defeat the expectations of the Imperial
+    Government. However, in spite of such attitude of the Chinese
+    Government, the Imperial Government, though regretting to see that
+    there is no room for further negotiations, yet warmly attached to
+    the preservation of the peace of the Far East, is still hoping for a
+    satisfactory settlement in order to avoid the disturbance of the
+    relations.</p>
+			<p>  So in spite of the circumstances which admitted no patience, they
+    have reconsidered the feelings of the Government of their
+    neighbouring country and, with the exception of the article relating
+    to Fukien which is to be the subject of an exchange of notes as has
+    already been agreed upon by the Representatives of both nations,
+    will undertake to detach the Group V from the present negotiation
+    and discuss it separately in the future. Therefore the Chinese
+    Government should appreciate the friendly feelings of the Imperial
+    Government by immediately accepting without any alteration all the
+    articles of Group I, II, III, and IV and the exchange of notes in
+    connection with Fukien province in Group V as contained in the
+    revised proposals presented on the 26th of April.</p>
+			<p>  The Imperial Government hereby again offer their advice and hope
+<a name="Page_91" id="Page_91"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">91</span>
+    that the Chinese Government, upon this advice, will give a
+    satisfactory reply by 6 o'clock P.M. on the 9th day of May. It is
+    hereby declared that if no satisfactory reply is received before or
+    at the specified time, the Imperial Government will take steps they
+    may deem necessary.</p>
+			<h4>  EXPLANATORY NOTE</h4>
+			<p>  Accompanying Ultimatum delivered to the Minister of Foreign Affairs
+    by the Japanese Minister, May 7th, 1915.</p>
+			<p>  1. With the exception of the question of Fukien to be arranged by an
+    exchange of notes, the five articles postponed for later negotiation
+    refer to (a) the employment of advisers, (b) the establishment of
+    schools and hospitals, (c) the railway concessions in South China,
+    (d) the supply of arms and ammunition and the establishment of
+    arsenals and (e) right of missionary propaganda.</p>
+			<p>  2. The acceptance by the Chinese Government of the article relating
+    to Fukien may be either in the form as proposed by the Japanese
+    Minister on the 26th of April or in that contained in the Reply of
+    the Chinese Government of May 1st. Although the Ultimatum calls for
+    the immediate acceptance by China of the modified proposals
+    presented on April 26th, without alteration but it should be noted
+    that it merely states the principle and does not apply to this
+    article and articles 4 and 5 of this note.</p>
+			<p>  3. If the Chinese Government accept all the articles as demanded in
+    the Ultimatum the offer of the Japanese Government to restore
+    Kiaochow to China, made on the 26th of April, will still hold good.</p>
+			<p>  4. Article 2 of Group II relating to the lease or purchase of land,
+    the terms &quot;lease&quot; and &quot;purchase&quot; may be replaced by the terms
+    &quot;temporary lease&quot; and &quot;perpetual lease&quot; or &quot;lease on consultation,&quot;
+    which means a long-term lease with its unconditional renewal.</p>
+			<p>  Article 4 of Group II relating to the approval of police laws and
+    Ordinances and local taxes by the Japanese Council may form the
+    subject of a secret agreement.</p>
+			<p>  5. The phrase &quot;to consult with the Japanese Government&quot; in
+    connection with questions of pledging the local taxes for raising
+    loans and the loans for the construction of railways, in Eastern
+    Inner Mongolia, which is similar to the agreement in Manchuria
+    relating to the matters of the same kind, may be replaced by the
+    phrase &quot;to consult with the Japanese capitalists.&quot;</p>
+			<p>  The article relating to the opening of trade marts in Eastern Inner
+    Mongolia in respect to location and regulations, may, following
+    their precedent set in Shantung, be the subject of an exchange of
+    notes.</p>
+			<p>  6. From the phrase &quot;those interested in the Company&quot; in Group III of
+    the revised list of demands, the words &quot;those interested in&quot; may be
+    deleted.</p>
+			<p>  7. The Japanese version of the Formal Agreement and its annexes
+    shall be the official text or both the Chinese and Japanese shall be
+    the official texts. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_92" id="Page_92"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">92</span>
+Whilst it would be an exaggeration to say that open panic followed the
+filing of this document, there was certainly very acute alarm,&mdash;so much
+so that it is to-day known in Peking that the Japanese Legation cabled
+urgently to Tokio that even better terms could be obtained if the matter
+was left to the discretion of the men on the spot. But the Japanese
+Government had by now passed through a sufficiently anxious time itself,
+being in possession of certain unmistakable warnings regarding what was
+likely to happen after a world-peace had come,&mdash;if matters were pressed
+too far. Consequently nothing more was done, and on the following day
+China signified her acceptance of the Ultimatum in the following terms.</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>
+				<i>Reply of the Chinese Government to the Ultimatum of the Japanese
+    Government, delivered to the Japanese Minister by the Minister of
+    Foreign Affairs on the 8th of May, 1915.</i>
+			</h3>
+			<p>  On the 7th of this month, at three o'clock P.M. the Chinese
+    Government received an Ultimatum from the Japanese Government
+    together with an Explanatory Note of seven articles. The Ultimatum
+    concluded with the hope that the Chinese Government by six o'clock
+    P.M. on the 9th of May will give a satisfactory reply, and it is
+    hereby declared that if no satisfactory reply is received before or
+    at the specified time, the Japanese Government will take steps she
+    may deem necessary.</p>
+			<p>  The Chinese Government with a view to preserving the peace of the
+    Far East hereby accepts, with the exception of those five articles
+    of Group V postponed for later negotiation, all the articles of
+    Group I, II, III, and IV and the exchange of notes in connection
+    with Fukien Province in Group V as contained in the revised
+    proposals presented on the 26th of April, and in accordance with the
+    Explanatory Note of seven articles accompanying the Ultimatum of the
+    Japanese Government with the hope that thereby all the outstanding
+    questions are settled, so that the cordial relationship between the
+    two countries may be further consolidated. The Japanese Minister is
+    hereby requested to appoint a day to call at the Ministry of Foreign
+    Affairs to make the literary improvement of the text and sign the
+    Agreement as soon as possible. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>Thus ended one of the most extraordinary diplomatic negotiations ever
+undertaken in Peking.</p>
+		<div class="footnotes">
+			<p class="center">FOOTNOTES:</p>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_13_13">
+						<span class="label">[13]</span>
+					</a> Refers to preaching Buddhism.</p>
+			</div>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_14_14">
+						<span class="label">[14]</span>
+					</a> The reader will observe, that the expression &quot;Hanyehping
+enterprises&quot; is compounded by linking together characters denoting the
+triple industry.</p>
+			</div>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_15_15">
+						<span class="label">[15]</span>
+					</a> Six articles found in Japan's Revised Demands are omitted
+here as they had already been initialled by the Chinese Foreign Minister
+and the Japanese Minister.</p>
+			</div>
+		</div>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">93</span></p>
+		<h2>
+
+		<a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>
+		CHAPTER VII</h2>
+		<h3>THE ORIGIN OF THE TWENTY-ONE DEMANDS</h3>
+		<p>The key to this remarkable business was supplied by a cover sent
+anonymously to the writer during the course of these negotiations with
+no indication as to its origin. The documents which this envelope
+contained are so interesting that they merit attention at the hands of
+all students of history, explaining as they do the psychology of the
+Demands as well as throwing much light on the manner in which the
+world-war has been viewed in Japan.</p>
+		<p>The first document is purely introductory, but is none the less
+interesting. It is a fragment, or rather a <i>pr&eacute;cis</i> of the momentous
+conversation which took place between Yuan Shih-kai and the Japanese
+Minister when the latter personally served the Demands on the Chief
+Executive and took the opportunity to use language unprecedented even in
+the diplomatic history of Peking.</p>
+		<p>The <i>pr&eacute;cis</i> begins in a curious way. After saying that &quot;the Japanese
+Minister tried to influence President Yuan Shih-kai with the following
+words,&quot; several long lines of asterisks suggest that after reflection
+the unknown chronicler had decided, for political reasons of the highest
+importance, to allow others to guess how the &quot;conversation&quot; opened. From
+the context it seems absolutely clear that the excised words have to
+deal with the possibility of the re-establishment of the Empire in
+China&mdash;a very important conclusion in view of what followed later in the
+year. Indeed there is no reason to doubt that the Japanese Envoy
+actually told Yuan Shih-kai that as he was already virtually Emperor it
+lay within his power to settle the whole business and to secure his
+position at one blow. In any case the <i>pr&eacute;cis</i> begins with these
+illuminating sentences:</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<p>
+				<a name="Page_94" id="Page_94"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">94</span>
+... Furthermore, the Chinese revolutionists are in close touch and
+    have intimate relations with numerous irresponsible Japanese, some
+    of whom have great influence and whose policy is for strong
+    measures. Our Government has not been influenced by this policy, but
+    if your Government does not quickly agree to these stipulations, it
+    will be impossible to prevent some of our irresponsible people from
+    inciting the Chinese revolutionists to create trouble in China.</p>
+			<p>  The majority of the Japanese people are also opposed to President
+    Yuan and Yuan's Government. They all declare that the President
+    entertains anti-Japanese feeling and adopts the policy of
+    &quot;befriending the Far&quot; (Europe and America) and &quot;antagonizing the
+    Near&quot; (Japan). Japanese public opinion is therefore exceedingly
+    hostile.</p>
+			<p>  Our Government has all along from first to last exerted its best
+    efforts to help the Chinese Government, and if the Chinese
+    Government will speedily agree to these stipulations it will have
+    thus manifested its friendship for Japan.</p>
+			<p>  The Japanese people will then be able to say that the President
+    never entertained anti-Japanese feelings, or adopted the policy of
+    &quot;befriending the Far and antagonizing the Near.&quot; Will not this then
+    be indeed a bon&acirc; fide proof of our friendly relations?</p>
+			<p>  The Japanese Government also will then be inclined to render
+    assistance to President Yuan's Government whenever it is
+    necessary.... </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>We are admittedly living in a remarkable age which is making waste paper
+of our dearest principles. But in all the welter which the world war has
+made it would be difficult to find anything more extraordinary than
+these few paragraphs. Japan, through her official representative, boldly
+tears down the veil hiding her ambitions, and using the undoubted menace
+which Chinese revolutionary activities then held for the Peking
+Government, declares in so many words that unless President Yuan
+Shih-kai bows his head to the dictation of Tokio, the duel which began
+in Seoul twenty-five years ago would be openly resumed.</p>
+		<p>Immediately following the &quot;conversation&quot; is the principal document in
+the dossier. This is nothing less than an exhaustive Memorandum, divided
+into two sections, containing the policy advocated by the Japanese
+secret society, called the Black Dragon Society, which is said to have
+assumed that name on account of the members (military officers) having
+studied the situation in the Heilungchiang (or &quot;Black Dragon&quot;) province
+of Manchuria. The memorandum is the most remarkable document dealing
+with the Far East which has come to light since the famous Cassini
+Convention was published in 1896.
+<a name="Page_95" id="Page_95"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">95</span>
+Written presumably late in the autumn
+of 1914 and immediately presented to the Japanese Government, it may
+undoubtedly be called the fulminate which exploded the Japanese mine of
+the 18th January, 1915. It shows such sound knowledge of
+world-conditions, and is so scientific in its detachment that little
+doubt can exist that distinguished Japanese took part in its drafting.
+It can therefore be looked upon as a genuine expression of the highly
+educated Japanese mind, and as such cannot fail to arouse serious
+misgivings. The first part is a general review of the European War and
+the Chinese Question: the second is concerned with the Defensive
+Alliance between China and Japan, which is looked upon as the one goal
+of all Japanese Diplomacy.</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>PART I. THE EUROPEAN WAR AND THE CHINESE QUESTION</h3>
+			<p>  The present gigantic struggle in Europe has no parallel in history.
+    Not only will the equilibrium of Europe be affected and its effect
+    felt all over the globe, but its results will create a New Era in
+    the political and social world. Therefore, whether or not the
+    Imperial Japanese Government can settle the Far Eastern Question and
+    bring to realization our great Imperial policy depends on our being
+    able to skilfully avail ourselves of the world's general trend of
+    affairs so as to extend our influence and to decide upon a course of
+    action towards China which shall be practical in execution. If our
+    authorities and people view the present European War with
+    indifference and without deep concern, merely devoting their
+    attention to the attack on Kiaochow, neglecting the larger issues of
+    the war, they will have brought to nought our great Imperial policy,
+    and committed a blunder greater than which it can not be conceived.
+    We are constrained to submit this statement of policy for the
+    consideration of our authorities, not because we are fond of
+    argument but because we are deeply anxious for our national welfare.</p>
+			<p>  No one at present can foretell the outcome of the European War. If
+    the Allies meet with reverses and victory shall crown the arms of
+    the Germans and Austrians, German militarism will undoubtedly
+    dominate the European Continent and extend southward and eastward to
+    other parts of the world. Should such a state of affairs happen to
+    take place the consequences resulting therefrom will be indeed great
+    and extensive. On this account we must devote our most serious
+    attention to the subject. If, on the other hand, the Germans and
+    Austrians should be crushed by the Allies, Germany will be deprived
+    of her present status as a Federated State under a Kaiser. The
+    Federation will be disintegrated into separate states, and Prussia
+    will have to be content with the status of a second-rate Power.
+    Austria and Hungary, on account of this defeat, will consequently be
+    divided. What their final fate shall be, no one would
+<a name="Page_96" id="Page_96"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">96</span>
+now venture
+    to predict. In the meantime Russia will annex Galicia and the
+    Austrian Poland: France will repossess Alsace and Lorraine: Great
+    Britain will occupy the German Colonies in Africa and the South
+    Pacific; Servia and Montenegro will take Bosnia, Herzegovina and a
+    certain portion of Austrian Territory; thus making such great
+    changes in the map of Europe that even the Napoleonic War in 1815
+    could not find a parallel.</p>
+			<p>  When these events take place, not only will Europe experience great
+    changes, but we should not ignore the fact that they will occur also
+    in China and in the South Pacific. After Russia has replaced Germany
+    in the territories lost by Germany and Austria, she will hold a
+    controlling influence in Europe, and, for a long time to come, will
+    have nothing to fear from her western frontier. Immediately after
+    the war she will make an effort to carry out her policy of expansion
+    in the East and will not relax that effort until she has acquired a
+    controlling influence in China. At the same time Great Britain will
+    strengthen her position in the Yangtsze Valley and prohibit any
+    other country from getting a footing there. France will do likewise
+    in Yunnan province using it as her base of operations for further
+    encroachments upon China and never hesitate to extend her
+    advantages. We must therefore seriously study the situation
+    remembering always that the combined action of Great Britain,
+    Russia, and France will not only affect Europe but that we can even
+    foresee that it will also affect China.</p>
+			<p>  Whether this combined action on the part of England, France and
+    Russia is to terminate at the end of the war or to continue to
+    operate, we can not now predict. But after peace in Europe is
+    restored, these Powers will certainly turn their attention to the
+    expansion of their several spheres of interest in China, and, in the
+    adjustment, their interests will most likely conflict with one
+    another. If their interests do not conflict, they will work jointly
+    to solve the Chinese Question. On this point we have not the least
+    doubt. If England, France and Russia are actually to combine for the
+    coercion of China, what course is to be adopted by the Imperial
+    Japanese Government to meet the situation? What proper means shall
+    we employ to maintain our influence and extend our interests within
+    this ring of rivalry and competition? It is necessary that we bear
+    in mind the final results of the European War and forestall the
+    trend of events succeeding it so as to be able to decide upon a
+    policy towards China and determine the action to be ultimately
+    taken. If we remain passive, the Imperial Japanese Government's
+    policy towards China will lose that subjective influence and our
+    diplomacy will be checked for ever by the combined force of the
+    other Powers. The peace of the Far East will be thus endangered and
+    even the existence of the Japanese Empire as a nation will no doubt
+    be imperilled. It is therefore our first important duty at this
+    moment to enquire of our Government what course is to be adopted to
+    face that general situation after the war? What preparations are
+    being made to meet the combined pressure of the Allies upon China?
+    What policy has been followed to solve the Chinese Question? When
+    the European War is terminated and peace restored we are not
+    concerned so much with the question whether it be the Dual
+    Monarchies or the
+<a name="Page_97" id="Page_97"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">97</span>
+Triple Entente which emerge victorious but
+    whether, in anticipation of the future expansion of European
+    influence in the Continents of Europe and Asia, the Imperial
+    Japanese Government should or should not hesitate to employ force to
+    check the movement before this occurrence. Now is the most opportune
+    moment for Japan to quickly solve the Chinese Question. Such an
+    opportunity will not occur for hundreds of years to come. Not only
+    is it Japan's divine duty to act now, but present conditions in
+    China favour the execution of such a plan. We should by all means
+    decide and act at once. If our authorities do not avail themselves
+    of this rare opportunity, great difficulty will surely be
+    encountered in future in the settlement of this Chinese Question.
+    Japan will be isolated from the European Powers after the war, and
+    will be regarded by them with envy and jealousy just as Germany is
+    now regarded. Is it not then a vital necessity for Japan to solve at
+    this very moment the Chinese Question? </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>No one&mdash;not even those who care nothing for politics&mdash;can deny that
+there is in this document an astounding disclosure of the mental
+attitude of the Japanese not only towards their enemies but towards
+their friends as well. They trust nobody, befriend nobody, envy nobody;
+they content themselves with believing that the whole world may in the
+not distant future turn against them. The burden of their argument
+swings just as much against their British ally as against Germany and
+Austria; and the one and only matter which preoccupies Japanese who make
+it their business to think about such things is to secure that Japan
+shall forestall Europe in seizing control of China. It is admitted in so
+many words that it is too early to know who is to triumph in the
+gigantic European struggle; it is also admitted that Germany will
+forever be the enemy. At the same time it is expected, should the issue
+of the struggle be clear-cut and decisive in favour of the Allies, that
+a new three-Power combination formed by England, France and Russia may
+be made to operate against Japan. Although the alliance with England,
+twice renewed since 1902, should occupy as important a place in the Far
+East as the <i>Entente</i> between England and France occupies in Europe, not
+one Japanese in a hundred knows or cares anything about such an
+arrangement; and even if he has knowledge of it, he coolly assigns to
+his country's major international commitment a minimum and constantly
+diminishing importance. In his view the British Alliance is nothing but
+a piece of paper which may be consumed in the great bonfire now shedding
+<a name="Page_98" id="Page_98"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">98</span>
+such a lurid light over the world. What is germane to the matter is his
+own plan, his own method of taking up arms in a sea of troubles. The
+second part of the Black Dragon Society's Memorandum, pursuing the
+argument logically and inexorably and disclosing traces of real
+political genius, makes this unalterably clear.</p>
+		<p>Having established clearly the attitude of Japan towards the world&mdash;and
+more particularly towards the rival political combinations now locked
+together in a terrible death-struggle, this second part of the
+Memorandum is concerned solely with China and can be broken into two
+convenient sections. The first section is constructive&mdash;the plan for the
+reconstruction of China is outlined in terms suited to the Japanese
+genius. This part begins with an illuminating piece of rhetoric.</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>PART II. THE CHINESE QUESTION AND THE DEFENSIVE ALLIANCE</h3>
+			<p>  It is a very important matter of policy whether the Japanese
+    Government, in obedience to its divine mission, shall solve the
+    Chinese Question in a heroic manner by making China voluntarily rely
+    upon Japan. To force China to such a position there is nothing else
+    for the Imperial Japanese Government to do but to take advantage of
+    the present opportunity to seize the reins of political and
+    financial power and to enter by all means into a defensive alliance
+    with her under secret terms as enumerated below:</p>
+			<h4>
+				<i>The Secret Terms of the Defensive Alliance</i>
+			</h4>
+			<p>  The Imperial Japanese Government, with due respect for the
+    Sovereignty and Integrity of China and with the object and hope of
+    maintaining the peace of the Far East, undertakes to share the
+    responsibility of co-operating with China to guard her against
+    internal trouble and foreign invasion and China shall accord to
+    Japan special facilities in the matter of China's National Defence,
+    or the protection of Japan's special rights and privileges and for
+    these objects the following treaty of Alliance is to be entered into
+    between the two contracting parties:</p>
+			<p>  1. When there is internal trouble in China or when she is at war
+    with another nation or nations, Japan shall send her army to render
+    assistance, to assume the responsibility of guarding Chinese
+    territory and to maintain peace and order in China.</p>
+			<p>  2. China agrees to recognize Japan's privileged position in South
+    Manchuria and Inner Mongolia and to cede the sovereign rights of
+    these regions to Japan to enable her to carry out a scheme of local
+    defence on a permanent basis.</p>
+			<p>  3. After the Japanese occupation of Kiaochow, Japan shall acquire
+<a name="Page_99" id="Page_99"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">99</span>
+    all the rights and privileges hitherto enjoyed by the Germans in
+    regard to railways, mines and all other interests, and after peace
+    and order is restored in Tsingtao, the place shall be handed back to
+    China to be opened as an International Treaty port.</p>
+			<p>  4. For the maritime defence of China and Japan, China shall lease
+    strategic harbours along the coast of the Fukien province to Japan
+    to be converted into naval bases and grant to Japan in the said
+    province all railway and mining rights.</p>
+			<p>  5. For the reorganization of the Chinese army China shall entrust
+    the training and drilling of the army to Japan.</p>
+			<p>  6. For the unification of China's firearms and munitions of war,
+    China shall adopt firearms of Japanese pattern, and at the same time
+    establish arsenals (with the help of Japan) in different strategic
+    points.</p>
+			<p>  7. With the object of creating and maintaining a Chinese Navy, China
+    shall entrust the training of her navy to Japan.</p>
+			<p>  8. With the object of reorganizing her finances and improving the
+    methods of taxation, China shall entrust the work to Japan, and the
+    latter shall elect competent financial experts who shall act as
+    first-class advisers to the Chinese Government.</p>
+			<p>  9. China shall engage Japanese educational experts as educational
+    advisers and extensively establish schools in different parts of the
+    country to teach Japanese so as to raise the educational standard of
+    the country.</p>
+			<p>  10. China shall first consult with and obtain the consent of Japan
+    before she can enter into an agreement with another Power for making
+    loans, the leasing of territory, or the cession of the same.</p>
+			<p>  From the date of the signing of this Defensive Alliance, Japan and
+    China shall work together hand-in-hand. Japan will assume the
+    responsibility of safeguarding Chinese territory and maintaining the
+    peace and order in China. This will relieve China of all future
+    anxieties and enable her to proceed energetically with her reforms,
+    and, with a sense of territorial security, she may wait for her
+    national development and regeneration. Even after the present
+    European War is over and peace is restored China will absolutely
+    have nothing to fear in the future of having pressure brought
+    against her by the foreign powers. It is only thus that permanent
+    peace can be secured in the Far East.</p>
+			<p>  But before concluding this Defensive Alliance, two points must first
+    be ascertained and settled, (1) Its bearing on the Chinese
+    Government. (2) Its bearing on those Powers having intimate
+    relations with and great interests in China.</p>
+			<p>  In considering its effect on the Chinese Government, Japan must try
+    to foresee whether the position of China's present ruler Yuan
+    Shih-kai shall be permanent or not; whether the present Government's
+    policy will enjoy the confidence of a large section of the Chinese
+    people; whether Yuan Shih-kai will readily agree to the Japanese
+    Government's proposal to enter into a treaty of alliance with us.
+    These are points to which we are bound to give a thorough
+    consideration. Judging by the attitude hitherto adopted by Yuan
+    Shih-kai we know he has always resorted to the policy of expediency
+    in his diplomatic dealings, and although he may
+<a name="Page_100" id="Page_100"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">100</span>
+now outwardly show
+    friendliness towards us, he will in fact rely upon the influence of
+    the different Powers as the easiest check against us and refuse to
+    accede to our demands. Take for a single instance, his conduct
+    towards us since the Imperial Government declared war against
+    Germany and his action will then be clear to all. Whether we can
+    rely upon the ordinary friendly methods of diplomacy to gain our
+    object or not it does not require much wisdom to decide. After the
+    gigantic struggle in Europe is over, leaving aside America which
+    will not press for advantage, China will not be able to obtain any
+    loans from the other Powers. With a depleted treasury, without means
+    to pay the officials and the army, with local bandits inciting the
+    poverty-stricken populace to trouble, with the revolutionists
+    waiting for opportunities to rise, should an insurrection actually
+    occur while no outside assistance can be rendered to quell it we are
+    certain it will be impossible for Yuan Shih-kai, single-handed, to
+    restore order and consolidate the country. The result will be that
+    the nation will be cut up into many parts beyond all hope of remedy.
+    That this state of affairs will come is not difficult to foresee.
+    When this occurs, shall we uphold Yuan's Government and assist him
+    to suppress the internal insurrection with the certain assurance
+    that we could influence him to agree to our demands, or shall we
+    help the revolutionists to achieve a success and realize our object
+    through them? This question must be definitely decided upon this
+    very moment so that we may put it into practical execution. If we do
+    not look into the future fate of China but go blindly to uphold
+    Yuan's Government, to enter into a Defensive Alliance with China,
+    hoping thus to secure a complete realization of our object by
+    assisting him to suppress the revolutionists, it is obviously a
+    wrong policy. Why? Because the majority of the Chinese people have
+    lost all faith in the tottering Yuan Shih-kai who is discredited and
+    attacked by the whole nation for having sold his country. If Japan
+    gives Yuan the support, his Government, though in a very precarious
+    state, may possibly avoid destruction. Yuan Shih-kai belongs to that
+    school of politicians who are fond of employing craftiness and
+    cunning. He may be friendly to us for a time, but he will certainly
+    abandon us and again befriend the other Powers when the European war
+    is at an end. Judging by his past we have no doubt as to what he
+    will do in the future. For Japan to ignore the general sentiment of
+    the Chinese people and support Yuan Shih-kai with the hope that we
+    can settle with him the Chinese Question is a blunder indeed.
+    Therefore in order to secure the permanent peace of the Far East,
+    instead of supporting a Chinese Government which can neither be long
+    continued in power nor assist in the attainment of our object, we
+    should rather support the 400,000,000 Chinese people to renovate
+    their corrupt Government, to change its present form, to maintain
+    peace and order in the land and to usher into China a new era of
+    prosperity so that China and Japan may in fact as well as in name be
+    brought into the most intimate and vital relations with each other.
+    China's era of prosperity is based on the China-Japanese Alliance
+    and this Alliance is the foundational power for the repelling of the
+    foreign aggression that is to be directed against the Far East at
+    the conclusion of the European war. This alliance
+<a name="Page_101" id="Page_101"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">101</span>
+is also the
+    foundation-stone of the peace of the world. Japan therefore should
+    take this as the last warning and immediately solve this question.
+    Since the Imperial Japanese Government has considered it imperative
+    to support the Chinese people, we should induce the Chinese
+    revolutionists, the Imperialists and other Chinese malcontents to
+    create trouble all over China. The whole country will be thrown into
+    disorder and Yuan's Government will consequently be overthrown. We
+    shall then select a man from amongst the most influential and most
+    noted of the 400,000,000 of Chinese and help him to organize a new
+    form of Government and to consolidate the whole country. In the
+    meantime our army must assist in the restoration of peace and order
+    in the country, and in the protection of the lives and properties of
+    the people, so that they may gladly tender their allegiance to the
+    new Government which will then naturally confide in and rely upon
+    Japan. It is after the accomplishment of only these things that we
+    shall without difficulty gain our object by the conclusion of a
+    Defensive Alliance with China.</p>
+			<p>  For us to incite the Chinese revolutionists and malcontents to rise
+    in China we consider the present to be the most opportune moment.
+    The reason why these men cannot now carry on an active campaign is
+    because they are insufficiently provided with funds. If the Imperial
+    Government can take advantage of this fact to make them a loan and
+    instruct them to rise simultaneously, great commotion and disorder
+    will surely prevail all over China. We can intervene and easily
+    adjust matters.</p>
+			<p>  The progress of the European War warns Japan with greater urgency of
+    the imperative necessity of solving this most vital of questions.
+    The Imperial Government cannot be considered as embarking on a rash
+    project. This opportunity will not repeat itself for our benefit. We
+    must avail ourselves of this chance and under no circumstances
+    hesitate. Why should we wait for the spontaneous uprising of the
+    revolutionists and malcontents? Why should we not think out and lay
+    down a plan beforehand? When we examine into the form of Government
+    in China, we must ask whether the existing Republic is well suited
+    to the national temperament and well adapted to the thoughts and
+    aspirations of the Chinese people. From the time the Republic of
+    China was established up to the present moment, if what it has
+    passed through is to be compared to what it ought to be in the
+    matter of administration and unification, we find disappointment
+    everywhere. Even the revolutionists themselves, the very ones who
+    first advocated the Republican form of government, acknowledge that
+    they have made a mistake. The retention of the Republican form of
+    Government in China will be a great future obstacle in the way of a
+    Chino-Japanese Alliance. And why must it be so? Because, in a
+    Republic the fundamental principles of government as well as the
+    social and moral aims of the people are distinctly different from
+    that of a Constitutional Monarchy. Their laws and administration
+    also conflict. If Japan act as a guide to China and China models
+    herself after Japan, it will only then be possible for the two
+    nations to solve by mutual effort the Far East Question without
+    differences and disagreements. Therefore to start from the
+    foundation for the purpose of reconstructing the Chinese
+    Government,
+<a name="Page_102" id="Page_102"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">102</span>
+of establishing a Chino-Japanese Alliance, of
+    maintaining the permanent peace of the Far East and of realizing the
+    consummation of Japan's Imperial policy, we must take advantage of
+    the present opportunity to alter China's Republican form of
+    Government into a Constitutional Monarchy which shall necessarily be
+    identical, in all its details, to the Constitutional Monarchy of
+    Japan, and to no other. This is really the key and first principle
+    to be firmly held for the actual reconstruction of the form of
+    Government in China. If China changes her Republican form of
+    Government to that of a Constitutional Monarchy, shall we, in the
+    selection of a new ruler, restore the Emperor Hsuan T'ung to his
+    throne or choose the most capable man from the Monarchists or select
+    the most worthy member from among the revolutionists? We think,
+    however, that it is advisable at present to leave this question to
+    the exigency of the future when the matter is brought up for
+    decision. But we must not lose sight of the fact that to actually
+    put into execution this policy of a Chino-Japanese Alliance and the
+    transformation of the Republic of China into a Constitutional
+    Monarchy, is, in reality, the fundamental principle to be adopted
+    for the reconstruction of China.</p>
+			<p>  We shall now consider the bearing of this Defensive Alliance on the
+    other Powers. Needless to say, Japan and China will in no way impair
+    the rights and interests already acquired by the Powers. At this
+    moment it is of paramount importance for Japan to come to a special
+    understanding with Russia to define our respective spheres in
+    Manchuria and Mongolia so that the two countries may co-operate with
+    each other in the future. This means that Japan after the
+    acquisition of sovereign rights in South Manchuria and Inner
+    Mongolia will work together with Russia after her acquisition of
+    sovereign rights in North Manchuria and Outer Mongolia to maintain
+    the status quo, and endeavour by every effort to protect the peace
+    of the Far East. Russia, since the outbreak of the European War, has
+    not only laid aside all ill-feelings against Japan, but has adopted
+    the same attitude as her Allies and shown warm friendship for us. No
+    matter how we regard the Manchurian and Mongolian Questions in the
+    future she is anxious that we find some way of settlement. Therefore
+    we need not doubt but that Russia, in her attitude towards this
+    Chinese Question, will be able to come to an understanding with us
+    for mutual co-operation.</p>
+			<p>  The British sphere of influence and interest in China is centred in
+    Tibet and the Yangtsze Valley. Therefore if Japan can come to some
+    satisfactory arrangement with China in regard to Tibet and also give
+    certain privileges to Great Britain in the Yangtsze Valley, with an
+    assurance to protect those privileges, no matter how powerful Great
+    Britain might be, she will surely not oppose Japan's policy in
+    regard to this Chinese Question. While this present European War is
+    going on Great Britain has never asked Japan to render her
+    assistance. That her strength will certainly not enable her to
+    oppose us in the future need not be doubted in the least.</p>
+			<p>  Since Great Britain and Russia will not oppose Japan's policy
+    towards China, it can readily be seen what attitude France will
+    adopt in regard to the subject. What Japan must now somewhat reckon
+    with is America. But America in her attitude towards
+<a name="Page_103" id="Page_103"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">103</span>
+us regarding
+    our policy towards China has already declared the principle of
+    maintaining China's territorial integrity and equal opportunity and
+    will be satisfied, if we, do not impair America's already acquired
+    rights and privileges. We think America will also have no cause for
+    complaint. Nevertheless America has in the East a naval force which
+    can be fairly relied upon, though not sufficiently strong to be
+    feared. Therefore in Japan's attitude towards America there is
+    nothing really for us to be afraid of.</p>
+			<p>  Since China's condition is such on the one hand and the Powers'
+    relation towards China is such on the other hand, Japan should avail
+    herself in the meantime of the European War to definitely decide
+    upon a policy towards China, the most important move being the
+    transformation of the Chinese Government to be followed up by
+    preparing for the conclusion of the Defensive Alliance. The
+    precipitate action on the part of our present Cabinet in acceding to
+    the request of Great Britain to declare war against Germany without
+    having definitely settled our policy towards China has no real
+    connection with our future negotiations with China or affect the
+    political condition in the Far East. Consequently all intelligent
+    Japanese, of every walk of life throughout the land, are very deeply
+    concerned about the matter.</p>
+			<p>  Our Imperial Government should now definitely change our dependent
+    foreign policy which is being directed by others into an independent
+    foreign policy which shall direct others, proclaiming the same with
+    solemn sincerity to the world and carrying it out with
+    determination. If we do so, even the gods and spirits will give way.
+    These are important points in our policy towards China and the
+    result depends on how we carry them out. Can our authorities firmly
+    make up their mind to solve this Chinese Question by the actual
+    carrying out of this fundamental principle? If they show
+    irresolution while we have this heaven-conferred chance and merely
+    depend on the good will of the other Powers, we shall eventually
+    have greater pressure to be brought against the Far East after the
+    European War is over, when the present equilibrium will be
+    destroyed. That day will then be too late for us to repent of our
+    folly. We are therefore impelled by force of circumstances to urge
+    our authorities to a quicker sense of the situation and to come to a
+    determination. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>The first point which leaps out of this extraordinarily frank
+disquisition is that the origin of the Twenty-one Demands is at last
+disclosed. A perusal of the ten articles forming the basis of the
+Defensive alliance proposed by the Black Dragon Society, allows us to
+understand everything that occurred in Peking in the spring of 1915. As
+far back as November, 1914, it was generally rumoured in Peking that
+Japan had a surprise of an extraordinary nature in her diplomatic
+archives, and that it would be merely a matter of weeks before it was
+sprung. Comparing this elaborate memorandum of the Black Dragon Society
+with the original text of the Twenty-one Demands it is plain
+<a name="Page_104" id="Page_104"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">104</span>
+that the
+proposed plan, having been handed to Viscount Kato, had to be passed
+through the diplomatic filters again and again until all gritty matter
+had been removed, and an appearance of innocuousness given to it. It is
+for this reason that the defensive alliance finally emerges as five
+compact little &quot;groups&quot; of demands, with the vital things directly
+affecting Chinese sovereignty labelled <i>desiderata</i>, so that Japanese
+ambassadors abroad could leave very warm assurances at every Foreign
+Office that there was nothing in what Japan desired which in any way
+conflicted with the Treaty rights of the Powers in China. The air of
+mystery which surrounded the whole business from the 18th January to the
+7th May&mdash;the day of the ultimatum&mdash;was due to the fact that Japan
+attempted to translate the conspiracy into terms of ordinary
+intercourse, only to find that in spite of the &quot;filtering&quot; the
+atmosphere of plotting could not be shaken off or the political threat
+adequately hidden. There is an arresting piece of psychology in this.</p>
+		<p>The conviction expressed in the first portion of the Memorandum that
+bankruptcy was the rock on which the Peking administration must sooner
+or later split, and that the moment which Japan must seize is the
+outbreak of insurrections, is also highly instructive in view of what
+happened later. Still more subtle is the manner in which the ultimate
+solution is left open: it is consistently admitted throughout the mass
+of reasoning that there is no means of knowing whether suasion or force
+will ultimately be necessary. Force, however, always beckons to Japan
+because that is the simplest formula. And since Japan is the
+self-appointed defender of the dumb four hundred millions, her influence
+will be thrown on the side of the populace in order &quot;to usher into China
+a new era of prosperity&quot; so that China and Japan may in fact as well as
+in name be brought into the most intimate and vital relations with each
+other.</p>
+		<p>The object of the subsidized insurrections is also clearly stated; it is
+to alter China's republican form of government into a Constitutional
+Monarchy which shall necessarily be identical in all its details to the
+Constitutional Monarchy of Japan and to no other. Who the new Emperor is
+to be is a point left in suspense, although we may here again recall
+that in 1912 in the midst of the revolution Japan privately sounded
+England
+<a name="Page_105" id="Page_105"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">105</span>
+regarding the advisability of lending the Manchus armed
+assistance, a proposal which was immediately vetoed. But there are other
+things: nothing is forgotten in the Memorandum. Russia is to be
+specially placated, England to be specially negotiated with, thus
+incidentally explaining Japan's recent attitude regarding the Yangtsze
+Railways. Japan, released from her dependent foreign policy, that is
+from a policy which is bound by conventions and treaties which others
+respect, can then carry out her own plans without fear of molestation.</p>
+		<p>And this brings us to the two last documents of the dossier&mdash;the method
+of subsidizing and arranging insurrections in China when and wherever
+necessary.</p>
+		<p>The first document is a detailed agreement between the Revolutionary
+Party and various Japanese merchants. Trained leaders are to be used in
+the provinces South of the Yellow River, and the matter of result is so
+systematized that the agreement specifies the amount of compensation to
+be paid for every Japanese killed on active service; it declares that
+the Japanese will deliver arms and ammunition in the districts of
+Jihchow in Shantung and Haichow in Kiangsu; and it ends by stating that
+the first instalment of cash, Yen 400,000, had been paid over in
+accordance with the terms of the agreement. The second document is an
+additional loan agreement between the interested parties creating a
+special &quot;trading&quot; corporation, perhaps satirically named &quot;The Europe and
+Asia Trading Company,&quot; which in a consideration of a loan of half a
+million yen gives Japanese prior rights over all the mines of China.</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>ALLEGED SECRET AGREEMENT MADE BETWEEN SUN WEN (SUN YAT SEN) AND THE
+    JAPANESE</h3>
+			<p>  In order to preserve the peace in the Far East, it is necessary for
+    China and Japan to enter into an offensive and defensive alliance
+    whereby in case of war with any other nation or nations Japan shall
+    supply the military force while China shall be responsible for the
+    finances. It is impossible for the present Chinese Government to
+    work hand in hand with the Japanese Government nor does the Japanese
+    Government desire to co-operate with the former. Consequently
+    Japanese politicians and merchants who have the peace of the Far
+    East at heart are anxious to assist China in her reconstruction. For
+    this object the following Agreement is entered into by the two
+    parties:</p>
+			<p>  1. Before an uprising is started, Terao, Okura, Tseji Karoku and
+    their
+<a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">106</span>
+associates shall provide the necessary funds, weapons and
+    military force, but the funds so provided must not exceed 1,500,000
+    yen and rifles not to exceed 100,000 pieces.</p>
+			<p>  2. Before the uprising takes place the loan shall be temporarily
+    secured by 10,000,000 yen worth of bonds to be issued by Sun Wen
+    (Sun Yat Sen). It shall however, be secured afterwards by all the
+    movable properties of the occupied territory. (See Article 14 of
+    this Agreement.)</p>
+			<p>  3. The funds from the present loan and military force to be provided
+    are for operations in the provinces South of the Yellow River, viz.:
+    Yunnan, Kweichow, Hunan, Hupeh, Szechuan, Kiangsi, Anhuei, Kiangsu
+    Chekiang, Fukien, Kwangsi and Kwangtung. If it is intended to invade
+    the Northern provinces North of the Yellow River, Tseji Karoku and
+    his associates shall participate with the revolutionists in all
+    deliberations connected with such operations.</p>
+			<p>  4. The Japanese volunteer force shall be allowed from the date of
+    their enrolment active service pay in accordance with the
+    regulations of the Japanese army. After the occupation of a place,
+    the two parties will settle the mode of rewarding the meritorious
+    and compensating the family of the killed, adopting the most
+    generous practice in vogue in China and Japan. In the case of the
+    killed, compensation for each soldier shall, at the least, be more
+    than 1,000 yen.</p>
+			<p>  5. Wherever the revolutionary army might be located the Japanese
+    military officers accompanying these expeditions shall have the
+    right to advise a continuation or cessation of operations.</p>
+			<p>  6. After the revolutionary army has occupied a region and
+    strengthened its defences, all industrial undertakings and railway
+    construction and the like, not mentioned in the Treaties with other
+    foreign Powers, shall be worked with joint capital together with the
+    Japanese.</p>
+			<p>  7. On the establishment of a new Government in China, all Japan's
+    demands on China shall be recognized by the new Government as
+    settled and binding.</p>
+			<p>  8. All Japanese Military Officers holding the rank of Captain or
+    higher ranks engaged by the Chinese revolutionary army shall have
+    the privilege of being continued in their employment with a limit as
+    to date and shall have the right to ask to be thus employed.</p>
+			<p>  9. The loan shall be paid over in three instalments. The first
+    instalment will be 400,000 yen, the second instalment ... yen and
+    the third instalment ... yen. After the first instalment is paid
+    over, Okura who advances the loan shall have the right to appoint
+    men to supervise the expenditure of the money.</p>
+			<p>  10. The Japanese shall undertake to deliver all arms and ammunition
+    in the Districts of Jih Chao and Haichow (in Shantung and Kiangsu,
+    South of Kiaochow).</p>
+			<p>  11. The payment of the first instalment of the loan shall be made
+    not later than three days after the signing of this Agreement.</p>
+			<p>  12. All the employed Japanese Military officers and Japanese
+    volunteers are in duty bound to obey the orders of the Commander of
+    the revolutionary army.</p>
+			<p>
+				<a name="Page_107" id="Page_107"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">107</span>
+  13. The Commander of the revolutionary army shall have the right to
+    send back to Japan those Japanese military officers and Japanese
+    volunteers who disobey his orders and their passage money shall not
+    be paid if such decision meets with the approval of three or more of
+    the Japanese who accompany the revolutionary force.</p>
+			<p>  14. All the commissariat departments in the occupied territory must
+    employ Japanese experts to co-operate in their management.</p>
+			<p>  15. This Agreement takes effect immediately it is signed by the two
+    parties.</p>
+			<p>  The foregoing fifteen articles have been discussed several times
+    between the two parties and signed by them in February. The first
+    instalment of 400,000 yen has been paid according to the terms of
+    this Agreement.</p>
+			<h3>  LOAN AGREEMENT MADE BETWEEN THE REVOLUTIONARY PARTY REPRESENTED BY
+    CHANG YAO-CHING AND HIS ASSOCIATES OF THE FIRST PART AND KAWASAKI
+    KULANOSKE OF THE SECOND PART</h3>
+			<p>  1. The Europe and Asia Trading Company undertakes to raise a loan of
+    500,000 yen. After the Agreement is signed and sealed by the
+    contracting parties the Japanese Central Bank shall hand over 3/10
+    of the loan as the first instalment. When Chang Yao-Ching and his
+    associates arrive at their proper destination the sum of 150,000 yen
+    shall be paid over as the second instalment. When final arrangements
+    are made the third and last instalment of 200,000 yen shall be paid.</p>
+			<p>  2. When money is to be paid out, the Europe and Asia Trading Company
+    shall appoint supervisors. Responsible individuals of the
+    contracting parties shall jointly affix their seals (to the cheques)
+    before money is drawn for expenditure.</p>
+			<p>  3. The Europe and Asia Trading Company shall secure a volunteer
+    force of 150 men, only retired officers of the Japanese army to be
+    eligible.</p>
+			<p>  4. On leaving Japan the travelling expenses and personal effects of
+    the volunteers shall be borne by themselves. After reaching China,
+    Chang Yao-Ching and his associates shall give the volunteers the pay
+    of officers of the subordinate grade according to the established
+    regulations of the Japanese army.</p>
+			<p>  5. If a volunteer is wounded while on duty Chang Yao-Ching and his
+    associates shall pay him a provisional compensation of not exceeding
+    1,000 yen. When wounded seriously a provisional compensation of
+    5,000 yen shall be paid as well as a life pension in accordance with
+    the rules of the Japanese army. If a volunteer meets with an
+    accident, thus losing his life, an indemnity of 50,000 yen shall be
+    paid to his family.</p>
+			<p>  6. If a volunteer is not qualified for duty Chang Yao-Ching and his
+    associates shall have the power to dismiss him. All volunteers are
+    subject to the orders of Chang Yao-Ching and his associates and to
+    their command in the battlefields.</p>
+			<p>  7. When volunteers are required to attack a certain selected place
+    it shall be their duty to do so. But the necessary expenses for the
+    undertaking
+<a name="Page_108" id="Page_108"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">108</span>
+ shall be determined beforehand by both parties after
+    investigating into existing conditions.</p>
+			<p>  8. The volunteer force shall be organized after the model of the
+    Japanese army. Two Japanese officers recommended by the Europe and
+    Asia Trading Company shall be employed.</p>
+			<p>  9. The Europe and Asia Trading Company shall have the power to
+    dispose of the public properties in the places occupied by the
+    volunteer force.</p>
+			<p>  10. The Europe and Asia Trading Company shall have the first
+    preference for working the mines in places occupied and protected by
+    the volunteer force. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>And here ends this extraordinary collection of papers. Is fiction mixed
+with fact&mdash;are these only &quot;trial&quot; drafts, or are they real documents
+signed, sealed, and delivered? The point seems unimportant. The thing of
+importance is the undoubted fact that assembled and treated in the way
+we have treated them they present a complete and arresting picture of
+the aims and ambitions of the ordinary Japanese; of their desire to push
+home the attack to the last gasp and so to secure the infeodation of
+China.</p>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">109</span></p>
+		<h2>
+
+		<a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>
+		CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+		<h3>THE MONARCHIST PLOT</h3>
+		<h3>THE PAMPHLET OF YANG TU</h3>
+		<p>A shiver of impotent rage passed over the country when the nature and
+acceptance of the Japanese Ultimatum became generally known. The
+Chinese, always an emotional people, responding with quasi-feminine
+volubility to oppressive acts, cried aloud at the ignominy of the
+diplomacy which had so cruelly crucified them. One and all declared that
+the day of shame which had been so harshly imposed upon them would never
+be forgotten and that Japan would indeed pay bitterly for her policy of
+extortion.</p>
+		<p>Two movements were started at once: one to raise a National Salvation
+Fund to be applied towards strengthening the nation in any way the
+government might decide; the other, to boycott all Japanese articles of
+commerce. Both soon attained formidable proportions. The nation became
+deeply and fervently interested in the double-idea; and had Yuan
+Shih-kai possessed true political vision there is little doubt that by
+responding to this national call he might have ultimately been borne to
+the highest pinnacles of his ambitions without effort on his part. His
+oldest enemies now openly declared that henceforth he had only to work
+honourably and whole-heartedly in the nation's interest to find them
+supporting him, and to have every black mark set against his name wiped
+out.</p>
+		<p>In these circumstances what did he do? His actions form one of the most
+incredible and, let it be said, contemptible chapters of contemporary
+history.</p>
+		<p>In dealing with the origins of the Twenty-one Demands we have already
+discussed the hints the Japan Representative had
+<a name="Page_110" id="Page_110"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">110</span>
+officially made when
+presenting his now famous Memorandum. Briefly Yuan Shih-kai had been
+told in so many words that since he was already autocrat of all the
+Chinese, he had only to endorse the principle of Japanese guidance in
+his administration to find that his Throne would be as good as publicly
+and solidly established. Being saturated with the doleful diplomacy of
+Korea, and seeing in these proposals a mere trap, Yuan Shih-kai, as we
+have shown, had drawn back in apparent alarm. Nevertheless the words
+spoken had sunk in deep, for the simple and excellent reason that ever
+since the <i>coup d'&eacute;tat</i> of the 4th November, 1913, the necessity of
+&quot;consolidating&quot; his position by something more permanent than a display
+of armed force had been a daily subject of conversation in the bosom of
+his family. The problem, as this misguided man saw it, was simply by
+means of an unrivalled display of cunning to profit by the Japanese
+suggestion, and at the same time to leave the Japanese in the lurch.</p>
+		<p>His eldest son, an individual of whom it has been said that he had
+absorbed every theory his foreign teachers had taught him without being
+capable of applying a single one, was the leader in this family
+intrigue. The unhappy victim of a brutal attempt to kill him during the
+Revolution, this eldest son had been for years semi-paralyzed: but
+brooding over his disaster had only fortified in him the resolve to
+succeed his father as legitimate Heir. Having saturated himself in
+Napoleonic literature, and being fully aware of how far a bold leader
+can go in times of emergency, he daily preached to his father the
+necessity of plucking the pear as soon as it was ripe. The older man,
+being more skilled and more cautious in statecraft than this youthful
+visionary, purposely rejected the idea so long as its execution seemed
+to him premature. But at last the point was reached when he was
+persuaded to give the monarchy advocates the free hand they solicited,
+being largely helped to this decision by the argument that almost
+anything in China could be accomplished under cover of the war,&mdash;<i>so
+long as vested foreign interests were not jeopardized</i>.</p>
+		<p>In accordance with this decision, very shortly after the 18th January,
+the dictator's lieutenants had begun to sound the leaders of public
+opinion regarding the feasibility of substituting
+<a name="Page_111" id="Page_111"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">111</span>
+for the nominal
+Republic a Constitutional Monarchy. Thus, in a highly characteristic
+way, all through the tortuous course of the Japanese negotiations, to
+which he was supposed to be devoting his sole attention in order to save
+his menaced fatherland, Yuan Shih-kai was assisting his henchmen to
+indoctrinate Peking officialdom with the idea that the salvation of the
+State depended more on restoring on a modified basis the old empire than
+in beating off the Japanese assault. It was his belief that if some
+scholar of national repute could be found, who would openly champion
+these ideas and urge them with such persuasiveness and authority that
+they became accepted as a Categorical Imperative, the game would be as
+good as won, the Foreign Powers being too deeply committed abroad to pay
+much attention to the Far East. The one man who could have produced that
+result in the way Yuan Shih-kai desired to see it, the brilliant
+reformer Liang Chi-chao, famous ever since 1898, however, obstinately
+refused to lend himself to such work; and, sooner than be involved in
+any way in the plot, threw up his post of Minister of Justice and
+retired to the neighbouring city of Tientsin from which centre he was
+destined to play a notable part.</p>
+		<p>This hitch occasioned a delay in the public propaganda, though not for
+long. Forced to turn to a man of secondary ability, Yuan Shih-kai now
+invoked the services of a scholar who had been known to be his secret
+agent in the Old Imperial Senate under the Manchus&mdash;a certain Yang
+Tu&mdash;whose constant appeals in that chamber had indeed been the means of
+forcing the Manchus to summon Yuan Shih-kai back to office to their
+rescue on the outbreak of the Wuchang rebellion in 1911. After very
+little discussion everything was arranged. In the person of this
+ex-Senator, whose whole appearance was curiously Machiavellian and
+decadent, the neo-imperialists at last found their champion.</p>
+		<p>Events now moved quickly enough. In the Eastern way, very few weeks
+after the Japanese Ultimatum, a society was founded called the Society
+for the Preservation of Peace (<i>Chou An Hui</i>) and hundreds of
+affiliations opened in the provinces. Money was spent like water to
+secure adherents, and when the time was deemed ripe the now famous
+pamphlet of Yang Tu was published broadcast, being in everybody's hands
+during the idle summer month of August. This document is so remarkable
+as an illustration
+<a name="Page_112" id="Page_112"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">112</span>
+of the working of that type of Chinese mind which
+has assimilated some portion of the facts of the modern world and yet
+remains thoroughly reactionary and illogical, that special attention
+must be directed to it. Couched in the form of an argument between two
+individuals&mdash;one the inquirer, the other the expounder&mdash;it has something
+of the Old Testament about it both in its blind faith and in its
+insistence on a few simple essentials. It embodies everything essential
+to an understanding of the old mentality of China which has not yet been
+completely destroyed. From a literary standpoint it has also much that
+is valuable because it is so na&iuml;ve; and although it is concerned with
+such a distant region of the world as China its treatment of modern
+political ideas is so bizarre and yet so acute that it will repay study.</p>
+		<p>It was not, however, for some time, that the significance of this
+pamphlet was generally understood. It was such an amazing departure from
+old precedents for the Peking Government to lend itself to public
+propaganda as a revolutionary weapon that the mind of the people refused
+to credit the fatal turn things were taking. But presently when it
+became known that the &quot;Society for the Preservation of Peace&quot; was
+actually housed in the Imperial City and in daily relations with the
+President's Palace; and that furthermore the Procurator-General of
+Peking, in response to innumerable memorials of denunciation, having
+attempted to proceed against the author and publishers of the pamphlet,
+as well as against the Society, had been forced to leave the capital
+under threats against his life, the document was accepted at its
+face-value. Almost with a gasp of incredulity China at last realized
+that Yuan Shih-kai had been seduced to the point of openly attempting to
+make himself Emperor. From those August days of 1915 until the 6th June
+of the succeeding year, when Fate had her own grim revenge, Peking was
+given up to one of the most amazing episodes that has ever been
+chronicled in the dramatic history of the capital. It was as if the old
+city walls, which had looked down on so much real drama, had determined
+to lend themselves to the staging of an unreal comedy. For from first to
+last the monarchy movement had something unreal about it, and might have
+been the scenario of some vast picture-play. It was acting pure and
+simple&mdash;<a name="Page_113" id="Page_113"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">113</span>acting done in the hope that the people might find it so
+admirable that they would acclaim it as real, and call the Dictator
+their King. But it is time to turn to the arguments of Yang Tu and allow
+a Chinese to picture the state of his country:</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>A DEFENCE OF THE MONARCHICAL MOVEMENT</h3>
+			<h4>  PART I</h4>
+			<p>  Mr. Ko (or &quot;the stranger&quot;): Since the establishment of the Republic
+    four years have passed, and upon the President depends the
+    preservation of order at home and the maintenance of prestige
+    abroad. I suppose that after improving her internal administration
+    for ten or twenty years, China will become a rich and prosperous
+    country, and will be able to stand in the front rank with western
+    nations.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Hu: No! No! If China does not make any change in the form of
+    government there is no hope for her becoming strong and rich; there
+    is even no hope for her having a constitutional government. I say
+    that China is doomed to perish.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Ko: Why so?</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Hu: The republican form of government is responsible. The
+    Chinese people are fond of good names, but they do not care much
+    about the real welfare of the nation. No plan to save the country is
+    possible. The formation of the Republic as a result of the first
+    revolution has prevented that.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Ko: Why is it that there is no hope of China's becoming strong?</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Hu: The people of a republic are accustomed to listen to the
+    talk of equality and freedom which must affect the political and
+    more especially the military administration. In normal circumstances
+    both the military and student classes are required to lay great
+    emphasis upon unquestioned obedience and respect for those who hold
+    high titles. The German and Japanese troops observe strict
+    discipline and obey the orders of their chiefs. That is why they are
+    regarded as the best soldiers in the world. France and America are
+    in a different position. They are rich but not strong. The sole
+    difference is that Germany and Japan are ruled by monarchs while
+    France and America are republics. Our conclusion therefore is that
+    no republic can be strong.</p>
+			<p>  But since the French and American peoples possess general education
+    they are in a position to assume responsibility for the good
+    government of their nations which they keep in good order. On that
+    account, although these republics are not strong in dealing with the
+    Powers, they can maintain peace at home. China, however, is unlike
+    these countries, for her standard of popular education is very low.
+    Most of the Chinese soldiers declare as a commonplace: &quot;We eat the
+    imperial food and we must therefore serve the imperial master.&quot; But
+    now the Imperial family is gone, and for it has been substituted an
+    impersonal republic, of which they know nothing whatsoever. These
+    soldiers are now law-abiding
+<a name="Page_114" id="Page_114"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">114</span>
+ because they have awe-inspiring and
+    respectful feelings for the man at the head of the state. But as the
+    talk of equality and freedom has gradually influenced them, it has
+    become a more difficult task to control them. As an example of this
+    corrupt spirit, the commanders of the Southern troops formerly had
+    to obey their subordinate officers and the subordinate officers had
+    to obey their soldiers. Whenever there was an important question to
+    be discussed, the soldiers demanded a voice and a share in the
+    solution. These soldiers were called the republican army. Although
+    the Northern troops have not yet become so degenerate, still they
+    never hesitate to disobey the order of their superiors whenever they
+    are ordered to proceed to distant localities. Now we have come to
+    the point when we are deeply satisfied if the army of the Republic
+    does not openly mutiny! We cannot expect any more from them save to
+    hope that they will not mutiny and that they will be able to
+    suppress internal disturbances. In the circumstances there is no use
+    talking about resistance of a foreign invasion by these soldiers. As
+    China, a republic, is situated between two countries, Japan and
+    Russia, both of which have monarchical governments, how can we
+    resist their aggression once diplomatic conversations begin? From
+    this it is quite evident that there is nothing which can save China
+    from destruction. Therefore I say there is no hope of China becoming
+    strong.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Ko: But why is it that there is no hope of China ever becoming
+    rich?</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Hu: People may not believe that while France and America are
+    rich China must remain poor. Nevertheless, the reason why France and
+    America are rich is that they were allowed to work out their own
+    salvation without foreign intervention for many years, and that at
+    the same time they were free from internal disturbances. If any
+    nation wishes to become rich, it must depend upon industries for its
+    wealth. Now, what industries most fear is disorder and civil war.
+    During the last two years order has been restored and many things
+    have returned to their former state, but our industrial condition is
+    the same as under the Manchu Dynasty. Merchants who lost their
+    capital during the troublous times and who are now poor have no way
+    of retrieving their losses, while those who are rich are unwilling
+    to invest their money in industrial undertakings, fearing that
+    another civil war may break out at any moment, since they take the
+    recent abortive second revolution as their warning. In future, we
+    shall have disquietude every few years; that is whenever the
+    president is changed. Then our industrial and commercial condition
+    will be in a still worse condition. If our industries are not
+    developed, how can we expect to be strong? Take Mexico as a warning.
+    There is very little difference between that country and China,
+    which certainly cannot be compared with France and America.
+    Therefore I say there is no hope for China ever becoming rich.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Ko: Why is it that you say there is no hope for China having a
+    Constitutional Government?</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Hu: A true republic must be conducted by many people possessing
+    general education, political experience and a certain political
+    morality.
+<a name="Page_115" id="Page_115"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">115</span>
+Its president is invested with power by the people to
+    manage the general affairs of the state. Should the people desire to
+    elect Mr. A their president to-day and Mr. B to-morrow, it does not
+    make much difference; for the policy of the country may be changed
+    together with the change of the president without there being any
+    danger of disorder or chaos following such change. We have a very
+    different problem to solve in China. The majority of our people do
+    not know what the republic is, nor do they know anything about a
+    Constitution nor have they any true sense of equality and freedom.
+    Having overthrown the Empire and established in its place a republic
+    they believe that from now on they are subservient to no one, and
+    they think they can do as they please. Ambitious men hold that any
+    person may be president, and if they cannot get the presidency by
+    fair means of election they are prepared to fight for it with the
+    assistance of troops and robbers. The second revolution is an
+    illustration of this point. From the moment that the Emperor was
+    deposed, the centralization of power in the government was
+    destroyed; and no matter who may be at the head of the country, he
+    cannot restore peace except by the re-establishment of the monarchy.
+    So at the time when the republic was formed, those who had
+    previously advocated Constitutional Government turned into
+    monarchists. Although we have a Provisional Constitution now and we
+    have all kinds of legislative organs, which give to the country an
+    appearance of a constitutional government, China has a
+    constitutional government in name only and is a monarchy in spirit.
+    Had the government refrained from exercising monarchical power
+    during the last four years, the people could not have enjoyed one
+    day of peace. In short, China's republic must be governed by a
+    monarchy through a constitutional government. If the constitutional
+    government cannot govern the republic, the latter cannot remain. The
+    question of constitutional government is therefore very important,
+    but it will take ten or twenty years before it can be solved.</p>
+			<p>  Look at the people of China to-day! They know that something
+    terrible is going to come sooner or later. They dare not think of
+    the future. The corrupt official lines his pocket with unrighteous
+    money, preparing to flee to foreign countries or at least to the
+    Foreign Settlements for safety. The cautious work quietly and do not
+    desire to earn merit but merely try to avoid giving offence. The
+    scholars and politicians are grandiloquent and discourse upon their
+    subjects in a sublime vein, but they are no better than the corrupt
+    officials. As for our President, he can remain at the head of the
+    State for a few years. At most he may hold office for several
+    terms,&mdash;or perhaps for his whole life. Then questions must arise as
+    to who shall succeed him; how to elect his successor; how many
+    rivals will there be; whether their policies will be different from
+    his, etc., etc. He personally has no idea regarding the solution of
+    these questions. Even if the president is a sagacious and capable
+    man he will not be able to make a policy for the country or fix a
+    Constitution which will last for a hundred years. Because of this he
+    is driven merely to adopt a policy so as to maintain peace in his
+    own country and to keep the nation intact so long as he may live. In
+    the circumstances such a president
+<a name="Page_116" id="Page_116"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">116</span>
+can be considered the best
+    executive head we can have. Those who are worshippers of the
+    constitutional government cannot do more than he does. Here we find
+    the reason for the silence of the former advocates of a
+    constitutional administration. They have realized that by the
+    formation of the republic the fundamental problem of the country has
+    been left unsolved. In this wise it happens that the situation is
+    something like this. Whilst the country is governed by an able
+    president, the people enjoy peace and prosperity. But once an
+    incapable man assumes the presidency, chaos will become the order of
+    the day, a state of affairs which will finally lead to the overthrow
+    of the president himself and the destruction of the country. In such
+    circumstances, how can you devise a general policy for the country
+    which will last for a hundred years? I say that there is no hope for
+    China establishing a truly constitutional government.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Ko: In your opinion there is no hope for China becoming strong
+    and rich or for her acquiring a constitutional government. She has
+    no choice save ultimately to disappear. And yet is there no plan
+    possible whereby she may be saved?</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Hu: If China wishes to save herself from ultimate disappearance
+    from the face of the earth, first of all she must get rid of the
+    republic. Should she desire wealth and strength, she must adopt a
+    constitutional government. Should she want constitutional government
+    she must first establish a monarchy.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Ko: How is it that should China desire wealth and strength she
+    must first adopt the constitutional form of government?</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Hu: Wealth and strength is the object of the country, and a
+    constitutional government is the means to realizing this object. In
+    the past able rulers could accomplish their purpose without a
+    constitutional government. We refer to Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty
+    and Emperor Tai Chung of the Tang Dynasty. However, when these able
+    rulers died their system of administration died with them. This
+    contention can be supported by numerous historical instances; but
+    suffice to say that in China as well as in Europe, the lack of a
+    constitutional government has been the cause of the weakness of most
+    of the nations in ancient times. Japan was never known as a strong
+    nation until she adopted a constitutional government. The reason is
+    this: when there is no constitutional government, the country cannot
+    continue to carry out a definite policy.</p>
+			<p>  Within comparatively recent times there was born in Europe the
+    constitutional form of government. European nations adopted it, and
+    they became strong. The most dangerous fate that can confront a
+    nation is that after the death of an able ruler the system of
+    administration he has established disappears with him; but this the
+    constitutional form of government is able to avert. Take for
+    instance William I. of Germany who is dead but whose country
+    continues to this day strong and prosperous. It is because of
+    constitutional government. The same is true of Japan, which has
+    adopted constitutional government and which is becoming stronger and
+    stronger every day. The change of her executive cannot affect her
+    progress in respect of her strength. From this it is
+<a name="Page_117" id="Page_117"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">117</span>
+quite clear
+    that constitutional government is a useful instrument for building
+    up a country. It is a government with a set of fixed laws which
+    guard the actions of both the people and the president none of whom
+    can overstep the boundary as specified in the laws. No ruler,
+    whether be he a good man or a bad man, can change one iota of the
+    laws. The people reap the benefit of this in consequence. It is easy
+    to make a country strong and rich but it is difficult to establish a
+    constitutional government. When a constitutional government has been
+    established, everything will take care of itself, prosperity
+    following naturally enough. The adoption of a constitutional
+    government at the present moment can be compared to the problem of a
+    derailed train. It is hard to put the train back on the track, but
+    once on the track it is very easy to move the train. What we should
+    worry about is not how to make the country rich and prosperous, but
+    how to form a genuine constitutional government. Therefore I say
+    that if China desires to be strong and prosperous, she should first
+    of all adopt the constitutional form of government.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Ko: I do not understand why it is that a monarchy should be
+    established before the constitutional form of government can be
+    formed?</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Hu: Because if the present system continues there will be
+    intermittent trouble. At every change of the president there will be
+    riot and civil war. In order to avert the possibility of such awful
+    times place the president in a position which is permanent. It
+    follows that the best thing is to make him Emperor. When that bone
+    of contention is removed, the people will settle down to business
+    and feel peace in their hearts, and devote their whole energy and
+    time to the pursuit of their vocations. It is logical to assume that
+    after the adoption of the monarchy they will concentrate their
+    attention on securing a constitutional government which they know is
+    the only salvation for their country. As for the Emperor, knowing
+    that he derives his position from the change from a republic, and
+    filled with the desire of pacifying the people, he cannot help
+    sanctioning the formation of the constitutional form of government
+    which in addition, will insure to his offspring the continuation of
+    the Throne. Should he adopt any other course, he will be exposed to
+    great personal danger. If he is broadminded, he will further
+    recognize the fact that if no constitutional form of government is
+    introduced, his policy will perish after his death. Therefore I say
+    that before the adoption of the constitutional form of government, a
+    monarchy should be established. William I. of Germany and the
+    Emperor Meiji of Japan both tried the constitutional form of
+    government and found it a success.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Ko: Please summarize your discussion.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Hu: In short, the country cannot be saved except through the
+    establishment of a constitutional form of government. No
+    constitutional government can be formed except through the
+    establishment of a monarchy. The constitutional form of government
+    has a set of fixed laws, and the monarchy has a definite head who
+    cannot be changed, in which matters lies the source of national
+    strength and wealth.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Ko: What you have said in regard to the adoption of the
+    constitutional monarchy as a means of saving the country from
+    dismemberment
+<a name="Page_118" id="Page_118"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">118</span>
+is quite true, but I would like to have your opinion
+    on the relative advantages and disadvantages of a republic and a
+    monarchy, assuming that China adopts the scheme of a monarchy.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Hu: I am only too glad to give you my humble opinion on this
+    momentous question.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Ko: You have said that China would be devastated by contending
+    armies of rival leaders trying to capture the presidency. At what
+    precise moment will that occur?</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Hu: The four hundred million people of China now rely upon the
+    President alone for the protection of their lives and property. Upon
+    him likewise falls the burden of preserving both peace and the
+    balance of power in the Far East. There is no time in the history of
+    China that the Head of the State has had to assume such a heavy
+    responsibility for the protection of life and property and for the
+    preservation of peace in Asia; and at no time in our history has the
+    country been in greater danger than at the present moment. China can
+    enjoy peace so long as His Excellency Yuan Shih-kai remains the
+    President, and no longer. Should anything befall the President,
+    every business activity will at once be suspended, shops will be
+    closed, disquietude will prevail, people will become panic-stricken,
+    the troops uncontrollable, and foreign warships will enter our
+    harbours. European and American newspapers will be full of special
+    dispatches about the complicated events in China, and martial law
+    will be declared in every part of the country. All this will be due
+    to the uncertainty regarding the succession to the presidency. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>It will be seen from the first section of this long and extraordinary
+pamphlet how the author develops his argument. One of his major premises
+is the inherent unruliness of Republican soldiery,&mdash;the armies of
+republics not to be compared with the armed forces of monarchies,&mdash;and
+consequently constituting a perpetual menace to good government. Passing
+on from this, he lays down the proposition that China cannot hope to
+become rich so long as the fear of civil war is ever-present; and that
+without a proper universal education a republic is an impossibility. The
+exercise of monarchical power in such circumstances can only be called
+an inevitable development,&mdash;the one goal to be aimed at being the
+substitution of Constitutional Government for the dictatorial rule. The
+author deals at great length with the background to this idea, playing
+on popular fears to reinforce his casuistry. For although constitutional
+government is insisted upon as the sole solution, he
+speedily shows that
+this constitutionalism will depend more on the benevolence of the
+dictator than on the action of the people. And should his advice be not
+heeded, when Fortune wills that Yuan Shih-kai's rule
+<a name="Page_119" id="Page_119"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">119</span>
+shall end, chaos
+will ensue owing to the &quot;uncertainty&quot; regarding the succession.</p>
+		<p>Here the discussion reaches its climax&mdash;for the demand that salvation be
+sought by enthroning Yuan Shih-kai now becomes clear and unmistakable.
+Let the author speak for himself.</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<p>Mr. Ko: But it is provided in the Constitutional Compact that a
+    president must be selected from among the three candidates whose
+    names are now kept in a golden box locked in a stone room. Do you
+    think this provision is not sufficient to avert the terrible times
+    which you have just described?</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Hu: The provision you have mentioned is useless. Can you find
+    any person who is able to be at the head of the state besides His
+    Excellency Yuan Shih-kai? The man who can succeed President Yuan
+    must enjoy the implicit confidence of the people and must have
+    extended his influence all over the country and be known both at
+    home and abroad. He must be able to maintain order, and then no
+    matter what the constitution provides, he will be unanimously
+    elected President. He must also be able to assure himself that the
+    two other candidates for the presidency have no hope for success in
+    the presidential campaign. The provision in the constitution, as
+    well as the golden casket in which the names of the three candidates
+    are kept which you have mentioned, are nothing but nominal measures.
+    Moreover there is no man in China who answers the description of a
+    suitable, successor which I have just given. Here arises a difficult
+    problem; and what has been specified in the Constitutional Compact
+    is a vain attempt to solve it. It is pertinent to ask why the
+    law-makers should not have made the law in such a way that the
+    people could exercise their free choice in the matter of the
+    presidential successor? The answer is that there is reason to fear
+    that a bad man may be elected president by manipulations carried out
+    with a masterly hand, thereby jeopardizing the national welfare.
+    This fear has influenced the constitution-makers to settle upon
+    three candidates from among whom the president must be elected. Then
+    it may be asked why not fix upon one man instead of upon three since
+    you have already deprived the people of part of their freedom? The
+    answer is that: there is not a single man whose qualifications are
+    high enough to be the successor. As it is, three candidates of equal
+    qualifications are put forward for the people to their selection. No
+    matter how one may argue this important question from the legal
+    point of view, there is the fact that the law makers fixed upon
+    three candidates for the presidency, believing that we do not
+    possess a suitable presidential successor. The vital question of the
+    day setting aside all paper talk, is whether or not China has a
+    suitable man to succeed President Yuan Shih-kai. Whether or not the
+    constitutional compact can be actually carried out in future I do
+    not know; but I do know that that instrument will eventually become
+    ineffective.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Ko: I desire a true picture of the chaos which you have hinted
+    will ensue in this country. Can you tell me anything along that
+    line?</p>
+			<p>
+				<a name="Page_120" id="Page_120"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">120</span>
+Mr. Hu: In a time of confusion, the soldiers play the most
+    important part, virtuous and experienced and learned statesmen being
+    unable to cope with the situation. The only qualification which a
+    leader at such a time needs to possess is the control of the
+    military, and the ability to suppress Parliament. Should such a
+    person be made the president, he cannot long hold his enviable post
+    in view of the fact that he cannot possess sufficient influence to
+    control the troops of the whole country. The generals of equal rank
+    and standing will not obey each other, while the soldiers and
+    politicians, seeing a chance in these differences for their
+    advancement, will stir up their feelings and incite one another to
+    fight. They will fight hard among themselves. The rebels, who are
+    now exiles in foreign lands, taking advantage of the chaos in China,
+    will return in very little time to perpetrate the worst crimes known
+    in human history. The royalists who are in retirement will likewise
+    come out to fish in muddy waters. Persons who have the
+    qualifications of leaders will be used as tools to fight for the
+    self-aggrandizement of those who use them. I do not wish to mention
+    names, but I can safely predict that more than ten different parties
+    will arise at the psychological moment. Men who will never be
+    satisfied until they become president, and those who know they
+    cannot get the presidency but who are unwilling to serve others,
+    will come out one after another. Confusion and disturbance will
+    follow with great rapidity. Then foreign countries which have
+    entertained wild ambitions, availing themselves of the distressful
+    situation in China will stir up ill-feelings among these parties and
+    so increase the disturbances. When the proper time comes, various
+    countries, unwilling to let a single country enjoy the privilege of
+    controlling China, will resort to armed intervention. In consequence
+    the eastern problem will end in a rupture of the international
+    peace. Whether China will be turned at that time into a battleground
+    for the Chinese people or for the foreign Powers I cannot tell you.
+    It is too dreadful to think of the future which is enshrouded in a
+    veil of mystery. However, I can tell you that the result of this
+    awful turmoil will be either the slicing of China like a melon or
+    the suppression of internal trouble with foreign assistance which
+    will lead to dismemberment. As to the second result some explanation
+    is necessary. After foreign countries have helped us to suppress
+    internal disturbances, they will select a man of the type of Li Wang
+    of Korea, who betrayed his country to Japan, and make him Emperor of
+    China. Whether this man will be the deposed emperor or a member of
+    the Imperial family or the leader of the rebel party, remains to be
+    seen. In any event he will be a figurehead in whose hand will not be
+    vested political, financial and military power, which will be
+    controlled by foreigners. All the valuable mines, various kinds of
+    industries and our abundant natural resources will likewise be
+    developed by others. China will thus disappear as a nation. In
+    selecting a man of the Li Wang type, the aforesaid foreign countries
+    will desire merely to facilitate the acquisition of China's
+    territory. But there can be easily found such a man who bears
+    remarkable resemblance to Li Wang, and who will be willing to make a
+    treaty with the foreigners whereby he unpatriotically sells his
+    country in exchange for a throne
+<a name="Page_121" id="Page_121"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">121</span>
+ which he can never obtain or keep
+    without outside assistance. His procedure will be something like
+    this: He will make an alliance with a foreign nation by which the
+    latter will be given the power to carry on foreign relations on
+    behalf of his country. In the eyes of foreigners, China will have
+    been destroyed, but the people will continue deceived and made to
+    believe that their country is still in existence. This is the first
+    step. The second step will be to imitate the example of Korea and
+    make a treaty with a certain power, whereby China is annexed and the
+    throne abolished. The imperial figurehead then flees to the foreign
+    country where he enjoys an empty title. Should you then try to make
+    him devise means for regaining the lost territory it will be too
+    late. For China will have been entirely destroyed by that time. This
+    is the second procedure in the annexation of Chinese territory. The
+    reason why that foreign country desires to change the republic into
+    the monarchy is to set one man on the throne and make him witness
+    the whole process of annexation of his country, thereby simplifying
+    the matter. When that time has come, the people will not be
+    permitted to make any comment upon the form of government suitable
+    for China, or upon the destruction of their country. The rebels who
+    raised the standard of the republic have no principles and if they
+    now find that some other tactics will help to increase their power
+    they will adopt these tactics. China's republic is doomed, no matter
+    what happens. If we do not change it ourselves, others will do it
+    for us. Should we undertake the change ourselves we can save the
+    nation: otherwise there is no hope for China to remain a nation. It
+    is to be regretted that our people now assume an attitude of
+    indifference, being reluctant to look forward to the future, and
+    caring not what may happen to them and their country. They are
+    doomed to become slaves after the loss of their national
+    independence.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Ko: I am very much frightened by what you have said. You have
+    stated that the adoption of a constitutional monarchy can avert such
+    terrible consequences; but is there not likely to be disturbance
+    during the change of the republic to monarchy, since such
+    disturbance must always accompany the presidential election?</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Hu: No comparison can be formed between these two things. There
+    may be tumult during the change of the form of government, but it
+    will be better in comparison with the chaos that will some day ensue
+    in the republic. There is no executive head in the country when a
+    republic endeavours to select a presidential successor. At such a
+    time, the ambitious try to improve their future, while the patriotic
+    are at a loss now to do anything which will assist in the
+    maintenance of order. Those who are rebellious rise in revolt while
+    those who are peace-loving are compelled by circumstances to join
+    their rank and file. Should the form of government be transformed
+    into a monarchical one, and should the time for change of the head
+    of the state come, the successor having already been provided for,
+    that will be well-known to the people. Those who are patriotic will
+    exert their utmost to preserve peace, and as result the
+    heir-apparent can peacefully step on the throne. There are persons
+    who will contend for the office of the President, but not for the
+    throne.
+<a name="Page_122" id="Page_122"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">122</span>
+Those who contend for the office of President do not commit
+    any crime, but those who try to seize the throne are rebels. Who
+    dares to contend for the Throne?</p>
+			<p>  At the time of the change of the president in a republic, ambitious
+    persons arise with the intention of capturing this most honourable
+    office, but not so when the emperor is changed. Should there be a
+    body of persons hostile to the heir-apparent, that body must be very
+    small. Therefore I say that the enemies of a succeeding Emperor are
+    a few, whilst there are many in the case of a presidential
+    successor. This is the first difference.</p>
+			<p>  Those who oppose the monarchy are republican enthusiasts or persons
+    who desire to make use of the name of the republic for their own
+    benefit. These persons will raise trouble even without the change of
+    the government. They do not mind disturbing the peace of the country
+    at the present time when the republic exists. It is almost certain
+    that at the first unfurling of the imperial flags they will at once
+    grasp such an opportune moment and try to satisfy their ambition.
+    Should they rise in revolt at the time when the Emperor is changed
+    the Government, supported by the loyal statesmen and officials,
+    whose interests are bound up with the welfare of the imperial family
+    and whose influence has spread far and wide, will be able to deal
+    easily with any situation which may develop. Therefore I declare
+    that the successor to the throne has more supporters while the
+    presidential successor has few. This is the second difference
+    between the republic and the constitutional monarchy.</p>
+			<p>  Why certain persons will contend for the office of the President can
+    be explained by the fact that there is not a single man in the
+    country whose qualifications are above all the others. Succession to
+    the throne is a question of blood-relation with the reigning
+    Emperor, and not a question of qualifications. The high officials
+    whose qualifications are unusually good are not subservient to
+    others but they are obedient to the succeeding Emperor, because of
+    their gratitude for what the imperial family has done for them, and
+    because their well-being is closely associated with that of the
+    imperial household. I can cite an historical incident to support my
+    contention. Under the Manchu Dynasty, at one time General Chu
+    Chung-tang was entrusted with the task of suppressing the Mohammedan
+    rebellion. He appointed General Liu Sung San generalissimo. Upon the
+    death of General Liu, Chu Chung-tang appointed his subordinate
+    officers to lead the army but the subordinate officers competed for
+    power. Chu Chung-tang finally made the step-son of General Liu the
+    Commander-in-Chief and the officers and soldiers all obeyed his
+    order as they did his father's. But it may be mentioned that this
+    young man was not more able than any of his father's subordinate
+    commanders. Nevertheless prestige counted. He owed his success to
+    his natural qualification, being a step-son to General Liu. So is
+    the case with the emperor whose successor nobody dares openly to
+    defy&mdash;to say nothing of actually disputing his right to the throne.
+    This is the third difference between the republic and the monarchy.</p>
+			<p>  I will not discuss the question: as to whether there being no
+    righteous
+<a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">123</span>
+and able heir-apparent to succeed his Emperor-father,
+    great danger may not confront the nation. However, in order to
+    provide against any such case, I advocate that the formation of a
+    constitutional government should go hand in hand with the
+    establishment of the monarchy. At first it is difficult to establish
+    and carry out a constitutional government, but once it is formed it
+    will be comparatively easy. When the constitutional government has
+    been established, the Emperor will have to seek his fame in such
+    useful things as the defence of his country and the conquest of his
+    enemy. Everything has to progress, and men possessing European
+    education will be made use of by the reigning family. The first
+    Emperor will certainly do all he can to capture the hearts of the
+    people by means of adopting and carrying out in letter as well as in
+    spirit constitutional government. The heir-apparent will pay
+    attention to all new reforms and new things. Should he do so, the
+    people will be able to console themselves by saying that they will
+    aways be the people of a constitutional monarchy even after the
+    succession to the throne of the heir-apparent. When the time comes
+    for the heir-apparent to mount the throne the people will extend to
+    him their cordial welcome, and there will be no need to worry about
+    internal disturbances.</p>
+			<p>  Therefore, I conclude that the successor to the presidential chair
+    has to prevent chaos by wielding the monarchical power, while the
+    new emperor can avert internal disquietude forever by means of his
+    constitutional government. This is the fourth difference between the
+    republic and the monarchy. These four differences are accountable
+    for the fact that there will not be as much disturbance at the time
+    of the change of emperors as at the time when the president is
+    changed.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Ko: I can understand what you have said with regard to the
+    advantages and disadvantages of the republic and the monarchy, but
+    there are many problems connected with the formation of a
+    constitutional monarchy which we have to solve. Why is it that the
+    attempt to introduce constitutional government during the last years
+    of the Manchu Dynasty proved a failure?</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Hu: The constitutional government of the Manchu Dynasty was one
+    in name only, and as such the forerunner of the revolution of 1911.
+    Towards the end of the Manchu Dynasty, the talk of starting a
+    revolution to overthrow the imperial r&eacute;gime was in everybody's
+    mouth, although the constitutional party endeavoured to accomplish
+    something really useful. At that time His Excellency Yuan Shih-kai
+    was the grand chancellor, and realizing the fact that nothing except
+    the adoption of a constitutional government could save the throne of
+    the Manchus, he assumed the leadership of the constitutional party,
+    which surpassed in strength the revolutionary party as a result of
+    his active support. The people's hearts completely turned to the
+    constitutional party for salvation, while the revolutionary party
+    lost that popular support which it had formerly enjoyed. Then it
+    seemed that the imperial household would soon adopt the
+    constitutional monarchy and the threatening revolution could be
+    averted. Unfortunately, the elaborate plans of His Excellency Yuan
+    Shih-kai regarding the adoption of the constitutional government
+<a name="Page_124" id="Page_124"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">124</span>
+    were not carried out by the imperial household. A great change took
+    place: His Excellency retired to his native province; and after
+    losing this powerful leader the constitutional party was pitilessly
+    shattered. A monarchist party suddenly made its appearance on the
+    political arena to assist the imperial family, which pretended to do
+    its very best for the development of a constitutional government,
+    but secretly exerted itself to the utmost for the possession and
+    retention of the real power. This double-dealing resulted in
+    bringing about the revolution of 1911. For instance, when the people
+    cried for the convening of a parliament, the imperial family said
+    &quot;No.&quot; The people also failed to secure the abolition of certain
+    official organs for the imperialists. They lost confidence in the
+    Reigning House, and simultaneously the revolutionary party raised
+    its banner and gathered its supporters from every part of the
+    country. As soon as the revolt started at Wuchang the troops all
+    over the country joined in the movement to overthrow the Manchu
+    Dynasty. The members of the Imperial Senate, most of whom were
+    members of the constitutional party, could not help showing their
+    sympathy with the revolutionists. At last the imperial household
+    issued a proclamation containing Nineteen Articles&mdash;a veritable
+    <i>magna charta</i>&mdash;but it was too late. The constitutional government
+    which was about to be formed was thus laid aside. What the imperial
+    family did was the mere organization of an advisory council. A
+    famous foreign scholar aptly remarked: &quot;A false constitutional
+    government will eventually result in a true revolution.&quot; In trying
+    to deceive the people by means of a false constitutional government
+    the imperial house encompassed its own destruction. Once His
+    Excellency Yuan Shih-kai stated in a memorial to the throne that
+    there were only two alternatives: to give the people a
+    constitutional government or to have them revolt. What happened
+    afterwards is a matter of common knowledge. Therefore I say that the
+    government which the imperial family attempted to form was not a
+    constitutional government.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Ko: Thank you for your discussion of the attempt of the imperial
+    household to establish a constitutional government; but how about
+    the Provisional Constitution, the parliament and the cabinet in the
+    first and second years of the Republic? The parliament was then so
+    powerful that the government was absolutely at its mercy, thereby
+    disturbing the peaceful condition of the country. The people have
+    tasted much of the bitterness of constitutional government. Should
+    you mention the name of constitutional government again they would
+    be thoroughly frightened. Is that true?</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Hu: During the first and second years of the Republic, in my
+    many conversations with the members of the Kuo Ming Tang, I said
+    that the republic could not form an efficient method of control, and
+    that there would be an over centration of power through the adoption
+    of monarchical methods of ruling, knowing as well as I did the
+    standards of our people. When the members of the Kuo Ming Tang came
+    to draw up the Provisional Constitution they purposely took
+    precisely the opposite course of action and ignored my suggestion.
+    It may, however, be mentioned that the Provisional Constitution made
+    in Nanking was not so bad, but after the
+<a name="Page_125" id="Page_125"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">125</span>
+government was removed to
+    Peking, the Kuo Ming Tang people tied the hand and foot of the
+    government by means of the Cabinet System and other restrictions
+    with the intention of weakening the power of the central
+    administration in order that they might be able to start another
+    revolution. From the dissolution of the Nanking government to the
+    time of the second revolution they had this one object in view,
+    namely to weaken the power of the central administration so that
+    they could contend for the office of the president by raising
+    further internal troubles in China. Those members of the Kuo Ming
+    Tang who made the constitution know as well as I that China's
+    republic must be governed through a monarchical administration; and
+    therefore the unreasonable restrictions in the Provisional
+    Constitution were purposely inserted.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Ko: What is the difference between the constitutional government
+    which you have proposed and the constitutional government which the
+    Manchu Dynasty intended to adopt?</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Hu: The difference lies in the proper method of procedure and in
+    honesty of purpose, which are imperative if constitutional
+    government expects to be successful.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Ko: What do you mean by the proper method of procedure?</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Hu: The Provisional Constitution made in Nanking, which was
+    considered good, is not suitable for insertion in the future
+    constitution, should a constitutional monarchy be established. In
+    making a constitution for the future constitutional monarchy we have
+    to consult the constitutions of the monarchies of the world. They
+    can be divided into three classes which are represented by England,
+    Prussia and Japan. England is advanced in its constitutional
+    government, which has been in existence for thousands of years,
+    <i>(sic)</i> and is the best of all in the world. The English king enjoys
+    his empty title and the real power of the country is exercised by
+    the parliament, which makes all the laws for the nation. As to
+    Prussia, the constitutional monarchy was established when the people
+    started a revolution. The ruler of Prussia was compelled to convene
+    a parliament and submitted to that legal body a constitution.
+    Prussia's constitution was made by its ruler together with the
+    parliament. Its constitutional government is not so good as the
+    English. As to the Japanese constitutional monarchy, the Emperor
+    made a constitution and then convened a parliament. The
+    constitutional power of the Japanese people is still less than that
+    of the Prussian people. According to the standard of our people we
+    cannot adopt the English constitution as our model, for it is too
+    advanced. The best thing for us to do is to adopt part of the
+    Prussian and part of the Japanese in our constitution-making. As our
+    people are better educated now than ever before, it is decidedly
+    unwise entirely to adopt the Japanese method, that is, for the
+    Emperor to make a constitution without the approval of the
+    parliament and then to convoke a legislative body. In the
+    circumstances China should adopt the Prussian method as described
+    above with some modifications, which will be very suitable to our
+    conditions. As to the contents of the constitution we can copy such
+    articles as those providing the right for the issue of urgent orders
+    and appropriation of special funds, etc., from the Japanese
+    Constitution, so
+<a name="Page_126" id="Page_126"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">126</span>
+that the power of the ruler can be increased
+    without showing the slightest contempt for the legislative organ. I
+    consider that this is the proper method of procedure for the
+    formation of a constitutional monarchy for China.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Ko: Can I know something about the contents of our future
+    constitution in advance?</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Hu: If you want to know them in detail I recommend you to read
+    the Constitutions of Prussia and Japan. But I can tell you this
+    much. Needless to say that such stipulations as articles
+    guaranteeing the rights of the people and the power of the
+    parliament will surely be worked into the future constitution. These
+    are found in almost every constitution in the world. But as the
+    former Provisional Constitution has so provided that the power of
+    the parliament is unlimited, while that of the president is very
+    small, the Chief Executive, besides conferring decorations and
+    giving Orders of Merit, having almost nothing to do without the
+    approval of the Senate, it is certain that nothing will be taken
+    from that instrument for the future constitution. Nor will the
+    makers of the future constitution take anything from the nineteen
+    capitulations offered by the Manchu Government, which gave too much
+    power to the legislative organ. According to the Nineteen Articles
+    the Advisory Council was to draw up the constitution, which was to
+    be ratified by the parliament; the Premier being elected by the
+    parliament; whilst the use of the army and navy required the
+    parliament's sanction; the making of treaties with foreign countries
+    have likewise to be approved by the parliament, etc., etc. Such
+    strict stipulations which are not even known in such an advanced
+    country in matters constitutional as England were extorted from the
+    imperial family by the advisory council. Therefore it is most
+    unlikely that the makers of the future constitution will take any
+    article from the nineteen capitulations of &quot;confidence.&quot; They will
+    use the Constitutions of Japan and Prussia as joint model and will
+    always have in their mind the actual conditions of this country and
+    the standard of the people. In short, they will copy some of the
+    articles in the Japanese constitution, and adopt the Prussian method
+    of procedure for the making of the constitution.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Ko: What do you mean by honesty?</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Hu: It is a bad policy to deceive the people. Individually the
+    people are simple, but they cannot be deceived collectively. The
+    Manchu Government committed an irretrievable mistake by promising
+    the people a constitutional government but never carrying out their
+    promise. This attitude on the part of the then reigning house
+    brought about the first revolution. As the standard of our people at
+    the present time is not very high, they will be satisfied with less
+    power if it is properly given to them. Should any one attempt to
+    deceive them his cause will finally be lost. I do not know how much
+    power the people and the parliament will get in the constitutional
+    monarchy, but I would like to point out here that it is better to
+    give them less power than to deceive them. If they are given less
+    power, and if they want more, they will contend for it. Should the
+    government deem it advisable to give them a little more, well and
+    good. Should they be unfit for the possession of greater power, the
+    government
+<a name="Page_127" id="Page_127"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">127</span>
+can issue a proclamation giving the reasons for not
+    complying with their request, and they will not raise trouble
+    knowing the true intention of the government. However, honesty is
+    the most important element in the creation of a constitutional
+    monarchy. It is easy and simple to practise it. The parliament must
+    have the power to decide the laws and fix the budgets. Should its
+    decision be too idealistic or contrary to the real welfare of the
+    country, the Government can explain its faults and request it to
+    reconsider its decision. Should the parliament return the same
+    decision, the Government can dissolve it and convoke another
+    parliament. In so doing the Government respects the parliament
+    instead of despising it. But what the parliament has decided should
+    be carried out strictly by the Government, and thus we will have a
+    real constitutional Government. It is easy to talk but difficult to
+    act, but China like all other countries has to go through the
+    experimental stage and face all kinds of difficulties before a
+    genuine constitutional government can be evolved. The beginning is
+    difficult but once the difficulty is over everything will go on
+    smoothly. I emphasize that it is better to give the people less
+    power at the beginning than to deceive them. Be honest with them is
+    my policy.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Ko: I thank you very much for what you have said. Your
+    discussion is interesting and I can understand it well. The proper
+    method of procedure and honesty of purpose which you have mentioned
+    will tend to wipe out all former corruption.</p>
+			<p>  Mr. Ko, or the stranger, then departed. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>On this note the pamphleteer abruptly ends. Having discussed <i>ad
+nauseam</i> the inadequacy of all existing arrangements, even those made by
+Yuan Shih-kai himself, to secure a peaceful succession to the
+presidency; and having again insisted upon the evil part soldiery cannot
+fail to play, he introduces a new peril, the certainty that the foreign
+Powers will set up a puppet Emperor unless China solves this problem
+herself, the case of Korea being invoked as an example of the fate of
+divided nations. Fear of Japan and the precedent of Korea, being
+familiar phenomena, are given a capital position in all this debate,
+being secondary only to the crucial business of ensuring the peaceful
+succession to the supreme office. The transparent manner in which the
+history of the first three years of the Republic is handled in order to
+drive home these arguments will be very apparent. A fit crown is put on
+the whole business by the final suggestion that the Constitutional
+Government of China under the new empire must be a mixture of the
+Prussian and Japanese systems, Yang Tu's last words being that it is
+best to be honest with the people!</p>
+		<p>No more damning indictment of Yuan Shih-kai's r&eacute;gime could possibly have
+been penned.</p>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">128</span></p>
+		<h2>
+
+		<a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>
+		CHAPTER IX</h2>
+		<h3>THE MONARCHY PLOT</h3>
+		<h3>THE MEMORANDUM OF DR. GOODNOW</h3>
+		<p>Although this extraordinary pamphlet was soon accepted by Chinese
+society as a semi-official warning of what was coming, it alone was not
+sufficient to launch a movement which to be successful required the
+benign endorsement of foreign opinion. The Chinese pamphleteer had dealt
+with the emotional side of the case: it was necessary to reinforce his
+arguments with an appeal which would be understood by Western statesmen
+as well as by Eastern politicians. Yuan Shih-kai, still pretending to
+stand aside, had kept his attention concentrated on this very essential
+matter; for, as we have repeatedly pointed out, he never failed to
+understand the superlative value of foreign support in all his
+enterprises,&mdash;that support being given an exaggerated value by the
+public thanks to China's reliance on foreign money. Accordingly, as if
+still unconvinced, he now very na&iuml;vely requested the opinion of his
+chief legal adviser, Dr. Goodnow, an American who had been appointed to
+his office through the instrumentality of the Board of the Carnegie
+Institute as a most competent authority on Administrative Law.</p>
+		<p>Even in this most serious matter the element of comedy was not lacking.
+Dr. Goodnow had by special arrangement returned to Peking at the
+psychological moment; for having kicked his heels during many weary
+months in the capital, he had been permitted in 1914 to take up the
+appointment of President of an American University on condition that he
+would be available for legal &quot;advice&quot; whenever wanted. The Summer
+vacation gave him the opportunity of revisiting in the capacity of a
+<a name="Page_129" id="Page_129"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">129</span>
+transient adviser the scenes of his former idleness; and the
+holiday-task set him by his large-hearted patron was to prove in as few
+folios as possible that China ought to be a Monarchy and not a
+Republic&mdash;a theme on which every schoolboy could no doubt write with
+fluency. Consequently Dr. Goodnow, arming himself with a limited amount
+of paper and ink, produced in very few days the Memorandum which
+follows,&mdash;a document which it is difficult to speak of dispassionately
+since it seems to have been deliberately designed to play into the hands
+of a man who was now openly set on betraying the trust the nation
+reposed in him, and who was ready to wade through rivers of blood to
+satisfy his insensate ambition.</p>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE15" id="IMAGE15"></a>
+			<a href="images/image15.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image15.jpg" width="100%" alt="President Li Yuan-Hung and the General Staff watching the
+Review." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>President Li Yuan-Hung and the General Staff watching the
+Review.</p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE16" id="IMAGE16"></a>
+			<a href="images/image16.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image16.jpg" width="100%" alt="March-past of an Infantry Division." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>March-past of an Infantry Division.</p>
+		</div>
+		<p>Nothing precisely similar to this Goodnow Memorandum has ever been seen
+before in the history of Asia: it was the ultramodern spirit impressed
+into the service of mediaeval minds. In any other capital of the world
+the publication of such a subversive document, following the Yang Tu
+pamphlet, would have led to riot and tumult. In China, the home of
+pacifism, the politicians and people bowed their heads and bided their
+time. Even foreign circles in China were somewhat nonplussed by the
+insouciance displayed by the peripatetic legal authority; and the
+Memorandum was for many days spoken of as an unnecessary
+indiscretion.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16"><sup>[16]</sup></a> Fastening at once on the point to which Yang Tu had
+ascribed such importance&mdash;the question of succession&mdash;Dr. Goodnow in his
+arguments certainly shows a detachment from received principles which
+has an old-world flavour about it, and which has damned him for ever in
+the eyes of the rising generation in China. The version which follows is
+the translation of the Chinese translation, the original English
+Memorandum having been either mislaid or destroyed; and it is best that
+this argument should be carefully digested before we add our comments.</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>DR. GOODNOW'S MEMORANDUM</h3>
+			<p>  A country must have a certain form of government, and usually the
+    particular form of government of a particular country is not the
+    result of the choice of the people of that country. There is not any
+    possibility
+<a name="Page_130" id="Page_130"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">130</span>
+even for the most intellectual to exercise any mental
+    influence over the question. Whether it be a monarchy or republic,
+    it cannot be the creation of human power except when it is suitable
+    to the historical, habitual, social and financial conditions of that
+    country. If an unsuitable form of government is decided upon, it may
+    remain for a short while, but eventually a system better suited will
+    take its place.</p>
+			<p>  In short, the form of government of a country is usually the natural
+    and only result of its circumstances. The reasons for such an
+    outcome are many, but the principal one is Force. If we study the
+    monarchical countries we will find that usually a dynasty is created
+    by a person who is capable of controlling the force of the entire
+    country and overthrowing other persons opposed to him, working
+    towards his goal with an undaunted spirit. If this man is capable of
+    ruling the nation and if he is a rare genius of the day, and the
+    conditions of the country are suited for a monarchical government,
+    he as a rule creates a new dynasty and his descendants inherit the
+    same from generation to generation.</p>
+			<p>  If this is so, then the solution of a difficult position of a
+    country is to be found in a monarchy rather than a republic. For on
+    the death of a monarch no doubt exists as to who shall succeed him,
+    and there is no need of an election or other procedure. Englishmen
+    say, &quot;The King is dead, Long live the King.&quot; This expresses the
+    point. But in order to attain this point it is necessary that the
+    law of succession be definitely defined and publicly approved;
+    otherwise there will not be lacking, on the death of the monarch,
+    men aspiring to the throne; and as no one is qualified to settle the
+    dispute for power, internal disturbance will be the result.</p>
+			<p>  Historically speaking no law of succession is so permanently
+    satisfactory as that used by the nations of Europe. According to
+    this system the right of succession belongs to the eldest son of the
+    monarch, or failing him, the nearest and eldest male relative. The
+    right of succession, however, may be voluntarily surrendered by the
+    rightful successor if he so desires; thus if the eldest son declines
+    to succeed to the throne the second son takes his place. This is the
+    rule of Europe.</p>
+			<p>  If instead of this law of a succession a system is adopted by which
+    the successor is chosen by the monarch from among his sons or
+    relatives without any provision being made for the rights of the
+    eldest son, disturbance will be the inevitable result. There will
+    not be a few who would like to take possession of the throne and
+    they will certainly plot in the very confines of the palace,
+    resulting in an increase of the sufferings of an aged monarch; and,
+    even if the disaster of civil war be avoided, much dispute will
+    arise owing to the uncertainty of the successor&mdash;a dangerous
+    situation indeed.</p>
+			<p>  Such is the lesson we learn from history. The conclusion is,
+    speaking from the viewpoint of the problem of transmission of power,
+    that the superiority of the monarchical system over the republican
+    system is seen in the law of succession,&mdash;that is the eldest son of
+    the ruler should succeed to the throne.</p>
+			<p>  Leaving out the nations of ancient times, the majority of countries
+<a name="Page_131" id="Page_131"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">131</span>
+    in Europe and Asia have adopted the monarchical system. There are,
+    however, exceptions such as <i>Wen-ni-shih</i> (Venice) and Switzerland,
+    which adopted the republican form of government; but they are in the
+    minority while most of the great nations of the world have adopted
+    the monarchical form of government.</p>
+			<p>  During the recent century and a half the attitude of Europe has
+    undergone a sudden change and the general tendency is to discredit
+    monarchism and adopt republicanism. The one great European power
+    which first attempted to make a trial of republicanism is Great
+    Britain. In the Seventeenth Century a revolution broke out in
+    England and King Charles I. was condemned to death by Parliament and
+    executed as a traitor to the nation. A republic was established and
+    the administration was called republican with Cromwell as regent,
+    <i>i.e.</i> President. Cromwell was able to control the power of
+    government because at the head of the revolutionary army he defeated
+    the King. This English republic, however, only existed for a few
+    years and was finally defeated in turn. The reason was that the
+    problem of succession after the death of Cromwell was difficult to
+    solve. Cromwell had a desire to place his son in his place as regent
+    after his death, but as the English people were then unsuited for a
+    republic and his son had not the ability to act as chief executive,
+    the republic of England suddenly disappeared. The British people
+    then abandoned the republican system and readopted the monarchical
+    system. Thus Charles II., the son of Charles I., was made King not
+    only with the support of the army but also with the general consent
+    of the country.</p>
+			<p>  The second European race which attempted to have a republic was the
+    American. In the Eighteenth Century the United States of America was
+    established in consequence of the success of a revolution. But the
+    American revolution was not at first intended to overthrow the
+    monarchy. What it sought to do was to throw off the yoke of the
+    monarchy and become independent. The revolution, however, succeeded
+    and the circumstances were such that there was no other alternative
+    but to have a republic: for there was no royal or Imperial
+    descendant to shoulder the responsibilities of the state. Another
+    factor was the influence of the advocates of republicanism who came
+    to America in the previous century from England and saturated the
+    minds of the Americans with the ideas of republicanism. The minds of
+    the American people were so imbued with the ideas of republicanism
+    that a republican form of government was the ideal of the entire
+    race. Had General Washington&mdash;the leader of the revolutionary
+    army&mdash;had the desire to become a monarch himself he would probably
+    have been successful. But Washington's one aim was to respect
+    republicanism and he had no aspiration to become King. Besides he
+    had no son capable of succeeding him on the throne. Consequently on
+    the day independence was won, the republican form of government was
+    adopted without hesitation, and it has survived over a hundred
+    years.</p>
+			<p>  There is no need to ask whether the result of the establishment of
+    the American Republic has been good or bad. The republican form of
+<a name="Page_132" id="Page_132"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">132</span>
+    government is really the making of the United States of America.
+    But it should be remembered that long before the establishment of
+    the republic, the American people had already learned the good laws
+    and ordinances of England, and the constitution and parliamentary
+    system of England had been long in use in America for over a hundred
+    years. Therefore the change in 1789 from a colony into a Republic
+    was not a sudden change from a monarchy to a republic. Thorough
+    preparations had been made and self-government was well practiced
+    before the establishment of the republic. Not only this, but the
+    intellectual standard of the American people was then already very
+    high; for ever since the beginning of American history attention was
+    given to universal education. No youth could be found who could not
+    read, and the extent of education can thus be gauged.</p>
+			<p>  Soon after the formation of the American Republic, the French
+    Republic followed in her footsteps. Now in France a monarchical
+    government was in existence before the declaration of independence,
+    and the supreme power of administration was in the hands of the
+    King. The people, having never participated in the administration
+    and lacking experience in self-government, made a poor experiment of
+    the republican system which they suddenly set up. The result was
+    that for many years disorder reigned, and the tyranny of the
+    military governments held sway one after another. After the defeat
+    of Napoleon, the monarchical system was restored as a result of the
+    intervention of other Powers. The second revolution in 1830 again
+    resulted in the restoration of the monarchy but the power of the
+    common people was considerably increased. The monarchy was again
+    overthrown in 1848 and a Republic formed in its stead&mdash;the nephew of
+    Napoleon was then made President. This President, however, once more
+    discarded republicanism and set up a monarchy for himself. It was
+    not until after the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 that Napoleon III.
+    was overthrown and the final Republic established which has lived
+    for half a century now, there being every likelihood of its
+    continuing in its present form.</p>
+			<p>  Indeed the Republic of France has every prospect of being permanent,
+    but the permanency is only the result of a hundred years' political
+    revolution. For a hundred years the foundations were being laid by
+    means of an energetic and persistent campaign of education, which
+    increased the political knowledge of the people. The people were
+    also allowed to participate in political affairs, and so gained
+    experience in self-government. This is why the French Republic is a
+    success. Then in France and America they have found a solution for
+    the difficult problem of the nation, that is the problem of
+    succession of the government in power. The President of France is
+    elected by the Parliament while the President of America is elected
+    by the people. The people of these two countries are all experienced
+    in self-government as a result of participation in political
+    affairs. Furthermore, for the last fifty years these two countries
+    have all laid emphasis on universal education by having an extensive
+    system of schools, subsidized by the Government. The intellectual
+    standard of these two peoples is therefore fairly high.</p>
+			<p>
+				<a name="Page_133" id="Page_133"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">133</span>
+As a result of the examples set up by France and America, at the
+    end of the Eighteenth Century the Spanish colonies in Central and
+    South America also declared their independence one after the other.
+    The conditions then prevailing in those countries were somewhat
+    similar to those of America. When their independence was declared,
+    it seemed that the republican system was best suited to their
+    condition. For on the one hand there was no imperial house to direct
+    the people, on the other hand the Republic of North America was a
+    good example to follow. Public opinion was at that time unanimous
+    that since the republican form of government was the ideal form, it
+    was suitable for any country and any people. The idea thus quickly
+    spread and almost every country became a republic. The independence
+    of these countries, however, was secured only at the cost of a hard
+    struggle and once the spirit of rebellion was aroused it became
+    difficult to suppress in a short while. And since education was not
+    then universal the intellect of the people was low. What they were
+    expert in was in autocratic methods. No task is harder than to
+    establish a republic in a country, the intelligence of whose people
+    is low. These republics, therefore, reaped no good results although
+    they tried to retain republicanism unnaturally. The consequence is
+    that the republics of Central and South America have been a living
+    drama of continuous internal disturbance. One after another their
+    military leaders have grasped the power of administration.
+    Occasionally there has been peace but this peace has only been
+    secured by the iron hand of one or two powerful men holding the
+    power. Such powerful men, however, seldom pay any attention to
+    educational matters, and one never hears of their establishing any
+    schools. As to the people under them, they are not allowed to
+    participate in political affairs by which their experience in
+    politics may be ripened. The result is, on the man in power becoming
+    sick or dying&mdash;and the iron rule relaxed&mdash;that those who wish to
+    usurp the power of the state rise at once; and as the satisfactory
+    solution of the problem of succession cannot be found, those
+    undertakings which have made progress during the time of peace are
+    swept away without a single exception. In extreme cases the
+    disturbances continue to such an extent that the country falls into
+    a state of anarchy. Thus the social and financial factors of the
+    whole country are trodden on and destroyed under foot.</p>
+			<p>  The conditions now prevailing in Mexico have been many times
+    duplicated in other republics in Central and South America. For this
+    can be the only result from adopting the republican form of
+    government where the political and financial conditions are
+    unsuited. Diaz, a military leader, once held the power of state in
+    his own hand, and when he became the President of Mexico it looked
+    as if the political problem was solved thereby. Diaz, however, did
+    not push education but instead oppressed the people and did not
+    allow them to participate in politics. When he was advanced in age
+    and his influence decreased, he lost entire control once the banner
+    of rebellion was raised. Ever since the overthrow of Diaz, military
+    leaders of that country have been fighting one another and the
+    disturbance is developing even to-day. In the present circumstances
+    there is no other
+<a name="Page_134" id="Page_134"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">134</span>
+means to solve the political problem of Mexico
+    except by intervention from abroad. (<i>Sic.</i>)</p>
+			<p>  Among the republics of Central and South America, however, there are
+    some which have made fairly good progress, the most prominent of
+    which are Argentina, Chili, and Peru. For some time there was
+    disorder in the first two republics immediately after the adoption
+    of the republican system, but later peace was gradually restored and
+    the people have been enjoying peace. As regards Peru, although some
+    disturbances have occurred since the establishment of the republican
+    government, the life of the Republic as a whole has been peaceful.
+    All of these three countries, however, developed constitutional
+    government with the utmost vigour. Even as far back as in the
+    earlier part of the Nineteenth Century Argentina and Chili were
+    already endeavouring to excel each other in their progress, and as
+    for Peru, its people were encouraged even while under the Imperial
+    r&eacute;gime, to participate in political affairs. The success of these
+    three republics is, therefore, not a mere chance happening.</p>
+			<p>  The study of the experiences of these republics of Central and South
+    America and the history of France and the United States brings
+    forward two points which we should carefully consider:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  1. In order to make a satisfactory solution of the problem of
+    succession to the chief executive in a republican country, it is
+    necessary that the country be in possession of an extensive system
+    of schools; that the intellect of its people has been brought up to
+    a high standard by means of a patient process of universal
+    education; and that they be given a chance to participate in
+    political affairs for the purpose of gaining the needed experience,
+    before the republican form can be adopted without harm;</p>
+			<p>  2. It is certain that the adoption of a republican form of
+    government in a country where the people are low in intellect and
+    lack experience and knowledge in political affairs, will not yield
+    any good result. For as the position of the President is not
+    hereditary, and consequently the problem of succession cannot be
+    satisfactorily solved, the result will be a military dictatorship.
+    It might be possible to have a short-lived peace but such a period
+    of peace is usually intermingled with periods of disturbances,
+    during which the unduly ambitious people may rise and struggle with
+    each other for the control of power, and the disaster which will
+    follow will be irremediable.</p>
+			<p>  This is not all. The present tendency is that the European and other
+    western Powers will not tolerate the existence of a military
+    government in the world; for experience shows that the result of
+    military government is anarchy. Now this is of vital importance to
+    the interests of the European Powers. Since their financial
+    influence has extended so far, their capital as well as their
+    commercial undertakings of all branches and sorts have reached every
+    corner of the world, they will not hesitate to express their views
+    for the sake of peace, as to the system of government a country
+    should adopt, although they have no right to interfere with the
+    adoption of a form of government by another nation. For unless this
+    is done they cannot hope to get the due profit on the capital they
+    have invested. If this view is carried to the extreme, the political
+    independence
+<a name="Page_135" id="Page_135"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">135</span>
+of a nation may be interfered with or even the
+    Government may be replaced with some other organ. If such steps are
+    necessary to attain their views the Powers will not scruple to take
+    them. Therefore no nation will be allowed hereafter to choose its
+    own form of government if that results in constant revolution, as in
+    the case of South America in the last century. The Governments of
+    the future should, therefore, carefully consider the system to be
+    adopted for the maintenance of peace; otherwise control by
+    foreigners will be unavoidable.</p>
+			<p>  We will now proceed to consider what significance these points
+    reviewed above have for the political conditions of China. China,
+    owing to the folly of an absolute monarchical system, has neglected
+    the education of the masses, whose intellectual attainments have
+    been consequently of a low standard. Then, there is the additional
+    fact that the people have never had a voice in the doings of their
+    government. Therefore they have not the ability to discuss politics.
+    Four years ago the absolute monarchy was suddenly changed into a
+    Republic. This movement was all too sudden to expect good results.
+    If the Manchus had not been an alien race, which the country wished
+    to overthrow, the best step which could then have been adopted was
+    to retain the Emperor and gradually lead him to a constitutional
+    government. What the Commissioners on Constitutional Government
+    suggested was quite practical if carried out gradually until
+    perfection was reached. Unfortunately the feeling of alien control
+    was bitter to the people and the maintenance of the throne was an
+    utter impossibility. Thus the monarchy was overthrown and the
+    adoption of a republican system was the only alternative.</p>
+			<p>  Thus we see that China has during the last few years been
+    progressing in constitutional government. The pioneering stage of
+    the process was, however, not ideal. The results could have been
+    much better if a person of royal blood, respected by the people, had
+    come out and offered his service. Under the present conditions China
+    has not yet solved the problem of the succession to the Presidency.
+    What provisions we have now are not perfect. If the President should
+    one day give up his power the difficulties experienced by other
+    nations will manifest themselves again in China. The conditions in
+    other countries are similar to those obtaining in China and the
+    dangers are also the same. It is quite within the bounds of
+    possibility that the situation might threaten China's independence
+    if internal disturbance should occur in connection with this problem
+    and not be immediately put down.</p>
+			<p>  What attitude then should those who have the good of the nation at
+    heart, take under the present circumstances? Should they advocate
+    the continuance of the Republic or suggest a change for a monarchy?
+    It is difficult to answer these questions. But I have no doubt in
+    saying that the monarchical system is better suited to China than
+    the republican system. For, if China's independence is to be
+    maintained, the government should be constitutional, and in
+    consideration of China's conditions as well as her relations with
+    other Powers, it will be easier to form a constitutional government
+    by adopting a monarchy than a Republic.</p>
+			<p>  However, it must be remembered that in order to secure the best
+    results
+<a name="Page_136" id="Page_136"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">136</span>
+from changing the Republic into a Monarchy not a single one
+    of the following points can be dispensed with:</p>
+			<p>  1. Such a change must not arouse the opposition of the Chinese
+    people or the Foreign Powers, which will cause the disturbances so
+    energetically suppressed by the Republican Government to appear
+    again in China. For the peace now prevailing in the country should
+    be maintained at any price so that no danger may come therefrom.</p>
+			<p>  2. If the law of succession be not definitely defined in such a way
+    that it will leave no doubts as to the proper successor, no good can
+    come from the change from Republic to Monarchy. I have said enough
+    about the necessity of not allowing the monarch to choose his own
+    successor. Although the power of an Emperor is greater than that of
+    a President, when the majority of the people know nothing, it is
+    more respected by the people. But the reason for such a change will
+    not be valid if the change is brought about merely to add to the
+    power of the chief executive without the question of succession
+    being definitely settled. For the definiteness about succession is
+    the most prominent point of superiority of the monarchical system
+    over the republican system.</p>
+			<p>  3 If the Government should fail to make provisions for the
+    development of the constitutional government, no permanent benefit
+    will result from the change of a republic into a monarchy. For if
+    China wishes to occupy a suitable place among the world powers, the
+    patriotism of her people must be made to grow so that the government
+    will be more than strong enough to cope with outside aggression. The
+    patriotism of the people will not grow if they are not allowed to
+    participate in political affairs, and without the hearty assistance
+    of the people no government can become strong. For the reason why
+    the people will assist the government is because they feel they are
+    a part of the government. Therefore the government should make the
+    people realize that the government is the organ which aims at
+    bringing blessing to the people, and make the people understand that
+    they have the right to superintend the government before the
+    government can achieve great things.</p>
+			<p>  Every one of the points mentioned above are indispensable for the
+    change of the Republic into a monarchy. Whether the necessary
+    conditions are present must be left to those who know China well and
+    are responsible for her future progress. If these conditions are all
+    present then I have no doubt that the change of the form of the
+    government will be for the benefit of China. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>The first illuminating point, as we have already said, to leap up and
+lock attention to the exclusion of everything else in this memorandum,
+is that the chief difficulty which perplexes Dr. Goodnow is not the
+consolidation of a new government which had been recognized by all the
+Treaty Powers only two years previously but the question of <i>succession</i>
+to the supreme office in the land, a point which had already been fully
+provided for
+<a name="Page_137" id="Page_137"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">137</span>
+in the one chapter of the Permanent Constitution which had
+been legally passed prior to the <i>Coup d'&eacute;tat</i> of the 4th November,
+1913. But Yuan Shih-kai's first care after that <i>coup d'&eacute;tat</i> had been
+to promulgate with the assistance of Dr. Goodnow and others, a bogus
+Law, resting on no other sanction than his personal volition, with an
+elaborate flummery about three candidates whose names were to be
+deposited in the gold box in the Stone House in the gardens of the
+Palace. Therefore since the provisional nature of this prestidigitation
+had always been clear, the learned doctor's only solution is to
+recommend the overthrow of the government; the restoration of the Empire
+under the name of Constitutional Monarchy; and, by means of a fresh plot
+to do in China what all Europe has long been on the point of abandoning,
+namely, to substitute Family rule for National rule.</p>
+		<p>Now had these suggestions been gravely made in any country but China by
+a person officially employed it is difficult to know what would have
+happened. Even in China had an Englishman published or caused to be
+published&mdash;especially after the repeated statements Yuan Shih-kai had
+given out that any attempt to force the sceptre on him would cause him
+to leave the country and end his days abroad<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17"><sup>[17]</sup></a>&mdash;that Englishman, we
+say, would have been liable under the Orders in Council to summary
+imprisonment, the possibility of tumult and widespread internal
+disturbances being sufficient to force a British Court to take action.
+What are the forces which brought an American
+<a name="Page_138" id="Page_138"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">138</span>
+to say things which an
+Englishman would not dare to say&mdash;that in 1915 there was a sanction for
+a fresh revolutionary movement in China? First, an interpretation of
+history so superficial, combined with such an amazing suppression of
+contemporary political thought, that it is difficult to believe that the
+requirements of the country were taken in the least bit seriously;
+secondly, in the comparisons made between China and the Latin republics,
+a deliberate scouting of the all-important racial factor; and, lastly, a
+total ignorance of the intellectual qualities which are by far the most
+outstanding feature of Chinese civilization.</p>
+		<p>Dr. Goodnow's method is simplicity itself. In order to prove the
+superiority of Monarchism over Republicanism&mdash;and thus deliberately
+ignoring the moral of the present cataclysmic war&mdash;he ransacks the
+dust-laden centuries. The English Commonwealth, which disappeared nearly
+three hundred years ago, is brought forward as an example of the dangers
+which beset a republic, though it is difficult to see what relation an
+experiment made before the idea of representative government had been
+even understood bears to our times. But there is worse. The statement is
+deliberately made that the reason for the disappearance of that
+Commonwealth was &quot;that the problem of succession after the death of
+Cromwell was difficult to solve.&quot; English historians would no doubt have
+numerous remarks to offer on this strange untruth which dismisses a
+remarkably interesting chapter of history in the most misleading way,
+and which tells Chinese political students nothing about the complete
+failure which military government&mdash;not republicanism&mdash;must always have
+among the Anglo-Saxon peoples and which is the sole reason why
+Cromwellism disappeared. Even when treating the history of his own
+country Dr. Goodnow seems to take pleasure in being absurd. For he says:
+&quot;The mind of the American people was so imbued with the idea of
+republicanism that a republican form of government was the ideal of the
+whole race&quot;; then adding as if to refute his own statements, &quot;Had
+General Washington&mdash;the leader of the revolutionary army&mdash;had the desire
+to become a monarch he would probably have been successful.&quot; We do not
+know how Americans will like this kind of interpretation of their
+history; but at least they
+<a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">139</span>
+will not fail to note what dismal results it
+hastened on in China. With the experimental Eighteenth Century French
+Republic; with the old Spanish Colonies of Central and South America;
+and above all with Mexico, Dr. Goodnow deals in the same vein. Vast
+movements, which can be handled only tentatively even in exhaustive
+essays are dismissed in misleading sentences framed so as to serve as
+mere introduction to the inevitable climax&mdash;the Chinese Constitutional
+Monarchy of 1915 with Yuan Shih-kai as Emperor.</p>
+		<p>Yet this is not all. As if in alarm at the very conclusions he so
+purposely reaches, at the end of his Memorandum he reduces these
+conclusions to naught by stating that three impossible conditions are
+necessary to consummate the Restoration of the Monarchy in China, (1) no
+opposition should be aroused, (2) the law of succession must be properly
+settled, (3) Full provision must be made for the development of
+Constitutional Government. That these conditions were known to be
+impossible, everyone in the Far East had long admitted. Had Dr. Goodnow
+paid the slightest attention to the course of history in China he would
+have known (a) that any usurpation of the Throne would infallibly lead
+to rebellion in China and intervention on the part of Japan, (b) that
+Yuan Shih-kai's power was purely personal and as such could not be
+transmitted to any son by any means known to the human intellect, (c)
+that all Yuan Shih-kai's sons were worthless, the eldest son being
+semi-paralyzed, (d) that constitutional government and the Eastern
+conception of kingship, which is purely theocratic, are so antithetical
+that they cannot possibly co-exist, any re-establishment of the throne
+being <i>ipso facto</i> the re-establishment of a theocracy, (e) that
+although he so constantly speaks of the low political knowledge of the
+people, the Chinese have had a most complete form of local
+self-government from the earliest times, the political problem of the
+day being simply to gather up and express these local forms in some
+centralized system: (f) the so-called non-patriotism of the Chinese is
+non-existent and is an idea which has been spread abroad owing to the
+complete foreign misunderstanding of certain basic facts&mdash;for instance
+that under the Empire foreign affairs were the sole concern of the
+Emperors, provincial China prior to 1911 being a socio-economic
+confederation
+<a name="Page_140" id="Page_140"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">140</span>
+resembling mediaeval contrivances such as the Hanseatic
+League&mdash;a provincial confederation not concerning itself with any matter
+which lay outside its everyday economic life, such as territorial
+overlordship or frontier questions or the regulation of sea-port
+intercourse etc., because such matters were meaningless. It was only
+when foreign encroachment in the <i>post</i>-Japanese war period (<i>i.e.</i>
+after 1895) carried problems from the fringes of the Empire into the
+economic life of the people that their pride was touched and that in
+spite of &quot;their lack of experience and knowledge in political affairs&quot;
+they suddenly displayed a remarkable patriotic feeling, the history of
+China during the past two decades being only comprehensible when this
+capital contention, namely the reality of Chinese patriotism, is given
+the central place.</p>
+		<p>It is useless, however, to pursue the subject: we have said enough to
+disclose the utter levity of those who should have realized from the
+first that the New China is a matter of life and death to the people,
+and that the first business of the foreigner is to uphold the new
+beliefs. The Goodnow Memorandum, immediately it was published, was put
+to precisely those base uses which any one with an elementary knowledge
+of China might have foreseen: it was simply exploited in an unscrupulous
+way, its recommendations being carried out in such a manner as to
+increase one's contempt for the men who were pushing the monarchist plot
+with any means that they could seize hold of, and who were not averse
+from making responsible foreigners their tools.</p>
+		<div class="footnotes">
+			<p class="center">FOOTNOTES:</p>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_16_16">
+						<span class="label">[16]</span>
+					</a> It is perhaps of importance to note that Dr. Goodnow
+carried out all his studies in Germany.</p>
+			</div>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_17_17">
+						<span class="label">[17]</span>
+					</a> The most widely-quoted statement on this subject is the
+remarkable interview, published in the first week of July, 1915,
+throughout the metropolitan press, between President Yuan Shih-kai and
+General Feng Kuo-chang, commanding the forces on the lower Yangtsze.
+This statement was telegraphed by foreign correspondents all over the
+world. Referring to the many rumours afloat that titles of nobility
+would be revived as a precursor to the monarchy the President declared
+that even if he seized the Throne that would not increase his powers,
+whilst as for transmitting the Imperial Yellow to his sons none were
+fitted for that honour which would mean the collapse of any new dynasty.
+Here General Feng Kuo-chang interrupted with the remark that the people
+of South China would not oppose such a change ultimately, though they
+thought it was too early to talk about it just now. Thereupon the
+President's features became stern and he declared in a heightened voice:
+&quot;You and others seem still to believe that I harbour secret ambitions. I
+affirm positively that when I sent my sons to study in England, I
+privately ordered the purchase of a small estate there as a possible
+home. If the people of China insist upon my accepting the sceptre I
+shall leave this country and spend the remaining days of my life
+abroad.&quot; This interview, so far from being denied, has been affirmed to
+the present writer as being substantially correct.</p>
+			</div>
+		</div>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">141</span></p>
+		<h2>
+
+		<a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>
+		CHAPTER X</h2>
+		<h3>THE MONARCHY MOVEMENT IS OPPOSED</h3>
+		<h3>THE APPEAL OF THE SCHOLAR LIANG CH'I-CHAO</h3>
+		<p>We have already referred in several places to the extraordinary r&ocirc;le
+scholarship and the literary appeal play in the governance of China. It
+is necessary to go back to the times of the birth of the Roman Empire,
+and to invoke the great figure of Cicero, to understand how greatly the
+voice of men of recognized intellectual qualities influences the nation.
+Liang Ch'i-chao, a man of some forty-five years, had long been
+distinguished for his literary attainments and for the skill with which,
+though unversed in any Western language, he had expounded the European
+theory and practice of government to his fellow-countrymen. To his brain
+is due the coining of many exact expressions necessary for parliamentary
+government, his mentality having grown with the modern growth of China
+and adapted itself rather marvellously to the requirements of the
+Twentieth Century. A reformer of 1898&mdash;that is one of the small devoted
+band of men who under Kang Yu Wei almost succeeded in winning over the
+ill-fated Emperor Kwang Hsu to carrying out a policy of modernizing the
+country in the teeth of fierce mandarin opposition, he possessed in his
+armoury every possible argument against the usurpation Yuan Shih-kai
+proposed to practise. He knew precisely where to strike&mdash;and with what
+strength; and he delivered himself over to his task with whole-hearted
+fervour. It having become known that he was engaged in preparing this
+brief for the people of China, every influence was brought to bear to
+prevent such a disastrous publication. Influential deputations were sent
+to him to implore him to remember the parlous international situation
+China found
+<a name="Page_142" id="Page_142"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">142</span>
+herself in,&mdash;a situation which would result in open
+disaster if subjected to the strain of further discords. For a time he
+hesitated launching his counter-stroke. But at length the Republican
+Party persuaded him to deal the tyrant the needed blow; and his now
+famous accusation of the Chief Executive was published.</p>
+		<p>Its effect was immediate and very far-reaching. Men understood that
+armed revolt was in the air. The almost Biblical fervour which pervades
+this extraordinary document shows an unusual sense of moral outrage. The
+masterly analysis of the Diaz r&eacute;gime in Mexico coupled with the manner
+in which&mdash;always pretending to be examining the conduct of the
+Mexican&mdash;he stabs at Yuan Shih-kai, won the applause of a race that
+delights in oblique attacks and was ample proof that great trouble was
+brewing. The document was read in every part of China and everywhere
+approved. Although it suffers from translation, the text remains
+singularly interesting as a disclosure of the Chinese mentality; whilst
+the exhaustive examination of political terms it contains shows that
+some day Chinese will carry their inventive genius into fields they have
+hitherto never openly invaded. Especially interesting is it to contrast
+the arguments of such a man with those of a decadent such as Yang Tu.</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>FROM REPUBLIC TO MONARCHY</h3>
+			<p>  Before I proceed with my argument I wish to make plain two points.
+    One is that I am not one of those reformers whose ears are their
+    brains, and who are intoxicated with the doctrine of republicanism.
+    I have, therefore, no partiality for the republican form of
+    government nor any bias for or against other forms of government.
+    This can be proved by my literary work during the last ten years.
+    The second point is that I am not one of the veteran conservatives
+    who lay so much stress on the importance of having a dynasty. For
+    such are the thoughts of men who only seek to adjust themselves to
+    existing conditions. If one wishes to consider the present situation
+    of the country without bias or prejudice he must disregard the rise
+    or fall of any particular family. Only those who bear in mind these
+    two points can read my argument with real understanding.</p>
+			<a name="Page_143" id="Page_143"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">143</span>
+			<h4>  I. THE QUESTION OF KUO-TI</h4>
+			<p>  Some time ago I said that, as political students, we should only
+    care for <i>Cheng-ti</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, the form of government and not for
+    <i>Kuo-ti</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, the form of state. Do not call this trifling with
+    words, for it is a principle which all critics of politics should
+    follow and never depart from. The reason is that critics of politics
+    should not, because they cannot, influence the question of <i>Kuo-ti</i>.
+    They should not influence the question of <i>Kuo-ti</i> because so long
+    as the question of <i>Kuo-ti</i> remains unsettled the major portion of
+    the administration remains at a stand-still. Thus there will be no
+    political situation properly so called and there will be no
+    political questions to discuss (here the term political means really
+    administrative). If a critic of politics, therefore, interfere with
+    the question of <i>Kuo-ti</i>, he will be leading the nation into a
+    condition of political instability, thus undermining the ground on
+    which the people stand. Such critics can be likened unto a man
+    trying to enter a house without ascending the steps or crossing a
+    river without a boat.</p>
+			<p>  They cannot influence the question of <i>Kuo-ti</i>. The force which
+    drives and steers the change of one form of State or <i>vice versa</i> is
+    generally not derived from mere politics. If the time is not ripe,
+    then no amount of advocacy on the part of critics can hasten it. If
+    the time is ripe, nothing the critics say can prevent it. He who
+    indulges himself in the discussion of the problem of
+    <i>Kuo-ti</i>&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, the form of States, as a political student, is
+    ignorant of his own limitations and capacity. This is as true of the
+    active politicians as of the critics; for the first duty of an
+    active politician is to seek for the improvement and progress of the
+    administration of the existing foundation of government. A step
+    beyond this line is revolution and intrigue, and such cannot be the
+    attitude of a right-minded active politician or statesman. This is
+    looking at it from the negative side.</p>
+			<p>  From the positive, that is, the progressive point of view, there is
+    also a boundary. Such actions under one form of government are
+    political activities, and under the opposite form of government are
+    also political activities. But these are not questions of political
+    principle. For only when a man sacrifices the ideals which he has
+    advocated and cherished during the whole of his life does the
+    question of principle arise. Therefore the great principle of
+    looking to the actual state of administration of the form of
+    government and leaving the mere form of state in the background is a
+    principle that is applicable under all circumstances and should be
+    followed by all critics of politics.</p>
+			<h4>  II. THE ARGUMENT AGAINST CHANGE</h4>
+			<p>  No form of government is ideal. Its reason of existence can only be
+    judged by what it has achieved. It is the height of folly to rely on
+    theoretical conclusions as a basis for artificial arbitration as to
+    what should be accepted and what discarded. Mere folly, however, is
+    not to be seriously condemned. But the danger and harm to the
+    country will be unmeasurable if a person has prejudiced views
+    respecting a certain form of government and in order to prove the
+    correctness of his prejudiced views, creates artificially a
+    situation all by himself. For this reason my view has always been
+    not to oppose any form of government. But
+<a name="Page_144" id="Page_144"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">144</span>
+I am always opposed to
+    any one who engages in a propaganda in favour of a form of
+    government other than the one under which we actually live. In the
+    past I opposed those who tried to spread the republican form of
+    government while the country was under monarchical government, and
+    the arguments I advanced in support of my views were written in no
+    fewer than 200,000 words. Even so late as the ninth month after the
+    outbreak of the Revolution I issued a pamphlet entitled &quot;The Problem
+    of the Building of the New China,&quot; which was my last attempt to
+    express my views respecting the maintenance of the old form of
+    government.</p>
+			<p>  What obligations had I to the then Imperial House? Did it not heap
+    persecution and humiliation on me to the utmost of its power and
+    resources? I would have been an exile even to this day had it not
+    been for the Revolution. Further, I was no child and I was fully
+    aware of the disappointment which the then Government caused in the
+    minds of the people. Yet I risked the opposition of the whole
+    country and attempted to prolong the life of the dying dynasty. I
+    had no other view in mind except that there would be some
+    possibility of our hope being realized if the whole nation would
+    unite in efforts to improve the administration under the then
+    existing form of government. I believed that because the people were
+    not educated for a change. But if the status of the country should
+    be changed before the people are educated and accustomed to the new
+    order of things, the danger and hardship during the transitional
+    period of several years would be incalculable. In certain
+    circumstances this might lead to the destruction of the nation. Even
+    if we are spared the tragedy of national extinction, the losses
+    sustained by the retarding of the progress of the administration
+    would be unredeemable. It is painful to recall past experiences; but
+    if my readers will read once more my articles in the <i>Hsin Min Tung
+    Pao</i> during the years 1905 and 1906 they will see that all the
+    sufferings which the Republic has experienced bear out the
+    predictions made then. The different stages of the sinister
+    development have been unfolding themselves one by one just as I said
+    they would. It was unfortunate that my words were not heeded
+    although I wept and pleaded. Such has been the consequence of the
+    change of the state of the country&mdash;a change of <i>Kuo-ti</i>.</p>
+			<p>  Yet before we have hardly ceased panting, this talk of a second
+    change is on us. I am not in a position to say exactly how this talk
+    had its beginning. Ostensibly it was started by the remarks of Dr.
+    Goodnow. But I am unable to say whether Dr. Goodnow actually gave
+    out such a view or for what purpose he expressed such a view. From
+    what he told the representative of a Peking newspaper he never
+    expressed the views attributed to him. Be this as it may, I cannot
+    help having my doubts. All Dr. Goodnow is alleged to have said
+    bearing on the merits of the monarchical and republican system of
+    government as an abstract subject of discussion, such as the
+    necessity of the form of state (<i>Kuo-ti</i>) being suited to the
+    general conditions of the country and the lessons we should learn
+    from the Central and South American republics, are really points of
+    a very simple nature and easily deduced. How strange that among all
+    this large number of politicians and scholars, who are
+<a name="Page_145" id="Page_145"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">145</span>
+as numerous
+    as the trees in the forest and the perch in the stream, should have
+    failed for all these years to notice these simple points; and now
+    suddenly make a fetish of them because they have come out of the
+    mouth of a foreigner. Is it because no one except a foreign doctor
+    can discover such facts? Why even a humble learner like myself,
+    though not so learned even to the extent of one ten-thousandth part
+    of his knowledge, more than ten years ago anticipated what the good
+    doctor has said; and I said much more and in much more comprehensive
+    terms. I have no desire to talk about my work, but let my readers
+    glance through the copies of the <i>Hsin Min Tsung Pao, Yin Ping Shih
+    Wen Chi</i>, the &quot;Fight between Constitutional Advocates&quot; and
+    &quot;Revolutionary Advocates,&quot; the &quot;Question of the Building of the New
+    China,&quot; etc., etc. My regret is that my eyes are not blue and my
+    hair not brown, and hence my words were not acceptable to the
+    nation!</p>
+			<h4>  III. RES JUDICATA</h4>
+			<p>  I do not say that the merits or otherwise of the republican system
+    should not be discussed, but the time for such a discussion has
+    passed. The most opportune time for such a discussion was in 1911
+    when the Revolution had just begun; but since then further
+    discussions should not be tolerated. There might have been some
+    excuse if this subject had been brought up for discussion when the
+    second revolution broke out at Hukow on the Yangtsze river or before
+    the President was formally inaugurated, or before the Powers
+    formally recognized the Republic; but the excuse even then would
+    have been a weak one. Where were you then, advocates of monarchy?
+    Could you not at that time have brought out an essay by one of the
+    great scholars of the world as a subject for discussion? Could you
+    not have cited the cases of American republics as a warning for us
+    that these republics were by no means peaceful? Yet at that time
+    when the heroes of discretion were daily pushing the progress of the
+    republican cause, stating that republicanism was the panacea for all
+    the world's administrations and that republicanism was not a new
+    factor in Chinese history, a humble and ignorant man like myself,
+    then a stranger in a foreign land, was burdened with the fear of the
+    unsuitability of the republican system to China and wrote articles
+    in support of his own views and wept till his eyes were dry.</p>
+			<p>  Do you not realize that the State is a thing of great importance and
+    should not be disturbed carelessly? How can you then experiment with
+    it and treat it as if you were putting a chest into a dead hole,
+    saying &quot;Let me place it here for the moment and I will see to it
+    later.&quot; The status of the State can be likened to marriage between
+    man and woman. The greatest care should be taken during courtship.
+    The lady should then exercise care to see that the man whom she is
+    taking to be a life companion is worthy of her. During this period
+    it is the duty of her relatives and friends to point out to her any
+    danger or misunderstanding even to the extent of offending her
+    feelings. But if you leave her alone at this stage when there is
+    plenty of time to change her course,
+and&mdash;<a name="Page_146" id="Page_146"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">146</span>what
+is more&mdash;urge her to
+    tie the knot despite incompatibility, what right have you afterwards
+    to make the impudent suggestion to the wife that her husband is not
+    a man to whom she should cling for life? Is such a course a
+    charitable way of doing things?</p>
+			<p>  If indeed the republican cause is enough to cause the destruction of
+    the nation then you, the advocates of monarchy, have placed the
+    country in a position from which she has no hope of ever coming out
+    independent. You are the men who&mdash;to the best of your
+    ability&mdash;inculcated and pressed the adoption of the republican
+    cause. The proverb says, &quot;If now, why not then?&quot; How many days can a
+    person live that you, not satisfied with one great sin, are again to
+    commit another. It is not long since the Republic was first
+    established; yet you, the veterans of republicanism, are the leaders
+    to-day in advocating the overthrow of the Republic. Yes. It is
+    indeed strange that I, a man who once opposed the republican cause,
+    should now be opposing you. Nothing is stranger and nothing is so
+    fateful.</p>
+			<p>  But our modern critics say we prefer a constitutional monarchy to an
+    autocratic republic. Now whether we are constitutional or not is a
+    question concerning the administration, while the question whether
+    we are republican or not is a question concerning the form or status
+    of the country. We have always held that the question of <i>Kuo-ti</i> is
+    above discussion and that what we should consider is the actual
+    condition of administration. If the administration (government) is
+    constitutional, then it matters not whether the country is a
+    Republic or a Monarchy. If the government is not constitutional then
+    neither a republic nor a monarchy will avail. There is no connexion,
+    therefore, between the question of <i>Kuo-ti</i> and the question of
+    <i>Cheng-ti</i>. It is an absurd idea to say that in order to improve the
+    administration we must change the <i>Kuo-ti</i>&mdash;the status or form of
+    the country&mdash;as a necessity. If this idea is to be entertained for a
+    single moment the changes even in constitutional countries will be
+    endless. But the curious paradox is that in former days the critics
+    said that only a republic, not a monarchy, could be constitutional;
+    whereas, the critics now say that a monarchy, not a republic, can
+    alone be constitutional!</p>
+			<h4>  IV. THE PRESIDENT AND THE CONSTITUTION</h4>
+			<p>  Let me therefore lay down a simple definition of what a Constitution
+    is before discussing whether the contentions of the critics are
+    reasonable. My opponents will agree with me that the main principle
+    of a constitutional government is that the legislative organ should
+    always balance the executive and that the exercising of the
+    administrative power is always limited to a certain extent. They
+    will also agree that the most important point of a so-called
+    constitutional monarchy is that the monarch should act as a
+    figurehead, and that the establishment of a responsible cabinet is
+    an indispensable accompaniment. If these simple principles are
+    recognized then we must put up the theory for discussion. Let us
+    then raise the question who shall be the monarch. In plain words, is
+<a name="Page_147" id="Page_147"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">147</span>
+the person in our mind the President? or any other person? (In view
+    of the repeated declarations of the President that he will never
+    consent to become an Emperor, this suggestion on my part is a gross
+    insult to his character, but I crave to excuse myself as this is
+    only mere speculation and supposition.) What shall we do with the
+    President if we find another man? The President, having so long
+    borne the burdens of the State, will certainly be only too willing
+    to vacate his post to live in retirement as far as his own person is
+    concerned, but can we imagine that the country will allow the
+    President to retire? If not, then are we going to ask the President
+    to form a responsible cabinet under a figurehead monarch? Even if we
+    take it for granted that the President, out of love for the country,
+    would be willing to sacrifice his own principles and yield to the
+    wish of the country, it will be dangerous indeed if he&mdash;a person on
+    whom the whole nation depends&mdash;is placed in the path of parliament.
+    Therefore the contention that a constitutional monarchy will be
+    attained if a person other than the President be made a monarch is
+    false and baseless.</p>
+			<p>  Shall we then make the present President a monarch? Of course the
+    President will not consent to this. But leaving this aside let us
+    suppose that the President, in consideration of the permanent
+    welfare of the country, is willing to sacrifice everything to
+    satisfy the wish of the people, do we expect that he will become a
+    mere figurehead? A figurehead monarch is, to adapt the saying of the
+    west, a fat porker, a guinea-pig, that is, good as an expensive
+    ornament. Will it be wise to place so valuable a personage in so
+    idle a position at a time when the situation is so extremely
+    critical?</p>
+			<p>  Even if we are willing to suffer the President to become a
+    figurehead it will remain a question whether a responsible cabinet
+    can ever be formed. I do not say that the President will not allow a
+    responsible cabinet to exist under him. My contention is that there
+    is no one, within my knowledge, who commands respect enough and is
+    capable of taking over the responsibilities of President Yuan. For
+    who can replace the Great President in coping with our numerous
+    difficulties? If we select an ordinary man and make him bear the
+    great burdens, we will find that in addition to his lack of ability
+    rendering him unequal to the occasion, his lack of dominating
+    influence will disqualify him from exercising authority. It was for
+    the purpose of meeting the requirements of the existing conditions
+    that the Cabinet system was changed into a Presidential system&mdash;an
+    excellent substitution for a weakened administration. Conditions in
+    the next two or three years will not be very much different from
+    what they are now. Therefore, the contention that the administration
+    will be changed overnight for the better after a change in the form
+    of the State is, if not a wicked untruth to deceive the common
+    people, the ridiculous absurdity of a bookworm. Thus the theory that
+    a constitutional monarchy will immediately follow, if the President
+    consents to become a monarch, is also fallacious.</p>
+			<p>  Can it be possible that those who are now holding up the
+    constitutional principle as a shield for their monarchical views
+    have a different definition for the term &quot;constitution&quot;? The Ching
+    (Manchu) Dynasty
+<a name="Page_148" id="Page_148"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">148</span>
+considered itself as possessing a constitution in
+    its last days. Did we recognize it as such? Let me also ask the
+    critics what guarantee they have to offer that the constitution will
+    be put into effect without hindrance as soon as the form of State is
+    changed. If they cannot give any definite guarantee, then what they
+    advocate is merely an absolute monarchy and not a constitutional
+    monarchy. As it is not likely to be a constitutional monarchy, we
+    may safely assume that it will be an imperial autocracy. I cannot
+    regard it as a wise plan if, owing to dislike of its defects, the
+    Republic should be transformed into an Imperial autocracy. Owing to
+    various unavoidable reasons, it is excusable in spite of violent
+    opposition to adopt temporarily autocratic methods in a republican
+    country. But if the plan proposed by present-day critics be put into
+    effect, that on the promise of a constitution we should agree to the
+    adoption of a monarchy, then the promise must be definitely made to
+    the country at the time of transition that a constitutional
+    government will become an actuality. But if, after the promise is
+    made, existing conditions are alleged to justify the continuance of
+    autocratic methods, I am afraid the whole country will not be so
+    tolerant towards the Chief Executive. To assume outwardly the r&ocirc;le
+    of constitutional government, but in reality to rule in an
+    unconstitutional manner, was the cause of the downfall of the Ching
+    Dynasty. The object lesson is not obscure. Let us take warning by
+    it.</p>
+			<h4>  V. FALLACIES OF THE MONARCHISTS</h4>
+			<p>  If, on the other hand, the present-day critics are really in earnest
+    for a constitution, then I am unable to understand why they believe
+    that this cannot be secured under the Republic but must be obtained
+    in a roundabout way by means of a monarchy. In my view the real
+    hindrances to the adoption of a constitution at the present day in
+    China are the existing conditions, viz. the attitude of the
+    officials and the traditions and intellectual standards of the
+    people. But these hindrances have not resulted from the adoption of
+    republicanism. Therefore they cannot be expected to disappear with
+    the disappearance of the Republic. For instance, from the President
+    downward to the minor official of every official organ in the
+    capital or in the provinces, every one inclines to be independent of
+    the law, and considers it convenient to deal with affairs as he
+    pleases. This is the greatest obstacle to constitutional government.
+    Now has that anything to do with the change or not of the form of
+    State? Again, the absence, on the part of the people, of interest in
+    political affairs, of knowledge of politics, of political morality
+    and strength, and their inability to organize proper political
+    parties to make use of an inviolable parliament, are also hindrances
+    to the attainment of a constitution. Now what have these things to
+    do with a change in the form of the States? If I were to go on
+    naming such hindrances one by one, I should count my fingers many
+    times over and I should not be through. Yet it is quite plain that
+    not a single one of these hindrances can be attributed to
+    republicanism.</p>
+			<p>  To say that what we cannot get under the republic can be secured
+<a name="Page_149" id="Page_149"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">149</span>
+immediately upon accepting a monarchical r&eacute;gime, or to say that
+    what can be secured under a monarchical r&eacute;gime can never be secured
+    in a republican period is beyond the understanding of a stupid man
+    like myself, although I have searched my brain for a valid reason.</p>
+			<p>  My view is that if China is really in earnest for a constitution,
+    the President should set the example himself by treating the
+    Constitutional Compact as sacredly inviolable and compel his
+    subordinates to do the same. Every letter of the compact should be
+    carried out and no attempt should be made to step beyond its limits.</p>
+			<p>  Meantime give the people as many opportunities as possible to
+    acquaint themselves with political affairs, and do not stifle the
+    aspirations of the people or weaken their strength or damp their
+    interest or crush their self-respect. Then within a few years we
+    shall be rewarded with results. If, instead of doing all these
+    things, we vainly blame the form of State, we are, as Chu Tse says,
+    like a boat that blames the creek for its curves.</p>
+			<p>  The most powerful argument of those who advocate a change to a
+    monarchy is that there is every possibility of disturbance at the
+    time of a Presidential election. This is a real danger. It is for
+    this reason that ten years ago I did not dare to associate myself
+    with the advocates of republicanism. If the critics want to attack
+    me on this point to support of their contentions, I advise them not
+    to write another article but to reprint my articles written some
+    time ago, which, I think, will be more effective. Fortunately,
+    however, we have discovered a comparatively effective remedy. For,
+    according to the latest President Election Law, the term of the
+    President is to all intents and purposes a term for life. It is
+    therefore impossible for such dangers to appear during the life of
+    the President. What concerns us is therefore what will happen after
+    the departure of the present President for another world. This, of
+    course, is a question that we do not wish to touch upon; but since
+    every one, even the patriarchs, must die some day, let us face the
+    matter openly. If Heaven blesses China and allows the Great
+    President to devote himself to the country for ten or more
+    years&mdash;during which he will be able to assert the authority of the
+    government, cleanse officialdom, store-up strength, consolidate the
+    country, and banish all hidden dangers&mdash;then there will be nothing
+    to choose between a republic or a monarchy. If, on the other hand,
+    Heaven should not be pleased so to favour us and takes away our
+    Great President before he is half through with his great task, then
+    the fate of China is sealed. No changes in the form of State will
+    avail under any circumstances. Therefore the question whether China
+    will be left in peace or not depends entirely on the length of years
+    the Great President will live and what he will be able to accomplish
+    in his lifetime. Whether the country is ruled as a republic or a
+    monarchy, the consequences will be the same.</p>
+			<p>  Do you still doubt my words? Let me go deeper into the analysis. The
+    difference between a republic and a monarchy lies only in the
+    methods of succession of the head of the nation. It is evident that
+    although a certain law of succession may be made during the lifetime
+    of the Head, it cannot take effect until his death; and whether or
+    not the effect thus
+<a name="Page_150" id="Page_150"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">150</span>
+intended will come up to expectations will
+    depend on two factors: (1) whether or not the merits and personal
+    influence of the predecessor will continue effective after his
+    death, and (2) whether or not there will be unscrupulous and
+    insubordinate claimants at the death of the Head, and, if any, the
+    number of such men and whether the point of dispute they raise be
+    well-founded. If these are taken as the basis for discerning the
+    future we will arrive at the same conclusion whether the country be
+    a republic or a monarchy.</p>
+			<h4>  VI. THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION LAW</h4>
+			<p>  The Presidential Election Law, however, provides that the successor
+    should be nominated by his predecessor, and the name of the
+    successor so nominated is to be locked in the golden box in the
+    stone strong-room. The President may now, on the one hand, multiply
+    his merits and strengthen his personal influence so that the whole
+    country will gladly bow to his wishes to the extent that even after
+    his death they will not want to disobey his last wish, and on the
+    other hand, the President may quietly ascertain the likely causes
+    which would produce dissension, and take suitable steps to prevent
+    and be rid of them. If the seed of dissension is in the ordinances,
+    then alter the ordinances so that they may not be used as a tool by
+    possible claimants. If the seed of dissension is in a person then
+    cultivate that man, lead him to righteousness, place him in a
+    suitable position so that he may be protected from temptation.
+    Meanwhile let the President carefully select his successor on whom
+    he may eventually lay the responsibilities of State (according to
+    the Presidential Election Law the President is at liberty to suggest
+    any one he likes, his own son or some one else). Let the nominee be
+    placed in a responsible position so as to bring him to public
+    notice. Give him real authority so that he may establish his
+    influence. Place his name at the head of other men of little
+    consequence in the golden box. Then there will be absolutely no
+    ground for dispute when the time comes to open the box.</p>
+			<p>  If every President will do likewise this system can be used without
+    fear of a break for hundreds of years. Otherwise we will have only
+    the Imperial system on paper to rely on for assistance, which is not
+    even to be thought of. A glance through the pages of Chinese history
+    will show the numerous cases in the reign of Emperors when princes
+    fought in the very confines of the Emperor's palace while the corpse
+    of their royal father lay unburied in the hall. Thus it is seen that
+    the hidden cause of the safety or otherwise of the country does not
+    lie with the mere formality of a constitution either in a republic
+    or a monarchy.</p>
+			<h4>  VII. THE CASE OF DIAZ, THE DICTATOR</h4>
+			<p>  The critics bring up the example of Mexico where live rivals have
+    been struggling with each other for the presidency, and the internal
+    confusion of the Central and South American republics as well as
+    Portugal, as an
+<a name="Page_151" id="Page_151"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">151</span>
+unquestionable proof of their contention that a
+    republic is not so good as a monarchy. I imagine that the idea of
+    these critics is that all these disturbances can be avoided if all
+    these republics were changed into monarchies. Let me tell them that
+    Diaz ruled over Mexico for thirty years, and only died as an exile
+    in May last (I am not quite sure of the exact month). If indeed the
+    struggle in Mexico was a fight for succession then the fight should
+    not have begun until this year. And indeed if it were necessary to
+    have a monarch to avoid the disturbance, and supposing that Diaz,
+    thirty years ago, had a man like Dr. Goodnow to make the suggestion,
+    and men like the Chou An Hui to spread it, and suppose that Diaz
+    boldly took the advice and set up an Imperial system for himself,
+    would Mexico then have a peace that would last as long as the ages?</p>
+			<p>  If Diaz had assumed the throne I am positive he would long ago have
+    been an exile in a foreign country before his imperial system could
+    have come into effect or he himself become the proud founder of a
+    new dynasty. What he would have held as an imperial charter would
+    have become a mere scrap of paper. If he could not prevent rebellion
+    even during his lifetime how can we expect an empty Imperial system
+    to prevent it after his death. Even a child can see this. The
+    disturbances in Mexico were unavoidable no matter under a republic
+    or a monarchy. The reason? It is because Diaz, under the mask of a
+    republic, actually played the r&ocirc;le of a despot. During all the
+    thirty years he held office he never devoted himself to the
+    strengthening of the fundamental things of State, but diligently
+    strengthened his own position. He massed an enormous number of
+    troops for his own protection so that he might overawe the people.
+    For fear that the troops might become arrogant and insubordinate, he
+    provoked disagreement among them in order that he might play them
+    round his fingers. He banished all those who opposed him, relying on
+    force alone. In dealing with those who were really patriotic, he
+    either corrupted their character by buying them with silver or
+    removed them by assassination. He was a vainglorious man and spent
+    money like water. From the foreign capitalists he borrowed in a most
+    indiscriminate manner, while on the Mexican people he levied all
+    sorts of cruel taxes. Thus the strength of the people was drained
+    and the resources of the country were exhausted, creating a position
+    over which he eventually had no control whatever. Ten years ago I
+    wrote an article in the <i>Hsin Min Tsung Pao</i> remarking that Diaz was
+    a matchless fraud. I said then that a nation-wide calamity would
+    befall Mexico after his death and that the Mexican nation would be
+    reduced to a mere shadow. (My friend Mr. Tang Chio-tun also wrote an
+    article, before the internal strife in Mexico broke out, on the same
+    subject and in an even more comprehensive way.) Luckily for Diaz he
+    ruled under the mask of republicanism, for only by so doing did he
+    manage to usurp and keep the presidential chair for thirty years. He
+    would long ago have disappeared had he attempted to assume the r&ocirc;le
+    of an emperor. This is also true of the other republics of Central
+    and South America. Their presidents almost without a single
+    exception used military force as a stepping-stone to the
+    presidential chair. We have yet to see the last
+<a name="Page_152" id="Page_152"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">152</span>
+military aspirant.
+    The unsuitability of the country to the republican system is of
+    course one of the reasons but I cannot agree with those who say that
+    this is the only reason.</p>
+			<p>  As to Portugal it is true that the change from the monarchy to
+    republic has not stopped internal disturbance; but is it not a fact
+    that Portugal became a republic as a result of internal disturbance
+    and was it not during the existence of the monarch that the
+    disturbance started? It is ridiculous to suppose that a republic
+    will surely court disturbance while a monarchy will surely ensure
+    peace and order. Is not Persia a monarchy? Is not Turkey a monarchy?
+    Is not Russia a monarchy?</p>
+			<p>  Read their history in recent decades and see how many years of peace
+    they have had. There have been no election of presidents in these
+    countries. Why then such unrest?</p>
+			<p>  Again, why was the state of affairs during the Sixteen States of the
+    Five Dynasty-Period and the Ten States of the Five Successions as
+    deplorably miserable and disastrous as the state of affairs now
+    prevailing in Mexico, although there was no election of Presidents
+    then? In quoting objective facts as illustrations the critic should
+    not allow his choice to be dictated by his personal like or dislike.
+    Otherwise he will not be deceiving others than himself. Soberly
+    speaking, any form of state is capable of either ensuring a
+    successful government or causing rebellion. And nine cases out of
+    ten the cause of rebellion lies in the conditions of the
+    administration and not in the form of state. It cannot be denied,
+    however, that the chances of rebellion and dissension are more
+    frequent and easier when the form of state does not suit the
+    conditions of the people. That is why I did not advocate
+    republicanism; and even now I am not a blind believer in
+    republicanism. In this I agree with you, the Chou An Hui people.</p>
+			<p>  The reason why I have not decided to advocate boldly a change in the
+    form of state is because for years my heart has been burdened with
+    an unspeakable sorrow and pain, believing that ever since the
+    mistake made in 1911 the hope for China's future has dwindled to
+    almost nothing. On one hand I have been troubled with our inability
+    to make the Republic a success, and on the other I have been
+    worrying over the fact that it would be impossible to restore the
+    monarchy. The situation has so worked on my troubled mind that at
+    times I seemed to be beside myself. But as the whole country seemed
+    to be already in a state of desperation I have come to the
+    conclusion that it would not do any good to add pain to sorrow.
+    Therefore, instead of uttering pessimistic views I have been
+    speaking words of encouragement to raise our spirits. In this,
+    however, I have exhausted my own strength. My friend, Mr. Hsu Fo-su,
+    told me some five or six years ago that it was impossible for China
+    to escape a revolution, and as a result of the revolution could not
+    escape from becoming a republic, and by becoming a republic China
+    would be bound to disappear as a nation. I have been meditating on
+    these words of ill-omen and sought to help the country to escape
+    from his prediction but I have not yet found the way.</p>
+			<a name="Page_153" id="Page_153"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">153</span>
+			<h4>  VIII. &quot;DIVINITY DOTH HEDGE A KING&quot;</h4>
+			<p>  Now my friends, you have stated in a worthy manner the reasons why
+    the republican form of state cannot assist China to maintain her
+    existence; now let me state why it is impossible to restore the
+    monarchical system. The maintenance of the dignity of a monarch
+    depends on a sort of mystical, historical, traditional influence or
+    belief. Such an influence was capable of producing unconsciously and
+    spontaneously a kind of effect to assist directly or indirectly in
+    maintaining order and imparting blessing to the country. In this
+    lies the value of a monarchy. But dignity is a thing not to be
+    trifled with. Once it is trodden down it can never rise again. We
+    carve wood or mould clay into the image of a person and call it a
+    god (idol). Place it in a beautiful temple, and seat it in a
+    glorious shrine and the people will worship it and find it
+    miraculously potent. But suppose some insane person should pull it
+    down, tread it under foot and throw it into a dirty pond and suppose
+    some one should discover it and carry it back to its original sacred
+    abode, you will find the charm has gone from it. Ever since the days
+    of monarchical government the people have looked on the monarch with
+    a sort of divine reverence, and never dared to question or criticize
+    his position. After a period of republicanism, however, this
+    attitude on the part of the common people has been abruptly
+    terminated with no possibility of resurrection. A survey of all the
+    republics of the world will tell us that although a large number of
+    them suffered under republican rule, not a single one succeeded in
+    shaking itself free of the republican fetters. Among the world
+    republics only France has had her monarchical system revived twice
+    after the republic was first inaugurated. The monarchy, however,
+    disappeared almost immediately. Thus we may well understand how
+    difficult it is for a country to return to its monarchical state
+    after a republican r&eacute;gime. It may be said that China has had only a
+    short experience of the republican r&eacute;gime; but it must also be
+    remembered that the situation has been developing for more than ten
+    years and in actual existence for about four years. During the
+    period of development the revolutionists denounced the monarch in
+    most extravagant terms and compared him to the devil. Their aim was
+    to kill the mystic belief of the people in the Emperor; for only by
+    diminishing the dignity of the monarch could the revolutionary cause
+    make headway. And during and after the change all the official
+    documents, school text-books, press views and social gossip have
+    always coupled the word monarch with reprobation. Thus for a long
+    while this glorious image has been lying in the dirty pond! Leaving
+    out the question that it is difficult to restore the monarchy at the
+    present day, let us suppose that by arbitrary method we do succeed
+    in restoring it. You will then find that it will be impossible for
+    it to regain in former dignity and influence.</p>
+			<p>  Turning to another aspect, the most natural course would seem to be
+    a revival of the last dynasty. It might have been possible for a
+    Charles II and Louis XVIII of China to appear again, if not for the
+    hatred of racial domination. But since the last dynasty was Manchu
+    this is out of the question. If a new dynasty were set up it would
+    require many years of
+<a name="Page_154" id="Page_154"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">154</span>
+hard labour and a great deal of organizing to
+    succeed. Even then only a few have succeeded in this way in
+    prolonging their dynasties by actually convincing the people of
+    their merits. Therefore for several years I have been saying to
+    myself that it would be easier to strengthen the country and place
+    it on a sounder basis if it were possible for us to return to our
+    monarchical state. And to revive the monarchical government there
+    are two ways.</p>
+			<p>  One is that after thoroughly reforming the internal administration
+    under the leadership of the present Great President, that is, when
+    all the neglected affairs of the country have been well attended to,
+    every family in the land made happy and prosperous, the army
+    well-trained and all the necessary bitterness &quot;eaten,&quot; the
+    President, when a suitable opportunity presented itself, should have
+    the rare fortune to gain a decisive victory over a foreign foe; then
+    his achievements would be such that the millions of people would
+    compel him to ascend the throne, and so he would hand his sceptre on
+    to his descendants for endless ages.</p>
+			<p>  The second possibility is that after a second great internal
+    disturbance, resulting in the whole country being thrown into a
+    state of utter confusion and cut up into small independent states,
+    the President should suppress them and unite the country into one
+    empire. We will, of course, not pray for the second possibility to
+    come about as then there will be little left of the Chinese people.
+    And no one can be certain whether the person who shall succeed in
+    suppressing the internal strife will be a man of our own race or
+    not. Thus the result will not differ very much from national
+    extinction. As to the first possibility, we know that an exceedingly
+    capable man is now in a most powerful position; let him be given
+    time and he will soon show himself to be a man of success. Does not
+    the last ray of hope for China depend on this?</p>
+			<h4>  IX. THE UNRIPE PEAR</h4>
+			<p>  This is why I say we should not deliberately create trouble for the
+    Republic at this time to add to the worries of the Great President
+    so that he might devote his puissant thoughts and energies to the
+    institution of great reforms. Then our final hope will be satisfied
+    some day. But what a year and what a day we are now living in? The
+    great crisis (<i>Note: The reference is to the Japanese demands</i>) has
+    just passed and we have not yet had time for a respite. By the
+    pressure of a powerful neighbour we have been compelled to sign a
+    &quot;certain&quot; Treaty. Floods, drought, epidemics and locusts visit our
+    country and the land is full of suffering while robbers plunder the
+    people. In ancient times this would have been a day for the Imperial
+    Court to remove their ornaments and live in humiliation. What do the
+    people of our day mean by advising and urging the President to
+    ascend the throne? To pluck the fruit before it is ripe, injures the
+    roots of the tree; and to force the premature birth of a child kills
+    the mother. If the last &quot;ray of hope&quot; for China should be
+    extinguished by the failure of a premature attempt to force matters,
+    how could the advocates of such a premature attempt excuse
+    themselves before the
+<a name="Page_155" id="Page_155"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">155</span>
+whole country? Let the members of the Chou An
+    Hui meditate on this point.</p>
+			<p>  The Odes say, &quot;The people are tired. Let them have a respite.&quot; In
+    less than four years' time from the 8th moon of the year Hsin Hai we
+    have had many changes. Like a bolt from the blue we had the Manchu
+    Constitution, then &quot;the Republic of Five Races,&quot; then the
+    Provisional President, then the formal Presidency, then the
+    Provisional Constitution was promulgated, then it was suddenly
+    amended, suddenly the National Assembly was convoked, suddenly it
+    was dissolved, suddenly we had a Cabinet System, suddenly it was
+    changed to a Presidential System, suddenly it was a short-term
+    Presidency, suddenly it was a life-term Presidency, suddenly the
+    Provisional Constitution was temporarily placed in a legal position
+    as a Permanent Constitution, suddenly the drafting of the Permanent
+    Constitution was pressed. Generally speaking the average life of
+    each new system has been less than six months, after which a new
+    system quite contrary to the last succeeded it. Thus the whole
+    country has been at a loss to know where it stood and how to act;
+    and thus the dignity and credit of the Government in the eyes of the
+    people have been lowered down to the dust. There are many subjects
+    respecting internal and diplomatic affairs which we can profitably
+    discuss. If you wish to serve the country in a patriotic way you
+    have many ways to do so. Why stir the peaceful water and create a
+    sea of troubles by your vain attempt to excite the people and sow
+    seeds of discord for the State?</p>
+			<h4>  X. THE ASSEVERATIONS OF THE PRESIDENT</h4>
+			<p>  One or two points more, and I am finished. These will be in the
+    nature of a straight talk to the Chou An Hui. The question I would
+    ask in plain words is, who is the person you have in your mind as
+    the future Emperor? Do you wish to select a person other than the
+    Great President? You know only too well that the moment the
+    President relieves his shoulder of the burdens of State the country
+    will be thrown into confusion. If you entertain this plot with the
+    deliberation of a person bent upon the destruction of the country,
+    then the four hundred million of people will not excuse you.</p>
+			<p>  Is the man you have in mind the present President? Heaven and earth
+    as well as all living creatures in China and other lands know what
+    the President swore to when he took the oath of office as President.
+    Rumours have indeed been circulated, but whenever they reached the
+    ears of the President he has never hesitated to express his
+    righteous mind, saying that no amount of pressure could compel him
+    to change his determination. All officials who have come into close
+    contact with the President have heard such sentiments from the lips
+    of the President on not a few occasions. To me his words are still
+    ringing in my ears. General Feng Kuo-chang has conveyed to me what
+    he was told by the President. He says that the President has
+    prepared a &quot;few rooms&quot; in England, and that if the people would not
+    spare him he would flee to the refuge he has prepared. Thus we may
+    clearly see how determined the President is. Can it be possible that
+<a name="Page_156" id="Page_156"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">156</span>
+    you have never heard of this and thus raise this extraordinary
+    subject without any cause? If the situation should become such that
+    the President should be compelled to carry out his threat and desert
+    the Palace, what would you say and do then?</p>
+			<p>  Or, perhaps, you are measuring the lordly conduct of a gentleman
+    with the heart of a mean man, saying to yourself that what the
+    President has been saying cannot be the truth, but, as Confucius has
+    said, &quot;say you are not but make a point to do it,&quot; and that, knowing
+    that he would not condemn you, you have taken the risk. If so, then
+    what do you take the President for? To go back on one's words is an
+    act despised by a vagabond. To suggest such an act as being capable
+    of the President is an insult, the hideousness of which cannot be
+    equalled by the number of hairs on one's head. Any one guilty of
+    such an insult should not be spared by the four hundred million of
+    people.</p>
+			<h4>  XI. THE CHOU AN HUI AND THE LAW</h4>
+			<p>  Next let me ask if you have read the Provisional Constitution, the
+    Provisional Code, the Meeting and Association Law, the Press
+    Regulations, the various mandates bearing on the punishment of
+    persons who dare conspire against the existing form of state? Do you
+    not know that you, as citizens of the Republic, must in duty bound
+    observe the Constitution and obey the laws and mandates? Yet you
+    have dared openly to call together your partisans and incite a
+    revolution (the recognized definition in political science for
+    revolution is &quot;to change the existing form of state&quot;). As the
+    Judiciary have not been courageous enough to deal with you since you
+    are all so closely in touch with the President, you have become
+    bolder still and carry out your sinister scheme in broad daylight. I
+    do not wish to say what sort of peace you are planning for China;
+    but this much I know, that the law has been violated by you to the
+    last letter. I will be silent if you believe that a nation can be
+    governed without law. Otherwise tell me what you have got to say?</p>
+			<p>  It is quite apparent that you will not be satisfied with mere
+    shouting and what you aim at is the actual fulfilment of your
+    expectations. That is, you wish that once the expected monarchy is
+    established it may continue for ever. Now by what principle can such
+    a monarchy continue for ever, except that the laws and orders of
+    that dynasty be obeyed, and obeyed implicitly by all, from the Court
+    down to the common people? For one to adopt methods that violate the
+    law while engaged in creating a new dynasty is like a man, who, to
+    secure a wife, induces the virtuous virgin to commit fornication
+    with him, on the plea that as a marriage will be arranged
+    preservation of her virtue need not be insisted upon. Can such a man
+    blame his wife for immorality after marriage? If, while still
+    citizens of a republican country, one may openly and boldly call
+    meetings and organize societies for the overthrow of the Republic,
+    who shall say that we may not in due time openly and boldly call
+    meetings and organize societies for the overthrow of the monarchy?
+    What shall you say if in future there should be another foreign
+    doctor to suggest another theory and another
+<a name="Page_157" id="Page_157"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">157</span>
+society to engage in
+    another form of activity? The Odes have it, &quot;To prevent the monkey
+    from climbing a tree is like putting mud on a man in the mire.&quot; For
+    a person to adopt such methods while engaged in the making of a
+    dynasty is the height of folly. Mencius says, &quot;a Chuntse when
+    creating a dynasty aims at things that can be handed down as good
+    examples.&quot; Is it not the greatest misfortune to set up an example
+    that cannot be handed down as a precedent? The present state of
+    affairs is causing me no small amount of anxiety.</p>
+			<h4>  XII. A POSTSCRIPT</h4>
+			<p>  A copy of Yang Tu's pamphlet, &quot;Constitutional Monarchy or the
+    Salvation of China&quot; reached me after I had finished writing the
+    above discussion. On a casual glance through it I alighted upon the
+    following passage: &quot;What is known as a constitutional country is a
+    country which has definite laws and in which no one, from the ruler
+    down to the common people, can take any action that is not permitted
+    by law. Good men cannot do good outside of the bounds of law;
+    neither can bad men do evil in violation of it.&quot; This is indeed a
+    passage that breathes the very spirit of constitutionalism. Let us
+    ask Mr. Yang if the activities of the Chou An Hui, of which he is
+    the President, are acts within the bounds of law? Mr. Yang is a good
+    man. It is therefore possible for him to believe that he is not
+    doing evil in violation of the law; but has he not at least been
+    doing good outside of the bounds of law? If an advocate of
+    constitutional monarchy is capable of doing such unlawful acts, we
+    may easily imagine what sort of a constitutional monarchy he
+    advocates; and we may also easily imagine what the fate of his
+    constitutional monarchy will be.</p>
+			<p>  Mencius says, &quot;Am I argumentative? I cannot help it.&quot; Who would have
+    thought that a man, who cares not for the question of the form of
+    state like myself and who opposed you&mdash;Mr. Yang Tu&mdash;during your
+    first campaign for the change in the form of State&mdash;you were a
+    Republican then&mdash;would be opposing you again now that you are
+    engaged in advocating another change in the form of state? A change
+    in the form of government is a manifestation of progress while a
+    change in the status of the State is a sign of revolution. The path
+    of progress leads to further progress, but the path of revolution
+    leads to more revolution. This is a fact proved by theory as well as
+    actual experience. Therefore a man who has any love for his country,
+    is afraid to mention revolution; and as for myself I am always
+    opposed to revolution. I am now opposing your theory of monarchical
+    revolution, just as I once opposed your theory of republican
+    revolution, in the same spirit, and I am doing the same duty. My
+    belief is that since the country is now in a most weakened state, we
+    may yet fail even if we do all we can at all times to nurse its
+    wound and gather up its scattered strength. How can any one devote
+    his time and energy to the discussion of a question of no importance
+    such as the form of state, and so obstruct the progress of the
+    administration? But this is not all. The whole country is now
+    stirred up to an excited state and is wondering how long this
+    ever-changing situation is going to stop. The loss caused by this
+<a name="Page_158" id="Page_158"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">158</span>
+    state of affairs, though unnoticed, is incalculable. In the Odes,
+    it is written &quot;Alas! my brethren. Befriended of the countrymen. No
+    one wants rebellion. What has no parents?&quot; Let the critics remember
+    this&mdash;let them remember.</p>
+			<p>  Some will say to me that a revolution is an unavoidable thing. Of
+    all things only the facts cannot be undone. Why then should I bother
+    myself especially as my last effort fell on deaf ears. This I
+    realize; but it is not my nature to abandon what is my conviction.
+    Therefore, although aware of the futility of my words, I cannot
+    refrain from uttering them all the same. Chu Yuan drowned himself in
+    the Pilo and Chia Sheng died from his horse. Ask them why they did
+    these things, they will say they did not know. Once I wrote a piece
+    of poetry containing the following lines:</p>
+		</div>
+		<p>
+			<span style="margin-left: 4em;">&quot;Ten years after you will think of me,</span>
+			<br />
+			<span style="margin-left: 4em;">The country is excited. To whom shall I speak?&quot;</span>
+			<br />
+		</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<p>I have spoken much in my life, and all my words have become subjects
+    for meditation ten years after they were uttered. Never, however,
+    have any of my words attracted the attention of my own countrymen
+    before a decade has spent itself. Is it a misfortune for my words or
+    a misfortune to the Country? My hope is that there will be no
+    occasion for the country to think of my present words ten years
+    hence. </p>
+		</div>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">159</span></p>
+		<h2>
+
+		<a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>
+		CHAPTER XI</h2>
+		<h3>THE DREAM EMPIRE</h3>
+		<h3>&quot;THE PEOPLE'S VOICE,&quot; AND THE ACTION OF THE POWERS (FROM SEPTEMBER TO
+DECEMBER, 1915)</h3>
+		<p>The effect of Liang Ch'i-chao's appeal was noticeable at once: there
+were ominous mutterings among all the great class of &quot;intellectuals&quot; who
+form such a remarkable element throughout the country. Nevertheless
+there were no overt acts attempted against the authority of Peking.
+Although literary and liberal China was now thoroughly convinced that
+the usurpation which Yuan Shih-kai proposed to practise would be a
+national disgrace and lead to far-reaching complications, this force
+were too scattered and too much under the power of the military to
+tender at once any active opposition as would have been the case in
+Western countries. Yuan Shih-kai, measuring this situation very
+accurately, and aware that he could easily become an object of popular
+detestation if the people followed the lead of the scholars, decided to
+place himself outside and beyond the controversy by throwing the entire
+responsibility on the Tsan Cheng Yuan, the puppet Senate he had erected
+in place of the parliament destroyed by his <i>coup d'&eacute;tat</i> of the 4th
+November, 1913. In a message issued to that body on the 6th September,
+1915, he declared that although in his opinion the time was
+inappropriate for making any change in the form of State, the matter
+demanded the most careful and serious consideration which he had no
+doubt would be given to it. If a change of so momentous a character as
+was now being publicly advocated were decided in too great a haste it
+might create grave complications: therefore the opinion of the nation
+should be consulted by the method of the ballot. And with this
+<a name="Page_160" id="Page_160"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">160</span>
+			<i>nunc
+dimittis</i> he officially washed his hands of a plot in which he had been
+the prime mover.</p>
+		<p>The Senate now openly delivered itself over to the accomplishment of the
+scheme which had been broached by Yang Tu, the monarchist pamphleteer.
+Although this individual still posed as the leader of the movement, in
+reality he was nothing but the tool of a remarkable man, one Liang
+Shih-yi, famous throughout the country as the most unscrupulous and
+adroit politician the Revolution had thrown up. This person, who is
+known to have been gravely implicated in many assassinations, and who
+was the instrument used in 1912 by Yuan Shih-kai to persuade the Manchu
+Imperial Family to abdicate, had in a brief four years accumulated a
+vast fortune by the manipulations he had indulged in as Director-General
+of The Bank of Communications, an institution which, because it disposed
+of all the railway receipts, was always in funds even when the Central
+Treasury itself was empty. By making himself financially indispensable
+to Yuan Shih-kai he had become recognized as the power behind the
+Throne; for although, owing to foreign clamour, he had been dismissed
+from his old office of Chief Secretary to the President (which he had
+utilized to effect the sale of offices far and wide) he was a daily
+visitor to the Presidential Palace and his creatures daily pulled all
+the numerous strings.</p>
+		<p>The scheme now adopted by the Senate was to cause the provinces to flood
+Peking with petitions, sent up through the agency of &quot;The Society for
+the Preservation of Peace,&quot; demanding that the Republic be replaced by
+that form of government which the people alone understood, the name
+Constitutional Monarchy being selected merely as a piece of political
+window-dressing to please the foreign world. A vast amount of organizing
+had to be done behind the scenes before the preliminaries were
+completed: but on the 6th October the scheme was so far advanced that in
+response to &quot;hosts of petitions&quot; the Senate, sitting in its capacity of
+Legislative Chamber (<i>Li Fa Yuan</i>) passed a so-called King-making bill
+in which elaborate regulations were adopted for referring the question
+under discussion to a provincial referendum. According to this na&iuml;ve
+document the provinces were to be organized into electoral colleges, and
+the votes of the electors, after being recorded, were to be sent
+<a name="Page_161" id="Page_161"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">161</span>
+up
+to Peking for scrutiny. Some attempt was made to follow Dr. Goodnow's
+advice to secure as far as possible that the various classes of the
+community should be specially represented: and provision was therefore
+made in the voting for the inclusion of &quot;learned scholars,&quot; Chambers of
+Commerce, and &quot;oversea merchants,&quot; whose votes were to be directly
+recorded by their special delegates. To secure uniformly satisfactory
+results, the whole election was placed absolutely and without
+restriction in the hands of the high provincial authorities, who were
+invited to bestow on the matter their most earnest attention.</p>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE17" id="IMAGE17"></a>
+			<a href="images/image17.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image17.jpg" width="100%" alt="Modern Peking: The Palace Entrance lined with Troops.
+Note the New-type Chinese Policeman in foreground." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>Modern Peking: The Palace Entrance lined with Troops.
+Note the New-type Chinese Policeman in foreground.</p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE18" id="IMAGE18"></a>
+			<a href="images/image18.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image18.jpg" width="70%" alt="The Premier General Tuan Chi-jui, Head of the Cabinet
+which decided to declare war on Germany." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>The Premier General Tuan Chi-jui, Head of the Cabinet
+which decided to declare war on Germany.</p>
+		</div>
+		<p>In a Mandate, issued in response to this Bill, Yuan Shih-kai merely
+limits himself to handing over the control of the elections and voting
+to the local authorities, safe in the knowledge that every detail of the
+plot had been carefully worked out in advance. By this time the fact
+that a serious and dangerous movement was being actively pushed had been
+well-impressed on the Peking Legations, and some anxiety was publicly
+manifested. It was known that Japan, as the active enemy of Yuan
+Shih-kai, could not remain permanently silent: and on the 28th October
+in association with Great Britain and Russia, she indeed made official
+inquiries at the Chinese Foreign Office regarding the meaning of the
+movement. She was careful, however, to declare that it was her
+solicitude for the general peace that alone dictated her action.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18"><sup>[18]</sup></a>
+Nevertheless, her warning had an unmistakable note about it and
+occasioned grave anxiety, since
+<a name="Page_162" id="Page_162"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">162</span>
+the ultimatum of the previous May in
+connection with the Twenty-one Demands had not been forgotten. At the
+beginning of November the Chinese Minister of Foreign Affairs, replying
+verbally to these representations, alleged that the movement had gone
+too far for it to be stopped and insisted that no apprehensions need be
+felt by the Foreign Powers regarding the public safety. Dissatisfied by
+this reply all the Entente Powers, now including France and Italy,
+renewed their representations, receiving a few days later a formal Note
+in which absolute guarantees were given that law and order would be
+sedulously preserved. Baffled by this firmness, and conscious that
+further intervention in such matter would be fraught with grave
+difficulties, the Entente Powers decided to maintain a watchful attitude
+but to do no more publicly. Consequently events marched forward so
+rapidly that by December the deed was done, and Yuan Shih-kai had
+apparently been elected unanimously Emperor of China by the provincial
+ballot.</p>
+		<p>The explanation of this extraordinary business was only made public
+months later with the outbreak of the Yunnan rebellion and the secession
+of the Southern provinces. In a remarkable publication, entitled
+satirically &quot;The People's Will,&quot; the Southern Republican Party, which
+now possessed access to all the confidential archives of the provinces,
+published in full the secret instructions from Peking which had brought
+about this elaborate comedy. Though considerations of space prevent all
+documents being included in our analysis, the salient ones are here
+textually quoted so as to exhibit in its proper historical light the
+character of the chief actor, and the <i>r&eacute;gime</i> the Powers had
+supported&mdash;until they were forced by Japan to be more honest. These
+documents, consisting mainly of telegraphic dispatches sent from Peking
+to the provinces, do more to explain the working of the Government of
+China than a dozen treatises; for they drag into the garish light of day
+the most secret Yamen machinery and show precisely how it is worked.</p>
+		<p>The play was set in motion by a circular code telegram sent out on the
+30th August by Tuan Chih-kuei, Governor of Moukden and one of Yuan
+Shih-kai's most trusted lieutenants, the device of utilizing a centre
+other than the capital to propagate revolutionary
+<a name="Page_163" id="Page_163"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">163</span>
+ideas being a
+familiar one and looked upon as a very discreet procedure. This initial
+telegram is a document that speaks for itself:</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>CODE TELEGRAM DATED AUGUST 30, 1915, FROM TUAN CHI-KUEI, MILITARY
+    GOVERNOR OF MOUKDEN, ET ALIA, CONTAINING INSTRUCTIONS FOR PRESENTING
+    PETITIONS TO PEKING IN THE NAME OF THE CITIZENS OF THE PROVINCES</h3>
+			<p>  To the Military and Civil Governors of the Provinces:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  (To be deciphered personally with the Council of State Code)</p>
+			<p>  The proposal of changing the form of the State into a monarchy
+    having been unanimously agreed to by the provinces, the first step
+    to be taken has now to be decided. We propose that petitions be sent
+    in the name of the citizens of the respective provinces to the
+    Senate acting in the capacity of Legislative Chamber, so as to
+    demonstrate the wish of the people to have a monarchy. The acting
+    Legislative Chamber will then decide upon the course to be adopted.</p>
+			<p>  The plan suggested is for each province to send in a separate
+    petition, the draft of which will be made in Peking and wired to the
+    respective provinces in due course. If you approve, you will insert
+    your name as well as those of the gentry and merchants of the
+    province who agree to the draft. These petitions are to be presented
+    one by one to the Legislative Chamber, as soon as it is convoked. At
+    all events, the change in the form of the State will have to be
+    effected under the colour of carrying out the people's will.</p>
+			<p>  As leading members of political and military bodies, we should wait
+    till the opportune moment arrives when we will give collateral
+    support to the movement. Details of the plan will be made known to
+    you from time to time. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>This method of circular telegrams, which had been inherited from the
+last days of the Manchus, and vastly extended during the
+<i>post</i>-revolutionary period, was now to be used to the very utmost in
+indoctrinating the provinces with the idea that not only was the
+Republic doomed but that prompt steps must be taken to erect the
+Constitutional Monarchy by use of fictitious legal machinery so that it
+should not be said that the whole enterprise was a mere plot.
+Accordingly, on the 10th September, as a sequel to the telegram we have
+just quoted, an enormous circular message of several thousand words was
+sent in code from Peking to all the Military and Civil Governors in the
+provinces instructing them precisely how to act in order to throw a
+cloak over the nefarious deed. After explaining the so-called
+<a name="Page_164" id="Page_164"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">164</span>
+&quot;Law on
+the General Convention of the Citizens' Representatives&quot; (<i>i.e.</i>
+national referendum) the following illuminating sentences occur which
+require no comment showing as they do what apt pupils reactionary
+Chinese are in the matter of ballot-fraud.</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<p>... (1) The fact that no fewer than one hundred petitions for a
+    change in the form of State have been received from people residing
+    in all parts of the country shows that the people are of one mind
+    concerning this matter. Hence the words in the &quot;General Convention
+    Law&quot;: &quot;to be decided by the General Convention of the Citizens'
+    Representatives,&quot; refer to nothing more than the formal approval of
+    the Convention and are by no means intended to give room for
+    discussion of any kind. Indeed, it was never intended that the
+    citizens should have any choice between a republic and a monarchy.
+    For this reason at the time of voting all the representatives must
+    be made unanimously to advocate a change of the Republic into a
+    Monarchy.</p>
+			<p>  It behooves you, therefore, prior to the election and voting,
+    privately to search for such persons as are willing to express the
+    people's will in the sense above indicated. You will also make the
+    necessary arrangements beforehand, and devise every means to have
+    such persons elected, so that there may be no divergence of opinion
+    when the time arrives for putting the form of the State to the vote.</p>
+			<p>  (2) Article 2 provides: &quot;The citizens' representatives shall be
+    elected by separate ballot signed by the person voting. The person
+    who obtains the greatest number of votes cast shall be declared
+    elected.&quot;</p>
+			<p>  The citizens' representatives, though nominally elected by the
+    electors, are really appointed beforehand by you acting in the
+    capacity of Superintendent of Election. The principle of separate
+    signed ballot is adopted in this article with the object of
+    preventing the voters from casting their votes otherwise than as
+    directed, and of awakening in them a sense of responsibility for
+    their votes.... </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>These admirable principles having been officially laid down by Peking,
+it is not hard to understand that the Military and Civil Governors in
+the provinces, being anxious to retain their posts and conciliate the
+great personage who would be king, gave the problem their most earnest
+attention, and left no stone unturned to secure that there should be no
+awkward contretemps. On the 28th September, the Peking Government, being
+now entirely surrendered into the hands of the plotters, thought it
+advisable to give the common people a direct hint of what was coming, by
+sending circular instructions regarding the non-observance of the
+Republican anniversary (10th October).
+<a name="Page_165" id="Page_165"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">165</span>
+The message in question is so
+frankly ingenuous that it merits inclusion in this singular <i>dossier</i>:</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>CODE TELEGRAM DATED SEPTEMBER 26, 1915, FROM THE COUNCIL OF STATE TO
+    THE MILITARY AND CIVIL GOVERNORS OF THE PROVINCES RESPECTING THE
+    NON-OBSERVANCE OF THE ANNIVERSARY OF THE REPUBLIC</h3>
+			<p>  To the Military and Civil Governors and the Military Commissioners
+    of the Provinces and the Intendant of Shanghai:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  (Code Telegram)</p>
+			<p>  Now that a monarchical form of government has been advocated, the
+    National Anniversary in commemoration of the Republic should, of
+    course, be observed with least possible display, under the pretext
+    either of the necessity for economy owing to the impoverished
+    condition of the people, or of the advisability of celebrating the
+    occasion quietly so as to prevent disturbances arising in
+    consequence of the many rumours now afloat. In this way public peace
+    and order may be maintained on the one hand, money and trouble saved
+    on the other. How to put this suggestion into practice will be left
+    to your discretion.</p>
+			<p>  (Signed) COUNCIL OF STATE. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>By October such progress had been made in Peking in the general work of
+organizing this <i>coup d'&eacute;tat</i> that, as we have seen, the Senate had
+passed on the 6th of that month the so-called &quot;King-making Bill.&quot; The
+very next day, so that nothing should be left in doubt, the following
+circular telegram was dispatched to all the provinces:</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>CODE TELEGRAM DATED OCTOBER 7, 1915, FROM CHU CHI-CHUN, MINISTER OF
+    THE INTERIOR, ET ALIA, DEVISING PLANS FOR NOMINATING YUAN SHIH-KAI
+    AS EMPEROR</h3>
+			<p>  To the Military and Civil Governors of the Provinces:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  (To be deciphered with the Hua Code)</p>
+			<p>  Our telegram of the 12th ult. must have reached you by this time.</p>
+			<p>  The Administrative Council, at a meeting held on the 4th inst.,
+    passed the Bill for a General Convention of the Citizens'
+    Representatives. Article 12 of the Bill was amended so as to contain
+    the following clause:&mdash;&quot;The Superintendent of Election may, in case
+    of necessity, delegate his functions to the several district
+    magistrates.&quot; This will soon be communicated officially to the
+    provinces. You are therefore requested to make the necessary
+    preparations beforehand in accordance with the instructions
+    contained in our telegram of the 29th September.</p>
+			<p>  We propose that the following steps be taken after the votes have
+    been duly polled:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>
+				<a name="Page_166" id="Page_166"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">166</span>
+(1) After the form of the state has been put to the vote, the
+    result should be reported to the sovereign (meaning Yuan Shih-kai)
+    and to the Administrative Council in the name of the General
+    Convention of the Citizens' Representatives.</p>
+			<p>  (2) In the telegrams to be sent by the General Convention of the
+    Citizens' Representatives for nominating the emperor, the following
+    words should be specifically used: &quot;We respectfully nominate the
+    present President Yuan Shih-kai as Emperor of the Chinese Empire.&quot;</p>
+			<p>  (3) The telegrams investing the Administrative Council with general
+    powers to act on behalf of the General Convention of the Citizens'
+    Representatives should be dispatched in the name of the General
+    Convention of the Citizens of the Provinces.</p>
+			<p>  The drafts of the dispatches under the above-mentioned three heads
+    will be wired to you beforehand. As soon as the votes are cast,
+    these are to be shown to the representatives, who will sign them
+    after perusal. Peking should be immediately informed by telegram.</p>
+			<p>  As for the telegrams to be sent by the commercial, military, and
+    political bodies, they should bear as many signatures as possible,
+    and be wired to the Central Government within three days after the
+    voting.</p>
+			<p>  When the enthronement is promulgated by edict, letters of
+    congratulation from the General Convention of the Citizens'
+    Representatives, as well as from the commercial, military, and
+    political bodies, will also have to be sent in. You are therefore
+    requested to draw up these letters in advance.</p>
+			<p>  This is specially wired for your information beforehand. The details
+    will be communicated by letter. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>In ordinary circumstances it would have been thought that sufficiently
+implicit instructions had already been given to permit leaving the
+matter in the hands of the provincial authorities. Great anxiety,
+however, was beginning to reign in Peking owing to continual rumours
+that dangerous opposition, both internal and external, was developing.
+It was therefore held necessary to clinch the matter in such a way that
+no possible questions should be raised later. Accordingly, before the
+end of October&mdash;and only two days before the &quot;advice&quot; was tendered by
+Japan and her Allies,&mdash;the following additional instructions were
+telegraphed wholesale to the provinces, being purposely designed to make
+it absolutely impossible for any slip to occur between cup and lip. The
+careful student will not fail to notice in these remarkable messages
+that as the game develops, all disguise is thrown to the four winds, and
+the central and only important point, namely the prompt election and
+enthronement of Yuan Shih-kai as Emperor, insisted on with
+<a name="Page_167" id="Page_167"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">167</span>
+almost
+indecent directness, every possible precaution being taken to secure
+that end:</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>CODE TELEGRAM DATED OCTOBER 26, 1915, FROM CHU CHI-CHUN, MINISTER OF
+    THE INTERIOR, ET ALIA, RESPECTING THE NOMINATION OF YUAN SHIH-KAI AS
+    EMPEROR</h3>
+			<p>  To the Military and Civil Governors of the Provinces:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  (To be deciphered with the Hua Code)</p>
+			<p>  Your telegram of the 24th inst. came duly to hand.</p>
+			<p>  After the form of the state has been put to the vote, the nomination
+    of Yuan Shih-kai as emperor should be made forthwith without further
+    voting. You should address the representatives and tell them that a
+    monarchy having been decided on, not even a single day should pass
+    without an emperor; that the citizens' representatives present
+    should nominate Yuan Shih-kai as the Great Emperor of the Chinese
+    Empire; and that if they are in favour of the proposal, they should
+    signify their assent by standing up. This done, the text of the
+    proposed letter of nomination from the citizens should be handed to
+    the representatives for their signatures; after which you should
+    again address them to the effect that in all matters concerning the
+    nomination and the petition for immediate enthronement, they may, in
+    the name of the citizens' representatives, invest the acting
+    Legislative Council with general powers to act on their behalf and
+    to do the necessary things until their petition is granted. The text
+    (already prepared) of the proposed telegram from the citizens'
+    representatives to the acting Legislative Council should then be
+    shown to the representatives for approval. Whereupon three separate
+    telegrams are to be drawn up: one giving the number of votes in
+    favour of a change in the form of the state, one containing the
+    original text of the letter of nomination, and the third concerning
+    the vesting of the acting Legislative Council with general powers to
+    act on behalf of the citizens' representatives. These should be sent
+    officially to the acting Legislative Council in the name of the
+    citizens' representatives. You should at the same time wire to the
+    President all that has taken place. The votes and the letter of
+    nomination are to be forwarded to Peking in due course.</p>
+			<p>  As for the exact words to be inserted in the letter of nomination,
+    they have been communicated to you in our telegram of the 23rd inst.
+    These characters, forty-five in all, must on no account be altered.
+    The rest of the text is left to your discretion.</p>
+			<p>  We may add that since the letter of nomination and the vesting of
+    the acting Legislative Council with general powers to act on behalf
+    of the citizens' representatives are matters which transgress the
+    bounds of the law, you are earnestly requested not to send to the
+    National Convention Bureau any telegraphic enquiry concerning them,
+    so that the latter may not find itself in the awkward position of
+    having to reply. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>Two days after this telegram had been dispatched the long-feared
+<a name="Page_168" id="Page_168"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">168</span>
+action
+on the part of Japan had been taken and a new situation had been
+created. The Japanese &quot;advice&quot; of the 28th October was in fact a
+veritable bombshell playing havoc with the house of cards which had been
+so carefully erected. But the intrigue had gone so far, and the prizes
+to be won by the monarchical supporters were so great that nothing could
+induce them to retrace their footsteps. For a week and more a desperate
+struggle went on behind the scenes in the Presidential Palace, since
+Yuan Shih-kai was too astute a man not to understand that a most
+perilous situation was being rapidly created and that if things went
+wrong he would be the chief victim. But family influences and the voice
+of the intriguers proved too strong for him, and in the end he gave his
+reluctant consent to a further step. The monarchists, boldly acting on
+the principle that possession is nine points of the law, called upon the
+provinces to anticipate the vote and to substitute the title of Emperor
+for that of President in all government documents and petitions so that
+morally the question would be <i>chose jug&eacute;e</i>.</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>CODE TELEGRAM DATED NOVEMBER 7, 1915, FROM CHU CHI-CHUN, MINISTER OF
+    THE INTERIOR, ET ALIA, ENJOINING A STRONG ATTITUDE TOWARDS
+    INTERFERENCE ON THE PART OF A CERTAIN FOREIGN POWER</h3>
+			<p>  To the Military and Civil Governors of the Provinces:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  (To be deciphered personally with the Council of State Code)</p>
+			<p>  A certain foreign power, under the pretext that the Chinese people
+    are not of one mind and that troubles are to be apprehended, has
+    lately forced England and Russia to take part in tendering advice to
+    China. In truth, all foreign nations know perfectly well that there
+    will be no trouble, and they are obliged to follow the example of
+    that power. If we accept the advice of other Powers concerning our
+    domestic affairs and postpone the enthronement, we should be
+    recognizing their right to interfere. Hence action should under no
+    circumstance be deferred. When all the votes of the provinces
+    unanimously recommending the enthronement shall have reached Peking,
+    the Government will, of course, ostensibly assume a wavering and
+    compromising attitude, so as to give due regard to international
+    relations. The people, on the other hand, should show their firm
+    determination to proceed with the matter at all costs, so as to let
+    the foreign powers know that our people are of one mind. If we can
+    only make them believe that the change of the republic into a
+    monarchy will not in the least give rise to trouble of any kind, the
+    effects of the advice tendered by Japan will <i>ipso facto</i> come to
+    nought.</p>
+			<p>  At present the whole nation is determined to nominate Yuan Shih-kai
+    Emperor. All civil and military officers, being the natural leaders
+    of
+<a name="Page_169" id="Page_169"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">169</span>
+the people, should accordingly give effect to the nomination. If
+    this can be done without friction, the confidence of both Chinese
+    and foreigners in the Government will be greatly strengthened. This
+    is why we suggested to you in a previous telegram the necessity of
+    immediately substituting the title of &quot;Emperor&quot; for &quot;President.&quot; We
+    trust you will concur in our suggestion and carry it out without
+    delay.</p>
+			<p>  We may add that this matter should be treated as strictly
+    confidential.</p>
+			<p>  A reply is requested.</p>
+			<p>  (Signed) </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>The die now being cast all that was left to be done was to rush through
+the voting in the Provinces. Obsequious officials returned to the use of
+the old Imperial phraseology and Yuan Shih-kai, even before his
+&quot;election,&quot; was memorialized as though he were the legitimate successor
+of the immense line of Chinese sovereigns who stretch back to the
+mythical days of Yao and Shun (2800 B.C.). The beginning of December saw
+the voting completed and the results telegraphed to Peking; and on the
+11th December, the Senate hastily meeting, and finding that &quot;the
+National Convention of Citizens&quot; had unanimously elected Yuan Shih-kai
+Emperor, formally offered him the Throne in a humble petition. Yuan
+Shih-kai modestly refused: a second petition was promptly handed to him,
+which he was pleased to accept in the following historic document:</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>YUAN SHIH-KAI'S ACCEPTANCE OF THE IMPERIAL THRONE</h3>
+			<p>  The prosperity and decline of the country is a part of the
+    responsibility of every individual, and my love for the country is
+    certainly not less than that of others. But the task imposed on me
+    by the designation of the millions of people is of extraordinary
+    magnitude. It is therefore impossible for one without merit and
+    without virtue like myself to shoulder the burdens of State involved
+    in the enhancing of the welfare of the people, the strengthening of
+    the standing of the country, the reformation of the administration
+    and the advancement of civilization. My former declaration was,
+    therefore, the expression of a sincere heart and not a mere
+    expression of modesty. My fear was such that I could not but utter
+    the words which I have expressed. The people, however, have viewed
+    with increasing impatience that declaration and their expectation of
+    me is now more pressing than ever. Thus I find myself unable to
+    offer further argument just as I am unable to escape the position.
+    The laying of a great foundation is, however, a thing of paramount
+    importance and it must not be done in a hurry. I, therefore, order
+    that the different Ministries and Bureaux take concerted action in
+    making the necessary preparations in the affairs in which they are
+    concerned; and when that
+<a name="Page_170" id="Page_170"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">170</span>
+is done, let the same be reported to me
+    for promulgation. Meanwhile all our citizens should go on peacefully
+    in their daily vocations with the view to obtain mutual benefit. Let
+    not your doubts and suspicions hinder you in your work. All the
+    officials should on their part be faithful at their posts and
+    maintain to the best of their ability peace and order in their
+    localities, so that the ambition of the Great President to work for
+    the welfare of the people may thus be realized. Besides forwarding
+    the memorial of the principal representatives of the Convention of
+    the Representatives of Citizens and that of the provinces and
+    special administrative area to the Cheng Shih Tang and publishing
+    the same by a mandate, I have the honour to notify the acting Li Fan
+    Yuan as the principal representatives of the Convention of the
+    Representatives of Citizens, to this effect. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>Cautious to the end, it will be seen that Yuan Shih-kai's very
+acceptance is so worded as to convey the idea that he is being forced to
+a course of action which is against his better instincts. There is no
+word of what came to be called the Grand Ceremony, <i>i.e.</i> the
+enthronement. That matter is carefully left in abeyance and the
+government departments simply told to make the necessary preparations.
+The attitude of Peking officialdom is well-illustrated in a circular
+telegram dispatched to the provinces three days later, the analysis of
+Japan's relationship to the Entente Powers being particularly revealing.
+The obsequious note which pervades this document is also particularly
+noticeable and shows how deeply the canker of sycophancy had now eaten
+in.</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>CODE TELEGRAM DATED DECEMBER 14, 1915, FROM THE OFFICE OF
+    COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF OF THE LAND AND NAVAL FORCES, RESPECTING CHINA'S
+    ATTITUDE TOWARDS FOREIGN NATIONS</h3>
+			<p>  To the Military and Civil Governors of the Provinces:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  (To be deciphered with the Hua Code)</p>
+			<p>  On the 11th inst. the acting Legislature Council submitted a
+    memorial to the Emperor, reporting on the number of votes cast by
+    the people in favour of a monarchy and the letters of nomination of
+    Yuan Shih-kai as Emperor received from all parts of the country, and
+    begged that he would ascend the Throne at an early date. His Majesty
+    was, however, so modest as to decline. The Council presented a
+    second memorial couched in the most entreating terms, and received
+    an order to the effect that all the ministries and departments were
+    to make the necessary preparations for the enthronement. The details
+    of this decision appeared in the Presidential Orders of the past few
+    days, so need not be repeated now.</p>
+			<p>
+				<a name="Page_171" id="Page_171"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">171</span>
+The people are unanimously of the opinion that in a republic the
+    foundation of the state is very apt to be shaken and the policy of
+    the government to be changed; and that consequently there is no
+    possibility of enjoying everlasting peace and prosperity, nor any
+    hope for the nation to become powerful. Now that the form of the
+    state has been decided in favour of a monarchy and the person who is
+    to sit on the Throne agreed upon, the country is placed on a secure
+    basis, and the way to national prosperity and strength is thus
+    paved.</p>
+			<p>  Being the trustworthy ministers and, as it were, the hands and feet
+    of His Majesty, we are united to him by more ties than one. On this
+    account we should with one mind exert our utmost efforts in
+    discharging our duty of loyalty to the country. This should be the
+    spirit which guides us in our action at the beginning of the new
+    dynasty. As for the enthronement, it is purely a matter of ceremony.
+    Whether it takes place earlier or later is of no moment. Moreover
+    His Majesty has always been modest, and does everything with
+    circumspection. We should all appreciate his attitude.</p>
+			<p>  So far as our external relations are concerned, a thorough
+    understanding must be come to with the foreign nations, so that
+    recognition of the new r&eacute;gime may not be delayed and diplomatic
+    intercourse interrupted. Japan, has, in conjunction with the Entente
+    Powers, tendered advice to postpone the change of the Republic into
+    an empire. As a divergence of opinion exists between Japan and the
+    Entente Powers, the advice is of no great effect. Besides, the
+    Elders and the Military Party in Japan are all opposed to the action
+    taken by their Government. Only the press in Tokio has spread all
+    sorts of threatening rumours. This is obviously the upshot of
+    ingenious plots on the part of irresponsible persons. If we postpone
+    the change we shall be subject to foreign interference, and the
+    country will consequently cease to exist as an independent state. On
+    the other hand, if we proclaim the enthronement forthwith, we shall
+    then be flatly rejecting the advice,&mdash;an act which, we apprehend,
+    will not be tolerated by Japan. As a result, she will place
+    obstacles in the way of recognition of the new order of things.</p>
+			<p>  Since a monarchy has been decided to be the future form of the
+    state, and His Majesty has consented to accept the Throne, the
+    change may be said to be an accomplished fact. There is no question
+    about it. All persons of whatever walk of life can henceforth
+    continue their pursuits without anxiety. In the meantime we will
+    proceed slowly and surely with the enthronement, as it involves many
+    ceremonies and diplomatic etiquette. In this way both our domestic
+    and our foreign policies will remain unchanged.</p>
+			<p>  We hope you will comprehend our ideas and treat them as strictly
+    confidential.</p>
+			<p>  (Signed) Office of the Commander-in-Chief of the Land and Naval
+    Force. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>After this one last step remained to be taken&mdash;it was necessary to burn
+all the incriminating evidence. On the 21st December,
+<a name="Page_172" id="Page_172"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">172</span>
+the last circular
+telegram in connection with this extraordinary business was dispatched
+from Peking, a delightful na&iuml;vet&eacute; being displayed regarding the
+possibility of certain letters and telegrams having transgressed the
+bounds of the law. All such delinquencies are to be mercifully wiped out
+by the simple and admirable method of invoking the help of the
+kitchen-fires. And in this appropriate way does the monster-play end.</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>CODE TELEGRAM DATED DECEMBER 21, 1915, FROM THE NATIONAL CONVENTION
+    BUREAU, ORDERING THE DESTRUCTION OF DOCUMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE
+    ELECTIONS</h3>
+			<p>  To the Military and Civil Governors of the Provinces, the Military
+    Commissioners at Foochow and Kweiyang; the Military Commandants at
+    Changteh, Kweihuating, and Kalgan; and the Commissioner of Defence
+    at Tachienlu:&mdash;(To be deciphered with the Hua Code)</p>
+			<p>  The change in the form of the state is now happily accomplished.
+    This is due not only to the unity of the people's minds, but more
+    especially to the skill with which, in realizing the object of
+    saving the country, you have carried out the propaganda from the
+    beginning, managed affairs according to the exigencies of the
+    occasions, and adapted the law to suit the circumstances. The people
+    have, to be sure, become tired of the Republic; yet unless you had
+    taken the lead, they would not have dared to voice their sentiments.
+    We all appreciate your noble efforts.</p>
+			<p>  Ever since the monarchical movement was started, the people as well
+    as the high officials in the different localities have repeatedly
+    petitioned for the change, a fact which proves that the people's
+    will is in favour of it. In order to enable the people to express
+    their will through a properly constituted organ, the General
+    Convention of the Citizens' Representatives has been created.</p>
+			<p>  Since the promulgation of the Law on the Organization of the
+    Citizens' Representatives, we, who are devoted to the welfare of the
+    state, desire to see that the decisions of that Convention do not
+    run counter to the wishes of the people. We are so anxious about the
+    matter that we have striven so to apply the law to meet the
+    circumstances as to carry out our designs. It is out of patriotic
+    motives that we have adopted the policy of adhering to the law,
+    whenever possible, and, at the same time, of yielding to expediency,
+    whenever necessary. During the progress of this scheme there may
+    have been certain letters and telegrams, both official and private,
+    which have transgressed the bounds of the law. They will become
+    absolutely useless after the affair is finished.' Moreover, no
+    matter how carefully their secrets may have been guarded, still they
+    remain as permanent records which might compromise us; and in the
+    event of their becoming known to foreigners, we shall not escape
+    severe criticism and bitter attacks, and, what is worse, should they
+    be handed down as
+<a name="Page_173" id="Page_173"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">173</span>
+part of the national records, they will stain the
+    opening pages of the history of the new dynasty. The Central
+    Government, after carefully considering the matter, has concluded
+    that it would be better to sort out and burn the documents so as to
+    remove all unnecessary records and prevent regrettable consequences.
+    For these reasons you are hereby requested to sift out all
+    telegrams, letters, and dispatches concerning the change in the form
+    of the state, whether official or private, whether received from
+    Peking or the provinces (excepting those required by law to be filed
+    on record), and cause the same to be burnt in your presence. As for
+    those which have already been communicated to the local officials,
+    you are likewise requested to order them to be returned immediately;
+    to commit them to the flames; and to report to this Bureau for
+    future reference the total number of documents so destroyed.</p>
+			<p>  The present change in the form of the state constitutes the most
+    glorious episode of our national history. Not only is this far
+    superior to the succession of dynasties by right of conquest or in
+    virtue of voluntary transfer (as in the days of Yao and Shun), but
+    it compares favourably with all the peaceful changes that have taken
+    place in western politics. Everything will be perfect if whatever
+    mars it (meaning the documents) is done away with.</p>
+			<p>  All of you have acquired greatness in founding the dynasty. You will
+    doubtless concur with us, and will, we earnestly hope, lose no time
+    in cautiously and secretly carrying out our request.</p>
+			<p>  We respectfully submit this to your consideration and wait for a
+    reply.</p>
+			<p>    (Signed) NATIONAL CONVENTION BUREAU. </p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="footnotes">
+			<p class="center">FOOTNOTES:</p>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_18_18">
+						<span class="label">[18]</span>
+					</a> A very remarkable illustration of the manner in which Yuan
+Shih-kai was trapped by official Japan during the monarchist movement
+has recently been extensively quoted in the Far Eastern press. Here is
+the substance of a Japanese (vernacular) newspaper account showing the
+uses to which Japanese politicians put the Press:
+</p>
+				<p>
+&quot;... When that question was being hotly discussed in China Marquis
+Okuma, interviewed by the Press, stated that monarchy was the right form
+of government for China and that in case a monarchical r&eacute;gime was
+revived Yuan Shih-kai was the only suitable person to sit on the Throne.
+When this statement by Marquis Okuma was published in the Japanese
+papers, Yuan Shih-kai naturally concluded that the Japanese Government,
+at the head of which Marquis Okuma was, was favourably disposed towards
+him and the monarchical movement. It can well be imagined, therefore,
+how intense was his surprise when he later received a warning from the
+Japanese Government against the resuscitation of the monarchy in China.
+When this inconsistency in the Marquis's actions was called in question
+in the Japanese House of Representatives, the ex-Premier absolutely
+denied the truth of the statement attributed to him by the Japanese
+papers, without any show of hesitancy, and thus boldly shirked the
+responsibility which, in reality, lay on him....&quot;</p>
+			</div>
+		</div>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p>	<a name="Page_174" id="Page_174"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">174</span></p>
+		<h2>
+
+		<a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>
+		CHAPTER XII</h2>
+		<h3>&quot;THE THIRD REVOLUTION&quot;</h3>
+		<h3>THE REVOLT OF YUNNAN</h3>
+		<p>In all the circumstances it was only natural that the extraordinary
+chapter of history we have just narrated should have marched to its
+appointed end in just as extraordinary a manner as it had commenced.
+Yuan Shih-kai, the uncrowned king, actually enjoyed in peace his empty
+title only for a bare fortnight, the curious air of unreality becoming
+more and more noticeable after the first burst of excitement occasioned
+by his acceptance of the Throne had subsided. Though the year 1915 ended
+with Peking brightly illuminated in honour of the new r&eacute;gime, which had
+adopted in conformity with Eastern precedents a new calendar under the
+style of Hung Hsien or &quot;glorious Constitutionalism,&quot; that official joy
+was just as false as the rest had been and awakened the incredulity of
+the crowd.</p>
+		<p>On Christmas Day ominous rumours had spread in the diplomatic circle
+that dramatic developments in South China had come which not only
+directly challenged the patient plotting of months but made a d&eacute;b&acirc;cle
+appear inevitable. Very few days afterwards it was generally known that
+the southernmost province of China, Yunnan&mdash;on the borders of
+French-Indo-China&mdash;had telegraphed the Central Government a thinly
+veiled ultimatum, that either the monarchy must be cancelled and the
+chief monarchists executed at once or the province would take such steps
+as were deemed advisable. The text of these telegrams which follows was
+published by the courageous editor of the Peking Gazette on the 31st
+December and electrified the capital. The reader will not fail to note
+how richly allegorical they are in spite of their dramatic nature:</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<a name="Page_175" id="Page_175"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">175</span>
+			<h3>FIRST TELEGRAM</h3>
+			<p>  To the Great President:</p>
+			<p>  Since the question of <i>Kuo-ti</i> (form of State) was raised
+    consternation has seized the public mind; and on account of the
+    interference of various Powers the spirit of the people has been
+    more and more aroused. They have asked the question:&mdash;&quot;Who has
+    invited the disaster, and brought upon us such great disgrace?&quot; Some
+    one must be responsible for the alien insults heaped on us.</p>
+			<p>  We have learned that each day is given to rapid preparations for the
+    Grand Ceremony; and it is now true that, internally, public opinion
+    has been slighted, and, externally, occasions have been offered to
+    foreigners to encroach on our rights. Our blood runs cold when we
+    face the dangers at the door. Not once but twice hath the President
+    taken the oath to observe and obey the Constitution and protect and
+    maintain the Republic. The oath was sworn before Heaven and Earth;
+    and it is on record in the hearts of millions of people and the
+    words thereof still echo in the ears of the people of all nations.
+    In the Classics it is said that &quot;in dealing with the people of the
+    country, faith is of the essence of great rule.&quot; Again it is written
+    that &quot;without faith a people cannot endure as a nation.&quot; How then
+    can one rule the people when he &quot;eats&quot; his own words and tears his
+    own oath? Principle has now been cast to the winds and the <i>Kuo-ti</i>
+    has been changed. We know not how the country can be administered.</p>
+			<p>  Since the suspension of the National Assembly and the revision of
+    the Constitution, the powers of Government have been centred in one
+    person, with the implied freedom to do whatever seems meet without
+    let or hindrance. If the Government were to use this power in order
+    to reform the administration and consolidate the foundations of the
+    nation, there would be no fear of failure. For the whole country
+    would submit to the measures of the Central Government. Thus there
+    is not the least necessity to commit treason by changing the
+    <i>Kuo-ti</i>.</p>
+			<p>  But although the recent decision of the Citizens' Representatives in
+    favour of a monarchy and the request of the high local officials for
+    the President's accession to the Throne have been represented as
+    inspired by the unanimous will of the people, it is well known that
+    the same has been the work of ignoble men whose bribery and
+    intimidation have been sanctioned by the authorities. Although inept
+    efforts have been made to disguise the deceit, the same is unhidden
+    to the eyes of the world.</p>
+			<p>  Fortunately it is said that the President has from the very
+    beginning maintained a calm attitude, speaking not his mind on the
+    subject. It is now as easy to turn the tide as the reversing of the
+    palm. It may be objected that if the &quot;face&quot; of the nation is not
+    preserved in view of the interference of Foreign Powers, there will
+    be great danger in future. But it must be observed that official
+    declaration can only be made in accordance with the will of the
+    people, the tendency of which can easily be ascertained by searching
+    for the facts. If the will of the people that the country should be
+    the common property of the Nation be obeyed and the
+<a name="Page_176" id="Page_176"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">176</span>
+idea of the
+    President that a Dynasty is as cheap as a worn-out shoe is heeded,
+    the latter has it in his power to loosen the string that suspends
+    the bell just as much as the person who has hung it. If the wrong
+    path is not forsaken, it is feared that as soon as the heart of the
+    people is gone, the country will be broken to pieces and the
+    dismemberment of the Nation will take place when alien pressure is
+    applied to us. We who have hitherto received favours from the
+    President and have received high appointments from him hereby offer
+    our faithful advice in the spirit of men who are sailing in common
+    in a boat that is in danger; we speak as do those who love sincerity
+    and cherish the unbroken word. We hope that the President will, with
+    courage, refuse to listen to the speech of evil counsellors and heed
+    the voice of conscience and of honour. We further hope that he will
+    renew his promise to protect the Republic; and will publicly swear
+    that a monarchical system will never again appear.</p>
+			<p>  Thus the heart of the people will be settled and the foundations of
+    the Nation will be consolidated. Then by enlisting the services of
+    sagacious colleagues in order to surmount the difficulties of the
+    time and sweeping away all corruption and beginning anew with the
+    people, it may be that the welfare and interest of the Nation will
+    be furthered. In sending this telegram our eyes are wet with tears,
+    knowing not what more to say. We respectfully await the order of the
+    President with our troops under arms.</p>
+			<p>  (Signed) THE GOVERNORS OF YUNNAN.</p>
+			<h3>  SECOND TELEGRAM</h3>
+			<p>  For the Perusal of the Great President:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  In our humble opinion the reason why the people&mdash;Chinese and
+    foreign&mdash;cannot excuse the President is because the movement for the
+    change of Kuo-ti has been inspired, and indeed actually originated
+    in Peking, and that the ringleaders of the plot against the <i>Min
+    Kuo</i> are all &quot;bosom-men&quot; of the President. The Chou An Hui,
+    organized by Yang Tu and five other men, set the fire ablaze and the
+    circular telegram sent by Chu Chi-chien and six other persons
+    precipitated the destruction of the Republican structure. The
+    President knew that the bad deed was being done and yet he did
+    nothing to arrest the same or punish the evil-doers. The people
+    therefore, are suspicious. A mandate was issued on the 24th of the
+    11th month of the 3rd year in which it is affirmed: &quot;Democracy and
+    republicanism are laid down in the Constitutional Compact; and there
+    is also a law relating to the punishment of those who spread
+    sedition in order to disturb the minds of the people. If any one
+    Shall hereafter dare to advance strange doctrines and misconstrue
+    the meaning of the Constitution, he will be punished severely in
+    accordance with the law of sedition.&quot;</p>
+			<p>  Yang Tu for having publicly organized the said Society and Chu
+    Chi-chien for having directly plotted by telegram are the principal
+    offenders in the present
+    flagrant case of sedition. As their crimes
+    are obvious and the subject of abundant proof, we hereby ask the
+    President to carry out at once the terms of the said mandate and
+    publicly execute Yang Tu,
+<a name="Page_177" id="Page_177"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">177</span>
+Sun Yu-yun, Yen Fu, Liu Shih-pei, Li
+    Hsieh-ho, Hu Ying, Chu Chi-chien, Tuan Chih-kuei, Chow Tzu-chi,
+    Liang Shih-yi, Chang Cheng-fang and Yuan Nai-kuan to the end that
+    the whole nation may be pacified. Then, and not till then, will the
+    world believe in the sincerity of the President, in his love for the
+    country and his intention to abide by the law. All the troops and
+    people here are in anger; and unless a substantial proof from the
+    Central Authorities is forthcoming, guaranteeing the maintenance of
+    the Republic, it will be impossible to suppress or pacify them. We
+    await a reply within twenty-four hours.</p>
+			<p>  (Signed) THE GOVERNORS OF YUNNAN PROVINCE. </p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE19" id="IMAGE19"></a>
+			<a href="images/image19.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image19.jpg" width="70%" alt="General Feng Kuo-chang, President of the Republic." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>General Feng Kuo-chang, President of the Republic.</p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE20" id="IMAGE20"></a>
+			<a href="images/image20.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image20.jpg" width="70%" alt="The Scholar Liang Chi-chao, sometime Minister of Justice,
+and the foremost &quot;Brain&quot; in China." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>The Scholar Liang Chi-chao, sometime Minister of Justice,
+and the foremost &quot;Brain&quot; in China.</p>
+		</div>
+		<p>It was evident from the beginning that pride prevented Yuan Shih-kai
+from retreating from the false position he had taken up. Under his
+instructions the State Department sent a stream of powerful telegraphic
+messages to Yunnan attempting to dissuade the Republican leaders from
+revolt. But the die had been cast and very gravely the standard of
+rebellion was raised in the capital city of Yunnan and the people
+exhorted to shed their blood. Everything pointed to the fact that this
+rising was to be very different from the abortive July outbreak of 1913.
+There was a soberness and a deliberation about it all which impressed
+close observers with a sense of the ominous end which was now in sight.</p>
+		<p>Still Peking remained purblind. During the month of January the
+splendour of the dream empire, which was already dissolving into thin
+air, filled the newspapers. It was reported that an Imperial Edict
+printed on Yellow Paper announcing the enthronement was ready for
+universal distribution: that twelve new Imperial Seals in jade or gold
+were being manufactured: that a golden chair and a magnificent State
+Coach in the style of Louis XV were almost ready. Homage to the portrait
+of Yuan Shih-kai by all officials throughout the country was soon to be
+ordered; sycophantic scholars were busily preparing a volume poetically
+entitled &quot;The Golden Mirror of the Empire,&quot; in which the virtues of the
+new sovereign were extolled in high-sounding language. A recondite
+significance, it was said, was to be given to the old ceremonial dress,
+which was to be revived, from the fact that every official would carry a
+Hu or Ivory Tablet to be held against the breast. The very mention of
+this was sufficient to make the local price of ivory leap skywards! In
+the privacy of drawing-rooms the story went the rounds
+<a name="Page_178" id="Page_178"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">178</span>
+that Yuan
+Shih-kai, now completely deluded into believing in the success of his
+great scheme, had held a full dress rehearsal of a ceremony which would
+be the first one at his new Court when he would invest the numerous
+ladies of his establishment with royal rank. Seated on his Throne he had
+been engaged in instructing these interested females, already robed in
+magnificent costumes, in the parts they were to play, when he had
+noticed the absence of the Korean Lady&mdash;a consort he had won, it is
+said, in his Seoul days in competition against the Japanese Envoy
+accredited to Korea, thereby precipitating the war of 1894-95.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19"><sup>[19]</sup></a> The
+Korean Lady had refused to enter the Throne-room, he was told, because
+she was dissatisfied with the rank he proposed to confer on her. Sternly
+he sent for her and told her to take her place in the circle. But no
+sooner had she arrived than hysterically she screamed, &quot;You told me when
+you wedded me that no wife would be my superior: now I am counted only a
+secondary consort.&quot; With that she hurled herself at the eldest wife who
+was occupying the post of honour and assailed her bitterly. Amidst the
+general confusion the would-be-Emperor hastily descended from his Throne
+and vainly intervened, but the women were not to be parted until their
+robes were in tatters.</p>
+		<p>In such childishnesses did Peking indulge when a great disaster was
+preparing. To explain what had occurred in Yunnan it is necessary to go
+back and tell the story of a remarkable young Chinese&mdash;General Tsao-ao,
+the soul of the new revolt.</p>
+		<p>In the revolution of 1911 each province had acted on the assumption that
+it possessed inherent autonomous rights and could assume sovereignty as
+soon as local arrangements had allowed the organization of a complete
+provisional government. Yunnan had been one of the earliest provinces to
+follow the lead of the Wuchang rebels and had virtually erected itself
+into a separate republic, which attracted much attention because of the
+iron discipline which was preserved. Possessing a fairly well-organized
+military system, largely owing to the proximity of the French frontier
+and the efforts which a succession of Viceroys had made to provide
+adequate frontier defence, it was
+<a name="Page_179" id="Page_179"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">179</span>
+amply able to guarantee its newly won
+autonomy. General Tsao-ao, then in command of a division of troops had
+been elected Generalissimo of the province; and bending himself to his
+task in very few weeks he had driven into exile all officials who
+adhered to the Imperialist cause and made all local institutions
+completely self-supporting. Even in 1911 it had been reported that this
+young man dreamed of founding a dynasty for himself in the mountains of
+South China&mdash;an ambition by no means impossible of realization since he
+had received a first-class military education in the Tokio Military
+Schools and was thoroughly up-to-date and conversant with modern
+theories of government.</p>
+		<p>These reports had at the time greatly concerned Yuan Shih-kai who heard
+it stated by all who knew him that the Yunnan leader was a genius in his
+own way. In conformity with his policy of bringing to Peking all who
+might challenge his authority, he had induced General Tsao-ao, since the
+latter had played no part in the rebellion of 1913, to lay down his
+office of Yunnan Governor-General and join him in the capital at the
+beginning of 1914&mdash;another high provincial appointment being held out to
+him as a bait.</p>
+		<p>Once in Peking, however, General Tsao-ao had been merely placed in
+charge of an office concerned with the reorganization of the land-tax,
+nominally a very important piece of work long advocated by foreign
+critics. But as there were no funds available, and as the purpose was
+plainly merely to keep him under observation, he fretted at the
+restraint, and became engaged in secret political correspondence with
+men who had been exiled abroad. As he was soon an open suspect, in order
+to avoid arrest he had taken the bold step at the very inception of the
+monarchy movement of heading the list of Generals in residence in Peking
+who petitioned the Senate to institute a Monarchy, this act securing him
+against summary treatment. But owing to his secret connection with the
+scholar Liang Chi-chao, who had thrown up his post of Minister of
+Justice and left the capital in order to oppose the new movement, he was
+watched more and more carefully&mdash;his death being even hinted at.</p>
+		<p>He was clever enough to meet this ugly development with a
+<a name="Page_180" id="Page_180"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">180</span>
+masterly
+piece of trickery conceived in the Eastern vein. One day a carefully
+arranged dispute took place between him and his wife, and the police
+were angrily called in to see that his family and all their belongings
+were taken away to Tientsin as he refused any longer to share the same
+roof with them. Being now alone in the capital, he apparently abandoned
+himself to a life of shameless debauch, going nightly to the haunts of
+pleasure and becoming a notorious figure in the great district in the
+Outer City of Peking which is filled with adventure and adventuresses
+and which is the locality from which Haroun al-Raschid obtained through
+the medium of Arab travellers his great story of &quot;Aladdin and the
+Wonderful Lamp.&quot; When governmental suspicions were thoroughly lulled, he
+arranged with a singing-girl to let him out by the backdoor of her house
+at dawn from whence he escaped to the railway-station, rapidly reaching
+Tientsin entirely unobserved.</p>
+		<p>The morning was well-advanced before the detectives who nightly watched
+his movements became suspicious. Then finding that his whereabouts were
+unknown to the coachman dozing on the box of his carriage, they roughly
+entered the house where he had passed the night only to find that the
+bird had flown. Hasty telegrams were dispatched in every direction,
+particularly to Tientsin&mdash;the great centre for political refugees&mdash;and
+his summary arrest ordered. But fortune favoured him. A bare
+quarter-of-an-hour before the police began their search he had embarked
+with his family on a Japanese steamer lying in the Tientsin river and
+could snap his fingers at Yuan Shih-kai.</p>
+		<p>Once in Japan he lost no time in assembling his revolutionary friends
+and in a body they embarked for South China. As rapidly as possible he
+reached Yunnan province from Hongkong, travelling by way of the French
+Tonkin railway. Entering the province early in December he found
+everything fairly ready for revolt, though there was a deficiency in
+arms and munitions which had to be made good. Yuan Shih-kai, furious at
+this evasion, had telegraphed to confidential agents in Yunnan to kill
+him at sight, but fortunately he was warned and spared to perform his
+important work. Had a fortnight of gr&acirc;ce been vouchsafed him, he would
+have probably made the most brilliant modern campaign that has been
+witnessed in China, for he was
+<a name="Page_181" id="Page_181"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">181</span>
+an excellent soldier. Acting from the
+natural fortress of Yunnan it was his plan to descend suddenly on the
+Yangtsze Valley by way of Chungking and to capture the upper river in
+one victorious march thus closing the vast province of Szechuan to the
+Northern troops. But circumstances had made it imperative for him and
+his friends to telegraph the Yunnan ultimatum a fortnight sooner than it
+should have been dispatched, and the warning thus conveyed to the
+Central Government largely crippled the Yunnan offensive.</p>
+		<p>The circumstances which had made instant action necessary were as
+follows. As we have seen from the record of the previous risings, the
+region of the Yangtsze river has superlative value in Chinese politics.
+Offering as it does an easy road into the heart of the country and
+touching more than half the Provinces, it is indeed a priceless means of
+communication, and for this reason Yuan Shih-kai had been careful after
+the crushing of the rebellion of 1913 to load the river-towns with his
+troops under the command of Generals he believed incorruptible. Chief of
+these was General Feng Kuo-chang at Nanking who held the balance of
+power on the great river, and whose politics, though not entirely above
+suspicion, had been proof against all the tempting offers South China
+made to him until the ill-fated monarchy movement had commenced. But
+during this movement General Feng Kuo-chang had expressed himself in
+such contemptuous terms of the would-be Emperor that orders had been
+given to another high official&mdash;Admiral Tseng, Garrison Commissioner at
+Shanghai&mdash;to have him assassinated. Instead of obeying his instructions,
+Admiral Tseng had conveyed a warning to his proposed victim, the
+consequence being that the unfortunate admiral was himself brutally
+murdered on the streets of Shanghai by revolver-shots for betraying the
+confidence of his master. After this d&eacute;nouement it was not very strange
+that General Feng Kuo-chang should have intimated to the Republican
+Party that as soon as they entered the Yangtsze Valley he would throw in
+his lot with them together with all his troops. Of this Yuan Shih-kai
+became aware through his extraordinary system of intelligence; and
+following his usual practice he had ordered General Feng Kuo-chang to
+Peking as Chief of the General Staff&mdash;an appointment which would place
+him under direct
+<a name="Page_182" id="Page_182"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">182</span>
+surveillance. First on one excuse, then on another,
+General Feng Kuo-chang had managed to delay his departure from day to
+day without actually coming under the grave charge of refusing to obey
+orders. But finally the position was such that he telegraphed to General
+Tsao-ao that unless the Yunnan arrangements were hastened he would have
+to leave Nanking&mdash;and abandon this important centre to one of Yuan
+Shih-kai's own henchmen&mdash;which meant the end of all hopes of the
+Yangtsze Valley rising <i>en masse</i>.</p>
+		<p>It was to save Feng Kuo-chang, then, that the young patriot Tsao-ao
+caused the ultimatum to be dispatched fourteen days too soon, <i>i.e.</i>,
+before the Yunnan troops had marched over the mountain-barrier into the
+neighbouring province of Szechuan and seized the city of
+Chungking&mdash;which would have barred the advance of the Northern troops
+permanently as the river defiles even when lightly defended are
+impassable here to the strongest force. It was largely due to the
+hardships of forced marches conducted over these rugged mountains, which
+raise their precipitous peaks to the heavens, that Tsao-ao subsequently
+lost his life, his health being undermined by exposure, tuberculosis
+finally claiming him. But one thing at least did his resolute action
+secure. With Yunnan in open revolt and several other provinces about to
+follow suit, General Feng Kuo-chang was able to telegraph Peking that it
+was impossible for him to leave his post at Nanking without rebellion
+breaking out. This veiled threat was understood by Yuan Shih-kai. Grimly
+he accepted the checkmate.</p>
+		<p>Yet all the while he was acting with his customary energy. Troops were
+dispatched towards Szechuan in great numbers, being tracked up the
+rapids of the upper river on board fleets of junks which were ruthlessly
+commandeered. Now commenced an extraordinary race between the Yunnan
+mountaineers and the Northern plainsmen for the strategic city of
+Chungking. For some weeks the result was in doubt; for although Szechuan
+province was held by Northern garrisons, they were relatively speaking
+weak and surrounded by hostile Szechuan troops whose politics were
+doubtful. In the end, however, Yuan Shih-kai's men reached their goal
+first and Chungking was saved. Heavy and continuous mountain-fighting
+ensued, in which the
+<a name="Page_183" id="Page_183"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">183</span>
+Southern troops were only partially successful.
+Being less well-equipped in mountain artillery and less well-found in
+general supplies they were forced to rely largely on guerrilla warfare.
+There is little accurate record of the desperate fighting which occurred
+in this wild region but it is known that the original Yunnan force was
+nearly annihilated, and that of the remnant numbers perished from
+disease and exposure.</p>
+		<p>Other events were, however, hastening the d&eacute;b&acirc;cle. Kueichow province had
+almost at once followed the example of Yunnan. A third province,
+Kwangsi, under a veteran who was much respected, General Lu Yun Ting,
+was soon added; and gradually as in 1911 it became clear that the army
+was only one chessman in a complicated and very ingenious game.</p>
+		<div class="footnotes">
+			<p class="center">FOOTNOTES:</p>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_19_19">
+						<span class="label">[19]</span>
+					</a> This story is firmly believed by many, namely that a
+beautiful woman caused the loss of Korea.</p>
+			</div>
+		</div>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">184</span></p>
+		<h2>
+
+		<a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>
+		CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+		<h3>&quot;THE THIRD REVOLUTION&quot; (Continued)</h3>
+		<h3>THE DOWNFALL AND DEATH OF YUAN SHIH-KAI</h3>
+		<p>As had been the case during the previous revolts, it was not publicly or
+on the battlefield that the most crucial work was performed: the
+decisive elements in this new and conclusive struggle were marshalled
+behind the scenes and performed their task unseen. Though the
+mandarinate, at the head of which stood Yuan Shih-kai, left no stone
+unturned to save itself from its impending fate, all was in vain. Slowly
+but inexorably it was shown that a final reckoning had to be faced.</p>
+		<p>The reasons are not far to seek. Too long had the moral sense of
+educated men been outraged by common fraud and deceit for any
+continuance of a r&eacute;gime which had disgraced China for four long years to
+be humanly possible. Far and wide the word was rapidly passing that Yuan
+Shih-kai was not the man he had once been; he was in reality feeble and
+choleric&mdash;prematurely old from too much history-making and too many
+hours spent in the harem. He had indeed become a mere Colossus with feet
+of clay,&mdash;a man who could be hurled to the ground by precisely the same
+methods he had used to destroy the Manchus. Even his foreign supporters
+were becoming tired and suspicious of him, endless trouble being now
+associated with his name, there being no promise that quieter times
+could possibly come so long as he lived. A very full comprehension of
+the general position is given by perusing the valedictory letter of the
+leader of the Chinellectuals, that remarkable man&mdash;Liang
+Ch'i-chao, who in December had silently and secretly fled from Tientsin
+on information reaching him that his assassination was being planned. On
+the even of his departure
+<a name="Page_185" id="Page_185"></a> Pg206 <span class="pagenum">185</span>
+he had sent the following brilliant document
+to the Emperor-elect as a reply to an attempt to entrap him to Peking, a
+document the meaning of which was clear to every educated man. Its
+exquisite irony mixed with its bluntness told all that was necessary to
+tell&mdash;and forecasted the inevitable fall. It runs:&mdash;</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<p>For the Kind Perusal of the Great President:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  A respectful reading of your kind instructions reveals to me your
+    modesty and the brotherly love which you cherish for your humble
+    servant, who is so moved by your heart-touching sympathy that he
+    does not know how to return your kindness. A desire then seized him
+    to submit his humble views for your wise consideration; though on
+    the one hand he has thought that he might fail to express what he
+    wishes to say if he were to do so in a set of brief words, while on
+    the other hand he has no desire to trouble the busy mind of one on
+    whose shoulders fall myriads of affairs, with views expressed in
+    many words. Furthermore, what Ch'i-chao desires to say relates to
+    what can be likened to the anxiety of one who, fearing that the
+    heavens may some day fall on him, strives to ward off the
+    catastrophe. If his words should be misunderstood, it would only
+    increase his offence. Time and again he has essayed to write; but
+    each time he has stopped short. Now he is going South to visit his
+    parents; and looking at the Palace-Gate from afar, he realizes that
+    he is leaving the Capital indefinitely. The thought that he has been
+    a prot&eacute;g&eacute; of the Great President and that dangers loom ahead before
+    the nation as well as his sense of duty and friendly obligations,
+    charge him with the responsibility of saying something. He therefore
+    begs to take the liberty of presenting his humble but extravagant
+    views for the kind consideration of the Great President.</p>
+			<p>  The problem of <i>Kuo-ti</i> (form of State) appears to have gone too far
+    for reconsideration: the position is like unto a man riding on the
+    back of a wild tiger.... Ch'i-chao therefore at one moment thought
+    he would say no more about it, since added comment thereon might
+    make him all the more open to suspicion. But a sober study of the
+    general situation and a quiet consideration of the possible future
+    make him tremble like an autumn leaf; for the more he meditates, the
+    more dangerous the situation appears. It is true that the minor
+    trouble of &quot;foreign advice&quot; and rebel plotting can be settled and
+    guarded against; but what Ch'i-chao bitterly deplores is that the
+    original intention of the Great President to devote his life and
+    energy to the interest of the country&mdash;an intention he has fulfilled
+    during the past four years&mdash;will be difficult to explain to the
+    world in future. The trust of the world in the Great President would
+    be shattered with the result that the foundation of the country will
+    be unsettled. Do not the Sages say: &quot;In dealing with the people aim
+    at faithfulness?&quot; If faithfulness to promises be observed by those
+    in authority, then the people will naturally surrender themselves.
+<a name="Page_186" id="Page_186"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">186</span>
+    Once, however, a promise is broken, it will be as hard to win back
+    the people's trust as to ascend to the very Heavens. Several times
+    have oaths of office been uttered; yet even before the lips are dry,
+    action hath falsified the words of promise. In these circumstances,
+    how can one hope to send forth his orders to the country in the
+    future, and expect them to be obeyed? The people will say &quot;he
+    started in righteousness but ended in self-seeking: how can we trust
+    our lives in his hands, if he should choose to pursue even further
+    his love of self-enrichment?&quot; It is possible for Ch'i-chao to
+    believe that the Great President has no desire to make profit for
+    himself by the sacrifice of the country, but how can the mass of the
+    people&mdash;who believe only what they are told&mdash;understand what
+    Ch'i-chao may, perchance, believe?</p>
+			<p>  The Great President sees no one but those who are always near him;
+    and these are the people who have tried to win his favour and gain
+    rewards by concocting the alleged unanimous petitions of the whole
+    country urging his accession to the Throne. In reality, however, the
+    will of the people is precisely the opposite. Even the high
+    officials in the Capital talk about the matter in a jeering and
+    sarcastic way. As for the tone of the newspapers outside Peking,
+    that is better left unmentioned. And as for the &quot;small people&quot; who
+    crowd the streets and the market-places, they go about as if
+    something untoward might happen at any moment. If a kingdom can be
+    maintained by mere force, then the disturbance at the time of Ch'in
+    Chih-huang and Sui Yang Ti could not have been successful. If, on
+    the other hand, it is necessary to secure the co-operation and the
+    willing submission of the hearts of the people, then is it not time
+    that our Great President bethinks himself and boldly takes his own
+    stand?</p>
+			<p>  Some argue that to hesitate in the middle of a course after
+    indulging in much pomp and pageantry at the beginning will result in
+    ridicule and derision and that the dignity of the Chief Executive
+    will be lowered. But do they even know whether the Great President
+    has taken the least part in connection with the phantasies of the
+    past four months? Do they know that the Great President has, on many
+    occasions, sworn fidelity before high Heaven and the noon-day sun?
+    Now if he carries out his sacrosanct promise and is deaf to the
+    unrighteous advice of evil counsellors, his high virtue will be made
+    even more manifest than ever before. Wherein then is there need of
+    doubt or fear?</p>
+			<p>  Others may even suggest that since the proposal was initiated by
+    military men, the tie that has hitherto bound the latter to the
+    Great President may be snapped in case the pear fails to ripen. But
+    in the humble opinion of Ch'i-chao, the troops are now all fully
+    inspired with a sense of obedience to the Chief Executive. Who then
+    can claim the right to drag our Great President into unrighteousness
+    for the sake of vanity and vainglory? Who will dare disobey the
+    behests of the Great President if he should elect to open his heart
+    and follow the path of honour and unbroken vows? If to-day, as Head
+    of the nation, he is powerless to silence the riotous clamour of the
+    soldiery as happened at Chen-chiao in ancient time, then be sure in
+    the capacity of an Emperor he will not be able to suppress an
+    outbreak of troops even as it happened once
+<a name="Page_187" id="Page_187"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">187</span>
+at Yuyang in the Tang
+    dynasty.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20"><sup>[20]</sup></a> To give them the handle of the sword is simply courting
+    trouble for the future. But can we suspect the troops&mdash;so long
+    trained under the Great President&mdash;of such unworthy conduct? The
+    ancients say &quot;However a thing is done, do not hurt the feelings of
+    those who love you, or let your enemy have a chance to rejoice.&quot;
+    Recently calamities in the forms of drought and flood have
+    repeatedly visited China; and the ancients warn us that in such ways
+    does Heaven manifest its Will regarding great movements in our
+    country. In addition to these we must remember the prevailing evils
+    of a corrupt officialdom, the incessant ravages of robbers, excesses
+    in punishment, the unusually heavy burdens of taxation, as well as
+    the irregularity of weather and rain, which all go to increase the
+    murmurs and complaints of the people. Internally, the rebels are
+    accumulating strength against an opportune time to rise; externally,
+    powerful neighbouring countries are waiting for an opportunity to
+    harass us. Why then should our Great President risk his precious
+    person and become a target of public criticism; or &quot;abandon the rock
+    of peace in search of the tiger's tail&quot;; or discourage the loyalty
+    of faithful ones and encourage the sinister ambitions of the
+    unscrupulous? Ch'i-chao sincerely hopes that the Great President
+    will devote himself to the establishment of a new era which shall be
+    an inspiration to heroism and thus escape the fate of those who are
+    stigmatized in our annals with the name of Traitor. He hopes that
+    the renown of the Great President will long be remembered in the
+    land of <i>Chung Hua</i> (China) and he prays that the fate of China may
+    not end with any abrupt ending that may befall the Great President.
+    He therefore submits his views with a bleeding heart. He realizes
+    that his words may not win the approval of one who is wise and
+    clever; but Ch'i-chao feels that unless he unburdens what is in his
+    heart, he will be false to the duty which bids him speak and be true
+    to the kindness that has been showered on him by the Great
+    President. Whether his loyalty to the Imperative Word will be
+    rewarded with approval or with reproof, the order of the Great
+    President will say.</p>
+			<p>  There are other words of which Ch'i-chao wishes to tender to the
+    Great President. To be an independent nation to-day, we must need
+    follow the ways of the present age. One who opposes the current of
+    the world and
+<a name="Page_188" id="Page_188"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">188</span>
+protects himself against the enriching influence of
+    the world-spirit must eventually share the fate of the unselected.
+    It is sincerely hoped that the Great President will refrain to some
+    extent from restoring the old and withal work for real reform. Law
+    can only be made a living force by both the ruler and the people
+    obeying it with sincerity. When the law loses its strength, the
+    people will not know how to act; and then the dignity of Government
+    will disappear. It is hoped that the Great President will keep
+    himself within the bounds of law and not lead the officials and the
+    people to juggle with words. Participation in politics and
+    patriotism are closely related. Bear well in mind that it is
+    impossible to expect the people to share the responsibilities of the
+    country, unless they are given a voice in the transaction of public
+    business. The hope is expressed that the Great President will
+    establish a real organ representing the true will of the people and
+    encourage the natural growth of the free expression of public
+    opinion. Let us not become so arrogant and oppressive that the
+    people will have no chance to express their views, as this may
+    inspire hatred on the part of the people. The relation between the
+    Central Government and the provincial centres is like that between
+    the trunk and branches of a tree. If the branches are all withered,
+    how can the trunk continue to grow? It is hoped that the Great
+    President, while giving due consideration to the maintenance of the
+    dignity of the Central Government, will at the same time allow the
+    local life of the provinces to develop. Ethics, Righteousness,
+    Purity and Conscientiousness are four great principles. When these
+    four principles are neglected, a country dies. If the whole country
+    should come in spirit to be like &quot;concubines and women,&quot; weak and
+    open to be coerced and forced along with whomsoever be on the
+    stronger side, how can a State be established? May the Great
+    President encourage principle, and virtue, stimulate purity of
+    character, reject men of covetous and mean character, and grant wise
+    tolerance to those who know no fear in defending the right. Only
+    then will the vitality of the country be retained in some degree;
+    and in time of emergency, there will be a reserve of strength to be
+    drawn upon in support of the State. All these considerations are of
+    the order of obvious truths and it must be assumed that the Great
+    President, who is greatly wise, is not unaware of the same. The
+    reason why Ch'i-chao ventures to repeat them is this. He holds it
+    true that a duty is laid on him to submit whatever humble thoughts
+    are his, and at the same time he believes that the Great President
+    will not condemn a proper physic even though it may be cheap and
+    simple. How fortunate will Ch'i-chao be if advice so tendered shall
+    meet with approval. He is proceeding farther and farther away from
+    the Palace every day and he does not know how soon he will be able
+    to seek an audience again. He writes these words with tears dropping
+    into the ink-slab and he trusts that his words may receive the
+    attention of the Great President. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>So ends this remarkable missive which has become an historic document in
+the archives of the Republic. Once again it was
+<a name="Page_189" id="Page_189"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">189</span>
+whispered that so great
+an impression did this fateful warning produce on the Emperor-elect that
+he was within an ace of cancelling the disastrous scheme which now
+enmeshed him. But in the end family influence won the day; and
+stubbornly and doggedly the doomed man pushed on with his attempt to
+crush revolt and consolidate his crumbling position.</p>
+		<p>Every possible effort was made to minimize the effect of international
+influence on the situation. As the sycophantic vernacular press of the
+capital, long drilled to blind subservience, had begun to speak of his
+enthronement as a certainty on the 9th February, a Circular Note was
+sent to the Five Allied Powers that no such date had been fixed, and
+that the newspaper reports to that effect were inventions. In order
+specially to conciliate Japan, a high official was appointed to proceed
+on an Embassy to Tokio to grant special industrial concessions&mdash;a
+manoeuvre which was met with the official refusal of the Tokio
+Government to be so placated. Peking was coldly informed that owing to
+&quot;court engagements&quot; it would be impossible for the Emperor of Japan to
+receive any Chinese Mission. After this open rebuff attention was
+concentrated on &quot;the punitive expedition&quot; to chastise the disaffected
+South, 80,000 men being put in the field and a reserve of 80,000
+mobilized behind them. An attempt was also made to win over waverers by
+an indiscriminate distribution of patents of nobility. Princes, Dukes,
+Marquises, Viscounts and Barons were created in great batches overnight
+only to be declined in very many cases, one of the most precious
+possessions of the Chinese race being its sense of humour. Every one, or
+almost every one, knew that the new patents were not worth the paper
+they were written on, and that in future years the members of this
+spurious nobility would be exposed to something worse than contempt.
+France was invited to close the Tonkin frontier, but this request also
+met with a rebuff, and revolutionists and arms were conveyed in an
+ever-more menacing manner into the revolted province of Yunnan by the
+French railways. A Princedom was at length conferred on Lung Chi Kwang,
+the Military Governor of Canton, Canton being a pivotal point and Lung
+Chi Kwang, one of the most cold-blooded murderers in China, in the hope
+that this would spur him to such an orgy of crime that the South would
+be crushed. Precisely the opposite occurred, since
+<a name="Page_190" id="Page_190"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">190</span>
+even murderers are
+able to read the signs of the times. Attempts were likewise made to
+enforce the use of the new Imperial Calendar, but little success crowned
+such efforts, no one outside the metropolis believing for a moment that
+this innovation possessed any of the elements of permanence.</p>
+		<p>Meanwhile the monetary position steadily worsened, the lack of money
+becoming so marked as to spread panic. Still, in spite of this, the
+leaders refused to take warning, and although the political impasse was
+constantly discussed, the utmost concession the monarchists were willing
+to make was to turn China into a Federal Empire with the provinces
+constituted into self-governing units. The over-issue of paper currency
+to make good the gaps in the National Finance, now slowly destroyed the
+credit of the Central Government and made the suspension of specie
+payment a mere matter of time. By the end of February the province of
+Kueichow was not only officially admitted by the Peking Government to be
+in open revolt as well as Yunnan, but rebel troops were reported to be
+invading the neighbouring province of Hunan. Kwangsi was also reported
+to be preparing for secession whilst in Szechuan local troops were
+revolting in increasing numbers. Rumours of an attempted assassination
+of Yuan Shih-kai by means of bombs now circulated,&mdash;and there were many
+arrests and suicides in the capital. Though by a mandate issued on the
+23rd February, the enthronement ceremony was indefinitely postponed,
+that move came too late. The whole country was plainly trembling on the
+edge of a huge outbreak when, less than four weeks later, Yuan Shih-kai
+reluctantly and publicly admitted that the game was up. It is understood
+that a fateful interview he had with the British Minister greatly
+influenced him, though the formal declaration of independence of Kwangsi
+on the 16th March, whither the scholar Liang Ch'i-chao had gone, was
+also a powerful argument. On the 22nd March the Emperor-elect issued the
+mandate categorically cancelling the entire monarchy scheme, it being
+declared that he would now form a Responsible Cabinet. Until that date
+the Government Gazette had actually perpetrated the folly of publishing
+side by side Imperial Edicts and Presidential Mandates&mdash;the first for
+Chinese eyes, the second for foreign consumption. Never before even in
+China had such a farce been seen. A rapid perusal
+<a name="Page_191" id="Page_191"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">191</span>
+of the Mandate of
+Cancellation will show how lamely and poorly the retreat is made:</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>DECREE CANCELLING THE EMPIRE (22ND MARCH)</h3>
+			<p>  After the establishment of the <i>Min Kuo</i> (<i>i.e.</i> the Republic),
+    disturbances rapidly followed one another; and a man of little
+    virtue like me was called to take up the vast burden of the State.
+    Fearing that disaster might befall us any day, all those who had the
+    welfare of the country at heart advocated the reinstitution of the
+    monarchical system of government to the end that a stop be put to
+    all strife for power and a r&eacute;gime of peace be inaugurated.
+    Suggestions in this sense have unceasingly been made to me since the
+    days of Kuei Chou (the year of the first Revolution, 1911) and each
+    time a sharp rebuke has been administered to the one making the
+    suggestion. But the situation last year was indeed so different from
+    the circumstances of preceding years that it was impossible to
+    prevent the spread of such ideas.</p>
+			<p>  It was said that China could never hope to continue as a nation
+    unless the constitutional monarchical form of state were adopted;
+    and if quarrels like those occurring in Mexico and Portugal were to
+    take place in China, we would soon share the fate of Annam and
+    Burmah. A large number of people then advocated the restoration of a
+    monarchy and advanced arguments which were reasonable. In this
+    proposal all the military and civil officials, scholars and people
+    concurred; and prayers were addressed to me in most earnest tone by
+    telegram and in petitions. Owing to the position I was at the time
+    holding, which laid on me the duty of maintaining the then existing
+    situation, I repeatedly made declarations resisting the adoption of
+    the advice; but the people did not seem to realize my embarrassment.
+    And so it was decided by the acting Li Fa Yuan (<i>i.e.</i> the Senate)
+    that the question of <i>Kuo-ti</i> (form of State) should be settled by
+    the Convention of Citizens' Representatives. As the result, the
+    representatives of the Provinces and of the Special Administrative
+    Areas unanimously decided in favour of a constitutional monarchy,
+    and in one united voice elected me as the Emperor. Since the
+    sovereignty of the country has been vested in the citizens of China
+    and as the decision was made by the entire body of the
+    representatives, there was no room left to me for further
+    discussion. Nevertheless, I continued to be of the conviction that
+    my sudden elevation to the Great Seat would be a violation of my
+    oath and would compromise my good faith, leaving me unable to
+    explain myself; I, therefore, declined in earnest words in order to
+    make clear the view which hath always been mine. The said Senate
+    however, stated with firmness that the oath of the Chief Executive
+    rested on a peculiar sanction and should be observed or discarded
+    according to the will of the people. Their arguments were so
+    irresistible that there was in truth no excuse for me further to
+    decline the offer.</p>
+			<p>  Therefore I took refuge behind the excuse of &quot;preparations&quot; in order
+    that the desire of the people might be satisfied. But I took no
+    steps actually to carry out the programme. When the trouble in
+    Yunnan
+<a name="Page_192" id="Page_192"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">192</span>
+and Kueichow arose, a mandate was officially issued
+    announcing the decision to postpone the measure and forbidding
+    further presentation of petitions praying for the enthronement. I
+    then hastened the convocation of the Li Fa Yuan (<i>i.e.</i>, a new
+    Parliament) in order to secure the views of that body and hoping
+    thus to turn back to the original state of affairs, I, being a man
+    of bitter experiences, had at once given up all ideas of world
+    affairs; and having retired into the obscurity of the river Yuan (in
+    Honan), I had no appetite for the political affairs of the country.
+    As the result of the revolution in Hsin Hai, I was by mistake
+    elected by the people. Reluctantly I came out of my retirement and
+    endeavoured to prop up the tottering structure. I cared for nothing,
+    but the salvation of the country. A perusal of our history of
+    several thousand years will reveal in vivid manner the sad fate of
+    the descendants of ancient kings and emperors. What then could have
+    prompted me to aspire to the Throne? Yet while the representatives
+    of the people were unwilling to believe in the sincerity of my
+    refusal of the offer, a section of the people appear to have
+    suspected me of harbouring the desire of gaining more power and
+    privileges. Such difference in thought has resulted in the creation
+    of an exceedingly dangerous situation. As my sincerity has not been
+    such as to win the hearts of the people and my judgment has not been
+    sound enough to appraise every man, I have myself alone to blame for
+    lack of virtue. Why then should I blame others? The people have been
+    thrown into misery and my soldiers have been made to bear hardships;
+    and further the people have been cast into panic and commerce has
+    rapidly declined. When I search my own heart a measure of sorrow
+    fills it. I shall, therefore, not be unwilling to suppress myself in
+    order to yield to others.</p>
+			<p>  I am still of the opinion that the &quot;designation petitions&quot; submitted
+    through the Tsan Cheng Yuan are unsuited to the demands of the time;
+    and the official acceptance of the Imperial Throne made on the 11th
+    day of the 12th month of last year (11th December, 1915) is hereby
+    cancelled. &quot;The designation petitions&quot; of the Provinces and of the
+    Special Administrative Areas are hereby all returned through the
+    State Department to the Tsan Cheng Yuan, <i>i.e.</i>, the acting Li Fa
+    Yuan (Parliament), to be forwarded to the petitioners for
+    destruction; and all the preparations connected therewith are to
+    cease at once. In this wise I hope to imitate the sincerity of the
+    Ancients by taking on myself all the blame so that my action may
+    fall in line with the spirit of humanity which is the expression of
+    the will of Heaven. I now cleanse my heart and wash my thoughts to
+    the end that trouble may be averted and the people may have peace.
+    Those who advocated the monarchical system were prompted by the
+    desire to strengthen the foundation of the country; but as their
+    methods have proved unsuitable their patriotism might harm the
+    country. Those who have opposed the monarchy have done so out of
+    their desire to express their political views. It may be therefore
+    presumed that they would not go to the extreme and so endanger the
+    country. They should, therefore, all hearken to the voice of their
+    own conscience and sacrifice their prejudices, and with one mind and
+    one purpose unite in the effort of saving the situation so that the
+    glorious descendants of the Sacred Continent may be
+<a name="Page_193" id="Page_193"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">193</span>
+spared the
+    horrors of internal warfare and the bad omens may be changed into
+    lucky signs.</p>
+			<p>  In brief I now confess that all the faults of the country are the
+    result of my own faults. Now that the acceptance of the Imperial
+    Throne has been cancelled every man will be responsible for his own
+    action if he further disturbs the peace of the locality and thus
+    gives an opportunity to others. I, the Great President, being
+    charged with the duty of ruling over the whole country, cannot
+    remain idle while the country is racing to perdition. At the present
+    moment the homesteads are in misery, discipline has been
+    disregarded, administration is being neglected and real talents have
+    not been given a chance. When I think of such conditions I awake in
+    the darkness of midnight. How can we stand as a nation if such a
+    state of affairs is allowed to continue? Hereafter all officials
+    should thoroughly get rid of their corrupt habits and endeavour to
+    achieve merits. They should work with might and main in their
+    duties, whether in introducing reforms or in abolishing old
+    corruptions. Let all be not satisfied with empty words and entertain
+    no bias regarding any affair. They should hold up as their main
+    principle of administration the policy that only reality will count
+    and deal out reward or punishment with strict promptness. Let all
+    our generals, officials, soldiers and people all, all, act in
+    accordance with this ideal. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>This attempt at an <i>Amende honorable</i>, so far from being well-received,
+was universally looked upon as an admission that Yuan Shih-kai had
+almost been beaten and that a little more would complete his ruin.
+Though, as we have said, the Northern troops were fighting well in his
+cause on the upper reaches of the great Yangtsze, the movement against
+him was now spreading as though it had been a dread contagious disease,
+the entire South uniting against Peking. His promise to open a proper
+Legislative Chamber on 1st May was met with derision. By the middle of
+April five provinces&mdash;Yunnan, Kueichow, Kwangsi, Kwangtung and
+Chekiang&mdash;had declared their independence, and eight others were
+preparing to follow suit. A Southern Confederacy, with a Supreme
+Military Council sitting at Canton, was organized, the brutal Governor
+Lung Chi Kwang having been won over against his master, and the scholar
+Liang Ch'i-chao flitting from place to place, inspiring move after move.
+The old parliament of 1913 was reported to be assembling in Shanghai,
+whilst terrorist methods against Peking officials were bruited abroad
+precipitating a panic in the capital and leading to an exodus of
+well-to-do families who feared a general massacre.</p>
+		<p>An open agitation to secure Yuan Shih-kai's complete retirement and
+exile now commenced. From every quarter notables
+<a name="Page_194" id="Page_194"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">194</span>
+began telegraphing him
+that he must go,&mdash;including General Feng Kuo-chang who still held the
+balance of power on the Yangtsze. Every enemy Yuan Shih-kai had ever had
+was also racing back to China from exile. By the beginning of May the
+situation was so threatening that the Foreign Legations became alarmed
+and talked of concerting measures to insure their safety. On the 6th May
+came the <i>coup de gr&acirc;ce</i>. The great province of Szechuan, which has a
+population greater than the population of France, declared its
+independence; and the whole Northern army on the upper reaches of the
+Yangtsze was caught in a trap. The story is still told with bated breath
+of the terrible manner in which Yuan Shih-kai sated his rage when this
+news reached him&mdash;Szechuan being governed by a man he had hitherto
+thoroughly trusted&mdash;one General Chen Yi. Arming himself with a sword and
+beside himself with rage he burst into the room where his favourite
+concubine was lying with her newly-delivered baby. With a few savage
+blows he butchered them both, leaving them lying in their gore, thus
+relieving the apoplectic stroke which threatened to overwhelm him.
+Nothing better illustrates the real nature of the man who had been so
+long the selected bailiff of the Powers.</p>
+		<p>On the 12th May it became necessary to suspend specie payment in Peking,
+the government banks having scarcely a dollar of silver left, a last
+attempt to negotiate a loan in America having failed. Meanwhile under
+inspiration of General Feng Kuo-chang, a conference to deal with the
+situation was assembling at Nanking; but on the 11th May, the Canton
+Military Government, representing the Southern Confederacy, had already
+unanimously elected Vice-President Li Yuan Hung as president of the
+Republic, it being held that legally Yuan Shih-kai had ceased to be
+President when he had accepted the Throne on the previous 13th December.
+The Vice-President, who had managed to remove his residence outside the
+Palace, had already received friendly offers of protection from certain
+Powers which he declined, showing courage to the end. Even the Nanking
+Conference, though composed of trimmers and wobblers, decided that the
+retirement of Yuan Shih-kai was a political necessity, General Feng
+Kuo-chang as chairman of the Conference producing at the last moment a
+telegram from the fallen Dictator declaring that he was willing to go if
+his life and property were guaranteed.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_195" id="Page_195"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">195</span>
+A more dramatic collapse was, however, in store. As May drew to an end
+it was plain that there was no government at all left in Peking. The
+last phase had been truly reached. Yuan Shih-kai's nervous collapse was
+known to all the Legations which were exceedingly anxious about the
+possibility of a soldiers' revolt in the capital. The arrival of a first
+detachment of the savage hordes of General Chang Hsun added Byzantine
+touches to a picture already lurid with a sickened ruler and the
+Mephistophelian figure of that ruler's <i>&acirc;me damn&eacute;e</i>, the Secretary Liang
+Shih-yi, vainly striving to transmute paper into silver, and find the
+wherewithal to prevent a sack of the capital. It was said at the time
+that Liang Shih-yi had won over his master to trying one last throw of
+the dice. The troops of the remaining loyal Generals, such as Ni
+Shih-chung of Anhui, were transported up the Yangtsze in an attempt to
+restore the situation by a savage display,&mdash;but that effort came to
+nought.</p>
+		<p>The situation had become truly appalling in Peking. It was even said
+that the neighbouring province of Shantung was to become a separate
+state under Japanese protection. Although the Peking administration was
+still nominally the Central Government of China, it was amply clear to
+observers on the spot that by a process of successive collapses all that
+was left of government was simply that pertaining to a city-state of the
+antique Greek type&mdash;a mal-administration dominated by the enigmatic
+personality of Liang Shih-yi. The writ of the capital no longer ran more
+than ten miles beyond the city walls. The very Government Departments,
+disgusted with, and distrustful of, the many hidden influences at work,
+had virtually declared their independence and went their own way,
+demanding foreign dollars and foreign banknotes from the public, and
+refusing all Chinese money. The fine residuum of undisputed power left
+in the hands of the Mal-administrator-in-chief, Liang Shih-yi, was the
+control of the copper cash market which he busily juggled with to the
+very end netting a few last thousands for his own purse, and showing
+that men like water inevitably find their true level. In all China's
+tribulations nothing similar had ever been seen. Even in 1900, after the
+Boxer bubble had been pricked and the Court had sought safety in flight,
+there was a certain dignity and majesty left. Then an immense misfortune
+had fallen across the capital;
+<a name="Page_196" id="Page_196"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">196</span>
+but that misfortune was like a cloak
+which hid the nakedness of the victim; and there was at least no
+pretence at authority. In the Summer of 1916, had it not been for the
+fact that an admirable police and gendarmerie system, comprising 16,000
+men, secured the safety of the people, there can be little doubt that
+firing and looting would have daily taken place and no woman been safe.
+It was the last phase of political collapse with a vengeance: and small
+wonder if all Chinese officials, including even high police officers,
+sent their valuables either out of the city or into the Legation Quarter
+for safe custody. Extraordinary rumours circulated endlessly among the
+common people that there would be great trouble on the occasion of the
+Dragon Festival, the 5th June; and what actually took place was perhaps
+more than a coincidence.</p>
+		<p>Early on the 6th June an electric thrill ran through Peking&mdash;Yuan
+Shih-kai was dead! At first the news was not believed, but by eleven
+o'clock it was definitely known in the Legation Quarter that he had died
+a few minutes after ten o'clock that morning from uraemia of the
+blood&mdash;the surgeon of the French Legation being in attendance almost to
+the last. A certificate issued later by this gentleman immediately
+quieted the rumours of suicide, though many still refused to believe
+that he was actually dead. &quot;I did not wish this end,&quot; he is reported to
+have whispered hoarsely a few minutes before he expired, &quot;I did not wish
+to be Emperor. Those around me said that the people wanted a king and
+named me for the Throne. I believed and was misled.&quot; And in this way did
+his light flicker out. If there are sermons in stones and books in the
+running brooks surely there is an eloquent lesson in this tragedy!
+Before expiring the wretched man issued the following Death Mandate in
+accordance with the ancient tradition, attempting as the long night fell
+on him to make his peace with men:&mdash;</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>LAST MANDATE OF YUAN SHIH-KAI</h3>
+			<p>  The Min Kuo has been established for five years. Unworthily have I,
+    the Great President, been entrusted with the great task by the
+    citizens. Owing to my lack of virtue and ability I have not been
+    able fully to transform into deeds what I have desired to
+    accomplish; and I blush to say that I have not realized one
+    ten-thousandth part of my original intention to save the country and
+    the people. I have, since my assumption of
+<a name="Page_197" id="Page_197"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">197</span>
+the office, worked in
+    day and thought in the night, planning for the country. It is true
+    that the foundation of the country is not yet consolidated, the
+    hardships of the people not yet relieved, and innumerable reforms
+    are still unattended to. But by the valuable services of the civil
+    officials and military men, some semblance of peace and order has
+    been maintained in the provinces and friendly relations with the
+    Powers upheld till now.</p>
+			<p>  While on the one hand I comfort myself with such things
+    accomplished, on the other hand I have much to blame myself for. I
+    was just thinking how I could retire into private life and rest
+    myself in the forest and near the springs in fulfilment of my
+    original desire, when illness has suddenly overtaken me. As the
+    affairs of the State are of gravest importance, the right man must
+    be secured to take over charge of the same. In accordance with
+    Article 29 of the Provisional Constitution, which states that in
+    case the office of the Great President should be vacated for certain
+    reasons or when the Great President is incapacitated from doing his
+    duties, the Vice-President shall exercise authority and power in his
+    stead. I, the Great President, declare in accordance with the
+    Provisional Constitution that the Vice-President shall exercise in
+    an acting capacity, the authority and power of the Great President
+    of the Chung Hua Min Kuo.</p>
+			<p>  The Vice-President being a man of courtesy, good nature, benevolence
+    and wisdom, will certainly be capable of greatly lessening the
+    difficulties of the day and place the country on the foundation of
+    peace, and so remedy the defects of me, the Great President, and
+    satisfy the expectations of the people of the whole country. The
+    civil and military officials outside of the Capital as well as the
+    troops, police and scholars and people should doubly keep in mind
+    the difficulties and perils of the nation, and endeavour to maintain
+    peace and order to the best of their ability, placing before
+    everything else the welfare of the country. The ancients once said:
+    &quot;It is only when the living do try to become strong that the dead
+    are not dead.&quot; This is also the wish of me, the Great President.</p>
+		</div>
+		<p>
+			<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(Signed) TUAN CHI-JUI,</span>
+			<br />
+			<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Secretary of State and</span>
+			<br />
+			<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Minister of War</span>
+			<br />
+			<br />
+			<span style="margin-left: 2em;">TSAO JU-LIN,</span>
+			<br />
+			<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Minister of Foreign Affairs and</span>
+			<br />
+			<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Communications.</span>
+			<br />
+			<br />
+			<span style="margin-left: 2em;">WANG YI-TANG,</span>
+			<br />
+			<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Minister of Interior.</span>
+			<br />
+			<br />
+			<span style="margin-left: 2em;">CHOW TZU-CHI,</span>
+			<br />
+			<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Minister of Finance.</span>
+			<br />
+			<br />
+			<span style="margin-left: 2em;">LIU-KUAN-HSIUNG,</span>
+			<br />
+			<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Minister of Navy.</span>
+			<br />
+			<br />
+			<span style="margin-left: 2em;">CHANG TSUNG-HSIANG,</span>
+			<br />
+			<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Minister of Justice and</span>
+			<br />
+			<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Agriculture and Commerce.</span>
+			<br />
+			<br />
+			<span style="margin-left: 2em;">CHANG KUO-KAN,</span>
+			<br />
+			<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Minister of Education.</span>
+			<br />
+		</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<p>6th day of the 6th month of the 5th year of Chung Hua Min Kuo. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_198" id="Page_198"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">198</span>
+This tragic d&eacute;nouement did not fail to awaken within very few days
+among thinking minds a feeling of profound sympathy for the dead man
+coupled with sharp disgust for the part that foreigners had played&mdash;not
+all, of course&mdash;but a great number of them. Briefly, when all the facts
+are properly grouped it can be said that Yuan Shih-kai was killed by his
+foreign friends&mdash;by the sort of advice he has been consistently given in
+Constitutional Law, in Finance, in Politics, in Diplomacy. It is easy to
+trace step by step the broad road he had been tempted to travel, and to
+see how at each turning-point the men who should have taught him how to
+be true and loyal to the Western things the country had nominally
+adhered to from the proclamation of the Republic, showed him how to be
+disloyal and untrue. The tragedy is one which is bound to be deeply
+studied throughout the whole world when the facts are properly known and
+there is time to think about them, and if there is anything to-day left
+to poetic justice the West will know to whom to apportion the blame.</p>
+		<p>Yuan Shih-kai, the man, when he came out of retirement in 1911, was in
+many ways a wonderful Chinese: he was a fount of energy and of a
+physical sturdiness rare in a country whose governing classes have
+hitherto been recruited from attenuated men, pale from study and the
+lotus life. He had a certain task to which to put his hand, a huge task,
+indeed, since the reformation of four hundred millions was involved, yet
+one which was not beyond him if wisely advised. He was an ignorant man
+in certain matters, but he had had much political experience and
+apparently possessed a marvellous aptitude for learning. The people
+needed a leader to guide them through the great gateway of the West, to
+help them to acquire those jewels of wisdom and experience which are a
+common heritage. An almost Elizabethan eagerness filled them, as if a
+New World they had never dreamed of had been suddenly discovered for
+them and lay open to their endeavours. China, hitherto derided as a
+decaying land, had been born anew; and in single massive gesture had
+proclaimed that she, too, would belong to the elect and be governed
+accordingly.</p>
+		<p>What was the foreign response&mdash;the official response? In every
+transaction into which it was possible to import them,
+<a name="Page_199" id="Page_199"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">199</span>
+reaction and
+obscurantism were not only commonly employed but heartily recommended.
+Not one trace of genuine statesmanship, not one flash of altruism, was
+ever seen save the American flash in the pan of 1913, when President
+Wilson refused to allow American participation in the great
+Reorganization Loan because he held that the terms on which it was to be
+granted infringed upon China's sovereign rights. Otherwise there was
+nothing but a tacit endorsement of the very policy which has been
+tearing the entrails out of Europe&mdash;namely militarism. That was the fine
+fruit which was offered to a hopeful nation&mdash;something that would wither
+on the branch or poison the people as they plucked it. They were taught
+to believe that political instinct was the ability to misrepresent in a
+convincing way the actions and arguments of your opponents and to profit
+by their mistakes&mdash;not that it is a mighty impulse which can re-make
+nations. The Republic was declared by the actions of Western bureaucrats
+to be a Republic <i>pour rire</i>, not a serious thing; and by this false and
+cruel assumption they killed Yuan Shih-kai.</p>
+		<p>If that epitaph is written on his political tombstone, it will be as
+full of blinding truth as is only possible with Last Things.</p>
+		<div class="footnotes">
+			<p class="center">FOOTNOTES:</p>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_20_20">
+						<span class="label">[20]</span>
+					</a> The incident of Chen-chiao is very celebrated in Chinese
+annals. A yellow robe, the symbol of Imperial authority, was thrown
+around General Chao Kuang-ying, at a place called Chen-chiao, by his
+soldiers and officers when he commanded a force ordered to the front.
+Chao returned to the Capital immediately to assume the Imperial Throne,
+and was thus &quot;compelled&quot; to become the founder of the famous Sung
+dynasty.
+</p>
+				<p>
+The &quot;incident of Yuyang&quot; refers to the execution of Yang Kuei-fei, the
+favourite concubine of Emperor Yuan Tsung of the Tang dynasty. The
+Emperor for a long time was under the alluring influence of Yang
+Kuei-fei, who had a paramour named An Lo-hsan. The latter finally
+rebelled against the Emperor. The Emperor left the capital and proceeded
+to another place together with his favourite concubine, guarded by a
+large force of troops. Midway, however, the soldiers threatened to rebel
+unless the concubine was killed on the spot. The clamour was such that
+the Emperor was forced to sacrifice the favourite of his harem, putting
+her to death in the presence of his soldiers.</p>
+			</div>
+		</div>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p>	<a name="Page_200" id="Page_200"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">200</span></p>
+		<h2>
+
+		<a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>
+		CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+		<h3>THE NEW R&Eacute;GIME,&mdash;FROM 1916 TO 1917</h3>
+		<p>Within an hour of the death of Yuan Shih-kai, the veteran General Tuan
+Chi-jui, in his capacity of Secretary of State, had called on
+Vice-President Li Yuan-hung&mdash;the man whom years before he had been sent
+to the Yangtsze to bring captive to Peking&mdash;and welcomed him as
+President of the Republic. At one o'clock on the same day the Ministers
+of the Allied Powers who had hastily assembled at the Waichiaopu
+(Foreign Office), were informed that General Li Yuan-hung had duly
+assumed office and that the peace and security of the capital were fully
+guaranteed. No unrest of any sort need be apprehended; for whilst
+rumours would no doubt circulate wildly as soon as the populace realized
+the tragic nature of the climax which had come the Gendarmerie Corps and
+the Metropolitan Police&mdash;two forces that numbered 18,000 armed men&mdash;were
+taking every possible precaution.</p>
+		<p>In spite of these assurances great uneasiness was felt. The foreign
+Legations, which are very imperfectly informed regarding Chinese affairs
+although living in the midst of them, could not be convinced that
+internal peace could be so suddenly attained after five years of such
+fierce rivalries. Among the many gloomy predictions made at the time,
+the most common to fall from the lips of Foreign Plenipotentiaries was
+the remark that the Japanese would be in full occupation of the country
+within three months&mdash;the one effective barrier to their advance having
+been removed. No better illustration could be given of the inadequate
+grasp of politics possessed by those whose peculiar business it should
+be to become expert in the science of cause and effect. In China, as in
+the Balkans, professional
+<a name="Page_201" id="Page_201"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">201</span>
+diplomacy errs so constantly because it has
+in the main neither the desire nor the training to study dispassionately
+from day to day all those complex phenomena which go to make up modern
+nationalism. Guided in its conduct almost entirely by a policy of
+personal predilections, which is fitfully reinforced by the recollection
+of precedents, it is small wonder if such mountains of mistakes choke
+every Legation dossier. Determined to have nothing whatever to do, save
+in the last resort, with anything that savours of Radicalism, and
+inclining naturally towards ideals which have long been abandoned in the
+workaday world, diplomacy is the instinctive lover of obscurantism and
+the furtive enemy of progress. Distrusting all those generous movements
+which spring from the popular desire to benefit by change, it follows
+from this that the diplomatic brotherhood inclines towards those truly
+detestable things&mdash;secret compacts. In the present instance, having been
+bitterly disappointed by the complete collapse of the strong man theory,
+it was only natural that consolation should be sought by casting doubt
+on the future. Never have sensible men been so absurd. The life-story of
+Yuan Shih-kai, and the part European and Japanese diplomacy played in
+that story, form a chapter which should be taught as a warning to all
+who enter politics as a career, since there is exhibited in this history
+a complete compendium of all the more vicious traits of Byzantinism.</p>
+		<p>The first acts of President Li Yuan-hung rapidly restored confidence and
+advertised to the keen-eyed that the end of the long drawn-out
+Revolution had come. Calling before him all the generals in the capital,
+he told them with sincerity and simplicity that their country's fortunes
+rested in their hands; and he asked them to take such steps as would be
+in the nature of a permanent insurance against foreign interference in
+the affairs of the Republic. He was at once given fervent support. A
+mass meeting of the military was followed by the whole body of
+commissioned men volunteering to hold themselves personally responsible
+for the maintenance of peace and order in the capital. The dreadful
+disorders which had ushered in the Yuan Shih-kai r&eacute;gime were thus made
+impossible; and almost at once men went about their business as usual.</p>
+		<p>The financial wreckage left by the mad monarchy adventure
+<a name="Page_202" id="Page_202"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">202</span>
+was, however,
+appalling. Not only was there no money in the capital but hardly any
+food as well; for since the suspension of specie payments country
+supplies had ceased entering the city as farmers refused to accept
+inconvertible paper in payment for their produce. It became necessary
+for the government to sell at a nominal price the enormous quantities of
+grain which had been accumulated for the army and the punitive
+expedition against the South; and for many days a familiar sight was the
+endless blue-coated queues waiting patiently to receive as in war-time
+their stipulated pittance.</p>
+		<p>Meanwhile, although the troops remained loyal to the new r&eacute;gime, not so
+the monarchist politicians. Seeing that their hour of obliteration had
+come, they spared no effort to sow secret dissensions and prevent the
+provinces from uniting again with Peking. It would be wearisome to give
+in full detail the innumerable schemes which were now hourly formulated,
+to secure that the control of the country should not be exercised in a
+lawful way. Finding that it was impossible to conquer the general
+detestation felt for them, the monarchists, led by Liang Shih-yi,
+changed their tactics and exhausted themselves in attempting to secure
+the issue of a general amnesty decree. But in spite of every argument
+President Li Yuan-hung remained unmoved and refused absolutely to
+consider their pardon. A just and merciful man, it was his intention to
+allow the nation to speak its mind before issuing orders on the subject;
+but to show that he was no advocate of the terrorist methods practised
+by his predecessor, he now issued a Mandate summarily abolishing the
+infamous <i>Chih Fa Chu</i>, or Military Court, which Yuan Shih-kai had
+turned into an engine of judicial assassination, and within whose gloomy
+precincts many thousands of unfortunate men had perished practically
+untried in the period 1911-1916.</p>
+		<p>Meanwhile the general situation throughout the country only slowly
+ameliorated. The Northern Military party, determined to prevent
+political power from passing solely into the hands of the Southern
+Radicals, bitterly opposed the revival of the Nanking Provisional
+Constitution, and denounced the re-convocation of the old Parliament of
+1913, which had already assembled in Shanghai, preparatory to coming up
+to the capital.
+<a name="Page_203" id="Page_203"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">203</span>
+It needed a sharp manoeuvre to bring them to their
+senses. The Chinese Navy, assembled in the waters near Shanghai, took
+action; and in an ultimatum communicated to Peking by their Admiral,
+declared that so long as the government in the hands of General Tuan
+Chi-jui refused to conform to popular wishes by reviving the Nanking
+Provisional Constitution and resummoning the old Parliament, so long
+would the Navy refuse to recognize the authority of the Central
+Government. With the fleet in the hands of the Southern Confederacy,
+which had not yet been formally dissolved, the Peking Government was
+powerless in the whole region of the Yangtsze; consequently, after many
+vain manoeuvres to avoid this reasonable and proper solution, it was at
+last agreed that things should be brought back precisely where they had
+been before the <i>coup d'&eacute;tat</i> of the 4th November, 1913&mdash;the Peking
+Government being reconstituted by means of a coalition cabinet in which
+there would be both nominees of the North and South&mdash;the premiership
+remaining in the hands of General Tuan Chi-jui.</p>
+		<p>On the 28th June a long funeral procession wended its way from the
+Presidential Palace to the railway Station; it was the remains of the
+great dictator being taken to their last resting-place in Honan.
+Conspicuous in this cortege was the magnificent stage-coach which had
+been designed to bear the founder of the new dynasty to his throne but
+which only accompanied him to his grave. The detached attitude of the
+crowds and the studied simplicity of the procession, which was designed
+to be republican, proved more clearly than reams of arguments that
+China&mdash;despite herself perhaps&mdash;had become somewhat modernized, the
+oldest country in the world being now the youngest republic and timidly
+trying to learn the lessons of youth.</p>
+		<p>Once Yuan Shih-kai had been buried, a Mandate ordering the summary
+arrest of all the chief monarchist plotters was issued; but the gang of
+corrupt men had already sought safety in ignominious flight; and it was
+understood that so long as they remained on soil under foreign
+jurisdiction, no attempt would be made even to confiscate their goods
+and chattels as would certainly have been done under former governments.
+The days of treachery and double-dealing and cowardly revenge were
+indeed passing away and the new r&eacute;gime was committed to
+<a name="Page_204" id="Page_204"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">204</span>
+decency and
+fairplay. The task of the new President was no mean one, and in all the
+circumstances if he managed to steer a safe middle course and avoid both
+Caesarism and complete effacement, that is a tribute to his training.
+Born in 1864 in Hupeh, one of the most important mid-Yangtsze provinces,
+President Li Yuan-hung was now fifty-two years old, and in the prime of
+life; but although he had been accustomed to a military atmosphere from
+his earliest youth his policy had never been militaristic. His father
+having been in command of a force in North China for many years, rising
+from the ranks to the post of <i>Tsan Chiang</i> (Lieutenant-Colonel), had
+been constrained to give him the advantage of a thoroughly modern
+training. At the age of 20 he had entered the Naval School at Tientsin;
+whence six years later he had graduated, seeing service in the navy as
+an engineer officer during the Chino-Japanese war of 1894. After that
+campaign he had been invited by Viceroy Chang Chih-tung, then one of the
+most distinguished of the older viceroys, to join his staff at Nanking,
+and had been entrusted with the supervision of the construction of the
+modern forts at the old Southern capital, which played such a notable
+part in the Revolution. When Chang Chih-tung was transferred to the
+Wuchang viceroyalty, General Li Yuan-hung had accompanied him, actively
+participating in the training of the new Hupeh army, and being assisted
+in that work by German instructors. In 1897 he had gone to Japan to
+study educational, military and administrative methods, returning to
+China after a short stay, but again proceeding to Tokio in 1897 as an
+officer attached to the Imperial Guards. In the autumn of the following
+year he had returned to Wuchang and been appointed Commander of the
+Cavalry. Yet another visit was paid by him to Japan in 1902 to attend
+the grand military manoeuvres, these journeys giving him a good working
+knowledge of Japanese, in addition to the English which had been an
+important item in the curriculum of the Naval School, and which he
+understands moderately well. In 1903 he was promoted Brigadier-General,
+being subsequently gazetted as the Commander of the 2nd Division of
+Regulars (<i>Chang Pei Chun</i>) of Hupeh. He also constantly held various
+subsidiary posts, in addition to his substantive appointment, connected
+with educational and administrative work of
+<a name="Page_205" id="Page_205"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">205</span>
+various kinds, and has
+therefore a sound grasp of provincial government. He was
+Commander-in-Chief of the 8th Division during the famous military
+manoeuvres of 1906 at Changtehfu in Honan province, which are said to
+have given birth to the idea of a universal revolt against the Manchus
+by using the army as the chief instrument.</p>
+		<p>On the memorable day of October 11, 1911, when the standard of revolt
+was raised at Wuchang, somewhat against his will as he was a loyal
+officer, he was elected military Governor, thus becoming the first real
+leader of the Republic. Within the space of ten days his leadership had
+secured the adhesion of fourteen provinces to the Republican cause; and
+though confronted by grave difficulties owing to insufficiency of
+equipment and military supplies, he fought the Northern soldiery for two
+months around Wuchang with varying success. He it was, when the Republic
+had been formally established and the Manchu r&eacute;gime made a thing of the
+past, who worked earnestly to bring about better relations between the
+armies of North and South China which had been arrayed against one
+another during many bitter weeks. It was he, also, who was the first to
+advocate the complete separation of the civil and military
+administration&mdash;the administrative powers in the early days of the
+Republic being entirely in the hands of the military governors of the
+provinces who recruited soldiery in total disregard to the wishes of the
+Central Government. Although this reform has even to-day only been
+partially successful, there is no reason to doubt that before the
+Republic is many years older the idea of the military dictating the
+policy and administration of the country will pass away. The so-called
+Second Revolution of 1913 awakened no sympathy in General Li Yuan-hung,
+because he was opposed to internal strife and held that all Chinese
+should work for unity and concerted reform rather than indulge in
+fruitless dissensions. His disapproval of the monarchy movement had been
+equally emphatic in the face of an ugly outlook. He was repeatedly
+approached by the highest personages to give in his adhesion to Yuan
+Shih-kai becoming emperor, but he persistently refused although grave
+fears were publicly expressed that he would be assassinated. Upon the
+formal acceptance of the Throne by Yuan Shih-kai, he had had conferred
+on him a princedom
+<a name="Page_206" id="Page_206"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">206</span>
+which he steadfastly refused to accept; and when the
+allowances of a prince were brought to him from the Palace he returned
+them with the statement that as he had not accepted the title the money
+was not his. Every effort to break his will proved unavailing, his
+patience and calmness contributing very materially to the vast moral
+opposition which finally destroyed Yuan Shih-kai.</p>
+		<p>Such was the man who was called upon to preside over the new government
+and parliament which was now assembling in Peking; and certainly it may
+be counted as an evidence of China's traditional luck which brought him
+to the helm. General Li Yuan-hung knew well that the cool and singular
+plan which had been pursued to forge a national mandate for a revival of
+of the empire would take years completely to obliterate, and that the
+octopus-hold of the Military Party&mdash;the army being the one effective
+organization which had survived the Revolution &mdash;could not be loosened
+in a day,&mdash;in fact would have to be tolerated until the nation asserted
+itself and showed that it could and would be master. In the
+circumstances his authority could not but be very limited, disclosing
+itself in passive rather than in active ways. Wishing to be above all a
+constitutional President, he quickly saw that an interregnum must be
+philosophically accepted during which the Permanent Constitution would
+be worked out and the various parties forced to a general agreement; and
+thanks to this decision the year which has now elapsed since Yuan
+Shih-kai's death has been almost entirely eventless, with the exception
+of the crisis which arose over the war-issue, a matter which is fully
+discussed elsewhere.</p>
+		<p>Meanwhile, in the closing months of 1916, the position was not a little
+singular. Two great political parties had arisen through the
+Revolution&mdash;the Kuo Ming Tang or Nationalists, who included all the
+Radical elements, and the Chinputang or Progressives, whose adherents
+were mainly men of the older official classes, and therefore
+conservative. The Yunnan movement, which had led to the overthrow of
+Yuan Shih-kai, had been inspired and very largely directed by the
+scholar Liang Ch'i-chao, a leader of the Chinputang. To this party,
+then, though numerically inferior to the Kuo Ming Tang, was due the
+honour and
+<a name="Page_207" id="Page_207"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">207</span>
+credit of re-establishing the Republic, the Kuo Ming Tang
+being under a cloud owing to the failure of the Second Revolution of
+1913 which it had engineered. Nevertheless, owing to the Kuo Ming Tang
+being more genuinely republican, since it was mainly composed of younger
+and more modern minds, it was from its ranks that the greatest check to
+militarism sprang; and therefore although its work was necessarily
+confined to the Council-chamber, its moral influence was very great and
+constantly representative of the civilian element as opposed to the
+militarist. By staking everything on the necessity of adhering to the
+Nanking Provisional Constitution until a permanent instrument was drawn
+up, the Kuo Ming Tang rapidly established an ascendancy; for although
+the Nanking Constitution had admittedly failed to bring representative
+government because of the difficulty of defining powers in such a way as
+to make a practical autocracy impossible, it had at least established as
+a basic principle that China could no longer be ruled as a family
+possession, which in itself marked a great advance on all previous
+conceptions. President Li Yuan-hung's policy, in the circumstances, was
+to play the part of a moderator and to seek to bring harmony to a mass
+of heterogeneous elements that had to carry out the practical work of
+government over four hundred millions of people.</p>
+		<p>His success was at the outset hampered by the appeal the military were
+quick in making to a new method&mdash;to offset the power of Parliament in
+Peking. We have already dealt with the evils of the circular telegram in
+China&mdash;surely one of the most unexpected results of adapting foreign
+inventions to native life. By means of these telegraphic campaigns a
+rapid exchange of views is made possible among the provincial governors;
+and consequently in the autumn of 1916, inspired by the Military Party,
+a wholly illegal Conference of generals was organized by the redoubtable
+old General Chang Hsun on the Pukow railway for the purpose of overawing
+parliament, and securing that the Military Party retained a controlling
+hand behind the scenes. It is perhaps unnecessary to-day to do more than
+note the fact that the peace of the country was badly strained by this
+procedure; but thanks to moderate counsels and the wisdom of the
+President no open breach occurred
+<a name="Page_208" id="Page_208"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">208</span>
+and there is reason to believe that
+this experiment will not be repeated,&mdash;at least not in the same way.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21"><sup>[21]</sup></a>
+		</p>
+		<p>The difficulty to be solved is of an unique nature. It is not that the
+generals and the Military Party are necessarily reactionary: it is that,
+not belonging to the intellectual-literary portion of the ruling
+elements, they are less advanced and less accustomed to foreign ways,
+and therefore more in touch with the older China which lingers on in the
+vast agricultural districts, and in all those myriad of townships which
+are dotted far and wide across the provinces to the confines of Central
+Asia. Naturally it is hard for a class of men who hold the balance of
+power and carry on much of the actual work of governing to submit to the
+paper decrees of an institution they do not accept as being responsible
+and representative: but many indications are available that when a
+Permanent Constitution has been promulgated, and made an article of
+faith in all the schools, a change for the better will come and the old
+antagonisms gradually disappear.</p>
+		<p>It is on this Constitution that Parliament has been at work ever since
+it re-assembled in August, 1916, and which is now practically completed.
+Sitting together three times a week as a National Convention, the two
+Houses have subjected the Draft Constitution (which was prepared by a
+Special Parliamentary Drafting Committee) to a very exhaustive
+examination and discussion. Many violent scenes have naturally marked
+the progress of this important work, the two great parties, the Kuo Ming
+Tang and the Chinputang, coming to loggerheads again and again. But in
+the main the debates and the decisions arrived at have been satisfactory
+and important, because they have tended to express in a concrete and
+indisputable form the present state of the Chinese mind and its immense
+underlying commonsense. Remarkable discussions and fierce enmities, for
+instance, marked the final decision not to make the Confucian cult the
+State Religion; but there is not the slightest doubt that in formally
+registering this veritable revolution in the secret stronghold of
+Chinese
+<a name="Page_209" id="Page_209"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">209</span>
+political thought, a Bastille has been overthrown and the
+ground left clear for the development of individualism and personal
+responsibility in a way which was impossible under the leaden formulae
+of the greatest of the Chinese sages. In defining the relationship which
+must exist between the Central Government and the provinces even more
+formidable difficulties have been encountered, the apostles of
+decentralization and the advocates of centralization refusing for many
+months to agree on the so-called Provincial system, and then fighting a
+battle <i>&agrave; outrance</i> on the question of whether this body of law should
+form a chapter in the Constitution or be simply an annexure to the main
+instrument. The agreement which was finally arrived at&mdash;to make it part
+and parcel of the Constitution&mdash;was masterly in that it has secured that
+the sovereignty of the people will not tend to be expressed in the
+provincial dietines which have now been re-erected (after having been
+summarily destroyed by Yuan Shih-kai), the Central Parliament being left
+the absolute master. This for a number of years will no doubt be more of
+a theory than a practice; but there is every indication that
+parliamentary government will within a limited period be more successful
+in China than in some European countries; and that the Chinese with
+their love of well-established procedure and cautious action, will
+select open debate as the best method of sifting the grain from the
+chaff and deciding every important matter by the vote of the majority.
+Already in the period of 1916-1917 Parliament has more than justified
+its re-convocation by becoming a National Watch Committee.
+Interpellations on every conceivable subject have been constant and
+frequent; fierce verbal assaults are delivered on Cabinet Ministers; and
+slowly but inexorably a real sense of Ministerial responsibility is
+being created, the fear of having to run the gauntlet of Parliament
+abating, if it has not yet entirely destroyed, many malpractices. In the
+opinion of the writer in less than ten years Parliament will have
+succeeded in coalescing the country into an organic whole, and will have
+placed the Cabinet in such close daily relations with it that something
+very similar to the Anglo-Saxon theory of government will be impregnably
+entrenched in Peking. That such a miracle should be possible
+<a name="Page_210" id="Page_210"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">210</span>
+in extreme
+Eastern Asia is one more proof that there are no victories beyond the
+capacity of the human mind.</p>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE21" id="IMAGE21"></a>
+			<a href="images/image21.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image21.jpg" width="70%" alt="General Tsao-ao, the Hero of the Yunnan Rebellion of
+1915-16, who died from the effects of the campaign." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>General Tsao-ao, the Hero of the Yunnan Rebellion of
+1915-16, who died from the effects of the campaign.</p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE22" id="IMAGE22"></a>
+			<a href="images/image22.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image22.jpg" width="70%" alt="Liang Shih-yi, who was the Power behind Yuan Shih-kai,
+now proscribed and living in exile at Hong-Kong." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>Liang Shih-yi, who was the Power behind Yuan Shih-kai,
+now proscribed and living in exile at Hong-Kong.</p>
+		</div>
+		<p>Meanwhile, for the time being, in China as in countries ten thousand
+miles away, ministerial irresponsibility is the enemy; that is to say
+that so-called Cabinet-rule, with the effacement of the Chief Executive,
+has tended to make Cabinet Ministers removed from effective daily
+control. All sorts of things are done which should not be done and men
+are still in charge of portfolios who should be summarily expelled from
+the capital for malpractices.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22"><sup>[22]</sup></a> But although Chinese are slow to take
+action and prefer to delay all decisions until they have about them the
+inexorable quality which is associated with Fate, there is not the
+slightest doubt that in the long run the dishonest suffer, and an
+increasingly efficient body of men take their place. From every point of
+view then there is reason for congratulation in the present position,
+and every hope that the future will unroll peacefully.</p>
+		<p>A visit to Parliament under the new r&eacute;gime is a revelation to most men:
+the candid come away with an impression which is never effaced from
+their minds. There is a peculiar suggestiveness even in the location of
+the Houses of the National Assembly. They are tucked away in the distant
+Western city immediately under the shadow of the vast Tartar Wall as if
+it had been fully expected when they were called into being that they
+would never justify their existence, and that the crushing weight of the
+great bastion of brick and stone surrounding the capital would soon
+prove to them how futile it was for such palpable intruders to aspire to
+national control. Under Yuan Shih-kai, as under the Manchus, they were
+an exercise in the arm of government, something which was never to be
+allowed to harden into a settled practice. They were first cousins to
+railways, to electrical power, to metalled roadways and all those other
+modern instances beginning to modify an ancient civilization entirely
+based on agriculture; and because they were so distantly related to the
+real China of the farm-yard it was thought that they would always stand
+outside the national life.</p>
+		<p>That was what the fools believed. Yet in a copy of the rules
+<a name="Page_211" id="Page_211"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">211</span>
+of
+procedure of the old Imperial Senate (Tzuchengyuan) the writer finds
+this note written in 1910: &quot;The Debates of this body have been
+remarkable during the very first session. They make it seem clear that
+the first National Parliament of 1913 will seize control of China and
+nullify the power of the Throne. Result, revolution&mdash;&quot; Though the dating
+is a little confused, the prophecy is worthy of record.</p>
+		<p>The watchfulness of the special police surrounding the Parliament of
+1916-1917 and the great number of these men also tells a story as
+eloquent as the location of the building. It is not so much that any
+contemplated violence sets these guardians here as the necessity to
+advertise that there has been unconstitutional violence in the past
+which, if possible, will be rigidly defeated in the future. Probably no
+National Assembly in the world has been held up to greater contempt than
+the Parliament of Peking and probably no body deserves it less. An
+afternoon spent in the House of Representatives would certainly surprise
+most open-minded men who have been content to believe that the Chinese
+experiment was what some critics have alleged it to be. The Chinese as a
+people, being used to guild-house proceedings, debates, in which the
+welfare of the majority is decided after an examination of the
+principles at stake, are a very old and well-established custom; and
+though at present there are awkwardnesses and gaucheries to be noted,
+when practice has become better fixed, the common sense of the race will
+abundantly disclose itself and make a lasting mark on contemporary
+history. There can be no doubt about this at all.</p>
+		<p>Take your seat in the gallery and see for yourself. The first question
+which rises to the lips is&mdash;where are the young men, those crude and
+callow youths masquerading as legislators which the vernacular press has
+so excessively lampooned? The majority of the members, so far from being
+young, are men of thirty or forty, or even fifty, with intelligent and
+tired faces that have lost the Spring of youth. Here and there you will
+even see venerable greybeards suffering from rheumy coughs who ought to
+be at home; and though occasionally there is a lithe youngster in
+European clothes with the veneer he acquired abroad not yet completely
+rubbed off, the total
+<a name="Page_212" id="Page_212"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">212</span>
+impression is that of oldish men who have reached
+years of maturity and who are as representative of the country and as
+good as the country is in a position to-day to provide. No one who knows
+the real China can deny that.</p>
+		<p>The Continental arrangement of the Members' desks and the raised tribune
+of the Speaker, with its rows of clerks and recorders, make an
+impression of orderliness, tinged nevertheless with a faint
+revolutionary flavour. Perhaps it is the straight black Chinese hair and
+the rich silk clothing, set on a very plain and unadorned background,
+which recall the pictures of the French Revolution. It is somehow
+natural in such circumstances that there should occasionally be dramatic
+outbursts with the blood of offenders bitterly demanded as though we
+were not living in the Twentieth Century when blood alone is admittedly
+no satisfaction. The presence of armed House police at every door, and
+in the front rows of the strangers' gallery as well, contributes to this
+impression which has certain qualities of the theatre about it and is
+oddly stimulating. China at work legislating has already created her
+first traditions: she is proceeding deliberately armed &mdash;with the
+lessons of the immediate past fully noted.</p>
+		<p>This being the home of a literary race, papers and notebooks are on most
+Members' desks. As the electric bells ring sharply an unending
+procession of men file in to take their seats, for there has been a
+recess and the House has been only half-filled. Nearly every one is in
+Chinese dress <i>(pien-yi)</i> with the Member's badge pinned conspicuously
+on the breast. The idea speedily becomes a conviction that this after
+all is not extraneous to the nation, but actually of the living flesh, a
+vital and imperative thing. The vastness and audacity of it all cannot
+fail to strike the imaginative mind, for the four or five hundred men
+who are gathered here typify, if they do not yet represent, the four or
+five hundred millions who make up the country. You see as it were the
+nation in profile, a ponderous, slow-moving mass, quickly responsive to
+curious sub-conscious influences&mdash;suddenly angry and suddenly calm again
+because Reason has after all always been the great goddess which is
+perpetually worshipped. All are scholarly and deliberate in their
+movements. When the Speaker calls the House in order and the debate
+commences, deep silence comes save for the movement of hundreds of
+nervous hands that touch
+<a name="Page_213" id="Page_213"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">213</span>
+papers or fidget to and fro. Every man uses
+his hands, particularly when he speaks, not clenched as a European would
+do, but open, with the slim fingers speaking a language of their own,
+twisting, turning, insinuating, deriding, a little history of
+compromises. It would be interesting to write the story of China from a
+study of the hands.</p>
+		<p>Each man goes to the rostrum to speak, and each has much to say. Soon
+another impression deepens&mdash;that the Northerners with their clear-cut
+speech and their fuller voices have an advantage over the Southerners of
+the kind that all public performers know. The mandarin language of
+Peking is after all the mother-language of officialdom, the <i>madre
+lingua</i>, less nervous and more precise than any other dialect and
+invested with a certain air of authority which cannot be denied. The
+sharp-sounding, high-pitched Southern voice, though it may argue very
+acutely and rapidly, appears at an increasing disadvantage. There seems
+to be a tendency inherent in it to become querulous, to make its
+pleading sound specious because of over-much speech. These are curious
+little things which have been not without influence in other regions of
+the world.</p>
+		<p>The applause when it comes proves the same thing as applause does
+everywhere; that if you want to drive home your points in a large
+assembly you must be condensed and simple, using broad, slashing
+arguments. This is precisely what distinguishes melodrama from drama,
+and which explains why excessive analysis is no argument in the popular
+mind. Generally, however, there is not much applause and the voice of
+the speaker wanders through the hall uninterrupted by signs of content
+or discontent. Sometimes, although rather rarely, there is a gust of
+laughter as a point is scored against a hated rival. But it dies away as
+suddenly as it arose&mdash;almost before you have noted it, as if it were
+superfluous and must make room for more serious things.</p>
+		<p>With the closing of a debate there is the vote. An electric bell rings
+again, and with a rough hand the House police close all the exits. The
+clerks come down into the aisles. They seem to move listlessly and
+indifferently; yet very quickly they have checked the membership to
+insure that the excessively large quorum requisite is present. Now the
+Speaker calls for the vote.
+<a name="Page_214" id="Page_214"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">214</span>
+Massively and stiffly, as at a word of
+command the &quot;ayes&quot; rise in their seats. There is a round of applause;
+the bill has been carried almost unanimously. That, however, is not
+always so. When there is an obstreperous mood abroad, the House will
+decline to proceed with the agenda, and a dozen men will rise at a time
+and speak from behind their desks, trying to talk each other down. The
+Speaker stands patiently wrestling with the problem of procedure&mdash;and
+often failing since practice is still in process of being formed. Years
+must elapse before absolutely hard-and-fast rules are established. Still
+the progress already made since August, 1916, is remarkable, and
+something is being learned every day. The business of a Parliament is
+after all to debate&mdash;to give voice to the uppermost thoughts in the
+nation's mind; and how those thoughts are expressed is a continual
+exposition of the real state of the nation's political beliefs.
+Parliament is&mdash;or should be&mdash;a microcosm of the race; parliament is
+never any better or any worse than the mass of the people. The rule of
+the majority as expressed in the voting of the National Assembly must be
+taken as a fundamental thing; China is no exception to the rule&mdash;the
+rule of the majority must be decisive. But here another complexity of
+the new Chinese political life enters into the problem. The existence of
+a responsible Cabinet, which is not yet linked to the Legislative body
+in any well-understood way, and which furthermore has frequently acted
+in opposition to the President's office, makes for a daily struggle in
+the administration of the country which is strongly to be condemned and
+which has already led to some ugly clashes. But nevertheless there are
+increasing indications that parliamentary government is making steady
+headway and that when both the Permanent Constitution and the Local
+Government system have been enforced, a new note will be struck. No
+doubt it will need a younger generation in office to secure a complete
+abandonment of all the old ways, but the writer has noted with
+astonishment during the past twelve-month how eager even viceroys
+belonging to the old Manchu r&eacute;gime have become to fall in with the new
+order and to lend their help, a sharp competition to obtain ministerial
+posts being evident in spite of the fact that the gauntlet of Parliament
+has to be run and a majority vote recorded before any appointment is
+valid.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_215" id="Page_215"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">215</span>
+One last anomaly has, however, yet to be done away with in Peking. The
+deposed boy Emperor still resides in the Winter Palace surrounded by a
+miniature court,&mdash;a state of affairs which should not be tolerated any
+longer as it no doubt tends to assist the rumours which every now and
+again are mysteriously spread by interested parties that a Restoration
+is imminent. The time has arrived when not only must the Manchu Imperial
+Family be removed far from the capital but a scheme worked out for
+commuting the pension-system of so-called Bannerman families who still
+draw their monthly allowances as under the Manchus, thanks to the
+articles of Favourable Treatment signed at the time of abdication of
+1912. When these two important questions have been settled, imperialism
+in China will tend rapidly to fade into complete oblivion.</p>
+		<div class="footnotes">
+			<p class="center">FOOTNOTES:</p>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_21_21">
+						<span class="label">[21]</span>
+					</a> Although the events dealt with in Chapter XVI have brought
+China face to face with a new crisis the force of the arguments used
+here is in no wise weakened.</p>
+			</div>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_22_22">
+						<span class="label">[22]</span>
+					</a> Since this was written two Cabinet Ministers have been
+summarily arrested.</p>
+			</div>
+		</div>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p>	<a name="Page_216" id="Page_216"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">216</span></p>
+		<h2>
+
+		<a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>
+		CHAPTER XV</h2>
+		<h3>THE REPUBLIC IN COLLISION WITH REALITY: TWO TYPICAL INSTANCES OF
+&quot;FOREIGN AGGRESSION&quot;</h3>
+		<p>Such, then, were the internal conditions which the new administration
+was called upon to face with the death of Yuan Shih-kai. With very
+little money in the National Treasury and with the provinces unable or
+unwilling to remit to the capital a single dollar, it was fortunate that
+at least one public service, erected under foreign pressure, should be
+brilliantly justifying its existence. The Salt Administration,
+efficiently reorganized in the space of three years by the great Indian
+authority, Sir Richard Dane, was now providing a monthly surplus of
+nearly five million dollars; and it was this revenue which kept China
+alive during a troubled transitional period when every one was declaring
+that she must die. By husbanding this hard cash and mixing it liberally
+with paper money, the Central Government has been able since June, 1916,
+to meet its current obligations and to keep the general machinery from
+breaking down.</p>
+		<p>But in a country such as China new dangers have to be constantly faced
+and smoothed away&mdash;the interests of the outer world pressing on the
+country and conflicting with the native interest at a myriad points. And
+in order to illustrate and make clear the sort of daily exacerbation
+which the nation must endure because of the vastness of its territory
+and the octopus-hold of the foreigner we give two typical cases of
+international trouble which have occurred since Yuan Shih-kai's death.
+The first is the well-known Chengchiatun incident which occurred in
+Manchuria in August, 1916: the second is the Lao-hsi-kai affair which
+took place in Tientsin in November of the same year and created
+<a name="Page_217" id="Page_217"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">217</span>
+a storm
+of rage against France throughout North China which at the moment of
+writing has not yet abated.</p>
+		<p>The facts about the Chengchiatun incident are incredibly simple and
+merit being properly told. Chengchiatun is a small Mongol-Manchurian
+market-town lying some sixty miles west of the South Manchurian railway
+by the ordinary cart-roads, though as the crow flies the distance is
+much less. The country round about is &quot;new country,&quot; the prefecture in
+which Chengchiatun lies being originally purely Mongol territory on
+which Chinese squatted in such numbers that it was necessary to erect
+the ordinary Chinese civil administration. Thirty or forty miles due
+west of the town cultivation practically ceases; and then nothing meets
+the eye but the rolling grasslands of Mongolia, with their sparse
+encampments of nomad horsemen and shepherds which stretch so
+monotonously into the infinities of High Asia.</p>
+		<p>The region is strategically important because the trade-routes converge
+there from the growing marts of the Taonanfu administration, which is
+the extreme westernly limit of Chinese authority in the Mongolian
+borderland. A rich exchange in hides, furs, skins, cattle and foodstuffs
+has given this frontier town from year to year an increasing importance
+in the eyes of the Chinese who are fully aware of the dangers of a
+laissez aller policy and are determined to protect the rights they have
+acquired by pre-emption. The fact that notorious Mongol brigand-chiefs,
+such as the famous Babachapu who was allied to the Manchu Restoration
+Party and who was said to have been subsidized by the Japanese Military
+Party, had been making Chengchiatun one of their objectives, brought
+concern early in 1916 to the Moukden Governor, the energetic General
+Chang Tso-lin, who in order to cope with the danger promptly established
+a military cordon round the district, with a relatively large reserve
+based on Chengchiatun, drawn from the 28th Army Division. A certain
+amount of desultory fighting months before any one had heard of the town
+had given Chengchiatun the odour of the camp; and when in the summer the
+Japanese began military manoeuvres in the district with various
+scattered detachments, on the excuse that the South Manchuria railway
+zone where they alone had the right under the Portsmouth Peace Treaty to
+be, was too cramped for field exercises, it became apparent that
+dangerous developments
+<a name="Page_218" id="Page_218"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">218</span>
+might be expected&mdash;particularly as a body of
+Japanese infantry was billeted right in the centre of the town.</p>
+		<p>On the 13th August a Japanese civilian at Chengchiatun&mdash;there is a small
+Japanese trading community there&mdash;approached a Chinese boy who was
+selling fish. On the boy refusing to sell at the price offered him, the
+Japanese caught hold of him and started beating him. A Chinese soldier
+of the 28th Division who was passing intervened; and a scuffle commenced
+in which other Chinese soldiers joined and which resulted in the
+Japanese being severely handled. After the Chinese had left him, the man
+betook himself to the nearest Japanese post and reported that he had
+been grievously assaulted by Chinese soldiers for no reason whatsoever.
+A Japanese gendarme made a preliminary investigation in company with the
+man; then returning to the Japanese barracks, declared that he could
+find no one in authority; that his attempts at discovering the culprits
+had been resisted; and that he must have help. The Japanese officer in
+command, who was a captain, detailed a lieutenant and twenty men to
+proceed to the Chinese barracks to obtain satisfaction from the Chinese
+Commander&mdash;using force if necessary. It was precisely in this way that
+the play was set in motion.</p>
+		<p>The detachment marched off to the headquarters of the offending Chinese
+detachment, which was billeted in a pawnshop, and tried to force their
+way past a sentry who stood his ground, into the inner courtyards. A
+long parley ensued with lowered bayonets; and at last on the Chinese
+soldier absolutely refusing to give way, the lieutenant gave orders to
+cut him down. There appears to be no doubt about these important
+facts&mdash;that is to say, that the act of war was the deliberate attack by
+a Japanese armed detachment on a Chinese sentry who was guarding the
+quarters of his Commander.</p>
+		<p>A frightful scene followed. It appears that scattered groups of Chinese
+soldiers, some with their arms, and some without, had collected during
+this crisis and point-blank firing at once commenced. The first shots
+appear to have been fired&mdash;though this was never proved&mdash;by a Chinese
+r&eacute;gimental groom, who was standing with some horses some distance away
+in the gateway of some stabling and who is said to have killed or
+wounded the largest number of Japanese. In any case, seven Japanese
+soldiers
+<a name="Page_219" id="Page_219"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">219</span>
+were killed outright, five more mortally wounded and four
+severely so, the Chinese themselves losing four killed, besides a number
+of wounded. The remnant of the Japanese detachment after this rude
+reverse managed to retreat with their wounded officer to their own
+barracks where the whole detachment barricaded themselves in, firing for
+many hours at everything that moved on the roads though absolutely no
+attempt was made by the Chinese soldiery to advance against them.</p>
+		<p>The sound of this heavy firing, and the wild report that many Japanese
+had been killed, had meanwhile spread panic throughout the town, and
+there was a general <i>sauve qui peut</i>, a terrible retribution being
+feared. The local Magistrate finally restored some semblance of order;
+and after dark proceeded in person with some notables of the town to the
+Japanese barracks to tender his regrets and to arrange for the removal
+of the Japanese corpses which were lying just as they had fallen, and
+which Chinese custom demanded should be decently cared for, though they
+constituted important and irrefragible evidence of the armed invasion
+which had been practised. The Japanese Commander, instead of meeting
+these conciliatory attempts half-way, thereupon illegally arrested the
+Magistrate and locked him up, being impelled to this action by the
+general fear among his men that a mass attack would be made in the night
+by the Chinese troops in garrison and the whole command wiped out.
+Nothing, however, occurred and on the 14th instant the Magistrate was
+duly released on his sending for his son to take his place as hostage.
+On the 16th the Magistrate had successfully arranged the withdrawal of
+all Chinese troops five miles outside the town to prevent further
+clashes. On the 15th Japanese cavalry and infantry began to arrive in
+large numbers from the South Manchuria railway zone (where they alone
+have the Treaty right to be) and the town of Chengchiatun was
+arbitrarily placed by them in a state of siege.</p>
+		<p>Here is the stuff of which the whole incident was made: there is nothing
+material beyond the facts stated which illustrate very glaringly the
+manner in which a strong Power acts towards a weak one.</p>
+		<p>Meanwhile the effect in Tokio of these happenings had been electrical.
+Relying on the well-known Japanese police axiom, that the man who gets
+in his story first is the prosecutor and the
+<a name="Page_220" id="Page_220"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">220</span>
+accused the guilty party,
+irrespective of what the evidence may be, the newspapers all came out
+with the same account of a calculated attack by &quot;ferocious Chinese
+soldiers&quot; on a Japanese detachment and the general public were asked to
+believe that a number of their enlisted nationals had been deliberately
+and brutally murdered. It was not, however, until more than a week after
+the incident that an official report was published by the Tokio Foreign
+Office, when the following garbled account was distributed far and wide
+as the Japanese case:&mdash;</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<p>&quot;When one Kiyokishy Yoshimoto, aged 27, an employ&eacute; of a Japanese
+    apothecary at Chengchiatun, was passing the headquarters of the
+    Chinese troops on the 13th instant, a Chinese soldier stopped him,
+    and, with some remarks, which were unintelligible to the Japanese,
+    suddenly struck him on the head. Yoshimoto became enraged, but was
+    soon surrounded by a large number of Chinese soldiers and others,
+    who subjected him to all kind of humiliation. As a result of this
+    lawlessness on the part of the Chinese, the Japanese sustained
+    injuries in seven or eight places, but somehow he managed to break
+    away and reach a Japanese police box, where he applied for help. On
+    receipt of this news, a policeman, named Kowase, hastened to the
+    spot, but by the time he arrived there all the offenders had fled.
+    He therefore repaired to the headquarters of the Chinese to lay a
+    complaint, but the sentry stopped him, and presented a pistol at
+    him, and under these circumstances he was obliged to apply to the
+    Japanese Garrison headquarters, where Captain Inone instructed
+    Lieutenant Matsuo with twenty men to escort the policeman to the
+    Chinese headquarters. When the party approached the Chinese
+    headquarters, Chinese troops began to fire, and the policeman and
+    others were either killed or wounded. Despite the fact that the
+    Japanese troops retired, the Chinese troops did not give up firing,
+    but besieged the Japanese garrison, delivering several severe
+    attacks. Soon after the fighting ceased, the Chinese authorities
+    visited the Japanese barracks, and expressed the desire that the
+    affair be settled amicably. It was the original intention of the
+    Japanese troops to fight it out, but they were completely
+    outnumbered, and lest the safety of the Japanese residents be
+    endangered, they stopped fighting. On examination of the dead bodies
+    of seven Japanese soldiers, who were attacked outside the barracks,
+    it was discovered that they had been all slain by the Chinese
+    troops, the bodies bearing marks of violence.&quot; </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>Without entering again into the merits of the case, we would ask those
+who are acquainted with recent history whether it is likely that Chinese
+soldiers, knowing all the pains and penalties attaching to such action,
+would deliberately attack a body of
+<a name="Page_221" id="Page_221"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">221</span>
+twenty armed Japanese under an
+officer as the Japanese official account states? We believe that no
+impartial tribunal, investigating the matter on the spot, could fail to
+point out the real aggressors and withal lay bare the web of a most
+amazing state of affairs. For in order to understand what occurred, on
+the 13th August, 1916, it is necessary to turn far away from
+Chengchiatun and see what lies behind it all.</p>
+		<p>At the back of the brain of the Japanese Military Party, which by no
+means represents the Japanese nation or the Japanese Government although
+it exercises a powerful influence on both, is the fixed idea that South
+Manchuria and Inner Mongolia must be turned into a strongly held and
+fortified Japanese <i>enclave</i>, if the balance of power in Eastern Asia is
+to be maintained. Pursuant to this idea, Japanese diplomacy was induced
+many months ago to concentrate its efforts on winning&mdash;if not wringing
+&mdash;from Russia the strategically important strip of railway south of the
+Sungari River, because (and this should be carefully noted) with the
+Sungari as the undisputed dividing-line between the Russian and Japanese
+spheres in Manchuria, and with Japanese shallow-draft gun-boats
+navigating that waterway and entering the Nonni river, it would be
+easily possible for Japan to complete a &quot;Continental quadrilateral&quot;
+which would include Korea, South Manchuria and Inner Mongolia, the
+extreme western barrier of which would be the new system of Inner
+Mongolian railways centring round Taonanfu and terminating at Jehol, for
+which Japan already holds the building rights<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23"><sup>[23]</sup></a>. Policing rights&mdash;in
+the outer zone of this <i>enclave</i>,&mdash;with a total exclusion of all Chinese
+garrisons, is the preliminary goal towards which the Japanese Military
+Party has been long plainly marching; and long before anybody had heard
+of Chengchiatun, a scheme of reconnoitring detachments had been put in
+force to spy out the land and form working alliances with the Mongol
+bands in order to harass and drive away all the representatives of
+Chinese authority. What occurred, then, at Chengchiatun might have taken
+place at any one of half-a-dozen other places in this vast and
+little-known region whither Japanese detachments have silently gone; and
+if Chinese diplomacy in the month of August,
+<a name="Page_222" id="Page_222"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">222</span>
+1916, was faced with a
+rude surprise, it was only what political students had long been
+expecting. For though Japan should be the real defender of Chinese
+liberties, it is a fact that in Chinese affairs Japanese diplomacy has
+been too long dictated to by the Military Party in Tokio and attempts
+nothing save when violence allows it to tear from China some fresh
+portion of her independence.</p>
+		<p>And here we reach the crux of the matter. One of the little known
+peculiarities of the day lies in the fact that Japan is the land of
+political inaction <i>because there is no tradition of action save that
+which has been built up by the military and naval chiefs since the
+Chinese war of</i> 1894-95. Having only visualized the world in
+international terms during two short decades, there has been no time for
+a proper tradition to be created by the civil government of Japan; and
+because there is no such tradition, the island empire of the East has no
+true foreign policy and is at the mercy of manufactured crises, being
+too often committed to petty adventures which really range her on the
+side of those in Europe the Allies have set themselves to destroy. It is
+for this reason that the Chinese are consistently treated as though they
+were hewers of wood and drawers of water, helots who are occasionally
+nattered in the columns of the daily press and yet are secretly looked
+upon as men who have been born merely to be cuffed and conquered. The
+Moukden Governor, General Chang Tso-lin, discussing the Chengchiatun
+affair with the writer, put the matter in a nutshell. Striking the table
+he exclaimed: &quot;After all we are not made of wood like this, we too are
+flesh and blood and must defend our own people. A dozen times I have
+said, 'Let them come and take Manchuria openly if they dare, but let
+them cease their childish intrigues.' Why do they not do so? Because
+they are not sure they can swallow us&mdash;not at all sure. Do you
+understand? We are weak, we are stupid, we are divided, but we are
+innumerable, and in the end, if they persist, China will burst the
+Japanese stomach.&quot;</p>
+		<p>Such passionate periods are all very well, but when it comes to the
+sober business of the council chamber it is a regrettable fact that
+Chinese, although foreign friends implore them to do so, do not properly
+use the many weapons in their armoury. Thus in this particular case,
+instead of at once hurrying to
+<a name="Page_223" id="Page_223"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">223</span>
+Chengchiatun some of the many foreign
+advisers who sit kicking their heels in Peking from one end of the year
+to the other and who number competent jurisconsults, China did next to
+nothing. No proper report was drawn up on the spot; sworn statements
+were not gathered, nor were witnesses brought to Peking; and it
+therefore happened that when Japan filed her demands for redress, China
+had not in her possession anything save an utterly inadequate defence.
+Mainly because of this she was forced to agree to forgoing any direct
+discussion of the rights and wrongs of the case, proceeding directly to
+negotiations based on the various claims which Japan filed and which
+were as follows:&mdash;</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<p>1. Punishment of the General commanding the 28th Division.</p>
+			<p>  2. The dismissal of officers at Chengchiatun responsible for the
+    occurrence as well as the severe punishment of those who took direct
+    part in the fracas.</p>
+			<p>  3. Proclamations to be posted ordering all Chinese soldiers and
+    civilians in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia to refrain
+    from any act calculated to provoke a breach of the peace with
+    Japanese soldiers or civilians.</p>
+			<p>  4. China to agree to the stationing of Japanese police officers in
+    places in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia where their
+    presence was considered necessary for the protection of Japanese
+    subjects. China also to agree to the engagement by the officials of
+    South Manchuria of Japanese police advisers.</p>
+			<p>
+				<i>And in addition</i>:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  1. Chinese troops stationed in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner
+    Mongolia to employ a certain number of Japanese Military officers as
+    advisers.</p>
+			<p>  2. Chinese Military Cadet schools to employ a certain number of
+    Japanese Military officers as instructors.</p>
+			<p>  3. The Military Governor of Moukden to proceed personally to Port
+    Arthur to the Japanese Military Governor of Kwantung to apologize
+    for the occurrence and to tender similar personal apologies to the
+    Japanese Consul General in Moukden.</p>
+			<p>  4. Adequate compensation to be paid by China to the Japanese
+    sufferers and to the families of those killed. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>The merest tyro will see at once that so far from caring very much about
+the killing of her soldiery, Japan was bent on utilizing the opportunity
+to gain a certain number of new rights and privileges in the zone of
+Southern Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia&mdash;notably an extension of
+her police and military-supervision rights. In spite, however, of the
+faulty procedure
+<a name="Page_224" id="Page_224"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">224</span>
+to which she had consented, China showed considerable
+tenacity in the course of negotiations which lasted nearly half a year,
+and by the end of January, 1917, had whittled down the question of
+Japanese compensation to fairly meagre proportions. To be precise the
+two governments agreed to embody by the exchange of Notes the five
+following stipulations:&mdash;</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<p>1. The General commanding the 28th Division to be reprimanded.</p>
+			<p>  2. Officers responsible to be punished according to law. If the law
+    provides for severe punishment, such punishment will be inflicted.</p>
+			<p>  3. Proclamations to be issued enjoining Chinese soldiers and
+    civilians in the districts where there is mixed residence to accord
+    considerate treatment to Japanese soldiers and civilians.</p>
+			<p>  4. The Military Governor of Moukden to send a representative to Port
+    Arthur to convey his regret when the Military Governor of Kwantung
+    and Japanese Consul General at Moukden are there together.</p>
+			<p>  5. A solatium of $500 (Five Hundred Dollars) to be given to the
+    Japanese merchant Yoshimoto. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>But though the incident was thus nominally closed, and amicable
+relations restored, the most important point&mdash;the question of Japanese
+police-rights in Southern Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia&mdash;was left
+precisely where it had been before, the most vigorous Chinese protests
+not having induced Japan to abate in the slightest her pretensions.
+During previous years a number of Japanese police-stations and
+police-boxes had been established in defiance of the local authorities
+in these regions, and although China in these negotiations recorded her
+strongest possible objection to their presence as being the principal
+cause of the continual friction between Chinese and Japanese, Japan
+refused to withdraw from her contention that they did not constitute any
+extension of the principle of extraterritoriality, and that indeed
+Japanese police, distributed at such points as the Japanese consular
+authorities considered necessary, must be permanently accepted. Here
+then is a matter which will require careful consideration when the
+Powers meet to revise their Chinese Treaties as they must revise them
+after the world-war; for Japan in
+Manchuria is fundamentally in no
+different a position from England in the Yangtsze Valley and what
+applies to one must apply to the other. The new Chinese police which are
+being distributed in ever greater
+<a name="Page_225" id="Page_225"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">225</span>
+numbers throughout China form an
+admirable force and are superior to Japanese police in the performance
+of nearly all their duties. It is monstrous that Japan, as well as other
+Powers, should act in such a reprehensible manner when the Chinese
+administration is doing all it can to provide efficient guardians of the
+peace.</p>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE23" id="IMAGE23"></a>
+			<a href="images/image23.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image23.jpg" width="70%" alt="The Famous or Infamous General Chang-Hsun, the leading
+Reactionary in China to-day, who still commands a force of 30,000 men
+astride of the Pukow Railway." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>The Famous or Infamous General Chang-Hsun, the leading
+Reactionary in China to-day, who still commands a force of 30,000 men
+astride of the Pukow Railway.</p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE24" id="IMAGE24"></a>
+			<a href="images/image24.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image24.jpg" width="70%" alt="The Bas-relief in a Peking Temple, well illustrating
+Indo-Chinese influences." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>The Bas-relief in a Peking Temple, well illustrating
+Indo-Chinese influences.</p>
+		</div>
+		<p>The second case was one in which French officialdom by a curious act of
+folly gravely alienated Chinese sympathies and gave a powerful weapon to
+the German propaganda in China at the end of 1916. The Lao-hsi-kai
+dispute, which involved a bare 333 acres of land in Tientsin, has now
+taken its place beside the Chengchiatun affair, and has become a leading
+case in that great dossier of griefs which many Chinese declare make up
+the corpus of Euro-Chinese relations. Here again the facts are
+absolutely simple and absolutely undisputed. In 1902 the French consular
+authorities in Tientsin filed a request to have their Concession
+extended on the ground that they were becoming cramped. The Chinese
+authorities, although not wishing to grant the request and indeed
+ignoring it for a long time, were finally induced to begin fitful
+negotiations; and in October, 1916, after having passed through various
+processes of alteration, reduction, and re-statement during the interval
+of fourteen years, the issue had been so fined down that a virtual
+agreement regarding the administration of the new area had been
+reached&mdash;an agreement which the Peking Government was prepared to put
+into force subject to one reasonable stipulation, that the local
+opposition to the new grant of territory which was very real, as Chinese
+feel passionately on the subject of the police-control of their
+land-acreage, was first overcome. The whole essence or soul of the
+disputes lay therein: that the lords of the soil, the people of China,
+and in this case more particularly the population of Tientsin, should
+accept the decision arrived at which was that a joint Franco-Chinese
+administration be established under a Chinese Chairman.</p>
+		<p>When the terms of this proposed agreement were communicated to the
+Tientsin Consulate by the French Legation the arrangement did not please
+the French Consul-General, who was under transfer to Shanghai and who
+proposed to settle the case to the satisfaction of his nationals before
+he left. There is absolutely
+<a name="Page_226" id="Page_226"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">226</span>
+no dispute about this fact either&mdash;namely
+that the main pre-occupation of a consular officer, charged primarily
+under the Treaties with the simple preservation of law and order among
+his nationals, was the closing-up of a vexatious outstanding case, by
+force if necessary, before he handed over his office to his successor.
+It was with this idea that an ultimatum was drawn up by the French
+Consul General and, having been weakly approved by the French Legation,
+was handed to the Chinese local authorities. It gave them a time-limit
+of twenty-four hours in which to effect the complete police evacuation
+of the coveted strip of territory on the ground that the delay in the
+signature of a formal Protocol had been wilful and deliberate and had
+closed the door to further negotiations; and as no response came at the
+end of the time-limit, an open invasion of Chinese territory was
+practised by an armed French detachment; nine uniformed Chinese
+constables on duty being forcibly removed and locked up in French
+barracks and French sentries posted on the disputed boundary.</p>
+		<p>The result of this misguided action was an enormous Chinese outcry and
+the beginning of a boycott of the French in North China,&mdash;and this in
+the middle of a war when France has acted with inspiring nobility. Some
+2,000 native police, servants and employ&eacute;'s promptly deserted the French
+Concession <i>en masse</i>; popular unions were formed to keep alive
+resentment; and although in the end the arrested police were set at
+liberty, the friendly intervention of the Allies proved unable to effect
+a settlement of the case which at the moment of writing remains
+precisely where it was a year ago.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24"><sup>[24]</sup></a></p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_227" id="Page_227"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">227</span>
+Here you have the matter of foreign interests in China explained in the
+sense that they appear to Chinese. It is not too much to say that this
+illustration of the deliberate lawlessness, which has too often been
+practised in the past by consuls who are simply Justices of the Peace,
+would be incredible elsewhere; and yet it is this lawlessness which has
+come to be accepted as part and parcel of what is called &quot;policy&quot; in
+China because in the fifty years preceding the establishment of the
+Republic a weak and effeminate mandarinate consistently sought safety in
+surrenders. It is this lawlessness which must at all costs be suppressed
+if we are to have a happy future. The Chinese people have so far
+contented themselves by pacific retaliation and have not exploded into
+rage; but those who see in the gospel of boycott an ugly manifestation
+of what lies slumbering should give thanks nightly that they live in a
+land where reason is so supreme. Think of what might not happen in China
+if the people were not wholly reasonable! Throughout the length and
+breadth of the land you have small communities of foreigners, mere drops
+in a mighty ocean of four hundred millions, living absolutely secure
+although absolutely at the mercy of their huge swarms of neighbours. All
+such foreigners&mdash;or nearly all&mdash;have come to China for purposes of
+profit; they depend for their livelihood on co-operation with the
+Chinese; and once that co-operation ceases they might as well be dead
+and buried for all the good residence will do them. In such
+circumstances it would be reasonable to suppose that a certain decency
+would inspire their attitude, and that a policy of give-and-take would
+always be sedulously practised; and we are happy to say that there is
+more of this than there used to be. It is only when incidents such as
+the Chengchiatun and Laihsikai affairs occur that the placid population
+is stirred to action. Even then, instead of turning and rending the many
+little defenceless communities&mdash;as European mobs would certainly
+do&mdash;they simply confine themselves to boycotting the offenders and
+hoping that
+<a name="Page_228" id="Page_228"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">228</span>
+this evidence of their displeasure will finally induce the
+world to believe that they are determined to get reasonable treatment.
+The Chinese as a people may be very irritating in the slowness with
+which they do certain things&mdash;though they are as quick in business as
+the quickest Anglo-Saxon&mdash;but that is no excuse why men who call
+themselves superior should treat them with contempt. The Chinese are the
+first to acknowledge that it will take them a generation at least to
+modernize effectively their country and their government; but they
+believe that having erected a Republic and having declared themselves as
+disciples of the West they are justified in expecting the same treatment
+and consideration which are to be given after the war even to the
+smallest and weakest nations of Europe.</p>
+		<div class="footnotes">
+			<p class="center">FOOTNOTES:</p>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_23_23">
+						<span class="label">[23]</span>
+					</a> Russian diplomats now deny that the Japanese proposals
+regarding the cession of the railway south of the Sungari river have
+ever been formally agreed to.</p>
+			</div>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_24_24">
+						<span class="label">[24]</span>
+					</a> A further illustration of the action of French diplomacy
+in China has just been provided (April, 1917) in the protest lodged by
+France against the building of a railway in Kwangsi Province by American
+engineers with American capital&mdash;France claiming <i>exclusive rights</i> in
+Kwangsi by virtue of a letter sent by the Chinese Minister of Foreign
+Affairs to the French Legation in 1914 as settlement for a frontier
+dispute in that year. The text of the letter is as follows:
+</p>
+				<p>
+&quot;The dispute that rose in consequence of the disturbance at the border
+of Annam and Kwangsi has been examined into by the Joint Committee
+detailed by both parties concerned, and a conclusion has been reached to
+the effect that all matters relating to the solution of the case would
+be carried out in accordance with the request of Your Excellency.
+</p>
+				<p>
+&quot;In order to demonstrate the especially good friendly relations existing
+between the two countries, the Republican Government assures Your
+Excellency that in case of a railway construction or a mining enterprise
+being undertaken in Kwangsi Province in the future, for which foreign
+capital is required, France would first be consulted for a loan of the
+necessary capital. On such an occasion, the Governor of Kwangsi will
+directly negotiate with a French syndicate and report to the
+Government.&quot;
+</p>
+				<p>
+It is high time that the United States raises the whole question of the
+open door in China again, and refuses to tolerate any longer the old
+disruptive and dog-in-the-manger policy of the Powers. America is now
+happily in a position to inaugurate a new era in the Far East as in the
+Far West and to stop exploitation.</p>
+			</div>
+		</div>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p>	<a name="Page_229" id="Page_229"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">229</span></p>
+		<h2>
+
+		<a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>
+		CHAPTER XVI</h2>
+		<h3>CHINA AND THE WAR</h3>
+		<p>The question of Chinese sentiments on the subject of the war, as well as
+the precise relations between the Chinese Government and the two groups
+of belligerents, are matters which have been totally misunderstood. To
+those who have grasped the significance of the exhaustive preceding
+account of the Republic in travail, this statement should not cause
+surprise; for China has been in no condition to play anything but an
+insignificant and unsatisfactory r&ocirc;le in world-politics.</p>
+		<p>When the world-war broke out China was still in the throes of her
+domestic troubles and without any money at all in her Central Treasury;
+and although Yuan Shih-kai, on being suddenly confronted with an
+unparalleled international situation, did initiate certain negotiations
+with the German Legation with a view to securing a cancellation of the
+Kiaochow lease, the ultimatum which Japan dispatched to Germany on the
+15th August, 1914, completely nullified his tentative proposals. Yuan
+Shih-kai had, indeed, not been in the slightest degree prepared for such
+a sensational development as war between Japan and Germany over the
+question of a cruiser-base established on territory leased from China;
+and although he considered the possibility of sending a Chinese force to
+co-operate in the attack on the German stronghold, that project was
+never matured, whilst his subsequent contrivances, notably the
+establishment of a so-called war-zone in Shantung, were without
+international value, and attracted no attention save in Japan.</p>
+		<p>Chinese, however, did not remain blind to the trend of events. After the
+fall of Tsingtao and the subsequent complications with Japan, which so
+greatly served to increase the complexities of a nebulous situation,
+certain lines of thought insensibly
+<a name="Page_230" id="Page_230"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">230</span>
+developed. That the influential
+classes in China should have desired that Germany should by some means
+rehabilitate herself in Europe and so be placed in a position to
+chastise a nation that for twenty years had brought nothing but sorrow
+to them was perhaps only natural; and it is primarily to this one cause
+that so-called sympathy with Germany during the first part of the war
+has been due. But it must also be noticed that the immense German
+propaganda in China during the first two years of the war, coupled with
+the successes won in Russia and elsewhere, powerfully impressed the
+population&mdash;not so much because they were attracted by the feats of a
+Power that had enthroned militarism, but because they wrongly supposed
+that sooner or later the effects of this military display would be not
+only to secure the relaxation of the Japanese grip on the country but
+would compel the Powers to re-cast their pre-war policies in China and
+abandon their attempts at placing the country under financial
+supervision. Thus, by the irony of Fate, Germany in Eastern Asia for the
+best part of 1914, 1915 and 1916, stood for the aspirations of the
+oppressed&mdash;a moral which we may very reasonably hope will not escape the
+attention of the Foreign Offices of the world. Nor must it be forgotten
+that the modern Chinese army, being like the Japanese, largely
+Germany-trained and Germany-armed, had a natural predilection for
+Teutonism; and since the army, as we have shown, plays a powerful r&ocirc;le
+in the politics of the Republic, public opinion was greatly swayed by
+what it proclaimed through its accredited organs.</p>
+		<p>Be this as it may, it was humanly impossible for such a vast country
+with such vast resources in men and raw materials to remain permanently
+quiescent during an universal conflagration when there was so much to be
+salvaged. Slowly the idea became general in China that something had to
+be done; that is that a state of technical neutrality would lead nowhere
+save possibly to Avernus.</p>
+		<p>As early as November, 1915, Yuan Shih-kai and his immediate henchmen had
+indeed realized the internal advantages to be derived from a formal
+war-partnership with the signatories of the Pact of London, the impulse
+to the movement being given by certain important shipments of arms and
+ammunition from
+<a name="Page_231" id="Page_231"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">231</span>
+China which were then made. A half-surreptitious
+attempt to discuss terms in Peking caused no little excitement, the
+matter being, however, only debated in very general terms. The principal
+item proposed by the Peking government was characteristically the
+stipulation that an immediate loan of two million pounds should be made
+to China, in return for her technical belligerency. But when the
+proposal was taken to Tokio, Japan rightly saw that its main purpose was
+simply to secure an indirect foreign endorsement of Yuan Shih-kai's
+candidature as Emperor; and for that reason she threw cold-water on the
+whole project. To subscribe to a formula, which besides enthroning Yuan
+Shih-kai would have been a grievous blow to her Continental ambitions,
+was an unthinkable thing; and therefore the manoeuvre was foredoomed to
+failure.</p>
+		<p>The death of Yuan Shih-kai in the summer of 1916 radically altered the
+situation. Powerful influences were again set to work to stamp out the
+German cult and to incline the minority of educated men who control the
+destinies of the country to see that their real interests could only lie
+with the Allies, who were beginning to export Chinese man-power as an
+auxiliary war-aid and who were very anxious to place the whole matter on
+a sounder footing. Little real progress was, however, made in the face
+of the renewed German efforts to swamp the country with their
+propaganda. By means of war-maps, printed in English and Chinese, and
+also by means of an exhaustive daily telegraphic service which hammered
+home every possible fact illustrative of German invincibility, the
+German position in China, so far from being weakened, was actually
+strengthened during the period when Rumania was being overrun. By a
+singular destiny, any one advocating an alliance with the Allies was
+bitterly attacked not only by the Germans but by the Japanese as
+well&mdash;this somewhat na&iuml;ve identification of Japan's political interest
+with those of an enemy country being an unique feature of the situation
+worthy of permanent record.</p>
+		<p>It was not until President Wilson sent out his Peace offering of the
+19th December, 1916, that a distinct change came. On this document being
+formally communicated to the Chinese Government great interest was
+aroused, and the old hopes were revived that it would be somehow
+possible for China to gain
+<a name="Page_232" id="Page_232"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">232</span>
+entry at the definitive Peace Congress which
+would settle beyond repeal the question of the disposal of Kiaochow and
+the whole of German interests in Shantung Province,&mdash;a subject of
+burning interest to the country not only because of the harsh treatment
+which had been experienced at the hands of Japan, but because the
+precedent established in 1905 at the Portsmouth Treaty was one which it
+was felt must be utterly shattered if China was not to abandon her claim
+of being considered a sovereign international State. On that occasion
+Japan had simply negotiated direct with Russia concerning all matters
+affecting Manchuria, dispatching a Plenipotentiary to Peking, after the
+Treaty of Peace had been signed, to secure China's adhesion to all
+clauses <i>en bloc</i> without discussion. True enough, by filing the
+Twenty-one Demands on China in 1915&mdash;when the war was hardly half-a-year
+old&mdash;and by forcing China's assent to all Shantung questions under the
+threat of an Ultimatum, Japan had reversed the Portsmouth Treaty
+procedure and apparently settled the issues at stake for all time;
+nevertheless the Chinese hoped when the facts were properly known to the
+world that this species of diplomacy would not be endorsed, and that
+indeed the Shantung question could be reopened.</p>
+		<p>Consequently great pains were taken at the Chinese Foreign Office to
+draft a reply to the Wilson Note which would tell its own story. The
+authorized translation of the document handed to the American Legation
+on the 8th January has therefore a peculiar political interest. It runs
+as follows:&mdash;</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<p>&quot;I have examined with the care which the gravity of the question
+    demands the note concerning peace which President Wilson has
+    addressed to the Governments of the Allies and the Central Powers
+    now at war and the text of which Your Excellency has been good
+    enough to transmit to me under instructions of your Government.</p>
+			<p>  &quot;China, a nation traditionally pacific, has recently again
+    manifested her sentiments in concluding treaties concerning the
+    pacific settlement of international disputes, responding thus to the
+    voeux of the Peace Conference held at the Hague.</p>
+			<p>  &quot;On the other hand, the present war, by its prolongation, has
+    seriously affected the interests of China, more so perhaps than
+    those of other Powers which have remained neutral. She is at present
+    at a time of reorganization which demands economically and
+    industrially the co-operation of foreign countries, a co-operation
+    which a large number of them are unable to accord on account of the
+    war in which they are engaged.</p>
+			<p>
+				<a name="Page_233" id="Page_233"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">233</span>
+&quot;In manifesting her sympathy for the spirit of the President's
+    Note, having in view the ending as soon as possible of the
+    hostilities, China is but acting in conformity not only with her
+    interests but also with her profound sentiments.</p>
+			<p>  &quot;On account of the extent which modern wars are apt to assume and
+    the repercussions which they bring about, their effects are no
+    longer limited to belligerent States. All countries are interested
+    in seeing wars becoming as rare as possible. Consequently China
+    cannot but show satisfaction with the views of the Government and
+    people of the United States of America who declare themselves ready,
+    and even eager, to co-operate when the war is over, by all proper
+    means to assure the respect of the principle of the equality of
+    nations, whatever their power may be, and to relieve them of the
+    peril of wrong and violence. China is ready to join her efforts with
+    theirs for the attainment of such results which can only be obtained
+    through the help of all.&quot; </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>Already, then, before there had been any question of Germany's ruthless
+submarine war necessitating a decisive move, China had commenced to show
+that she could not remain passive during a world-conflict which was
+indirectly endangering her interests. America, by placing herself in
+direct communication with the Peking Government on the subject of a
+possible peace, had given a direct hint that she was solicitous of
+China's future and determined to help her as far as possible. All this
+was in strict accordance with the traditional policy of the United
+States in China, a policy which although too idealistic to have had much
+practical value&mdash;being too little supported by battleships and bayonets
+to be respected&mdash;has nevertheless for sixty years tempered the wind to
+the shorn lamb. The ground had consequently been well prepared for the
+remarkable d&eacute;nouement which came on the 9th February, 1917, and which
+surprised all the world.</p>
+		<p>On the fourth of that month the United States formally communicated with
+China on the subject of the threatened German submarine war against
+neutral shipping and invited her to associate herself with America in
+breaking-off diplomatic relations with Germany. China had meanwhile
+received a telegraphic communication from the Chinese Minister in Berlin
+transmitting a Note from the German Government making known the measures
+endangering all merchant vessels navigating the prescribed zones. The
+effect of these two communications on the mind of the Chinese Government
+was at first admittedly
+<a name="Page_234" id="Page_234"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">234</span>
+stunning and very varied expressions of opinion
+were heard in Peking. For the first time in the history of the country
+the government had been invited to take a step which meant the
+inauguration of a definite Foreign policy from which there could be no
+retreat. For four days a discussion raged which created the greatest
+uneasiness; but by the 8th February, President Li Yuan-hung had made up
+his mind&mdash;the final problem being simply the &quot;conversion&quot; of the
+Military Party to the idea that a decisive step, which would for ever
+separate them from Germany, must at last be taken. It is known that the
+brilliant Scholar Liang Ch'i-chao, who was hastily summoned to Peking,
+proved a decisive influence and performed the seemingly impossible in a
+few hours' discussion. Realizing at once the advantages which would
+accrue from a single masculine decision he advised instant action in
+such a convincing way that the military leaders surrendered. Accordingly
+on the 9th February the presence of the German Minister was requested at
+the Chinese Foreign Office when the following Note was read to him and
+subsequently transmitted telegraphically to Berlin.</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<p>Your Excellency:</p>
+			<p>  A telegraphic communication has been received from the Chinese
+    Minister at Berlin transmitting a note from the German Government
+    dated February 1st, 1917, which makes known that the measures of
+    blockade newly adopted by the Government of Germany will, from that
+    day, endanger neutral merchant vessels navigating in certain
+    prescribed zones.</p>
+			<p>  The new measures of submarine warfare, inaugurated by Germany,
+    imperilling the lives and property of Chinese citizens to even a
+    greater extent than the measures previously taken which have already
+    cost so many human lives to China, constitute a violation of the
+    principles of public international law at present in force; the
+    tolerance of their application would have as a result the
+    introduction into international law of arbitrary principles
+    incompatible with even legitimate commercial intercourse between
+    neutral states and between neutral states and belligerent powers.</p>
+			<p>  The Chinese Government, therefore, protests energetically to the
+    Imperial German Government against the measures proclaimed on
+    February 1st, and sincerely hopes that with a view to respecting the
+    rights of neutral states and to maintaining the friendly relations
+    between these two countries, the said measures will not be carried
+    out.</p>
+			<p>  In case, contrary to its expectations, its protest be ineffectual
+    the Government of the Chinese Republic will be constrained, to its
+    profound
+<a name="Page_235" id="Page_235"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">235</span>
+regret, to sever the diplomatic relations at present
+    existing between the two countries. It is unnecessary to add that
+    the attitude of the Chinese Government has been dictated purely by
+    the desire to further the cause of the world's peace and by the
+    maintenance of the sanctity of international law.</p>
+			<p>  I avail myself of this opportunity to renew to Your Excellency the
+    assurance of my highest consideration. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>At the same time the following reply was handed to the American Minister
+in Peking thus definitely clinching the matter:</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<p>Your Excellency:</p>
+			<p>  I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's
+    Note of the 4th February, 1917, informing me that the Government of
+    the United States of America, in view of the adoption by the German
+    Government of its new policy of submarine warfare on the 1st of
+    February, has decided to take certain action which it judges
+    necessary as regards Germany.</p>
+			<p>  The Chinese Government, like the President of the United States of
+    America, is reluctant to believe that the German Government will
+    actually carry into execution those measures which imperil the lives
+    and property of citizens of neutral states and jeopardize the
+    commerce, even legitimate, between neutrals as well as between
+    neutrals and belligerents and which tend, if allowed to be enforced
+    without opposition, to introduce a new principle into public
+    international law.</p>
+			<p>  The Chinese Government being in accord with the principles set forth
+    in Your Excellency's note and firmly associating itself with the
+    Government of the United States, has taken similar action by
+    protesting energetically to the German Government against the new
+    measures of blockade. The Chinese Government also proposes to take
+    such action in the future as will be deemed necessary for the
+    maintenance of the principles of international law.</p>
+			<p>  I avail myself of this opportunity to renew to Your Excellency the
+    assurance of my highest consideration.</p>
+		</div>
+		<p>
+			<span style="margin-left: 2em;">His Excellency Paul S. Reinsch,</span>
+			<br />
+			<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Envoy Extraordinary &amp; Minister Plenipotentiary of</span>
+			<br />
+			<span style="margin-left: 2em;">The United States of America.</span>
+			<br />
+		</p>
+		<p>When these facts became generally known an extraordinary ferment was
+noticeable. What efforts had to be made to overcome the not
+inconsiderable opposition of the Military Party who were opposed to any
+departure from a policy of passive neutrality need not now be set down;
+but it is sufficient to state that the decision arrived at was in every
+sense a victory of the younger intellectual forces over the older
+mandarinate, whose traditions of <i>laissez faire</i> and spineless diplomacy
+had hitherto cost the
+<a name="Page_236" id="Page_236"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">236</span>
+country so dear. A definite and far-reaching
+Foreign Policy had at last been inaugurated. By responding rapidly and
+firmly to the invitation of the United States to associate herself with
+the stand taken against Germany's piratical submarine warfare, China has
+undoubtedly won for herself a new place in the world's esteem. Both in
+Europe and America the news of this development awakened
+well-understandable enthusiasm, and convinced men that the Republic at
+last stood for something vital and real. Until the 9th February, 1917,
+what China had been doing was not really to maintain her neutrality,
+since she had been unable to defend her territory from being made a
+common battleground in 1914: she had been engaged in guarding and
+perpetuating her traditional impotency. For whilst it may be accurate to
+declare&mdash;a fact which few Westerners have realized&mdash;that to the mass of
+the Chinese nation the various members of the European Family are
+undistinguishable from one another, there being little to choose in
+China between a Russian or a German, an Englishman or an Austrian, a
+Frenchman or a Greek, the trade-contact of a century had certainly
+taught to a great many that there was profit in certain directions and
+none in certain others. It was perfectly well-known, for instance, that
+England stood for a sea-empire; that the sea was an universal road; that
+British ships, both mercantile and military, were the most numerous; and
+that other things being equal it must primarily be Britain more than any
+other European country which would influence Chinese destinies. But the
+British Alliance with Japan had greatly weakened the trust which
+originally existed; and this added to the fact that Germany, although
+completely isolated and imprisoned by the sea, still maintained herself
+intact by reason of her marvellous war-machine, which had ploughed
+forward with such horrible results in a number of directions, had made
+inaction seem the best policy. And yet, although the Chinese may be
+pardoned for not forming clear concepts regarding the rights and wrongs
+of the present conflict, they had undoubtedly realized that it was
+absolutely essential for them not to remain outside the circle of
+international friendships when a direct opportunity was offered them to
+step within.</p>
+		<p>It was a sudden inkling of these things which now dawned on the public
+mind and slowly awakened enthusiasm. For the first
+<a name="Page_237" id="Page_237"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">237</span>
+time since Treaty
+relations with the Powers had been established Chinese diplomatic action
+had swept beyond the walls of Peking and embraced world-politics within
+its scope. The Confucianist conception of the State, as being simply a
+regional creation, a thing complete in itself and all sufficient because
+it was locked to the past and indifferent to the future, had hitherto
+been supreme, foreign affairs being the result of unwilling contact at
+sea-ports or in the wastes of High Asia where rival empires meet. To
+find Chinese&mdash;five years after the inauguration of their Republic&mdash;ready
+to accept literally and loyally in the western way all the duties and
+obligations which their rights of eminent domain confer was a great and
+fine discovery. It has been supposed by some that a powerful r&ocirc;le was
+played in this business by the temptation to benefit materially by an
+astute move: that is that China was greatly influenced in her decision
+by the knowledge that the denouncing of the German treaties would
+instantly suspend the German Boxer indemnity and pour into the depleted
+Central Treasury a monthly surplus of nearly two million Mexican
+dollars. Paradoxical as it may sound in a country notoriously
+hard-pressed for cash, monetary considerations played no part whatever
+in convincing the Peking Government that the hour for action had
+arrived; nor again was there any question of real hostility to a nation
+which is so far removed from the East as to be meaningless to the
+masses. The deep, underlying, decisive influence was simply
+expediency&mdash;the most subtle of all political reasons and the hardest to
+define. But just as Britain declared war because the invasion of Belgium
+brought to a head all the vague grounds for opposition to German policy;
+and just as America broke off relations because the scrapping of
+undertaking after undertaking regarding the sea-war made it imperative
+for her to act, so did China choose the right moment to enunciate the
+doctrine of her independence by voicing her determination to hold to the
+whole corpus of international sanctions on which her independence
+finally rests. In the last analysis, then, the Chinese note of the 9th
+February to the German Government was a categorical and unmistakable
+reply to all the insidious attempts which had been made since the
+beginning of the war to place her outside and beyond the operation of
+the Public Law of Europe; and it is solely and entirely in that
+<a name="Page_238" id="Page_238"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">238</span>
+light
+that her future actions must be judged. The leaders who direct the
+destinies of China became fully prepared for a state of belligerency
+from the moment they decided to speak; but they could not but be
+supremely anxious concerning the expression of that belligerency, since
+their international position had for years been such that a single false
+move might cripple them.</p>
+		<p>Let us make this clear. Whilst China has been from the first fully
+prepared to co-operate with friendly Powers in the taking of
+war-measures which would ultimately improve her world-position, she has
+not been prepared to surrender the initiative in these matters into
+foreign hands. The argument that the mobilization of her resources could
+only be effectively dealt with by specially designated foreigners, for
+instance, has always been repellent to her because she knows from bitter
+experience that although Japan has played little or no part in the war,
+and indeed classifies herself as a semi-belligerent, the Tokio
+Government would not hesitate to use any opportunity which presented
+itself in China for selfish ends; and by insisting that as she is on the
+spot she is the most competent to insure the effectiveness of Chinese
+co-operation, attempt to tighten her hold on the country. It is a fact
+which is self-evident to observers on the spot that ever since the coup
+of the Twenty-one Demands, many Japanese believe that their country has
+succeeded in almost completely infeodating China and has become the
+sovereign arbitrator of all quarrels, as well as the pacificator of the
+Eastern World. Statements which were incautiously allowed to appear in
+the Japanese Press a few days prior to the Chinese Note of the 9th
+February disclose what Japan really thought on the subject of China
+identifying herself with the Allies. For instance, the following, which
+bears the hall-mark of official inspiration, reads very curiously in the
+light of after-events:</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<p>... &quot;Dispatches from Peking say that England and France have already
+    started a flanking movement to induce China to join the anti-German
+    coalition. The intention of the Chinese Government has not yet been
+    learned. But it is possible that China will agree, if conditions are
+    favourable, thus gaining the right to voice her views at the coming
+    peace conference. Should the Entente Powers give China a firm
+    guarantee, it is feared here that China would not hesitate to act.</p>
+			<p>  &quot;The policy of the Japanese Government toward this question cannot
+    yet be learned. It appears, however, that the Japanese Government is
+<a name="Page_239" id="Page_239"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">239</span>
+    not opposed to applying the resolutions of the Paris Economic
+    Conference, in so far as they concern purely economic questions,
+    since Japan desires that German influence in the commerce and
+    finance of the Orient should be altogether uprooted. But should the
+    Entente Powers of Europe try to induce China to join them, Japan may
+    object on the ground that it will create more disturbances in China
+    and lead to a general disturbance of peace in the Orient.&quot; </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>Now there is not the slightest doubt in the writer's mind&mdash;and he can
+claim to speak as a student of twenty years' standing&mdash;that this
+definition of Japanese aims and objects is a very true one; and that the
+subsequent invitation to China to join the Allies which came from Tokio
+after a meeting between the Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs and the
+Allied Ambassadors was simply made when a new orientation of policy had
+been forced by stress of circumstances. Japan has certainly always
+wished German influence in the Far East to be uprooted if she can take
+the place of Germany; but if she cannot take that place absolutely and
+entirely she would vastly prefer the influence to remain, since it is in
+the nature of counterweight to that of other European Powers and of
+America&mdash;foreign influence in China, as Mr. Hioki blandly told the late
+President Yuan Shih-kai in his famous interview of the 18th January,
+1915, being a source of constant irritation to the Japanese people, and
+the greatest stumbling-block to a permanent understanding in the Far
+East.</p>
+		<p>Chinese suspicion of any invitation coming by way of Tokio has been,
+therefore, in every way justified, if it is a reasonable and legitimate
+thing for a nation of four hundred millions of people to be acutely
+concerned about their independence; for events have already proved up to
+the hilt that so far from the expulsion of Germany from Shantung having
+resulted in the handing-back of interests which were forcibly acquired
+from China in 1898, that expulsion has merely resulted in Japan
+succeeding to such interests and thereby obliterating all trace of her
+original promise to the world in 1914 that she would restore to China
+what was originally taken from her. Here it is necessary to remark that
+not only did Japan in her negotiations over the Twenty-one Demands force
+China to hand over the twelve million pounds of German improvements in
+Shantung province, but that Baron Hayashi, the present Japanese Minister
+to China, has recently
+<a name="Page_240" id="Page_240"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">240</span>
+declared that Japan would demand from China a
+vast settlement or concession at Tsingtao, thus making even the alleged
+handing-back of the leased territory&mdash;which Japan is pledged to force
+from Germany at the Peace Conference&mdash;wholly illusory, the formula of a
+Settlement being adopted because twelve years' experience of Port Arthur
+has shown that territorial &quot;leases,&quot; with their military garrisons and
+administrative offices, are expensive and antiquated things, and that it
+is easier to push infiltration by means of a multitude of Settlements in
+which police-boxes and policemen form an important element, than to cut
+off slices of territory under a nomenclature which is a clamant
+advertisement of disruptive aims.</p>
+		<p>Now although these matters appear to be taking us far from the
+particular theme we are discussing, it is not really so. Like a dark
+thunder-cloud on the horizon the menace of Japanese action has rendered
+frank Chinese co-operation, even in such a simple matter as war-measures
+against Germany, a thing of supreme difficulty. The mere rumour that
+China might dispatch an Expeditionary Force to Mesopotamia was
+sufficient to send the host of unofficial Japanese agents in Peking
+scurrying in every direction and insisting that if the Chinese did
+anything at all they should limit themselves to sending troops to
+Russia, where they would be &quot;lost&quot;&mdash;a suggestion made because that was
+what Japan herself offered to do when she declined in 1915 the Allies'
+proposal to dispatch troops to Europe. Nor must the fact be lost sight
+of that as in other countries so in China, foreign affairs provide an
+excellent opportunity for influencing the march of internal events.
+Thus, as we have clearly shown, the Military Party, although originally
+averse to any action at all, saw that a strong foreign policy would
+greatly enhance its reputation and allow it to influence the important
+elections for the Parliament of 1918 which, sitting as a National
+Convention, will elect the next President. Thus, in the extraordinary
+way which happens throughout the world, the whole of February was
+consumed in the rival political parties manoeuvring for position, the
+Vice-President, General Feng Kuo-chang, himself coming hastily to Peking
+from Nanking to take part in this elaborate game in which many were now
+participating merely for what they could get out of it.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_241" id="Page_241"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">241</span>
+On the 4th March matters were brought to a climax by an open breach
+between President Li Yuan-hung and the Premier, General Tuan Chi-jui, at
+a Cabinet meeting regarding the procedure to be observed in breaking off
+diplomatic relations with Germany. Although nearly a month had elapsed,
+no reply had been received from Berlin; and of the many plans of action
+proposed nothing had been formally decided. Owing to the pressure Japan
+was exerting from Tokio to get China to come to a definite arrangement,
+popular anxiety was growing. Over the question of certain telegrams to
+be communicated to the Japanese Government, of which he had been kept in
+ignorance, President Li Yuan-hung took a firm stand; with the result
+that the Premier, deeply offended, abruptly left the Council Chamber,
+handed in his resignation and left the capital&mdash;a course of action which
+threatened to provoke a national crisis.</p>
+		<p>Fortunately in President Li Yuan-hung China had a cool and dispassionate
+statesman. At the first grave crisis in his administration he wished at
+all costs to secure that the assent of Parliament should be given to all
+steps taken, and that nothing so speculative as a policy which had not
+been publicly debated should be put into force. He held to this point
+doggedly; and after some negotiations, the Premier was induced to return
+to the capital and resume office, on the understanding that nothing
+final was to be done until a popular endorsement had been secured.</p>
+		<p>On the 10th March the question was sent to Parliament for decision.
+After a stormy debate of several hours in the Lower House the policy of
+the Government was upheld by 330 votes to 87: on the following day the
+Senate endorsed this decision by 158 votes to 37. By a coincidence which
+was too extraordinary not to have been artificially contrived, the
+long-awaited German reply arrived on the morning of this 10th March,
+copies of the document being circulated wholesale by German agents among
+the Members of Parliament in a last effort to influence their decision.
+The actual text of the German reply was as follows, and it will be seen
+how transparently worded it is:</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<p>
+				<i>To the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China</i>:</p>
+			<p>  YOUR EXCELLENCY: By the instructions of my home Government&mdash;which
+    reached me on the 10th inst.&mdash;I beg to forward you the following
+    reply to China's protest to the latest blockade policy of Germany:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>
+				<a name="Page_242" id="Page_242"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">242</span>
+&quot;The Imperial German Government expresses its great surprise at the
+    action threatened by the Government of the Republic of China in its
+    Note of protest. Many other countries have also protested, but
+    China, which has been in friendly relations with Germany, is the
+    only State which has added a threat to its protest. The surprise is
+    doubly great, because of the fact that, as China has no shipping
+    interests in the seas of the barred zones, she will not suffer
+    thereby.</p>
+			<p>  &quot;The Government of the Republic of China mentions that loss of life
+    of Chinese citizens has occurred as the results of the present
+    method of war. The Imperial German Government wishes to point out
+    that the Government of the Republic of China has never communicated
+    with the Imperial Government regarding a single case of this kind
+    nor has it protested in this connexion before. According to reports
+    received by the Imperial Government, such losses as have been
+    actually sustained by Chinese subjects have occurred in the firing
+    line while they were engaged in digging trenches and in other war
+    services. While thus engaged, they were exposed to the dangers
+    inevitable to all forces engaged in war. The fact that Germany has
+    on several occasions protested against the employment of Chinese
+    citizens for warlike purpose is evidence that the Imperial
+    Government has given excellent proof of its friendly feelings toward
+    China. In consideration of these friendly relations the Imperial
+    Government is willing to treat the matter as if the threat had never
+    been uttered. It is reasonable for the Imperial Government to expect
+    that the Government of the Republic of China will revise its views
+    respecting the question.</p>
+			<p>  &quot;Germany's enemies were the first to declare a blockade on Germany
+    and the same is being persistently carried out. It is therefore
+    difficult for Germany to cancel her blockade policy. The Imperial
+    Government is nevertheless willing to comply with the wishes of the
+    Government of the Republic of China by opening negotiations to
+    arrive at a plan for the protection of Chinese life and property,
+    with the view that the end may be achieved and thereby the utmost
+    regard be given to the shipping rights of China. The reason which
+    has prompted the Imperial Government to adopt this conciliatory
+    policy is the knowledge that, once diplomatic relations are severed
+    with Germany, China will not only lose a truly good friend but will
+    also be entangled in unthinkable difficulties.&quot;</p>
+			<p>  In forwarding to Your Excellency the above instructions from my home
+    Government, I beg also to state that&mdash;if the Government of China be
+    willing&mdash;I am empowered to open negotiations for the protection of
+    the shipping rights of China.</p>
+			<p>  I have the honour to be....</p>
+			<p>  (Signed by the German Minister.)</p>
+			<p>  March 10, 1917. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>With a Parliamentary endorsement behind them there remained nothing for
+the Peking Government but to take the vital step of severing diplomatic
+relations. Certain details remained to be settled but these were
+expeditiously handled. Consequently,
+<a name="Page_243" id="Page_243"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">243</span>
+without any further discussion, at
+noon on the 14th March the German Minister was handed his passports,
+with the following covering dispatch from the Chinese Foreign Office. It
+is worthy of record that in the interval between the Chinese Note of the
+9th February and the German reply of the 10th March the French
+mail-steamer <i>Athos</i> had been torpedoed in the Mediterranean and five
+hundred Chinese labourers proceeding to France on board her drowned.</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<p>
+				<i>Your Excellency</i>:&mdash;</p>
+			<p>  With reference to the new submarine policy of Germany, the
+    Government of the Republic of China, dictated by the desire to
+    further the cause of world's peace and to maintain the sanctity of
+    International Law, addressed a protest to Your Excellency on
+    February 9th and declared that in case, contrary to its
+    expectations, its protest be ineffectual, it would be constrained to
+    sever the diplomatic relations at present existing between the two
+    countries.</p>
+			<p>  During the lapse of a month no heed has been paid to the protest of
+    the Government of the Republic in the activities of the German
+    Submarines, activities which have caused the loss of many Chinese
+    lives. On March 10, a reply was received from Your Excellency.
+    Although it states that the Imperial German Government is willing to
+    open negotiations to arrive at a plan for the protection of Chinese
+    life and property, yet it declares that it is difficult for Germany
+    to cancel her blockade policy. It is therefore not in accord with
+    the object of the protest and the Government of the Chinese
+    Republic, to its deep regret, considers its protest to be
+    ineffectual. The Government of the Republic is constrained to sever
+    the diplomatic relations at present existing with the Imperial
+    German Government. I have the honour to send herewith to Your
+    Excellency, the passport for Your Excellency, the members of the
+    German Legation and their families and retinue for protection while
+    leaving Chinese territory. With regard to the Consular Officers of
+    Germany in China, this Ministry has instructed the different
+    Commissioners of Foreign Affairs to issue to them similarly
+    passports for leaving the country.</p>
+			<p>  I avail myself of this opportunity to renew to Your Excellency the
+    assurance of my highest consideration.</p>
+			<p>  March 14th, 1917. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>It was not until eleven days later&mdash;on the 25th March&mdash;that the German
+Minister and his suite reluctantly left Peking for Germany via America.
+Meanwhile the Chinese Government remained undecided regarding the taking
+of the final step as a number of important matters had still to be
+settled. Not only had arrangements to be made with the Allies but there
+was the question of adjusting Chinese policy with American action. A
+<a name="Page_244" id="Page_244"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">244</span>
+special commission on Diplomatic affairs daily debated the procedure to
+be observed, but owing to the conflict of opinion in the provinces
+further action was greatly delayed. As it is necessary to show the
+nature of this conflict we give two typical opinions submitted to the
+Government on the question of a formal declaration of war against
+Germany (and Austria). The first Memorandum was written for the
+Diplomatic Commission by the scholar Liang Ch'i-chao and is singularly
+lucid:&mdash;</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>THE NECESSITY FOR WAR</h3>
+			<p>  &quot;Those who question the necessity for war can only quote the
+    attitude of America as example. The position of China is, however,
+    different from that of America in two points. First, actual warfare
+    will follow immediately after America's declaration of war, so it is
+    necessary for her to make the necessary preparations before taking
+    the step. For this purpose, America has voted several hundred
+    million dollars for an increase of her naval appropriations. America
+    therefore cannot declare war until she has completed every
+    preparation. With China it is different. Even after the declaration
+    of war, there will be no actual warfare. It is therefore unnecessary
+    for us to wait.</p>
+			<p>  &quot;Secondly, America has no such things as foreign settlements,
+    consular jurisdiction or other unequal treaties with Germany. Under
+    the existing conditions America has no difficulties in safeguarding
+    herself against the Germans residing in America after the severance
+    of diplomatic relations even though war has not yet been actually
+    declared, and as to future welfare, America will have nothing to
+    suffer even though her old treaties with Germany should continue to
+    be operative. It is impossible for China to take the necessary steps
+    to safeguard the country against the Germans residing in China
+    unless the old treaties be cancelled. For unless war is declared it
+    is impossible to cancel the consular jurisdiction of the Germans,
+    and so long as German consular jurisdiction remains in China we will
+    meet with difficulties everywhere whenever we wish to deal with the
+    Germans. If our future is to be considered, unless war is declared,
+    the old treaties will again come into force upon the resumption of
+    diplomatic relations, in which case we shall be held responsible for
+    all the steps which we have taken in contravention of treaties
+    during the rupture. It will be advantageous to China if the old
+    treaties be cancelled by a declaration of war and new treaties be
+    negotiated after the conclusion of peace.</p>
+			<p>  &quot;In short by severing diplomatic relations with Germany China has
+    already incurred the ill-feelings of that country. We shall not be
+    able to lessen the hostile feelings of the Germans even if we
+    refrain from declaring war on them. It is therefore our obligation
+    to choose the course that will be advantageous to us. This is not
+    reluctantly yielding to the request of the Entente Allies. It is the
+    course we must take in our present situation.</p>
+			<a name="Page_245" id="Page_245"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">245</span>
+			<h3>  THE REASON FOR DECLARING WAR</h3>
+			<p>  &quot;The presumptuous manner in which Germany has replied to our demand
+    is an open affront to our national integrity. Recently Germany has
+    deliberately shown hostility to our advice by reiterating her
+    determination to carry out the ruthless submarine policy with
+    increased vigour. All these are reasons for diplomatic rupture as
+    well as for declaration of war. Furthermore, the peace of the Far
+    East was broken by the occupation of Kiachow by Germany. This event
+    marked the first step of the German disregard for international law.
+    In the interests of humanity and for the sake of what China has
+    passed through, she should rise and punish such a country, that
+    dared to disregard international law. Such a reason for war is
+    certainly beyond criticism.</p>
+			<h3>  THE TIME TO DECLARE WAR</h3>
+			<p>  &quot;War should be declared as soon as possible. The reason for the
+    diplomatic rupture is sufficient reason for declaring war. This has
+    already been explained. It would be impossible for us to find an
+    excuse for declaring war if war be not declared now. According to
+    usual procedure war is declared when the forces of the two countries
+    come into actual conflict. Now such a possibility does not exist
+    between China and Germany. Since it is futile to expect Germany to
+    declare war on us first, we should ask ourselves if war is
+    necessary. If not, then let us go on as we are, otherwise we must
+    not hesitate any more.</p>
+			<p>  &quot;Some say that China should not declare war on Germany until we have
+    come to a definite understanding with the Entente Allies respecting
+    certain terms. This is indeed a wrong conception of things. We
+    declare war because we want to fight for humanity, international law
+    and against a national enemy. It is not because we are partial
+    towards the Entente or against Germany or Austria. International
+    relations are not commercial connexions. Why then should we talk
+    about exchange of privileges and rights? As to the revision of
+    Customs tariff, it has been our aspiration for more than ten years
+    and a foremost diplomatic question, for which we have been looking
+    for a suitable opportunity to negotiate with the foreign Powers. It
+    is our view that the opportunity has come because foreign Powers are
+    now on very friendly terms with China. It is distinctly a separate
+    thing from the declaration of war. Let no one try to confuse the
+    two.</p>
+			<h3>  THE QUESTION OF AUSTRIA</h3>
+			<p>  &quot;If China decides to declare war on Germany the same attitude should
+    be taken towards Austria. We have severed diplomatic relations with
+    Germany but retain the <i>status quo</i> with Austria. This is fraught
+    with danger. German intrigue is to be dreaded. What they have done
+    in America and Mexico is enough to shock us. The danger can easily
+    be imagined when we remember that they have in China the Austrian
+    Legation,
+<a name="Page_246" id="Page_246"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">246</span>
+Austrian Consulates and Austrian concessions as their
+    bases of operation for intrigue and plotting. Some say we should
+    follow America, which has not yet severed diplomatic relations with
+    Austria. This is a great mistake. America can afford to ignore
+    Austria because there are no Austrian concessions and Austrian
+    consular jurisdiction in America.</p>
+			<p>  &quot;The question is then what steps should be taken to sever diplomatic
+    relations with and declare war on Austria. The solution is that
+    since Austria has also communicated to our Minister regarding her
+    submarine policy we can serve her with an ultimatum demanding that
+    the submarine policy be cancelled within twenty-four hours. If
+    Austria refuses, China may sever diplomatic relations and declare
+    war at the same time immediately upon the expiry of the twenty-four
+    hour limit.</p>
+			<p>  &quot;In conclusion I wish to say that whenever a policy is adopted we
+    should carry out the complete scheme. If we should hesitate in the
+    middle and become afraid to go ahead we will soon find ourselves in
+    an embarrassing position. The Government and Parliament should
+    therefore stir up courage and boldly make the decision and take the
+    step.&quot; </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>Unanswerable as seem these arguments to the Western mind, they were by
+no means so to the mass of Chinese who are always fearful lest some
+sudden reshuffling in the relationships existing between foreign Powers
+exposes them to new and greater calamities. This Chinese viewpoint, with
+its ignorance of basic considerations, is well-illustrated by the Second
+Memorandum, which follows. Written by the famous reformer of 1898 Kang
+Yu-wei, it demonstrates how greatly the revolutionists of 1911 are in
+advance of a school which was the vogue less than twenty years ago and
+which is completely out of touch with the thought which the war has made
+world-wide. Nevertheless the line of argument which characterizes this
+utterance is still a political factor in China and must be understood.</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>MEMORANDUM</h3>
+			<p>  ... &quot;The breach between the United States and Germany is no concern
+    of ours. But the Government suddenly severed diplomatic relations
+    with Germany and is now contemplating entry into the war. This is to
+    advance beyond the action of the United States which continues to
+    observe neutrality. And if we analyse the public opinion of the
+    country, we find that all peoples&mdash;high and low, well-informed and
+    ignorant&mdash;betray great alarm when informed of the rupture and the
+    proposal to declare war on Germany, fearing that such a development
+    may cause grave peril to the country. This war-policy is being urged
+    by a handful of politicians, including a few members of Parliament
+    and
+<a name="Page_247" id="Page_247"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">247</span>
+several party men with the view of creating a diplomatic
+    situation to serve their political ends and to reap great profits.</p>
+			<p>  &quot;Their arguments are that China&mdash;by siding with the Entente&mdash;may
+    obtain large loans, the revision of the Customs Tariff and the
+    suspension of the Boxer indemnity to Germany, as well as the
+    recovery of the German concessions, mining and railroad rights and
+    the seizure of German commerce. Pray, how large is Germany's share
+    of the Boxer indemnity? Seeing that German commerce is protected by
+    international law, will China be able to seize it; and does she not
+    know that the Kaiser may in the future exact restitution?</p>
+			<h3>  PERILS OF WAR</h3>
+			<p>  &quot;News from Holland tells of a rumoured secret understanding between
+    Germany, Japan and Russia. The Japanese Government is pursuing a
+    policy of friendship toward Germany. This is very disquieting news
+    to us. As to foreign loans and the revision of the Customs Tariff,
+    we can raise these matters at any time. Why then should we traffic
+    for these things at the risk of grave dangers to the nation? My view
+    is that what we are to obtain from the transaction is far less than
+    what we are to give. If it be argued that the policy aims at
+    securing for China her right to live as an unfettered nation, then
+    we ought to ask for the cancellation of the entire Boxer
+    Indemnities, the abolition of exterritoriality, the retrocession of
+    the foreign concessions and the repeal or amendment of all unjust
+    treaties after the war. But none of these have we demanded. If we
+    ourselves cannot improve our internal administration in order to
+    become a strong country, it is absurd to expect our admission to the
+    ranks of the first-class Powers simply by being allowed a seat at
+    the Peace Conference and by taking a side with the Entente!</p>
+			<p>  &quot;Which side will win the war? I shall not attempt to predict here.
+    But it is undoubted that all the arms of Europe&mdash;and the industrial
+    and financial strength of the United States and Japan&mdash;have proved
+    unavailing against Germany. On the other hand France has lost her
+    Northern provinces and Belgium, Serbia and Rumania are blotted off
+    the map. Should Germany be victorious, the whole of Europe&mdash;not to
+    speak of a weak country like China&mdash;would be in great peril of
+    extinction. Should she be defeated, Germany still can&mdash;after the
+    conclusion of peace&mdash;send a fleet to war against us. And as the
+    Powers will be afraid of a second world-war, who will come to our
+    aid? Have we not seen the example of Korea? There is no such thing
+    as an army of righteousness which will come to the assistance of
+    weak nations. I cannot bear to think of hearing the angry voice of
+    German guns along our coasts!</p>
+			<p>  &quot;If we allow the Entente to recruit labour in our country without
+    restriction, thousands upon thousands of our fellow countrymen will
+    die for no worthy cause; and if we allow free exportation of
+    foodstuff, in a short time the price of daily necessaries will mount
+    ten to a hundredfold. This is calculated to cause internal troubles.
+    Yea, all gains from this policy will go to the politicians but the
+    people will suffer the evil consequences through no fault of theirs.</p>
+			<a name="Page_248" id="Page_248"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">248</span>
+			<h3>  DIPLOMACY OF CONFUCIUS</h3>
+			<p>  &quot;In the matter of diplomacy, we do not need to go to the West for
+    the apt learning on the point at issue. Confucius has said: 'Be
+    truthful and cultivate friendship&mdash;this is the foundation of human
+    happiness.' Our country being weak and undeveloped, if we strive to
+    be truthful and cultivate friendship, we can still be a civilized
+    nation, albeit hoary with age. But we are now advised to take
+    advantage of the difficulties of Germany and abandon honesty in
+    order that we may profit thereby. Discarding treaties is to be
+    unfaithful, grasping for gains is not the way of a gentleman, taking
+    advantage of another's difficulties is to be mean and joining the
+    larger in numbers is cowardice. How can we be a nation, if we throw
+    away all these fundamental qualities.</p>
+			<p>  &quot;Even in the press of England and the United States, there is
+    opposition to America entering the war. If we observe neutrality, we
+    are not bound to any side; and when the time comes for peace&mdash;as a
+    friend to both sides&mdash;we may be able to bring about the ends of the
+    war. Is this not a service to humanity and the true spirit of
+    civilization?</p>
+			<p>  &quot;Now it is proposed to take the existence of this great nation of
+    five thousand years and four hundred million people in order to
+    serve the interests of politicians in their party struggles. We are
+    now to be bound to foreign nations, without freedom to act for
+    ourselves and running great risks of national destruction. Can you
+    gentlemen bear to see this come to pass? China has severed relations
+    with Germany but the decision for war has not yet been reached. The
+    whole country is telegraphing opposition to the Government's policy
+    and wants to know whether Germany will not in the future take
+    revenge on account of our rupture with her; and if we are not
+    secured against this eventuality, what are the preparations to meet
+    with a contingency? The Government must not stake the fate of the
+    nation as if it be a child's toy, and the people must not be cast
+    into the whirlpool of slaughter. The people are the backbone of a
+    country, and if the people are all opposed to war on Germany, the
+    Government&mdash;in spite of the support of Parliament&mdash;must call a great
+    citizens' convention to decide the question. We must persist in our
+    neutrality. You gentlemen are patriotic sons of this country and
+    must know that the existence of China as a nation depends upon what
+    she does now in this matter. In tears, I appeal to you.</p>
+			<p>  &quot;KANG YU-WEI.&quot; </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>March and April were consumed in this fruitless discussion in which
+everybody participated. The Premier, General Tuan Chi-jui, in view of
+the alleged provincial opposition, now summoned to Peking a Conference
+of Provincial Military Governors to endorse his policy, but this action
+although crowned with success so far as the army chiefs were
+concerned&mdash;the conference voting solidly for war&mdash;was responsible for
+greatly alarming
+<a name="Page_249" id="Page_249"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">249</span>
+Parliament which saw in this procedure a new attempt
+to undermine its power and control the country by extra-legal means.
+Furthermore, publication in the Metropolitan press of what the Japanese
+were doing behind the scenes created a fear that extraordinary intrigues
+were being indulged in with the object of securing by means of secret
+diplomacy certain guarantees of a personal nature. Apart from being
+associated with the semi-official negotiations of the Entente Powers in
+Peking, Japan was carrying on a second set of negotiations partly by
+means of a confidential agent named Kameio Nishihara dispatched from
+Tokio specially for that purpose by Count Terauchi, the Japanese
+Premier, a procedure which led to the circulation of highly sensational
+stories regarding China's future commitments. When the Premier, General
+Tuan Chi-jui, had made his statement to Parliament on the 10th March,
+regarding the necessity of an immediate rupture with Germany, he had
+implied that China had already received assurances from the Allies that
+there would be a postponement of the Boxer Indemnities for a term of
+years, an immediate increase in the Customs Tariff, and a modification
+of the Peace Protocol of 1901 regarding the presence of Chinese troops
+near Tientsin. Suddenly all these points were declared to be in doubt.
+Round the question of the length of time the Indemnities might be
+postponed, and the actual amount of the increase in the Customs Tariff,
+there appeared to be an inexplicable muddle largely owing to the
+intervention of so many agents and to the fact that the exchange of
+views had been almost entirely verbal, unofficial, and secret. It would
+be wearisome to analyse a dispute which belongs to the peculiar
+atmosphere of Peking diplomacy; but the vast difficulties of making even
+a simple decision in China were glaringly illustrated by this matter.
+With a large section of the Metropolitan press daily insisting that the
+future of democracy in China would be again imperilled should the
+Military Party have its own way, small wonder if the question of a
+formal declaration of war on Germany (and Austria) now assumed an
+entirely different complexion.</p>
+		<p>On the 1st May, in spite of all these trials and tribulations, being
+pressed by the Premier to do so, the Cabinet unanimously decided that a
+declaration of war was imperative; and on the 7th May, after an
+agreement with the President had been reached,
+<a name="Page_250" id="Page_250"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">250</span>
+Parliament received the
+following dispatch&mdash;this method of communication being the usual one
+between the executive and legislative branches of the Government:</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<p>The President has the honour to communicate to the House of
+    Representatives the following proposal. Since the severance of
+    diplomatic relations with Germany, Germany has continued to violate
+    the rights of the neutral nations and to damage and cause losses in
+    life and property to our people as well as to trample on
+    international law and disregard principles of humanity. For the
+    purpose of hastening peace, upholding international law and
+    protecting the life and property of our people, the President is of
+    the view that it is necessary to declare war on the German
+    Government. In accordance with Article 35 of the Provisional
+    Constitution, he now asks for the approval of the House, and
+    demands&mdash;in accordance with Article 21 of the Provisional
+    Constitution&mdash;that the meeting in the House be held in secret. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>On 8th May, after hearing a statement made in person by the Premier, the
+House of Representatives in secret session referred the question for
+examination to the House sitting as a Committee in order to gain time to
+make up its mind. On the same day the Senate sat on the same question. A
+very heated and bitter discussion followed in the upper House, not
+because of any real disagreement regarding the matter at issue, but
+because a large section of Senators were extremely anxious regarding the
+internal consequences. This is well-explained by the following written
+interpellation which was addressed to the government by a large number
+of parliamentarians:</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<p>We, the undersigned, hereby address this interpellation to the
+    Government. As a declaration of war on Germany has become an object
+    of the foreign policy of the Government, the latter has held
+    informal meetings to ascertain the views of parliament on the
+    question; and efforts are being made by the Government to secure the
+    unanimous support of both Houses for its war policy. In pursuing
+    this course, the Government appears to believe that its call for
+    support will be readily complied with by the Houses. But in our view
+    there are quite a number of members in both Houses who fail
+    thoroughly to understand the war decision of the Government. The
+    reason for this is that, according to recent reports, both foreign
+    and vernacular, the Government has entered into secret treaties with
+    a &quot;neighbouring country.&quot; It is also reported that secret agents on
+    both sides are active and are travelling between the two countries.
+    The matter seems to be very grave; and it has already attracted the
+    attention of Parliament, which in the near future will discuss the
+    war-issue.</p>
+			<p>
+				<a name="Page_251" id="Page_251"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">251</span>
+Being in doubt as to the truth of such a report, we hereby request
+    the Government for the necessary information in the matter. We also
+    beg to suggest that, if there is any secret diplomatic agreement, we
+    consider it expedient for the Government to submit the matter to
+    Parliament for the latter's consideration. This will enable the
+    members in Parliament to study the question with care and have a
+    clear understanding of the matter. When this is done, Parliament
+    will be able to support the Government in the prosecution of its war
+    policy according to the dictates of conscience. In this event both
+    Parliament and Government will be able to co-operate with each other
+    in the solution of the present diplomatic problem. Troubled not a
+    little with the present diplomatic situation of the country, we
+    hereby address this interpellation to the Government in accordance
+    with law. It is hoped that an answer from the Government will be
+    dispatched to us within three days from date. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>On the 10th May Parliament met in secret session and it was plain that a
+crisis had come. Members of the House of Representatives experienced
+great difficulties in forcing their way through a mob of several
+thousand roughs who surrounded the approaches to Parliament, many
+members being hustled if not struck. The mob was so plainly in control
+of a secret organization that the House of Representatives refused to
+sit. Urgent messages were sent to the Police and Gendarmerie
+headquarters for reinforcements of armed men as a protection, whilst the
+presence of the Premier was also demanded. Masses of police were soon on
+the ground, but whilst they prevented the mob from entering Parliament
+and carrying out their threat of burning the buildings, and murdering
+the members, they could not&mdash;or would not&mdash;disperse the crowds, it
+transpiring subsequently that half a battalion of infantry in plain
+clothes under their officers formed the backbone of the demonstrators.</p>
+		<p>It was not until nearly dark, after six or seven hours of these
+disorderly scenes, that the Premier finally arrived. Cavalry had
+meanwhile also been massed on the main street; but it was only when the
+report spread that a Japanese reporter had been killed that the order
+was finally given to charge the mob and disperse it by force. This was
+very rapidly done, as apart from the soldiers in plain clothes the mass
+of people belonged to the lowest class, and had no stomach for a fight,
+having only been paid to shout. It was nearly midnight, after twelve
+hours of isolation and a foodless day, that the Representatives were
+able to disperse without having debated the war-question. The
+<a name="Page_252" id="Page_252"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">252</span>
+upshot
+was that with the exception of the Minister of Education, the Premier
+found that his entire Cabinet had resigned, the Ministers being
+unwilling to be associated with what had been an attempted coercion of
+Parliament carried out by the Military.</p>
+		<p>The Premier, General Tuan Chi-jui, however, remained determined to carry
+his point, and within a week a second dispatch was sent to the House of
+Representatives demanding, in spite of what had happened, that the
+declaration of war be immediately brought up for debate. Meanwhile
+publication in a leading Peking newspaper of further details covering
+Japan's subterranean activities greatly inflamed the public, and made
+the Liberal political elements more determined than ever to stand firm.
+It was alleged that Count Terauchi was reviving in a more subtle form
+Group V of the Twenty-one Demands of 1915, the latest Japanese proposal
+taking the form of a secret Treaty of twenty articles of which the main
+stipulations were to be a loan of twenty million yen to China to
+reorganize the three main Chinese arsenals under Japanese guidance, and
+a further loan of eighty million yen to be expended on the Japanization
+of the Chinese army. As a result of this publication, which rightly or
+wrongly was declared to be without foundation, the editor of <i>The Peking
+Gazette</i> was seized in the middle of the night and thrown into gaol; but
+Parliament so far from being intimidated passed the very next day (19th
+May) a resolution refusing to consider in any form the declaration of
+war against Germany until the Cabinet had been reorganized&mdash;which meant
+the resignation of General Tuan Chi-jui. A last effort was made by the
+reactionary element to jockey the President into submission by
+presenting to the Chief Executive a petition from the Military Governors
+assembled in Peking demanding the immediate dissolution of Parliament.
+On this proposal being absolutely rejected by the President as wholly
+unconstitutional, and the Military Governors soundly rated for their
+interference, an ominous calm followed.</p>
+		<p>Parliament, however, remained unmoved and continued its work. Although
+the draft of the Permanent Constitution had been practically completed,
+important additions to the text were now proposed, such additions being
+designed to increase parliamentary control and provide every possible
+precaution
+<a name="Page_253" id="Page_253"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">253</span>
+against arbitrary acts in the future. Thus the new provision
+that a simple vote of want of confidence in the Cabinet must be followed
+by the President either dismissing the Cabinet or dissolving the House
+of Representatives&mdash;but that the dissolution of the Lower House could
+not be ordered without the approval of the Senate&mdash;was generally
+recognized as necessary to destroy the last vestiges of the Yuan
+Shih-kai r&eacute;gime. Furthermore a new article, conferring on the President
+the right to dismiss the Premier summarily by Presidential Mandate
+without the counter-signature of the other Cabinet Ministers, completed
+the disarray of the conservatives who saw in this provision the dashing
+of their last hopes.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25"><sup>[25]</sup></a></p>
+		<p>By the 21st May, the last remaining Cabinet Minister&mdash;the Minister of
+Education&mdash;had resigned and the Premier was left completely isolated. On
+the 23rd May the President, relying on the general support of the
+nation, summarily dismissed General Tuan Chi-jui from the Premiership
+and appointed the veteran diplomat Dr. Wu Ting-fang to act during the
+interim period in his stead, at the same time placing the metropolitan
+districts under four trustworthy Generals who were vested with
+provost-marshals' powers under a system which gave them command of all
+the so-called &quot;precautionary troops&quot; holding the approaches to the
+capital. The Military Governors, who a few hours before these events had
+left Peking precipitately in a body on the proclaimed mission of allying
+themselves with the redoubtable General Chang Hsun at Hsuchowfu, and
+threatening the safety of the Republic, were, however, coolly received
+in the provinces in spite of all their most bitter attempts to stir up
+trouble. This, however, as will be shown, had no influence on their
+subsequent conduct. The quiet disappearance of the ex-Premier in the
+midst of this upheaval caused the report to spread that all the members
+of the corrupt camarilla which had surrounded him were to be arrested,
+but the President soon publicly disclaimed any intention of doing
+so,&mdash;which appears to have been a fatal mistake. It is disheartening to
+have to state that nearly all the Allied Legations in Peking had been in
+intimate relations
+<a name="Page_254" id="Page_254"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">254</span>
+with this gang&mdash;always excepting the American
+Legation whose attitude is uniformly correct&mdash;the French Minister going
+so far as to entertain the Military Governors and declare, according to
+reports in the native press, that Parliament was of no importance at
+all, the only important thing being for China promptly to declare war.
+That some sort of public investigation into Peking diplomacy is
+necessary before there can be any hope of decent relations between China
+and the Powers seems indisputable.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26"><sup>[26]</sup></a></p>
+		<p>Before the end of May the militarists being now desperate, attempted the
+old game of inciting the provincial capitals &quot;to declare their
+independence,&quot; although the mass of the nation was plainly against them.
+Some measure of success attended this move, since the soldiery of the
+northern provinces obediently followed their leaders and there was a
+sudden wild demand for a march on Peking. A large amount of
+rolling-stock on the main railways was seized with this object, the
+confusion being made worse confounded by the fierce denunciations which
+now came from the southernmost provinces, coupled with their threats to
+attack the Northern troops all along the line as soon as they could
+mobilize.</p>
+		<p>The month of June opened with the situation more threatening than it had
+been for years. Emissaries of the recalcitrant Military Governors,
+together with all sorts of &quot;politicals&quot; and disgruntled generals,
+gathered in Tientsin&mdash;which is 80 miles from Peking&mdash;and openly
+established a Military Headquarters which they declared would be
+converted into a Provisional Government which would seek the recognition
+of the Powers. Troops were moved and concentrated against Peking; fresh
+demands were made that the President should dissolve Parliament; whilst
+the Metropolitan press was suddenly filled with seditious articles. The
+President, seeing that the situation was becoming cataclysmic, was
+induced, through what influences is not known, to issue a mandate
+summoning General Chang Hsun to Peking to act as a mediator, which was
+another fatal move. He arrived in Tientsin with many troops on the 7th
+June where he halted and was speedily brought under subversive
+<a name="Page_255" id="Page_255"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">255</span>
+influences, sending at once up to Peking a sort of ultimatum which was
+simply the old demand for the dissolution of Parliament.</p>
+		<p>Meanwhile on the 5th June, the United States, which had been alarmed by
+these occurrences, had handed China the following Note hoping thereby to
+steady the situation:</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<p>The Government of the United States learns with the most profound
+    regret of the dissension in China and desires to express the most
+    sincere desire that tranquillity and political co-ordination may be
+    forthwith re-established.</p>
+			<p>  The entry of China into war with Germany&mdash;or the continuance of the
+    <i>status quo</i> of her relations with that Government&mdash;are matters of
+    secondary consideration.</p>
+			<p>  The principal necessity for China is to resume and continue her
+    political entity, to proceed along the road of national development
+    on which she has made such marked progress.</p>
+			<p>  With the form of Government in China or the personnel which
+    administers that Government, the United States has an interest only
+    in so far as its friendship impels it to be of service to China. But
+    in the maintenance by China of one Central United and alone
+    responsible Government, the United States is deeply interested, and
+    now expresses the very sincere hope that China, in her own interest
+    and in that of the world, will immediately set aside her factional
+    political disputes, and that all parties and persons will work for
+    the re-establishment of a co-ordinate Government and the assumption
+    of that place among the Powers of the World to which China is so
+    justly entitled, but the full attainment of which is impossible in
+    the midst of internal discord. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>The situation had, however, developed so far and so rapidly that this
+expression of opinion had little weight. The Vice-President of the
+Republic, General Feng Kuo-chang, unwilling or unable to do anything,
+had already tendered his resignation from Nanking, declaring that he
+would maintain the &quot;neutrality&quot; of the important area of the lower
+Yangtsze during this extraordinary struggle; and his action, strange as
+it may seem, typified the vast misgivings which filled every one's mind
+regarding the mad course of action which the rebellious camarilla had
+decided upon.</p>
+		<p>Until Saturday the 9th June, the President had seemed adamant. On that
+day he personally saw foreign press correspondents and assured them
+that, in spite of every threat, he would in no conceivable circumstances
+attempt the unconstitutional
+<a name="Page_256" id="Page_256"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">256</span>
+step of dissolving
+Parliament,&mdash;unconstitutional because the Nanking Provisional
+Constitution under which the country was still governed pending the
+formal passage of the Permanent Constitution through Parliament, only
+provided for the creation of Parliament as a grand constitutional
+Drafting Committee but gave no power to the Chief Executive to dissolve
+it during its &quot;life&quot; which was three years. As we have already shown,
+the period between the <i>coup d'&eacute;tat</i> of 4th November, 1913, and the
+re-convocation of Parliament on 1st August, 1916, had been treated as a
+mere interregnum: therefore until 1918, if the law were properly
+construed, no power in the land could interrupt the Parliamentary
+sessions except Parliament itself. Parliament, in view of these
+threatening developments, had already expressed its willingness (a) to
+reconsider certain provisions of the draft constitution in such a
+conciliatory manner as to insure the passage of the whole instrument
+through both houses within two weeks; (b) to alter the Election Law in
+such fashion as to conciliate the more conservative elements in the
+country; (c) to prorogue the second session (1916-1917) immediately
+these things were done and after a very short recess to open the third
+session (1917-1918) and close it within three months, allowing new
+elections to be held in the early months of 1918,&mdash;the new Parliament to
+be summoned in April, 1918, to form itself into a National Convention
+and elect the President for the quinquennial period 1918-1923.</p>
+		<p>All these reasonable plans were knocked on the head on Sunday, the 10th
+June, by the sudden report that the President having been peremptorily
+told that the dissolution of Parliament was the sole means of saving the
+Republic and preventing the sack of Peking, as well as an open armed
+attempt to restore the boy-emperor Hsuan Tung, had at last made up his
+mind to surrender to the inevitable. He had sealed a Mandate decreeing
+the dissolution of Parliament which would be promulgated as soon as it
+had received the counter-signature of the acting Premier, Dr. Wu
+Ting-fang, such counter-signature being obligatory under Article 45 of
+the Provisional Constitution.
+</p>
+		<p>At once it became clear again, as happens a thousand times during every
+year in the East, that what is not nipped in the bud grows with such
+malignant swiftness as finally to blight all
+<a name="Page_257" id="Page_257"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">257</span>
+honest intentions. Had
+steps been taken on or about the 23rd May to detain forcibly in Peking
+the ringleader of the recalcitrant Military Governors, one General Ni
+Shih-chung of Anhui, history would have been very different and China
+spared much national and international humiliation. Six years of stormy
+happenings had certainly bred in the nation a desire for
+constitutionalism and a detestation of military domination. But this
+desire and detestation required firm leadership. Without that leadership
+it was inchoate and powerless, and indeed made furtive by the constant
+fear of savage reprisals. A great opportunity had come and a great
+opportunity had been lost. President Li Yuan-hung's personal argument,
+communicated to the writer, was that in sealing the Mandate dissolving
+Parliament he had chosen the lesser of two evils, for although South
+China and the Chinese Navy declared they would defend Parliament to the
+last, they were far away whilst large armies were echeloned along the
+railways leading into Peking and daily threatening action. The events of
+the next year or so must prove conclusively, in spite of what has
+happened in this month of June, 1917, that the corrupt power of the
+sword can no longer even nominally rule China.</p>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE25" id="IMAGE25"></a>
+			<a href="images/image25.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image25.jpg" width="70%" alt="The Late President Yuan Shih-kai" title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>The Late President Yuan Shih-kai</p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE26" id="IMAGE26"></a>
+			<a href="images/image26.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image26.jpg" width="100%" alt="President Yuan Shi-kai photographed immediately after his
+Inauguration as Provisional President, March 10th, 1912." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>President Yuan Shi-kai photographed immediately after his
+Inauguration as Provisional President, March 10th, 1912.</p>
+		</div>
+		<p>Meanwhile the veteran Dr. Wu Ting-fang, true to his faith, declared that
+no power on earth would cause him to sign a Mandate possessing no
+legality behind it; and he indeed obstinately resisted every attempt to
+seduce him. Although his resignation was refused he stood his ground
+manfully, and it became clear that some other expedient would have to be
+resorted to. In the small hours of the 13th June what this was was made
+clear: by a rapid reshuffling of the cards Dr. Wu Ting-fang's
+resignation was accepted and the general officer commanding the Peking
+Gendarmerie, a genial soul named General Chiang Chao-tsung, who had
+survived unscathed the vicissitudes of six years of revolution, was
+appointed to act in his stead and duly counter-signed the fateful
+Mandate which was at once printed and promulgated at four o'clock in the
+morning. It has been stated to the writer that had it not been so issued
+four battalions of Chang Hsun's savage pigtailed soldiery, who had been
+bivouacked for some days in the grounds of the Temple of Heaven, would
+have been let loose
+<a name="Page_258" id="Page_258"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">258</span>
+on the capital. The actual text of the Mandate
+proves conclusively that the President had no hand in its drafting&mdash;one
+argument being sufficient to prove that, namely the deliberate ignoring
+of the fact that Parliament had been called into being by virtue of
+article 53 of the Nanking Provisional Constitution and that under
+article 54 its specific duty was to act as a grand constitutional
+conference to draft and adopt the Permanent Constitution, article 55
+furthermore giving Parliament the right summarily to amend the
+Provisional Constitution before the Promulgation of the permanent
+instrument, should that be necessary. Provisions of this sort would
+naturally carry no weight with generals of the type of Chang Hsun, of
+whom it is said that until recent years he possessed only the most
+elementary education; but it is a dismal thing to have to record that
+the Conservative Party in China should have adopted a platform of brute
+force in the year of gr&acirc;ce, 1917.</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>MANDATE DISSOLVING PARLIAMENT</h3>
+			<p>  In the 6th month of last year I promulgated a Mandate stating that
+    in order to make a Constitution it was imperative that Parliament
+    should be convened. The Republic was inaugurated five years ago and
+    yet there was no Constitution, which should be the fundamental law
+    of a nation, therefore it was ordered that Parliament be re-convened
+    to make the Constitution, etc., at once.</p>
+			<p>  Therefore the main object for the re-convocation of Parliament was
+    to make a formal constitution for the country. Recently a petition
+    was received from Meng En-yuen, Tu-chun of Kirin, and others, to the
+    effect that &quot;in the articles passed by the Constitution Conference
+    there were several points as follows: 'when the House of
+    Representatives passes a vote of want of confidence against the
+    Cabinet Ministers, the President may dismiss the Cabinet Ministers,
+    or dissolve the said House, but the dissolution of the House shall
+    have the approval of the Senate.' Again, 'When the President
+    dismisses his Prime Minister, it is unnecessary for him to secure
+    the counter-signature of the Cabinet Ministers.' Again 'when a bill
+    is passed by the Two Houses it shall have the force of the law.' We
+    were surprised to read the above provisions.</p>
+			<p>  &quot;According to the precedents of other nations the Constitution has
+    never been made by Parliament. If we should desire a good and
+    workable Constitution, we should seek a fundamental solution. Indeed
+    Parliament is more important than any other organ in the country;
+    but when the national welfare is imperilled, we must take action. As
+    the present Parliament does not care about the national welfare, it
+    is requested that in view of the critical condition of the country,
+    drastic measures be taken
+<a name="Page_259" id="Page_259"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">259</span>
+and both the House of Representatives and
+    the Senate be dissolved so that they may be reorganized and the
+    Constitution may be made without any further delay. Thus the form of
+    the Republican Government be preserved, etc.&quot;</p>
+			<p>  Of late petitions and telegrams have been received from the military
+    and civil officials, merchants, scholars, etc., containing similar
+    demands. The Senate and the House of Representatives have held the
+    Constitution Conference for about one year, and the Constitution has
+    not yet been completed. Moreover at this critical time most of the
+    M.P.'s of both Houses have tendered their resignation. Hence it is
+    impossible to secure quorums to discuss business. There is therefore
+    no chance to revise the articles already passed. Unless means be
+    devised to hasten the making of the Constitution, the heart of the
+    people will never be satisfied.</p>
+			<p>  I, the President, who desire to comply with the will of the populace
+    and to consolidate the foundation of the nation, grant the request
+    of the Tuchuns and the people. It is hereby ordered that the Senate
+    and the House of Representatives be dissolved, and that another
+    election be held immediately. Thus a Constitutional Government can
+    be maintained. It must be pointed out that the object for the
+    reorganization of Parliament is to hasten the making of the
+    Constitution, and not to abolish the Legislative Organ of the
+    Republic. I hope all the citizens of the Republic will understand my
+    motives. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>A great agitation and much public uneasiness followed the publication of
+this document; and the parliamentarians, who had already been leaving
+Peking in small numbers, now evacuated the capital <i>en masse</i> for the
+South. The reasonable and wholly logical attitude of the
+Constitutionalists is well-exhibited in the last Memorandum they
+submitted to the President some days prior to his decision to issue the
+Mandate above-quoted; and a perusal of this document will show what may
+be expected in the future. It will be noted that the revolting Military
+Governors are boldly termed rebels and that the constitutional view of
+everything they may contrive as from the 13th June, 1917, is that it
+will be bereft of all legality and simply mark a fresh interregnum.
+Furthermore, it is important to note that the situation is brought back
+by the Mandate of the 13th June to where it was on the 6th June, 1916,
+with the death of Yuan Shih-kai, and that a period of civil commotion
+seems inevitable.</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>MEMORANDUM</h3>
+			<p>  To the President: Our previous memorandum to Your Excellency must
+    have received your attention. We now beg further to inform you that
+<a name="Page_260" id="Page_260"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">260</span>
+    the rebels are now practically in an embarrassing predicament on
+    account of internal differences, the warning of the friendly Powers,
+    and the protest of the South-western provinces. Their position is
+    becoming daily more and more untenable. If Your Excellency strongly
+    holds out for another ten days or so, their movement will collapse.</p>
+			<p>  Some one, however, has the impudence to suggest that with the entry
+    of Chang Hsun's troops into the Capital, and delay in the settlement
+    of the question will mean woe and disaster. But to us, there need be
+    no such fear. As the troops in the Capital have no mind to oppose
+    the rebels, Tsao Kun and his troops alone will be adequate for their
+    purposes in the Capital. But now the rebel troops have been halting
+    in the neighbourhood of the Capital for the last ten days. This
+    shows that they dare not open hostilities against the Government,
+    which step will certainly bring about foreign intervention and incur
+    the strong opposition of the South-western provinces. Having refused
+    to participate in the rebellion at the invitation of Ni Shih-chung
+    and Chang Tso-lin, Chang Hsun will certainly not do what Tsao Kun
+    has not dared to do. But the rebels have secret agents in the
+    Capital to circulate rumours to frighten the public and we hope that
+    the President will remain calm and unperturbed, lest it will give an
+    opportunity for the rebel agents to practise their evil tricks.</p>
+			<p>  Respecting Parliament, its re-assembly was one of the two most
+    important conditions by means of which the political differences
+    between the North and the South last year were healed. The
+    dissolution of Parliament would mean the violation of the terms of
+    settlement entered into between the North and the South last year
+    and an open challenge to the South. Would the South remain silent
+    respecting this outrageous measure? If the South rises in arms
+    against this measure, what explanation can the Central Government
+    give? It will only serve to hasten the split between the North and
+    the South. From a legal point of view, the Power of Government is
+    vested in the Provisional Constitution. When the Government
+    exercises power which is not provided for by the Constitution, it
+    simply means high treason.</p>
+			<p>  Some one has suggested that it would not be an illegal act for the
+    Government to dissolve Parliament, since it is not provided in the
+    Provisional Constitution as to how Parliament should be dissolved,
+    nor does that instrument specifically prohibit the Government from
+    dissolving Parliament. But this is a misinterpretation. For
+    instance, the Provisional Constitution has not provided that the
+    President shall not proclaim himself Emperor, nor does it prohibit
+    him from so doing. According to such interpretation, it would not be
+    illegal, if the President were to proclaim himself Emperor of the
+    country.</p>
+			<p>  In short, the action taken by Ni Shih-chung and others is nothing
+    short of open rebellion. From the legal point of view, any
+    suggestion of compromise would be absurd. It has already been a
+    fatal mistake for the President to have allowed them to do what they
+    like, and if he again yields to their pressure by dissolving
+    Parliament, he will be held responsible, when the righteous troops
+    rise and punish the rebels. If the President,
+<a name="Page_261" id="Page_261"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">261</span>
+deceived by ignoble
+    persons, take upon himself to dissolve the assembly, his name will
+    go down in history as one committing high treason against the
+    Government, and the author of the break between the North and the
+    South. The President has been known as the man by whose hands the
+    Republic was built. We have special regard for his benevolent
+    character and kind disposition. We are reluctant to see him
+    intimidated and misled by evil counsels to take a step which will
+    undo all his meritorious services to the county and shatter the
+    unique reputation he has enjoyed. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>The unrolling of these dramatic events was the signal for the greatest
+subterranean activity on the part of the Japanese, who were now
+everywhere seen rubbing their hands and congratulating themselves on the
+course history was taking. General Tanaka, Vice-Chief of the Japanese
+General Staff, who had been on an extensive tour of inspection in China,
+so <i>planned as to include every arsenal north of the Yangtsze</i> had
+arrived at the psychological moment in Peking and was now deeply engaged
+through Japanese field-officers in the employ of the Chinese Government,
+in pulling every string and in trying to commit the leaders of this
+unedifying plot in such a way as to make them puppets of Japan. The
+Japanese press, seizing on the American Note of the 5th June as an
+excuse, had been belabouring the United States for some days for its
+&quot;interference&quot; in Chinese affairs, and also for having ignored Japan's
+&quot;special position&quot; in China, which according to these publicists
+demanded that no Power take any action in the Far East, or give any
+advice, without first consulting Japan. That a stern correction will
+have to be offered to this presumption as soon as the development of the
+war permits it is certain. But not only Japanese military officers and
+journalists were endlessly busy: so-called Japanese advisers to the
+Chinese Government had done their utmost to assist the confusion. Thus
+Dr. Ariga, the Constitutional expert, when called in at the last moment
+for advice by President Li Yuan-hung had flatly contradicted Dr.
+Morrison, who with an Englishman's love of justice and constitutionalism
+had insisted that there was only one thing for the President to do&mdash;to
+be bound by legality to the last no matter what it might cost him. Dr.
+Ariga had falsely stated that the issue was a question of expediency,
+thus deliberately assisting the forces of disruption. This is perhaps
+only what was to be expected
+<a name="Page_262" id="Page_262"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">262</span>
+of a man who had advised Yuan Shih-kai to
+make himself Emperor&mdash;knowing full well that he could never succeed and
+that indeed the whole enterprise from the point of view of Japan was an
+elaborate trap.</p>
+		<p>The provincial response to the action taken on the 13th June became what
+every one had expected: the South-western group of provinces, with their
+military headquarters at Canton, began openly concerting measures to
+resist not the authority of the President, who was recognized as a just
+man surrounded by evil-minded persons who never hesitated to betray him,
+but to destroy the usurping generals and the corrupt camarilla behind
+them; whilst the Yangtsze provinces, with their headquarters at Nanking,
+which had hitherto been pledged to &quot;neutrality,&quot; began secretly
+exchanging views with the genuinely Republican South. The group of
+Tientsin generals and &quot;politicals,&quot; confused by these developments,
+remained inactive; and this was no doubt responsible for the mad coup
+attempted by the semi-illiterate General Chang Hsun. In the small hours
+of July 1st General Chang Hsun, relying on the disorganization in the
+capital which we have dealt with in our preceding account entered the
+Imperial City with his troops by prearrangement with the Imperial Family
+and at 4 o'clock on the morning of the 1st July the Manchu boy-emperor
+Hsuan Tung, who lost the Throne on the 12th February, 1912, was
+enthroned before a small assembly of Manchu nobles, courtiers and
+sycophantic Chinese. The capital woke up to find military patrols
+everywhere and to hear incredulously that the old order had returned.
+The police, obeying instructions, promptly visited all shops and
+dwelling-houses and ordered every one to fly the Dragon Flag. In the
+afternoon of the same day the following Restoration Edict was issued,
+its statements being a tissue of falsehoods, the alleged memorial from
+President Li Yuan-hung, which follows the principal document, being a
+bare-faced forgery, whilst no single name inserted in the text save that
+of Chang Hsun had any right to be there. There is also every reason to
+believe that the Manchu court party was itself coerced, terror being
+felt from the beginning regarding the consequences of this mad act which
+was largely possible because Peking is a Manchu city.</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<a name="Page_263" id="Page_263"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">263</span>
+			<h3>IMPERIAL EDICT</h3>
+			<p>  Issued the 13th day of the 5th Moon of the 9th year of Hsuan Tung.</p>
+			<p>  While yet in our boyhood the inheritance of the great domain was
+    unfortunately placed in our possession; and since we were then all
+    alone, we were unable to weather the numerous difficulties. Upon the
+    outbreak of the uprising in the year of Hsin Hai, (1911) Our
+    Empress, Hsiao Ting Chin, owing to her Most High Virtue and Most
+    Deep Benevolence was unwilling to allow the people to suffer, and
+    courageously placed in the hands of the late Imperial Councillor,
+    Yuan Shih-kai, the great dominion which our forefathers had built
+    up, and with it the lives of the millions of Our People, with orders
+    to establish a provisional government.</p>
+			<p>  The power of State was thus voluntarily given to the whole country
+    with the hope that disputes might disappear, disturbances might stop
+    and the people enabled to live in peace. But ever since the form of
+    State was changed into a Republic, continuous strife has prevailed
+    and several wars have taken place. Forcible seizure, excessive
+    taxation and bribery have been of everyday occurrence. Although the
+    annual revenue has increased to 400 millions this amount is still
+    insufficient to meet the needs. The total amount of foreign
+    obligations has reached a figure of more than ten thousand millions
+    yet more loans are being contracted. The people within the seas are
+    shocked by this state of affairs and interest in life has forsaken
+    them. The step reluctantly taken by Our Empress Hsiao Ting Chin for
+    the purpose of giving respite to the people has resulted untowardly
+    in increasing the burdens of Our People. This indeed Our Empress
+    Hsiao Ting Chin was unable to foresee, and the result must have made
+    her Spirit in Heaven to weep sorely. And it is owing to this that we
+    have been praying to Heaven day and night in the close confines of
+    the palace, meditating and weeping in silent suffering.</p>
+			<p>  Recently party strife has resulted in war and the country has
+    remained too long in an unsettled condition. The Republic has fallen
+    to pieces and means of remedy have been exhausted.</p>
+			<p>  Chang Hsun, Feng Kuo-chang and Lu Yung-ting have jointly
+    memorialized the Throne stating that the minds of people are
+    disturbed and they are longing to see the old r&eacute;gime restored, and
+    asking that the throne be reoccupied in order to comfort the people.</p>
+			<p>  Chu Hung-chi and others have also memorialized us stating that the
+    country is in imminent danger and that the people have lost their
+    faith in the Republic, and asking that we ascend the Throne in
+    obedience to the mandate of Heaven and man.</p>
+			<p>  Li Yuan-hung has also memorialized the throne, returning the great
+    power of State to us in order to benefit the country and save the
+    people.</p>
+			<p>  A perusal of the said memorials, which are worded in earnest terms,
+    has filled our heart with regret and fear. On the one hand We, being
+    yet in Our boyhood, are afraid to assume the great responsibilities
+    for the existence of the country but on the other hand We are
+    unwilling to turn
+<a name="Page_264" id="Page_264"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">264</span>
+our head away from the welfare of the millions
+    simply because the step might affect Our own safety.</p>
+			<p>  After weighing the two sides and considering the mandates of Heaven
+    and man, we have decided reluctantly to comply with the prayers, and
+    have again occupied the Court to attend to the affairs of State
+    after resuming possession of the great power on the 13th day of the
+    5th moon of the 9th year of Hsuan Tung.</p>
+			<p>  A new beginning will be made with our people. Hereafter the
+    principles of morality and the sacred religion shall be our
+    constitution in spirit, and order, righteousness, honesty and
+    conscience will be practised to rebind the minds of the people who
+    are now without bonds. People high and low will be uniformly treated
+    with sincerity, and will not depend on obedience of law alone as the
+    means of co-operation. Administration and orders will be based on
+    conscientious realization and no one will be allowed to treat the
+    form of State as material for experiment. At this time of exhaustion
+    when its vitality is being wasted to the last drop and the existence
+    of the country is hanging in the balance, we, as if treading on thin
+    ice over deep waters, dare not in the slightest degree indulge in
+    license on the principle that the Sovereign is entitled to
+    enjoyment. It is our wish therefore that all officials, be they high
+    or low, should purify their hearts and cleanse themselves of all
+    forms of old corruption; constantly keeping in mind the real
+    interests of the people. Every bit of vitality of the people they
+    shall be able to preserve shall go to strengthen the life of the
+    country for whatever it is worth. Only by doing so can the danger be
+    averted and Heaven moved by our sincerity.</p>
+			<h3>  THE NINE ARTICLES</h3>
+			<p>  Herewith we promulgate the following principal things, which we must
+    either introduce as reforms or abolish as undesirable in
+    restoration.</p>
+			<p>  1. We shall obey the edict of Emperor Teh Tsung Chin (Kuang Hsu),
+    namely, that the sovereign power shall be controlled by the Court
+    (state) but the detailed administration shall be subject to public
+    opinion. The country shall be called The Empire of Ta Ching; and the
+    methods of other constitutional monarchies shall be carefully
+    copied.</p>
+			<p>  2. The allowance for the Imperial House shall be the same as before,
+    namely, $4,000,000 per year. The sum shall be paid annually and not
+    a single cent is to be added.</p>
+			<p>  3. We shall strictly obey the instructions of our forefathers to the
+    extent that no member of the imperial family shall be allowed to
+    interfere with administrative affairs.</p>
+			<p>  4. The line of demarcation between Man (Manchu) and Han (Chinese)
+    shall be positively obliterated. All Manchurian and Mongolian posts
+    which have already been abolished shall not be restored. As to
+    intermarriage and change of customs the officials concerned are
+    hereby commanded to submit their views on the points concerning them
+    respectively.</p>
+			<p>  5. All treaties and loan agreements, money for which has already
+    been paid, formally concluded and signed with any eastern and
+    western
+<a name="Page_265" id="Page_265"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">265</span>
+countries before this 13th day of the 5th Moon of the 9th
+    year of Hsuan Tung, shall continue to be valid.</p>
+			<p>  6. The stamp duty which was introduced by the Republic is hereby
+    abolished so that the people may be relieved of their burdens. As to
+    other petty taxes and contributions the Viceroys and Governors of
+    the provinces are hereby commanded to make investigations and report
+    on the same for their abolition.</p>
+			<p>  7. The criminal code of the Republic is unsuited to this country. It
+    is hereby abolished. For the time being the provisional criminal
+    code as adopted in the first year of Hsuan Tung shall be observed.</p>
+			<p>  8. The evil custom of political parties is hereby forbidden. Old
+    political offenders are all pardoned. We shall, however, not be able
+    to pardon those who deliberately hold themselves aloof and disturb
+    peace and order.</p>
+			<p>  9. All of our people and officials shall be left to decide for
+    themselves the custom of wearing or cutting their queues as
+    commanded in the 9th moon of the 3rd year of Hsuan Tung.</p>
+			<p>  We swear that we and our people shall abide by these articles. The
+    Great Heaven and Earth bear witness to our words. Let this be made
+    known to all.</p>
+		</div>
+		<p>
+			<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Counter-signed by Chang Hsun,</span>
+			<br />
+			<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Member of the Imperial Privy Council.</span>
+			<br />
+		</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>ALLEGED MEMORIAL BY PRESIDENT LI YUAN-HUNG</h3>
+			<p>  In a memorial submitted this day, offering to return the sovereign
+    power of State and praying that we again ascend the throne to
+    control the great empire, Li Yuan-hung states that some time ago he
+    was forced by mutinous troops to steal the great throne and falsely
+    remained at the head of the administration but failed to do good to
+    the difficult situation. He enumerates the various evils in the
+    establishment of a Republic and prays that we ascend the throne to
+    again control the Empire with a view that the people may thereby be
+    saved. As to himself he awaits punishment by the properly instituted
+    authorities, etc. As his words are so mournful and full of remorse
+    they must have been uttered from a sincere heart. Since it was not
+    his free choice to follow the rebellion, the fact that he has
+    returned the great power of administration to us shows that he knows
+    the great principle of righteousness. At this time of national
+    danger and uncertainty, he has taken the lead of the people in
+    obeying their sovereign, and decided before others the plan to save
+    the country from ruin. The merit is indeed great, and we are highly
+    pleased with his achievement. Li Yuan-hung is hereby to have
+    conferred on him the dignity of Duke of the first class so as to
+    show our great appreciation. Let him accept our Edict and for ever
+    receive our blessings.</p>
+			<p>  Counter-signed by Chang Hsun,</p>
+			<p>  Member of the Privy Council.</p>
+			<a name="Page_266" id="Page_266"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">266</span>
+			<h3>  PRIVY COUNCIL</h3>
+			<p>  At this time of restoration a Privy Council is hereby established in
+    order that we may be assisted in our duties and that responsibility
+    may be made definite. Two Under-Secretaries of the Council are also
+    created. Other officials serving outside of the capital shall remain
+    as under the system in force during the first year of Hsuan Tung.
+    All civil and military officials who are now serving at their
+    various posts are hereby commanded to continue in office as
+    hitherto.</p>
+			<p>  Counter-signed by Chang Hsun. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>(Hereafter follow many appointments of reactionary Chinese officials.)</p>
+		<p>The general stupefaction at the madness of this act and the military
+occupation of all posts and telegraph-offices in Peking allowed 48 hours
+to go by before the reaction came. On the 2nd July Edicts still
+continued to appear attempting to galvanize to life the corpse of
+Imperialism and the puzzled populace flew the Dragon Flag. On the
+morning of the 3rd, however, the news suddenly spread that President Li
+Yuan-hung, who had virtually been made a prisoner in the Presidential
+Palace, had escaped at nine o'clock the night before by motorcar
+accompanied by two aides-de-camp, and after attempting to be received at
+the French Hospital in the Legation Quarter, had proceeded to the
+Japanese Legation where he was offered a suitable residence. On the
+evening of the 3rd the Japanese Legation issued the following official
+communique (in French) defining its attitude:</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<h3>TRANSLATION</h3>
+			<p>  President Li, accompanied by two members of his staff, came at 9.30
+    on the evening of July 2 to the residence of General Saito, Military
+    Attach&eacute; of the Japanese Legation, and asked protection from him. He
+    arrived in a spontaneous manner and without previous notice.</p>
+			<p>  Under these circumstances, the Imperial Japanese Legation, following
+    international usage, has decided to accord him the necessary
+    protection and has placed at his disposal a part of the military
+    barracks.</p>
+			<p>  The Legation further declares that as long as President Li remains
+    there, it will not permit any political action on his part. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>Following this sensational development it became known that President Li
+Yuan-hung had completely frustrated the efforts of the Imperialists by
+sending away a number of important telegraphic Mandates by courier to
+Tientsin as well
+<a name="Page_267" id="Page_267"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">267</span>
+as the Presidential Seal. By a masterly move in one of
+these Mandates General Tuan Chi-jui was reappointed Premier, whilst
+Vice-President Feng Kuo-chang was asked to officiate as President, the
+arrangements being so complete as at once to catch Chang Hsun in his own
+net.</p>
+		<p>Here is the text of these four historically important messages:</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<p>(1) Dated July 1. To-day Inspector General Chang Hsun entered the
+    city with his troops and actually restored the monarchy. He stopped
+    traffic and sent Liang Ting-fen and others to my place to persuade
+    me. Yuan-hung refused in firm language and swore that he would not
+    recognize such a step. It is his hope that the Vice-President and
+    others will take effective means to protect the Republic.</p>
+			<p>  Li Yuan-hung.</p>
+			<p>  (2) Dated July 1. As Heaven does not scorn calamity so has the
+    monarchy been restored. It is said that in an edict issued by the
+    Ching House it is stated that Yuan-hung had actually memorialized to
+    return the power of State to the said House. This is an
+    extraordinary announcement. China changed from autocracy to a
+    Republic by the unanimous wish of the five races of the country.
+    Since Yuan-hung was entrusted by the people with the great
+    responsibilities it is his natural duty to maintain the Republic to
+    the very end. Nothing more or less than this will he care to say. He
+    is sending this in order to avoid misunderstanding.</p>
+			<p>  Li Yuan-hung.</p>
+			<p>  (3) The President to the Vice-President.</p>
+			<p>  To the Vice-President Feng at Nanking&mdash;It is to be presumed that the
+    two telegrams sent on the 1st have safely reached you. I state with
+    deepest regret and greatest sorrow that as the result of my lack of
+    ability to handle the situation the political crisis has eventually
+    affected the form of government. For this Yuan-hung realizes that he
+    owes the country apology. The situation in Peking is daily becoming
+    more precarious. Since Yuan-hung is now unable to exercise his power
+    the continuity of the Republic may be suddenly interrupted. You are
+    also entrusted by the citizens with great responsibilities; I ask
+    you to temporarily exercise the power and functions of the President
+    in your own office in accordance with the provisions of Article 42
+    of the Provisional Constitution and Article 5 of the Presidential
+    Election Law. As the means of communication is effectively blocked
+    it is feared that the sending of my seal will meet with difficulty
+    and obstruction. Tuan Chih-chuan (Tuan Chi-jui) has been appointed
+    Premier, and is also ordered to temporarily protect the seal, and
+    later to devise a means to forward it on to you. Hereafter
+    everything pertaining to the important question of saving the
+    country shall be energetically pushed by you and Chih-chuan with
+    utmost vigour. The situation is pressing and your duty is clear. In
+    great anxiety and expectation I am sending you this telegram.</p>
+			<p>  Li Yuan-hung.</p>
+			<p>
+				<a name="Page_268" id="Page_268"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">268</span>
+(4) Dated July 3. To Vice-President Feng, Tu Chuns and Governors of
+    the Provinces, Provincial Assemblies, Inspector General Lu:&mdash;I
+    presume that the two telegrams dated 1st and one dated 3rd inst.
+    have safely reached your place. With bitter remorse to myself I now
+    make the statement that the political crisis has resulted in
+    affecting the form of government. Tuan Chih-chuan has been appointed
+    on the 1st inst. as Premier; and the Vice-President has been asked
+    to exercise the power and functions of the President in accordance
+    of office by the Vice-President. Premier Tuan is authorized to act
+    at his discretion. All the seal and documents have been sent to
+    Tientsin, and Premier Tuan has been told to keep and guard the same
+    for the time being. He has also been asked to forward the same to
+    the Vice-President. The body guards of the President's Office have
+    suddenly been replaced and I have been pressed to give up the Three
+    Lakes. Yuan-hung has therefore removed to a sanctuary. As regards
+    the means to save the country I trust that you will consult and work
+    unitedly with Vice-President Feng and Premier Tuan. In great
+    expectation, and with much of my heart not poured out.</p>
+			<p>  Li Yuan-hung. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>Meanwhile, whilst these dramatic events were occurring in Peking, others
+no less sensational were taking place in the provinces. The Tientsin
+group, suddenly realizing that the country was in danger, took action
+very swiftly, disclosing that in spite of all disputes Republicanism had
+become very dear to every thinking man in the country, and that at last
+it was possible to think of an united China. The Scholar Liang Chi Chao,
+spokesman of Chinese Liberalism, in an extraordinarily able message
+circularized the provinces in terms summarizing everything of
+importance. Beginning with the fine literary flight that &quot;heaven has
+refused to sympathize with our difficulties by allowing traitors to be
+born&quot; he ends with the astounding phrase that although he had proposed
+to remain silent to the end of his days, &quot;at the sight of the fallen
+nest he has, however, spat the stopper out of his throat,&quot; and he calls
+upon all China to listen to his words which are simply that the Republic
+must be upheld or dissolution will come.</p>
+		<p>Arms now united with Literature. General Tuan Chi-jui, immediately
+accepting the burden placed on him, proceeded to the main entrenched
+camp outside Tientsin and assumed command of the troops massed there,
+issuing at the same time the following manifesto:</p>
+		<div class="blockquot">
+			<a name="Page_269" id="Page_269"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">269</span>
+			<h3>TUAN CHI-JUI'S MANIFESTO</h3>
+			<p>  To Vice-President Feng Kuo-chang, Inspector General of Wumin, Tu
+    Chuns, Governors, Tu-tungs....</p>
+			<p>  Heaven is chastening this country by the series of disturbances that
+    have taken place. Chang Hsun, filled with sinister designs, has
+    occupied the capital by bringing up his troops under the pretext of
+    effecting a compromise with the astounding result that last night
+    the Republican form of government was overthrown. The question of
+    the form of Government is the very fundamental principle on which
+    the national existence depends. It requires assiduous efforts to
+    settle the form of government and once a decision has been reached
+    on the subject, any attempt to change the same is bound to bring on
+    unspeakable disasters to the country. To-day the people of China are
+    much more enlightened and democratic in spirit than ever before. It
+    is, therefore, absolutely impossible to subjugate the millions by
+    holding out to the country the majesty of any one family.</p>
+			<p>  When the Republic of China was being founded, the Ching House, being
+    well aware of the general inclinations of modern peoples, sincerely
+    and modestly abdicated its power. Believing that such spirit
+    deserved handsome recognition the people were willing to place the
+    Ching House under the protection of special treatment and actually
+    recorded the covenant on paper, whereby contentment and honour were
+    vouchsafed the Ching House. Of the end of more than 20 dynasties of
+    Chinese history, none can compare with the Ching dynasty for peace
+    and safety.</p>
+			<p>  Purely for sake of satisfying his ambitions of self-elevation Chang
+    Hsun and others have audaciously committed a crime of inconceivable
+    magnitude and are guilty of high treason. Like Wang Mang and Tung
+    Tso he seeks to sway the whole nation by utilizing a young and
+    helpless emperor. Moreover he has given the country to understand
+    that Li Yuan-hung has memorialized the Ching House that many evils
+    have resulted from republicanism and that the ex-emperor should be
+    restored to save the masses. That Chang Hsun has been guilty of
+    usurpation and forging documents is plain and the scandal is one
+    that shocks all the world.</p>
+			<p>  Can it be imagined that Chang Hsun is actuated by a patriotic
+    motive? Surely despotism is no longer tolerated in this stage of
+    modern civilization. Such a scheme can only provoke universal
+    opposition. Five years have already passed since the friendly Powers
+    accorded their recognition of the Chinese Republic and if we think
+    we could afford to amuse ourselves with changes in the national
+    fabric, we could not expect foreign powers to put up with such
+    childishness. Internal strife is bound to invite foreign
+    intervention and the end of the country will then be near.</p>
+			<p>  Can it be possible that Chang Hsun has acted in the interest of the
+    Ching House? The young boy-emperor lives in peace and contentment
+    and has not the slightest idea of ever ruling China again. It is
+    known that his tutors have been warning him of the dangers of
+    intriguing for power. That the boy-emperor has been dragged on the
+    throne entirely
+<a name="Page_270" id="Page_270"></a>
+				<span class="pagenum">270</span>
+against his own wishes is undeniable. History tells
+    us that no dynasty can live for ever. It is an unprecedented
+    privilege for the Ching dynasty to be able to end with the gift of
+    special treatment. How absurd to again place the Tsing house on the
+    top of a high wall so that it may fall once more and disappear for
+    ever.</p>
+			<p>  Chi-jui, after his dismissal, resolved not to participate in
+    political affairs, but as he has had a share, however insignificant,
+    in the formation of the Chinese Republic, and having served the
+    Republic for so long he cannot bear to see its destruction without
+    stretching out a helping hand. Further, he has been a recipient of
+    favours from the defunct dynasty, and he cannot bear to watch
+    unmoved, the sight of the Ching House being made the channel of
+    brigandage with suicidal results. Wherever duty calls, Chi-jui will
+    go in spite of the danger of death. You, gentlemen, are the pillars
+    of the Republic of China and therefore have your own duties to
+    perform. In face of this extraordinary crisis, our indignation must
+    be one. For the interest of the country we should abide by our oath
+    of unstinted loyalty; and for the sake of the Tsing House let us
+    show our sympathy by sane and wise deeds. I feel sure you will put
+    forth every ounce of your energy and combine your efforts to combat
+    the great disaster. Though I am a feeble old soldier, I will follow
+    you on the back of my steed.</p>
+			<p>  (Sgd) TUAN CHI-JUI. </p>
+		</div>
+		<p>Following the publication of this manifesto a general movement of troops
+began. On the 5th July the important Peking-Tientsin railway was
+reported interrupted forty miles from the capital&mdash;at Langfang which is
+the station where Admiral Seymour's relief expedition in 1900 was nearly
+surrounded and exterminated. Chang Hsun, made desperate by the swift
+answer to his coup, had moved out of Peking in force stiffening his own
+troops with numbers of Manchu soldiery, and announcing that he would
+fight it out to the bitter end, although this proved as false as the
+rest had been. The first collision occurred on the evening of the 5th
+July and was disastrous for the King-maker. The whole Northern army,
+with the exception of a Manchu Division in Peking, was so rapidly
+concentrated on the two main railways leading to the capital that Chang
+Hsun's army, hopelessly outnumbered and outmanoeuvred, fell back after a
+brief resistance. Chang Hsun himself was plainly stupefied by the
+discovery that imperialism of the classic type was as much out of date
+in the North as in the South; and within one week of his <i>coup</i> he was
+prepared to surrender if his life and reputation were spared. By the 9th
+July the position was this: the Republican
+<a name="Page_271" id="Page_271"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">271</span>
+forces had surrounded
+Peking: Chang Hsun had resigned every appointment save the command of
+his own troops: the Manchu Court party had drafted a fresh Edict of
+Renunciation, but being terrorized by the pigtailed troops surrounding
+the Palace did not dare to issue it.</p>
+		<p>The usual bargaining now commenced with the Legation Quarter acting as a
+species of middleman. No one was anxious to see warfare carried into the
+streets of Peking, as not only might this lead to the massacres of
+innocent people, but to foreign complications as well. The novelty had
+already been seen of a miniature air-raid on the Imperial city, and the
+panic that exploding bombs had carried into the hearts of the Manchu
+Imperial Family made them ready not only to capitulate but to run away.
+The chief point at issue was, however, not the fate of the monarchy,
+which was a dead thing, but simply what was going to happen to Chang
+Hsun's head&mdash;a matter which was profoundly distressing Chang Hsun. The
+Republican army had placed a price of &pound;10,000 on it, and the firebrands
+were advocating that the man must be captured, dead or alive, and suffer
+decapitation in front of the Great Dynastic Gate of the Palace as a
+revenge for his perfidy. Round this issue a subtle battle raged which
+was not brought to a head until the evening of the 11th July, when all
+attempts at forcing Chang Hsun to surrender unconditionally having
+failed, it was announced that a general attack would be made on his
+forces at daylight the next morning.</p>
+		<p>Promptly at dawn on the 12th July a gun-signal heralded the assault.
+Large Republican contingents entered the city through various Gates, and
+a storm of firing aroused terror among the populace. The main body of
+Chang Hsun's men, entrenched in the great walled enclosure of the Temple
+of Heaven, were soon surrounded, and although it would have been
+possible for them to hold out for several days, after a few hours'
+firing a parley began and they quietly surrendered. Similarly in the
+Imperial city, where Chang Hsun had taken up his residence, this leader,
+in spite of his fire-eating declarations, soon fled to the Legation
+Quarter and besought an asylum. His men held out until two in the
+afternoon, when their resistance collapsed and the cease-fire sounded.
+The number of casualties on both sides was infinitesimal, and thus after
+eleven
+<a name="Page_272" id="Page_272"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">272</span>
+days' farce the Manchu dynasty found itself worse off than ever
+before. It is necessary, however, not to lose sight of the main problem
+in China, which is the establishment of a united government and a
+cessation of internecine warfare,&mdash;issues which have been somewhat
+simplified by Chang Hsun's escapade, but not solved. That a united
+government will ultimately be established is the writer's belief, based
+on a knowledge of all the facts. But to attain that further provincial
+struggles are inevitable, since China is too large a unit to find common
+ground without much suffering and bitterness. President Li Yuan-hung
+having declared that nothing would induce him to resume office,
+Vice-President Feng Kuo-chang has become the legal successor and has
+quietly assumed office. Chang Hsun's abortive coup has already cleared
+the air in North China to this extent: that the Manchu Imperial Family
+is to be removed from Peking and the Imperial allowance greatly reduced,
+whilst the proscription of such out-and-out imperialists as Kang Yu-wei
+has destroyed the last vestiges of public support. Finally the
+completion of China's foreign policy, <i>i.e.</i> the declaration of war
+against Germany and Austria, has at last been made on the 14th August,
+1917, and a consistent course of action mapped out.</p>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE27" id="IMAGE27"></a>
+			<a href="images/image27.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image27.jpg" width="100%" alt="The National Assembly sitting as a National Convention
+engaged on the Draft of the Permanent Constitution.
+
+Specially photographed by permission of the Speakers for the Present
+Work." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>The National Assembly sitting as a National Convention
+engaged on the Draft of the Permanent Constitution.</p>
+			<p>Specially photographed by permission of the Speakers for the Present
+Work.</p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="figcenter">
+			<a name="IMAGE28" id="IMAGE28"></a>
+			<a href="images/image28.jpg" >
+				<img src="images/image28.jpg" width="100%" alt="View from rear of Hall of the National Assembly sitting
+as a National Convention engaged on the Draft of the Permanent
+Constitution.
+
+Specially photographed by permission of the Speakers for the Present
+Work." title="" />
+			</a>
+			<p>View from rear of Hall of the National Assembly sitting
+as a National Convention engaged on the Draft of the Permanent
+Constitution.</p>
+			<p>Specially photographed by permission of the Speakers for the Present
+Work.</p>
+		</div>
+		<div class="footnotes">
+			<p class="center">FOOTNOTES:</p>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_25_25">
+						<span class="label">[25]</span>
+					</a> The final text of the Permanent Constitution as it stood
+on the 28th May, 1917, will be found in the appendix. Its accuracy has
+been guaranteed to the writer by the speakers of the two Houses.</p>
+			</div>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_26_26">
+						<span class="label">[26]</span>
+					</a> Since this was written certain diplomatists in Peking have
+been forced to resign.</p>
+			</div>
+		</div>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p>	<a name="Page_273" id="Page_273"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">273</span></p>
+		<h2>
+
+		<a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>
+		CHAPTER XVII</h2>
+		<h3>THE FINAL PROBLEM:&mdash;REMODELLING THE POLITICO-ECONOMIC RELATIONSHIP
+BETWEEN CHINA AND THE WORLD</h3>
+		<p>The careful narrative we have made&mdash;supported as it is by documents&mdash;of
+the history of China since the inception of the Republic six years ago
+should not fail to awaken profound astonishment among those who are
+interested in the spread of good government throughout the world. Even
+casual readers will have no difficulty in realizing how many lives have
+been lost and how greatly the country has been crippled both owing to
+the blind foreign support given to Yuan Shih-kai during four long and
+weary years and to the stupid adhesion to exploded ideas, when a little
+intelligence and a little generosity and sympathy would have guided the
+nation along very different paths. To have to go back, as China was
+forced to do in 1916, and begin over again the work which should have
+been performed in 1912 is a handicap which only persistent resolution
+can overcome; for the nation has been so greatly impoverished that years
+must elapse before a complete recovery from the disorders which have
+upset the internal balance can be chronicled: and when we add that the
+events of the period May-July, 1917, are likely still further to
+increase the burden the nation carries, the complicated nature of the
+outlook will be readily understood.</p>
+		<p>Happily foreign opinion has lately taken turn for the better. Whilst the
+substitution of a new kind of rule in place of the Yuan Shih-kai r&eacute;gime,
+with its thinly disguised Manchuism and its secret worship of fallen
+gods, was at first looked upon as a political collapse tinged with
+tragedy&mdash;most foreigners refusing to believe in an Asiatic Republic&mdash;the
+masculine decision of the
+<a name="Page_274" id="Page_274"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">274</span>
+9th February, 1917, which diplomatically
+ranged China definitely on the side of the Liberal Powers, has caused
+something of a <i>volte face</i>. Until this decision had been made it was
+the fashion to declare that China was not only not fit to be a Republic
+but that her final dissolution was only a matter of time. Though the
+empire disappeared because it had become an impossible rule in the
+modern world&mdash;being womanish, corrupt, and mediaeval&mdash;to the foreign
+mind the empire remained the acme of Chinese civilization; and to kill
+it meant to lop off the head of the Chinese giant and to leave lying on
+the ground nothing but a corpse. It was in vain to insist that this
+simile was wrong and that it was precisely because Chinese civilization
+had exhausted itself that a new conception of government had to be
+called in to renew the vitality of the people. Men, and particularly
+diplomats, refused to understand that this embodied the heart and soul
+of the controversy, and that the sole mandate for the Republic, as well
+as the supreme reason why it had to be upheld if the country was not to
+dissolve, has always lain in the fact that it postulates something which
+is the very antithesis of the system it has replaced and which should be
+wholly successful in a single generation, if courage is shown and the
+whip unflinchingly used.</p>
+		<p>The chief trouble, in the opinion of the writer, has been the simplicity
+of the problem and not its complexity. By eliminating the glamour which
+surrounded the Throne, and by kicking away all the pomp and circumstance
+which formed the age-old ritual of government, the glaring simplicity
+and <i>barrenness</i> of Chinese life&mdash;when contrasted with the complex
+West&mdash;has been made evident. Bathed in the hard light of modern
+realities, the poetic China which Haroun al-Raschid painted in his
+Aladdin, and which still lives in the beautiful art of the country, has
+vanished for ever and its place has been taken by a China of prose. To
+those who have always pictured Asia in terms of poetry this has no doubt
+been a very terrible thing&mdash;a thing synonymous with political death. And
+yet in point of fact the elementary things remain much as they have
+always been before, and if they appear to have acquired new meaning it
+is simply because they have been moved into the foreground and are no
+longer masked by a gaudy superstructure.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_275" id="Page_275"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">275</span>
+For if you eliminate questions of money and suppose for a moment that
+the national balance-sheet is entirely in order, China is the old China
+although she is stirred by new ideas. Here you have by far the greatest
+agricultural community in the world, living just as it has always lived
+in the simplest possible manner, and remitting to the cities (of which
+there are not ten with half-a-million inhabitants) the increment which
+the harvests yield. These cities have made much municipal progress and
+developed an independence which is confessedly new. Printing presses
+have spread a noisy assertiveness, as well as a very critical and
+litigious spirit, which tends to resent and oppose authority.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27"><sup>[27]</sup></a> Trade,
+although constantly proclaimed to be in a bad way, is steadily growing
+as new wants are created and fashions change. An immense amount of new
+building has been done, particularly in those regions which the
+Revolution of 1911 most devastated. The archaic fiscal system, having
+been tumbled into open ruin, has been partially replaced by European
+conceptions which are still only half-understood, but which are not
+really opposed. The country, although boasting a population which is
+only some fifty millions less than the population of the nineteen
+countries of Europe, has an army and a police-force so small as to allow
+one to say that China is virtually disarmed since there are only 900,000
+men with weapons in their hands. Casting about to discover what really
+tinges the outlook, that must simply be held to be the long delay the
+world has made in extending the same treatment to China as is now
+granted to the meanest community of Latin America. It has been almost
+entirely this, coupled with the ever-present threat of Japanese
+chauvinism, which has given China the appearance of a land that is
+hopelessly water-logged, although the National Debt is relatively the
+smallest in the world and the people the most industrious and
+law-abiding who have ever lived. In such circumstances that ideas of
+collapse should
+<a name="Page_276" id="Page_276"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">276</span>
+have spread so far is simply due to a faulty estimate
+of basic considerations.</p>
+		<p>For we have to remember that in a country in which the thoroughly
+English doctrine of <i>laissez faire</i> has been so long practised that it
+has become second nature, and in which the philosophic spirit is so
+undisputed that the pillars of society are just as much the beggars who
+beg as the rich men who support them, influences of a peculiar character
+play an immense r&ocirc;le and can be only very slowly overcome. Passivity has
+been so long enthroned that of the Chinese it may be truly said that
+they are not so much too proud to fight as too indifferent,&mdash;which is
+not a fruitful state of affairs. Looking on the world with callous
+detachment the masses go their own way, only pausing in their work on
+their ancient Festival days which they still celebrate just as they have
+always celebrated them since the beginning of their history. The petty
+daily activities of a vast legion of people grouped together in this
+extraordinary way, and actuated by impulses which seem sharply to
+conflict with the impulses of the other great races of the world, appear
+incredible to Westerners who know what the outer perils really are, and
+who believe that China is not only at bay but encircled&mdash;caught in a
+network of political agreements and commitments which have permanently
+destroyed her power of initiative and reduced her to inanition. To find
+her lumbering on undisturbed, ploughing the fields, marrying and giving
+in marriage, buying, selling, cursing and laughing, carrying out
+rebellions and little plots as though the centuries that stretch ahead
+were still her willing slaves, has in the end become to onlookers a
+veritable nightmare. Puzzled by a phenomenon which is so disconcerting
+as to be incapable of any clear definition, they have ended by declaring
+that an empty Treasury is an empty rule, adding that as it is solely
+from this monetary viewpoint that the New China ought to be judged,
+their opinion is the one which will finally be accepted as
+authoritative. The situation is admittedly dangerous; and it is
+imperative that a speedy remedy be sought; for the heirs and assigns of
+an estate which has been mismanaged to the brink of bankruptcy must
+secure at all costs that no public receivership is made.</p>
+		<p>What is the remedy? That must consist simply enough in
+<a name="Page_277" id="Page_277"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">277</span>
+attacking the
+grand simplicities directly; in recognizing, as we have clearly shown,
+that the bases of Chinese life having collapsed through Euro-Japanese
+pressure, the politico-economic relationship between the Republic and
+the world must be remodelled at the earliest possible opportunity, every
+agreement which has been made since the Treaties of 1860 being carefully
+and completely revised.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28"><sup>[28]</sup></a></p>
+		<p>To say this is to give utterance to nothing very new or brilliant: it is
+the thought which has been present in everyone's mind for a number of
+years. So far back as 1902, when Great Britain negotiated with China the
+inoperative Mackay Commercial Treaty, provision was not only made for a
+complete reform of the Tariff&mdash;import duties to be made two and a half
+times as large in return for a complete abolition of <i>likin</i> or
+inter-provincial trade-taxation&mdash;but for the abolition of
+extraterritoriality when China should have erected a modern and
+efficient judicial system. And although matters equally important, such
+as the funding of all Chinese indemnities and loans into one
+Consolidated Debt, as well as the withdrawal of the right of foreign
+banks to make banknote issues in China, were not touched upon, the same
+principles would undoubtedly have been applied in these instances, as
+being conducive to the re-establishment of Chinese autonomy, had Chinese
+negotiators been clever enough to urge them as being of equal importance
+to the older issues. For it is primarily debt, and the manipulation of
+debt, which is the great enemy.</p>
+		<p>Three groups of indebtedness and three groups of restrictions,
+corresponding with the three vital periods in Chinese history, lie
+to-day like three great weights on the body of the Chinese giant. First,
+there is the imbroglio of the Japanese war of 1894-5; second, the
+settlement following the Boxer explosion of 1900; and third, the cost of
+the revolution of 1911-1912.
+<a name="Page_278" id="Page_278"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">278</span>
+We have already discussed so exhaustively
+the Boxer Settlement and the finance of the Revolutionary period that it
+is necessary to deal with the first period only.</p>
+		<p>In that first period China, having been rudely handled by Japan,
+recovered herself only by indulging in the sort of diplomacy which had
+become traditional under the Manchus. Thankful for any help in her
+distress, she invited and welcomed the intervention of Russia, which
+gave her back the Liaotung Peninsula and preserved for her the shadow of
+her power when the substance had already been so sensationally lost. Men
+are apt to forget to-day that the financial accommodation which allowed
+China to liquidate the Japanese war-debt was a remarkable transaction in
+which Russia formed the controlling element. In 1895 the Tsar's
+Government had intervened for precisely the same motives that animate
+every State at critical times in history, that is, for reasons of
+self-interest. The rapid victory which Japan had won had revived in an
+acute form the whole question of the future of the vast block of
+territory which lies south of the Amur regions and is bathed by the
+Yellow Sea. Russian statesmen suddenly became conscious that the policy
+of which Muravieff-Amurski in the middle of the nineteenth century had
+been the most brilliant exponent&mdash;the policy of reaching &quot;warm
+water&quot;&mdash;was in danger of being crucified, and the work of many years
+thrown away. Action on Russia's part was imperative; she was great
+enough to see that; and so that it should not be said that she was
+merely depriving a gallant nation of the fruits of victory and thereby
+issuing to her a direct challenge, she invited the chief Powers in
+Treaty relations with China to co-operate with her in readjusting what
+she described as the threatened balance. France and Germany responded to
+that invitation; England demurred. France did so because she was already
+the devoted Ally of a nation that was a guarantee for the security of
+her European frontiers: Germany because she was anxious to see that
+Russia should be pushed into Asiatic commitments and drawn away from the
+problems of the Near East. England on her part very prudently declined
+to be associated with a transaction which, while not opposed to her
+interests, was filled with many dubious elements.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_279" id="Page_279"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">279</span>
+It was in Petrograd that this account was liquidated. The extraordinary
+chapter which only closed with the disastrous Peace of Portsmouth opened
+for Russia in a very brilliant way. The presence in Moscow of the
+veteran statesman Li Hung-chang on the occasion of the Tsar's Coronation
+afforded an opportunity for exhaustively discussing the whole problem of
+the Far East. China required money: Russia required the acceptance of
+plans which ultimately proved so disastrous to her. Under Article IV of
+the Treaty of Shimonoseki (April, 1895) China had agreed to pay Japan as
+a war-indemnity 200 million Treasury taels in eight instalments: that is
+50 million taels within six months, a further 50 millions within twelve
+months, and the remaining 100 millions in six equal instalments spread
+over seven years, as well as an additional sum of 50 millions for the
+retrocession of the Liaotung Peninsula.</p>
+		<p>China, therefore, needed at once 80 million taels. Russia undertook to
+lend her at the phenomenally low rate of 4 per cent. the sum of
+&pound;16,000,000 sterling&mdash;the interest and capital of which the Tsar's
+Government guaranteed to the French bankers undertaking the flotation.
+In return for this accommodation, the well known Russo-Chinese
+Declaration of the 24th June (6th July), 1895, was made in which the
+vital article IX states that&mdash;&quot;In consideration of this Loan the Chinese
+Government declares that it will not grant to any foreign Power any
+right or privilege of no matter what description touching the control or
+administration of the revenues of the Chinese Empire. Should, however,
+the Chinese Government grant to any foreign Power rights of this nature,
+it is understood that the mere fact of having done so will extend those
+rights to the Russian Government.&quot;</p>
+		<p>This clause has a monumental significance: it started the scramble in
+China: and all the history of the past 22 years is piled like a pyramid
+on top of it. Now that the Romanoffs have been hurled from the throne,
+Russia must prove eager to reverse the policy which brought Japan to her
+Siberian frontiers and which pinned a brother democracy to the ground.</p>
+		<p>For China, instead of being nearly bankrupt as so many have
+<a name="Page_280" id="Page_280"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">280</span>
+asserted,
+has, thanks to the new scale of indebtedness which the war has
+established, become one of the most debt-free countries in the world,
+her entire national debt (exclusive of railway debt) amounting to less
+than 150 millions sterling, or seven shillings per head of population,
+which is certainly not very terrible. No student who has given due
+attention to the question can deny that it is primarily on the proper
+handling of this nexus of financial interests, and not by establishing
+any artificial balance of power between foreign nations, that the peace
+of the Far East really hinges. The method of securing national
+redemption is ready-made: Western nations should use the Parliament of
+China as an instrument of reform, and by limiting themselves to this one
+method secure that civil authority is reinforced to such a point that
+its behests have behind them all the wealth of the West. In questions of
+currency, taxation, railways and every other vexatious problem, it is
+solely by using this instrument that satisfactory results can be
+attained.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29"><sup>[29]</sup></a> For once Chinese realize that parliamentary government is
+not merely an experimental thing but the last chance the country is to
+be given to govern itself, they will rally to the call and prove that
+much of the trouble and turmoil of past years has been due to the
+misunderstanding of the internal problem by Western minds which has
+incited the population to intrigue against one
+<a name="Page_281" id="Page_281"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">281</span>
+another and remain
+disunited. And if we insist that there is urgent need for a settlement
+of these matters in the terms we have indicated, it is because we know
+very precisely what Japanese thought on this subject really is.</p>
+		<p>What is that thought&mdash;whither does it lead?</p>
+		<p>It may be broadly said that Japanese activities throughout the Far East
+are based on a thorough and adequate appreciation of the fact that apart
+from the winning of the hegemony of China, there is the far more
+difficult and knotty problem of overshadowing and ultimately dislodging
+the huge network of foreign interests&mdash;particularly British
+interests&mdash;which seventy-five years of Treaty intercourse have entwined
+about the country. These interests, growing out of the seed planted in
+the early Canton Factory days, had their origin in the termination by
+the act of the British Government of the trading monopoly enjoyed until
+the thirties of last century by the East India Company. Left without
+proper definition until the Treaty of Nanking in 1842 had formally won
+the principle of trading-rights at five open ports, and thus established
+a first basis of agreement between England and China (to which all the
+trading powers hastened to subscribe), these interests expanded in a
+half-hearted way until 1860, when in order to terminate friction, the
+principle of extraterritoriality was boldly borrowed from the Turkish
+Capitulations, and made the rock on which the entire fabric of
+international dealings in China was based. These treaties, with their
+always-recurring &quot;most-favoured nation&quot; clause, and their implication of
+equal treatment for all Powers alike, constitute the Public Law of the
+Far East, just as much as the Treaties between the Nations constitute
+the Public Law of Europe; and any attempt to destroy, cripple, or limit
+their scope and function has been very generally deemed an assault on
+all the High Contracting Parties alike. By a thoroughly Machiavellian
+piece of reasoning, those who have been responsible for the framing of
+recent Japanese policy, have held it essential to their plan to keep the
+world chained to the principle of extraterritoriality and Chinese Tariff
+and economic subjection because these things, imposing as they
+necessarily do restrictions and limitations in many fields, leave it
+free to the Japanese to place themselves outside and beyond these
+restrictions and limitations; and, by
+<a name="Page_282" id="Page_282"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">282</span>
+means of special zones and secret
+encroachments, to extend their influence so widely that ultimately
+foreign treaty-ports and foreign interests may be left isolated and at
+the mercy of the &quot;Higher machinery&quot; which their hegemony is installing.
+The Chinese themselves, it is hoped, will be gradually cajoled into
+acquiescing in this very extraordinary state of affairs, because being
+unorganized and split into suspicious groups, they can be manipulated in
+such a way as to offer no effective mass resistance to the Japanese
+advance, and in the end may be induced to accept it as inevitable.</p>
+		<p>If the reader keeps these great facts carefully in mind a new light will
+dawn on him and the urgency of the Chinese question will be disclosed.
+The Japanese Demands of 1915, instead of being fantastic and
+far-fetched, as many have supposed, are shown to be very intelligently
+drawn-up, the entire Treaty position in China having been most
+exhaustively studied, and every loophole into the vast region left
+untouched by the ex-territorialized Powers marked down for invasion. For
+Western nations, in spite of exorbitant demands at certain periods in
+Chinese history, having mainly limited themselves to acquiring coastal
+and communication privileges, which were desired more for genuine
+purposes of trade than for encompassing the destruction of Chinese
+autonomy, are to-day in a disadvantageous position which the Japanese
+have shown they thoroughly understand by not only tightening their hold
+on Manchuria and Shantung, but by going straight to the root of the
+matter and declaring on every possible occasion that they alone are
+responsible for the peace and safety of the Far East&mdash;and this in spite
+of the fact that their plan of 1915 was exposed and partially
+frustrated. But the chief force behind the Japanese Foreign Office, it
+should be noted, is militarist; and it is a point of honour for the
+Military Party to return to the charge in China again and again until
+there is definite success or definite failure.</p>
+		<p>Now in view of the facts which have been so voluminously set forth in
+preceding chapters, it is imperative for men to realize that the
+struggle in the Far East is like the Balkan Question a thing rooted in
+geography and peoples, and cannot be brushed aside or settled by
+compromises. The whole future of Chinese
+<a name="Page_283" id="Page_283"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">283</span>
+civilization is intimately
+bound up with the questions involved, and the problem instead of
+becoming easier to handle must become essentially more difficult from
+day to day. Japan's real objective being the termination of the implied
+trusteeship which Europe and America still exercise in the Far East, the
+course of the European war must intimately effect the ultimate outcome.
+If that end is satisfactory for democracies, China may reasonably claim
+to share in the resulting benefits; if on the other hand the Liberal
+Powers do not win an overwhelming victory which shall secure the
+sanctity of Treaties for all time, it will go hard for China. Outwardly,
+the immediate goal which Japan seeks to attain is merely to become the
+accredited spokesman of Eastern Asia, the official representative; and,
+using this attorneyship as a cloak for the advancement of objects which
+other Powers would pursue on different principles, so impregnably to
+entrench herself where she has no business to be that no one will dare
+to attempt to turn her out. For this reason we see revived in Manchuria
+on a modified scale the Eighteenth Century device, once so essential a
+feature of Dutch policy in the struggle against Louis XIV, namely the
+creation of &quot;barrier-cities&quot; for closing and securing a frontier by
+giving them a special constitution which withdraws them from ordinary
+jurisdiction and places foreign garrisons in them. This is precisely
+what is going on from the Yalu to Eastern Mongolia, and this procedure
+no doubt will be extended in time to other regions as opportunities
+arise. Already in Shantung the same policy is being pursued and there
+are indications that it is being thought of in Fuhkien; whilst the
+infantry garrison which was quietly installed at Hankow&mdash;600 miles up
+the Yangtsze river&mdash;at the time of the Revolution of 1911 is apparently
+to be made permanent. Allowing her policy to be swayed by men who know
+far too little of the sea, Japan stands in imminent danger of forgetting
+the great lesson which Mahan taught, that for island-peoples sea-power
+is everything and that land conquests which diminish the efficacy of
+that power are merely a delusion and snare. Plunging farther and farther
+into the vast regions of Manchuria and Mongolia which have been the
+graves of a dozen dynasties, Japan is displaying increasing indifference
+for the one great lesson which the war has yielded&mdash;the overwhelming
+<a name="Page_284" id="Page_284"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">284</span>
+importance of the sea.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30"><sup>[30]</sup></a> Necessarily guardian of the principles on
+which intercourse in Asia is based, because she framed those principles
+and fought for them and has built up great edifices under their
+sanction, British sea-power&mdash;now allied for ever, let us hope, with
+American power&mdash;nevertheless remains and will continue to remain, in
+spite of what may be half-surreptitiously done to-day, the dominant
+factor in the Far East as it is in the Far West. Withdrawn from view for
+the time being, because of the exigencies of the hour and because the
+Anglo-Japanese Alliance is still counted a binding agreement, Western
+sea-power nevertheless stands there, a heavy cloud in the offing, full
+of questionings regarding what is going on in the Orient, and fully
+determined, let us pray, one day to receive frank answers. For the right
+of every race, no matter how small or weak, to enjoy the inestimable
+benefits of self-government and independence may be held to have been so
+absolutely established that it is a mere question of time for the
+doctrine not only to be universally accepted but to be universally
+applied. In many cases, it is true, the claims of certain races are as
+yet incapable of being expressed in practical state-forms; but where
+nationalities have long been well-defined, there can be no question
+whatsoever that a properly articulated autonomy must be secured in such
+a way as to preclude the possibility of annexations.</p>
+		<p>Now although in their consideration of Asia it is notorious that Western
+statesmen have not cared to keep in mind political concepts which have
+become enthroned in Europe, owing to the fact that an active element of
+opposition to such concepts was to be found in their own policies, a
+vast change has undoubtedly
+<a name="Page_285" id="Page_285"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">285</span>
+been recently worked, making it certain
+that the claims of nationalism are soon to be given the same force and
+value in the East as in the West. But before there can be any question
+of Asia for the Asiatics being adopted as a root principle by the whole
+world, it will have to be established in some unmistakable form that the
+surrender of the policy of conquest which Europe has pursued for four
+centuries East of the Suez Canal will not lead to its adoption by an
+Asiatic Power under specious forms which hide the glittering sword. If
+that can be secured, then the present conflict will have truly been a
+War of Liberation for the East as well as for the West. For although
+Japan has been engaged for some years in declaring to all Asiatics under
+her breath that she holds out the hand of a brother to them, and dreams
+of the days when the age of European conquests will be nothing but a
+distant memory, her actions have consistently belied her words and shown
+that she has not progressed in political thought much beyond the crude
+conceptions of the Eighteenth Century. Thus Korea, which fell under her
+sway because the nominal independence of the country had long made it
+the centre of disastrous international intrigues, is governed to-day as
+a conquered province by a military viceroy without a trace of autonomy
+remaining and without any promise that such a r&eacute;gime is only temporary.
+Although nothing in the undertakings made with the Powers has ever
+admitted that a nation which boasts of an ancient line of kings, and
+which gave Japan much of her own civilization, should be stamped under
+foot in such manner, the course which politics have taken in Korea has
+been disastrous in the extreme ever since Lord Lansdowne in 1905, as
+British Secretary for Foreign Affairs, pointed out in a careful dispatch
+to the Russian Government that Korea was a region which fell naturally
+under the sway of Japan. Not only has a tragic fate overcome the sixteen
+million inhabitants of that country, but there has been a covert
+extension of the principles applied to them to the people of China.</p>
+		<p>Now if as we say European concepts are to have universal meaning, and if
+Japan desires European treatment, it is time that it is realized that
+the policy followed in Korea, combined with the attempt to extend that
+treatment to soil where China rightly claims undisputed sovereignty,
+forms an insuperable barrier
+<a name="Page_286" id="Page_286"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">286</span>
+to Japan being admitted to the inner
+council of the nations.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31"><sup>[31]</sup></a> No one wishes to deny to Japan her proper
+place in the world, in view of her marvellous industrial progress, but
+that place must be one which fits in with modern conceptions and is not
+one thing to the West and another to the East. Even the saying which was
+made so much of during the Russian war of 1904, that Korea in foreign
+hands was a dagger pointed at the heart of Japan&mdash;has been shown to be
+inherently false by the lessons of the present struggle, the Korean
+dagger-point being 120 sea miles from the Japanese coast. Such arguments
+clearly show that if the truce which was hastily patched up in 1905 is
+to give way to a permanent peace, that can be evolved only by locking on
+to the Far East the principles which are in process of being vindicated
+in Europe. In other words, precisely as Poland is to be given autonomy,
+so must Korea enjoy the same privileges, the whole Japanese theory of
+suzerainty on the Eastern Asiatic Continent being abandoned. To
+re-establish a proper balance of power in the Far East, the Korean
+nation, which has had a known historical existence of 1,500 years, must
+be reinstated in something resembling its old position; for Korea has
+always been the keystone of the Far Eastern arch, and it is the
+destruction of that arch more than anything else which has brought the
+collapse of China so perilously near.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_287" id="Page_287"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">287</span>
+Once the legitimate aspirations of the Korean people have been
+satisfied, the whole Manchurian-Mongolian question will assume a
+different aspect, and a true peace between China and Japan will be made
+possible. It is to no one's interest to have a Polish question in the
+Far East with all the bitterness and the crimes which such a question
+must inevitably lead to; and the time to obviate the creation of such a
+question is at the very beginning before it has become an obsession and
+a great international issue. Although the Japanese annexation may be
+held to have settled the question once and for all, we have but to point
+to Poland to show that a race can pass through every possible
+humiliation and endure every possible species of truncation without
+dying or abating by one whit its determination to enjoy what happier
+races have won.</p>
+		<p>The issue is a vital one. China by her recent acts has given a
+categorical and unmistakable reply to all the insidious attempts to
+place her outside and beyond the operation of international law and all
+those sanctions which make life worth living; and because of the formal
+birth of a Foreign Policy it can be definitely expected that this
+nation, despite its internal troubles and struggles, will never rest
+content until she has created a new nexus of world-relationships which
+shall affirm and apply every one of the principles experience elsewhere
+has proved are the absolute essentials to peace and happiness. China is
+already many decades ahead of Japan in her theory of government, no
+matter what the practice may be, the marvellous revolution of 1911
+having given back to this ancient race its old position of leader in
+ideas on the shores of the Yellow Sea. The whole dream Japan has
+cherished, and has sought to give form to during the war, is in the last
+analysis antiquated and forlorn and must ultimately dissolve into thin
+air; for it is monstrous to suppose, in an age when European men have
+sacrificed everything to free themselves from the last vestiges of
+feudalism, that in the Far East the cult of Sparta should remain a
+hallowed and respected doctrine. Japan's policy in the Far East during
+the period of the war has been uniformly mischievous and is largely
+responsible for the fierce hatreds which burst out in 1917 over the war
+issue; and China will be forced to raise at the earliest possible moment
+the whole question of the validity of the undertakings extorted from her
+<a name="Page_288" id="Page_288"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">288</span>
+in 1915 under the threat of an ultimatum. Although the precise nature
+of Anglo-Japanese diplomacy during the vital eleven days from the 4th to
+the 15th August, 1914 [<i>i.e.</i> from the British declaration of war on
+Germany to the Japanese ultimatum regarding Kiaochow] remains a sealed
+book, China suspects that Japan from the very beginning of the present
+war world-struggle has taken advantage of England's vast commitments and
+acted <i>ultra vires</i>. China hopes and believes that Britain will never
+again renew the Japanese alliance, which expires in 1921, in its present
+form, particularly now that an Anglo-American agreement has been made
+possible. China knows that in spite of all coquetting with both the
+extreme radical and military parties which is going on daily in Peking
+and the provinces the secret object of Japanese diplomacy is either the
+restoration of the Manchu dynasty, or the enthronement of some pliant
+usurper, a puppet-Emperor being what is needed to repeat in China the
+history of Korea. Japan would be willing to go to any lengths to secure
+the attainment of this reactionary object. Faithful to her &quot;divine
+mission,&quot; she is ceaselessly stirring up trouble and hoping that time
+may still be left her to consolidate her position on the Asiatic
+mainland, one of her latest methods being to busy herself at distant
+points in the Pacific so that Western men for the sake of peace may be
+ultimately willing to abandon the shores of the Yellow Seas to her
+unchallenged mastery.</p>
+		<p>The problem thus outlined becomes a great dramatic thing. The lines
+which trace the problem are immense, stretching from China to every
+shore bathed by the Pacific and then from there to the distant west.
+Whenever there is a dull calm, that calm must be treated solely as an
+intermission, an interval between the acts, a preparation for something
+more sensational than the last episode, but not as a permanent
+settlement which can only come by the methods we have indicated. For the
+Chinese question is no longer a local problem, but a great world-issue
+which statesmen must regulate by conferences in which universal
+principles will be vindicated if they wish permanently to eliminate what
+is almost the last remaining international powder-magazine. A China that
+is henceforth not only admitted to the family of nations on terms of
+equality but welcomed as a representative of Liberalism and a subscriber
+to all those sanctions on which the
+<a name="Page_289" id="Page_289"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">289</span>
+civilization of peace rests, will
+directly tend to adjust every other Asiatic problem and to prevent a
+recrudescence of those evil phenomena which are the enemies of progress
+and happiness. Is it too much to dream of such a consummation? We think
+not. It is to America and to England that China looks to rehabilitate
+herself and to make her Republic a reality. If they lend her their help,
+if they are consistent, there is still no reason why this democracy on
+the shores of the Yellow Sea should not be reinstated in the proud
+position it occupied twenty centuries ago, when it furnished the very
+silks which clothed the daughters of the Caesars.</p>
+		<div class="footnotes">
+			<p class="center">FOOTNOTES:</p>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_27_27">
+						<span class="label">[27]</span>
+					</a> The growth of the Chinese press is remarkable. Although no
+complete statistics are available there is reason to believe that the
+number of periodicals in China now approximates 10,000, the daily
+vernacular newspapers in Peking alone exceeding 60. Although no
+newspaper in China prints more than 20,000 copies a day, the reading
+public is growing at a phenomenal rate, it being estimated that at least
+50 million people read the daily publications, or hear what they say,&mdash;a
+fact which is deemed so politically important that all political parties
+and groups have their chains of organs throughout the country.</p>
+			</div>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_28_28">
+						<span class="label">[28]</span>
+					</a> The mediaeval condition of Chinese trade taxation is well
+illustrated by a Memorandum which the reader will find in the appendix.
+One example may be quoted. Timber shipped from the Yalu river, <i>i.e.</i>
+from Chinese territory, to Peking, pays duties at <i>five</i> different
+places, the total amount of which aggregates 20 per cent. of its market
+value; whilst timber from America, with transit dues and Peking Octroi
+added, only pays 10 per cent.! China is probably the only country that
+has ever existed that discriminates against its own goods and gives
+preference to the foreigner,&mdash;through the operation of the Treaties.</p>
+			</div>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_29_29">
+						<span class="label">[29]</span>
+					</a> We need only give a single example of what we mean. If, in
+the matter of the reform of the currency, instead of authorizing
+trade-agencies, <i>i.e.</i> the foreign Exchange Banks, to make a loan to
+China, which is necessarily hedged round with conditions favourable to
+such trade-agencies, the Powers took the matter directly in their own
+hands; and selecting the Bank of China&mdash;the national fiscal agent&mdash;as
+the instrument of reform agreed to advance all the sums necessary,
+<i>provided</i> a Banking Law was passed by the Parliament of China of a
+satisfying nature, and the necessary guarantees were forthcoming, it
+would soon be possible to have a uniform National Currency which would
+be everywhere accepted and lead to a phenomenal trade expansion. It
+should be noted that China is still on a Copper Standard basis,&mdash;the
+people's buying and selling being conducted in multiples of copper
+cent-pieces of which there has been an immense over-issue, the latest
+figures showing that there are no less than 22,000,000,000 1-cent, ten
+cash pieces in circulation or 62 coins per head of population&mdash;roughly
+twenty-five millions sterling in value,&mdash;or 160,000 tons of copper! The
+number of silver dollars and subsidiary silver coins is not accurately
+known,&mdash;nor is the value of the silver bullion; but it certainly cannot
+greatly exceed this sum. In addition there is about &pound;15,000,000 of paper
+money. A comprehensive scheme of reform, placed in the hands of the Bank
+of China, would require at least &pound;15,000,000; but this sum would be
+sufficient to modernize the currency and establish a universal silver
+dollar standard.
+</p>
+				<p>
+The Bank of China requires at least 600 branches throughout the country
+to become a true fiscal agent. It has to-day one-tenth of this number.</p>
+			</div>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_30_30">
+						<span class="label">[30]</span>
+					</a> It should be carefully noted that not only has Japan no
+unfriendly feelings for Germany but that German Professors have been
+appointed to office during the war. In the matter of enemy trading
+Japan's policy has been even more extraordinary. Until there was a
+popular outcry among the Entente Allies, German merchants were allowed
+to trade more or less as usual. They were not denied the use of Japanese
+steamers, shipping companies being simply &quot;advised&quot; not to deal with
+them, the two German banks in Yokohama and Kobe being closed only in the
+Autumn of 1916. It was not until April, 1917, that Enemy Trading
+Regulations were formally promulgated and enforced,&mdash;that is when the
+war was very far advanced&mdash;the action of China against Germany being no
+doubt largely responsible for this step.
+</p>
+				<p>
+That the Japanese nation greatly admires the German system of government
+and is in the main indifferent to the results of the war has long been
+evident to observers on the spot.</p>
+			</div>
+			<div class="footnote">
+				<p>
+					<a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a>
+					<a href="#FNanchor_31_31">
+						<span class="label">[31]</span>
+					</a> A very remarkable confirmation of these statements is
+afforded in the latest Japanese decision regarding Manchuria which will
+be immediately enforced. The experience of the past three years having
+proved conclusively that the Chinese, in spite of their internal strife,
+are united to a man in their determination to prevent Japan from
+tightening her hold on Manchuria and instituting an open Protectorate,
+the Tokio Government has now drawn up a subtle scheme which it is
+believed will be effective. A Bill for the unification of administration
+in South Manchuria has passed the Japanese Cabinet Conference and will
+soon be formally promulgated. Under the provisions of this Bill, the
+Manchuria Railway Company will become the actual organ of Japanese
+administration in South Manchuria; the Japanese Consular Service will be
+subordinate to the administration of the Railway; and all the powers
+hitherto vested in the Consular Service, political, commercial, judicial
+and administrative, will be made part of the organization of the South
+Manchuria Railway. This is not all. From another Japanese source we
+learn that a law is about to take effect by which the administration of
+the South Manchuria Railway will be transferred directly to the control
+of the Government-General of Korea, thus making the Railway at once an
+apparently commercial but really political organization. In future the
+revenues of the South Manchuria Railway are to be paid direct to the
+Government-General of Korea; and the yearly appropriation for the upkeep
+and administration of the Railway is to be fixed at Yen 12,000,000.
+These arrangements, especially the amalgamation of the South Manchuria
+Railway, are to take effect from the 1st July, 1917, and are an attempt
+to do in the dark what Japan dares not yet attempt in the open.</p>
+			</div>
+		</div>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">293</span></p>
+		<h2>
+
+		<a name="APPENDIX" id="APPENDIX"></a>
+		<a name="APPENDIX1" id="APPENDIX1"></a>
+		APPENDIX</h2>
+		<h3>DOCUMENTS IN GROUP I</h3>
+		<p>(1) The so-called Nineteen Articles, being the grant made by the Throne
+after the outbreak of the Wuchang Rebellion in 1911 in a vain attempt to
+satisfy the nation.</p>
+		<p>(2) The Abdication Edicts issued on the 12th February, 1912, endorsing
+the establishment of the Republic.</p>
+		<p>(3) The terms of abdication, generally referred to as &quot;The articles of
+Favourable Treatment,&quot; in which special provision is made for the
+&quot;rights&quot; of Manchus, Mongols, Mohammedans and Tibetans, who are
+considered as being outside the Chinese nation.</p>
+		<h4>THE NINETEEN ARTICLES</h4>
+		<p>1. The Ta-Ching Dynasty shall reign for ever.</p>
+		<p>2. The person of the Emperor shall be inviolable.</p>
+		<p>3. The power of the Emperor shall be limited by a Constitution.</p>
+		<p>4. The order of the succession shall be prescribed in the Constitution.</p>
+		<p>5. The Constitution shall be drawn up and adopted by the National
+Assembly, and promulgated by the Emperor.</p>
+		<p>6. The power of amending the Constitution belongs to Parliament.</p>
+		<p>7. The members of the Upper House shall be elected by the people from
+among those particularly eligible for the position.</p>
+		<p>8. Parliament shall select, and the Emperor shall appoint, the Premier,
+who will recommend the other members of the Cabinet, these also being
+appointed by the Emperor. The Imperial Princes shall be ineligible as
+Premier, Cabinet Ministers, or administrative heads of provinces.</p>
+		<p>9. If the Premier, on being impeached by Parliament, does not dissolve
+Parliament he must resign but one Cabinet shall not be allowed to
+dissolve Parliament more than once.</p>
+		<p>10. The Emperor shall assume direct control of the army and navy, but
+when that power is used with regard to internal affairs, he must observe
+special conditions, to be decided upon by Parliament, otherwise he is
+prohibited from exercising such power.</p>
+		<p>11. Imperial decrees cannot be made to replace the law except in the
+event of immediate necessity in which case decrees in the nature of a
+law may be issued in accordance with special conditions, but only when
+they are in connection with the execution of a law or what has by law
+been delegated.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_294" id="Page_294"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">294</span>
+12. International treaties shall not be concluded without the consent
+of Parliament, but the conclusion of peace or a declaration of war may
+be made by the Emperor if Parliament is not sitting, the approval of
+Parliament to be obtained afterwards.</p>
+		<p>13. Ordinances in connection with the administration shall be settled by
+Acts of Parliament.</p>
+		<p>14. In case the Budget fails to receive the approval of Parliament the
+Government cannot act upon the previous year's Budget, nor may items of
+expenditure not provided for in the Budget be appended to it. Further,
+the Government shall not be allowed to adopt extraordinary financial
+measures outside the Budget.</p>
+		<p>15. Parliament shall fix the expenses of the Imperial household, and any
+increase or decrease therein.</p>
+		<p>16. Regulations in connection with the Imperial family must not conflict
+with the Constitution.</p>
+		<p>17. The two Houses shall establish the machinery of an administrative
+court.</p>
+		<p>18. The Emperor shall promulgate the decisions of Parliament.</p>
+		<p>19. The National Assembly shall act upon Articles 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14,
+15 and 18 until the opening of Parliament.</p>
+		<h4>EDICTS OF ABDICATION</h4>
+		<h5>I</h5>
+		<p>We (the Emperor) have respectfully received the following Imperial Edict
+from Her Imperial Majesty the Empress Dowager Lung Yu:&mdash;</p>
+		<p>As a consequence of the uprising of the Republican Army, to which the
+different provinces immediately responded, the Empire seethed like a
+boiling cauldron and the people were plunged into utter misery. Yuan
+Shih-kai was, therefore, especially commanded some time ago to dispatch
+commissioners to confer with the representatives of the Republican Army
+on the general situation and to discuss matters pertaining to the
+convening of a National Assembly for the decision of the suitable mode
+of settlement. Separated as the South and the North are by great
+distances, the unwillingness of either side to yield to the other can
+result only in the continued interruption of trade and the prolongation
+of hostilities, for, so long as the form of government is undecided, the
+Nation can have no peace. It is now evident that the hearts of the
+majority of the people are in favour of a republican form of government:
+the provinces of the South were the first to espouse the cause, and the
+generals of the North have since pledged their support. From the
+preference of the people's hearts, the Will of Heaven can be discerned.
+How could We then bear to oppose the will of the millions for the glory
+of one Family! Therefore, observing the tendencies of the age on the one
+hand and studying the opinions of the people on the other, We and His
+Majesty the Emperor hereby vest the sovereignty in the People and decide
+in favour of a republican form of constitutional government.
+<a name="Page_295" id="Page_295"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">295</span>
+Thus we
+would gratify on the one hand the desires of the whole nation who, tired
+of anarchy, are desirous of peace, and on the other hand would follow in
+the footsteps of the Ancient Sages, who regarded the Throne as the
+sacred trust of the Nation.</p>
+		<p>Now Yuan Shih-kai was elected by the Tucheng-yuan to be the Premier.
+During this period of transference of government from the old to the
+new, there should be some means of uniting the South and the North. Let
+Yuan Shih-kai organize with full powers a provisional republican
+government and confer with the Republican Army as to the methods of
+union, thus assuring peace to the people and tranquillity to the Empire,
+and forming the one Great Republic of China by the union as heretofore,
+of the five peoples, namely, Manchus, Chinese, Mongols, Mohammedans, and
+Tibetans together with their territory in its integrity. We and His
+Majesty the Emperor, thus enabled to live in retirement, free from
+responsibilities, and cares and passing the time in ease and comfort,
+shall enjoy without interruption the courteous treatment of the Nation
+and see with Our own eyes the consummation of an illustrious government.
+Is not this highly advisable?</p>
+		<p>Bearing the Imperial Seal and Signed by Yuan Shih-kai, the Premier;
+Bearing the Imperial Seal and Signed by Yuan Shih-kai, the Premier;<br />
+Hoo Wei-teh, Acting Minister of Foreign Affairs;<br />
+Chao Ping-chun, Minister of the Interior;<br />
+Tan Hsuen-heng, Acting Minister of Navy;<br />
+Hsi Yen, Acting Minister of Agriculture, Works and Commerce;<br />
+Liang Shih-yi, Acting Minister of Communications;<br />
+Ta Shou, Acting Minister of the Dependencies.<br />
+		</p>
+		<p>25th day of the 12th moon of the 3rd year of Hsuan Tung.</p>
+		<h5>II</h5>
+		<p>We have respectfully received the following Imperial Edict from Her
+Imperial Majesty the Empress Dowager Lung Yu:&mdash;</p>
+		<p>On account of the perilous situation of the State and the intense
+sufferings of the people, We some time ago commanded the Cabinet to
+negotiate with the Republican Army the terms for the courteous treatment
+of the Imperial House, with a view to a peaceful settlement. According
+to the memorial now submitted to Us by the Cabinet embodying the
+articles of courteous treatment proposed by the Republican Army, they
+undertake to hold themselves responsible for the perpetual offering of
+sacrifices before the Imperial Ancestral Temples and the Imperial
+Mausolea and the completion as planned of the Mausoleum of His Late
+Majesty the Emperor Kuang Hsu. His Majesty the Emperor is understood to
+resign only his political power, while the Imperial Title is not
+abolished. There have also been concluded eight articles for the
+courteous treatment of the Imperial House, four articles for the
+favourable treatment of Manchus, Mongols, Mohammedans, and Tibetans. We
+find the terms of perusal to be fairly comprehensive. We hereby proclaim
+to the Imperial Kinsmen and the Manchus, Mongols, Mohammedans, and
+Tibetans that
+<a name="Page_296" id="Page_296"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">296</span>
+they should endeavour in the future to fuse and remove
+all racial differences and prejudices and maintain law and order with
+united efforts. It is our sincere hope that peace will once more be seen
+in the country and all the people will enjoy happiness under a
+republican government.</p>
+		<p>Bearing the Imperial Seal and Signed by Yuan Shih-kai, the Premier;
+Bearing the Imperial Seal and Signed by Yuan Shih-kai, the Premier;<br />
+Hoo Wei-teh, Acting Minister of Foreign Affairs;<br />
+Chao Ping-chun, Minister of the Interior;<br />
+Tan Hsuen-heng, Acting Minister of the Navy;<br />
+Hsi Yen, Acting Minister of Agriculture, Works and Commerce;<br />
+Liang Shih-yi, Acting Minister of Communications;<br />
+Ta Shou, Acting Minister of the Dependencies.<br />
+		</p>
+		<p>25th day of the 12th moon of the 3rd year of Hsuan Tung.</p>
+		<h5>III</h5>
+		<p>We have respectfully received the following Edict from Her Imperial
+Majesty the Empress Dowager Lung Yu:&mdash;</p>
+		<p>In ancient times the ruler of a country emphasized the important duty of
+protecting the lives of his people, and as their shepherd could not have
+the heart to cause them injury. Now the newly established form of
+government has for its sole object the appeasement of the present
+disorder with a view to the restoration of peace. If, however, renewed
+warfare were to be indefinitely maintained, by disregarding the opinion
+of the majority of the people, the general condition of the country
+might be irretrievably ruined, and there might follow mutual slaughter
+among the people, resulting in the horrible effects of a racial war. As
+a consequence, the spirits of Our Imperial Ancestors might be greatly
+disturbed and millions of people might be terrorized. The evil
+consequences cannot be described. Between the two evils, We have adopted
+the lesser one. Such is the motive of the Throne in modelling its policy
+in accordance with the progress of time, the change of circumstances,
+and the earnest desires of Our People. Our Ministers and subjects both
+in and out of the Metropolis should, in conformity with Our idea,
+consider most carefully the public weal and should not cause the country
+and the people to suffer from the evil consequences of a stubborn pride
+and of prejudiced opinions.</p>
+		<p>The Ministry of the Interior, the General Commandant of the Gendarmerie,
+Chiang Kuei-ti, and Feng Kuo-chang, are ordered to take strict
+precautions, and to make explanations to the peoples so clearly and
+precisely as to enable every and all of them to understand the wish of
+the Throne to abide by the ordinance of heaven, to meet the public
+opinion of the people and to be just and unselfish.</p>
+		<p>The institution of the different offices by the State has been for the
+welfare of the people, and the Cabinet, the various Ministries in the
+Capital, the Vice-royalties, Governorships, Commissionerships, and
+Taotaiships, have therefore been established for the safe protection of
+the people, and not for the benefit of one man or of one family.
+Metropolitan
+<a name="Page_297" id="Page_297"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">297</span>
+and Provincial officials of all grades should ponder over
+the present difficulties and carefully perform their duties. We hereby
+hold it the duty of the senior officials earnestly to advise and warn
+their subordinates not to shirk their responsibilities, in order to
+conform with Our original sincere intention to love and to take care of
+Our people.</p>
+		<p>Bearing the Imperial Seal and Signed by Yuan Shih-kai, the Premier;
+Bearing the Imperial Seal and Signed by Yuan Shih-kai, the Premier;<br />
+Hoo Wei-teh, Minister of Foreign Affairs;<br />
+Chao Ping-chun, Minister of the Interior;<br />
+Tan Hsuen-heng, Acting Minister of the Navy;<br />
+Hsi Yen, Acting Minister of Agriculture, Works and Commerce;<br />
+Liang Shih-yi, Acting Minister of Communications;<br />
+Ta Shou, Acting Minister of the Dependencies.<br />
+		</p>
+		<p>25th day of the 12th moon of the 3rd year of Hsuan Tung.</p>
+		<h3>TERMS OF ABDICATION</h3>
+		<p>N.B. These terms are generally referred to in China as &quot;The Articles of
+Favourable Treatment.&quot;</p>
+		<p>A.&mdash;Concerning the Emperor.</p>
+		<p>The Ta Ching Emperor having proclaimed a republican form of government,
+the Republic of China will accord the following treatment to the Emperor
+after his resignation and retirement.</p>
+		<p>Article 1. After abdication the Emperor may retain his title and shall
+receive from the Republic of China the respect due to a foreign
+sovereign.</p>
+		<p>Article 2. After the abdication the Throne shall receive from the
+Republic of China an annuity of Tls. 4,000,000 until the establishment
+of a new currency, when the sum shall be $4,000,000.</p>
+		<p>Article 3. After abdication the Emperor shall for the present be allowed
+to reside in the Imperial Palace, but shall later remove to the Eho
+Park, retaining his bodyguards at the same strength as hitherto.</p>
+		<p>Article 4. After abdication the Emperor shall continue to perform the
+religious ritual at the Imperial Ancestral Temples and Mausolea, which
+shall be protected by guards provided by the Republic of China.</p>
+		<p>Article 5. The Mausoleum of the late Emperor not being completed, the
+work shall be carried out according to the original plans, and the
+services in connection with the removal of the remains of the late
+Emperor to the new Mausoleum shall be carried out as originally
+arranged, the expense being borne by the Republic of China.</p>
+		<p>Article 6. All the retinue of the Imperial Household shall be employed
+as hitherto, but no more eunuchs shall be appointed.</p>
+		<p>Article 7. After abdication all the private property of the Emperor
+shall be respected and protected by the Republic of China.</p>
+		<p>Article 8. The Imperial Guards will be retained without change in
+members or emolument, but they will be placed under the control of the
+Department of War of the Republic of China.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_298" id="Page_298"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">298</span>
+B.&mdash;Concerning the Imperial Clansmen.</p>
+		<p>Article 1. Princes, Dukes and other hereditary nobility shall retain
+their titles as hitherto.</p>
+		<p>Article 2. Imperial Clansmen shall enjoy public and private rights in
+the Republic of China on an equality with all other citizens.</p>
+		<p>Article 3. The private property of the Imperial Clansmen shall be duly
+protected.</p>
+		<p>Article 4. The Imperial Clansmen shall be exempt from military service.</p>
+		<p>C.&mdash;Concerning Manchus, Mongols, Mohammedans and Tibetans.</p>
+		<p>The Manchus, Mongols, Mohammedans and Tibetans having accepted the
+Republic, the following terms are accorded to them:&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Article 1. They shall enjoy full equality with Chinese.</p>
+		<p>Article 2. They shall enjoy the full protection of their private
+property.</p>
+		<p>Article 3. Princes, Dukes and other hereditary nobility shall retain
+their titles as hitherto.</p>
+		<p>Article 4. Impoverished Princes and Dukes shall be provided with means
+of livelihood.</p>
+		<p>Article 5. Provision for the livelihood of the Eight Banners, shall with
+all dispatch be made, but until such provision has been made the pay of
+the Eight Banners shall be continued as hitherto.</p>
+		<p>Article 6. Restrictions regarding trade and residence that have hitherto
+been binding on them are abolished, and they shall now be allowed to
+reside and settle in any department or district.</p>
+		<p>Article 7. Manchus, Mongols, Mohammedans and Tibetans shall enjoy
+complete religious freedom.</p>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">299</span></p>
+		<h2>
+
+		<a name="APPENDIX2" id="APPENDIX2"></a>
+		APPENDIX</h2>
+		<h3>DOCUMENTS IN GROUP II</h3>
+		<p>(1) The Provisional Constitution passed at Nanking in January, 1912.</p>
+		<p>(2) The Presidential Election Law passed on the 4th October, 1913, by
+the full Parliament, under which Yuan Shih-kai was elected
+President,&mdash;and now formally incorporated as a separate chapter in the
+Permanent Constitution.</p>
+		<p>(3) The Constitutional Compact, promulgated on 1st May, 1914. This &quot;law&quot;
+which was the first result of the <i>coup d'&eacute;tat</i> of 4th November, 1913,
+and designed to take the place of the Nanking Constitution is wholly
+illegal and disappeared with the death of Yuan Shih-kai.</p>
+		<p>(4) The Presidential Succession Law.</p>
+		<p>This instrument, like the Constitutional Compact, was wholly illegal and
+drawn up to make Yuan Shih-kai dictator for life.</p>
+		<h3>THE PROVISIONAL CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF CHINA</h3>
+		<p>
+			<i>Passed at Nanking in</i> 1912, <i>currently referred to as the old
+Constitution</i>
+		</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER I.&mdash;GENERAL PROVISIONS</h4>
+		<p>Article 1. The Republic of China is composed of the Chinese people.</p>
+		<p>Art. 2. The sovereignty of the Chinese Republic is vested in the people.</p>
+		<p>Art. 3. The territory of the Chinese Republic consists of the 18
+provinces, Inner and Outer Mongolia, Tibet and Chinghai.</p>
+		<p>Art. 4. The sovereignty of the Chinese Republic is exercised by the
+National Council, the Provisional President, the Cabinet and the
+Judiciary.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER II.&mdash;CITIZENS</h4>
+		<p>Art. 5. Citizens of the Chinese Republic are all equal, and there shall
+be no racial, class or religious distinctions.</p>
+		<p>Art. 6. Citizens shall enjoy the following rights:&mdash;</p>
+		<p>(a) The person of the citizens shall not be arrested, imprisoned, tried
+or punished except in accordance with law.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_300" id="Page_300"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">300</span>
+(b) The habitations of citizens shall not be entered or searched except
+in accordance with law.</p>
+		<p>(c) Citizens shall enjoy the right of the security of their property and
+the freedom of trade.</p>
+		<p>(d) Citizens shall have the freedom of speech, of composition, of
+publication, of assembly and of association.</p>
+		<p>(e) Citizens shall have the right of the secrecy of their letters.</p>
+		<p>(f) Citizens shall have the liberty of residence and removal.</p>
+		<p>(g) Citizens shall have the freedom of religion.</p>
+		<p>Art. 7. Citizens shall have the right to petition the Parliament.</p>
+		<p>Art. 8. Citizens shall have the right of petitioning the executive
+officials.</p>
+		<p>Art. 9. Citizens shall have the right to institute proceedings before
+the Judiciary, and to receive its trial and judgment.</p>
+		<p>Art. 10. Citizens shall have the right of suing officials in the
+Administrative Courts for violation of law or against their rights.</p>
+		<p>Art. 11. Citizens shall have the right of participating in civil
+examinations.</p>
+		<p>Art. 12. Citizens shall have the right to vote and to be voted for.</p>
+		<p>Art. 13. Citizens shall have the duty to pay taxes according to law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 14. Citizens shall have the duty to enlist as soldiers according to
+law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 15. The rights of citizens as provided in the present Chapter shall
+be limited or modified by laws, provided such limitation or modification
+shall be deemed necessary for the promotion of public welfare, for the
+maintenance of public order, or on account of extraordinary exigency.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER III.&mdash;THE NATIONAL COUNCIL</h4>
+		<p>Art. 16. The legislative power of the Chinese Republic is exercised by
+the National Council.</p>
+		<p>Art. 17. The Council shall be composed of members elected by the several
+districts as provided in Article 18.</p>
+		<p>Art. 18. The Provinces, Inner and Outer Mongolia, and Tibet shall each
+elect and depute five members to the Council, and Chinghai shall elect
+one member.</p>
+		<p>The election districts and methods of elections shall be decided by the
+localities concerned.</p>
+		<p>During the meeting of the Council each member shall have one vote.</p>
+		<p>Art. 19. The National Council shall have the following powers:</p>
+		<p>(a) To pass all Bills.</p>
+		<p>(b) To pass the budgets of the Provisional Government.</p>
+		<p>(c) To pass laws of taxation, of currency, and weights and measures for
+the whole country.</p>
+		<p>(d) To pass measures for the calling of public loans and to conclude
+contracts affecting the National Treasury.</p>
+		<p>(e) To give consent to matters provided in Articles 34, 35 and 40.</p>
+		<p>(f) To reply to inquiries from, the Provisional Government.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_301" id="Page_301"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">301</span>
+(g) To receive and consider petitions of citizens.</p>
+		<p>(h) To make suggestions to the Government on legal or other matters.</p>
+		<p>(i) To introduce interpellations to members of the Cabinet, and to
+insist on their being present in the Council in making replies thereto.</p>
+		<p>(j) To insist on the Government investigating into any alleged bribery
+and infringement of laws by officials.</p>
+		<p>(k) To impeach the Provisional President for high treason by a majority
+vote of three-fourths of the quorum consisting of more than four-fifths
+of the total number of the members.</p>
+		<p>(l) To impeach members of the Cabinet for failure to perform their
+official duties or for violation of the law by majority votes of
+two-thirds of the quorum consisting of over three-fourths of the total
+number of the members.</p>
+		<p>Art. 20. The National Council shall itself convoke, conduct and adjourn
+its own meetings.</p>
+		<p>Art. 21. The meetings of the Advisory Council shall be conducted
+publicly, but secret meetings may be held at the suggestion of members
+of the Cabinet or by the majority vote of its quorum.</p>
+		<p>Art. 22. Matters passed by the Advisory Council shall be communicated to
+the Provisional President for promulgation and execution.</p>
+		<p>Art. 23. If the Provisional President should veto matters passed by the
+National Council he shall, within ten days after he has received such
+resolutions, return the same with stated reasons to the Council for
+reconsideration. If by a two-thirds vote of the quorum of the Council,
+it shall be dealt with in accordance with Article 22.</p>
+		<p>Art. 24. The Chairman of the National Council shall be elected by
+ballots signed by the voting members and the one receiving more than
+one-half of the total number of the votes cast shall be elected.</p>
+		<p>Art. 25. Members of the National Council shall not, outside the Council,
+be responsible for their opinion expressed and votes cast in the
+Council.</p>
+		<p>Art. 26. Members of the Council shall not be arrested without the
+permission of the Chairman of the Council except for crimes pertaining
+to civil and international warfare.</p>
+		<p>Art. 27. Procedure of the National Council shall be decided by its own
+members.</p>
+		<p>Art. 28. The National Council shall be dissolved on the day of the
+convocation of the National Assembly, and its powers shall be exercised
+by the latter.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER IV.&mdash;THE PROVISIONAL PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENT</h4>
+		<p>Art. 29. The Provisional President and Vice-President shall be elected
+by the National Council, and he who receives two-thirds of the total
+number of votes cast by a sitting of the Council consisting of over
+three-fourths of the total number of members shall be elected.</p>
+		<p>Art. 30. The Provisional President represents the Provisional Government
+as the fountain of all executive powers and for promulgating all laws.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_302" id="Page_302"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">302</span>
+Art. 31. The Provisional President may issue or cause to be issued
+orders for the execution of laws and of powers delegated to him by the
+law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 32. The Provisional President shall be the Commander-in-Chief of
+the Army and Navy of the whole of China.</p>
+		<p>Art. 33. The Provisional President shall ordain and establish the
+administrative system and official regulations, but he must first submit
+them to the National Council for its approval.</p>
+		<p>Art. 34. The Provisional President shall appoint and remove civil and
+military officials, but in the appointment of Members of the Cabinet,
+Ambassadors and Ministers he must have the concurrence of the National
+Council.</p>
+		<p>Art. 35. The Provisional President shall have power, with the
+concurrence of the National Council, to declare war and conclude
+treaties.</p>
+		<p>Art. 36. The Provisional President may, in accordance with law, declare
+a state of siege.</p>
+		<p>Art. 37. The Provisional President shall, representing the whole
+country, receive Ambassadors and Ministers of foreign countries.</p>
+		<p>Art. 38. The Provisional President may introduce Bills into the National
+Council.</p>
+		<p>Art. 39. The Provisional President may confer decorations and other
+insignia of honour.</p>
+		<p>Art. 40. The Provisional President may declare general amnesty, grant
+special pardon, commute punishment, and restore rights, but in the case
+of a general amnesty he must have the concurrence of the National
+Council.</p>
+		<p>Art. 41. In case the Provisional President is impeached by the National
+Council he shall be tried by a special Court consisting of nine judges
+elected among the justices of the Supreme Court of the realm.</p>
+		<p>Art. 42. In case the Provisional President vacates his office for
+various reasons, or is unable to discharge the powers and duties of the
+said office, the Provisional Vice-President shall take his place.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER V.&mdash;MEMBERS OF THE CABINET</h4>
+		<p>Art. 43. The Premier and the Chiefs of the Government Departments shall
+be called Members of the Cabinet (literally, Secretaries of State
+Affairs).</p>
+		<p>Art. 44. Members of the Cabinet shall assist the Provisional President
+in assuming responsibilities.</p>
+		<p>Art. 45. Members of the Cabinet shall countersign all Bills introduced
+by the Provisional President, and all laws and orders issued by him.</p>
+		<p>Art. 46. Members of the Cabinet and their deputies may be present and
+speak in the National Council.</p>
+		<p>Art. 47. Upon members of the Cabinet having been impeached by the
+National Council, the Provisional President may remove them from office,
+but such removal shall be subject to the reconsideration of the National
+Council.</p>
+<p>	<a name="Page_303" id="Page_303"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">303</span></p>
+		<h4>
+
+		CHAPTER VI.&mdash;THE JUDICIARY</h4>
+		<p>Art. 48. The Judiciary shall be composed of those judges appointed by
+the Provisional President and the Minister of Justice.</p>
+		<p>The organization of the Courts and the qualifications of judges shall be
+determined by law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 49. The Judiciary shall try civil and criminal cases, but cases
+involving administrative affairs or arising from other particular causes
+shall be dealt with according to special laws.</p>
+		<p>Art. 50. The trial of cases in the law Courts shall be conducted
+publicly, but those affecting public safety and order may be <i>in
+camera</i>.</p>
+		<p>Art. 51. Judges shall be independent, and shall not be subject to the
+interference of higher officials.</p>
+		<p>Art. 52. Judges during their continuance in office shall not have their
+emoluments decreased and shall not be transferred to other offices, nor
+shall they be removed from office except when they are convicted of
+crimes, or of offences punishable according to law by removal from
+office.</p>
+		<p>Regulations for the punishment of judges shall be determined by law.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER VII.&mdash;SUPPLEMENTARY ARTICLES</h4>
+		<p>Art. 53. Within ten months after the promulgation of this Provisional
+Constitution the Provisional President shall convene a National
+Assembly, the organization of which and the laws for the election of
+whose members shall be decided by the National Council.</p>
+		<p>Art. 54. The Constitution of the Republic of China shall be adopted by
+the National Assembly, but before the promulgation of the Constitution,
+the Provisional Constitution shall be as effective as the Constitution
+itself.</p>
+		<p>Art. 55. The Provisional Constitution may be amended by the assent of
+two-thirds of the members of the National Council or upon the
+application of the Provisional President and being passed by over
+three-fourths of the quorum of the Council consisting of over
+four-fifths of the total number of its members.</p>
+		<p>Art. 56. The present Provisional Constitution shall take effect on the
+date of its promulgation, and the fundamental articles for the
+organization of the Provisional Government shall cease to be effective
+on the same date.</p>
+		<p>Sealed by</p>
+		<p>THE NATIONAL COUNCIL.</p>
+<p>	<a name="Page_304" id="Page_304"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">304</span></p>
+		<h3>
+
+		THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION LAW</h3>
+		<p>
+			<i>Passed October 4 1913, by the National Assembly and promulgated by the
+then Provisional President on October 5 of the same year</i>.</p>
+		<p>Article 1. A citizen of the Chinese Republic, who is entitled to all the
+rights of citizenship, is 40 years or more in age and has resided in
+China for not less than ten years, is eligible for election as
+President.</p>
+		<p>Art. 2. The President shall be elected by an Electoral College organized
+by the members of the National Assembly of the Chinese Republic.</p>
+		<p>The said election shall be held by a quorum of two-thirds or more of the
+entire membership of the said Electoral College and shall be conducted
+by secret ballot. A candidate shall be deemed elected when the number of
+votes in his favour shall not be less than three-fourths of the total
+number of votes cast at the election. If no candidate secures the
+requisite number of votes after two ballotings, a final balloting shall
+be held with the two persons, securing the greatest number of votes at
+the second balloting, as candidates. The one securing a majority of
+votes shall be elected.</p>
+		<p>Art. 3. The term of office of the President shall be five years; and if
+re-elected, he may hold office for one more term.</p>
+		<p>Three months previous to the expiration of the term, the members of the
+National Assembly shall convene and organize by themselves the Electoral
+College to elect the President for the next period.</p>
+		<p>Art. 4. The President on taking office shall make oath as follows:</p>
+		<p>&quot;I hereby swear that I will most sincerely obey the constitution and
+faithfully discharge the duties of the President.&quot;</p>
+		<p>Art. 5. Should the post of the President become vacant, the
+Vice-President shall succeed to the same <i>to the end of the term of the
+original President</i>.</p>
+		<p>Should the President be unable to discharge his duties for any cause the
+Vice-President shall act in his stead.</p>
+		<p>Should the Vice-President vacate his post at the same time, the Cabinet
+shall officiate for the President. In this event the members of the
+National Assembly of the Chinese Republic shall convene themselves
+within three months to organize an Electoral College to elect a new
+President.</p>
+		<p>Art. 6. The President shall vacate office on the expiry of his term.
+Should the election of the next President or Vice-President be not
+effected for any cause, or having been elected should they be unable to
+be inaugurated, the President and Vice-President whose terms have
+expired shall quit their posts and the Cabinet shall officiate for them.</p>
+		<p>Art. 7. The election of the Vice-President shall be according to the
+fixed regulations for the election of the President, and the election of
+the Vice-President shall take place at the same time when the President
+is elected. Should there be a vacancy for the Vice-Presidency a
+Vice-President shall be elected according to the provisions herein set
+forth.</p>
+	<p><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">305</span></p>	<h4>
+
+		APPENDIX</h4>
+		<p>Before the completion of the Formal Constitution, with regard to the
+duties and privileges of the President the Provisional Constitution
+regarding the same shall temporarily be followed.</p>
+		<h3>&quot;THE CONSTITUTIONAL COMPACT&quot;</h3>
+		<p>
+			<i>Drafted by Dr. Frank Johnson Goodnow, Legal Adviser to Yuan Shih-kai,
+and promulgated on May 1, 1914</i>
+		</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER I.&mdash;THE NATION</h4>
+		<p>Article 1. The Chung Hua Min Kuo is organized by the people of Chung
+Hua.</p>
+		<p>Art. 2. The sovereignty of Chung Hua Min Kuo originates from the whole
+body of the citizens.</p>
+		<p>Art. 3. The territory of the Chung Hua Min Kuo is the same as that
+possessed by the former Empire.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER II.&mdash;THE PEOPLE</h4>
+		<p>Art. 4. The people of the Chung Hua Min Kuo are all equal in law,
+irrespective of race, caste, or religion.</p>
+		<p>Art. 5. The people are entitled to the following rights of liberty:&mdash;</p>
+		<p>(1) No person shall be arrested, imprisoned, tried, or punished except
+in accordance with law.</p>
+		<p>(2) The habitation of any person shall not be entered or searched except
+in accordance with law.</p>
+		<p>(3) The people have the right of possession and protection of property
+and the freedom of trade within the bounds of law.</p>
+		<p>(4) The people have the right of freedom of speech, of writing and
+publication, of meeting and organizing association, within the bounds of
+law.</p>
+		<p>(5) The people have the right of the secrecy of correspondence within
+the bounds of law.</p>
+		<p>(6) The people have the liberty of residence and removal, within the
+bounds of law.</p>
+		<p>(7) The people have freedom of religious belief, within the bounds of
+law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 6. The people have the right to memorialize the Li Fa Yuan
+according to the provisions of law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 7. The people have the right to institute proceedings at the
+judiciary organ in accordance with the provisions of law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 8. The people have the right to petition the administrative organs
+and lodge protests with the Administrative Court in accordance with the
+provisions of law.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_306" id="Page_306"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">306</span>
+Art. 9. The people have the right to attend examinations held for
+securing officials and to join the public service in accordance with the
+provisions of law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 10. The people have the right to vote and to be voted for in
+accordance with the provisions of law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 11. The people have the obligation to pay taxes according to the
+provisions of law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 12. The people have the obligation to serve in a military capacity
+in accordance with the provisions of law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 13. The provisions made in this Chapter, except when in conflict
+with the Army or Naval orders and rules, shall be applicable to military
+and naval men.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER III.&mdash;THE PRESIDENT</h4>
+		<p>Art. 14. The President is the Head of the nation, and controls the power
+of the entire administration.</p>
+		<p>Art. 15. The President represents the Chung Hua Min Kuo.</p>
+		<p>Art. 16. The President is responsible to the entire body of citizens.</p>
+		<p>Art. 17. The President convokes the Li Fa Yuan, declares the opening,
+the suspension and the closing of the sessions.</p>
+		<p>The President may dissolve the Li Fa Yuan with the approval of the Tsan
+Cheng Yuan; but in that case he must have the new members elected and
+the House convoked within six months from the day of dissolution.</p>
+		<p>Art. 18. The President shall submit Bills of Law and the Budget to the
+Li Fa Yuan.</p>
+		<p>Art. 19. For the purposes of improving the public welfare or enforcing
+law or in accordance with the duties imposed upon him by law, the
+President may issue orders and cause orders to be issued, but he shall
+not alter the law by his order.</p>
+		<p>Art. 20. In order to maintain public peace or to prevent extraordinary
+calamities at a time of great emergency when time will not permit the
+convocation of the Li Fa Yuan, the President may, with the approval of
+the Tsan Cheng Yuan [Senate], issue provisional orders which shall have
+the force of law; but in that case he shall ask the Li Fa Yuan [House of
+Representatives] for indemnification at its next session.</p>
+		<p>The provisional orders mentioned above shall immediately become void
+when they are rejected by the Li Fa Yuan.</p>
+		<p>Art. 21. The President shall fix the official systems and official
+regulations. The President shall appoint and dismiss military and civil
+officials.</p>
+		<p>Art. 22. The President shall declare war and conclude peace.</p>
+		<p>Art. 23. The President is the Commander-in-Chief of, and controls, the
+Army and Navy of the whole country. The President shall decide the
+system of organization and the respective strength of the Army and Navy.</p>
+		<p>Art. 24. The President shall receive the Ambassadors and Ministers of
+the foreign countries.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_307" id="Page_307"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">307</span>
+Art. 25. The President makes treaties.</p>
+		<p>But the approval of the Li Fa Yuan must be secured if the articles
+should change the territories or increase the burdens of the citizens.</p>
+		<p>Art. 26. The President may, according to law, declare Martial Law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 27. The President may confer titles of nobility, decorations and
+other insignia of honour.</p>
+		<p>Art. 28. The President may declare general amnesty, special pardon,
+commutation of punishment, or restoration of rights. In case of general
+amnesty the approval of the Li Fa Yuan must be secured.</p>
+		<p>Art. 29. When the President, for any cause, vacates his post or is
+unable to attend to his duties, the Vice-President shall assume his
+duties and authority in his stead.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER IV.&mdash;THE LEGISLATURE</h4>
+		<p>Art. 30. Legislation shall be done by the Legislature organized with the
+members elected by the people.</p>
+		<p>The organization of the Legislature and the method of electing the
+legislative members shall be fixed by the Provisional Constitution
+Conference.</p>
+		<p>Art. 31. The duties and authorities of the Li Fa Yuan shall be as
+follows:</p>
+		<p>(1) To discuss and pass all bills of law.</p>
+		<p>(2) To discuss and pass the Budget.</p>
+		<p>(3) To discuss and pass or approve articles relating to raising of
+public loans and national financial responsibilities.</p>
+		<p>(4) To reply to the inquiries addressed to it by the Government.</p>
+		<p>(5) To receive petitions of the people.</p>
+		<p>(6) To bring up bills on law.</p>
+		<p>(7) To bring up suggestions and opinions before the President regarding
+law and other affairs.</p>
+		<p>(8) To bring out the doubtful points of the administration and request
+the President for an explanation; but when the President deems it
+necessary for a matter to be kept secret he may refuse to give the
+answer.</p>
+		<p>(9) Should the President attempt treason the Li Fa Yuan may institute
+judicial proceedings in the Supreme Court against him by a three-fourths
+or more vote of a four-fifths attendance of the total membership.</p>
+		<p>Regarding the clauses from 1 to 8 and articles 20, 25, 28, 55 and 27,
+the approval of a majority of more than half of the attending members
+will be required to make a decision.</p>
+		<p>Art. 32. The regular annual session of the Li Fa Yuan will be four
+months in duration; but when the President deems it necessary it may be
+prolonged. The President may also call special sessions when it is not
+in session.</p>
+		<p>Art. 33. The meetings of the Li Fa Yuan shall be &quot;open sessions,&quot; but
+they may be held in secret at the request of the President or the
+decision of the majority of more than half of the members present.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_308" id="Page_308"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">308</span>
+Art. 34. The law bills passed by the Li Fa Yuan shall be promulgated by
+the President and enforced.</p>
+		<p>When the President vetoes a law bill passed by the Li Fa Yuan he must
+give the reason and refer it again to the Li Fa Yuan for
+reconsideration. If such bill should be again passed by a two-thirds
+vote of the members present at the Li Fa Yuan but at the same time the
+President should firmly hold that it would greatly harm the internal
+administration or diplomacy to enforce such law or there will be great
+and important obstacles against enforcing it, he may withhold
+promulgation with the approval of the Tsan Cheng Yuan.</p>
+		<p>Art. 35. The Speaker and vice-Speaker of the Li Fa Yuan shall be elected
+by and from among the members themselves by ballot. The one who secures
+more than half of the votes cast shall be considered elected.</p>
+		<p>Art. 36. The members of the Li Fa Yuan shall not be held responsible to
+outsiders for their speeches, arguments and voting in the House.</p>
+		<p>Art. 37. Except when discovered in the act of committing a crime or for
+internal rebellion or external treason, the members of the Li Fa Yuan
+shall not be arrested during the session period without the permission
+of the House.</p>
+		<p>Art. 38. The House laws of the Li Fa Yuan shall be made by the House
+itself.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER V.&mdash;THE ADMINISTRATION</h4>
+		<p>Art. 39. The President shall be the Chief of the Administration. A
+Secretary of State shall be provided to assist him.</p>
+		<p>Art. 40. The affairs of the Administration shall be separately
+administered by the Ministries of Foreign Affairs, of Interior, of
+Finance, of Army, of Navy, of Justice, of Education, of Agriculture and
+Commerce and of Communications.</p>
+		<p>Art. 41. The Minister of each Ministry shall control the affairs in
+accordance with law and orders.</p>
+		<p>Art. 42. The Secretary of State, Ministers of the Ministries and the
+special representative of the President may take seats in the Li Fa Yuan
+and express their views.</p>
+		<p>Art. 43. The Secretary of State or any of the Ministers when they commit
+a breach of law shall be liable to impeachment by the Censorate
+(Suchengting) and trial by the Administrative Court.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER VI.&mdash;THE JUDICIARY</h4>
+		<p>Art. 44. The judicial power shall be administered by the Judiciary
+formed by the judicial officials appointed by the President.</p>
+		<p>The organization of the Judiciary and the qualifications of the Judicial
+officials shall be fixed by law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 45. The Judiciary shall independently try and decide cases of civil
+and criminal law suits according to law. But with regard to
+administrative
+<a name="Page_309" id="Page_309"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">309</span>
+law suits and other special law cases they shall be
+attended to according to the provisions of this law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 46. As to the procedure the Supreme Court should adopt for the
+impeachment case stated in clause 9 of article 31, special rules will be
+made by law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 47. The trial of law suits in the judicial courts should be open to
+the public; but when they are deemed to be harmful to peace and order or
+good custom, they may be held <i>in camera</i>.</p>
+		<p>Art. 48. The judicial officials shall not be given a reduced salary or
+shifted from their posts when functioning as such, and except when a
+sentence has been passed upon him for punishment or he is sentenced to
+be removed, a judicial official shall not be dismissed from his post.</p>
+		<p>The regulations regarding punishment shall be fixed by law.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER VII.&mdash;THE TSAN CHENG YUAN</h4>
+		<p>Art. 49. The Tsan Cheng Yuan shall answer the inquiries of the President
+and discuss important administrative affairs.</p>
+		<p>The organization of the Tsan Cheng Yuan shall be fixed by the
+Provisional Constitution Conference.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER VIII.&mdash;FINANCES</h4>
+		<p>Art. 50. Levying of new taxes and dues and change of tariff shall be
+decided by law.</p>
+		<p>The taxes and dues which are now in existence shall continue to be
+collected as of old except as changed by law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 51. With regard to the annual receipts and expenditures of the
+nation, they shall be dealt with in accordance with the Budget approved
+by the Li Fa Yuan.</p>
+		<p>Art. 52. For special purposes continuous expenditures for a specified
+number of years may be included in the budget.</p>
+		<p>Art. 53. To prepare for any deficiency of the budget and expenses needed
+outside of the estimates in the budget, a special reserve fund must be
+provided in the budget.</p>
+		<p>Art. 54. The following items of expenditures shall not be cancelled or
+reduced except with the approval of the President:&mdash;</p>
+		<p>1. Any duties belonging to the nation according to law.</p>
+		<p>2. Necessities stipulated by law.</p>
+		<p>3. Necessities for the purpose of carrying out the treaties.</p>
+		<p>4. Expenses for the Army and Navy.</p>
+		<p>Art. 55. For national war or suppression of internal disturbance or
+under unusual circumstances when time will not permit to convoke the Li
+Fa Yuan, the President may make emergency disposal of finance with the
+approval of the Tsan Cheng Yuan, but in such case he shall ask the Li Fa
+Yuan for indemnification at its next session.</p>
+		<p>Art. 56. When a new Budget cannot be established, the Budget of
+<a name="Page_310" id="Page_310"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">310</span>
+the
+previous year will be used. The same procedure will be adopted when the
+Budget fails to pass at the time when the fiscal year has begun.</p>
+		<p>Art. 57. When the closed accounts of the receipts and expenditures of
+the nation have been audited by the Board of Audit, they shall be
+submitted by the President to the Li Fa Yuan for approval.</p>
+		<p>Art. 58. The organization of the Board of Audit shall be fixed by the
+Provisional Constitution Conference.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER IX.&mdash;PROCEDURE OF CONSTITUTION MAKING</h4>
+		<p>Art. 59. The Constitution of Chung Hua Min Kuo shall be drafted by the
+Constitution Draft Committee, which shall be organized with the members
+elected by and from among the members of the Tsan Cheng Yuan. The number
+of such drafting Committee shall be limited to ten.</p>
+		<p>Art. 60. The Bill on the Constitution of Chung Hua Min Kuo shall be
+fixed by the Tsan Cheng Yuan.</p>
+		<p>Art. 61. When the Bill on the Constitution of the Chung Hua Min Kuo has
+been passed by the Tsan Cheng Yuan, it shall be submitted by the
+President to the Citizens' Conference for final passage.</p>
+		<p>The organization of the Citizens' Conference shall be fixed by the
+Provisional Constitution Conference.</p>
+		<p>Art. 62. The Citizens' Conference shall be convoked and dissolved by the
+President.</p>
+		<p>Art. 63. The Constitution of Chung Hua Min Kuo shall be promulgated by
+the President.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER X.&mdash;APPENDIX</h4>
+		<p>Art. 64.&mdash;Before the Constitution of Chung Hua Min Kuo comes into force
+this Provisional Constitution shall have equal force to the Permanent
+Constitution.</p>
+		<p>The order and instructions in force before the enforcement of this
+Provisional Constitution shall continue to be valid, provided that they
+do not come into conflict with the provisions of this Provisional
+Constitution.</p>
+		<p>Art. 65. The articles published on the 12th of the Second Month of the
+First Year of Chung Hua Min Kuo, regarding the favourable treatment of
+the Ta Ching Emperor after his abdication, and the special treatment of
+the Ching Imperial Clan, as well as the special treatment of the
+Manchus, Mongols, Mahommedans and Tibetans shall never lose their
+effect.</p>
+		<p>As to the Articles dealing with the special treatment of Mongols in
+connexion with the special treatment articles, it is guaranteed that
+they shall continue to be effective, and that the same will not be
+changed except by law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 66. This Provisional Constitution may be amended at the request of
+two-thirds of the members of the Li Fa Yuan, or the proposal of the
+<a name="Page_311" id="Page_311"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">311</span>
+President, by a three-fourths majority of a quorum consisting of
+four-fifths or more of the whole membership of the House. The
+Provisional Constitution Conference will then be convoked by the
+President to undertake the amendment.</p>
+		<p>Art. 67. Before the establishment of the Li Fa Yuan the Tsan Cheng Yuan
+shall have the duty and authority of the former and function in its
+stead.</p>
+		<p>Art. 68. This Provisional Constitution shall come into force from the
+date of promulgation. The Temporary Provisional Constitution promulgated
+on the 11th day of the Third Month of the First Year of the Min Kuo
+shall automatically cease to have force from the date on which this
+Provisional Constitution comes into force.</p>
+		<h3>THE PRESIDENTIAL SUCCESSION</h3>
+		<p>
+			<i>Passed by a puppet political body and promulgated by Yuan Shih-kai on
+December</i> 29, 1914</p>
+		<p>Article 1. A male citizen of the Republic of Chung Hua, possessing the
+rights of citizenship, 40 or more years of age and having resided in the
+Republic for not less than 20 years shall be eligible for election as
+President.</p>
+		<p>Art. 2. The Presidential term shall be ten years with eligibility for
+re-election.</p>
+		<p>Art. 3. At the time of the Presidential Election the then President
+shall, representing the opinion of the people carefully and reverently
+nominate (recommend) three persons, with the qualifications stated in
+the first Article, as candidates for the Presidential Office.</p>
+		<p>The names of these nominated persons shall be written by the then
+President on a gold Chia-ho-plate, sealed with the National Seal and
+placed in a gold box, which shall be placed in a stone house in the
+residence of the President.</p>
+		<p>The key of the box will be kept by the President while the keys to the
+Stone House shall be kept separately by the President, the Chairman of
+the Tsan Cheng Yuan and the Secretary of State. The Stone House may not
+be opened without an order from the President.</p>
+		<p>Art. 4. The Presidential Electoral College shall be organized with the
+following members:</p>
+		<p>1. Fifty members elected from the Tsan Cheng Yuan.</p>
+		<p>2. Fifty members elected from the Li Fa Yuan.</p>
+		<p>The said members shall be elected by ballot among the members
+themselves. Those who secure the largest number of votes shall be
+elected. The election shall be presided over by the Minister of
+Interior. If it should happen that the Li Fa Yuan is in session at the
+time of the organization of the Presidential Electoral College, the
+fifty members heading the roll of the House and then in the Capital,
+shall be automatically made members of the Electoral College.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_312" id="Page_312"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">312</span>
+Art. 5. The Electoral College shall be convocated by the President and
+organized within three days before the election.</p>
+		<p>Art. 6. The house of the Tsan Cheng Yuan shall be used as a meeting
+place for the Presidential Electoral College. The chairman of the Tsan
+Cheng Yuan shall act as the chairman of the College.</p>
+		<p>If the Vice-President is the chairman of the Tsan Cheng Yuan or for
+other reasons, the chairman of the Li Fa Yuan shall act as the chairman.</p>
+		<p>Art. 7. On the day of the Presidential Election the President shall
+respectfully make known to the Presidential Electoral College the names
+of the persons recommended by him as qualified candidates for the
+Presidential office.</p>
+		<p>Art. 8. The Electoral College may vote for the re-election of the then
+President, besides three candidates recommended by him.</p>
+		<p>Art. 9. The single ballot system will be adopted for the Presidential
+Election. There should be an attendance of not less than three-fourths
+of the total membership. One who receives a two-thirds majority or
+greater of the total number of votes cast shall be elected. If no one
+secures a two-thirds majority the two persons receiving the largest
+number of votes shall be put to the final vote.</p>
+		<p>Art. 10. When the year of election arrives should the members of the
+Tsan Cheng Yuan consider it a political necessity, the then President
+may be re-elected for another term by a two-thirds majority of the Tsan
+Cheng Yuan without a formal election. The decision shall then be
+promulgated by the President.</p>
+		<p>Art. 11. Should the President vacate his post before the expiration of
+his term of office a special Presidential Electoral College shall be
+organized within three days. Before the election takes place the
+Vice-President shall officiate as President according to the provisions
+of Article 29 of the Constitutional Compact and if the Vice-President
+should also vacate his post at the same time, or be absent from the
+Capital or for any other reasons be unable to take up the office, the
+Secretary of State shall officiate but he shall not assume the duties of
+clauses I and 2, either as a substitute or a temporary executive.</p>
+		<p>Art. 12. On the day of the Presidential Election, the person officiating
+as President or carrying on the duties as a substitute shall notify the
+Chairman of the Special Presidential Electoral College to appoint ten
+members as witnesses to the opening of the Stone House or the Gold Box,
+which shall be carried reverently to the House and opened before the
+assembly and its contents made known to them. Votes shall then be
+forthwith cast for the election of one of the three candidates
+recommended as provided for in article 9.</p>
+		<p>Art. 13. Whether at the re-election of the old President or the
+assumption of office of the new President, he shall take oath in the
+following words at the time of taking over the office:</p>
+		<p>&quot;I swear that I shall with all sincerity adhere to the Constitution and
+execute the duties of the President. I reverently swear.&quot;</p>
+		<p>Before the promulgation of the Constitution it shall be specifically
+stated in the oath that the President shall adhere to the Constitutional
+Compact.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_313" id="Page_313"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">313</span>
+Art. 14. The term of office for the Vice-President shall be the same as
+that of the President. Upon the expiration of the term, three
+candidates, possessing the qualifications of article 1, shall be
+nominated by the re-elected or the new President, for election. The
+regulations governing the election of the President shall be applicable.</p>
+		<p>Should the Vice-President vacate his post before the expiration of his
+term for some reasons, the President shall proceed according to the
+provisions of the preceding article.</p>
+		<p>Art. 15. The Law shall be enforced from the date of promulgation.</p>
+		<p>On the day of enforcement of this Law the Law on the Election of the
+President as promulgated on the 5th day of the 10th Month of the 2nd
+Year of the Min Kuo shall be cancelled.</p>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p>	<a name="Page_314" id="Page_314"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">314</span></p>
+		<h2>
+
+		<a name="APPENDIX3" id="APPENDIX3"></a>
+		APPENDIX</h2>
+		<h3>DOCUMENTS IN GROUP III</h3>
+		<p>(1) The Russo-Chinese agreement of 5th November, 1913, which affirmed
+the autonomy of Outer Mongolia.</p>
+		<p>(2) The Russo-Chinese-Mongolian tripartite agreement of the 7th June,
+1915, ratifying the agreement of the 5th November, 1913.</p>
+		<p>(3) The Chino-Japanese Treaties and annexes of the 25th May, 1915, in
+settlement of the Twenty-one Demands of the 18th January, 1915.</p>
+		<h3>THE RUSSO-CHINESE AGREEMENT REGARDING OUTER MONGOLIA</h3>
+		<p>(Translation from the official French Text)</p>
+		<h4>DECLARATION</h4>
+		<p>The Imperial Russian Government having formulated the principles on
+which its relations with China on the subject of Outer Mongolia should
+be based; and the Government of the Republic of China having signified
+its approval of the aforesaid principles, the two Governments have come
+to the following agreement:</p>
+		<p>Article I. Russia recognizes that Outer Mongolia is placed under the
+suzerainty of China.</p>
+		<p>Art. II. China recognizes the autonomy of Outer Mongolia.</p>
+		<p>Art. III. Similarly, recognizing the exclusive right of the Mongols of
+Outer Mongolia to carry on the internal administration of autonomous
+Mongolia and to regulate all commercial and industrial questions
+affecting that country, China undertakes not to interfere in these
+matters, nor to dispatch troops to Outer Mongolia nor to appoint any
+civil or military officer nor to carry out any colonization scheme in
+this region. It is nevertheless understood that an envoy of the Chinese
+Government may reside at Urga and be accompanied by the necessary staff
+as well as an armed escort. In addition the Chinese Government may, in
+case of necessity, maintain her agents for the protection of the
+interests of her citizens at certain points in Outer Mongolia to be
+agreed upon during the exchange of views provided for in Article V of
+this agreement. Russia on her part undertakes not to quarter troops in
+Outer Mongolia, excepting Consular Guards, nor to interfere in any
+question affecting the administration of the country and will likewise
+abstain from all colonization.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_315" id="Page_315"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">315</span>
+Art. IV. China declares herself ready to accept the good offices of
+Russia in order to establish relations in conformity with the principles
+mentioned above and with the stipulations of the Russo-Mongolian
+Commercial Treaty of the 21st October, 1912.</p>
+		<p>Art. V. Questions affecting the interests of Russia and China in Outer
+Mongolia which have been created by the new conditions of affairs in
+that country shall be discussed at subsequent meetings. In witness
+whereof the undersigned, duly authorized to that effect, have signed and
+sealed the Present Declaration. Done in Duplicate in Peking on the 5th
+November, 1913, corresponding to the 5th Day of the 11th Month of the
+Second Year of the Republic of China.</p>
+		<p>(Signed) B. KRUPENSKY.</p>
+		<p>(Signed) SUN PAO CHI.</p>
+		<h4>ADDENDUM</h4>
+		<p>In signing the Declaration of to-day's date covering Outer Mongolia, the
+undersigned Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of His
+Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias, duly authorized to that effect,
+has the honour to declare in the name of his Government to His
+Excellency Monsieur Sun Pao Chi, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the
+Republic of China as follows:</p>
+		<p>I. Russia recognizes that the territory of Outer Mongolia forms part of
+the territory of China.</p>
+		<p>II. In all questions affecting matters of a political or territorial
+nature, the Chinese Government will come to an understanding with the
+Russian Government by means of negotiations at which the authorities of
+Outer Mongolia shall take part.</p>
+		<p>III. The discussions which have been provided for in Article V of the
+Declaration shall take place between the three contracting parties at a
+place to be designated by them for that purpose for the meeting of their
+delegates.</p>
+		<p>IV. Autonomous Outer Mongolia comprises the regions hitherto under the
+jurisdiction of the Chinese Amban of Urga, the Tartar General of
+Uliasoutai and the Chinese Amban of Kobdo. In view of the fact that
+there are no detailed maps of Mongolia, and that the boundaries of the
+administrative divisions of this country are ill-defined, it is hereby
+agreed that the precise boundaries of Outer Mongolia, as well as the
+delimitation of the district of Kobdo and the district of Altai, shall
+be the subject of subsequent negotiations as provided for by Article V
+of the Declaration.</p>
+		<p>The undersigned seizes the present occasion to renew to His Excellency
+Sun Pao Chi the assurance of his highest consideration.</p>
+		<p>(Signed) B. KRUPENSKY.</p>
+		<p>In signing the Declaration of to-day's date covering Outer Mongolia, the
+undersigned Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China, duly
+authorized to that effect, has the honour to declare in the name of
+<a name="Page_316" id="Page_316"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">316</span>
+his
+Government to His Excellency Monsieur Krupensky, Envoy Extraordinary and
+Minister Plenipotentiary of His Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias
+as follows:</p>
+		<p>I. Russia recognizes that the territory of Outer Mongolia forms part of
+the territory of China.</p>
+		<p>II. In all questions affecting matters of a political or territorial
+nature, the Chinese Government will come to an understanding with the
+Russian Government by means of negotiations at which the authorities of
+Outer Mongolia shall take part.</p>
+		<p>III. The discussions which have been provided for in Article V of the
+Declaration shall take place between the three contracting parties at a
+place to be designated by them for that purpose for the meeting of their
+delegates.</p>
+		<p>IV. Autonomous Outer Mongolia comprises the regions hitherto under the
+jurisdiction of the Chinese Amban of Urga, the Tartar General of
+Uliasoutai and the Chinese Amban of Kobdo. In view of the fact that
+there are no detailed maps of Mongolia, and that the boundaries of the
+administrative divisions of this country are ill-defined, it is hereby
+agreed that the precise boundaries of Outer Mongolia, as well as the
+delimitation of the district of Kobdo and the district of Altai, shall
+be the subject of subsequent negotiations as provided for by Article V
+of the Declaration.</p>
+		<p>The Undersigned seizes the present occasion to renew to His Excellency
+Monsieur Krupensky the assurance of his highest consideration.</p>
+		<p>(Signed) SUN PAO CHI.</p>
+		<h3>SINO-RUSSO MONGOLIAN AGREEMENT</h3>
+		<p>(Translation from the French)</p>
+		<p>The President of the Republic of China, His Imperial Majesty the Emperor
+of all Russias, and His Holiness the Bogdo Djembzoun Damba Khoutoukhtou
+Khan of Outer Mongolia, animated by a sincere desire to settle by mutual
+agreement various questions created by a new state of things in Outer
+Mongolia, have named for that purpose their Plenipotentiary Delegates,
+that is to say:</p>
+		<p>The President of the Republic of China, General Py-Koue-Fang and
+Monsieur Tcheng-Loh, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of
+China to Mexico;</p>
+		<p>His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of all Russias, His Councillor of
+State, Alexandre Miller, Diplomatic Agent and Consul-General in
+Mongolia; and His Holiness the Bogdo Djembzoun Damba Khoutoukhtou Khan
+of Outer Mongolia, Erdeni Djonan Beise Shirnin Damdin, Vice-Chief of
+Justice, and Touchetou Tsing Wang Tchakdourjab, Chief of Finance, who
+having verified their respective full powers found in good and due form,
+have agreed upon the following:</p>
+		<p>Article 1. Outer Mongolia recognizes the Sino-Russian Declaration
+<a name="Page_317" id="Page_317"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">317</span>
+and
+the Notes exchanged between China and Russia of the fifth day of the
+eleventh month of the second year of the Republic of China (23rd
+October, 1913. Old style).</p>
+		<p>Art. 2. Outer Mongolia recognizes China's suzerainty. China and Russia
+recognize the autonomy of Outer Mongolia forming part of Chinese
+territory.</p>
+		<p>Art. 3. Autonomous Mongolia has no right to conclude international
+treaties with foreign powers respecting political and territorial
+questions.</p>
+		<p>As respects questions of a political and territorial nature in Outer
+Mongolia, the Chinese Government engages to conform to Article II of the
+Note exchanged between China and Russia on the fifth day of the eleventh
+month of the second year of the Republic of China, 23rd October, 1913.</p>
+		<p>Art. 4. The title: &quot;Bogdo Djembzonn Damba Khoutoukhtou Khan of Outer
+Mongolia&quot; is conferred by the President of the Republic of China. The
+calendar of the Republic as well as the Mongol calendar of cyclical
+signs are to be used in official documents.</p>
+		<p>Art. 5. China and Russia, conformably to Article 2 and 3 of the
+Sino-Russian Declaration of the fifth day of the eleventh month of the
+second year of the Republic of China, 23rd October, 1913, recognize the
+exclusive right of the autonomous government of Outer Mongolia to attend
+to all the affairs of its internal administration and to conclude with
+foreign powers international treaties and agreements respecting
+questions of a commercial and industrial nature concerning autonomous
+Mongolia.</p>
+		<p>Art. 6. Conformably to the same Article III of the Declaration, China
+and Russia engage not to interfere in the system of autonomous internal
+administration existing in Outer Mongolia.</p>
+		<p>Art. 7. The military escort of the Chinese Dignitary at Urga provided
+for by Article III of the above-mentioned Declaration is not to exceed
+two hundred men. The military escorts of his assistants at Ouliassoutai,
+at Kobdo, and at the Mongolian-Kiachta are not to exceed fifty men each.
+If, by agreement with the autonomous government of Outer Mongolia,
+assistants of the Chinese Dignitary are appointed in other localities of
+Outer Mongolia, their military escorts are not to exceed fifty men each.</p>
+		<p>Art. 8. The Imperial Government of Russia is not to send more than one
+hundred and fifty men as consular guard for its representative at Urga.
+The military escorts of the Imperial consulates and vice-consulates of
+Russia, which have already been established or which may be established
+by agreement with the autonomous government of Outer Mongolia, in other
+localities of Outer Mongolia, are not to exceed fifty men each.</p>
+		<p>Art. 9. On all ceremonial or official occasions the first place of
+honour is due to the Chinese Dignitary. He has the right, if necessary,
+to present himself in private audience with His Holiness Bogdo Djembzoun
+Damba Khoutoukhtou Khan of Outer Mongolia. The Imperial Representative
+of Russia enjoys the same right of private audience.</p>
+		<p>Art. 10. The Chinese Dignitary at Urga and his assistants in the
+<a name="Page_318" id="Page_318"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">318</span>
+different localities of Outer Mongolia provided for by Article VII of
+this agreement are to exercise general control lest the acts of the
+autonomous government of Outer Mongolia and its subordinate authorities
+may impair the suzerain rights and the interests of China and her
+subjects in autonomous Mongolia.</p>
+		<p>Art. 11. Conformably to Article IV of the Note exchanged between China
+and Russia on the fifth day of the eleventh month of the second year of
+the Republic of China (23rd October, 1915), the territory of autonomous
+Outer Mongolia comprises the regions which were under the jurisdiction
+of the Chinese Amban at Ourga, or the Tartar-General at Ouliassoutai and
+of the Chinese Amban at Kobdo; and connects with the boundary of China
+by the limits of the banners of the four aimaks of Khalkha and of the
+district of Kobdo, bounded by the district of Houloun-Bourie on the
+east, by Inner Mongolia on the south, by the Province of Sinkiang on the
+southwest, and by the districts of Altai on the West.</p>
+		<p>The formal delimitation between China and autonomous Mongolia is to be
+carried out by a special commission of delegates of China, Russia and
+autonomous Outer Mongolia, which shall set itself to the work of
+delimitation within a period of two years from the date of signature of
+the present Agreement.</p>
+		<p>Art. 12. It is understood that customs duties are not to be established
+for goods of whatever origin they may be, imported by Chinese merchants
+into autonomous Outer Mongolia. Nevertheless, Chinese merchants shall
+pay all the taxes on internal trade which have been established in
+autonomous Outer Mongolia and which may be established therein in the
+future, payable by the Mongols of autonomous Outer Mongolia. Similarly
+the merchants of autonomous Outer Mongolia, when importing any kind of
+goods of local production into &quot;Inner China,&quot; shall pay all the taxes on
+trade which have been established in &quot;Inner China&quot; and which may be
+established therein in the future, payable by Chinese merchants. Goods
+of foreign origin imported from autonomous Outer Mongolia into &quot;Inner
+China&quot; shall be subject to the customs duties stipulated in the
+regulations for land trade of the seventh year of the reign of
+Kouang-Hsu (1881).</p>
+		<p>Art. 13. Civil and criminal actions arising between Chinese subjects
+residing in autonomous Outer Mongolia are to be examined and adjudicated
+by the Chinese Dignitary at Urga and by his assistants in the other
+localities of autonomous Outer Mongolia.</p>
+		<p>Art. 14. Civil and criminal actions arising between Mongols of
+autonomous Outer Mongolia and Chinese subjects residing therein are to
+be examined and adjudicated by the Chinese Dignitary at Urga and his
+assistants in the other localities of autonomous Outer Mongolia, or
+their delegates, and the Mongolian authorities. If the defendant or
+accused is of autonomous Outer Mongolia, the joint examination and
+decision of the case are to be held at the Chinese Dignitary's place at
+Niga and that of his assistants in the other localities of autonomous
+Outer Mongolia; if the defendant or the accused is a Mongol of
+autonomous Outer Mongolia and the claimant or the complainant is a
+Chinese subject,
+<a name="Page_319" id="Page_319"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">319</span>
+the case is to be examined and decided in the same
+manner in the Mongolian yamen. The guilty are to be punished according
+to their own laws. The interested parties are free to arrange their
+disputes amicably by means of arbitrators chosen by themselves.</p>
+		<p>Art. 15. Civil and criminal actions arising between Mongols of
+autonomous Outer Mongolia and Russian subjects residing therein are to
+be examined and decided conformably to the stipulations of Article XVI
+of the Russo-Mongolian Commercial protocol of 21st October, 1912.</p>
+		<p>Art. 16. All civil and criminal actions arising between Chinese and
+Russian subjects in autonomous Outer Mongolia are to be examined and
+decided in the following manner: in an action wherein the claimant or
+the complainant is a Russian subject and the defendant or accused is a
+Chinese subject, the Russian Consul personally or through his delegate
+participates in the judicial trial, enjoying the same right as the
+Chinese Dignitary at Urga or his delegate or his assistants in the other
+localities of autonomous Outer Mongolia. The Russian Consul or his
+delegate proceeds to the hearing of the claimant and the Russian
+witnesses in the court in session, and interrogates the defendant and
+the Chinese witnesses through the medium of the Chinese Dignitary at
+Urga or his delegates or of his assistants in the other localities of
+autonomous Outer Mongolia; the Russian Consul or his delegate examines
+the evidence presented, demands security for &quot;revindication&quot; and has
+recourse to the opinion of experts, if he considers such expert opinion
+necessary for the elucidation of the rights of the parties, etc.; he
+takes part in deciding and in the drafting of the judgment, which he
+signs with the Chinese Dignitary at Urga or his delegates or his
+assistants in the other localities of Autonomous Outer Mongolia. The
+execution of the judgment constitutes a duty of the Chinese authorities.</p>
+		<p>The Chinese Dignitary at Urga and his Assistants in the other localities
+of autonomous Outer Mongolia may likewise personally or through their
+delegates be present at the hearing of an action in the Consulates of
+Russia wherein the defendant or the accused is a Russian subject and the
+claimant or the complainant is a Chinese subject. The execution of the
+judgment constitutes a duty of the Russian authorities.</p>
+		<p>Art. 17. Since a section of the Kiachta-Urga-Kalgan telegraph line lies
+in the territory of autonomous Outer Mongolia, it is agreed that the
+said section of the said telegraph line constitutes the complete
+property of the Autonomous Government of Outer Mongolia. The details
+respecting the establishment on the borders of that country and Inner
+Mongolia of a station to be administered by Chinese and Mongolian
+employ&eacute;s for the transmission of telegrams, as well as the questions of
+the tariff for telegrams transmitted and of the apportionment of the
+receipts, etc., are to be examined and settled by a special commission
+of technical delegates of China, Russia and Autonomous Outer Mongolia.</p>
+		<p>Art. 18. The Chinese postal institutions at Urga and Mongolian Kiachta
+remain in force on the old basis.</p>
+		<p>Art. 19. The Autonomous Government of Outer Mongolia will place at the
+disposal of the Chinese Dignitary at Urga and of his assistants
+<a name="Page_320" id="Page_320"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">320</span>
+at
+Ouliassoutai, Kobdo and Mongolian-Kiachta as well as of their staff the
+necessary houses, which are to constitute the complete property of the
+Government of the Republic of China. Similarly, necessary grounds in the
+vicinity of the residences of the said staff are to be granted for their
+escorts.</p>
+		<p>Art. 20. The Chinese Dignitary at Urga and his assistants in the other
+localities of autonomous Outer Mongolia and also their staff are to
+enjoy the right to use the courier stations of the autonomous Mongolian
+Government conformably to the stipulations of Article XI of the
+Russo-Mongolian Protocol of 21st October, 1912.</p>
+		<p>Art. 21. The stipulations of the Sino-Russian declaration and the Notes
+exchanged between China and Russia of the 5th day of the 11th month of
+the 2nd year of the Republic of China, 23rd October, 1913, as well as
+those of the Russo-Mongolian Commercial Protocol of the 21st October,
+1912, remain in full force.</p>
+		<p>Art. 22. The present Agreement, drawn up in triplicate in Chinese,
+Russian, Mongolian and French languages, comes into force from the day
+of its signature. Of the four texts which have been duly compared and
+found to agree, the French text shall be authoritative in the
+interpretation of the Present Agreement.</p>
+		<p>Done at Kiachta the 7th day of the Sixth Month of the Fourth year of the
+Republic of China, corresponding to the Twenty-fifth of May, Seventh of
+June, One Thousand Nine Hundred Fifteen.</p>
+		<h3>CHINO-JAPANESE TREATIES AND ANNEXES</h3>
+		<h4>COMPLETE ENGLISH TEXT OF THE DOCUMENTS</h4>
+		<p>
+			<i>The following is an authoritative translation of the two Treaties and
+thirteen Notes exchanged between His Excellency the President of the
+Republic of China and His Majesty the Emperor of Japan through their
+respective plenipotentiaries</i>:</p>
+		<h4>TREATY RESPECTING THE PROVINCE OF SHANTUNG</h4>
+		<p>His Excellency the President of the Republic of China and His Majesty
+the Emperor of Japan, having resolved to conclude a Treaty with a view
+to the maintenance of general peace in the Extreme East and the further
+strengthening of the relations of friendship and good neighbourhood now
+existing between the two nations, have for that purpose named as their
+Plenipotentiaries, that is to say:</p>
+		<p>His Excellency the President of the Republic of China, Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+<i>Chung-ching</i>, First Class <i>Chia Ho</i> Decoration, Minister of Foreign
+Affairs.</p>
+		<p>And His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, Hioki Eki, <i>Jushii</i>, Second Class
+<a name="Page_321" id="Page_321"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">321</span>
+of the Imperial Order of the Sacred Treasure, Minister Plenipotentiary,
+and Envoy Extraordinary:</p>
+		<p>Who, after having communicated to each other their full powers and found
+them to be in good and due form, have agreed upon and concluded the
+following Articles:&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Article 1. The Chinese Government agrees to give full assent to all
+matters upon which the Japanese Government may hereafter agree with the
+German Government relating to the disposition of all rights, interests
+and concessions which Germany, by virtue of treaties or otherwise,
+possesses in relation to the Province of Shantung.</p>
+		<p>Art. 2. The Chinese Government agrees that as regards the railway to be
+built by China herself from Chefoo or Lungkow to connect with the
+Kiaochow-Tsinanfu railway, if Germany abandons the privilege of
+financing the Chefoo-Weihsien line, China will approach Japanese
+capitalists to negotiate for a loan.</p>
+		<p>Art. 3. The Chinese Government agrees in the interest of trade and for
+the residence of foreigners, to open by China herself as soon as
+possible certain suitable places in the Province of Shantung as
+Commercial Ports.</p>
+		<p>Art. 4. The present treaty shall come into force on the day of its
+signature.</p>
+		<p>The present treaty shall be ratified by His Excellency the President of
+the Republic of China and His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, and the
+ratification thereof shall be exchanged at Tokio as soon as possible.</p>
+		<p>In witness whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries of the High
+Contracting Parties have signed and sealed the present Treaty, two
+copies in the Chinese language and two in Japanese.</p>
+		<p>Done at Peking this twenty-fifth day of the fifth month of the fourth
+year of the Republic of China, corresponding to the same day of the same
+month of the fourth year of Taisho.</p>
+		<h4>EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING SHANTUNG</h4>
+		<p>&mdash;Note&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.</p>
+		<p>Monsieur le Ministre.</p>
+		<p>In the name of the Chinese Government I have the honour to make the
+following declaration to your Government:&mdash;&quot;Within the Province of
+Shantung or along its coast no territory or island will be leased or
+ceded to any foreign Power under any pretext.&quot;</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Hioki Eki,<br />
+Japanese Minister.<br />
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_322" id="Page_322"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">322</span>
+&mdash;Reply&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.</p>
+		<p>Excellency,</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you made the following declaration in the
+name of the Chinese Government:&mdash;&quot;Within the Province of Shantung or
+along its coast no territory or island will be leased or ceded to any
+foreign Power under any pretext.&quot;</p>
+		<p>In reply I beg to state that I have taken note of this declaration.</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) HIOKI EKI.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,<br />
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.<br />
+		</p>
+		<h4>EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE OPENING OF PORTS IN SHANTUNG</h4>
+		<p>&mdash;Note&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.</p>
+		<p>Monsieur le Ministre.</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to state that the places which ought to be opened as
+Commercial Ports by China herself, as provided in Article 3 of the
+Treaty respecting the Province of Shantung signed this day, will be
+selected and the regulations therefor, will be drawn up, by the Chinese
+Government itself, a decision concerning which will be made after
+consulting the Minister of Japan.</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Hioki Eki,<br />
+Japanese Minister.<br />
+		</p>
+		<p>&mdash;Reply&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.</p>
+		<p>Excellency,</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you stated &quot;that the places which ought to
+be opened as Commercial Ports by China herself, as provided in Article 3
+of the Treaty respecting the province of Shantung signed this day, will
+be selected and the regulations therefor, will be drawn up by the
+Chinese Government itself, a decision concerning which will be made
+after consulting the Minister of Japan.&quot;</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_323" id="Page_323"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">323</span>
+In reply, I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) HIOKI EKI.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,<br />
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.<br />
+		</p>
+		<h4>EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE RESTORATION OF THE LEASED TERRITORY OF
+KIAOCHOW BAY
+</h4>
+		<p>&mdash;Note&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.</p>
+		<p>Excellency,</p>
+		<p>In the name of my Government I have the honour to make the following
+declaration to the Chinese Government:&mdash;</p>
+		<p>&quot;When, after the termination of the present war, the leased territory of
+Kiaochow Bay is completely left to the free disposal of Japan, the
+Japanese Government will restore the said leased territory to China
+under the following conditions:&mdash;</p>
+		<p>&quot;1. The whole of Kiaochow Bay to be opened as a Commercial Port.</p>
+		<p>&quot;2. A concession under the exclusive jurisdiction of Japan to be
+established at a place designated by the Japanese Government.</p>
+		<p>&quot;3. If the foreign Powers desire it, an international concession may be
+established.</p>
+		<p>&quot;4. As regards the disposal to be made of the buildings and properties of
+Germany and the conditions and procedure relating thereto, the Japanese
+Government and the Chinese Government shall arrange the matter by mutual
+agreement before the restoration.&quot;</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) HIOKI EKI.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,<br />
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.<br />
+		</p>
+		<p>&mdash;Reply&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.</p>
+		<p>Monsieur le Ministre,</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you made the following declaration in the
+name of your Government:&mdash;</p>
+		<p>&quot;When, after the termination of the present war the leased territory of
+Kiaochow Bay is completely left to the free disposal of Japan, the
+Japanese Government will restore the said leased territory to China
+under the following conditions:&mdash;</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_324" id="Page_324"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">324</span>
+1. The whole of Kiaochow Bay to be opened as a Commercial Port.</p>
+		<p>2. A concession under the exclusive jurisdiction of Japan to be
+established at a place designated by the Japanese Government.</p>
+		<p>3. If the foreign Powers desire it, an international concession may be
+established.</p>
+		<p>4. As regards the disposal to be made of the buildings and properties of
+Germany and the conditions and procedure relating thereto, the Japanese
+Government and the Chinese Government shall arrange the matter by mutual
+agreement before the restoration.&quot;</p>
+		<p>In reply, I beg to state that I have taken note of this declaration.</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) Lou Tseng-tsiang.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Hioki Eki,<br />
+Japanese Minister.<br />
+		</p>
+		<h4>TREATY RESPECTING SOUTH MANCHURIA AND EASTERN INNER MONGOLIA</h4>
+		<p>His Excellency the President of the Republic of China and His Majesty
+the Emperor of Japan, having resolved to conclude a Treaty with a view
+to developing their economic relations in South Manchuria and Eastern
+Inner Mongolia, have for that purpose named as their Plenipotentiaries,
+that is to say;</p>
+		<p>His Excellency the President of the Republic of China, Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+<i>Chung-ching</i>, First Class <i>Chia-ho</i> Decoration, and Minister of Foreign
+Affairs; And His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, Hioki Eki, <i>Jushii</i>,
+Second Class of the Imperial Order of the Sacred Treasure, Minister
+Plenipotentiary and Envoy Extraordinary;</p>
+		<p>Who, after having communicated to each other their full powers, and
+found them to be in good and due form, have agreed upon and concluded
+the following Articles:&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Article 1. The two High Contracting Parties agree that the term of lease
+of Port Arthur and Dalny and the terms of the South Manchuria Railway
+and the Antung-Mukden Railway, shall be extended to 99 years.</p>
+		<p>Art. 2. Japanese subjects in South Manchuria may, by negotiation, lease
+land necessary for erecting suitable buildings for trade and manufacture
+or for prosecuting agricultural enterprises.</p>
+		<p>Art. 3. Japanese subjects shall be free to reside and travel in South
+Manchuria and to engage in business and manufacture of any kind
+whatsoever.</p>
+		<p>Art. 4. In the event of Japanese and Chinese desiring jointly to
+undertake agricultural enterprises and industries incidental thereto,
+the Chinese Government may give its permission.</p>
+		<p>Art. 5. The Japanese subjects referred to in the preceding three
+articles, besides being required to register with the local Authorities
+passports which they must procure under the existing regulations, shall
+also submit to the police laws and ordinances and taxation of China.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_325" id="Page_325"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">325</span>
+Civil and criminal cases in which the defendants are Japanese shall be
+tried and adjudicated by the Japanese Consul: those in which the
+defendants are Chinese shall be tried and adjudicated by Chinese
+Authorities. In either case an officer may be deputed to the court to
+attend the proceedings. But mixed civil cases between Chinese and
+Japanese relating to land shall be tried and adjudicated by delegates of
+both nations conjointly in accordance with Chinese law and local usage.</p>
+		<p>When, in future, the judicial system in the said region is completely
+reformed, all civil and criminal cases concerning Japanese subjects
+shall be tried and adjudicated entirely by Chinese law courts.</p>
+		<p>Art. 6. The Chinese Government agrees, in the interest of trade and for
+the residence of foreigners, to open by China herself, as soon as
+possible, certain suitable places in Eastern Inner Mongolia as
+Commercial Ports.</p>
+		<p>Art. 7. The Chinese Government agrees speedily to make a fundamental
+revision of the Kirin-Changchun Railway Loan Agreement, taking as a
+standard the provisions in railway loan agreements made heretofore
+between China and foreign financiers.</p>
+		<p>When in future, more advantageous terms than those in existing railway
+loan agreements are granted to foreign financiers in connection with
+railway loans, the above agreement shall again be revised in accordance
+with Japan's wishes.</p>
+		<p>Art. 8. All existing treaties between China and Japan relating to
+Manchuria shall, except where otherwise provided for by this Treaty,
+remain in force.</p>
+		<p>Art. 9. The present Treaty shall come into force on the date of its
+signature. The present Treaty shall be ratified by His Excellency the
+President of the Republic of China and His Majesty the Emperor of Japan,
+and the ratifications thereof shall be exchanged at Tokio as soon as
+possible.</p>
+		<p>In witness whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries of the two High
+Contracting Parties have signed and sealed the present Treaty, two
+copies in the Chinese language and two in Japanese.</p>
+		<p>Done at Peking this twenty-fifth day of the fifth month of the fourth
+year of the Republic of China, corresponding to the same day of the same
+month of the fourth year of Taisho.</p>
+		<h4>EXCHANGE OF NOTES</h4>
+		<p>
+			<i>Respecting the Terms of Lease of Port Arthur and Dalny and the Terms of
+South Manchurian and Antung-Mukden Railways</i>.</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.</p>
+		<p>Monsieur le Ministre,</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to state that, respecting the provisions contained in
+Article I of the Treaty relating to South Manchuria and Eastern Inner
+Mongolia, signed this day, the term of lease of Port Arthur and Dalny
+<a name="Page_326" id="Page_326"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">326</span>
+shall expire in the 86th year of the Republic or 1997. The date for
+restoring the South Manchuria Railway to China shall fall due in the
+91st year of the Republic or 2002. Article 12 in the original South
+Manchurian Railway Agreement providing that it may be redeemed by China
+after 36 years from the day on which the traffic is opened is hereby
+cancelled. The term of the Antung-Mukden Railway shall expire in the
+96th year of the Republic or 2007.</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) Lou Tseng-tsiang.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Hioki Eki,<br />
+Japanese Minister.<br />
+		</p>
+		<p>&mdash;Reply&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.</p>
+		<p>Excellency,</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date, in which you stated that respecting the provisions
+contained in Article I of the Treaty relating to South Manchuria and
+Eastern Inner Mongolia, signed this day, the term of lease of Port
+Arthur and Dalny shall expire in the 86th year of the Republic or 1997.
+The date for restoring the South Manchurian Railway to China shall fall
+due in the 91st year of the Republic or 2002. Article 12 in the original
+South Manchurian Railway Agreement providing that it may be redeemed by
+China after 36 years from the day on which the traffic is opened, is
+hereby cancelled. The term of the Antung-Mukden Railway shall expire in
+the 96th year of the Republic or 2007.</p>
+		<p>In reply I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) Hioki Eki.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,<br />
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.<br />
+		</p>
+		<h4>EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE OPENING OF PORTS IN EASTERN INNER
+MONGOLIA</h4>
+		<p>&mdash;Note&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.</p>
+		<p>Monsieur le Ministre,</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to state that the places which ought to be opened as
+Commercial Ports by China herself, as provided in Article 6 of the
+Treaty respecting South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia signed this
+day, will be selected, and the regulations therefor, will be drawn up
+<a name="Page_327" id="Page_327"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">327</span>
+by the Chinese Government itself, a decision concerning which will be
+made after consulting the Minister of Japan.</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) Lou TSENG-TSIANG.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Hioki Eki,<br />
+Japanese Minister.<br />
+		</p>
+		<p>&mdash;Reply&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.</p>
+		<p>Excellency,</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you stated &quot;that the places which ought to
+be opened as Commercial Ports by China herself, as provided in Article 6
+of the Treaty respecting South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia
+signed this day, will be selected, and the regulations therefor, will be
+drawn up, by the Chinese Government itself, a decision concerning which
+will be made after consulting the Minister of Japan.&quot;</p>
+		<p>In reply, I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) HIOKO EKI.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,<br />
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.<br />
+		</p>
+		<h4>SOUTH MANCHURIA</h4>
+		<p>&mdash;Note&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.</p>
+		<p>Monsieur le Ministre,</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to state that Japanese subjects shall, as soon as
+possible, investigate and select mines in the mining areas in South
+Manchuria specified hereinunder, except those being prospected for or
+worked, and the Chinese Government will then permit them to prospect or
+work the same; but before the Mining regulations are definitely settled,
+the practice at present in force shall be followed. Provinces
+Fengtien:&mdash;</p>
+		<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+			<tr>
+				<td align="left">Locality</td>
+				<td align="left">District</td>
+				<td align="left">Mineral</td>
+			</tr>
+			<tr>
+				<td align="left">Niu Hsin T'ai</td>
+				<td align="left">Pen-hsi</td>
+				<td align="left">Coal</td>
+			</tr>
+			<tr>
+				<td align="left">Tien Shih Fu Kou</td>
+				<td align="left">Pen-hsi</td>
+				<td align="left">Coal</td>
+			</tr>
+			<tr>
+				<td align="left">Sha Sung Kang</td>
+				<td align="left">Hai-lung</td>
+				<td align="left">Coal</td>
+			</tr>
+			<tr>
+				<td align="left">T'ieh Ch'ang</td>
+				<td align="left">Tung-hua</td>
+				<td align="left">Coal</td>
+			</tr>
+			<tr>
+				<td align="left">Nuan Ti T'ang</td>
+				<td align="left">Chin</td>
+				<td align="left">Coal</td>
+			</tr>
+			<tr>
+				<td align="left">An Shan Chan region</td>
+				<td align="left">From Liaoyang to Pen-hsi</td>
+				<td align="left">Iron</td>
+			</tr>
+		</table>
+<p><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">328</span></p>
+		<h5>
+
+		KIRIN (<i>Southern portion</i>)</h5>
+		<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+			<tr>
+				<td align="left">Locality</td>
+				<td align="left">District</td>
+				<td align="left">Mineral</td>
+			</tr>
+			<tr>
+				<td align="left">Sha Sung Kang</td>
+				<td align="left">Ho-lung</td>
+				<td align="left">C. &amp; I.</td>
+			</tr>
+			<tr>
+				<td align="left">Kang Yao Chia</td>
+				<td align="left">Chi-lin (Kirin)</td>
+				<td align="left">Coal</td>
+			</tr>
+			<tr>
+				<td align="left">P'i Kou</td>
+				<td align="left">Hua-tien</td>
+				<td align="left">Gold</td>
+			</tr>
+		</table>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Hioki Eki,<br />
+Japanese Minister.<br />
+		</p>
+		<p>&mdash;Reply&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+Excellency,</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day respecting the opening of mines in South Manchuria, stating;
+&quot;Japanese subjects shall, as soon as possible, investigate and select
+mines in the mining areas in South Manchuria specified hereinunder,
+except those being prospected for or worked, and the Chinese Government
+will then permit them to prospect or work the same; but before the
+Mining regulations are definitely settled, the practice at present in
+force shall be followed.</p>
+		<h5>1 Provinces Fengtien.</h5>
+		<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+			<tr>
+				<td align="left">Locality</td>
+				<td align="left">District</td>
+				<td align="left">Mineral</td>
+			</tr>
+			<tr>
+				<td align="left">1. Niu Hsin T'ai</td>
+				<td align="left">Pen-hsi</td>
+				<td align="left">Coal</td>
+			</tr>
+			<tr>
+				<td align="left">2. Tien Shih Fu Kou</td>
+				<td align="left">Pen-hsi</td>
+				<td align="left">Coal</td>
+			</tr>
+			<tr>
+				<td align="left">3. Sha Sung Kang</td>
+				<td align="left">Hai-lung</td>
+				<td align="left">Coal</td>
+			</tr>
+			<tr>
+				<td align="left">4. T'ieh Ch'ang</td>
+				<td align="left">Tung-hua</td>
+				<td align="left">Coal</td>
+			</tr>
+			<tr>
+				<td align="left">5. Nuan Ti T'ang</td>
+				<td align="left">Chin</td>
+				<td align="left">Coal</td>
+			</tr>
+			<tr>
+				<td align="left">6. An Shan Chan region</td>
+				<td align="left">From Liaoyang to Pen-hsi</td>
+				<td align="left">Iron</td>
+			</tr>
+		</table>
+		<h5>KIRIN (<i>Southern portion</i>)</h5>
+		<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+			<tr>
+				<td align="left">1. Sha Sung Kang</td>
+				<td align="left">Ho-lung</td>
+				<td align="left">C. &amp; I.</td>
+			</tr>
+			<tr>
+				<td align="left">2. Kang Yao</td>
+				<td align="left">Chi-lin (Kirin)</td>
+				<td align="left">Coal</td>
+			</tr>
+			<tr>
+				<td align="left">3. Chia P'i Kou</td>
+				<td align="left">Hua-tien</td>
+				<td align="left">Gold</td>
+			</tr>
+		</table>
+		<p>&quot;I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) &quot;HIOKI EKI.&quot;</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,<br />
+Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China.<br />
+		</p>
+<p><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">329</span></p>
+		<h4>
+
+		EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING RAILWAYS AND TAXES IN SOUTH MANCHURIA AND
+EASTERN INNER MONGOLIA</h4>
+		<p>&mdash;Note&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.</p>
+		<p>Monsieur le Ministre,</p>
+		<p>In the name of my Government.</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to make the following declaration to your
+Government:&mdash;</p>
+		<p>China will hereafter provide funds for building necessary railways in
+South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia; if foreign capital is
+required China may negotiate for a loan with Japanese capitalists first;
+and further, the Chinese Government, when making a loan in future on the
+security of the taxes in the above-mentioned places (excluding the salt
+and customs revenue which has already been pledged by the Chinese
+Central Government) may negotiate for it with Japanese capitalists
+first.</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Hioki Eki,<br />
+Japanese Minister.<br />
+		</p>
+		<p>&mdash;Reply&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.</p>
+		<p>Excellency,</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date respecting railways and taxes in South Manchuria and
+Eastern Inner Mongolia in which you stated:</p>
+		<p>&quot;China will hereafter provide funds for building necessary railways in
+South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia; if foreign capital is
+required China may negotiate for a loan with Japanese capitalists first;
+and further, the Chinese Government, when making a loan in future on the
+security of taxes in the above mentioned places (excluding the salt and
+customs revenue which has already been pledged by the Chinese Central
+Government) may negotiate for it with Japanese capitalists first.&quot;</p>
+		<p>In reply I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) HIOKO EKI.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,<br />
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.<br />
+		</p>
+<p>	<a name="Page_330" id="Page_330"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">330</span></p>
+		<h4>
+
+		EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE EMPLOYMENT OF ADVISERS IN SOUTH
+MANCHURIA</h4>
+		<p>&mdash;Note&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.</p>
+		<p>Monsieur le Ministre,</p>
+		<p>In the name of the Chinese Government, I have the honour to make the
+following declaration to your Government:&mdash;</p>
+		<p>&quot;Hereafter, if foreign advisers or instructors on political, financial,
+military or police matters are to be employed in South Manchuria,
+Japanese may be employed first.&quot;</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Hioki Eki,<br />
+Japanese Minister.<br />
+		</p>
+		<p>&mdash;Reply&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.</p>
+		<p>Excellency,</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you made the following declaration in the
+name of your Government:&mdash;</p>
+		<p>&quot;Hereafter if foreign advisers or instructors in political, financial,
+military or police matters are to be employed in South Manchuria,
+Japanese may be employed first.&quot;</p>
+		<p>In reply, I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) HIOKI EKI.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,<br />
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.<br />
+		</p>
+		<h4>EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE EXPLANATION OF &quot;LEASE BY NEGOTIATION&quot;
+IN SOUTH MANCHURIA</h4>
+		<p>&mdash;Note&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.</p>
+		<p>Excellency,</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to state that the term lease by negotiation contained
+<a name="Page_331" id="Page_331"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">331</span>
+in Article 2 of the Treaty respecting South Manchuria and Eastern Inner
+Mongolia signed this day shall be understood to imply a long-term lease
+of not more than thirty years and also the possibility of its
+unconditional renewal.</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) HIOKI EKI.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,<br />
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.<br />
+		</p>
+		<p>&mdash;Reply&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.</p>
+		<p>Monsieur le Ministre,</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you state.</p>
+		<p>&quot;The term lease by negotiation contained in Article 2 of the Treaty
+respecting South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia signed this day
+shall be understood to imply a long-term lease of not more than thirty
+years and also the possibility of its unconditional renewal.&quot;</p>
+		<p>In reply I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Hioki Eki,<br />
+Japanese Minister.<br />
+		</p>
+		<h4>EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE ARRANGEMENT FOR POLICE LAWS AND
+ORDINANCES AND TAXATION IN SOUTH MANCHURIA AND EASTERN INNER MONGOLIA</h4>
+		<p>&mdash;Note&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.</p>
+		<p>Monsieur le Ministre,</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to state that the Chinese Authorities will notify the
+Japanese Consul of the police laws and ordinances and the taxation to
+which Japanese subjects shall submit according to Article 5 of the
+Treaty respecting South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia signed this
+day so as to come to an understanding with him before their enforcement.</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Hioki Eki,<br />
+Japanese Minister.<br />
+		</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_332" id="Page_332"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">332</span>
+&mdash;Reply&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.</p>
+		<p>Excellency,</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you state:</p>
+		<p>&quot;The Chinese Authorities will notify the Japanese Consul of the Police
+laws and ordinances and the taxation to which Japanese subjects shall
+submit according to Article 5 of the Treaty respecting South Manchuria
+and Eastern Inner Mongolia signed this day so as to come to an
+understanding with him before their enforcement.&quot;</p>
+		<p>In reply, I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) HIOKI EKI.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,<br />
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.<br />
+		</p>
+		<p>&mdash;Note&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.</p>
+		<p>Monsieur le Ministre,</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to state that, inasmuch as preparations have to be
+made regarding Articles 2, 3, 4 and 5 of the Treaty respecting South
+Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia signed this day, the Chinese
+Government proposes that the operation of the said Articles be postponed
+for a period of three months beginning from the date of the signing of
+the said Treaty.</p>
+		<p>I hope your Government will agree to this proposal.</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Hioki Eki,<br />
+Japanese Minister.<br />
+		</p>
+		<p>&mdash;Reply&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.</p>
+		<p>Excellency,</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you stated that &quot;inasmuch as preparations
+have to be made regarding Articles 2, 3, 4 and 5 of the Treaty
+respecting South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia signed this day,
+the Chinese Government proposes that the operation of the said Articles
+<a name="Page_333" id="Page_333"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">333</span>
+be postponed for a period of three months beginning from the date of
+the signing of the said Treaty.&quot;</p>
+		<p>In reply, I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) HIOKI EKI.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,<br />
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.<br />
+		</p>
+		<h4>EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE MATTER OF HANYEHPING</h4>
+		<p>&mdash;Note&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.</p>
+		<p>Monsieur le Ministre,</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to state that if in future the Hanyehping Company and
+the Japanese capitalists agree upon co-operation, the Chinese
+Government, in view of the intimate relations subsisting between the
+Japanese capitalists and the said Company, will forthwith give its
+permission. The Chinese Government further agrees not to confiscate the
+said Company, nor, without the consent of the Japanese capitalists to
+convert it into a state enterprise, nor cause it to borrow and use
+foreign capital other than Japanese.</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Hioki Eki,<br />
+Japanese Minister.<br />
+		</p>
+		<p>&mdash;Reply&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.</p>
+		<p>Excellency,</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you state:</p>
+		<p>&quot;If in future the Hanyehping Company and the Japanese capitalists agree
+upon co-operation, the Chinese Government, in view of the intimate
+relations subsisting between the Japanese capitalists and the said
+Company, will forthwith give its permission. The Chinese Government
+further agrees not to confiscate the said Company, nor, without the
+consent of the Japanese capitalists to convert it into a state
+enterprise, nor cause it to borrow and use foreign capital other than
+Japanese.&quot;</p>
+		<p>In reply, I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) HIOKI EKI.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,<br />
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.<br />
+		</p>
+<p>	<a name="Page_334" id="Page_334"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">334</span></p>
+		<h4>
+
+		EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE FUKIEN QUESTION</h4>
+		<p>&mdash;Note&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.</p>
+		<p>Excellency,</p>
+		<p>A report has reached me to the effect that the Chinese Government has
+the intention of permitting foreign nations to establish, on the coast
+of Fukien Province, dock-yards, coaling stations for military use, naval
+bases, or to set up other military establishments; and also of borrowing
+foreign capital for the purpose of setting up the above-mentioned
+establishments.</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to request that Your Excellency will be good enough to
+give me reply stating whether or not the Chinese Government really
+entertains such an intention.</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) HIOKI EKI.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,<br />
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.<br />
+		</p>
+		<p>&mdash;Reply&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.</p>
+		<p>Monsieur le Ministre,</p>
+		<p>I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date which I have noted.</p>
+		<p>In reply I beg to inform you that the Chinese Government hereby declares
+that it has given no permission to foreign nations to construct, on the
+coast of Fukien Province, dock-yards, coaling stations for military use,
+naval bases, or to set up other military establishments; nor does it
+entertain an intention of borrowing foreign capital for the purpose of
+setting up the above-mentioned establishments.</p>
+		<p>I avail, etc.,</p>
+		<p>(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.</p>
+		<p>
+His Excellency,<br />
+Hioki Eki,<br />
+Japanese Minister.<br />
+		</p>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">335</span></p>
+		<h2>
+
+		<a name="APPENDIX4" id="APPENDIX4"></a>
+		APPENDIX</h2>
+		<h3>DOCUMENTS IN GROUP IV</h3>
+		<p>(1) The Draft of the Permanent Constitution completed in May, 1917.</p>
+		<p>(2) The proposed Provincial System, <i>i.e.</i>, the local government law.</p>
+		<p>(3) Memorandum by the Ministry of Commerce on Tariff Revision,
+illustrating the anomalies of present trade taxation.</p>
+		<p>(4) The leading outstanding cases between China and the Foreign Powers.</p>
+		<h3>DRAFT OF THE NATIONAL CONSTITUTION OF CHINA</h3>
+		<p>(As it stood on May 28th, 1917, in its second reading at the
+Constitutional Conference.)</p>
+		<p>The Constitutional Conference of the Republic of China, in order to
+enhance the national dignity, to unite the national dominion, to advance
+the interest of society and to uphold the sacredness of humanity, hereby
+adopt the following constitution which shall be promulgated to the whole
+country, to be universally observed, and handed down unto the end of
+time.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER I. THE FORM OF GOVERNMENT</h4>
+		<p>Article 1. The Republic of China shall for ever be a consolidated
+Republic.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER II. NATIONAL TERRITORY</h4>
+		<p>Art. 2. The National Territory of the Republic of China shall be in
+accordance with the dominion hithertofore existing.</p>
+		<p>No change in National Territory and its divisions can be made save in
+accordance with the law.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER ... GOVERNING AUTHORITY</h4>
+		<p>Art ... The power of Government of the Republic of China shall be
+derived from the entire body of citizens.</p>
+<p><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">336</span></p>
+		<h4>
+
+		CHAPTER III. THE CITIZENS</h4>
+		<p>Art. 3. Those who are of Chinese nationality according to law shall be
+called the citizens of the Republic of China.</p>
+		<p>Art. 4. Among the citizens of the Republic of China, there shall be, in
+the eyes of the law, no racial, class, or religious distinctions, but
+all shall be equal.</p>
+		<p>Art. 5. No citizens of the Republic of China shall be arrested,
+detained, tried, or punished save in accordance with the law. Whoever
+happens to be detained in custody shall be entitled, on application
+therefore, to the immediate benefit of the writ of habeas corpus,
+bringing him before a judicial court of competent jurisdiction for an
+investigation of the case and appropriate action according to law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 6. The private habitations of the citizens of the Republic of China
+shall not be entered or searched except in accordance with the law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 7. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have the right of
+secrecy of correspondence, which may not be violated except as provided
+by law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 8. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have liberty of
+choice of residence and of profession which shall be unrestricted except
+in accordance with law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 9. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have liberty to call
+meetings or to organize societies which shall be unrestricted except in
+accordance with the law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 10. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have freedom of
+speech, writing and publication which shall be unrestricted except in
+accordance with the law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 11. The citizens of the Republic of China shall be entitled to
+honour Confucius and shall enjoy freedom of religious belief which shall
+be unrestricted except in accordance with the law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 12. The citizens of the Republic of China shall enjoy the
+inviolable right to the security of their property and any measure to
+the contrary necessitated by public interest shall be determined by law.</p>
+		<p>Art. ... The citizens of the Republic of China shall enjoy all other
+forms of freedom aside from those hithertofore mentioned, provided they
+are not contrary to the spirit of the Constitution.</p>
+		<p>Art. 13. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have the right to
+appeal to the Judicial Courts according to law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 14. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have the right to
+submit petitions or make complaints according to law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 15. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have the right to
+vote and to be voted for according to law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 16. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have the right to
+hold official posts according to law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 17. The citizens of the Republic of China shall perform the
+obligation of paying taxes according to law.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_337" id="Page_337"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">337</span>
+Art. 18. The citizens of the Republic of China shall perform the
+obligation of military service according to law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 19. The citizens of the Republic of China shall be under the
+obligation to receive primary education according to law.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER IV. THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY</h4>
+		<p>Art. 20. The legislative power of the Republic of China shall be
+exercised by the National Assembly exclusively.</p>
+		<p>Art. 21. The National Assembly shall consist of a Senate and House of
+Representatives.</p>
+		<p>Art. 22. The Senate shall be composed of the Senators elected by the
+highest local legislative assemblies and other electoral bodies.</p>
+		<p>Art. 23. The House of Representatives shall be composed of the
+representatives elected by the various electoral districts in proportion
+to the population.</p>
+		<p>Art. 24. The members of both Houses shall be elected according to law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 25. In no case shall one person be a member of both Houses
+simultaneously.</p>
+		<p>Art. 26. No member of either House shall hold any official post, civil
+or military during his term.</p>
+		<p>Art. 27. The qualifications of the members of either House shall be
+determined by the respective Houses.</p>
+		<p>Art. 28. The term of office for a member of the Senate shall be six
+years. One-third of the members shall retire and new ones be elected
+every two years.</p>
+		<p>Art. 29. The term of office for a member of the House of Representatives
+shall be three years.</p>
+		<p>Art. 30. Each House shall have a President and a Vice-President who
+shall be elected from among its members.</p>
+		<p>Art. 31. The National Assembly shall itself convene, open and close its
+sessions, but as to extraordinary sessions, they shall be called under
+one of the following circumstances:</p>
+		<p>(1) A signed request of more than one-third of the members of each
+House.</p>
+		<p>(2) A mandate of the President.</p>
+		<p>Art. 32. The ordinary sessions of the National Assembly shall begin on
+the first day of the eighth month in each year.</p>
+		<p>Art. 33. The period for the ordinary session of the National Assembly
+shall be four months which may be prolonged, but the prolonged period
+shall not exceed the length of the ordinary session.</p>
+		<p>Art. 34. (Eliminated.)</p>
+		<p>Art. 35. Both Houses shall meet in joint session at the opening and
+closing of the National Assembly.</p>
+		<p>If one House suspends its session, the other House shall do likewise
+during the same period.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_338" id="Page_338"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">338</span>
+When the House of Representatives is dissolved, the Senate shall
+adjourn during the same period.</p>
+		<p>Art. 36. The work of the National Assembly shall be conducted in the
+Houses separately. No bill shall be introduced in both Houses
+simultaneously.</p>
+		<p>Art. 37. Unless there be an attendance of over half of the total number
+of members of either House, no sitting shall be held.</p>
+		<p>Art. 38. Any subject discussed in either House shall be decided by the
+votes of the majority of members attending the sitting. The President of
+each House shall have a deciding vote in case of a tie.</p>
+		<p>Art. 39. A decision of the National Assembly shall require the decision
+of both Houses.</p>
+		<p>Art. 40. The sessions of both Houses shall be held in public, except on
+request of the government, or decision of the Houses when secret
+sessions may be held.</p>
+		<p>Art. 41. Should the House of Representatives consider either the
+President or the Vice-President of the Republic of China has committed
+treason, he may be impeached by the decision of a majority of over
+two-thirds of the members present, there being a quorum of over
+two-thirds of the total membership of the House.</p>
+		<p>Art. 42. Should the House of Representatives consider that the Cabinet
+Ministers have violated the law, an impeachment may be instituted with
+the approval of over two-thirds of the members present.</p>
+		<p>Art. 43. The House of Representatives may pass a vote of want of
+Confidence in the Cabinet Ministers.</p>
+		<p>Art. 44. The Senate shall try the impeached President, Vice-President
+and Cabinet Ministers.</p>
+		<p>With regard to the above-mentioned trial, no judgment of guilt or
+violation of the law shall be passed without the approval of over
+two-thirds of the members present.</p>
+		<p>When a verdict of &quot;Guilty&quot; is pronounced on the President or
+Vice-President, he shall be deprived of his post, but the infliction of
+punishment shall be determined by the Supreme Court of Justice.</p>
+		<p>When the verdict of &quot;Guilty&quot; is pronounced upon a Cabinet Minister, he
+shall be deprived of his office and may forfeit his public rights.
+Should the above penalty be insufficient for his offence, he shall be
+tried by the Judicial Court.</p>
+		<p>Art. ... Either of the two Houses shall have power to request the
+government to inquire into any case of delinquency or unlawful act on
+the part of any official and to punish him accordingly.</p>
+		<p>Art. 45. Both Houses shall have the right to offer suggestions to the
+Government.</p>
+		<p>Art. 46. Both Houses shall receive and consider the petitions of the
+citizens.</p>
+		<p>Art. 47. Members of either House may introduce interpellations to the
+members of the Cabinet and demand their attendance in the House to reply
+thereto.</p>
+		<p>Art. 48. Members of either House shall not be responsible to
+<a name="Page_339" id="Page_339"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">339</span>
+those
+outside the House for opinions expressed and votes cast in the House.</p>
+		<p>Art. 49. No member of either House during session shall be arrested or
+detained in custody without the permission of his respective House,
+unless he be arrested in the commission of the offence or act.</p>
+		<p>When any member of either House has been so arrested, the government
+should report the cause to his respective House. Such member's House,
+during session, may with the approval of its members demand for the
+release of the arrested member and for temporary suspension of the legal
+proceedings.</p>
+		<p>Art. 50. The annual allowance and other expenses of the members of both
+Houses shall be fixed by law.</p>
+		<p>(CHAPTER V. on Resident Committee of the National Assembly with 4
+articles has been eliminated.)</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER VI. THE PRESIDENT</h4>
+		<p>Art. 55. The administrative power of the Republic of China shall be
+vested in the President with the assistance of the Cabinet Ministers.</p>
+		<p>*Art. 56. A person of the Republic of China in the full enjoyment
+of public rights, of the age of forty years or more, and resident in
+China for at least ten years, is eligible for election as President.</p>
+		<p>*Art. 57. The President shall be elected by a Presidential
+Election Convention, composed of the members of the National Assembly.</p>
+		<p>For the above election, an attendance of at least two-thirds of the
+number of electors shall be required, and the voting shall be performed
+by secret ballot. The person obtaining three-fourths of the total votes
+cast shall be elected; but should no definite result be obtained after
+the second ballot, the two candidates obtaining the most votes in the
+second ballot shall be voted for and the candidate receiving the
+majority vote shall be elected.</p>
+		<p>*Art. 58. The period of office of the President shall be five
+years, and if re-elected, he may hold office for another term.</p>
+		<p>Three months previous to the expiration of the term, the members of the
+National Assembly of the Republic shall themselves convene and organize
+the President Election Convention to elect a President for the next
+term.</p>
+		<p>*Art. 59. When the President is being inaugurated, he shall make
+an oath as follows: &quot;I hereby solemnly swear that I will most faithfully
+obey the Constitution and discharge the duties of the President.&quot;</p>
+		<p>*Art. 60. Should the post of the President become vacant, the
+Vice-President shall succeed him until the expiration of the term of
+office of the President. Should the President be unable to discharge his
+duties for any cause, the Vice-President shall act for him.</p>
+		<p>Should the Vice-President vacate his post at the same time, the Cabinet
+shall officiate for the President, but at the same time, the members of
+the
+<a name="Page_340" id="Page_340"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">340</span>
+National Assembly shall within three months convene themselves and
+organize the Presidential Election Convention to elect a new President.</p>
+		<p>*Art. 61. The President shall be relieved of his office at the
+expiration of his term of his office. If, at the end of the period, the
+new President has not been elected, or, having been elected, be unable
+to assume office and when the Vice-President is also unable to act as
+President, the Cabinet shall officiate for the President.</p>
+		<p>*Art. 62. The election of the Vice-President shall be in
+accordance with the regulations fixed for the election of the President;
+and the election of the Vice-President shall take place simultaneously
+with the election of the President. Should the post of the
+Vice-President become vacant, a new Vice-President shall be elected.</p>
+		<p>Art. 63. The President shall promulgate all laws and supervise and
+secure their enforcement.</p>
+		<p>Art. 64. The President may issue and publish mandates for the execution
+of laws in accordance with the powers delegated to him by the law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 65. (Eliminated.)</p>
+		<p>Art. 66. The President shall appoint and remove all civil and military
+officials, with the exception of those specially provided for by the
+Constitution or laws.</p>
+		<p>Art. 67. The President shall be the Commander-in-Chief of the Army and
+Navy of the Republic.</p>
+		<p>The organization of the Army and Navy shall be fixed by law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 68. In intercourse with foreign countries, the President shall be
+the representative of the Republic.</p>
+		<p>Art. 69. The President may, with the concurrence of the National
+Assembly, declare war, but, in case of defence against foreign invasion,
+he may request recognition of the National Assembly after the
+declaration of the war.</p>
+		<p>Art. 70. The President may conclude treaties; but with regard to
+treaties of peace, and those affecting legislation, they shall not be
+valid, if the consent of the National Assembly is not obtained.</p>
+		<p>Art. 71. The President may proclaim martial law according to law; but if
+the National Assembly should consider that there is no such necessity,
+he should declare the withdrawal of the martial law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 72. (Eliminated.)</p>
+		<p>Art. 73. The President may, with the concurrence of the Supreme Court of
+Justice, grant pardons, commute punishment, and restore rights; but with
+regard to a verdict of impeachment, unless with the concurrence of the
+National Assembly, he shall not make any announcement of the restoration
+of rights.</p>
+		<p>Art. 74. The President may suspend the session of either the Senate or
+the House of Representatives for a period not exceeding ten days, but
+during any one session, he may not exercise this right more than once.</p>
+		<p>Art. 75. With the concurrence of two-thirds or more of the members of
+the Senate present, the President may dissolve the House of
+Representatives, but there must not be a second dissolution during the
+period of the same session.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_341" id="Page_341"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">341</span>
+When the House of Representatives is dissolved by the President,
+another election shall take place immediately, and the convocation of
+the House at a fixed date within five months should be effected to
+continue the session.</p>
+		<p>Art. 76. With the exception of high treason, no criminal charges shall
+be brought against the President before he has vacated his office.</p>
+		<p>Art. 77. The salaries of the President and Vice-President shall be fixed
+by law.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER VII. THE CABINET</h4>
+		<p>Art. 78. The Cabinet shall be composed of the Cabinet Ministers.</p>
+		<p>Art. 79. The Premier and the Ministers of the various ministries shall
+be called the Cabinet Ministers.</p>
+		<p>Art. 80. The appointment of the Premier shall be approved by the House
+of Representatives.</p>
+		<p>Should a vacancy in the Premiership occur during the time of adjournment
+of the National Assembly, the President may appoint an Acting-Premier,
+but it shall be required that the appointment must be submitted to the
+House of Representatives for approval within seven days after the
+convening of the next session.</p>
+		<p>Art. 81. Cabinet Ministers shall assist the President and shall be
+responsible to the House of Representatives.</p>
+		<p>Without the counter-signature of the Cabinet Minister to whose Ministry
+the Mandate or dispatch applies, the mandate or dispatch of the
+President in connection with State affairs shall not be valid; but this
+shall not apply to the appointment or dismissal of the Premier.</p>
+		<p>Art. 82. When a vote of want of confidence in the Cabinet Ministers is
+passed, if the President does not dissolve the House of Representatives
+according to the provisions made in Art. 75, he should remove the
+Cabinet Ministers.</p>
+		<p>Art. 83. The Cabinet Ministers shall be allowed to attend both Houses
+and make speeches, but in case of introducing bills for the Executive
+Department, their delegates may act for them.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER VIII. COURTS OF JUSTICE</h4>
+		<p>Art. 84. The Judicial authority of the Republic of China shall be
+exercised by the Courts of Justice exclusively.</p>
+		<p>Art. 85. The organization of the Courts of Justice and the
+qualifications of the Judges shall be fixed by law.</p>
+		<p>The appointment of the Chief-Justice of the Supreme Court should have
+the approval of the Senate.</p>
+		<p>Art. 86. The Judiciary shall attend to and settle all civil, criminal,
+administrative and other cases, but this does not include those cases
+which have been specially provided for by the Constitution or law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 87. The trial of cases in the law courts shall be conducted
+publicly, but those affecting public peace and order or propriety may be
+held in camera.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_342" id="Page_342"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">342</span>
+Art. 88. The Judges shall be independent in the conducting of trials
+and none shall be allowed to interfere.</p>
+		<p>Art. 89. Except in accordance with law, judges, during their
+continuation of office shall not have their emoluments decreased, nor be
+transferred to other offices, nor shall they be removed from office.</p>
+		<p>During his tenure of office, no judge shall be deprived of his office
+unless he is convicted of crime, or for offences punishable by law. But
+the above does not include cases of reorganization of Judicial Courts
+and when the qualification of the Judges are modified. The punishments
+and fines of the Judicial Officials shall be fixed by law.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER IX. LEGISLATION</h4>
+		<p>Art. 90. The members of both Houses and the Executive Department may
+introduce bills of law, but if any bill of law is rejected by the House
+it shall not be re-introduced during the same session.</p>
+		<p>Art. 91. Any bill of law which has been passed by the National Assembly
+shall be promulgated by the President within 15 days after receipt of
+the same.</p>
+		<p>Art. 92. Should the President disapprove of any bill of law passed by
+the National Assembly, he shall within the period allowed for
+promulgation, state the reason of his disapproval and request the
+reconsideration of the same by the National Assembly.</p>
+		<p>If a bill of law has not yet been submitted with a request for
+consideration and the period for promulgation has passed; it shall
+become law. But the above shall not apply to the case when the session
+of the National Assembly is adjourned, or, the House of Representatives
+dissolved before the period for the promulgation is ended.</p>
+		<p>Art. 93. The law shall not be altered or repealed except in accordance
+with the law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 94. Any law that is in conflict with the Constitution shall not be
+valid.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER X. NATIONAL FINANCE</h4>
+		<p>Art. 95. The introduction of new taxes and alterations in the rate of
+taxation shall be fixed by law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 96. (Eliminated.)</p>
+		<p>Art. 97. The approval of the National Assembly must be obtained for
+National loans, or the conclusion of agreements which tend to increase
+the burden of the National Treasury.</p>
+		<p>Art. ... Financial bills involving direct obligation on the part of the
+citizens shall first be submitted to the House of Representatives.</p>
+		<p>Art. 98. The Executive Department of the Government shall prepare a
+budget setting forth expenditures and receipts of the Nation for the
+fiscal year which shall be submitted to the House of Representatives
+within 15 days after the opening of the session of the National
+Assembly.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_343" id="Page_343"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">343</span>
+Should the Senate amend or reject the budget passed by the House of
+Representatives, it shall request the concurrence of the House of
+Representatives in its amendment or rejection, and, if such concurrence
+is not obtained, the budget shall be considered as passed.</p>
+		<p>Art. 99. In case of special provisions, the Executive Department may fix
+in advance in the budget the period over which the appropriations are to
+be spread and may provide for the successive appropriations continuing
+over this period.</p>
+		<p>Art. 100. In order to provide for a safe margin for under-estimates or
+for items left out of the budget, the Executive Department may include
+contingent items in the budget under the heading of Reserve Fund. The
+sum expended under the above provision shall be submitted to the House
+of Representatives at the next session for recognition.</p>
+		<p>Art. 101. Unless approved by the Executive Department, the National
+Assembly shall have no right to abolish or curtail any of the following
+items:</p>
+		<p>(1) Items in connection with obligations of the Government according to
+law.</p>
+		<p>(2) Items necessitated by the observance of treaties.</p>
+		<p>(3) Items legally fixed.</p>
+		<p>(4) Successive appropriations continuing over a period.</p>
+		<p>Art. 102. The National Assembly shall not increase the annual
+expenditures as set down in the budget.</p>
+		<p>Art. 103. In case the budget is not yet passed, when the fiscal year
+begins, the Executive Department may, during this period, follow the
+budget for the preceding year by limiting its expenditures and receipts
+by one-twelfth of the total amount for each month.</p>
+		<p>Art. 104. Should there be a defensive war against foreign invasion, or
+should there be a suppression of internal rebellion, or to provide
+against extraordinary calamity, when it is impossible to issue writs for
+summoning the National Assembly, the Executive Department may adopt
+financial measures for the emergency, but it should request the
+recognition thereof by the House of Representatives within seven days
+after the convening of the next session of the National Assembly.</p>
+		<p>Art. 105. Orders on the Treasury for payments on account of the annual
+expenditures of the Government shall first be passed by the Auditing
+Department.</p>
+		<p>Art. 106. Accounts of the annual expenditures and annual receipts for
+each year should first be referred to the Auditing Department for
+investigation and then the Executive Department shall report the same to
+the National Assembly.</p>
+		<p>If the account be rejected by the House of Representatives, the Cabinet
+shall be held responsible.</p>
+		<p>Art. 107. The method of organization of the Auditing Department and the
+qualification of the Auditors shall be fixed by law.</p>
+		<p>During his tenure of office, the auditor shall not be dismissed or
+transferred to any other duty or his salary be reduced except in
+accordance with the law.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_344" id="Page_344"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">344</span>
+The manner of punishment of Auditors shall be fixed by law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 108. The Chief of the Auditing Department shall be elected by the
+Senate. The Chief of the Auditing Department may attend sittings of both
+Houses and report on the Audit with explanatory statements.</p>
+		<h4>CHAPTER XI. AMENDMENTS, INTERPRETATION AND INVIOLABILITY OF THE
+CONSTITUTION</h4>
+		<p>Art. 109. The National Assembly may bring up bills for the amendment of
+the National Constitution.</p>
+		<p>Bills of this nature shall not take effect unless approved by two-thirds
+of the members of each House present.</p>
+		<p>No bill for the amendment of the Constitution shall be introduced unless
+signed by one-fourth of the members of each House.</p>
+		<p>Art. 110. The amendment of the National Constitution shall be discussed
+and decided by the National Constitutional Conference.</p>
+		<p>Art. 111. No proposal for a change of the form of Government shall be
+allowed as a subject for amendment.</p>
+		<p>Art. 112. Should there be any doubt as to the meaning of the text of the
+Constitution, it shall be interpreted by the National Constitutional
+Conference.</p>
+		<p>Art. 113. The National Constitutional Conference shall be composed of
+the members of the National Assembly.</p>
+		<p>Unless there be a quorum of two-thirds of the total number of the
+members of the National Assembly, no Constitutional Conference shall be
+held, and unless three-fourths of the members present vote in favour, no
+amendment shall be passed. But with regard to the interpretation of the
+Constitution, only two-thirds of the members present is required to
+decide an issue.</p>
+		<p>Art. ... The National Constitution shall be the Supreme Law of the Land
+and shall be inviolable under any circumstances unless duly amended in
+accordance with the procedure specified in this Constitution.</p>
+		<p>&#10003; A Chapter on Provincial or local organization is to be inserted
+under Chapter ..., providing for certain powers and rights to be given
+to local governments with the residual power left in the hands of the
+central government. The exact text is not yet settled.</p>
+		<p>Note: The Mark (*) indicates that the article has already been
+formally adopted as a part of the finished Constitution.</p>
+		<p>The Mark (&#10003;) indicates that the article has not yet passed through
+the second reading.</p>
+		<p>Those without marks have passed through the second reading on May 28th,
+1917. Articles bearing no number are additions to the original draft as
+presented to the Conference by the Drafting Committee.</p>
+<p><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">345</span></p>
+		<h3>
+
+		THE LOCAL SYSTEM</h3>
+		<h4>DRAFT SUBMITTED TO PARLIAMENT</h4>
+		<p>The following Regulations on the Local System have been referred to the
+Parliamentary Committee for consideration:&mdash;</p>
+		<p>Article 1. The Local System shall embrace provinces and hsien districts.</p>
+		<p>Any change for the existing division of provinces and hsien districts
+shall be decided by the Senate. As to Mongolia, Tibet, Chinghai and
+other places where no provinces and hsien districts have been fixed,
+Parliament shall enforce these regulations there in future.</p>
+		<p>Art. 2. A province shall have the following duties and rights: <i>(a)</i> To
+fix local laws. <i>(b)</i> To manage provincial properties. <i>(c)</i> To attend
+to the affairs in connexion with police organization, sanitation,
+conservancy, roads, and public works. <i>(d)</i> To develop education and
+industry in accordance with the order and mandates of the Central
+Government. <i>(e)</i> To improve its navigation and telegraphic lines, or to
+undertake such enterprises with the co-operation of other provinces.
+<i>(f)</i> To organize precautionary troops for the protection of local
+interests, the method of whose organization, uniforms and arms shall be
+similar to those of the National Army. With the exception of the matter
+of declaring war against foreign countries, the President shall have no
+power to transfer these troops to other provinces: and unless the
+province is unable to suppress its own internal troubles, it shall not
+ask the Central Government for the service of the National Army. <i>(g)</i>
+The province shall defray its own expenses for the administration and
+the maintenance of precautionary troops; but the provinces which have
+hitherto received subsidies, shall continue to receive same from the
+National Treasury with the approval of Parliament. <i>(h)</i> Land, Title
+Deed, License, Mortgage, Tobacco and Wine, Butchery, Fishery and all
+other principal and additional taxes shall be considered as local
+revenues. <i>(i)</i> The province may fix rates for local tax or levy
+additional tax on the National Taxes. <i>(j)</i> The province shall have a
+provincial treasury. <i>(k)</i> It may raise provincial public loans. <i>(l)</i>
+It shall elect a certain number of Senators. <i>(m)</i> It shall fix
+regulations for the smaller local Self-Governing Bodies.</p>
+		<p>Art. 3. Besides the above rights and privileges, a province shall bear
+the following responsibilities:</p>
+		<p>
+			<i>(a)</i> In case of financial difficulties of the Central Government, it
+shall share the burden according to the proportion of its revenue. <i>(b)</i>
+It shall enforce the laws and mandates promulgated by the Central
+Government. <i>(c)</i> It shall enforce the measures entrusted by the Central
+Government, but the latter shall bear the expenses. <i>(d)</i> In case the
+local laws and regulations are in conflict with those of the Central
+Government the
+<a name="Page_346" id="Page_346"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">346</span>
+latter may with the approval of Parliament cancel or
+modify the same. <i>(e)</i> In case of great necessity the provincial
+telegraph, railway, etc., may be utilized by the Central Government.
+<i>(f)</i> In case of negligence, or blunder made by the provincial
+authorities, which injures the interests of the nation, the Central
+Government, with the approval of Parliament, may reprimand and rectify
+same. <i>(g)</i> It shall not make laws on the grant of monopoly and of
+copyrights; neither issue bank notes, manufacture coins, make implements
+of weights and measures; neither grant the right to local banks to
+manage the Government Treasury; nor sign contracts with foreigners on
+the purchase or sale of lands and mines, or mortgage land tax to them or
+construct naval harbours or arsenals. <i>(h)</i> All local laws, budgets, and
+other important matters shall be reported to the President from time to
+time. <i>(i)</i> The Central Government may transfer to itself the ownership
+of enterprises or rights which Parliament has decided should become
+national. <i>(j)</i> In case of a quarrel arising between the Central
+Government and the province, or between provinces, it shall be decided
+by Parliament. <i>(k)</i> In case of refusal to obey the orders of the
+Central Government, the President with the approval of Parliament may
+change the Shenchang (Governor) or dissolve the Provincial Assembly.
+<i>(l)</i> The President with the approval of Parliament may suppress by
+force any province which defies the Central Authorities.</p>
+		<p>Art 4. A Shenchang shall be appointed for each province to represent the
+Central Government in the supervision of the local administration. The
+appointment shall be made with the approval of the Senate, the term, of
+office for the Shenchang shall be four years, and his annual salary
+shall be $24,000, which shall be paid out of the National Treasury.</p>
+		<p>Art. 5. The administration measures entrusted by the Government to the
+Shenchang shall be enforced by the administrative organs under his
+supervision, and he shall be responsible for same.</p>
+		<p>Art. 6. In the enforcement of the laws and mandates of the Central
+Government, or of the laws and regulations of his province, he may issue
+orders.</p>
+		<p>Art. 7. The province shall establish the following five Departments,
+namely Interior, Police, Finance, Education and Industry. There shall be
+one Department Chief for each Department, to be appointed by the
+Shenchang.</p>
+		<p>Art. 8. A Provincial Council shall be organized to assist the Shenchang
+to enforce the administrative measures, and it shall be responsible to
+the Provincial Assembly for same.</p>
+		<p>This Council shall be composed of all the Departmental Chiefs, and five
+members elected out of the Provincial Assembly. It shall discuss the
+Bills on Budget, on administration, and on the organization of police
+forces, submitted by the Shenchang.</p>
+		<p>Art. 9. If one member of the Council be impeached by the Provincial
+Assembly, the Shenchang shall replace him, but if the whole body of the
+Council be impeached, the Shenchang shall either dissolve the Assembly
+or dismiss all his Departmental Chiefs. In one session the Assembly
+shall
+<a name="Page_347" id="Page_347"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">347</span>
+not be dissolved twice, and after two months of the dissolution,
+it shall be convened again.</p>
+		<p>Art. 10. The organization and election of the Provincial Assembly shall
+be fixed by law.</p>
+		<p>Art. 11. The Provincial Assembly shall have the following duties and
+powers: <i>(a)</i> It may pass such laws as allowed by the Constitution.
+<i>(b)</i> It may pass the bills on the provincial Budget and Accounts. <i>(c)</i>
+It may impeach the members of the Provincial Council. <i>(d)</i> It may
+address interpellations or give suggestions to the Provincial Council.
+<i>(e)</i> It may elect Members for the Provincial Council. <i>(f)</i> It may
+attend to the petitions submitted by the public.</p>
+		<p>Art. 12. A Magistrate shall be appointed for each hsien district to
+enforce administrative measures. He shall be appointed directly by the
+Shenchang, and his term of office shall be three years.</p>
+		<p>Art. 13. The Central Government shall hold examinations in the provinces
+for candidates for the Magistracy. In a province half of the total
+number of magistrates shall be natives of the province and the other
+half of other provinces; but a native shall hold office of Magistrate
+300 <i>li</i> away from his home.</p>
+		<p>Art. 14. The organization for the legislative organ of the hsien
+district shall be fixed by law.</p>
+<p><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">348</span></p>
+		<h3>
+
+		TARIFF REVISION IN CHINA</h3>
+		<p>The following is a translation of a memorandum prepared by the Ministry
+of Agriculture and Commerce regarding abolition of likin and an increase
+of the Customs duties:&mdash;</p>
+		<h4>THE MEMORANDUM</h4>
+		<p>&quot;Disproportionate taxation on commodities at inland towns and cities
+tends to cripple the productive power of a country. Acting upon this
+principle, France in the 17th, England, America, Germany and Austria in
+the 18th Century abolished such kind of taxation, the Customs tariff
+remaining, which is a levy on imports at the first port of entry. Its
+purpose is to increase the cost of production of imported goods and to
+serve as a protection of native products (sic). Raw materials from
+abroad are, however, exempt from Customs duty in order to provide cheap
+material for home manufactures. An altogether different state of
+affairs, however, exists in this country. Likin stations are found
+throughout the country, while raw materials are taxed. Take the Hangchow
+silk for instance. When transported to the Capital for sale, it has to
+pay a tax on raw material of 18 per cent. Foreign imported goods on the
+other hand, are only taxed at the rate of five per cent <i>ad valorem</i>
+Customs duty at the first port of entry with another 2.5 per cent
+transit duty at one of the other ports through which the goods pass.
+Besides these only landing duty is imposed upon imported goods at the
+port of destination. Upon timber being shipped from Fengtien and Antung
+to Peking, it has to pay duties at five different places, the total
+amount of which aggregates 20 per cent of its market value, while timber
+from America is taxed only ten per cent. Timber from Jueichow to Hankow
+and Shanghai is taxed at six different places, the total amount of duty
+paid aggregating 17.5 per cent., while timber imported from abroad to
+these ports is required to pay Customs duty only one-third thereof. The
+above-mentioned rates on native goods are the minimum. Not every
+merchant can, however, obtain such special 'exemption,' without a long
+negotiation and special arrangements with the authorities. Otherwise, a
+merchant must pay 25 per cent of the market value of his goods as duty.
+For this reason the import of timber into this country has greatly
+increased within the last few years, the total amount of which being
+valued at $13,000,000 a year. Is this not a great injustice to native
+merchants?</p>
+		<h4>THE CHINESE METHOD</h4>
+		<p>&quot;Respecting the improvement of the economic condition of the people, a
+country can hardly attain this object without developing its foreign
+commerce. The United States of America, Germany and Japan have
+<a name="Page_349" id="Page_349"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">349</span>
+one by
+one abolished their export duty as well as made appropriations for
+subsidies to encourage the export of certain kinds of commodities. We,
+on the other hand, impose likin all along the line upon native
+commodities destined for foreign markets in addition to export duty.
+Goods for foreign markets are more heavily taxed than for home
+consumption. Take the Chekiang silk for instance. Silk for export is
+more heavily taxed than that for home use. Different rates of taxation
+are imposed upon tea for foreign and home markets. Other kinds of native
+products for export are also heavily taxed with the result that, within
+the last two decades, the annual exports of this country are exceeded by
+imports by over Tls. 640,000,000,000. From the 32nd year of the reign of
+Kuang Hsu to the 4th year of the Republic, imports exceed exports on the
+average by Tls. 120,000,000. These, figures speak for themselves.</p>
+		<h4>LIKIN</h4>
+		<p>&quot;Likin stations have been established at places where railway
+communication is available. This has done a good deal of harm to
+transportation and the railway traffic. Lately a proposal has been made
+in certain quarters that likin stations along the railways be abolished;
+and the measure has been adopted by the Peking-Tientsin and
+Tientsin-Pukow Railways at certain places. When the towns and cities
+throughout the country are connected by railways, there will be no place
+for likin stations. With the increase in the number of treaty ports, the
+'likin zone' will be gradually diminished. Thencefrom the proceeds from
+likin will be decreased year by year.</p>
+		<p>&quot;Owing to the collection of likin the development of both home and
+foreign trade has been arrested and the people are working under great
+disadvantages. Hence in order to develop foreign and home trade the
+Government must do away with likin, which will bring back business
+prosperity, and in time the same will enable the Government to obtain
+new sources of revenues.</p>
+		<p>&quot;From the above-mentioned considerations, the Government can hardly
+develop and encourage trade without the abolition of likin. By treaty
+with Great Britain, America and Japan, the Government can increase the
+rate of Customs tariff to cover losses due to the abolition of likin.
+The question under consideration is not a new one. But the cause which
+has prevented the Government from reaching a prompt decision upon this
+question is the fear that, after the abolition of likin, the proceeds
+from the increased Customs tariff would not be sufficient to cover the
+shortage caused by the abolition of likin.</p>
+		<h4>COST OF ABOLITION OF LIKIN</h4>
+		<p>&quot;But such a fear should disappear when the Authorities remember the
+following facts:&mdash;</p>
+		<p>(a) &quot;The loss as the result of the abolition of likin: $38,900,000.</p>
+		<p>
+			<a name="Page_350" id="Page_350"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">350</span>
+(b) &quot;The loss as the result of the abolition of a part of duty collected
+by the native Customs houses: $7,300,000.</p>
+		<p>(c) &quot;Annual proceeds from different kinds of principal and miscellaneous
+taxes which shall be done away with the abolition of likin $11,800,000.</p>
+		<p>&quot;The above figures are determined by comparing the actual amount of
+proceeds collected by the Government in the 3rd and 4th years of the
+Republic with the estimated amount in the Budget of the fifth year. The
+total amount of loss caused by the abolition of likin will be
+$58,000,000.</p>
+		<h4>INCREASE OF CUSTOMS TARIFF</h4>
+		<p>&quot;The amount of increase in the Customs tariff which the Government
+expects to collect is as follows:&mdash;(a) The increase in import duties
+$29,000,000. (b) The increase in export duties Tls. 6,560,000.</p>
+		<p>&quot;The above figures are determined according to the Customs returns of
+the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th years of the Republic. By deducting Tls. 2,200,000
+of transit duty, the net increase will be Tls. 33,600,000, which is
+equal to $48,500,000. For the sake of prudence, allowance of five per
+cent. of the total amount is made against any incidental shortage. The
+net revenue thus increased would amount to $46,100,000. Against the loss
+of $58,000,000, there will be a shortage of some $11,900,000. This,
+however, will not be difficult to make good by new sources of revenue as
+the result of a tariff revision:&mdash;(a) Tax on goods at the time of
+manufacture $800,000. (b) Tax on goods at the time of sale $8,000,000.
+(c) Tax on cattle and slaughtering houses $2,000,000. (d) Tax on
+foodstuffs $4,000,000.</p>
+		<p>&quot;Under (a) and (b) are the taxes to be collected on native made foreign
+imitation goods and various kinds of luxurious articles. Under (c) and
+(d) are taxes which are already enforced in the provinces but which can
+be increased to that much by reorganizing the method of collection. The
+total sum of the proceeds set forth under above items will amount to
+$14,800,000. These will be quite sufficient to cover the loss caused by
+the abolition of likin.</p>
+		<h4>A VITAL INTEREST</h4>
+		<p>&quot;As the abolition of likin concerns the vital interest of the merchants
+and manufacturers, it should be carried out without delay. The
+commercial and industrial enterprises of the country can only thrive
+after likin is abolished and only then can new sources of revenue be
+obtained. This measure will form the fundamental factor of our
+industrial and economical development. But one thing to which we should
+like to call the special attention of the Government is the procedure to
+be adopted to negotiate with the Foreign countries respecting the
+adoption of this measure. The first step in this connection should be
+the increase of the
+<a name="Page_351" id="Page_351"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">351</span>
+present Customs tariff to the actual five per cent
+<i>ad valorem</i> rate. When this is done, proposals should be made to the
+Powers having treaty relations with us concerning the abolition of likin
+and revision of Customs tariff. The transit destination duties on
+imported goods should at the same time be done away with. This would not
+entail any disadvantage to the importers of foreign goods and any
+diplomatic question would not be difficult of solution. Meantime
+preparatory measures should be devised for reorganizing the method of
+collecting duties set forth above so that the abolition of likin can
+take place as soon as the Government obtains the consent of the foreign
+Powers respecting the increase of Customs tariff.&quot;</p>
+		<h3>MEMORANDUM</h3>
+		<h4>THE LEADING OUTSTANDING CASES BETWEEN CHINA AND THE FOREIGN POWERS</h4>
+		<p>(Author's note. The following memorandum was drawn up by Dr. C.C. Wu,
+Councillor at the Chinese Foreign Office and son of Dr. Wu Ting-fang,
+the Foreign Minister, and is a most competent and precise statement. It
+is a noteworthy fact that not only is Dr. C.C. Wu a British barrister
+but he distinguished himself above all his fellows in the year he was
+called to the Bar. It is also noteworthy that the Lao Hsi-kai case does
+not figure in this summary, China taking the view that French action
+throughout was <i>ultra vires</i>, and beyond discussion.)</p>
+		<p>BY DR. C.C. WU</p>
+		<p>Republican China inherited from imperial China the vast and rich
+territory of China Proper and its Dependencies, but the inheritance was
+by no means free from incumbrances as in the case of Outer Mongolia,
+Tibet and Manchuria, and other impediments in the form of unfavourable
+treaty obligations and a long list of outstanding foreign cases
+affecting sovereign and territorial rights.</p>
+		<p>I have been asked by the Editor of the <i>North-China Daily News</i> to
+contribute an article on some of the outstanding questions between China
+and foreign powers, instancing Tibet, Manchuria, Mongolia, and to give
+the Chinese point of view on these questions. Although the subject is a
+delicate one to handle, particularly in the press, being as it is one in
+which international susceptibilities are apt to be aroused, I have yet
+accepted the invitation in the belief that a calm and temperate
+statement of the Chinese case will hurt no one whose case will bear
+public discussion but will perhaps do some good by bringing about a
+clear understanding of the points at issue between China and the foreign
+Powers concerned, and thus facilitating an early settlement which is so
+earnestly desired by China. I may say that I have appreciated the
+British sense of justice and fairplay displayed by the &quot;North-China
+Daily News&quot; in
+<a name="Page_352" id="Page_352"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">352</span>
+inviting a statement of the Chinese case in its own
+columns on questions one of which concerns British interests in no small
+degree, and the discussion cannot be conducted under a better spirit
+than that expressed in the motto of the senior British journal in the
+Far East: &quot;Impartial not Neutral.&quot;</p>
+		<h4>1<sup>o</sup> MANCHURIA</h4>
+		<p>The treaty between China and Japan of 1915 respecting South Manchuria
+and Eastern Inner Mongolia giving that power special rights and
+privileges in those regions has given rise to many knotty problems for
+the diplomatists of the two countries to solve. Two of such problems are
+mentioned here.</p>
+		<h4>JAPANESE POLICE BOXES IN MANCHURIA AND MONGOLIA</h4>
+		<p>Since the last days of the Tsings, the Japanese have been establishing
+police boxes in different parts of South Manchuria and Eastern Inner
+Mongolia always under protest of the local and Peking authorities. Since
+the treaty of 1915, a new reason has become available in the right of
+mixed residence given to Japanese in these regions. It is said that for
+the protection and control of their subjects, and indeed for the
+interest of the Chinese themselves, it is best that this measure should
+be taken. It is further contended that the stationing of police officers
+is but a corollary to the right of exterritoriality, and that it is in
+no way a derogation of Chinese sovereignty.</p>
+		<p>It is pointed out by the Chinese Government that in the treaty of 1915,
+express provision is made for Japanese in South Manchuria and Eastern
+Inner Mongolia to submit to the police laws and ordinances and taxation
+of China (Article 5). This leaves the matter in no doubt. If the
+Japanese wish to facilitate the Chinese police in their duty of
+protection and control of the Japanese, they have many means at their
+command for so doing. It is unnecessary to point out that the
+establishment of foreign police on Chinese soil (except in foreign
+settlements and concessions where it is by the permission of the Chinese
+Government) is, to our thinking, at any rate, a very grave derogation to
+China's sovereign rights. Furthermore, from actual experience, we know
+that the activities of these foreign police will not be confined to
+their countrymen; in a dispute between a Chinese and a Japanese both
+will be taken to the Japanese station by the Japanese policeman. This
+existence of an imperium in imperio, so far from accomplishing its
+avowed object of &quot;improving the relations of the countries and bringing
+about the development of economic interests to no small degree,&quot; will,
+it is feared, be the cause of continual friction between the officials
+and people of the two countries.</p>
+		<p>As to the legal contention that the right of police control is a natural
+corollary to the right of exterritoriality, it must be said that ever
+since
+<a name="Page_353" id="Page_353"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">353</span>
+the grant of consular jurisdiction to foreigners by China in her
+first treaties, this is the first time that such a claim has been
+seriously put forward. We can only say that if this interpretation of
+exterritoriality is correct the other nations enjoying exterritoriality
+in China have been very neglectful in the assertion of their just
+rights.</p>
+		<p>In the Chengchiatun case, the claim of establishing police boxes
+wherever the Japanese think necessary was made one of the demands. The
+Chinese Government in its final reply which settled the case took the
+stand as above outlined.</p>
+		<p>It may be mentioned in passing that in Amoy the Japanese have also
+endeavoured to establish similar police rights. The people of that city
+and province, and indeed of the whole country, as evidenced by the
+protests received from all over China, have been very much exercised
+over the matter. It is sincerely hoped that with the undoubted
+improvement of relations between the two countries within the last
+several months, the matter will be smoothly and equitably settled.</p>
+		<h4>LEGAL STATUS OF KOREANS IN CHIENTAO</h4>
+		<p>The region which goes by the name of Chientao, a Japanese denomination,
+comprises several districts in the Yenchi Circuit of Kirin Province
+north of the Tumen Kiang (or the Tiumen River) which here forms the
+boundary between China and Korea. For over thirty years Koreans have
+been allowed here to cultivate the waste lands and acquire ownership
+therein, a privilege which has not been permitted to any other
+foreigners in China and which has been granted to these Koreans on
+account of the peculiar local conditions. According to reliable sources,
+the Korean population now amounts to over 200,000 which is more than the
+Chinese population itself. In 1909 an Agreement, known as the Tumen
+Kiang Boundary Agreement, was arrived at between China and Japan, who
+was then the acknowledged suzerain of Korea, dealing, inter alia, with
+the status of these Koreans. It was provided that while Koreans were to
+continue to enjoy protection of their landed property, they were to be
+subject to Chinese laws and to the jurisdiction of Chinese courts. The
+subsequent annexation of Korea did not affect this agreement in point of
+international law, and as a matter of practice Japan has adhered to it
+until September, 1915. Then the Japanese Consul suddenly interfered in
+the administration of justice by the local authorities over the Koreans
+and claimed that he should have jurisdiction.</p>
+		<p>The Japanese claim is based on the Treaty Respecting South Manchuria and
+Eastern Inner Mongolia signed in May, 1915, article 5 of which provides
+that civil and criminal cases in which the defendants are Japanese shall
+be tried and adjudicated by the Japanese consul.</p>
+		<p>The Chinese view is that this article is inapplicable to Koreans in this
+region and that the Tumen Kiang Agreement continues in force. This view
+is based on a saving clause in article 8 of the Treaty of 1915 which
+says that &quot;all existing treaties between China and Japan relating to
+<a name="Page_354" id="Page_354"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">354</span>
+Manchuria shall, except where otherwise provided for by treaty, remain
+in force.&quot;</p>
+		<p>In the first place, the origin of the Tumen Kiang Agreement supports
+this view. When the Japanese assumed suzerainty over Korea they raised
+certain questions as to the boundary between China and Korea. There were
+also outstanding several questions regarding railways and mines between
+China and Japan. Japan insisted that the boundary question and the
+railway and mining questions be settled at the same time. As a result,
+two agreements were concluded in 1909 one respecting the boundary
+question, the Tumen Kiang Agreement, and the other respecting railways
+and mines whereby Japan obtained many new and valuable privileges and
+concessions, such as the extension of the Kirin-Changchun Railway to the
+Korean frontier, the option on the Hsinminfu-Fakumen line, and the
+working of the Fushun and Yentai mines, while in return China obtained a
+bare recognition of existing rights, namely the boundary between China
+and Korea and the jurisdiction over the Koreans in the Yenchi region.
+The two settlements were in the nature of quid pro quo though it is
+clear that the Japanese side of the scale heavily outweighed that of the
+Chinese. Now Japan endeavours to repudiate, for no apparent reason so
+far as we can see, the agreement which formed the consideration whereby
+she obtained so many valuable concessions.</p>
+		<p>Secondly, while Koreans are now Japanese subjects, it is contended by
+the Chinese that the particular Koreans inhabiting the Yenchi region
+are, as regards China, in a different position from Japanese subjects
+elsewhere. These Koreans enjoy the rights of free residence and of
+cultivating and owning land in the interior of China, rights denied to
+other foreigners, including Japanese who, even by the new treaty, may
+only lease land in South Manchuria. For this exceptional privilege, they
+are subject to the jurisdiction of Chinese laws and Chinese courts, a
+duty not imposed on other foreigners. It would be &quot;blowing hot and cold
+at the same time&quot; in the language of English lawyers if it is sought to
+enjoy the special privileges without performing the duties.</p>
+		<p>Thirdly, Japanese under the Treaty of 1915 are required to register
+their passports with the local authorities. On the other hand, Koreans
+in Yenchi have never been nor are they now required to procure
+passports. This would seem to be conclusive proof that Koreans in that
+region are not within the provisions of the treaty of 1915 but are still
+governed by the Tumen Kiang Agreement.</p>
+		<p>The question is something more than one of academic or even merely
+judicial importance. As has been stated, the Koreans in Yenchi outnumber
+the Chinese and the only thing that has kept the region Chinese
+territory in fact as well as in name is the possession by the Chinese of
+jurisdiction over every inhabitant, whether Chinese or Korean. Were
+China to surrender that jurisdiction over a majority of those
+inhabitants, it would be tantamount to a cession of territory.</p>
+<p>	<a name="Page_355" id="Page_355"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">355</span></p>
+		<h4>
+
+		2<sup>o</sup> MACAO</h4>
+		<p>The dispute between China and Portugal over the Macao question has been
+one of long standing. The first treaty of commerce signed between them
+on August 13, 1862, at Tientsin, was not ratified in consequence of a
+dispute respecting the Sovereignty of Macao. By a Protocol signed at
+Lisbon on March 26, 1887, China formally recognized the perpetual
+occupation and government of Macao and its dependencies by Portugal, as
+any other Portuguese possession; and in December of the same year, when
+the formal treaty was signed, provision was made for the appointment of
+a Commission to delimit the boundaries of Macao; &quot;but as long as the
+delimitation of the boundaries is not concluded, everything in respect
+to them shall continue as at present without addition, diminution or
+alteration by either of the Parties.&quot;</p>
+		<p>In the beginning of 1908, a Japanese steamer, the <i>Tatsu Maru</i>, engaged
+in gun-running was captured by a Chinese customs cruiser near the
+Kauchau archipelago (Nove Ilhas). The Portuguese authorities demanded
+her release on the ground that she was seized in Portuguese territorial
+waters thus raising the question of the status of the waters surrounding
+Macao.</p>
+		<p>In the same year the Portuguese authorities of Macao attempted the
+imposition of land tax in Maliaoho, and proposed to dredge the waterways
+in the vicinity of Macao. The Chinese Government thereupon instructed
+its Minister in France, who was also accredited to Portugal, to make
+personal representations to the Portuguese Foreign Office in regard to
+the unwarrantable action of the local Portuguese authorities. The
+Portuguese Government requested the withdrawal of Chinese troops on the
+Island of Lappa as a quid pro quo for the appointment of a new
+Demarcation Commissioner, reserving to itself the right to refer to The
+Hague Tribunal any dispute that may arise between the Commissioners
+appointed by the respective Governments.</p>
+		<p>After protracted negotiations it was agreed between the Chinese Minister
+and the Portuguese Government by an exchange of notes that the
+respective Governments should each appoint a Demarcation Commissioner to
+delimit the boundaries of Macao and its dependencies in pursuance of the
+Lisbon Protocol and Article 2 of the Sino-Portuguese Treaty of 1887,
+subject to the decision of their respective Governments.</p>
+		<h4>THE PORTUGUESE CLAIM</h4>
+		<p>In February, 1909, Portugal appointed General Joaquim Machado and China
+Mr. Kao Erh-chien as their respective Commissioners and they met at
+Hongkong in June of the same year.</p>
+		<p>The Portuguese claim consisted of the whole of the Peninsula of Macao as
+far north as Portas do Cerco, the Island of Lappa, Green Island (Ilha
+Verde), Ilhas de Taipa, Ilha de Coloane, Ilha Macarira, Ilha da
+Tai-Vong-Cam,
+<a name="Page_356" id="Page_356"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">356</span>
+other small islands, and the waters of Porto Interior.
+The Portuguese Commissioner also demanded that the portion of Chinese
+territory between Portas de Cerco and Peishanling be neutralized.</p>
+		<p>In the absence of evidence, documentary or otherwise, China could not
+admit Portugal's title to half the territory claimed, but was prepared
+to concede all that part of the Peninsula of Macao south of Portas do
+Cerco which was already beyond the limits of the original Portuguese
+Possession of Macao, and also to grant the developed parts of Ilhas de
+Coloane as Portuguese settlements. The ownership of territorial waters
+was to remain vested in China.</p>
+		<p>The negotiations having proved fruitless were transferred to Lisbon but
+on the outbreak of the Revolution in Portugal they were suspended. No
+material progress has been made since.</p>
+		<h4>3<sup>o</sup> TIBET</h4>
+		<p>In November, 1911, the Chinese garrison in Lhassa, in sympathy with the
+revolutionary cause in China, mutinied against Amban Lien-yu, a Chinese
+Bannerman, and a few months later the Tibetans, by order of the Dalai
+Lama, revolted and besieged the Chinese forces in Lhassa till they were
+starved out and eventually evacuated Tibet. Chinese troops in Kham were
+also ejected. An expedition was sent from Szechuan and Yunnan to Tibet,
+but Great Britain protested and caused its withdrawal.</p>
+		<p>In August, 1912, the British Minister in Peking presented a Memorandum
+to the Chinese Government outlining the attitude of Great Britain
+towards the Tibetan question. China was asked to refrain from
+dispatching a military expedition into Tibet, as the re-establishment of
+Chinese authority would, it is stated, constitute a violation of the
+Anglo-Chinese Treaty of 1906. Chinese suzerainty in regard to Tibet was
+recognized. But Great Britain could not consent to the assertion of
+Chinese sovereignty over a State enjoying independent treaty relations
+with her. In conclusion, China was invited to come to an agreement
+regarding Tibet on the lines indicated in the Memorandum, such agreement
+to be antecedent to Great Britain's recognition of the Republic. Great
+Britain also imposed an embargo on the communications between China and
+Tibet via India.</p>
+		<p>In deference to the wishes of the British Government, China at once
+issued orders that the expeditionary force should not proceed beyond
+Giamda. In her reply she declared that the Chinese Government had no
+intention of converting Tibet into another province of China and that
+the preservation of the traditional system of Tibetan government was as
+much the desire of China as of Great Britain. The dispatch of troops
+into Tibet was, however, necessary for the fulfilment of the
+responsibilities attaching to China's treaty obligations with Great
+Britain, which required her to preserve peace and order throughout that
+vast territory, but she did not contemplate the idea of stationing an
+unlimited number of soldiers in Tibet. China considered that the
+existing treaties defined the status of Tibet with sufficient clearness,
+and therefore there was no need to negotiate
+<a name="Page_357" id="Page_357"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">357</span>
+a new treaty. She
+expressed the regret that the Indian Government had placed an embargo on
+the communications between China and Tibet via India, as China was at
+peace with Great Britain and regretted that Great Britain should
+threaten to withhold recognition of the Republic, such recognition being
+of mutual advantage to both countries. Finally, the Chinese Government
+hoped that the British Government would reconsider its attitude.</p>
+		<h4>THE SIMLA CONFERENCE</h4>
+		<p>In May, 1913, the British Minister renewed his suggestion of the
+previous year that China should come to an agreement on the Tibetan
+question, and ultimately a Tripartite Conference was opened on October
+13, at Simla with Mr. Ivan Chen, Sir Henry McMahon, and Lonchen Shatra
+as plenipotentiaries representing China, Great Britain, and Tibet,
+respectively.</p>
+		<p>The following is the substance of the Tibetan proposals:&mdash;</p>
+		<p>1. Tibet shall be an independent State, repudiating the Anglo-Chinese
+Convention of 1906.</p>
+		<p>2. The boundary of Tibet in regard to China includes that portion of
+Sinkiang south of Kuenlun Range and Altyn Tagh, the whole territory of
+Chinghai, the western portion of Kansuh and Szechuan, including
+Tachienlu and the northwestern portion of Yunnan, including Atuntzu.</p>
+		<p>3. Great Britain and Tibet to negotiate, independent of China, new trade
+regulations.</p>
+		<p>4. No Chinese officials and troops to be stationed in Tibet.</p>
+		<p>5. China to recognize Dalai Lama as the head of the Buddhist Religion
+and institutions in Mongolia and China.</p>
+		<p>6. China to compensate Tibet for forcible exactions of money or property
+taken from the Tibetan Government.</p>
+		<p>The Chinese Plenipotentiary made the following counter-proposals:&mdash;</p>
+		<p>1. Tibet forms an integral part of Chinese territory and Chinese rights
+of every description which have existed in consequence of this integrity
+shall be respected by Tibet and recognized by Great Britain. China
+engages not to convert Tibet into a province and Great Britain not to
+annex Tibet or any portion of it.</p>
+		<p>2. China to appoint a Resident at Lhassa with an escort of 2,600
+soldiers.</p>
+		<p>3. Tibet undertakes to be guided by China in her foreign and military
+affairs and not to enter into negotiations with any foreign Power except
+through the intermediary of China but this engagement does not exclude
+direct relations between British Trade Agents and Tibetan authorities as
+provided in the Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1906.</p>
+		<p>4. Tibet to grant amnesty to those Tibetans known for their pro-Chinese
+inclinations and to restore to them their property.</p>
+		<p>5. Clause 5 of Tibetan claims can be discussed.</p>
+		<p>6. Revision of Trade Regulations of 1893 and 1908, if found necessary,
+must be made by all the parties concerned.</p>
+		<p>7. In regard to the limits of Tibet China claims Giamda and all the
+places east of it.</p>
+<p><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">358</span></p>
+		<h4>
+
+		THE BOUNDARY DEADLOCK</h4>
+		<p>The British plenipotentiary sustained in the main the Tibetan view
+concerning the limits of Tibet. He suggested the creation of Inner and
+Outer Tibet by a line drawn along the Kuenlun Range to the 96th
+longitude, turning south reaching a point south of the 34th latitude,
+then in south-easterly direction to Niarong, passing Hokow, Litang,
+Batang in a western and then southern and southwestern direction to
+Rima, thus involving the inclusion of Chiamdo in Outer Tibet and the
+withdrawal of the Chinese garrison stationed there. He proposed that
+recognition should be accorded to the autonomy of Outer Tibet whilst
+admitting the right of the Chinese to re-establish such a measure of
+control in Inner Tibet as would restore and safeguard their historic
+position there, without in any way infringing the integrity of Tibet as
+a geographical and political entity. Sir Henry McMahon also submitted to
+the Conference a draft proposal of the Convention to the
+plenipotentiaries. After some modification this draft was initialled by
+the British and Tibetan delegates but the Chinese delegate did not
+consider himself authorized to do so. Thereupon the British member after
+making slight concessions in regard to representation in the Chinese
+Parliament and the boundary in the neighbourhood of Lake Kokonor
+threatened, in the event of his persisting in his refusal, to eliminate
+the clause recognizing the suzerainty of China, and ipso facto the
+privileges appertaining thereto from the draft Convention already
+initialled by the British and Tibetan plenipotentiaries. In order to
+save the situation, the Chinese delegate initialled the documents, but
+on the clear understanding that to initial and to sign were two
+different things and that to sign he must obtain instructions from his
+Government.</p>
+		<p>China, dissatisfied with the suggested division into an Inner and Outer
+Tibet the boundaries of which would involve the evacuation of those
+districts actually in Chinese effective occupation and under its
+administration, though otherwise in accord with the general principles
+of the draft Convention, declared that the initialled draft was in no
+way binding upon her and took up the matter with the British Government
+in London and with its representative in Peking. Protracted negotiations
+took place thereafter, but, in spite of repeated concessions from the
+Chinese side in regard to the boundary question, the British Government
+would not negotiate on any basis other than the initialled convention.
+On July 3 an Agreement based on the terms of the draft Convention but
+providing special safe-guards for the interests of Great Britain and
+Tibet in the event of China continuing to withhold her adherence, was
+signed between Great Britain and Tibet, not, however, before Mr. Ivan
+Chen had declared that the Chinese Government would recognize any treaty
+or similar document that might then or thereafter be signed between
+Great Britain and Tibet.</p>
+<p><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">359</span></p>
+		<h4>
+
+		CHINA'S STANDPOINT</h4>
+		<p>With the same spirit of compromise and a readiness to meet the wishes of
+the British Government and even to the extent of making considerable
+sacrifices in so far as they were compatible with her dignity, China has
+more than once offered to renew negotiations with the British Government
+but the latter has up to the present declined to do so. China wants
+nothing more than the re-establishment of Chinese suzerainty over Tibet,
+with recognition of the autonomy of the territory immediately under the
+control of the Lhassa Government; she is agreeable to the British idea
+of forming an effective buffer territory in so far as it is consistent
+with equity and justice; she is anxious that her trade interest should
+be looked after by her trade agents as do the British, a point which is
+agreeable even to the Tibetans, though apparently not to the British; in
+other words, she expects that Great Britain would at least make with her
+an arrangement regarding Tibet which should not be any less
+disadvantageous to her than that made with Russia respecting Outer
+Mongolia.</p>
+		<p>Considering that China has claimed and exercised sovereign rights over
+Tibet, commanded the Tibetan army, supervised Tibetan internal
+administration, and confirmed the appointments of Tibetan officials,
+high and low, secular and even ecclesiastical, such expectations are
+modest enough, surely. At the present moment, with communication via
+India closed, with no official representative or agent present, with
+relations unsettled and unregulated, the position of China <i>vis-&agrave;-vis</i>
+Tibet is far from satisfactory and altogether anomalous, while as
+between China and Great Britain there is always this important question
+outstanding. An early settlement in a reciprocal spirit of give and take
+and giving reasonable satisfaction to the legitimate aspirations and
+claims of all parties is extremely desirable.</p>
+		<h4>4<sup>o</sup> OUTER MONGOLIA</h4>
+		<p>The world is more or less acquainted with the events in Urga in
+December, 1911, and the proclamation of independence of Outer Mongolia
+with Jetsun Dampa Hutukhtu as its ruler. By the Russo-Chinese
+Declaration of November 5, 1913, and the Tripartite Convention of
+Kiakhta of 1914 China has re-established her suzerainty over Outer
+Mongolia and obtained the acknowledgment that it forms a part of the
+Chinese territory. There remains the demarcation of boundary between
+Inner and Outer Mongolia which will take place shortly, and the
+outstanding question of the status of Tannu Uriankhai where Russia is
+lately reported to be subjecting the inhabitants to Russian jurisdiction
+and expelling Chinese traders.</p>
+		<p>The Tannu Uriankhai lands, according to the Imperial Institutes of the
+Tsing Dynasty, were under the control of the Tartar General of
+Uliasutai, the Sain Noin Aimak, the Jasaktu Khan Aimak and the Jetsun
+Dampa
+<a name="Page_360" id="Page_360"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">360</span>
+Hutkhta, and divided into forty-eight somons (tsoling).
+Geographically, according to the same authority, Tannu Uriankhai is
+bounded on the north by Russia, east by Tushetu Khan Aimak, west by the
+various aimaks of Kobdo, and south by Jasaktu Khan Aimak. By a Joint
+Demarcation Commission in 1868 the Russo Chinese boundary in respect to
+Uriankhai was demitted and eight wooden boundary posts were erected to
+mark their respective frontiers.</p>
+		<p>In 1910, however, a Russian officer removed and burnt the boundary post
+at Chapuchi Yalodapa. The matter was taken up by the then Waiwupu with
+the Russian Minister. He replied to the effect that the limits of
+Uriankhai were an unsettled question and the Russian Government would
+not entertain the Chinese idea of taking independent steps to remark the
+boundary or to replace the post and expressed dissatisfaction with the
+work of the Joint Demarcation Commission of 1868, a dissatisfaction
+which would seem to be somewhat tardily expressed, to say the least. The
+case was temporarily dropped on account of the secession of Uliasutai
+from China in the following year.</p>
+		<p>While Uriankhai forms part of Autonomous Outer Mongolia, yet since Outer
+Mongolia is under China's suzerainty, and its territory is expressly
+recognized to form part of that of China, China cannot look on with
+indifference to any possible cession of territory by Outer Mongolia to
+Russia. Article 3 of the Kaikhta Agreement, 1915, prohibiting Outer
+Mongolia from concluding treaties with foreign powers respecting
+political and territorial questions acknowledges China's right to
+negotiate and make such treaties. It is the firm intention of the
+Chinese Government to maintain its territorial integrity basing its case
+on historical records, on treaty rights and finally on the principle of
+nationality. It is notorious that the Mongols will be extremely
+unwilling to see Uriankhai incorporated into the Russian Empire. While
+Russia is spending countless lives and incalculable treasure in fighting
+for the sacred principle of nationality in Europe, we cannot believe
+that the will deliberately violate the same principle in Asia.</p>
+		<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361"></a>
+		<span class="pagenum">361</span></p>
+		<h2>
+
+		<a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>
+		INDEX</h2>
+		<p>
+			<a href="#INDEX_A">A</a>
+			<a href="#INDEX_B">B</a>
+			<a href="#INDEX_C">C</a>
+			<a href="#INDEX_D">D</a>
+			<a href="#INDEX_E">E</a>
+			<a href="#INDEX_F">F</a>
+			<a href="#INDEX_G">G</a>
+			<a href="#INDEX_H">H</a>
+			<a href="#INDEX_I">I</a>
+			<a href="#INDEX_J">J</a>
+			<a href="#INDEX_K">K</a>
+			<a href="#INDEX_L">L</a>
+			<a href="#INDEX_M">M</a>
+			<a href="#INDEX_N">N</a>
+			<a href="#INDEX_O">O</a>
+			<a href="#INDEX_P">P</a>
+Q
+<a href="#INDEX_R">R</a>
+			<a href="#INDEX_S">S</a>
+			<a href="#INDEX_T">T</a>
+			<a href="#INDEX_U">U</a>
+			<a href="#INDEX_V">V</a>
+			<a href="#INDEX_W">W</a>
+X
+<a href="#INDEX_Y">Y</a>
+Z
+</p>
+		<div class="index">
+			<a name="INDEX_A" id="INDEX_A"></a>
+			<h2>A</h2>
+			<p class="index0">Abdication Edict of 1912, text of, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Absolutism, the myth of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Agreement between the Revolutionary Party and Europe and Asia Trading Co., <a href="#Page_107">107</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">America drops out of the Six-Power group, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">American press agents, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">treaty opening Korea, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">America's Chinese policy, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Anglo-Japanese treaty, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Annuity of Manchu Imperial Family, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Antung-Mukden railway, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Ariga, Dr., <a href="#Page_261">261</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Army Reorganization Council, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">&quot;Articles of Favourable Treatment for the Manchus,&quot; <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">text of, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>
+			</p>
+			<a name="INDEX_B" id="INDEX_B"></a>
+			<h2>B</h2>
+			<p class="index0">Babachapu, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Bannerman families, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Belgian loan, the, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>
+				<i>n</i>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">Syndicate, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Black Dragon Society, the, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">memorandum of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>-<a href="#Page_103">103</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Black Dragon Society's review of European war issues, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>-<a href="#Page_97">97</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Boycott on Japanese commerce, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Boxer Indemnities postponed, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">rebellion, the, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">and European intervention, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">British policies in China, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">position towards the Yuan Shih-kai r&eacute;gime, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>
+			</p>
+			<a name="INDEX_C" id="INDEX_C"></a>
+			<h2>C</h2>
+			<p class="index0">Cambaluc of Marco Polo, the, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Canton province, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Cassini Convention, the, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Catholic, Roman, controversies, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Central Government, organization of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>-<a href="#Page_33">33</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Chang Cheng-wu, Gen., <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">execution of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Chang Chih-tung, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Chang Hsun, Gen., <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Chang Kuo-kan, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Chang Tso-lin, Gen., <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Chang, Tsung-hsiang, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Chang Yao Ching and the Europe</p>
+			<p class="index1">and Asia Trading Co., <a href="#Page_107">107</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Chen Yi, Gen., <a href="#Page_194">194</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Chengchiatun incident, the, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>-<a href="#Page_224">224</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Chekiang revolts against Yuan Shih-kai, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Chia Ching, emperor, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Chiang Chao-tsung, Gen., <a href="#Page_257">257</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Chiang Chun, the, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Ch'ien Lung, emperor, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Chih Fa Chu, or Military Court, at Pekin, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Chihli province, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">China,</p>
+			<p class="index1">and her foreign residents, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">and the Foreign Powers, outstanding</p>
+			<p class="index1">cases between, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">and the German submarine war, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">considers war with Germany, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>-<a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">declares war against Germany, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index0">China's,</p>
+			<p class="index1">break with Germany, causes leading to, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>-<a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">economics, weakness of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">financial reorganization, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">future in Manchuria, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Imperial Government, negativeness</p>
+			<p class="index1">disguised, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</p>
+			<p><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">362</span></p>
+			<p class="index1">indignation at Japan's ultimatum, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">note to Germany severing relations, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">neutrality position, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">new r&eacute;gime, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">passivity, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">polity, principles of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>
+				<i>n</i>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">protest against submarine war, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">reception of Wilson's Peace note, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>-<a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">reply to Demands of Japan, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>-<a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">reply to Japan's ultimatum, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">reply to President Wilson, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">tariff question, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Chinese army, </p>
+			<p class="index1">German trained, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">boycott of the French, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">intrigues in Korea, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index0">Ching, Prince, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Chino-Japanese,</p>
+			<p class="index1">relations, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-<a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">secret alliance proposed, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">treaties of 1915, text of, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Chinputang, the (Progressives), <a href="#Page_206">206</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">
+				<i>Chou An Hui</i> (Society for the Preservation of Peace), <a href="#Page_111">111</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Chow Tzu-chi, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Chu Chi-chun's telegram devising plans for electing Yuan Shih-kai as Emperor, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Ch'un, Prince Regent, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Chungking, open port, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Clausewitz, war-principle of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Conference of Governors on the war question, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Confucian worship re-established by Yuan Shih-kai, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Conquest,</p>
+			<p class="index1">Manchu, of XVIIth Century, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">Mongol, of XIIIth Century, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Consolidating national debt, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Constitution,</p>
+			<p class="index1">first granted in Japan, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Permanent, work on, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>
+			</p>
+&quot;Constitutional Compact&quot;,<br />
+			<p class="index1">of Yuan Shih-kai, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">text of, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">monarchy planned, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Continental quadrilateral, the, of Japan, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">
+				<i>Coup d'&eacute;tat</i>, the, of Sept., 1898, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">
+				<i>Coup d'&eacute;tat</i>, the parliamentary of 1913, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Crisp, Birch, attempts to float loan, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>
+			</p>
+			<a name="INDEX_D" id="INDEX_D"></a>
+			<h2>D</h2>
+			<p class="index0">Dane, Sir Richard, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Death of Empress Lun Yi, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Decree cancelling the Empire, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Defence of the monarchial movement,</p>
+			<p class="index1">by Yang Tu, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>-<a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">by Dr. Goodnow, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>-<a href="#Page_136">136</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">
+				<i>Dementi</i>, 1913, of Yuan Shih-kai, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Diet of Japan, first summoned, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Diplomatic relations with China broken, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>-<a href="#Page_244">244</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Distance in China, philosophy of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>
+			</p>
+			<a name="INDEX_E" id="INDEX_E"></a>
+			<h2>E</h2>
+			<p class="index0">Eastern Asia, contestants for land-power in, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Election,</p>
+			<p class="index1">of 1913, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">of Yuan Shih-kai as emperor, machinery of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>-<a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">the, of 1915, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>-<a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">records ordered burnt, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Electoral College, provision for, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Emperor,</p>
+			<p class="index1">analysis of powers of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>-<a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Chia Ching, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Ch'ien Lung, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Hsiaouri, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Hsuan Tung, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">K'ang-hsi, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Kwanghsu, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Emperors, immurement of in Forbidden City, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Empire, the dissolution of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Empress,</p>
+			<p class="index1">Lun Yi, death of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Tsu Hsi, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Europe and Asia Trading Co., the, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">European War,</p>
+			<p class="index1">the, its effect in China, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>-<a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">China's predilection for Teutonism, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">consideration of war-partnership with the Allies, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Japan's opposition, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">German propaganda, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Pres. Wilson's Peace Note, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">China's reply, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">the submarine question, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">note to Germany, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">reply to America, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</p>
+			<p><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">363</span></p>
+			<p class="index1">Chinese diplomacy enters a new field, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Japan's policies, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">China considers breaking diplomatic relations with Germany, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Parliament's action, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Germany's reply to China's note, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">diplomatic relations severed, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">German Minister leaves Pekin, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Liang Ch'i-chao's Memorandum, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Kang Yu-wei's Memorandum, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Cabinet decides on war, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">interpellation to the Government, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Parliament mobbed, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Cabinet resigns, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Japan's subterranean activities, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">note of the United States, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">war against Germany declared, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Europeans failed to recognize true state of Chinese government, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>
+			</p>
+			<a name="INDEX_F" id="INDEX_F"></a>
+			<h2>F</h2>
+			<p class="index0">Feng Kuo-chang, Gen., <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>
+				<i>n</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Fengtien, Manchurian province, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Feudal organization of Japan, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Finance,</p>
+			<p class="index1">between the provinces, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">the binding chain between provincial</p>
+			<p class="index1">and metropolitan China, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>-<a href="#Page_9">9</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Financial troubles, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Foochow arsenal, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Forbidden City, immurement of emperors in, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Foreign Debt Commission, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">intervention threatened, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">loan, the first, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">loans, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Foreigners in China, position of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Four-Power group, the, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">France's status after the war, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Franco-Belgian Syndicate, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">French,</p>
+			<p class="index1">diplomacy in China, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">Republic, Goodnow review of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">the, and the Lao-hsi-kai dispute, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">the, Chinese boycott of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index0">Fuhkien province, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>
+			</p>
+			<a name="INDEX_G" id="INDEX_G"></a>
+			<h2>G</h2>
+			<p class="index0">German,</p>
+			<p class="index1">Boxer indemnity, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">diplomatic relations broken, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>-<a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">minister leaves Pekin, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">negotiations with Yuan Shih-kai, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">propaganda in China, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">reply to China's protest, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">war declaration considered, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index0">Germany, war against declared, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Germany's status after the war, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Goodnow, Dr., <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>
+				<i>n</i>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">legal adviser of Yuan Shih-kai, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">memorandum of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>-<a href="#Page_136">136</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Gordon, General, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Government, the Central, definition of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>-<a href="#Page_33">33</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Governmental system of the Manchu dynasty, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Great Britain's status after the war, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>
+			</p>
+			<a name="INDEX_H" id="INDEX_H"></a>
+			<h2>H</h2>
+			<p class="index0">Hankow editor flogged to death, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Hangchow, open port, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Hanyang arsenal, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Hanyehping Company, the, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>
+				<i>n</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Heilungchiang, Manchurian province, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Hioki, Dr., Japanese Minister, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Hsianfu flight, the, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Hsaiochan camp, the, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">Division, the, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Hsiaowu, emperor, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Hsuan Tung,</p>
+			<p class="index1">boy emperor, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">enthroned, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">
+				<i>Huai Chun</i>, the, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Huang Hsin, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Hutuktu, the Living Buddha of Urga, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>
+			</p>
+			<a name="INDEX_I" id="INDEX_I"></a>
+			<h2>I</h2>
+			<p class="index0">Imperial Clan Society, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Imperialist-Republican conflict of 1917, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>-<a href="#Page_272">272</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Inner Mongolia, political unrest in, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Insurrection of the &quot;White Wolfs,&quot; <a href="#Page_47">47</a>
+			</p>
+			<p><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">364</span></p>
+			<p class="index0">International Debt Commission, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">financial contests, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Interpellation to the government on</p>
+			<p class="index1">the question of war with Germany, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Ito, Prince, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>
+			</p>
+			<a name="INDEX_J" id="INDEX_J"></a>
+			<h2>J</h2>
+			<p class="index0">Japan,</p>
+			<p class="index1">and Korea, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>-<a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">and the Kiaochow campaign, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">demands participation in loan, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">demands the Kiaochow territory from Germany, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">feudal organization of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">first Diet summoned, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">forced to revise the Twenty-one Demands, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">forecasts result of European War, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>-<a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">formation of the Shogunate in, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">inquires as to the monarchial movement, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">militarism in, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">receives fugitive President Li Yuan-hung, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">recognizes Yuan Shih-kai as Dictator, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">socialism in, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">the new Far Eastern policy after Russian war, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index0">Japan-China secret alliance proposed, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Japanese,</p>
+			<p class="index1">Constitution first granted, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">driven from Tong Kwan Palace, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">incident at Chengchiatun, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>-<a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">intrigues, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Liberalism vs. Imperialism, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">merchants and Lun Yat Sen, alleged secret agreement, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>-<a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">war indemnity, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>
+				<i>n</i>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">war of 1894, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index0">Japan's,</p>
+			<p class="index1">activities in the Yangtsze Valley, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">account of the Chengchiatun incident, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">alarm at the Chinese revolution, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">animosity towards Yuan Shih-kai, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">attitude toward Yuan Shih-kai, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Chinese policy, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">&quot;Continental quadrilateral,&quot; <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Doctrine of Maximum Pressure, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Far East activities, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>-<a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">German policy, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>
+				<i>n</i>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">government foundry at Wakamatsu, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">influence in China on European war question, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">influence on the monarchial election, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">influence over China's war measures, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">original Twenty-one Demands, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>-<a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Pekin Expeditionary Force, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">police rights in Manchuria, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">political history, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-<a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">pressure on Yuan Shih-kai, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">subterranean activities in China in 1916, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">ultimatum to China, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>-<a href="#Page_91">91</a>; China's reply, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">ultimatum, China's indignation at, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Twenty-four Demands, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>-<a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index0">Jehol, mountain palaces of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index0">Jung Lu, viceroy of Chihli, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>
+			</p>
+			<a name="INDEX_K" id="INDEX_K"></a>
+			<h2>K</h2>
+			<p class="index0">Kameio Nishihara, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Kang Yu Wei, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">K'ang-hsi, emperor, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Kato, Japanese Viscount, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Kawasaki Kulanoske, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Kiaochow campaign,</p>
+			<p class="index1">unpopularity of, in Japan, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">demanded by Japan, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Kirin, Manchurian province, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Kirin-Changchun railway, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Kiushiu, island of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Ko-lao-hui, the, origin of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Korea, the opening of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Korean question, the, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">
+				<i>Kowshing</i>, British steamer, sinking of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Kublai Khan, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Kueichow province, revolt of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Kuomingtang, the, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Kuo-ti,</p>
+			<p class="index1">the question of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>
+			</p>
+			<p><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">365</span></p>
+			<p class="index0">Kwanghsu, emperor, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Kwangsi province, revolt of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Kwangtung revolts against Yuan Shih-kai, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>
+			</p>
+			<a name="INDEX_L" id="INDEX_L"></a>
+			<h2>L</h2>
+			<p class="index0">Lansdowne, Lord, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Lao-hsi-kai dispute, the, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Legations in Pekin,</p>
+			<p class="index1">their attitude towards Yuan Shih-kai, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">inquire as to the monarchial movement, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Li Hung Chang, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Li Lieh-chun, Gen., <a href="#Page_40">40</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Li Yuan-hung, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">elected President, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">assumes the office, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">first presidential acts, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">monarchists plot against him, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">his early life and career, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>-<a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">his position as to breaking diplomatic relations with Germany, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">he dissolves Parliament, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">escapes from Pekin, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">his important telegrams, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Liang Ch'i-chao,</p>
+			<p class="index1">resigns from Ministry of Justice, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">his accusation of Yuan Shih-kai, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>-<a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">his address to Yuan Shih-kai, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>-<a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">opposes the movement, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">directs the Yunnan revolt, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">writes note to Germany on the submarine war, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">his Memorandum on the war question, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">upholds the Republic, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Liang Shih-yi, political power of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">
+				<i>Likin</i> taxation, introduction of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Liu-Kuan-hsiung, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Loan Agreement,</p>
+			<p class="index1">details of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">first foreign, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">foreign, struggles over, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Local Government Law, draft of, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Lu Yun Ting, Gen., <a href="#Page_183">183</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Lun Yi, empress, death of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Lung Chi-Kwang, Gen., <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">created Prince, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Lung Yu, Empress, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>
+			</p>
+			<a name="INDEX_M" id="INDEX_M"></a>
+			<h2>M</h2>
+			<p class="index0">Mahommedan rebellions, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Manchu conquest, the,</p>
+			<p class="index1">of XVIIth Century, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">dynasty, governmental system of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">plots against, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Imperial Family annuity, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">people, number and distribution, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>
+				<i>n</i>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Manchuria,</p>
+			<p class="index1">Chinese domination of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Japan's intrigues in, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>-<a href="#Page_223">223</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Manchurian policy of the Twenty-One</p>
+			<p class="index1">Demands, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Mandate of Cancellation,</p>
+			<p class="index1">the, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Yuan Shih-kai's last, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Manifesto of Gen. Tuan Chi-jui, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Marco Polo, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Marriage, immunity of Chinese women,</p>
+			<p class="index1">with Manchus, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>
+				<i>n</i>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Meiji, Japanese Emperor, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Memorandum,</p>
+			<p class="index1">of Dr. Goodnow, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>-<a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">of policy of the Black Dragon Society, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>-<a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>-<a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">on Tariff Revision, draft of, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Militarism in Japan, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Military Governors,</p>
+			<p class="index1">independence of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">attempt to coerce Parliament, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">leave Pekin, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">assemble in rebellion at Tientsin, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">party opposition to New Republic, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Mining privileges demanded by Japan, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Ministerial irresponsibility, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Modern commercialism, invasion of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Monarchial movement,</p>
+			<p class="index1">Yang Tu's defence of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>-<a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Dr. Goodnow's defence of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>-<a href="#Page_136">136</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Monarchy adopts a new calendar, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Monarchy vs. Republicanism, memorandum</p>
+			<p class="index1">by Dr. Goodnow, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>-<a href="#Page_136">136</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Monetary confusion in the new Republic, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Money the bond of Chinese union, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Mongol conquest, the, of XIIIth Century, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Mongolian policy of the Twenty-one Demands, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>
+			</p>
+			<p><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">366</span></p>
+			<a name="INDEX_N" id="INDEX_N"></a>
+			<h2>N</h2>
+			<p class="index0">Nanking, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">Conference, the, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Delegates, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Provisional Constitution, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">National debt, consolidation of, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Salvation Fund, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Nationalists, the (Kuomingtang), <a href="#Page_206">206</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">New calendar adopted, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">New Republic,</p>
+			<p class="index1">organization of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">opposition of the Military party, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Neutrality position of China, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Ni Shih-chung, Gen., <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Nineteen Articles, the, text of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>-<a href="#Page_298">298</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">Fundamental Articles, the, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>
+			</p>
+			<a name="INDEX_O" id="INDEX_O"></a>
+			<h2>O</h2>
+			<p class="index0">Oath of office, presidential, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Outer Mongolia question, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">autonomy conceded to, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>
+			</p>
+			<a name="INDEX_P" id="INDEX_P"></a>
+			<h2>P</h2>
+			<p class="index0">&quot;Palace of Generals,&quot; <a href="#Page_50">50</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Pamphlet of Yang Tu, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>-<a href="#Page_127">127</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Parliament,</p>
+			<p class="index1">composition of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>
+				<i>n</i>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">provides for election of President, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Radical members unseated, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">session of 1916, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>-<a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">dissensions over dissolution, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">is dissolved, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Parliamentary,</p>
+			<p class="index1">change by the &quot;Constitutional Compact,&quot; <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">struggles, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Peace note, President Wilson's, China's</p>
+			<p class="index1">reply to, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Peace of Portsmouth, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Pekin, distances from, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Peking System vs. Manchu Dynasty, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Permanent Constitution, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">draft of, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Pinghsiang collieries, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Presidential,</p>
+			<p class="index1">Election Law of 1913, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">oath of office, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Succession Law, the, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>; </p>
+			<p class="index1">text of, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Progressives, the (Chinputang), <a href="#Page_206">206</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Provincial capitals, influence and power of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">financial system, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">system of government, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Provisional Constitution of 1912, </p>
+			<p class="index1">text of, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">Nanking Constitution, the, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>
+			</p>
+			<a name="INDEX_R" id="INDEX_R"></a>
+			<h2>R</h2>
+			<p class="index0">Railway concessions demanded by Japan, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">construction, progress of, under Yuan Shih-kai, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Rebellion of 1813, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Referendum arranged for by Senate, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Reform Edicts of 1898, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Religious provisions of &quot;The Constitutional Compact,&quot; <a href="#Page_48">48</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Reorganization loan, the, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Republic proclaimed, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">recognition of by the Powers, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Republic's anniversary, non-observance of, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">review of in Goodnow Memorandum, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Republican-Imperialist Conflict of 1917, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>-<a href="#Page_272">272</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Restoration Edict of Hsuan Tung, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Revolt of February, 1912, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Revolution of 1911, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">effect on Japan, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Revolutionary base at Hankow, Hanyang and Wuchang, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">Party and the Europe and Asia Trading Co. agreement, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Rioting in Pekin, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Russia demands participation in loan, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">recognizes the independence of Tibet, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">agrees to autonomy of Outer Mongolia, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Russian loan, the, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Russia's Chinese policy, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">r&ocirc;le in the Far East, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">status after the war, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Russo-Chinese Agreement of 1913, text of, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">Declaration, the, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">-Mongolian tripartite agreement of 1915, text of, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>
+			</p>
+			<a name="INDEX_S" id="INDEX_S"></a>
+			<h2>S</h2>
+			<p class="index0">Salt Administration, the, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>
+			</p>
+			<p><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">367</span></p>
+			<p class="index0">Santuao harbour, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Secret society plots, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Sectional dispute, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Senate, rules of, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Shanghai, specie hoarded at, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Shansi Bankers, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Shantung and the Twenty-One Demands, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">province, Yuan Shih-kai appointed governor, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Shasi, open port, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Shogunate, establishment of, in Japan, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Six-Power group, the, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Socialism in Japan, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Society for the Preservation of Peace (Chou An Hui), <a href="#Page_111">111</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Soochow, open port, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">South Manchurian railway, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Southern Confederacy formed, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">dissolution of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index1">Rebellion, the, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Special Constitutional Drafting Committee, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Specie payment suspended in Pekin, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Submarine war question, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Sun Yat Sen, Dr., <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">his alleged secret agreement with Japan, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>-<a href="#Page_107">107</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Sung Chiao-jen, assassination of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Sungari River, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Szechuan province revolts against Yuan Shih-kai, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>
+			</p>
+			<a name="INDEX_T" id="INDEX_T"></a>
+			<h2>T</h2>
+			<p class="index0">Taiping rebellion, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Tanaka, Gen., <a href="#Page_261">261</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Taonanfu administration, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Tariff reformation, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Tax collection, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Tayeh iron mines, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Tibet, independence of recognized by Russia, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Tieh Liang, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Tientsin rebellion of the Military Governors, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Tong Kwan Palace, the battle at, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Tong Shao-yi, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Treaty of Shimonoseki, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Treaty-ports, economical effects of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Tsao-ao, Gen., <a href="#Page_178">178</a>-<a href="#Page_181">181</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Tsao Ju-lin, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Tsan Cheng Yuan, passes a &quot;king-making&quot; bill, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Tseng Kuo-fan, Marquis, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Tsung She Tang, the, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Tuan Chi-jui, Gen., <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Tung Fu-hsiang, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Twenty-Four Demands,</p>
+			<p class="index1">Japan's revised, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>-<a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">China's reply to, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-<a href="#Page_88">88</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Twenty-One Demands of Japan, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>-<a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">Japan forced to revise, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">the psychology of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">China's reply to, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>-<a href="#Page_85">85</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Tzu-Hsi, Empress, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>
+			</p>
+			<a name="INDEX_U" id="INDEX_U"></a>
+			<h2>U</h2>
+			<p class="index0">United States, Goodnow's review of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>
+			</p>
+			<a name="INDEX_V" id="INDEX_V"></a>
+			<h2>V</h2>
+			<p class="index0">Viceroy's, prerogatives of in Chinese government, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>
+			</p>
+			<a name="INDEX_W" id="INDEX_W"></a>
+			<h2>W</h2>
+			<p class="index0">Wai Chiao Pu conference, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Wakamatsu, Japanese government foundry at, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Wang Yi-tang, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">War memorandums, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>
+			</p>
+&quot;White Wolfs,&quot; insurrection of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>
+			<br />
+			<p class="index0">Wilson, President, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>
+				<i>n</i>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Wu, C.C., Dr., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Wu Chang-ching, Gen., <a href="#Page_18">18</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Wu Ting-fang, Dr., <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>
+			</p>
+			<a name="INDEX_Y" id="INDEX_Y"></a>
+			<h2>Y</h2>
+			<p class="index0">Yang Tu,</p>
+			<p class="index1">champion of neo-imperialists, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">publisher famous pamphlet, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">the pamphlet, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>-<a href="#Page_127">127</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Yangtsze Valley, Japanese activities in, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Yuan Shih-kai, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">the bailiff of the Powers, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">his early life, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">first emerges into public view, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">in Seoul, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">appointed Imperial Resident at Seoul, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</p>
+			<p><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368"></a>
+			<span class="pagenum">368</span></p>
+			<p class="index1">leaves Korea, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">in command of Hsaiochan camp, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">refuses to depose Empress Tzu-Hsi, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">appointed Governor of Shantung, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">defeats the Boxers, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">made Viceroy of Chihli, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">reorganizes the army, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">made Grand Councillor and President of</p>
+			<p class="index1">the Board of Foreign Affairs, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">made &quot;Senior Guardian of the Heir Apparent,&quot; <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">dismissed from Pekin, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">appointed Viceroy of Hupeh and Hunan, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">appointed President of Grand Council, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">schemes for the abdication of the Manchu Dynasty, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-<a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">attempted, assassination of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">commissioned to organize the Republic, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">elected Provisional President, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">takes oath of office, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">negotiates the Reorganization loan, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">negotiates and controls the great foreign loan, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-<a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">suppresses the Southern rebellion, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">elected full President, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">unseats Radical members of Parliament, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">entices Vice-President to Pekin, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">position strengthened by death of</p>
+			<p class="index1">Empress Lun Yi, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">ruthless suppression of opposition, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">brings out the Constitutional Compact, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">promulgates the Presidential Succession law, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">creates a &quot;Palace of Generals,&quot; <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">negotiates with Germany, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">animosity of Japan, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">his <i>d&eacute;menti</i> of, 1913, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">bribes the Japanese press, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">his Dictatorship recognized by Japan, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">the <i>pr&eacute;cis</i> of Japanese Minister's coercive conversation, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">reviewed in Black Dragon Society's Memorandum, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">intrigues of his family, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">he yields to advocates of monarchy, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">invokes services of Yang-tu, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">his interview with Gen. Feng Kuo-chang, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>
+				<i>n</i>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">his accusation by Liang Chi-chao, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-<a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">throws responsibility on the Senate, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">his Mandate for a referendum, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">elected Emperor, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">substitutes title of Emperor for President, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">refuses, then accepts the throne, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">the revolt of Yunnan, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-<a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">he rehearses court ceremonies, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">his position weakens, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">the communication from Liang Ch'i-chao, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>-<a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">attempts to placate Japan, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">distributes patents of nobility, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">financial troubles, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">issues the Mandate of Cancellation, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">his retirement sought, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">he offers to resign, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">his death, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">his last mandate, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">his funeral, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p>
+			<p class="index1">his policy towards the European War, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>-<a href="#Page_231">231</a>
+			</p>
+			<p class="index0">Yunnan revolt of 1916, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-<a href="#Page_183">183</a>
+			</p>
+		</div>
+	<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FIGHT FOR THE REPUBLIC IN CHINA***</p>
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@@ -0,0 +1,17490 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Fight For The Republic in China, by
+Bertram Lenox Putnam Weale
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Fight For The Republic in China
+
+Author: Bertram Lenox Putnam Weale
+
+Release Date: December 13, 2004  [eBook #14345]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FIGHT FOR THE REPUBLIC IN
+CHINA***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Jonathan Ingram and the Project Gutenberg Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 14345-h.htm or 14345-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/3/4/14345/14345-h/14345-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/3/4/14345/14345-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+THE FIGHT FOR THE REPUBLIC IN CHINA
+
+by
+
+B. L. PUTNAM WEALE
+
+Author of _Indiscreet Letters from Peking_, etc.
+
+With 28 Illustrations
+
+London: Hurst & Blackett, Ltd.
+Paternoster House, E.C.
+
+1918
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: President Li Yuan-Hung.]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This volume tells everything that the student or the casual reader needs
+to know about the Chinese Question. It is sufficiently exhaustive to
+show very clearly the new forces at work, and to bring some realisation
+of the great gulf which separates the thinking classes of to-day from
+the men of a few years ago; whilst, at the same time, it is sufficiently
+condensed not to overwhelm the reader with too great a multitude of
+facts.
+
+Particular attention may be devoted to an unique feature--namely, the
+Chinese and Japanese documentation which affords a sharp contrast
+between varying types of Eastern brains. Thus, in the Memorandum of the
+Black Dragon Society (Chapter VII) we have a very clear and illuminating
+revelation of the Japanese political mind which has been trained to
+consider problems in the modern Western way, but which remains saturated
+with theocratic ideals in the sharpest conflict with the Twentieth
+Century. In the pamphlet of Yang Tu (Chapter VIII) which launched the
+ill-fated Monarchy Scheme and contributed so largely to the dramatic
+death of Yuan Shih-kai, we have an essentially Chinese mentality of the
+reactionary or corrupt type which expresses itself both on home and
+foreign issues in a naively dishonest way, helpful to future diplomacy.
+In the Letter of Protest (Chapter X) against the revival of Imperialism
+written by Liang Ch'i-chao--the most brilliant scholar living--we have a
+Chinese of the New or Liberal China, who in spite of a complete
+ignorance of foreign languages shows a marvellous grasp of political
+absolutes, and is a harbinger of the great days which must come again to
+Cathay. In other chapters dealing with the monarchist plot we see the
+official mind at work, the telegraphic despatches exchanged between
+Peking and the provinces being of the highest diplomatic interest. These
+documents prove conclusively that although the Japanese is more
+practical than the Chinese--and more concise--there can be no question
+as to which brain is the more fruitful.
+
+Coupled with this discussion there is much matter giving an insight into
+the extraordinary and calamitous foreign ignorance about present-day
+China, an ignorance which is just as marked among those resident in the
+country as among those who have never visited it. The whole of the
+material grouped in this novel fashion should not fail to bring
+conviction that the Far East, with its 500 millions of people, is
+destined to play an important role in _postbellum_ history because of
+the new type of modern spirit which is being there evolved. The
+influence of the Chinese Republic, in the opinion of the writer, cannot
+fail to be ultimately world-wide in view of the practically unlimited
+resources in man-power which it disposes of.
+
+In the Appendices will be found every document of importance for the
+period under examination,--1911 to 1917. The writer desires to record
+his indebtedness to the columns of _The Peking Gazette_, a newspaper
+which under the brilliant editorship of Eugene Ch'en--a pure Chinese
+born and educated under the British flag--has fought consistently and
+victoriously for Liberalism and Justice and has made the Republic a
+reality to countless thousands who otherwise would have refused to
+believe in it.
+
+PUTNAM WEALE.
+
+PEKING, June, 1917.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+    I.--GENERAL INTRODUCTION
+
+   II.--THE ENIGMA OF YUAN SHIH-KAI
+
+  III.--THE DREAM REPUBLIC
+        (From the Manchu Abdication to the dissolution of Parliament)
+
+   IV.--THE DICTATOR AT WORK
+        (From the Coup d'etat of the 4th Nov. 1913 to the outbreak of the
+        World-war, 1st August, 1914)
+
+    V.--THE FACTOR OF JAPAN
+
+   VI.--THE TWENTY-ONE DEMANDS
+
+  VII.--THE ORIGIN OF THE TWENTY-ONE DEMANDS
+
+ VIII.--THE MONARCHIST PLOT
+        1st The Pamphlet of Yang Tu
+
+   IX.--THE MONARCHY PLOT
+        2nd Dr. Goodnow's Memorandum
+
+    X.--THE MONARCHY MOVEMENT IS OPPOSED
+        The Appeal of the Scholar Liang Chi-chao
+
+   XI.--THE DREAM EMPIRE
+        ("The People's Voice" and the action of the Powers)
+
+  XII.--"THE THIRD REVOLUTION"
+        The Revolt of Yunnan
+
+ XIII.--"THE THIRD REVOLUTION" (_continued_)
+        Downfall and Death of Yuan Shih-kai
+
+  XIV.--THE NEW REGIME--FROM 1916 TO 1917
+
+   XV.--THE REPUBLIC IN COLLISION WITH REALITY: TWO TYPICAL INSTANCES OF
+        "FOREIGN AGGRESSION"
+
+  XVI.--CHINA AND THE WAR
+
+ XVII.--THE FINAL PROBLEM:--REMODELLING THE POLITICO-ECONOMIC
+        RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHINA AND THE WORLD
+
+        APPENDICES--DOCUMENTS AND MEMORANDA
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+  President Li Yuan-Hung
+
+  The Funeral of Yuan-Shih-kai: The Procession passing down the great
+  Palace Approach with the famous Ch'ien Men (Gate) in the distance
+
+  The Provincial Troops of General Chang Hsun at his Headquarters of
+  Hsuchowfu
+
+  The Funeral of Yuan Shih-kai: The Catafalque over the Coffin on its
+  way to the Railway Station
+
+  The Funeral of Yuan Shih-kai: The Procession passing down the great
+  Palace Approach with the famous Ch'ien Men (Gate) in the distance
+
+  An Encampment of "The Punitive Expedition" of 1916 on the Upper
+  Yangtsze (_By courtesy of Major Isaac Newell, U.S. Military Attache_.)
+
+  Revival of the Imperialistic Worship of Heaven by Yuan Shih-kai in
+  1914: Scene on the Altar of Heaven, with Sacrificial Officers clothed
+  in costumes dating from 2,000 years ago.
+
+  A Manchu Country Fair: The figures in the foreground are all Manchu
+  Women and Girls
+
+  A Manchu Woman grinding Grain
+
+  Silk-reeling done in the open under the Walls of Peking
+
+  Modern Peking: A Run on a Bank
+
+  The Re-opening of Parliament on August 1st, 1916, after three years of
+  dictatorial rule
+
+  The Original Constitutional Drafting Committee of 1913, photographed
+  on the Steps of the Temple of Heaven, where the Draft was completed
+
+  A Presidential Review of Troops in the Southern Hungtung Park outside
+  Peking: Arrival of the President
+
+  President Li Yuan-Hung and the General Staff watching the Review
+
+  March-past of an Infantry Division
+
+  Modern Peking: The Palace Entrance lined with Troops. Note the New
+  Type Chinese Policeman in the foreground
+
+  The Premier General Tuan Chi-Jui, Head of the Cabinet which decided to
+  declare war on Germany General Feng Kuo-chang, President of the
+  Republic The Scholar Liang Chi-chao, sometime Minister of Justice, and
+  the foremost "Brain" in China
+
+  General Tsao-ao, the Hero of the Yunnan Rebellion of 1915-16, who died
+  from the effects of the campaign
+
+  Liang Shih-yi, who was the Power behind Yuan Shih-kai, now proscribed
+  and living in exile at Hong-Kong
+
+  The Famous or Infamous General Chang Hsun, the leading Reactionary in
+  China to-day, who still commands a force of 30,000 men astride of the
+  Pukow Railway
+
+  The Bas-relief in a Peking Temple, well illustrating Indo-Chinese
+  Influences
+
+  The Late President Yuan Shih-kai
+
+  President Yuan Shih-kai photographed immediately after his
+  Inauguration as Provisional President, March 10th, 1912
+
+  The National Assembly sitting as a National Convention engaged on the
+  Draft of the Permanent Constitution. (Specially photographed by
+  permission of the Speakers for the Present Work)
+
+  View from rear of the Hall of the National Assembly sitting as a
+  National Convention engaged on the Draft of the Permanent
+  Constitution. (Specially photographed by permission of the Speakers
+  for the Present Work)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+GENERAL INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The revolution which broke out in China on the 10th October, 1911, and
+which was completed with the abdication of the Manchu Dynasty on the
+12th February, 1912, though acclaimed as highly successful, was in its
+practical aspects something very different. With the proclamation of the
+Republic, the fiction of autocratic rule had truly enough vanished; yet
+the tradition survived and with it sufficient of the essential machinery
+of Imperialism to defeat the nominal victors until the death of Yuan
+Shih-kai.
+
+The movement to expel the Manchus, who had seized the Dragon Throne in
+1644 from the expiring Ming Dynasty, was an old one. Historians are
+silent on the subject of the various secret plots which were always
+being hatched to achieve that end, their silence being due to a lack of
+proper records and to the difficulty of establishing the simple truth in
+a country where rumour reigns supreme. But there is little doubt that
+the famous Ko-lao-hui, a Secret Society with its headquarters in the
+remote province of Szechuan, owed its origin to the last of the Ming
+adherents, who after waging a desperate guerilla warfare from the date
+of their expulsion from Peking, finally fell to the low level of
+inciting assassinations and general unrest in the vain hope that they
+might some day regain their heritage. At least, we know one thing
+definitely: that the attempt on the life of the Emperor Chia Ching in
+the Peking streets at the beginning of the Nineteenth Century was a
+Secret Society plot and brought to an abrupt end the pleasant habit of
+travelling among their subjects which the great Manchu Emperors
+K'ang-hsi and Ch'ien Lung had inaugurated and always pursued and which
+had so largely encouraged the growth of personal loyalty to a foreign
+House.
+
+From that day onwards for over a century no Emperor ventured out from
+behind the frowning Walls of the Forbidden City, save for brief annual
+ceremonies, such as the Worship of Heaven on the occasion of the Winter
+Solstice, and during the two "flights"--first in 1860 when Peking was
+occupied by an Anglo-French expedition and the Court incontinently
+sought sanctuary in the mountain Palaces of Jehol; and, again, in 1900,
+when with the pricking of the Boxer bubble and the arrival of the
+International relief armies, the Imperial Household was forced along the
+stony road to far-off Hsianfu.
+
+The effect of this immurement was soon visible; the Manchu rule, which
+was emphatically a rule of the sword, was rapidly so weakened that the
+emperors became no more than _rois faineants_ at the mercy of their
+minister.[1] The history of the Nineteenth Century is thus logically
+enough the history of successive collapses. Not only did overseas
+foreigners openly thunder at the gateways of the empire and force an
+ingress, but native rebellions were constant and common. Leaving minor
+disturbances out of account, there were during this period two huge
+Mahommedan rebellions, besides the cataclysmic Taiping rising which
+lasted ten years and is supposed to have destroyed the unbelievable
+total of one hundred million persons. The empire, torn by internecine
+warfare, surrendered many of its essential prerogatives to foreigners,
+and by accepting the principle of extraterritoriality prepared the road
+to ultimate collapse.
+
+How in such circumstances was it possible to keep alive absolutism? The
+answer is so curious that we must be explicit and exhaustive.
+
+The simple truth is that save during the period of vigour immediately
+following each foreign conquest (such as the Mongol conquest in the
+Thirteenth Century and the Manchu in the Seventeenth) not only has there
+never been any absolutism properly so-called in China, but that apart
+from the most meagre and inefficient tax-collecting and some
+rough-and-ready policing in and around the cities there has never been
+any true governing at all save what the people did for themselves or
+what they demanded of the officials as a protection against one another.
+Any one who doubts these statements has no inkling of those facts which
+are the crown as well as the foundation of the Chinese group-system, and
+which must be patiently studied in the village-life of the country to be
+fitly appreciated. To be quite frank, absolutism is a myth coming down
+from the days of Kublai Khan when he so proudly built his _Khanbaligh_
+(the Cambaluc of Marco Polo and the forebear of modern Peking) and
+filled it with his troops who so soon vanished like the snows of winter.
+An elaborate pretence, a deliberate policy of make-believe, ever since
+those days invested Imperial Edicts with a majesty which they have never
+really possessed, the effacement of the sovereign during the Nineteenth
+Century contributing to the legend that there existed in the capital a
+Grand and Fearful Panjandrum for whom no miracle was too great and to
+whom people and officials owed trembling obedience.
+
+In reality, the office of Emperor was never more than a
+politico-religious concept, translated for the benefit of the masses
+into socio-economic ordinances. These pronouncements, cast in the form
+of periodic homilies called Edicts, were the ritual of government; their
+purpose was instructional rather than mandatory; they were designed to
+teach and keep alive the State-theory that the Emperor was the High
+Priest of the Nation and that obedience to the morality of the Golden
+Age, which had been inculcated by all the philosophers since Confucius
+and Mencius flourished twenty-five centuries ago, would not only secure
+universal happiness but contribute to national greatness.
+
+The office of Emperor was thus heavenly rather than terrestrial, and
+suasion, not arms, was the most potent argument used in everyday life.
+The amazing reply (_i.e._, amazing to foreigners) made by the great
+Emperor K'ang-hsi in the tremendous Eighteenth Century controversy
+between the Jesuit and the Dominican missionaries, which ruined the
+prospects of China's ever becoming Roman Catholic and which the Pope
+refused to accept--that the custom of ancestor-worship was political and
+not religious--was absolutely correct, _politics in China under the
+Empire being only a system of national control exercised by inculcating
+obedience to forebears_. The great efforts which the Manchus made from
+the end of the Sixteenth Century (when they were still a small
+Manchurian Principality striving for the succession to the Dragon Throne
+and launching desperate attacks on the Great Wall of China) to receive
+from the Dalai Lama, as well as from the lesser Pontiffs of Tibet and
+Mongolia, high-sounding religious titles, prove conclusively that
+dignities other than mere possession of the Throne were held necessary
+to give solidity to a reign which began in militarism and which would
+collapse as the Mongol rule had collapsed by a mere Palace revolution
+unless an effective _moral_ title were somehow won.
+
+Nor was the Manchu military Conquest, even after they had entered
+Peking, so complete as has been represented by historians. The Manchus
+were too small a handful, even with their Mongol and Chinese
+auxiliaries, to do more than defeat the Ming armies and obtain the
+submission of the chief cities of China. It is well-known to students of
+their administrative methods, that whilst they reigned over China they
+_ruled_ only in company with the Chinese, the system in force being a
+dual control which, beginning on the Grand Council and in the various
+great Boards and Departments in the capital, proceeded as far as the
+provincial chief cities, but stopped short there so completely and
+absolutely that the huge chains of villages and burgs had their historic
+autonomy virtually untouched and lived on as they had always lived. The
+elaborate system of examinations, with the splendid official honours
+reserved for successful students which was adopted by the Dynasty, not
+only conciliated Chinese society but provided a vast body of men whose
+interest lay in maintaining the new conquest; and thus Literature, which
+had always been the door to preferment, became not only one of the
+instruments of government, but actually the advocate of an alien rule.
+With their persons and properties safe, and their women-folk protected
+by an elaborate set of capitulations from being requisitioned for the
+harems of the invaders, small wonder if the mass of Chinese welcomed a
+firm administration after the frightful disorders which had torn the
+country during the last days of the Mings.[2]
+
+It was the foreigner, arriving in force in China after the capture of
+Peking and the ratification of the Tientsin Treaties in 1860, who so
+greatly contributed to making the false idea of Manchu absolutism
+current throughout the world; and in this work it was the foreign
+diplomat, coming to the capital saturated with the tradition of European
+absolutism, who played a not unimportant part. Investing the Emperors
+with an authority with which they were never really clothed, save for
+ceremonial purposes (principally perhaps because the Court was entirely
+withdrawn from view and very insolent in its foreign intercourse) a
+conception of High Mightiness was spread abroad reminiscent of the awe
+in which Eighteenth Century nabobs spoke of the Great Mogul of India.
+Chinese officials, quickly discovering that their easiest means of
+defence against an irresistible pressure was to take refuge behind the
+august name of the sovereign, played their role so successfully that
+until 1900 it was generally believed by Europeans that no other form of
+government than a despotism _sans phrase_ could be dreamed of. Finding
+that on the surface an Imperial Decree enjoyed the majesty of an Ukaze
+of the Czar, Europeans were ready enough to interpret as best suited
+their enterprises something which they entirely failed to construe in
+terms expressive of the negative nature of Chinese civilization; and so
+it happened that though the government of China had become no
+government at all from the moment that extraterritoriality destroyed the
+theory of Imperial inviolability and infallibility, the miracle of
+turning state negativism into an active governing element continued to
+work after a fashion because of the disguise which the immense distances
+afforded.
+
+Adequately to explain the philosophy of distance in China, and what it
+has meant historically, would require a whole volume to itself; but it
+is sufficient for our purpose to indicate here certain prime essentials.
+The old Chinese were so entrenched in their vastnesses that without the
+play of forces which were supernatural to them, _i.e._, the
+steam-engine, the telegraph, the armoured war-vessel, etc., their daily
+lives could not be affected. Left to themselves, and assisted by their
+own methods, they knew that blows struck across the immense roadless
+spaces were so diminished in strength, by the time they reached the spot
+aimed at, that they became a mere mockery of force; and, just because
+they were so valueless, paved the way to effective compromises. Being
+adepts in the art which modern surgeons have adopted, of leaving wounds
+as far as possible to heal themselves, they trusted to time and to
+nature to solve political differences which western countries boldly
+attacked on very different principles. Nor were they wrong in their
+view. From the capital to the Yangtsze Valley (which is the heart of the
+country), is 800 miles, that is far more than the mileage between Paris
+and Berlin. From Peking to Canton is 1,400 miles along a hard and
+difficult route; the journey to Yunnan by the Yangtsze river is
+upwards of 2,000 miles, a distance greater than the greatest march
+ever undertaken by Napoleon. And when one speaks of the Outer
+Dominions--Mongolia, Tibet, Turkestan--for these hundreds of miles
+it is necessary to substitute thousands, and add thereto difficulties
+of terrain which would have disheartened even Roman Generals.
+
+Now the old Chinese, accepting distance as the supreme thing, had made
+it the starting-point as well as the end of their government. In the
+perfected viceregal system which grew up under the Ming Dynasty, and
+which was taken over by the Manchus as a sound and admirable governing
+principle, though they superimposed their own military system of Tartar
+Generals, we have the plan that nullified the great obstacle. Authority
+of every kind was _delegated_ by the Throne to various distant governing
+centuries in a most complete and sweeping manner, each group of
+provinces, united under a viceroy, being in everything but name so many
+independent linked commonwealths, called upon for matricular
+contributions in money and grain but otherwise left severely alone[3].
+The chain which bound provincial China to the metropolitan government
+was therefore in the last analysis finance and nothing but finance; and
+if the system broke down in 1911 it was because financial reform--to
+discount the new forces of which the steam engine was the symbol--had
+been attempted, like military reform, both too late and in the wrong
+way, and instead of strengthening, had vastly weakened the authority of
+the Throne.
+
+In pursuance of the reform-plan which became popular after the Boxer
+Settlement had allowed the court to return to Peking from Hsianfu, the
+viceroys found their most essential prerogative, which was the control
+of the provincial purse, largely taken from them and handed over to
+Financial Commissioners who were directly responsible to the Peking
+Ministry of Finance, a Department which was attempting to replace the
+loose system of matricular contributions by the European system of a
+directly controlled taxation every penny of which would be shown in an
+annual Budget. No doubt had time been vouchsafed, and had European help
+been enlisted on a large scale, this change could ultimately have been
+made successful. But it was precisely time which was lacking; and the
+Manchus consequently paid the penalty which is always paid by those who
+delay until it is too late. The old theories having been openly
+abandoned, it needed only the promise of a Parliament completely to
+destroy the dignity of the Son of Heaven, and to leave the viceroys as
+mere hostages in the hands of rebels. A few short weeks of rebellion was
+sufficient in 1911 to cause the provinces to revert to their condition
+of the earlier centuries when they had been vast unfettered agricultural
+communities. And once they had tasted the joys of this new independence,
+it was impossible to conceive of their becoming "obedient" again.
+
+Here another word of explanation is necessary to show clearly the
+precise meaning of regionalism in China.
+
+What had originally created each province was the chief city in each
+region, such cities necessarily being the walled repositories of all
+increment. Greedy of territory to enhance their wealth, and jealous of
+their power, these provincial capitals throughout the ages had left no
+stone unturned to extend their influence in every possible direction and
+bring under their economic control as much land as possible, a fact
+which is abundantly proved by the highly diversified system of weights
+and measures throughout the land deliberately drawn-up to serve as
+economic barriers. River-courses, mountain-ranges, climate and soil, no
+doubt assisted in governing this expansion, but commercial and financial
+greed was the principal force. Of this we have an exceedingly
+interesting and conclusive illustration in the struggle still proceeding
+between the three Manchurian provinces, Fengtien, Kirin and
+Heilungchiang, to seize the lion's share of the virgin land of Eastern
+Inner Mongolia which has an "open frontier" of rolling prairies. Having
+the strongest provincial capital--Moukden--it has been Fengtien province
+which has encroached on the Mongolian grasslands to such an extent that
+its jurisdiction to-day envelops the entire western flank of Kirin
+province (as can be seen in the latest Chinese maps) in the form of a
+salamander, effectively preventing the latter province from controlling
+territory that geographically belongs to it. In the same way in the
+land-settlement which is still going on the Mongolian plateau
+immediately above Peking, much of what should be Shansi territory has
+been added to the metropolitan province of Chihli. Though adjustments of
+provincial boundaries have been summarily made in times past, in the
+main the considerations we have indicated have been the dominant factors
+in determining the area of each unit.
+
+Now in many provinces where settlement is age-old, the regionalism which
+results from great distances and bad communications has been greatly
+increased by race-admixture. Canton province, which was largely settled
+by Chinese adventurers sailing down the coast from the Yangtsze and
+intermarrying with Annamese and the older autochthonous races, has a
+population-mass possessing very distinct characteristics, which sharply
+conflict with Northern traits. Fuhkien province is not only as
+diversified but speaks a dialect which is virtually a foreign language.
+And so on North and West of the Yangtsze it is the same story,
+temperamental differences of the highest political importance being
+everywhere in evidence and leading to perpetual bickerings and
+jealousies. For although Chinese civilization resembles in one great
+particular the Mahommedan religion, in that it accepts without question
+all adherents irrespective of racial origin, _politically_ the effect of
+this regionalism has been such that up to very recent times the Central
+Government has been almost as much a foreign government in the eyes of
+many provinces as the government of Japan. Money alone formed the bond
+of union; so long as questions of taxation were not involved, Peking was
+as far removed from daily life as the planet Mars.
+
+As we are now able to see very clearly, fifty years ago--that is at the
+time of the Taiping Rebellion--the old power and spell of the National
+Capital as a military centre had really vanished. Though in ancient days
+horsemen armed with bows and lances could sweep like a tornado over the
+land, levelling everything save the walled cities, in the Nineteenth
+Century such methods had become impossible. Mongolia and Manchuria had
+also ceased to be inexhaustible reservoirs of warlike men; the more
+adjacent portions had become commercialized; whilst the outer regions
+had sunk to depopulated graziers' lands. The Government, after the
+collapse of the Rebellion, being greatly impoverished, had openly fallen
+to balancing province against province and personality against
+personality, hoping that by some means it would be able to regain its
+prestige and a portion of its former wealth. Taking down the ledgers
+containing the lists of provincial contributions, the mandarins of
+Peking completely revised every schedule, redistributed every weight,
+and saw to it that the matricular levies should fall in such a way as to
+be crushing. The new taxation, _likin_, which, like the income-tax in
+England, is in origin purely a war-tax, by gripping inter-provincial
+commerce by the throat and rudely controlling it by the barrier-system,
+was suddenly disclosed as a new and excellent way of making felt the
+menaced sovereignty of the Manchus; and though the system was plainly a
+two-edged weapon, the first edge to cut was the Imperial edge; that is
+largely why for several decades after the Taipings China was relatively
+quiet.
+
+Time was also giving birth to another important development--important
+in the sense that it was to prove finally decisive. It would have been
+impossible for Peking, unless men of outstanding genius had been living,
+to have foreseen that not only had the real bases of government now
+become entirely economic control, but that the very moment that control
+faltered the central government of China would openly and absolutely
+cease to be any government at all. Modern commercialism, already
+invading China at many points through the medium of the treaty-ports,
+was a force which in the long run could not be denied. Every year that
+passed tended to emphasize the fact that modern conditions were cutting
+Peking more and more adrift from the real centres of power--the economic
+centres which, with the single exception of Tientsin, lie from 800 to
+1,500 miles away. It was these centres that were developing
+revolutionary ideas--_i.e._, ideas at variance with the Socio-economic
+principles on which the old Chinese commonwealth had been slowly built
+up, and which foreign dynasties such as the Mongol and the Manchu had
+never touched. The Government of the post-Taiping period still imagined
+that by making their hands lie more heavily than ever on the people and
+by tightening the taxation control--not by true creative work--they
+could rehabilitate themselves.
+
+It would take too long, and would weary the indulgence of the reader to
+establish in a conclusive manner this thesis which had long been a
+subject of inquiry on the part of political students. Chinese society,
+being essentially a society organized on a credit-co-operative system,
+so nicely adjusted that money, either coined or fiduciary, was not
+wanted save for the petty daily purchases of the people, any system
+which boldly clutched the financial establishments undertaking the
+movement of _sycee_ (silver) from province to province for the
+settlement of trade-balances, was bound to be effective so long as those
+financial establishments remained unshaken.
+
+The best known establishments, united in the great group known as the
+Shansi Bankers, being the government bankers, undertook not only all the
+remittances of surpluses to Peking, but controlled by an intricate
+pass-book system the perquisites of almost every office-holder in the
+empire. No sooner did an official, under the system which had grown up,
+receive a provincial appointment than there hastened to him a
+confidential clerk of one of these accommodating houses, who in the name
+of his employers advanced all the sums necessary for the payment of the
+official's post, and then proceeded with him to his province so that
+moiety by moiety, as taxation flowed in, advances could be paid off and
+the equilibrium re-established. A very intimate and far-reaching
+connection thus existed between provincial money-interests and the
+official classes. The practical work of governing China was the
+balancing of tax-books and native bankers' accounts. Even the
+"melting-houses," where _sycee_ was "standardized" for provincial use,
+were the joint enterprises of officials and merchants; bargaining
+governing every transaction; and only when a violent break occurred in
+the machinery, owing to famine or rebellion, did any other force than
+money intervene.
+
+There was nothing exceptional in these practices, in the use of which
+the old Chinese empire was merely following the precedent of the Roman
+Empire. The vast polity that was formed before the time of Christ by the
+military and commercial expansion of Rome in the Mediterranean Basin,
+and among the wild tribes of Northern Europe, depended very largely on
+the genius of Italian financiers and tax-collectors to whom the revenues
+were either directly "farmed," or who "assisted" precisely after the
+Chinese method in financing officials and local administrations, and in
+replenishing a central treasury which no wealth could satisfy. The
+Chinese phenomenon was therefore in no sense new; the dearth of coined
+money and the variety of local standards made the methods used economic
+necessities. The system was not in itself a bad system: its fatal
+quality lay in its woodenness, its lack of adaptability, and in its
+growing weakness in the face of foreign competition which it could never
+understand. Foreign competition--that was the enemy destined to achieve
+an overwhelming triumph and dash to ruins a hoary survival.
+
+War with Japan sounded the first trumpet-blast which should have been
+heeded. In the year 1894, being faced with the necessity of finding
+immediately a large sum of specie for purpose of war, the native bankers
+proclaimed their total inability to do so, and the first great foreign
+loan contract was signed.[4] Little attention was attracted to what is a
+turning-point in Chinese history. There cannot be the slightest doubt
+that in 1894 the Manchus wrote the first sentences of an abdication
+which was only formally pronounced in 1912: they had inaugurated the
+financial thraldom under which China still languishes. Within a period
+of forty months, in order to settle the disastrous Japanese war, foreign
+loans amounting to nearly fifty-five million pounds were completed. This
+indebtedness, amounting to nearly three times the "visible" annual
+revenues of the country--that is, the revenues actually accounted for to
+Peking--was unparalleled in Chinese history. It was a gold indebtedness
+subject to all sorts of manipulations which no Chinese properly
+understood. It had special political meaning and special political
+consequences because the loans were virtually guaranteed by the Powers.
+It was a long-drawn _coup d'etat_ of a nature that all foreigners
+understood because it forged external chains.
+
+The _internal_ significance was even greater than the external. The
+loans were secured on the most important "direct" revenues reaching
+Peking--the Customs receipts, which were concerned with the most vital
+function in the new economic life springing up, the steam-borne coasting
+and river-trade as well as the purely foreign trade. That most vital
+function tended consequently to become more and more hall-marked as
+foreign; it no longer depended in any direct sense on Peking for
+protection. The hypothecation of these revenues to foreigners for
+periods running into decades--coupled with their administration by
+foreigners--was such a distinct restriction of the rights of eminent
+domain as to amount to a partial abrogation of sovereignty.
+
+That this was vaguely understood by the masses is now quite certain. The
+Boxer movement of 1900, like the great proletarian risings which
+occurred in Italy in the pre-Christian era as a result of the
+impoverishment and moral disorder brought about by Roman misgovernment,
+was simply a socio-economic catastrophe exhibiting itself in an
+unexpected form. The dying Manchu dynasty, at last in open despair,
+turned the revolt, insanely enough, against the foreigner--that is
+against those who already held the really vital portion of their
+sovereignty. So far from saving itself by this act, the dynasty wrote
+another sentence in its death-warrant. Economically the Manchus had been
+for years almost lost; the Boxer indemnities were the last straw. By
+more than doubling the burden of foreign commitments, and by placing the
+operation of the indemnities directly in the hands of foreign bankers by
+the method of monthly quotas, payable in Shanghai, _the Peking
+Government as far back as fifteen years ago was reduced to being a
+government at thirty days' sight, at the mercy of any shock of events
+which could be protracted over a few monthly settlements_. There is no
+denying this signal fact, which is probably the most remarkable
+illustration of the restrictive power of money which has ever been
+afforded in the history of Asia.
+
+The phenomenon, however, was complex and we must be careful to
+understand its workings. A mercantile curiosity, to find the parallel
+for which we must go back to the Middle Ages in Europe, when "free
+cities" such as those of the Hanseatic League plentifully
+dotted river and coast line, served to increase the general difficulties
+of a situation which no one formula could adequately cover.
+Extraterritoriality, by creating the "treaty port" in China, had been
+the most powerful weapon in undermining native economics; yet at the
+same time it had been the agent for creating powerful new
+counter-balancing interests. Though the increasingly large groups of
+foreigners, residing under their own laws, and building up, under their
+own specially protected system of international exchange, a new and
+imposing edifice, had made the hovel-like nature of Chinese economics
+glaringly evident, the mercantile classes of the New China, being always
+quick to avail themselves of money-making devices, had not only taken
+shelter under this new and imposing edifice, but were rapidly extending
+it of their own accord. In brief, the trading Chinese were identifying
+themselves and their major interests with the treaty-ports; they were
+transferring thither their specie and their credits; making huge
+investments in land and properties, under the aegis of foreign flags in
+which they absolutely trusted. The money-interests of the country knew
+instinctively that the native system was doomed and that with this doom
+there would come many changes; these interests, in the way common to
+money all the world over, were insuring themselves against the
+inevitable.
+
+The force of this--politically--became finally evident in 1911; and what
+we have said in our opening sentences should now be clear. The Chinese
+Revolution was an emotional rising against the Peking System because it
+was a bad and inefficient and retrograde system, just as much as against
+the Manchus, who after all had adopted purely Chinese methods and who
+were no more foreigners than Scotchmen or Irishmen are foreigners to-day
+in England. The Revolution of 1911 derived its meaning and its value--as
+well as its mandate--not from what it proclaimed, but for what it stood
+for. Historically, 1911 was the lineal descendant of 1900, which again
+was the offspring of the economic collapse advertised by the great
+foreign loans of the Japanese war, loans made necessary because the
+Taipings had disclosed the complete disappearance of the only _raison
+d'etre_ of Peking sovereignty, _i.e._ the old-time military power. The
+story is, therefore, clear and well-connected and so logical in its
+results that it has about it a finality suggesting the unrolling of the
+inevitable.
+
+During the Revolution the one decisive factor was shown to be almost at
+once--money, nothing but money. The pinch was felt at the end of the
+first thirty days. Provincial remittances ceased; the Boxer quotas
+remained unpaid; a foreign embargo was laid upon the Customs funds. The
+Northern troops, raised and trained by Yuan Shih-kai, when he was
+Viceroy of the Metropolitan province, were, it is true, proving
+themselves the masters of the Yangtsze and South China troops; yet that
+circumstance was meaningless. Those troops were fighting for what had
+already proved itself a lost cause--the Peking System, as well as the
+Manchu dynasty. The fight turned more and more into a money-fight. It
+was foreign money which brought about the first truce and the transfer
+of the so-called republican government from Nanking to Peking. In the
+strictest sense of the words every phase of the settlement then arrived
+at was a settlement in terms of cash.[5]
+
+Had means existed for rapidly replenishing the Chinese Treasury without
+having recourse to European stockmarkets (whose actions are
+semi-officially controlled when distant regions are involved) the
+Republic might have fared better. But placed almost at once through
+foreign dictation under a species of police-control, which while
+nominally derived from Western conceptions, was primarily designed to
+rehabilitate the semblance of the authority which had been so
+sensationally extinguished, the Republic remained only a dream; and the
+world, taught to believe that there could be no real stability until the
+scheme of government approximated to the conception long formed of
+Peking absolutism, waited patiently for the rude awakening which came
+with the Yuan Shih-kai _coup d'etat_ of 4th November, 1913. Thus we had
+this double paradox; on the one hand the Chinese people awkwardly trying
+to be western in a Chinese way and failing: on the other, foreign
+officials and foreign governments trying to be Chinese and making the
+confusion worse confounded. It was inevitable in such circumstances
+that the history of the past six years should have been the history of a
+slow tragedy, and that almost every page should be written over with the
+name of the man who was the selected bailiff of the Powers--Yuan
+Shih-kai.
+
+[Illustration: The Funeral of Yuan Shih-kai: The Procession passing
+down the great Palace Approach, with the famous Ch'ien Men (Gate) in the
+distance.]
+
+[Illustration: The Provincial Troops of General Chang Hsun at his
+Headquarters of Hsuchowfu.]
+
+[Illustration: The Funeral of Yuan Shih-kai: The Catafalque over the
+Coffin on its way to the Railway Station.]
+
+[Illustration: The Funeral of Yuan Shih-kai: The Procession passing down
+the great Palace Approach, with the famous Ch'ien Men (Gate) in the
+distance.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] As there is a good deal of misunderstanding on the subject of the
+Manchus an explanatory note is useful.
+
+The Manchu people, who belong to the Mongol or Turanian Group, number at
+the maximum five million souls. Their distribution at the time of the
+revolution of 1911 was roughly as follows: In and around Peking say two
+millions; in posts through China say one-half million,--or possibly
+three-quarters of a million; in Manchuria Proper--the home of the
+race--say two or two and a half millions. The fighting force was
+composed in this fashion: When Peking fell into their hands in 1644 as a
+result of a stratagem combined with dissensions among the Chinese
+themselves, the entire armed strength was reorganized in Eight Banners
+or Army Corps, each corps being composed of three racial divisions, (1)
+pure Manchus, (2) Mongols who had assisted in the conquest and (3)
+Northern Chinese who had gone over to the conquerors. These Eight
+Banners, each commanded by an "iron-capped" Prince, represented the
+authority of the Throne and had their headquarters in Peking with small
+garrisons throughout the provinces at various strategic centres. These
+garrisons had entirely ceased to have any value before the 18th Century
+had closed and were therefore purely ceremonial and symbolic, all the
+fighting being done by special Chinese corps which were raised as
+necessity arose.
+
+[2] This most interesting point--the immunity of Chinese women from
+forced marriage with Manchus--has been far too little noticed by
+historians though it throws a flood of light on the sociological aspects
+of the Manchu conquest. Had that conquest been absolute it would have
+been impossible for the Chinese people to have protected their
+women-folk in such a significant way.
+
+[3] A very interesting proof--and one that has never been properly
+exposed--of the astoundingly rationalistic principles on which the
+Chinese polity is founded is to be seen in the position of priesthoods
+in China. Unlike every other civilization in the world, at no stage of
+the development of the State has it been necessary for religion in China
+to intervene between the rulers and the ruled, saving the people from
+oppression. In Europe without the supernatural barrier of the Church,
+the position of the common people in the Middle Ages would have been
+intolerable, and life, and virtue totally unprotected. Buckle, in his
+"History of Civilization," like other extreme radicals, has failed to
+understand that established religions have paradoxically been most
+valuable because of their vast secular powers, exercised under the mask
+of spiritual authority. Without this ghostly restraint rulers would have
+been so oppressive as to have destroyed their peoples. The two greatest
+monuments to Chinese civilization, then consist of these twin facts;
+first, that the Chinese have never had the need for such supernatural
+restraints exercised by a privileged body, and secondly, that they are
+absolutely without any feeling of class or caste--prince and pauper
+meeting on terms of frank and humorous equality--the race thus being the
+only pure and untinctured democracy the world has ever known.
+
+[4] (a) This loan was the so-called 7 per cent. Silver loan of 1894 for
+Shanghai Taels 10,000,000 negotiated by the Hongkong & Shanghai Bank. It
+was followed in 1895 by a L3,000,000 Gold 6 per cent. Loan, then by two
+more 6 per cent. loans for a million each in the same year, making a
+total of L6,635,000 sterling for the bare war-expenses. The Japanese war
+indemnity raised in three successive issues--from 1895 to 1898--of
+L16,000,000 each, added L48,000,000. Thus the Korean imbroglio cost
+China nearly 55 millions sterling. As the purchasing power of the
+sovereign is eight times larger in China than in Europe, this debt
+economically would mean 440 millions in England--say nearly double what
+the ruinous South African war cost. It is by such methods of comparison
+that the vital nature of the economic factor in recent Chinese history
+is made clear.
+
+[5] There is no doubt that the so-called Belgian loan, L1,800,000 of
+which was paid over in cash at the beginning of 1912, was the instrument
+which brought every one to terms.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE ENIGMA OF YUAN SHIH-KAI
+
+THE HISTORY OF THE MAN FROM THE OPENING OF HIS CAREER IN KOREA IN 1882
+TO THE END OF THE REVOLUTION, 12TH FEBRUARY, 1912
+
+
+Yuan Shih-kai's career falls into two clear-cut parts, almost as if it
+had been specially arranged for the biographer; there is the
+probationary period in Korea, and the executive in North China. The
+first is important only because of the moulding-power which early
+influences exerted on the man's character; but it is interesting in
+another way since it affords glimpses of the sort of things which
+affected this leader's imagination throughout his life and finally
+brought him to irretrievable ruin. The second-period is choke-full of
+action; and over every chapter one can see the ominous point of
+interrogation which was finally answered in his tragic political and
+physical collapse.
+
+Yuan Shih-kai's origin, without being precisely obscure, is unimportant.
+He came of a Honanese family who were nothing more distinguished than
+farmers possessing a certain amount of land, but not too much of the
+world's possessions. The boy probably ran wild in the field at an age
+when the sons of high officials and literati were already pale and
+anaemic from over-much study. To some such cause the man undoubtedly
+owed his powerful physique, his remarkable appetite, his general
+roughness. Native biographers state that as a youth he failed to pass
+his _hsiu-tsai_ examinations--the lowest civil service degree--because
+he had spent too much time in riding and boxing and fencing. An uncle in
+official life early took charge of him; and when this relative died the
+young man displayed filial piety in accompanying the corpse back to the
+family graves and in otherwise manifesting grief. Through official
+connections a place was subsequently found for him in that public
+department under the Manchus which may be called the military
+intendancy, and it was through this branch of the civil service that he
+rose to power. Properly speaking Yuan Shih-kai was never an
+army-officer; he was a military official--his highest rank later on
+being that of military judge, or better, Judicial Commissioner.
+
+Yuan Shih-kai first emerges into public view in 1882 when, as a sequel
+to the opening of Korea through the action of foreign Powers in forcing
+the then Hermit kingdom to sign commercial treaties, China began
+dispatching troops to Seoul. Yuan Shih-kai, with two other officers,
+commanding in all some 3,000 men, arrived from Shantung, where he had
+been in the train of a certain General Wu Chang-ching, and now encamped
+in the Korean capital nominally to preserve order, but in reality, to
+enforce the claims of the suzerain power. For the Peking Government had
+never retreated from the position that Korea had been a vassal state
+ever since the Ming Dynasty had saved the country from the clutches of
+Hideyoshi and his Japanese invaders in the Sixteenth Century. Yuan
+Shih-kai had been personally recommended by this General Wu Chang-ching
+as a young man of ability and energy to the famous Li Hung Chang, who as
+Tientsin Viceroy and High Commissioner for the Northern Seas was
+responsible for the conduct of Korean affairs. The future dictator of
+China was then only twenty-five years old.
+
+His very first contact with practical politics gave him a peculiar
+manner of viewing political problems. The arrival of Chinese troops in
+Seoul marked the beginning of that acute rivalry with Japan which
+finally culminated in the short and disastrous war of 1894-95. China, in
+order to preserve her influence in Korea against the growing influence
+of Japan, intrigued night and day in the Seoul Palaces, allying herself
+with the Conservative Court party which was led by the notorious Korean
+Queen who was afterwards assassinated. The Chinese agents aided and
+abetted the reactionary group, constantly inciting them to attack the
+Japanese and drive them out of the country.
+
+Continual outrages were the consequence. The Japanese legation was
+attacked and destroyed by the Korean mob not once but on several
+occasions during a decade which furnishes one of the most amazing
+chapters in the history of Asia. Yuan Shih-kai, being then merely a
+junior general officer under the orders of the Chinese Imperial
+Resident, is of no particular importance; but it is significant of the
+man that he should suddenly come well under the limelight on the first
+possible occasion. On 6th December, 1884, leading 2,000 Chinese troops,
+and acting in concert with 3,000 Korean soldiers, he attacked the Tong
+Kwan Palace in which the Japanese Minister and his staff, protected by
+two companies of Japanese infantry, had taken refuge owing to the
+threatening state of affairs in the capital. Apparently there was no
+particular plan--it was the action of a mob of soldiery tumbling into a
+political brawl and assisted by their officers for reasons which appear
+to-day nonsensical. The sequel was, however, extraordinary. The Japanese
+held the Palace gates as long as possible, and then being desperate
+exploded a mine which killed numbers of Koreans and Chinese soldiery and
+threw the attack into confusion. They then fought their way out of the
+city escaping ultimately to the nearest sea-port, Chemulpo.
+
+The explanation of this extraordinary episode has never been made
+public. The practical result was that after a period of extreme tension
+between China and Japan which was expected to lead to war, that
+political genius, the late Prince Ito, managed to calm things down and
+arrange workable _modus vivendi_. Yuan Shih-kai, who had gone to
+Tientsin to report in person to Li Hung Chang, returned to Seoul
+triumphantly in October, 1885, as Imperial Resident. He was then
+twenty-eight years old; he had come to the front, no matter by what
+means, in a quite remarkable manner.
+
+The history of the next nine years furnishes plenty of minor incidents,
+but nothing of historic importance. As the faithful lieutenant of Li
+Hung Chang, Yuan Shih-kai's particular business was simply to combat
+Japanese influence and hold the threatened advance in check. He failed,
+of course, since he was playing a losing game; and yet he succeeded
+where he undoubtedly wished to succeed. By rendering faithful service
+he established the reputation he wished to win; and though he did
+nothing great he retained his post right up to the act which led to the
+declaration of war in 1894. Whether he actually precipitated that war is
+still a matter of opinion. On the sinking by the Japanese fleet of the
+British steamer _Kowshing_, which was carrying Chinese reinforcements
+from Taku anchorage to Asan Bay to his assistance, seeing that the game
+was up, he quietly left the Korean capital and made his way overland to
+North China. That swift, silent journey home ends the period of his
+novitiate.
+
+It took him a certain period to weather the storm which the utter
+collapse of China in her armed encounter with Japan brought about--and
+particularly to obtain forgiveness for evacuating Seoul without orders.
+Technically his offence was punishable by death--the old Chinese code
+being most stringent in such matters. But by 1896 he was back in favour
+again, and through the influence of his patron Li Hung Chang, he was at
+length appointed in command of the Hsiaochan camp near Tientsin, where
+he was promoted and given the task of reforming a division of old-style
+troops and making them as efficient as Japanese soldiery. He had already
+earned a wide reputation for severity, for willingness to accept
+responsibility, for nepotism, and for a rare ability to turn even
+disasters to his own advantage--all attributes which up to the last
+moment stood him in good stead.
+
+In the Hsiaochan camp the most important chapter of his life opens;
+there is every indication that he fully realized it. Tientsin has always
+been the gateway to Peking: from there the road to high preferment is
+easily reached. Yuan Shih-kai marched steadily forward, taking the very
+first turning-point in a manner which stamped him for many of his
+compatriots in a way which can never be obliterated.
+
+It is first necessary to say a word about the troops of his command,
+since this has a bearing on present-day politics. The bulk of the
+soldiery were so-called _Huai Chun_--_i.e._, nominally troops from the
+Huai districts, just south of Li Hung Chang's native province Anhui.
+These Kiangu men, mixed with Shantung recruits, had earned a historic
+place in the favour of the Manchus owing to the part they had played in
+the suppression of the Taiping Rebellion, in which great event General
+Gordon and Li Hung Chang had been so closely associated. They and the
+troops of Hunan province, led by the celebrated Marquis Tseng Kuo-fan,
+were "the loyal troops," resembling the Sikhs during the Indian Mutiny;
+they were supposed to be true to their salt to the last man. Certainly
+they gave proofs of uncustomary fidelity.
+
+In those military days of twenty years ago Yuan Shih-kai and his
+henchmen were, however, concerned with simpler problems. It was then a
+question of drill and nothing but drill. In his camp near Tientsin the
+future President of the Chinese Republic succeeded in reorganizing his
+troops so well that in a very short time the Hsiaochan Division became
+known as a _corps d'elite_. The discipline was so stern that there were
+said to be only two ways of noticing subordinates, either by promoting
+or beheading them. Devoting himself to his task Yuan Shih-kai gave
+promise of being able to handle much bigger problems.
+
+His zeal soon attracted the attention of the Manchu Court. The
+circumstances in Peking at that time were peculiar. The famous old
+Empress Dowager, Tzu-hsi, after the Japanese war, had greatly relaxed
+her hold on the Emperor Kwanghsu, who though still in subjection to her,
+nominally governed the empire. A well-intentioned but weak man, he had
+surrounded himself with advanced scholars, led by the celebrated Kang Yu
+Wei, who daily studied with him and filled him with new doctrines,
+teaching him to believe that if he would only exert his power he might
+rescue the nation from international ignominy and make for himself an
+imperishable name.
+
+The sequel was inevitable. In 1898 the oriental world was electrified by
+the so-called Reform Edicts, in which the Emperor undertook to modernize
+China, and in which he exhorted the nation to obey him. The greatest
+alarm was created in Court circles by this action; the whole vast body
+of Metropolitan officialdom, seeing its future threatened, flooded the
+Palace of the Empress Dowager with Secret Memorials praying her to
+resume power. Flattered, she gave her secret assent.
+
+Things marched quickly after that. The Empress, nothing loth, began
+making certain dispositions. Troops were moved, men were shifted here
+and there in a way that presaged action; and the Emperor, now
+thoroughly alarmed and yielding to the entreaties of his followers, sent
+two members of the Reform Party to Yuan Shih-kai bearing an alleged
+autograph order for him to advance instantly on Peking with all his
+troops; to surround the Palace, to secure the person of the Emperor from
+all danger, and then to depose the Empress Dowager for ever from power.
+What happened is equally well-known. Yuan Shih-kai, after an exhaustive
+examination of the message and messengers, as well as other attempts to
+substantiate the genuineness of the appeal, communicated its nature to
+the then Viceroy of Chihli, the Imperial Clansman Jung Lu, whose
+intimacy with the Empress Dowager since the days of her youth has passed
+into history. Jung Lu lost no time in acting. He beheaded the two
+messengers and personally reported the whole plot to the Empress Dowager
+who was already fully warned. The result was the so-called _coup d'etat_
+of September, 1898, when all the Reformers who had not fled were
+summarily executed, and the Emperor Kwanghsu himself closely imprisoned
+in the Island Palace within that portion of the Forbidden City known as
+the Three Lakes, having (until the Boxer outbreak of 1900 carried him to
+Hsianfu), as sole companions his two favourites, the celebrated
+odalisques "Pearl" and "Lustre."
+
+This is no place to enter into the controversial aspect of Yuan
+Shih-kai's action in 1898 which has been hotly debated by partisans for
+many years. For onlookers the verdict must always remain largely a
+matter of opinion; certainly this is one of those matters which cannot
+be passed upon by any one but a Chinese tribunal furnished with all the
+evidence. Those days which witnessed the imprisonment of Kwanghsu were
+great because they opened wide the portals of the Romance of History:
+all who were in Peking can never forget the counter-stroke; the arrival
+of the hordes composed of Tung Fu-hsiang's Mahommedan cavalry--men who
+had ridden hard across a formidable piece of Asia at the behest of their
+Empress and who entered the capital in great clouds of dust. It was in
+that year of 1898 also that Legation Guards reappeared in Peking--a few
+files for each Legation as in 1860--and it was then that clear-sighted
+prophets saw the beginning of the end of the Manchu Dynasty.
+
+Yuan Shih-kai's reward for his share in this counter-revolution was his
+appointment to the governorship of Shantung province. He moved thither
+with all his troops in December, 1899. Armed _cap-a-pie_ he was ready
+for the next act--the Boxers, who burst on China in the Summer of 1900.
+These men were already at work in Shantung villages with their
+incantations and alleged witchcraft. There is evidence that their
+propaganda had been going on for months, if not for years, before any
+one had heard of it. Yuan Shih-kai had the priceless opportunity of
+studying them at close range and soon made up his mind about certain
+things. When the storm burst, pretending to see nothing but mad fanatics
+in those who, realizing the plight of their country, had adopted the
+war-cry "Blot out the Manchus and the foreigner," he struck at them
+fiercely, driving the whole savage horde head-long into the metropolitan
+province of Chihli. There, seduced by the Manchus, they suddenly changed
+the inscription on their flags. Their sole enemy became the foreigner
+and all his works, and forthwith they were officially protected. Far and
+wide they killed every white face they could find. They tore up
+railways, burnt churches and chapels and produced a general anarchy
+which could only have one end--European intervention. The man, sitting
+on the edge of Chinese history but not yet identifying himself with its
+main currents because he was not strong enough for that had once again
+not judged wrongly. With his Korean experience to assist him, he had
+seen precisely what the end must inevitably be.
+
+The crash in Peking, when the siege of the Legations had been raised by
+an international army, found him alert and sympathetic--ready with
+advice, ready to shoulder new responsibilities, ready to explain away
+everything. The signature of the Peace Protocol of 1901 was signalized
+by his obtaining the viceroyalty of Chihli, succeeding the great Li Hung
+Chang himself, who had been reappointed to his old post, but had found
+active duties too wearisome. This was a marvellous success for a man but
+little over forty. And when the fugitive Court at length returned from
+Hsianfu in 1902, honours were heaped upon him as a person particularly
+worthy of honour because he had kept up appearances and maintained the
+authority of the distressed Throne. As if in answer to this he flooded
+the Court with memorials praying that in order to restore the power of
+the Dynasty a complete army of modern troops be raised--as numerous as
+possible but above all efficient.
+
+His advice was listened to. From 1902 until 1907 as Minister of the Army
+Reorganization Council--a special post he held simultaneously with that
+of metropolitan Viceroy--Yuan Shih-kai's great effort was concentrated
+on raising an efficient fighting force. In those five years, despite all
+financial embarrassments, North China raised and equipped six excellent
+Divisions of field-troops--75,000 men--all looking to Yuan Shih-kai as
+their sole master. So much energy did he display in pushing military
+reorganization throughout the provinces that the Court, warned by
+jealous rivals of his growing power, suddenly promoted him to a post
+where he would be powerless. One day he was brought to Peking as Grand
+Councillor and President of the Board of Foreign Affairs, and ordered to
+hand over all army matters to his noted rival, the Manchu Tieh Liang.
+The time had arrived to muzzle him. His last phase as a pawn had come.
+
+Few foreign diplomats calling at China's Foreign Office to discuss
+matters during that short period which lasted barely a twelve-month,
+imagined that the square resolute-looking man who as President of the
+Board gave the same energy and attention to consular squabbles as to the
+reorganization of a national-fighting force, was almost daily engaged in
+a fierce clandestine struggle to maintain even his modest position.
+Jealousy, which flourishes in Peking like the upas tree, was for ever
+blighting his schemes and blocking his plans. He had been brought to
+Peking to be tied up; he was constantly being denounced; and even his
+all powerful patroness, the old Empress Dowager, who owed so much to
+him, suffered from constant premonitions that the end was fast
+approaching, and that with her the Dynasty would die.
+
+In the Autumn of 1908 she took sick. The gravest fears quickly spread.
+It was immediately reported that the Emperor Kwanghsu was also very
+ill--an ominous coincidence. Very suddenly both personages collapsed and
+died, the Empress Dowager slightly before the Emperor. There is little
+doubt that the Emperor himself was poisoned. The legend runs that as he
+expired not only did he give his Consort, who was to succeed him in the
+exercise of the nominal power of the Throne, a last secret Edict to
+behead Yuan Shih-kai, but that his faltering hand described circle
+after circle in the air until his followers understood the meaning. In
+the vernacular the name of the great viceroy and the word for circle
+have the same sound; the gesture signified that the dying monarch's last
+wish was revenge on the man who had failed him ten years before.
+
+An ominous calm followed this great break with the past. It was
+understood that the Court was torn by two violent factions regarding the
+succession which the Empress Tzu-hsi had herself decided. The fact that
+another long Regency had become inevitable through the accession of the
+child Hsuan Tung aroused instant apprehensions among foreign observers,
+whilst it was confidently predicted that Yuan Shih-kai's last days had
+come.
+
+The blow fell suddenly on the 2nd January, 1909. In the interval between
+the death of the old Empress and his disgrace, Yuan Shih-kai was
+actually promoted to the highest rank in the gift of the Throne, that
+is, made "Senior Guardian of the Heir Apparent" and placed in charge of
+the Imperial funeral arrangements--a lucrative appointment. During that
+interval it is understood that the new Regent, brother of the Emperor
+Kwanghsu, consulted all the most trusted magnates of the empire
+regarding the manner in which the secret decapitation Decree should be
+treated. All advised him to be warned in time, and not to venture on a
+course of action which would be condemned both by the nation and by the
+Powers. Another Edict was therefore prepared simply dismissing Yuan
+Shih-kai from office and ordering him to return to his native place.
+
+Every one remembers that day in Peking when popular rumour declared that
+the man's last hour had come. Warned on every side to beware, Yuan
+Shih-kai left the Palace as soon as he had read the Edict of dismissal
+in the Grand Council and drove straight to the railway-station, whence
+he entrained for Tientsin, dressed as a simple citizen. Rooms had been
+taken for him at a European hotel, the British Consulate approached for
+protection, when another train brought down his eldest son bearing a
+message direct from the Grand Council Chamber, absolutely guaranteeing
+the safety of his life. Accordingly he duly returned to his native place
+in Honan province, and for two years--until the outbreak of the
+Revolution--devoted himself sedulously to the development of the large
+estate he had acquired with the fruits of office. Living like a
+patriarch of old, surrounded by his many wives and children, he
+announced constantly that he had entirely dropped out of the political
+life of China and only desired to be left in peace. There is reason to
+believe, however, that his henchmen continually reported to him the true
+state of affairs, and bade him bide his time. Certain it is that the
+firing of the first shots on the Yangtsze found him alert and issuing
+private orders to his followers. It was inevitable that he should have
+been recalled to office--and actually within one hundred hours of the
+first news of the outbreak the Court sent for him urgently and
+ungraciously.
+
+From the 14th October, 1911, when he was appointed by Imperial Edict
+Viceroy of Hupeh and Hunan and ordered to proceed at once to the front
+to quell the insurrection, until the 1st November, when he was given
+virtually Supreme Power as President of the Grand Council in place of
+Prince Ching, a whole volume is required to discuss adequately the maze
+of questions involved. For the purposes of this account, however, the
+matter can be dismissed very briefly in this way. Welcoming the
+opportunity which had at last come and determined once for all to settle
+matters decisively, so far as he was personally concerned, Yuan Shih-kai
+deliberately followed the policy of holding back and delaying everything
+until the very incapacity marking both sides--the Revolutionists quite
+as much as the Manchus--forced him, as man of action and man of
+diplomacy, to be acclaimed the sole mediator and saviour of the nation.
+
+The detailed course of the Revolution, and the peculiar manner in which
+Yuan Shih-kai allowed events rather than men to assert their mastery has
+often been related and need not long detain us. It is generally conceded
+that in spite of the bravery of the raw revolutionary levies, their
+capacity was entirely unequal to the trump card Yuan Shih-kai held all
+the while in his hand--the six fully-equipped Divisions of Field Troops
+he himself had organized as Tientsin Viceroy. It was a portion of this
+field-force which captured and destroyed the chief revolutionary base in
+the triple city of Hankow, Hanyang and Wuchang in November, 1911, and
+which he held back just as it was about to give the _coup de grace_ by
+crossing the river in force and sweeping the last remnants of the
+revolutionary army to perdition. Thus it is correct to declare that had
+he so wished Yuan Shih-kai could have crushed the revolution entirely
+before the end of 1911; but he was sufficiently astute to see that the
+problem he had to solve was not merely military but moral as well. The
+Chinese as a nation were suffering from a grave complaint. Their
+civilization had been made almost bankrupt owing to unresisted foreign
+aggression and to the native inability to cope with the mass of
+accumulated wrongs which a superimposed and exhausted feudalism--the
+Manchu system--had brought about. Yuan Shih-kai knew that the Boxers had
+been theoretically correct in selecting as they first did the watchword
+which they had first placed on their banners--"blot out the Manchus and
+all foreign things." Both had sapped the old civilization to its
+foundations. But the programme they had proposed was idealistic, not
+practical. One element could be cleared away--the other had to be
+endured. Had the Boxers been sensible they would have modified their
+programme to the extent of protecting the foreigners, whilst they
+assailed the Dynasty which had brought them so low. The Court Party, as
+we have said, seduced their leaders to acting in precisely the reverse
+sense.
+
+Yuan Shih-kai was neither a Boxer, nor yet a believer in idealistic
+foolishness. He had realized that the essence of successful rule in the
+China of the Twentieth Century was to support the foreign point of
+view--nominally at least--because foreigners disposed of unlimited
+monetary resources, and had science on their side. He knew that so long
+as he did not openly flout foreign opinion by indulging in bare-faced
+assassinations, he would be supported owing to the international
+reputation he had established in 1900. Arguing from these premises, his
+instinct also told him that an appearance of legality must always be
+sedulously preserved and the aspirations of the nation nominally
+satisfied. For this reason he arranged matters in such a manner as to
+appear always as the instrument of fate. For this reason, although he
+destroyed the revolutionists on the mid-Yangtsze, to equalize matters,
+on the lower Yangtsze he secretly ordered the evacuation of Nanking by
+the Imperialist forces so that he might have a tangible argument with
+which to convince the Manchus regarding the root and branch reform which
+he knew was necessary. That reform had been accepted in principle by the
+Throne when it agreed to the so-called Nineteen Fundamental Articles, a
+corpus of demands which all the Northern Generals had endorsed and had
+indeed insisted should be the basis of government before they would
+fight the rebellious South in 1911. There is reason to believe that
+provided he had been made _de facto_ Regent, Yuan Shih-kai would have
+supported to the end a Manchu Monarchy. But the surprising swiftness of
+the Revolutionary Party's action in proclaiming the Republic at Nanking
+on the 1st January, 1912, and the support which foreign opinion gave
+that venture confused him. He had already consented to peace
+negotiations with the revolutionary South in the middle of December,
+1911, and once he was drawn into those negotiations his policy wavered,
+the armistice in the field being constantly extended because he saw that
+the Foreign Powers, and particularly England, were averse from further
+civil war. Having dispatched a former lieutenant, Tong Shao-yi, to
+Shanghai as his Plenipotentiary, he soon found himself committed to a
+course of action different from what he had originally contemplated.
+South China and Central China insisted so vehemently that the only
+solution that was acceptable to them was the permanent and absolute
+elimination of the Manchu Dynasty, that he himself was half-convinced,
+the last argument necessary being the secret promise that he should
+become the first President of the united Republic. In the circumstances,
+had he been really loyal, it was his duty either to resume his warfare
+or resign his appointment as Prime Minister and go into retirement. He
+did neither. In a thoroughly characteristic manner he sought a middle
+course, after having vaguely advocated a national convention to settle
+the matter. By specious misrepresentation the widow of the Emperor
+Kwanghsu--the Dowager Empress Lung Yu who had succeeded the Prince
+Regent Ch'un in her care of the interests of the child Emperor Hsuan
+Tung--was induced to believe that ceremonial retirement was the only
+course open to the Dynasty if the country was to be saved from
+disruption and partition. There is reason to believe that the Memorial
+of all the Northern Generals which was telegraphed to Peking on the 28th
+January, 1912, and which advised abdication, was inspired by him. In any
+case it was certainly Yuan Shih-kai who drew up the so-called Articles
+of Favourable Treatment for the Manchu House and caused them to be
+telegraphed to the South, whence they were telegraphed back to him as
+the maximum the Revolutionary Party was prepared to concede: and by a
+curious chance the attempt made to assassinate him outside the Palace
+Gates actually occurred on the very day he had submitted an outline of
+these terms on his bended knees to the Empress Dowager and secured their
+qualified acceptance. The pathetic attempt to confer on him as late as
+the 25th January the title of Marquess, the highest rank of nobility
+which could be given a Chinese, an attempt which was four times renewed,
+was the last despairing gesture of a moribund power. Within very few
+days the Throne reluctantly decreed its own abdication in three
+extremely curious Edicts which are worthy of study in the appendix. They
+prove conclusively that the Imperial Family believed that it was only
+abdicating its political power, whilst retaining all ancient ceremonial
+rights and titles. Plainly the conception of a Republic, or a People's
+Government, as it was termed in the native ideographs, was
+unintelligible to Peking.
+
+Yuan Shih-kai had now won everything he wished for. By securing that the
+Imperial Commission to organize the Republic and re-unite the warring
+sections was placed solely in his hands, he prepared to give a type of
+Government about which he knew nothing a trial. It is interesting to
+note that he held to the very end of his life that he derived his powers
+solely from the Last Edicts, and in nowise from his compact with the
+Nanking Republic which had instituted the so-called Provisional
+Constitution. He was careful, however, not to lay this down
+categorically until many months later, when his dictatorship seemed
+undisputed. But from the day of the Manchu Abdication almost, he was
+constantly engaged in calculating whether he dared risk everything on
+one throw of the dice and ascend the Throne himself; and it is precisely
+this which imparts such dramatic interest to the astounding story which
+follows.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE DREAM REPUBLIC
+
+(FROM THE 1st JANUARY, 1912, TO THE DISSOLUTION OF PARLIAMENT)
+
+
+To describe briefly and intelligibly the series of transactions from the
+1st January, 1912, when the Republic was proclaimed at Nanking by a
+handful of provincial delegates, and Dr. Sun Yat Sen elected Provisional
+President, to the _coup d'etat_ of 4th November, 1913, when Yuan
+Shih-kai, elected full President a few weeks previously, after having
+acted as Chief Executive for twenty months, boldly broke up Parliament
+and made himself _de facto_ Dictator of China, is a matter of
+extraordinary difficulty.
+
+All through this important period of Chinese history one has the
+impression that one is in dreamland and that fleeting emotions take the
+place of more solid things. Plot and counter-plot follow one another so
+rapidly that an accurate record of them all would be as wearisome as the
+Book of Chronicles itself; whilst the amazing web of financial intrigue
+which binds the whole together is so complex--and at the same time so
+antithetical to the political struggle--that the two stories seem to run
+counter to one another, although they are as closely united as two
+assassins pledged to carry through in common a dread adventure. A huge
+agglomeration of people estimated to number four hundred millions, being
+left without qualified leaders and told that the system of government,
+which had been laid down by the Nanking Provisional Constitution and
+endorsed by the Abdication Edicts, was a system in which every man was
+as good as neighbour, swayed meaninglessly to and fro, vainly seeking to
+regain the equilibrium which had been so sensationally lost. A litigious
+spirit became so universal that all authority was openly derided,
+crimes of every description being so common as to force most respectable
+men to withdraw from public affairs and leave a bare rump of desperadoes
+in power.
+
+Long embarrassed by the struggle to pay her foreign loans and
+indemnities, China was also virtually penniless. The impossibility of
+arranging large borrowings on foreign markets without the open support
+of foreign governments--a support which was hedged round with
+conditions--made necessary a system of petty expedients under which
+practically every provincial administration hypothecated every liquid
+asset it could lay hands upon in order to pay the inordinate number of
+undisciplined soldiery who littered the countryside. The issue of
+unguaranteed paper-money soon reached such an immense figure that the
+market was flooded with a worthless currency which it was unable to
+absorb. The Provincial leaders, being powerless to introduce
+improvement, exclaimed that it was the business of the Central
+Government as representative of the sovereign people to find solutions;
+and so long as they maintained themselves in office they went their
+respective ways with a sublime contempt for the chaos around them.
+
+What was this Central Government? In order successfully to understand an
+unparalleled situation we must indicate its nature.
+
+The manoeuvres to which Yuan Shih-kai had so astutely lent himself from
+the outbreak of the Revolution had left him at its official close
+supreme in name. Not only had he secured an Imperial Commission from the
+abdicating Dynasty to organize a popular Government in obedience to the
+national wish, but having brought to Peking the Delegates of the Nanking
+Revolutionary Body he had received from them the formal offer of the
+Presidency.
+
+These arrangements had, of course, been secretly agreed to _en bloc_
+before the fighting had been stopped and the abdication proclaimed, and
+were part and parcel of the elaborate scenery which officialdom always
+employs in Asia even when it is dealing with matters within the purview
+of the masses. They had been made possible by the so-called "Article of
+Favourable Treatment" drawn-up by Yuan Shih-kai himself, after
+consultation with the rebellious South. In these Capitulations it had
+been clearly stipulated that the Manchu Imperial Family should receive
+in perpetuity a Civil List of $4,000,000 Mexican a year, retaining all
+their titles as a return for the surrender of their political power, the
+bitter pill being gilded in such fashion as to hide its real meaning,
+which alone was a grave political error.
+
+In spite of this agreement, however, great mutual suspicion existed
+between North and South China. Yuan Shih-kai himself was unable to
+forget that the bold attempt to assassinate him in the Peking streets on
+the 17th January, when he was actually engaged in negotiating these very
+terms of the Abdication, had been apparently inspired from Nanking;
+whilst the Southern leaders were daily reminded by the vernacular press
+that the man who held the balance of power had always played the part of
+traitor in the past and would certainly do the same again in the near
+future.
+
+When the Delegates came to Peking in February, by far the most important
+matter which was still in dispute was the question of the oath of office
+which Yuan Shih-kai was called upon to take to insure that he would be
+faithful to the Republic. The Delegates had been charged specifically to
+demand on behalf of the seceding provinces that Yuan Shih-kai should
+proceed with them to Nanking to take that oath, a course of action which
+would have been held tantamount by the nation to surrender on his part
+to those who had been unable to vanquish him in the field. It must also
+not be forgotten that from the very beginning a sharp and dangerous
+cleavage of opinion existed as to the manner in which the powers of the
+new government had been derived. South and Central China claimed, and
+claimed rightly, that the Nanking Provincial Constitution was the
+Instrument on which the Republic was based: Yuan Shih-kai declared that
+the Abdication Edicts, and not the Nanking Instrument had established
+the Republic, and that therefore it lay within his competence to
+organize the new government in the way which he considered most fit.
+
+The discussion which raged was suddenly terminated on the night of the
+29th February (1912) when without any warning there occurred the
+extraordinary revolt of the 3rd Division, a picked Northern corps who
+for forty-eight hours plundered and burnt portions of the capital
+without any attempts at interference, there being little doubt to-day
+that this manoeuvre was deliberately arranged as a means of intimidation
+by Yuan Shih-kai himself. Although the disorders assumed such dimensions
+that foreign intervention was narrowly escaped, the upshot was that the
+Nanking Delegates were completely cowed and willing to forget all about
+forcing the despot of Peking to proceed to the Southern capital. Yuan
+Shih-kai as the man of the hour was enabled on the 10th March, 1912, to
+take his oath in Peking as he had wished thus securing full freedom of
+action during the succeeding years.[6]
+
+[Illustration: An Encampment of "The Punitive Expedition" of 1910 on the
+Upper Yangtsze.
+
+_By courtesy of Major Isaac Newell, U.S. Military Attache_.]
+
+[Illustration: Revival of the Imperialistic Worship of Heaven by Yuan
+Shih-kai in 1914: Scene on the Altar of Heaven, with Sacrificial
+Officers clothed in costumes dating from 2,000 years ago.]
+
+[Illustration: A Manchu Country Fair: The figures in the foreground are
+all Manchu women and girls.]
+
+[Illustration: A Manchu Woman grinding Grain.]
+
+It was on this astounding basis--by means of an organized revolt--that
+the Central Government was reorganized; and every act that followed
+bears the mark of its tainted parentage. Accepting readily as his
+Ministers in the more unimportant government Departments the nominees of
+the Southern Confederacy (which was now formally dissolved), Yuan
+Shih-kai was careful to reserve for his own men everything that
+concerned the control of the army and the police, as well as the
+all-important ministry of finance. The framework having been thus
+erected, attention was almost immediately concentrated on the problem of
+finding money, an amazing matter which would weary the stoutest reader
+if given in all its detail but which being part and parcel of the
+general problem must be referred to.
+
+Certain essential features can be very rapidly exposed. We have already
+made clear the purely economic nature of the forces which had sapped the
+foundations of Chinese society. Primarily it had been the disastrous
+nature of Chinese gold-indebtedness which had given the new ideas the
+force they required to work their will on the nation. And just because
+the question of this gold-indebtedness had become so serious and such a
+drain on the nation, some months before the outbreak of the Revolution
+an arrangement had been entered into with the bankers of four nations
+for a Currency Loan of L10,000,000 with which to make an organized
+effort to re-establish internal credit. But this loan had never actually
+been floated, as a six months' safety clause had permitted a delay
+during which the Revolution had come. It was therefore necessary to
+begin the negotiations anew; and as the rich prizes to be won in the
+Chinese lottery had attracted general attention in the European
+financial world through the advertisement which the Revolution had given
+the country, a host of alternative loan proposals now lay at the
+disposal of Peking.
+
+Consequently an extraordinary chapter of bargaining commenced. Warned
+that an International Debt Commission was the goal aimed at by official
+finance, Yuan Shih-kai and the various parties who made up the
+Government of the day, though disagreeing on almost every other
+question, were agreed that this danger must be fought as a common enemy.
+Though the Four-Power group alleged that they held the first option on
+all Chinese loans, money had already been advanced by a Franco-Belgian
+Syndicate to the amount of nearly two million pounds during the critical
+days of the Abdication. Furious at the prospect of losing their
+percentages, the Four Power group made the confusion worse confounded by
+blocking all competing proposals and closing every possible door. Russia
+and Japan, who had hitherto not been parties to the official consortium,
+perceiving that participation had become a political necessity, now
+demanded a place which was grudgingly accorded them; and it was in this
+way that the celebrated six-power Group arose.
+
+It was round this group and the proposed issue of a L60,000,000 loan to
+reorganize Chinese finance that the central battle raged. The Belgian
+Syndicate, having been driven out of business by the financial boycott
+which the official group was strong enough to organize on the European
+bourses, it remained for China to see whether she could not find some
+combination or some man who would be bold enough to ignore all
+governments.
+
+Her search was not in vain. In September (1912) a London stockbroker,
+Mr. Birch Crisp, determined to risk a brilliant coup by negotiating by
+himself a Loan of L10,000,000; and the world woke up one morning to
+learn that one man was successfully opposing six governments. The
+recollection of the storm raised in financial circles by this bold
+attempt will be fresh in many minds. Every possible weapon was brought
+into play by international finance to secure that the impudence of
+financial independence should be properly checked; and so it happened
+that although L5,000,000 was secured after an intense struggle it was
+soon plain that the large requirements of a derelict government could
+not be satisfied in this Quixotic manner. Two important points had,
+however, been attained; first, China was kept financially afloat during
+the year 1912 by the independence of a single member of the London Stock
+Exchange; secondly, using this coup as a lever the Peking Government
+secured better terms than otherwise would have been possible from the
+official consortium.
+
+Meanwhile the general internal situation remained deplorable. Nothing
+was done for the provinces whose paper currency was depreciating from
+month to month in an alarming manner; whilst the rivalries between the
+various leaders instead of diminishing seemed to be increasing. The
+Tutuhs, or Military Governors, acting precisely as they saw fit, derided
+the authority of Peking and sought to strengthen their old position by
+adding to their armed forces. In the capital the old Manchu court,
+safely entrenched in the vast Winter Palace from which it has not even
+to-day been ejected (1917) published daily the Imperial Gazette,
+bestowing honours and decorations on courtiers and clansmen and
+preserving all the old etiquette. In the North-western provinces, and in
+Manchuria and Mongolia, the so-called Tsung She Tang, or Imperial Clan
+Society, intrigued perpetually to create risings which would hasten the
+restoration of the fallen House; and although these intrigues never rose
+to the rank of a real menace to the country, the fact that they were
+surreptitiously supported by the Japanese secret service was a continual
+source of anxiety. The question of Outer Mongolia was also harassing the
+Central Government. The Hutuktu or Living Buddha of Urga--the chief city
+of Outer Mongolia--had utilized the revolution to throw off his
+allegiance to Peking; and the whole of this vast region had been thrown
+into complete disorder--which was still further accentuated when Russia
+on the 21st October (1912) recognized its independence. It was known
+that as a pendent to this Great Britain was about to insist on the
+autonomy of Tibet,--a development which greatly hurt Chinese pride.
+
+On the 15th August, 1912, the deplorable situation was well-epitomised
+by an extraordinary act in Peking, when General Chang Cheng-wu, one of
+the "heroes" of the original Wuchang rising, who had been enticed to the
+capital, was suddenly seized after a banquet in his honour and shot
+without trial at midnight.
+
+This event, trivial in itself during times when judicial murders were
+common, would have excited nothing more than passing interest had not
+the national sentiment been so aroused by the chaotic conditions. As it
+was it served to focus attention on the general mal-administration over
+which Yuan Shih-kai ruled as provisional President. "What is my crime?"
+had shrieked the unhappy revolutionist as he had been shot and then
+bayonetted to death. That query was most easily answered. His crime was
+that he was not strong enough or big enough to compete against more
+sanguinary men, his disappearance being consequently in obedience to an
+universal law of nature. Yuan Shih-kai was determined to assert his
+mastery by any and every means; and as this man had flouted him he must
+die.
+
+The uproar which this crime aroused was, however, not easily appeased;
+and the Advisory Council, which was sitting in Peking pending the
+assembling of the first Parliament, denounced the Provisional President
+so bitterly that to show that these reproaches were ill-deserved he
+invited Dr. Sun Yat-sen to the capital treating him with unparalleled
+honours and requesting him to act as intermediary between the rival
+factions. All such manoeuvres, however, were inspired with one
+object,--namely to prove how nobody but the master of Peking could
+regulate the affairs of the country.
+
+Still no Parliament was assembled. Although the Nanking Provisional
+Constitution had stipulated that one was to meet within ten months
+_i.e._ before 1st November, 1912, the elections were purposely delayed,
+the attention of the Central Government being concentrated on the
+problem of destroying all rivals, and everything being subordinate to
+this war on persons. Rascals, getting daily more and more out of hand,
+worked their will on rich and poor alike, discrediting by their actions
+the name of republicanism and destroying public confidence--which was
+precisely what suited Yuan Shih-kai. Dramatic and extraordinary
+incidents continually inflamed the public mind, nothing being too
+singular for those remarkable days.
+
+Very slowly the problem developed, with everyone exclaiming that foreign
+intervention was becoming inevitable. With the beginning of 1913, being
+unable to delay the matter any longer, Yuan Shih-kai allowed elections
+to be held in the provinces. He was so badly beaten at the polls that it
+seemed in spite of his military power that he would be outvoted and
+outmanoeuvred in the new National Assembly and his authority undermined.
+To prevent this a fresh assassination was decided upon. The ablest
+Southern leader, Sung Chiao-jen, just as he was entraining for Peking
+with a number of Parliamentarians at Shanghai, was coolly shot in a
+crowded railway station by a desperado who admitted under trial that he
+had been paid L200 for the job by the highest authority in the land, the
+evidence produced in court including telegrams from Peking which left no
+doubt as to who had instigated the murder.
+
+The storm raised by this evil measure made it appear as if no parliament
+could ever assemble in Peking. But the feeling had become general that
+the situation was so desperate that action had to be taken. Not only was
+their reputation at stake, but the Kuomingtang or Revolutionary Party
+now knew that the future of their country was involved just as much as
+the safety of their own lives; and so after a rapid consultation they
+determined that they would beard the lion in his den. Rather
+unexpectedly on the 7th April (1913) Parliament was opened in Peking
+with a huge Southern majority and the benediction of all Radicals.[7]
+Hopes rose with mercurial rapidity as a solution at last seemed in
+sight. But hardly had the first formalities been completed and Speakers
+been elected to both Houses, than by a single dramatic stroke Yuan
+Shih-kai reduced to nought these labours by stabbing in the back the
+whole theory and practice of popular government.
+
+The method he employed was simplicity itself, and it is peculiarly
+characteristic of the man that he should have been so bluntly cynical.
+Though the Provisional Nanking Constitution, which was the "law" of
+China so far as there was any law at all, had laid down specifically in
+article XIX that all measures affecting the National Treasury must
+receive the assent of Parliament, Yuan Shih-kai, pretending that the
+small Advisory Council which had assisted him during the previous year
+and which had only just been dissolved, had sanctioned a foreign loan,
+peremptorily ordered the signature of the great Reorganization Loan of
+L25,000,000 which had been secretly under negotiation all winter with
+the financial agents of six Powers[8], although the rupture which had
+come in the previous June as a forerunner to the Crisp loan had caused
+the general public to lose sight of the supreme importance of the
+financial factor. Parliament, seeing that apart from the possibility of
+a Foreign Debt Commission being created something after the Turkish and
+Egyptian models, a direct challenge to its existence had been offered,
+raged and stormed and did its utmost to delay the question; but the
+Chief Executive having made up his mind shut himself up in his Palace
+and absolutely refused to see any Parliamentary representatives.
+Although the Minister of Finance himself hesitated to complete the
+transaction in the face of the rising storm and actually fled the
+capital, he was brought back by special train and forced to complete the
+agreement. At four o'clock in the morning on the 25th April the last
+documents were signed in the building of a foreign bank and the Finance
+Minister, galloping his carriage suddenly out of the compound to avoid
+possible bombs, reported to his master that at last--in spite of the
+nominal foreign control which was to govern the disbursement--a vast sum
+was at his disposal to further his own ends.
+
+Safe in the knowledge that possession is nine points of the law, Yuan
+Shih-kai now treated with derision the resolutions which Parliament
+passed that the transaction was illegal and the loan agreement null and
+void. Being openly backed by the agents of the Foreign Powers, he
+immediately received large cash advances which enabled him to extend his
+power in so many directions that further argument with him seemed
+useless. It is necessary to record that the Parliamentary leaders had
+almost gone down on their knees to certain of the foreign Ministers in
+Peking in a vain attempt to persuade them to delay--as they could very
+well have done--the signature of this vital Agreement for forty-eight
+hours so that it could be formally passed by the National Assembly, and
+thus save the vital portion of the sovereignty of the country from
+passing under the heel of one man. But Peking diplomacy is a perverse
+and disagreeable thing; and the Foreign Ministers of those days,
+although accredited to a government which while it had not then been
+formally recognized as a Republic by any Power save the United States,
+was bound to be so very shortly, were determined to be reactionary and
+were at heart delighted to find things running back normally to
+absolutism[9]. High finance had at last got hold of everything it
+required from China and was in no mood to relax the monopoly of the salt
+administration which the Loan Agreement conferred. Nor must the fact be
+lost sight of that of the nominal amount of L25,000,000 which had been
+borrowed, fully half consisted of repayments to foreign Banks and never
+left Europe. According to the schedules attached to the Agreement, Annex
+A, comprising the Boxer arrears and bank advances, absorbed L4,317,778:
+Annex B, being so-called provincial loans, absorbed a further
+L2,870,000: Annex C, being liabilities shortly maturing, amounted to
+L3,592,263: Annex D, for disbandment of troops, amounted to L3,000,000:
+Annex C, to cover current administrative expenses totalled L5,500,000:
+whilst Annex E which covered the reorganization of the Salt
+Administration, absorbed the last L2,000,000; The bank profits on this
+loan alone amounted to 11/4 million pounds; whilst Yuan Shih-kai
+himself was placed in possession by a system of weekly disbursements of
+a sum roughly amounting to ten million sterling, which was amply
+sufficient to allow him to wreak his will on his fellow-countrymen.
+Exasperated to the pitch of despair by this new development, the Central
+and Southern provinces, after a couple of months' vain argument, began
+openly to arm. On the 10th July in Kiangse province on the river
+Yangtsze the Northern garrisons were fired upon from the Hukow forts by
+the provincial troops under General Li Lieh-chun and the so-called
+Second Revolution commenced.
+
+The campaign was short and inglorious. The South, ill-furnished with
+munitions and practically penniless, and always confronted by the same
+well-trained Northern Divisions who had proved themselves invincible
+only eighteen months before fought hard for a while, but never became a
+serious menace to the Central Government owing to the lack of
+co-operation between the various Rebel forces in the field. The Kiangse
+troops under General Li Lieh-chun, who numbered at most 20,000 men,
+fought stiffly, it is true, for a while but were unable to strike with
+any success and were gradually driven far back from the river into the
+mountains of Kiangse where their numbers rapidly melted away. The
+redoubtable revolutionary Huang Hsin, who had proved useful as a
+propagandist and a bomb-thrower in earlier days, but who was useless in
+serious warfare, although he assumed command of the Nanking garrison
+which had revolted to a man, and attempted a march up the Pukow railway
+in the direction of Tientsin, found his effort break down almost
+immediately from lack of organization and fled to Japan. The Nanking
+troops, although deserted by their leader, offered a strenuous
+resistance to the capture of the southern capital which was finally
+effected by the old reactionary General Chang Hsun operating in
+conjunction with General Feng Kuo-chang who had been dispatched from
+Peking with a picked force. The attack on the Shanghai arsenal which had
+been quietly occupied by a small Northern Garrison during the months
+succeeding the great loan transaction, although pushed with vigour by
+the South, likewise ultimately collapsed through lack of artillery and
+proper leadership. The navy, which was wholly Southern in its sympathies
+and which had been counted upon as a valuable weapon in cutting off the
+whole Yangtsze Valley, was at the last moment purchased to neutrality by
+a liberal use of money obtained from the foreign banks, under, it is
+said, the heading of administrative expenses! The turbulent city of
+Canton, although it also rose against the authority of Peking, had been
+well provided for by Yuan Shih-kai. A border General, named Lung
+Chi-kwang, with 20,000 semi-savage Kwangsi troops had been moved near
+the city and at once attacked and overawed the garrison. Appointed
+Military Governor of the province in return for his services, this Lung
+Chi-kwang, who was an infamous brute, for three years ruled the South
+with heartless barbarity, until he was finally ejected by the great
+rising of 1916. Thoroughly disappointed in this and many other
+directions the Southern Party was now emasculated; for the moneyed
+classes had withheld their support to the end, and without money nothing
+is possible in China. The 1913 outbreak, after lasting a bare two
+months, ignominiously collapsed with the flight of every one of the
+leaders on whose heads prices were put. The road was now left open for
+the last step Yuan Shih-kai had in mind, the coup against Parliament
+itself, which although unassociated in any direct way with the rising,
+had undoubtedly maintained secret relations with the rebellious generals
+in the field.
+
+Parliament had further sinned by appointing a Special Constitutional
+Drafting Committee which had held its sittings behind closed doors at
+the Temple of Heaven. During this drafting of the Permanent
+Constitution, admittance had been absolutely refused to Yuan Shih-kai's
+delegates who had been sent to urge a modification of the
+decentralization which had been such a characteristic of the Nanking
+Instrument. Such details as transpired showed that the principle of
+absolute money-control was not only to be the dominant note in the
+Permanent Constitution, but that a new and startling innovation was
+being included to secure that a _de facto_ Dictatorship should be
+rendered impossible. Briefly, it was proposed that when Parliament was
+not actually in session there should be left in Peking a special
+Parliamentary Committee, charged with supervising and controlling the
+Executive, and checking any usurpation of power.
+
+This was enough for Yuan Shih-kai: he felt that he was not only an
+object of general suspicion but that he was being treated with contempt.
+He determined to finish with it all. He was as yet, however, only
+provisional President and it was necessary to show cunning. Once more he
+set to work in a characteristic way. By a liberal use of money
+Parliament was induced to pass in advance of the main body of articles
+the Chapter of the Constitution dealing with the election and term of
+office of the President. When that had been done the two Chambers
+sitting as an Electoral College, after the model of the French
+Parliament, being partly bribed and partly terrorised by a military
+display, were induced to elect him full President.
+
+On the 10th October he took his final oath of office as President for a
+term of five years before a great gathering of officials and the whole
+diplomatic body in the magnificent Throne Room of the Winter Palace.
+Safe now in his Constitutional position nothing remained for him but to
+strike. On the 4th November he issued an arbitrary Mandate, which
+received the counter-signature of the whole Cabinet, ordering the
+unseating of all the so-called Kuomingtang or Radical Senators and
+Representatives on the counts of conspiracy and secret complicity with
+the July rising and vaguely referring to the filling of the vacancies
+thus created by new elections.[10] The Metropolitan Police rigorously
+carried out the order and although no brutality was shown, it was made
+clear that if any of the indicted men remained in Peking their lives
+would be at stake. Having made it impossible for Parliament to sit owing
+to the lack of quorums, Yuan Shih-kai was able to proceed with his work
+of reorganization in the way that best suited him; and the novel
+spectacle was offered of a truly Mexican situation created in the Far
+East by and with the assent of the Powers. It is significant that the
+day succeeding this _coup d'etat_ of the 4th November the agreement
+conceding autonomy to Outer Mongolia was signed with Russia, China
+simply retaining the right to station a diplomatic representative at
+Urga.[11]
+
+In spite of his undisputed power, matters however did not improve. The
+police-control, judiciously mingled with assassinations, which was now
+put in full vigour was hardly the administration to make room for which
+the Manchus had been expelled; and the country secretly chafed and
+cursed. But the disillusionment of the people was complete. Revolt had
+been tried in vain; and as the support which the Powers were affording
+to this regime was well understood there was nothing to do but to wait,
+safe in the knowledge that such a situation possessed no elements of
+permanency.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[6] The defective nature of this oath of office will be patent at a
+glance:
+
+"At the beginning of the Republic there are many things to be taken care
+of. I, Yuan Shih-kai, sincerely wish to exert my utmost to promote the
+democratic spirit, to remove the dark blots of despotism, to obey
+strictly the Constitution, and to abide by the wish of the people, so as
+to place the country in a safe, united, strong, and firm position, and
+to effect the happiness and welfare of the divisions of the Chinese
+race. All these wishes I will fulfil without fail. As soon as a new
+President is elected by the National Assembly I shall at once vacate my
+present position. With all sincerity I take this oath before the people
+of China.
+
+"Dated the tenth day of March in the First Year of the Republic of China
+(1912)."
+
+(Signed) Yuan Shih-kai.
+
+[7] The Parliament of China is composed of a House of Representatives
+numbering 596 members and a Senate of 274. The Representatives are
+elected by means of a property and educational franchise which is
+estimated to give about four million voters (1 per cent of the
+population) although in practice relatively few vote. The Senate is
+elected by the Provincial Assemblies by direct ballot. In the opinion of
+the writer, the Chinese Parliament in spite of obvious shortcoming, is
+representative of the country in its present transitional stage.
+
+[8] The American Group at the last moment dropped out of the Sextuple
+combination (prior to the signature of the contract) after President
+Wilson had made his well-known pronouncement deprecating the association
+of Americans in any financial undertakings which impinged upon the
+rights of sovereignty of a friendly Power,--which was his considered
+view of the manner in which foreign governments were assisting their
+nationals to gain control of the Salt Administration The exact language
+the President used was that the conditions of the loan seemed "to touch
+very nearly the administrative independence of China itself," and that a
+loan thus obtained was "obnoxious" to the principles upon which the
+American government rests. It is to be hoped that President Wilson's
+dictum will be universally accepted after the war and that meddling in
+Chinese affairs will cease.
+
+[9] The United States accorded formal recognition to the Republic on the
+election of the Speakers of the two Houses of Parliament: the other
+Treaty Powers delayed recognition until Yuan Shih-kai had been elected
+full President in October. It has been very generally held that the long
+delay in foreign recognition of the Republic contributed greatly to its
+internal troubles by making every one doubt the reality of the Nanking
+transaction. Most important, however, is the historical fact that a
+group of Powers numbering the two great leaders of democracy in
+Europe--England and France--did everything they could in Peking to
+enthrone Yuan Shih-kai as dictator.
+
+[10] According to the official lists published subsequent to the coup
+d'etat, 98 Senators and 252 Members of the House of Representatives had
+their Parliamentary Certificates impounded by the police as a result of
+the Mandates of the 4th November, and were ordered to leave the Capital.
+In addition 34 Senators and 54 Members of the Lower House fled from
+Peking before their Certificates could be seized. Therefore the total
+number affected by the proscription was 132 Senators and 306
+Representatives. As the quorums in the case of both Houses are half the
+total membership, any further sittings were thus made impossible.
+
+[11] A full copy of this agreement will be found in the appendix.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE DICTATOR AT WORK
+
+(FROM THE COUP D'ETAT OF THE 4TH NOVEMBER, 1913, TO THE OUTBREAK OF THE
+WORLD-WAR 1ST AUGUST, 1914)
+
+
+With the Parliament of China effectively destroyed, and the turbulent
+Yangtsze Valley dragooned into sullen submission, Yuan Shih-kai's task
+had become so vastly simplified that he held the moment to have arrived
+when he could openly turn his hand to the problem of making himself
+absolutely supreme, _de jure_ as well as _de facto_. But there was one
+remaining thing to be done. To drive the last nail into the coffin of
+the Republic it was necessary to discredit and virtually imprison the
+man who was Vice-President.
+
+It is highly characteristic that although he had received from the hero
+of the Wuchang Rising the most loyal co-operation--a co-operation of a
+very arduous character since the Commander of the Middle Yangtsze had
+had to resist the most desperate attempt? to force him over to the side
+of the rebellion in July, 1913, nevertheless, Yuan Shih-kai was
+determined to bring this man to Peking as a prisoner of state.
+
+It was just the fact that General Li Yuan-hung was a national hero which
+impelled the Dictator to action. In the election which had been carried
+out in October, 1913, by the National Assembly sitting as a National
+Convention, in spite of every effort to destroy his influence, the
+personal popularity of the Vice-President had been such that he had
+received a large number of votes for the office of full President--which
+had necessitated not one but three ballots being taken, making most
+people declare that had there been no bribery or intimidation he would
+have probably been elected to the supreme office in the land, and
+ousted the ambitious usurper. In such circumstances his complete
+elimination was deemed an elementary necessity. To secure that end Yuan
+Shih-kai suddenly dispatched to Wuchang--where the Vice-President had
+resided without break since 1911--the Minister of War, General Tuan
+Chi-jui, with implicit instructions to deal with the problem in any way
+he deemed satisfactory, stopping short of nothing should his victim
+prove recalcitrant.
+
+Fortunately General Tuan Chi-jui did not belong to the ugly breed of men
+Yuan Shih-kai loved to surround himself with; and although he was a
+loyal and efficient officer the politics of the assassin were unknown to
+him. He was therefore able to convince the Vice-President after a brief
+discussion that the easiest way out of the ring of intriguers and
+plotters in which Yuan Shih-kai was rapidly surrounding him in Wuchang
+was to go voluntarily to the capital. There at least he would be in
+daily touch with developments and able to fight his own battles without
+fear of being stabbed in the back; since under the eye of the foreign
+Legations even Yuan Shih-kai was exhibiting a certain timidity. Indeed
+after the outcry which General Chang Cheng-wu's judicial murder had
+aroused he had reserved his ugliest deeds for the provinces, only small
+men being done to death in Peking. Accordingly, General Li Yuan-hung
+packed a bag and accompanied only by an aide-de-camp left abruptly for
+the capital where he arrived on the 11th December, 1913.
+
+A great sensation was caused throughout China by this sudden departure,
+consternation prevailing among the officers and men of the Hupeh
+(Wuchang) army when the newspapers began to hint that their beloved
+chief had been virtually abducted. Although cordially received by Yuan
+Shih-kai and given as his personal residence the. Island Palace where
+the unfortunate Emperor Kwanghsu had been so long imprisoned by the
+Empress Dowager Tsu Hsi after her _coup d'etat_ of 1898, it did not take
+long for General Li Yuan-hung to understand that his presence was a
+source of embarrassment to the man who would be king. Being, however,
+gifted with an astounding fund of patience, he prepared to sit down and
+allow the great game which he knew would now unroll to be played to its
+normal ending. What General Li Yuan-hung desired above all was to be
+forgotten completely and absolutely--springing to life when the hour of
+deliverance finally arrived. His policy was shown to be not only
+psychologically accurate, but masterly in a political sense. The
+greatest ally of honesty in China has always been time, the inherent
+decency of the race finally discrediting scoundrelism in every period of
+Chinese history.
+
+The year 1914 dawned with so many obstacles removed that Yuan Shih-kai
+became more and more peremptory in his methods. In February the young
+Empress Lun Yi, widow of the Emperor Kwanghsu, who two years previously
+in her character of guardian of the boy-Emperor Hsuan Tung, had been
+cajoled into sanctioning the Abdication Edicts, unexpectedly expired,
+her death creating profound emotion because it snapped the last link
+with the past. Yuan Shih-kai's position was considerably strengthened by
+this auspicious event which secretly greatly delighted him; and by his
+order for three days the defunct Empress lay in State in the Grand Hall
+of the Winter Palace and received the obeisance of countless multitudes
+who appeared strangely moved by this hitherto unknown procedure. There
+was now only a nine-year old boy between the Dictator and his highest
+ambitions. Two final problems still remained to be dealt with: to give a
+legal form to a purely autocratic rule, and to find money to govern the
+country. The second matter was vastly more important than the first to a
+man who did not hesitate to base his whole polity on the teachings of
+Machiavelli, legality being looked upon as only so much political
+window-dressing to placate foreign opinion and prevent intervention,
+whilst without money even the semblance of the rights of eminent domain
+could not be preserved. Everything indeed hinged on the question of
+finding money.
+
+There was none in China, at least none for the government. Financial
+chaos still reigned supreme in spite of the great Reorganization Loan of
+L25,000,000, which had been carefully arranged more for the purpose of
+wiping-out international indebtedness and balancing the books of foreign
+bankers than to institute a modern government. All the available specie
+in the country had been very quietly remitted in these troubled times by
+the native merchant-guilds from every part of China to the vast emporium
+of Shanghai for safe custody, where a sum not far short of a hundred
+million ounces now choked the vaults of the foreign banks,--being safe
+from governmental expropriation. The collection of provincial revenues
+having been long disorganized, Yuan Shih-kai, in spite of his military
+dictatorship, found it impossible to secure the proper resumption of the
+provincial remittances. Fresh loans became more and more sought after;
+by means of forced domestic issues a certain amount of cash was
+obtained, but the country lived from hand to mouth and everybody was
+unhappy. Added to this by March the formidable insurrection of the
+"White Wolf" bandits in Central China--under the legendary leadership of
+a man who was said to be invulnerable--necessitated the mobilization of
+a fresh army which ran into scores of battalions and which was vainly
+engaged for nearly half a year in rounding-up this replica of the
+Mexican Villa. So demoralized had the army become from long licence that
+this guerrilla warfare was waged with all possible slackness until a
+chance shot mortally wounded the chief brigand and his immense following
+automatically dispersed. During six months these pests had ravaged three
+provinces and menaced one of the most strongly fortified cities in
+Asia--the old capital of China, Hsianfu, whither the Manchu Court had
+fled in 1900.
+
+Meanwhile wholesale executions were carried out in the provinces with
+monotonous regularity and all attempts at rising ruthlessly suppressed.
+In Peking the infamous Chih Fa Chu or Military Court--a sort of Chinese
+Star-Chamber--was continually engaged in summarily dispatching men
+suspected of conspiring against the Dictator, Even the printed word was
+looked upon as seditious, an unfortunate native editor being actually
+flogged to death in Hankow for telling the truth about conditions in the
+riverine districts. These cruelties made men more and more determined to
+pay off the score the very first moment that was possible. Although he
+was increasingly pressed for ready money, Yuan Shih-kai, by the end of
+April, 1914, had the situation sufficiently in hand to bring out his
+supreme surprise,--a brand-new Constitution promulgated under the
+euphonious title of "The Constitutional Compact."
+
+This precious document, which had no more legality behind it as a
+governing instrument than a private letter, can be studied by the
+curious in the appendix where it is given in full: here it is sufficient
+to say that no such hocuspocus had ever been previously indulged in
+China. Drafted by an American legal adviser, Dr. Goodnow, who was later
+to earn unenviable international notoriety as the endorser of the
+monarchy scheme, it erected what it was pleased to call the Presidential
+System; that is, it placed all power directly in the hands of the
+President, giving him a single Secretary of State after the American
+model and reducing Cabinet Ministers to mere Department Chiefs who
+received their instructions from the State Department but had no real
+voice in the actual government. A new provincial system was likewise
+invented for the provinces, the Tutuhs or Governors of the Revolutionary
+period being turned into Chiang Chun or Military Officials on the Manchu
+model and provincial control absolutely centralized in their hands,
+whilst the Provincial Assemblies established under the former dynasty
+were summarily abolished. The worship at the Temple of Heaven was also
+re-established and so was the official worship of Confucius--both
+Imperialistic measures--whilst a brand-new ceremony, the worship of the
+two titulary Military Gods, was ordered so as to inculcate military
+virtue! It was laid down that in the worship of Heaven the President
+would wear the robes of the Dukes of the Chow dynasty, B.C. 1112, a
+novel and interesting republican experiment. Excerpts from two Mandates
+which belong to these days throw a flood of light on the kind of
+reasoning which was held to justify these developments. The first
+declares:
+
+    ... "In a Republic the Sovereign Power is vested in the people, and
+    the main principle is that all things should be determined in
+    accordance with the desires of the majority. These desires may be
+    embraced by two words, namely, existence and happiness. I, the
+    President, came from my farm because I was unable to bear the
+    eternal sufferings of the innocent people. I assumed office and
+    tried vainly to soothe the violent feelings. The greatest evil
+    nowadays is the misunderstanding of true principles. The Republicans
+    on the pretext of public interest try to attain selfish ends, some
+    going so far as to consider the forsaking of parents as a sign of
+    liberty and regarding the violation of the laws as a demonstration
+    of equality. I will certainly do my best to change all this."
+
+In the second Mandate Yuan Shih-kai justifies the re-establishment of
+the Confucian worship in a singular way, incidentally showing how
+utterly incomprehensible to him is the idea of representative
+government, since he would appear to have imagined that by dispatching
+circular telegrams to the provincial capitals and receiving affirmative
+replies from his creatures all that is necessary in the way of a
+national endorsement of high constitutional measures had been obtained.
+
+    ... "China's devotion to Confucius began with the reign of the
+    Emperor Hsiaowu, of the Han dynasty, who rejected the works of the
+    hundred authors, making the six Confucian classics the leading
+    books. Confucius, born in the time of the tyranny of the nobility,
+    in his works declared that after war disturbances comes peace, and
+    with peace real tranquillity and happiness. This, therefore, is the
+    fountain of Republicanism. After studying the history of China and
+    consulting the opinions of scholars, I find that Confucius must
+    remain the teacher for thousands of generations. But in a Republic
+    the people possess sovereign power. Therefore circular telegrams
+    were dispatched to all the provinces to collect opinions, and many
+    affirmative answers have already been received. Therefore, all
+    colleges, schools, and public bodies are ordered to revive the
+    sacrificial ceremony of Confucius, which shall be carefully and
+    minutely ordained." ...
+
+With the formal promulgation of the Constitutional Compact the situation
+had become bizarre in the extreme. Although even the child-mind might
+have known that powers for Constitution-making were vested solely in the
+National Assembly, and that the re-division of authority which was now
+made was wholly illegal, because Yuan Shih-kai as the bailiff of the
+Powers was able to do much as he pleased; and at a moment when Liberal
+Europe was on the eve of plunging into the most terrible war in history
+in defence of right against might, reaction and Prussianism of the most
+repulsive type were passed by unnoticed in China. In a few loosely
+drafted chapters not only was the governance of the country rearranged
+to suit a purely dictational rule, but the actual Parliament was
+permanently extinguished and replaced by a single Legislative Chamber
+(_Li Fa Yuan_) which from its very composition could be nothing but a
+harmless debating Society with no greater significance than a dietine of
+one of the minor German States. Meanwhile, as there was no intention of
+allowing even this chamber to assemble until the last possible moment, a
+Senate was got together as the organ of public opinion, ten Senators
+being chosen to draft yet another Constitution which would be the final
+one. Remarkable steps were taken a little later in the year (1914) to
+secure that the succession to the dictatorship should be left in Yuan
+Shih-kai's own hands. An elaborate ritual was contrived and officially
+promulgated under the title of the Presidential Succession Law on the
+29th December whereby the Chief Executive selected three names which
+were placed in a gold box in a Stone House in the grounds of the
+Palace,--the gold box only to be opened when death or incapacity
+deprived the nation of its self-appointed leader. For the term of the
+presidency was openly converted into one of ten years and made subject
+to indefinite renewal by this precious instrument which was the work of
+the puppet senate. In case of the necessity of an election suddenly
+arising, an Electoral College was to be formed by fifty members drawn
+from the Legislative Chamber and fifty from the Senate, the Presidential
+candidates consisting of the President (if he so desired) and the three
+whose names were in the gold box in the Stone House in the Palace
+grounds. It is not definitely known to whom these provisions were due,
+but it is known that at least they were not the work of the American
+adviser.
+
+His responsibility, however, was very great; for the keynote of all this
+scheme, according to Dr. Goodnow[12], was "centralization of power," a
+parrot-like phrase which has deluded better men than ever came to China
+and which--save as a method necessary during a state of war--should
+have no place in modern politics. But it was precisely this which
+appealed to Yuan Shih-kai. Although as President he was _ex officio_
+Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy, he now turned this office into
+a direct and special organization installed within the precincts of the
+Imperial City. The flags of this new dictatorship constantly floated
+over his palace, whilst scores of officers were appointed to scores of
+departments which were directly concerned with centralizing the control
+of every armed man in the country in the master's hands. Meanwhile in
+order to placate provincial commanders, a "Palace of Generals," was
+created in Peking to which were brought all men it was held desirable to
+emasculate. Here, drawing ample salaries, they could sit in idleness the
+livelong day, discussing the battles they had never fought and
+intriguing against one another, two occupations in which the product of
+the older school of men in China excels. Provincial levies which had any
+military virtue, were gradually disbanded, though many of the rascals
+and rapscallions, who were open menaces to good government were left
+with arms in their hands so as to be an argument in favour of drastic
+police-rule. Thus it is significant of the underlying falseness and
+weakness of the dictator's character that he never dared to touch the
+troops of the reprobate General Chang Hsun, who had made trouble for
+years, and who had nearly embroiled China in war with Japan during the
+so-called Second Revolution (July-August, 1913) by massacring some
+Japanese civilians in the streets of Nanking when the city was
+recaptured. So far from disbanding his men, Chang Hsun managed
+constantly to increase his army of 30,000 men on the plea that the post
+of Inspector-General of the Yangtsze Valley, which had been given to him
+as a reward for refusing to throw in his lot with the Southern rebels,
+demanded larger forces. Yuan Shih-kai, although half afraid of him,
+found him at various periods useful as a counterweight to other generals
+in the provinces; in any case he was not the man to risk anything by
+attempting to crush him. As he was planted with his men astride of the
+strategically important Pukow railway, it was always possible to order
+him at a moment's notice into the Yangtsze Valley which was thus
+constantly under the menace of fire and sword.
+
+Far and wide Yuan Shih-kai now stretched his nets. He even employed
+Americans throughout the United States in the capacity of press-agents
+in order to keep American public opinion favourable to him, hoping to
+invoke their assistance against his life-enemy--Japan--should that be
+necessary. The precise details of this propaganda and the sums spent in
+its prosecution are known to the writer; if he refrains from publishing
+them it is solely for reasons of policy. England it was not necessary to
+deal with in this way. Chance had willed that the British Representative
+in Peking should be an old friend who had known the Dictator intimately
+since his Korean days; and who faithful to the extraordinary English
+love of hero-worship believed that such a surprising character could do
+little wrong. British policy which has always been a somewhat variable
+quantity in China, owing to the spasmodic attention devoted to such a
+distant problem, may be said to have been non-existent during all this
+period--a state of affairs not conducive to international happiness.
+
+Slowly the problem developed in a shiftless, irresolute way. Unable to
+see that China had vastly changed, and that government by rascality had
+become a physical and moral impossibility, the Legations in Peking
+adopted an attitude of indifference leaving Yuan Shih-kai to wreak his
+will on the people. The horde of foreign advisers who had been appointed
+merely as a piece of political window-dressing, although they were
+allowed to do no work, were useful in running backwards and forwards
+between the Legations and the Presidential headquarters and in making
+each Power suppose that its influence was of increasing importance. It
+was made abundantly clear that in Yuan Shih-kai's estimation the
+Legations played in international politics much the same role that
+provincial capitals did in domestic politics: so long as you bound both
+to benevolent neutrality the main problem--the consolidation of
+dictatorial power--could be pushed on with as you wished. Money,
+however, remained utterly lacking and a new twenty-five million sterling
+loan was spoken of as inevitable--the accumulated deficit in 1914 being
+alone estimated at thirty-eight million pounds. But although this
+financial dearth was annoying, Chinese resources were sufficient to
+allow the account to be carried on from day to day. Some progress was
+made in railways, building concessions being liberally granted to
+foreign corporations, this policy having received a great impetus from
+the manner in which Dr. Sun Yat Sen had boomed the necessity for better
+communications during the short time he had ruled at a National Railway
+Bureau in Shanghai, an office from which he had been relieved in 1913 on
+it being discovered that he was secretly indenting for quick-firing
+guns. Certain questions proved annoying and insoluble, for instance the
+Tibetan question concerning which England was very resolute, as well as
+the perpetual risings in Inner Mongolia, a region so close to Peking
+that concentrations of troops were necessary. But on the whole as time
+went on there was increasing indifference both among the Foreign Powers
+and Chinese for the extraordinary state of affairs which had been
+allowed to grow up.
+
+There was one notable exception, however, Japan. Never relaxing her grip
+on a complicated problem, watchful and active, where others were
+indifferent and slothful, Japan bided her time. Knowing that the hour
+had almost arrived when it would be possible to strike, Japan was vastly
+active behind the scenes in China long before the outbreak of the
+European war gave her the longed for opportunity; and largely because of
+her the pear, which seemed already almost ripe, finally withered on the
+tree.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[12] It is significant that Dr. Goodnow carried out all his
+Constitutional studies in Germany, specializing in that department known
+as Administrative Law which has no place, fortunately, in Anglo-Saxon
+conceptions of the State.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE FACTOR OF JAPAN
+
+(FROM THE OUTBREAK OF THE WORLD-WAR, 1ST AUGUST, 1914, TO THE FILING OF
+THE TWENTY-ONE DEMANDS, 18TH JANUARY, 1915)
+
+
+The thunderclap of the European war shattered the uneasy calm in China,
+not because the Chinese knew anything of the mighty issues which were to
+be fought out with such desperation and valour, but because the presence
+of the German colony of Kiaochow on Chinese soil and the activity of
+German cruisers in the Yellow Sea brought the war to China's very doors.
+Vaguely conscious that this might spell disaster to his own ambitious
+plans, Yuan Shih-kai was actually in the midst of tentative negotiations
+with the German Legation regarding the retrocession of the Kiaochow
+territory when the news reached him that Japan, after some rapid
+negotiations with her British Ally, had filed an ultimatum on Germany,
+peremptorily demanding the handing-over of all those interests that had
+been forcibly acquired in Shantung province in the great leasing-year of
+1898.
+
+At once Yuan Shih-kai realized that the Nemesis which had dogged his
+footsteps all his life was again close behind him. In the Japanese
+attack on Kiaochow he foresaw a web of complications which even his
+unrivalled diplomacy might be unable to unravel; for he knew well from
+bitter experience that wherever the Japanese sets his foot there he
+remains. It is consequently round this single factor of Japan that the
+history of the two succeeding years revolves. From being indisputably
+the central figure on the Chinese canvas, Yuan Shih-kai suddenly becomes
+subordinate to the terror of Japanese intervention which hangs over him
+constantly like a black cloud, and governs every move he made from the
+15th August, 1914, to the day of his dramatic death on the 6th June,
+1916. We shall attempt to write down the true explanation of why this
+should have been so.
+
+It is extremely hard to discuss the question of Japan for the benefit of
+an exclusively Western audience in a convincing way because Japanese
+policy has two distinct facets which seem utterly contradictory, and yet
+which are in a great measure understandable if the objects of that
+diplomacy are set down. Being endowed with an extraordinary capacity for
+taking detached views, the Statesmen of Tokio long ago discerned the
+necessity of having two independent policies--an Eastern policy for
+Eastern Asia and a Western policy for Western nations--because East and
+West are essentially antithetical, and cannot be treated (at least not
+yet) in precisely the same manner. Whilst the Western policy is frank
+and manly, and is exclusively in the hands of brilliant and attractive
+men who have been largely educated in the schools of Europe and America
+and who are fully able to deal with all matters in accordance with the
+customary traditions of diplomacy, the Eastern policy is the work of
+obscurantists whose imaginations are held by the vast projects which the
+Military Party believes are capable of realization in China. There is
+thus a constant contradiction in the attitude of Japan which men have
+sought in vain to reconcile. It is for this reason that the outer world
+is divided into two schools of thought, one believing implicitly in
+Japan's _bona fides_, the other vulgarly covering her with abuse and
+declaring that she is the last of all nations in her conceptions of fair
+play and honourable treatment. Both views are far-fetched. It is as true
+of Japan as it is of every other Government in the world that her
+actions are dictated neither by altruism nor by perfidy, but are merely
+the result of the faulty working of a number of fallible brains and as
+regards the work of administration in Japan itself the position is
+equally extraordinary. Here, at the extreme end of the world, so far
+from being in any way threatened, the principle of Divine Right, which
+is being denounced and dismembered in Europe as a crude survival from
+almost heathen days, stands untouched and still exhibits itself in all
+its pristine glory. A highly aristocratic Court, possessing one of the
+most complicated and jealously protected hierarchies in the world, and
+presided over by a monarch claiming direct descent from the sacred Jimmu
+Tenno of twenty-five hundred years ago, decrees to-day precisely as
+before, the elaborate ritual governing every move, every decision and
+every agreement. There is something so engaging in this political
+curiosity, something so far removed from the vast world-movement now
+rolling fiercely to its conclusion, that we may be pardoned for
+interpolating certain capital considerations which closely affect the
+future of China and therefore cannot fail to be of public interest.
+
+The Japanese, who owe their whole theocratic conception to the Chinese,
+just as they owe all their letters and their learning to them, still
+nominally look upon their ruler as the link between Heaven and Earth,
+and the central fact dominating their cosmogony. Although the vast
+number of well-educated men who to-day crowd the cities of Japan are
+fully conscious of the bizarre nature of this belief in an age which has
+turned its back on superstition, nothing has yet been done to modify it
+because--and this is the important point--the structure of Japanese
+society is such that without a violent upheaval which shall hurl the
+military clan system irremediably to the ground, it is absolutely
+impossible for human equality to be admitted and the man-god theory to
+be destroyed. So long as these two features-exist; that is so long as a
+privileged military caste supports and attempts to make all-powerful the
+man-god theory, so long will Japan be an international danger-spot
+because there will lack those democratic restraints which this war has
+shown are absolutely essential to secure a peaceful understanding among
+the nations. It is for this reason that Japan will fail to attain the
+position the art-genius and industry of her people entitle her to and
+must limp behind the progress of the world unless a very radical
+revision of the constitution is achieved. The disabilities which arise
+from an archaic survival are so great that they will affect China as
+adversely as Japan, and therefore should be universally understood.
+
+Japanese history, if stripped of its superficial aspects, has a certain
+remarkable quality; it seems steeped in heroic blood. The doctrine of
+force, which expresses itself in its crudest forms in Europe, has always
+been in Japan a system of heroic-action so fascinating to humanity at
+large that until recent times its international significance has not
+been realized. The feudal organization of Japanese society which arose
+as a result of the armed conquest of the islands fifteen hundred years
+ago, precluded centralizating measures being taken because the Throne,
+relying on the virtues of Divine Ancestors rather than on any
+well-articulated political theory, was weak in all except certain
+quasisacerdotal qualities, and forced to rely on great chieftains for
+the execution of its mandates as well as for its defence. The military
+title of "barbarian-conquering general," which was first conferred on a
+great clan leader eight centuries ago, was a natural enough development
+when we remember that the autochthonous races were even then not yet
+pushed out of the main island, and were still battling with the
+advancing tide of Japanese civilization which was itself composed of
+several rival streams coming from the Asiatic mainland and from the
+Malayan archipelagoes. This armed settlement saturates Japanese history
+and is responsible for the unending local wars and the glorification of
+the warrior. The conception of triumphant generalship which Hideyoshi
+attempted unsuccessfully to carry into Korea in the Sixteenth Century,
+led directly at the beginning of the Seventeenth Century to the formal
+establishment of the Shogunate, that military dictatorship being the
+result of the backwash of the Korean adventure, and the greatest proof
+of the disturbance which it had brought in Japanese society. The
+persistence of this hereditary military dictatorship for more than two
+and a half centuries is a remarkable illustration of the fact that as in
+China so in Japan the theocratic conception was unworkable save in
+primitive times--civilization demanding organization rather than
+precepts and refusing to bow its head to speechless kings. Although the
+Restoration of 1868 nominally gave back to the Throne all it had been
+forced to leave in other hands since 1603, that transfer of power was
+imaginary rather than real, the new military organization which
+succeeded the Shogun's government being the vital portion of the
+Restoration. In other words, it was the leaders of Japan's conscript
+armies who inherited the real power, a fact made amply evident by the
+crushing of the Satsuma Rebellion by these new corps whose organization
+allowed them to overthrow the proudest and most valorous of the Samurai
+and incidentally to proclaim the triumph of modern firearms.
+
+Now it is important to note that as early as 1874--that is six years
+after the Restoration of the Emperor Meiji--these facts were attracting
+the widest notice in Japanese society, the agitation for a Constitution
+and a popular assembly being very vigorously pushed. Led by the
+well-known and aristocratic Itagaki, Japanese Liberalism had joined
+battle with out-and-out Imperialism more than a quarter of a century
+ago; and although the question of recovering Tariff and Judicial
+autonomy and revising the Foreign Treaties was more urgent in those
+days, the foreign question was often pushed aside by the fierceness of
+the constitutional agitation.
+
+It was not, however, until 1889 that a Constitution was finally granted
+to the Japanese--that instrument being a gift from the Crown, and
+nothing more than a conditional warrant to a limited number of men to
+become witnesses of the processes of government but in no sense its
+controllers. The very first Diet summoned in 1890 was sufficient proof
+of that. A collision at once occurred over questions of finance which
+resulted in the resignation of the Ministry. And ever since those days,
+that is for twenty-seven consecutive years, successive Diets in Japan
+have been fighting a forlorn fight for the power which can never be
+theirs save by revolution, it being only natural that Socialism should
+come to be looked upon by the governing class as Nihilism, whilst the
+mob-threat has been very acute ever since the Tokio peace riots of 1905.
+
+Now it is characteristic of the ceremonial respect which all Japanese
+have for the Throne that all through this long contest the main issue
+should have been purposely obscured. The traditional feelings of
+veneration which a loyal and obedient people feel for a line of
+monarchs, whose origin is lost in the mists of antiquity, are such that
+they have turned what is in effect an ever-growing struggle against the
+archaic principle of divine right into a contest with clan-leaders whom
+they assert are acting "unconstitutionally" whenever they choose to
+assert the undeniable principles of the Constitution. Thus to-day we
+have this paradoxical situation; that although Japanese Liberalism must
+from its very essence be revolutionary, _i.e._, destructive before it
+can hope to be constructive, it feigns blindness, hoping that by suasion
+rather than by force the principle of parliamentary government will
+somehow be grafted on to the body politic and the emperors, being left
+outside the controversy, become content to accept a greatly modified
+rule.
+
+This hope seems a vain one in the light of all history. Militarism and
+the clans are by no means in the last ditch in Japan, and they will no
+more surrender their power than would the Russian bureaucracy. The only
+argument which is convincing in such a case is the last one which is
+ever used; and the mere mention of it by so-called socialists is
+sufficient to cause summary arrest in Japan. Sheltering themselves
+behind the Throne, and nominally deriving their latter-day dictatorship
+from the Imperial mandate, the military chiefs remain adamant, nothing
+having yet occurred to incline them to surrender any of their
+privileges. By a process of adaptation to present-day conditions, a
+formula has now been discovered which it is hoped will serve many a long
+year. By securing by extra-legal means the return of a "majority" in the
+House of Representatives the fiction of national support of the
+autocracy has been re-invigorated, and the doctrine laid down that what
+is good for every other advanced people in the world is bad for the
+Japanese, who must be content with what is granted them and never
+question the superior intelligence of a privileged caste. In the opinion
+of the writer, it is every whit as important for the peace of the world
+that the people of Japan should govern themselves as it is for the
+people of Germany to do so. The persistence of the type of military
+government which we see to-day in Japan is harmful for all alike because
+it is as antiquated as Tsarism and a perpetual menace to a disarmed
+nation such as China. So long as that government remains, so long must
+Japan remain an international suspect and be denied equal rights in the
+council-chambers of the Liberal Powers.
+
+If the situation which arose on the 15th August, 1914, is to be
+thoroughly understood, it is necessary to pick up threads of
+Chino-Japanese relations from a good many years back. First-hand
+familiarity with the actors and the scenes of at least three decades is
+essential to give the picture the completeness, the brilliancy of
+colouring, and withal the suggestiveness inseparable from all true
+works of art. For the Chino-Japanese question is primarily a work of art
+and not merely a piece of jejune diplomacy stretched across the years.
+As the shuttle of Fate has been cast swiftly backwards and forwards, the
+threads of these entwining relations have been woven into patterns
+involving the whole Far East, until to-day we have as it were a complete
+Gobelin tapestry, magnificent with meaning, replete with action, and
+full of scholastic interest.
+
+Let us follow some of the tracery. It has long been the habit to affirm
+that the conflict between China and Japan had its origin in Korea, when
+Korea was a vassal state acknowledging the suzerainty of Peking; and
+that the conflict merited ending there, since of the two protagonists
+contending for empire Japan was left in undisputed mastery. This
+statement, being incomplete, is dangerously false. Dating from that
+vital period of thirty years ago, when Yuan Shih-kai first went to Seoul
+as a general officer in the train of the Chinese Imperial Resident (on
+China being forced to take action in protection of her interests, owing
+to the "opening" of Korea by the American Treaty of 1882) three
+contestants, equally interested in the balance of land-power in Eastern
+Asia were constantly pitted against one another with Korea as their
+common battling-ground--Russia, China and Japan. The struggle, which
+ended in the eclipse of the first two, merely shifted the venue from the
+Korean zone to the Manchurian zone; and from thence gradually extended
+it further and further afield until at last not only was Inner Mongolia
+and the vast belt of country fronting the Great Wall embraced within its
+scope, but the entire aspect of China itself was changed. For these
+important facts have to be noted. Until the Russian war of 1904-05 had
+demonstrated the utter valuelessness of Tsarism as an international
+military factor, Japan had been almost willing to resign herself to a
+subordinate role in the Far East. Having eaten bitter bread as the
+result of her premature attempt in 1895 (after the Korean war) to become
+a continental power--an attempt which had resulted in the forced
+retrocession of the Liaotung Peninsula--she had been placed on her good
+behaviour, an attitude which was admirably reflected in 1900 when her
+Peking Expeditionary Force proved itself so well-behaved and so gallant
+as to arouse the world's admiration. But the war with Russia and the
+collapse of the Tsar's Manchurian adventure not only drew her back into
+territory that she never hoped to see again, but placed her in
+possession of a ready-made railway system which carried her almost up to
+the Sungari river and surrendered to her military control vast
+grasslands stretching to the Khingan mountains. This Westernly march so
+greatly enlarged the Japanese political horizon, and so entirely changed
+the Japanese viewpoint, that the statesmen of Tokio in their excitement
+threw off their ancient spectacles and found to their astonishment that
+their eyes were every whit as good as European eyes. Now seeing the
+world as others had long seen it, they understood that just as with the
+individuals so with nations the struggle for existence can most easily
+be conducted by adopting that war-principle of Clausewitz--the restless
+offensive, and not by writing meaningless dispatches. Prior to the
+Russian war they had written to Russia a magnificent series of documents
+in which they had pleaded with sincerity for an equitable
+settlement,--only to find that all was in vain. Forced to battle, they
+had found in combat not only success but a new principle.
+
+The discovery necessitated a new policy. During the eighties, and in a
+lesser degree in the nineties, Japan had apart from everything else been
+content to act in a modest and retiring way, because she wished at all
+costs to avoid testing too severely her immature strength. But owing to
+the successive collapses of her rivals, she now found herself not only
+forced to attack as the safest course of action, but driven to the view
+that the Power that exerts the maximum pressure constantly and
+unremittedly is inevitably the most successful. This conclusion had
+great importance. For just as the first article of faith for England in
+Asia has been the doctrine that no Power can be permitted to seize
+strategic harbours which menace her sea-communications, so did it now
+become equally true of Japan that her dominant policy became not an
+Eastern Monroe doctrine, as shallow men have supposed, but simply the
+Doctrine of Maximum Pressure. To press with all her strength on China
+was henceforth considered vital by every Japanese; and it is in this
+spirit that every diplomatic pattern has been woven since the die was
+cast in 1905. Until this signal fact has been grasped no useful analysis
+can be made of the evolution of present conditions. Standing behind
+this policy, and constantly reinforcing it, are the serried ranks of
+the new democracy which education and the great increase in material
+prosperity have been so rapidly creating. The soaring ambition which
+springs from the sea lends to the attacks developed by such a people the
+aspect of piracies; and it is but natural. In such circumstances that
+for Chinese Japan should not only have the aspect of a sea-monster but
+that their country should appear as hapless Andromeda bound to a rock,
+always awaiting a Perseus who never comes....
+
+The Revolution of 1911 had been entirely unexpected in Japan. Whilst
+large outbreaks had been certainly counted on since the Chinese
+Revolutionary party had for years used Japan as an asylum and a base of
+operations, never had it been anticipated that the fall of an ancient
+Dynasty could be so easily encompassed. Consequently, the abdication of
+the Manchus as the result of intrigues rather than of warfare was looked
+upon as little short of a catastrophe because it hopelessly complicated
+the outlook, broke the pattern which had been so carefully woven for so
+many years, and interjected harsh elements which could not be assigned
+an orderly place. Not only was a well-articulated State-system suddenly
+consigned to the flames, but the ruin threatened to be so general that
+the balance of power throughout the Far East would be twisted out of
+shape. Japanese statesmen had desired a weak China, a China which would
+ultimately turn to them for assistance because they were a kindred race,
+but not a China that looked to the French Revolution for its
+inspiration. To a people as slow to adjust themselves to violent
+surprises as are the Japanese, there was an air of desperation about the
+whole business which greatly alarmed them, and made them determined at
+the earliest possible moment to throw every ounce of their weight in the
+direction which would best serve them by bringing matters back to their
+original starting-point. For this reason they were not only prepared in
+theory in 1911 to lend armed assistance to the Manchus but would have
+speedily done so had not England strongly dissented from such a course
+of action when she was privately sounded about the matter. Even to-day,
+when a temporary adjustment of Japanese policy has been successfully
+arranged, it is of the highest importance for political students to
+remember that the dynastic influences in Tokio have never departed from
+the view that the legitimate sovereignty of China remains vested in the
+Manchu House and that everything that has taken place since 1911 is
+irregular and unconstitutional.
+
+For the time being, however, two dissimilar circumstances demanded
+caution: first, the enthusiasm which the Japanese democracy, fed by a
+highly excited press, exhibited towards the Young China which had been
+so largely grounded in the Tokio schools and which had carried out the
+Revolution: secondly--and far more important--the deep, abiding and
+ineradicable animosity which Japanese of all classes felt for the man
+who had come out of the contest head and shoulders above everybody
+else--Yuan Shih-kai. These two remarkable features ended by completely
+thrusting into the background during the period 1911-1914 every other
+element in Japanese statesmanship; and of the two the second must be
+counted the decisive one. Dating back to Korea, when Yuan Shih-kai's
+extraordinary diplomatic talents constantly allowed him to worst his
+Japanese rivals and to make Chinese counsels supreme at the Korean Court
+up to the very moment when the first shots of the war of 1894 were
+fired, this ancient dislike, which amounted to a consuming hatred, had
+become a fixed idea. Restrained by the world's opinion during the period
+prior to the outbreak of the world-war as well as by the necessity of
+acting financially in concert with the other Powers, it was not until
+August, 1914, that the longed-for opportunity came and that Japan
+prepared to act in a most remarkable way.
+
+The campaign against Kiaochow was unpopular from the outset among the
+Japanese public because it was felt that they were not legitimately
+called upon to interest themselves in such a remote question as the
+balance of power among European nations, which was what British warfare
+against Germany seemed to them to be. Though some ill-will was felt
+against Germany for the part played by her in the intervention of 1895,
+it must not be forgotten that just as the Japanese navy is the child of
+the British navy, so is the Japanese army the child of the German
+army--and that Japanese army chiefs largely control Japan. These men
+were averse from "spoiling their army" in a contest which did not
+interest them. There was also the feeling abroad that England by
+calling upon her Ally to carry out the essential provisions of her
+Alliance had shown that she had the better part of a bargain, and that
+she was exploiting an old advantage in a way which could not fail to
+react adversely on Japan's future world's relationships. Furthermore, it
+is necessary to underline the fact that official Japan was displeased by
+the tacit support an uninterested British Foreign Office had
+consistently given to the Yuan Shih-kai regime. That the Chinese
+experiment was looked upon in England more with amusement than with
+concern irritated the Japanese--more particularly as the British Foreign
+Office was issuing in the form of White Papers documents covering Yuan
+Shih-kai's public declarations as if they were contributions to
+contemporary history. Thus in the preceding year (1913) under the
+nomenclature of "affairs in China" the text of a _dementi_ regarding the
+President of China's Imperial aspirations had been published,--a
+document which Japanese had classified as a studied lie, and as an act
+of presumption because its working showed that its author intended to
+keep his back turned on Japan. The Dictator had declared:--
+
+    ... From my student days, I, Yuan Shih-kai, have admired the
+    example of the Emperors Yao and Shun, who treated the empire as a
+    public trust, and considered that the record of a dynasty in history
+    for good or ill is inseparably bound up with the public spirit or
+    self-seeking by which it has been animated. On attaining middle age
+    I grew more familiar with foreign affairs, was struck by the
+    admirable republican system in France and America, and felt that
+    they were a true embodiment of the democratic precepts of the
+    ancients. When last year the patriotic crusade started in Wuchang
+    its echoes went forth into all the provinces, with the result that
+    this ancient nation with its 2,000 years of despotism adopted with
+    one bound the republican system of government.
+
+    It was my good fortune to see this glorious day at my life's late
+    eve; I cherished the hope that I might dwell in the seclusion of my
+    own home and participate in the blessings of an age of peace.
+
+    But once again my fellow-countrymen honoured me with the pressing
+    request that I should again assume a heavy burden, and on the day on
+    which the Republic was proclaimed I announced to the whole nation
+    that never again should a monarchy be permitted in China. At my
+    inauguration I again took this solemn oath in the sight of heaven
+    above and earth beneath. Yet of late ignorant persons in the
+    provinces have fabricated wild rumours to delude men's minds, and
+    have adduced the career of the First Napoleon on which to base their
+    erroneous speculations. It is best not to inquire as to their
+    motives; in some cases misconception may be the cause, in others
+    deliberate malice.
+
+    The Republic has now been proclaimed for six months; so far there
+    is no prospect of recognition from the Powers, while order is far
+    from being restored in the provinces. Our fate hangs upon a hair;
+    the slightest negligence may forfeit all. I, who bear this arduous
+    responsibility, feel it my bounden duty to stand at the helm in the
+    hope of successfully breasting the wild waves.
+
+    But while those in office are striving with all their might to
+    effect a satisfactory solution, spectators seem to find a difficulty
+    in maintaining a generous forbearance. They forget that I, who have
+    received this charge from my countrymen, cannot possibly look
+    dispassionately on when the fate of the nation is in the balance. If
+    I were aware that the task was impossible and played a part of easy
+    acquiescence, so that the future of the Republic might become
+    irreparable, others might not reproach me, but my own conscience
+    would never leave me alone.
+
+    My thoughts are manifest in the sight of high heaven. But at this
+    season of construction and dire crisis how shall these mutual
+    suspicions find a place? Once more I issue this announcement; if
+    you, my fellow countrymen, do indeed place the safety of China
+    before all other considerations, it behooves you to be large-minded.
+    Beware of lightly heeding the plausible voice of calumny, and of
+    thus furnishing a medium for fostering anarchy. If evilly disposed
+    persons, who are bent on destruction, seize the excuse for sowing
+    dissension to the jeopardy of the situation, I, Yuan Shih-kai, shall
+    follow the behest of my fellow-countrymen in placing such men beyond
+    the pale of humanity.
+
+    A vital issue is involved. It is my duty to lay before you my
+    inmost thought, so that suspicion may be dissipated. Those who know
+    have the right to impose their censure. It is for public opinion to
+    take due notice.
+
+[Illustration: Silk-reeling done in the open under the Walls of Peking.]
+
+[Illustration: Modern Peking: A Run on a Bank.]
+
+[Illustration: The Re-opening of Parliament on August 1st, 1916, after
+three years of dictatorial rule.]
+
+Moreover Yuan Shih-kai had also shown in his selection and use of
+foreign Advisers, that he was determined to proceed in such a manner as
+to advertise his suspicion and enmity of Japan. After the Coup d'etat of
+the 4th November, 1913, and the scattering of Parliament, it was an
+American Adviser who was set to work on the new "Constitution"; and
+although a Japanese, Dr. Ariga, who was in receipt of a princely salary,
+aided and abetted this work, his endorsement of the dictatorial rule was
+looked upon as traitorous by the bulk of his countrymen. Similarly, it
+was perfectly well-known that Yuan Shih-kai was spending large sums of
+money in Tokio in bribing certain organs of the Japanese Press and in
+attempting to win adherents among Japanese members of Parliament.
+Remarkable stories are current which compromise very highly-placed
+Japanese but which the writer hesitates to set down in black and white
+as documentary proof is not available. In any case, be this as it may,
+it was felt in Tokio that the time had arrived to give a proper
+definition to the relations between the two states,--the more so as Yuan
+Shih-kai, by publicly proclaiming a small war-zone in Shantung within
+the limits of which the Japanese were alone permitted to wage war
+against the Germans, had shown himself indifferent to the majesty of
+Japan. The Japanese having captured Kiaochow by assault before the end
+of 1914 decided to accept the view that a _de facto_ Dictatorship
+existed in China. Therefore on the 18th of January, 1915, the Japanese
+Minister, Dr. Hioki, personally served on Yuan Shih-kai the now famous
+Twenty-one Demands, a list designed to satisfy every present and future
+need of Japanese policy and to reduce China to a state of vassalage.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE TWENTY-ONE DEMANDS
+
+
+Although the press of the world gave a certain prominence at the time to
+the astounding _demarche_ with which we now have to deal, there was such
+persistent mystery about the matter and so many official _dementis_
+accompanied every publication of the facts that even to this day the
+nature of the assault which Japan delivered on China is not adequately
+realized, nor is the narrow escape assigned its proper place in
+estimates of the future. Briefly, had there not been publication of the
+facts and had not British diplomacy been aroused to action there is
+little doubt that Japan would have forced matters so far that Chinese
+independence would now be virtually a thing of the past. Fortunately,
+however, China in her hour of need found many who were willing to
+succour her; with the result that although she lost something in these
+negotiations, Japan nevertheless failed in a very signal fashion to
+attain her main objective. The Pyrrhic victory which she won with her
+eleventh hour ultimatum will indeed in the end cost her more than would
+have a complete failure, for Chinese suspicion and hostility are now so
+deep-seated that nothing will ever completely eradicate them. It is
+therefore only proper that an accurate record should be here
+incorporated of a chapter of history which has much international
+importance; and if we invite close attention to the mass of documents
+that follow it is because we hold that an adequate comprehension of them
+is essential to securing the future peace of the Far East. Let us first
+give the official text of the original Demands:
+
+    JAPAN'S ORIGINAL TWENTY-ONE DEMANDS
+
+    Translations of Documents Handed to the President, Yuan Shih-kai, by
+    Mr. Hioki, the Japanese Minister, on January 18th, 1915.
+
+
+    GROUP I
+
+    The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government being desirous of
+    maintaining the general peace in Eastern Asia and further
+    strengthening the friendly relations and good neighbourhood existing
+    between the two nations agree to the following articles:--
+
+    Article 1. The Chinese Government engages to give full assent to all
+    matters upon which the Japanese Government may hereafter agree with
+    the German Government relating to the disposition of all rights,
+    interests and concessions, which Germany, by virtue of treaties or
+    otherwise, possesses in relation to the Province of Shantung.
+
+    Article 2. The Chinese Government engages that within the Province
+    of Shantung and along its coast no territory or island will be ceded
+    or leased to a third Power under any pretext.
+
+    Article 3. The Chinese Government consents to Japan's building a
+    railway from Chefoo or Lungkow to join the Kiaochou-Tsinanfu
+    railway.
+
+    Article 4. The Chinese Government engages, in the interest of trade
+    and for the residence of foreigners, to open by herself as soon as
+    possible certain important cities and towns in the Province of
+    Shantung as Commercial Ports. What places shall be opened are to be
+    jointly decided upon in a separate agreement.
+
+
+    GROUP II
+
+    The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government, since the
+    Chinese Government has always acknowledged the special position
+    enjoyed by Japan in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia,
+    agree to the following articles:--
+
+    Article 1. The two Contracting Parties mutually agree that the term
+    of lease of Port Arthur and Dalny and the term of lease of the South
+    Manchurian Railway and the Antung-Mukden Railway shall be extended
+    to the period of 99 years.
+
+    Article 2. Japanese subjects in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner
+    Mongolia shall have the right to lease or own land required either
+    for erecting suitable buildings for trade and manufacture or for
+    farming.
+
+    Article 3. Japanese subjects shall be free to reside and travel in
+    South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia and to engage in business
+    and in manufacture of any kind whatsoever.
+
+    Article 4. The Chinese Government agrees to grant to Japanese
+    subjects the right of opening the mines in South Manchuria and
+    Eastern Inner Mongolia. As regards what mines are to be opened, they
+    shall be decided upon jointly.
+
+    Article 5. The Chinese Government agrees that in respect of the
+    (two) cases mentioned herein below the Japanese Government's consent
+    shall be first obtained before action is taken:--
+
+    (a) Whenever permission is granted to the subject of a third Power
+    to build a railway or to make a loan with a third Power for the
+    purpose of building a railway in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner
+    Mongolia.
+
+    (b) Whenever a loan is to be made with a third Power pledging the
+    local taxes of South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia as
+    security.
+
+    Article 6. The Chinese Government agrees that if the Chinese
+    Government employs political, financial or military advisers or
+    instructors in South Manchuria or Eastern Inner Mongolia, the
+    Japanese Government shall first be consulted.
+
+    Article 7. The Chinese Government agrees that the control and
+    management of the Kirin-Changchun Railway shall be handed over to
+    the Japanese Government for a term of 99 years dating from the
+    signing of this Agreement.
+
+
+    GROUP III
+
+    The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government, seeing that
+    Japanese financiers and the Hanyehping Co. have close relations with
+    each other at present and desiring that the common interests of the
+    two nations shall be advanced, agree to the following articles:--
+
+    Article 1. The two Contracting Parties mutually agree that when the
+    opportune moment arrives the Hanyehping Company shall be made a
+    joint concern of the two nations and they further agree that without
+    the previous consent of Japan, China shall not by her own act
+    dispose of the rights and property of whatsoever nature of the said
+    Company nor cause the said Company to dispose freely of the same.
+
+    Article 2. The Chinese Government agrees that all mines in the
+    neighbourhood of those owned by the Hanyehping Company shall not be
+    permitted, without the consent of the said Company, to be worked by
+    other persons outside of the said Company; and further agrees that
+    if it is desired to carry out any undertaking which, it is
+    apprehended, may directly or indirectly affect the interests of the
+    said Company, the consent of the said Company shall first be
+    obtained.
+
+
+    GROUP IV
+
+    The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government with the object
+    of effectively preserving the territorial integrity of China agree
+    to the following special articles:--
+
+    The Chinese Government engages not to cede or lease to a third Power
+    any harbour or bay or island along the coast of China.
+
+
+    GROUP V
+
+    Article 1. The Chinese Central Government shall employ influential
+    Japanese advisers in political, financial and military affairs.
+
+    Article 2. Japanese hospitals, churches and schools in the interior
+    of China shall be granted the right of owning land.
+
+    Article 3. Inasmuch as the Japanese Government and the Chinese
+    Government have had many cases of dispute between Japanese and
+    Chinese police to settle cases which caused no little
+    misunderstanding, it is for this reason necessary that the police
+    departments of important places (in China) shall be jointly
+    administered by Japanese and Chinese or that the police departments
+    of these places shall employ numerous Japanese, so that they may at
+    the same time help to plan for the improvement of the Chinese Police
+    Service.
+
+    Article 4. China shall purchase from Japan a fixed amount of
+    munitions of war (say 50% or more) of what is needed by the Chinese
+    Government or that there shall be established in China a
+    Sino-Japanese jointly worked arsenal. Japanese technical experts are
+    to be employed and Japanese material to be purchased.
+
+    Article 5. China agrees to grant to Japan the right of constructing
+    a railway connecting Wuchang with Kiukiang and Nanchang, another
+    line between Nanchang and Hanchow, and another between Nanchang and
+    Chaochou.
+
+    Article 6. If China needs foreign capital to work mines, build
+    railways and construct harbour-works (including dock-yards) in the
+    Provinces of Fukien, Japan shall be first consulted.
+
+    Article 7. China agrees that Japanese subjects shall have the right
+    of missionary propaganda in China.[13]
+
+The five groups into which the Japanese divided their demands possess a
+remarkable interest not because of their sequence, or the style of their
+phraseology, but because every word reveals a peculiar and very
+illuminating chemistry of the soul. To study the original Chinese text
+is to pass as it were into the secret recesses of the Japanese brain,
+and to find in that darkened chamber a whole world of things which
+advertise ambitions mixed with limitations, hesitations overwhelmed by
+audacities, greatnesses succumbing to littlenesses, and vanities having
+the appearance of velleities. Given an intimate knowledge of Far Eastern
+politics and Far Eastern languages, only a few minutes are required to
+re-write the demands in the sequence in which they were originally
+conceived as well as to trace the natural history of their genesis.
+Unfortunately a great deal is lost in their official translation, and
+the menace revealed in the Chinese original partly cloaked: for by
+transferring Eastern thoughts into Western moulds, things that are like
+nails in the hands of soft sensitive Oriental beings are made to appear
+to the steel-clad West as cold-blooded, evolutionary necessities which
+may be repellent but which are never cruel. The more the matter is
+studied the more convinced must the political student be that in this
+affair of the 18th January we have an international _coup_ destined to
+become classic in the new text-books of political science. All the way
+through the twenty-one articles it is easy to see the desire for action,
+the love of accomplished facts, struggling with the necessity to observe
+the conventions of a stereotyped diplomacy and often overwhelming those
+conventions. As the thoughts thicken and the plot develops, the effort
+to mask the real intention lying behind every word plainly breaks down,
+and a growing exultation rings louder and louder as if the coveted
+Chinese prize were already firmly grasped. One sees as it were the
+Japanese nation, released from bondage imposed by the Treaties which
+have been binding on all nations since 1860, swarming madly through the
+breached walls of ancient Cathay and disputing hotly the spoils of
+age-old domains.
+
+Group I, which deals with the fruits of victory in Shantung, has little
+to detain us since events which have just unrolled there have already
+told the story of those demands. In Shantung we have a simple and
+easily-understood repeated performance of the history of 1905 and the
+settlement of the Russo-Japanese War. Placed at the very head of the
+list of demands, though its legitimate position should be after
+Manchuria, obviously the purpose of Group I is conspicuously to call
+attention to the fact that Japan had been at war with Germany, and is
+still at war with her. This flourish of trumpets, after the battle is
+over, however, scarcely serves to disguise that the fate of Shantung,
+following so hard on the heels of the Russian debacle in Manchuria, is
+the great moral which Western peoples are called upon to note. Japan,
+determined as she has repeatedly announced to preserve the peace of the
+Orient by any means she deems necessary, has found the one and only
+formula that is satisfactory--that of methodically annexing everything
+worth fighting about.
+
+So far so good. The insertion of a special preamble to Group II, which
+covers not only South Manchuria but Eastern Inner Mongolia as well, is
+an ingenious piece of work since it shows that the hot mood of conquest
+suitable for Shantung must be exchanged for a certain judicial
+detachment. The preamble undoubtedly betrays the guiding hand of
+Viscount Kato, the then astute Minister of Foreign Affairs, who
+saturated in the great series of international undertakings made by
+Japan since the first Anglo-Japanese Treaty of 1902, clearly believes
+that the stately Elizabethan manner which still characterizes British
+official phrasing is an admirable method to be here employed. The
+preamble is quite English; it is so English that one is almost lulled
+into believing that one's previous reasoning has been at fault and that
+Japan is only demanding what she is entitled to. Yet study Group II
+closely and subtleties gradually emerge. By boldly and categorically
+placing Eastern Inner Mongolia on precisely the same footing as Southern
+Manchuria--though they have nothing in common--the assumption is made
+that the collapse in 1908 of the great Anglo-American scheme to run a
+neutral railway up the flank of Southern Manchuria to Northern Manchuria
+(the once celebrated Chinchow-Aigun scheme), coupled with general
+agreement with Russia which was then arrived at, now impose upon China
+the necessity of publicly resigning herself to a Japanese overlordship
+of that region. In other words, the preamble of Group II lays down that
+Eastern Inner Mongolia has become part and parcel of the Manchurian
+Question because Japan has found a parallel for what she is doing in the
+acts of European Powers.
+
+These things, however, need not detain us. Not that Manchuria or the
+adjoining Mongolian plain is not important; not that the threads of
+destiny are not woven thickly there. For it is certain that the vast
+region immediately beyond the Great Wall of China is the Flanders of the
+Far East--and that the next inevitable war which will destroy China or
+make her something of a nation must be fought on that soil just as two
+other wars have been fought there during the past twenty years. But this
+does not belong to contemporary politics; it is possibly an affair of
+the Chinese army of 1925 or 1935. Some day China will fight for
+Manchuria if it is impossible to recover it in any other way,--nobody
+need doubt that. For Manchuria is absolutely Chinese--people must
+remember. No matter how far the town-dwelling Japanese may invade the
+country during the next two or three decades, no matter what large
+alien garrisons may be planted there, the Chinese must and will remain
+the dominant racial element, since their population which already
+numbers twenty-five millions is growing at the rate of half a million a
+year, and in a few decades will equal the population of a first-class
+European Power.
+
+When we reach Group III we touch matters that are not only immediately
+vital but quite new in their type of audacity and which every one can
+to-day understand since they are politico-industrial. Group III, as it
+stands in the original text, is _simply the plan for the conquest of the
+mineral wealth of the Yangtsze Valley_ which mainly centres round Hankow
+because the vast alluvial plains of the lower reaches of this greatest
+of rivers were once the floor of the Yellow Sea, the upper provinces of
+Hupeh, Hunan, Kiangsi being the region of prehistoric forests clothing
+the coasts, which once looked down upon the slowly-receding waste of
+waters, and which to-day contain all the coal and iron. Hitherto every
+one has always believed that the Yangtsze Valley was _par excellence_
+the British sphere in China; and every one has always thought that that
+belief was enough. It is true that political students, going carefully
+over all published documents, have ended their search by declaring that
+the matter certainly required further elucidation. To be precise, this
+so-called British sphere is not an _enclave_ at all in the proper sense;
+indeed it can only seem one to those who still believe that it is still
+possible to pre-empt provinces by ministerial declarations. The Japanese
+have been the first to dare to say that the preconceived general belief
+was stupid. They know, of course, that it was a British force which
+invaded the Yangtsze Valley seventy-five years ago, and forced the
+signature of the Treaty of Nanking which first opened China to the
+world's trade; but they are by no means impressed with the rights which
+that action has been held to confer, since the mineral resources of this
+region are priceless in their eyes and must somehow be won.
+
+The study of twenty years of history proves this assumption to be
+correct. Ever since 1895, Japan has been driving wedges into the
+Yangtsze Valley of a peculiar kind to form the foundations for her
+sweeping claims of 1915. Thus after the war with China in 1894-95, she
+opened by her Treaty of Peace four ports in the Yangtsze Valley region,
+Soochow, Hangchow, Chungking and Shasi; that is, at the two extreme ends
+of the valley she established politico-commercial _points d'appui_ from
+which to direct her campaign. Whilst the proximity of Soochow and
+Hangchow to the British stronghold of Shanghai made it difficult to
+carry out any "penetration" work at the lower end of the river save in
+the form of subsidized steam-shipping, the case was different in Hunan
+and Hupeh provinces. There she was unendingly busy, and in 1903 by a
+fresh treaty she formally opened to trade Changsha, the capital of the
+turbulent Hunan province. Changsha for years remained a secret centre
+possessing the greatest political importance for her, and serving as a
+focus for most varied activities involving Hunan, Hupeh, and Kiangsi, as
+well as a vast hinterland. The great Tayeh iron-mines, although entirely
+Chinese-owned, were already being tapped to supply iron-ore for the
+Japanese Government Foundry at Wakamatsu on the island of Kiushiu. The
+rich coal mines of Pinghsiang, being conveniently near, supplied the
+great Chinese Government arsenal of Hanyang with fuel; and since Japan
+had very little coal or iron of her own, she decided that it would be
+best to embrace as soon as possible the whole area of interests in one
+categorical demand--that is, to claim a dominant share in the Hanyang
+arsenal, the Tayeh iron-mines and the Pinghsiang collieries.[14] By
+lending money to these enterprises, which were grouped together under
+the name of Hanyehping, she had early established a claim on them which
+she turned at the psychological moment into an international question.
+
+We can pass quickly by Group IV which is of little importance, except to
+say that in taking upon herself, without consultation with the senior
+ally, the duty of asking from China a declaration concerning the future
+non-leasing of harbours and islands, Japan has attempted to assume a
+protectorship of Chinese territory which does not belong to her
+historically. It is well also to note that although Japan wished it to
+appear to the world that this action was dictated by her desire to
+prevent Germany from acquiring a fresh foothold in China after the war,
+in reality Group IV was drafted as a general warning to the nations, one
+point being that she believed that the United States was contemplating
+the reorganization of the Foochow Arsenal in Fuhkien province, and that
+as a corollary to that reorganization would be given the lease of an
+adjoining harbour such as Santuao.
+
+It is not, however, until we reach Group V that the real purpose of the
+Japanese demands becomes unalterably clear, for in this Group we have
+seven sketches of things designed to serve as the _coup de grace_. Not
+only is a new sphere--Fuhkien province--indicated; not only is the
+mid-Yangtsze, from the vicinity of Kiukiang, to serve as the terminus
+for a system of Japanese railways, radiating from the great river to the
+coasts of South China; but the gleaming knife of the Japanese surgeon is
+to aid the Japanese teacher in the great work of propaganda; the
+Japanese monk and the Japanese policeman are to be dispersed like
+skirmishers throughout the land; Japanese arsenals are to supply all the
+necessary arms, or failing that a special Japanese arsenal is to be
+established; Japanese advisers are to give the necessary advice in
+finance, in politics, in every department--foreshadowing a complete and
+all embracing political control. Never was a more sweeping programme of
+supervision presented, and small wonder if Chinese when they learnt of
+this climax exclaimed that the fate of Korea was to be their own.
+
+For a number of weeks after the presentation of these demands everything
+remained clothed in impenetrable mystery, and despite every effort on
+the part of diplomatists reliable details of what was occurring could
+not be obtained. Gradually, however, the admission was forced that the
+secrecy being preserved was due to the Japanese threat that publicity
+would be met with the harshest reprisals; and presently the veil was
+entirely lifted by newspaper publication and foreign Ambassadors began
+making inquiries in Tokio. The nature and scope of the Twenty-one
+Demands could now be no longer hidden; and in response to the growing
+indignation which began to be voiced by the press and the pressure which
+British diplomacy brought to bear, Japan found it necessary to modify
+some of the most important items. She had held twenty-four meetings at
+the Chinese Foreign Office, and although the Chinese negotiators had
+been forced to give way in such matters as extending the "leasing"
+periods of railways and territories in Manchuria and in admitting the
+Japanese right to succeed to all German interests and rights in Shantung
+(Group I and II), in the essential matters of the Hanyehping concessions
+(Group III) and the noxious demands of Group V China had stood
+absolutely firm, declining even to discuss some of the items.
+
+Accordingly Japanese diplomacy was forced to restate and re-group the
+whole corpus of the demands. On the 26th April, acting under direct
+instructions from Tokio, the Japanese Minister to Peking presented a
+revised list for renewed consideration, the demands being expanded to
+twenty-four articles (in place of the original twenty-one largely
+because discussion had shown the necessity of breaking up into smaller
+units some of the original articles). Most significant, however, is the
+fact that Group V (which in its original form was a more vicious assault
+on Chinese sovereignty than the Austrian Ultimatum to Serbia of June,
+1914), was so remodelled as to convey a very different meaning, the
+group heading disappearing entirely and an innocent-looking exchange of
+notes being asked for. It is necessary to recall that, when taxed with
+making Demands which were entirely in conflict with the spirit of the
+Anglo-Japanese Alliance, the Japanese Government through its ambassadors
+abroad had categorically denied that they had ever laid any such Demands
+on the Chinese Government. It was claimed that there had never been
+twenty-one Demands, as the Chinese alleged, but only fourteen, _the
+seven items of Group V being desiderata which it was in the interests of
+China to endorse but which Japan had no intention of forcing upon her_.
+The writer, being acquainted from first to last with everything that
+took place in Peking from the 18th January to the filing of the Japanese
+ultimatum of the 7th May, has no hesitation in stigmatizing this
+statement as false. The whole aim and object of these negotiations was
+to force through Group V. Japan would have gladly postponed _sine die_
+the discussion of all the other Groups had China assented to provisions
+which would have made her independence a thing of the past. Every
+Chinese knew that, in the main, Group V was simply a repetition of the
+measures undertaken in Korea after the Russo-Japanese war of 1905 as a
+forerunner to annexation; and although obviously in the case of China no
+such rapid surgery could be practised, the endorsement of these measures
+would have meant a virtual Japanese Protectorate. Even a cursory study
+of the text that follows will confirm in every particular these capital
+contentions:
+
+    JAPAN'S REVISED DEMANDS
+
+    Japan's Revised Demands on China, twenty-four in all, presented
+    April 26, 1915.
+
+    _Note on original text_:
+
+    [The revised list of articles is a Chinese translation of the
+    Japanese text. It is hereby declared that when a final decision is
+    reached, there shall be a revision of the wording of the text.]
+
+
+    GROUP I
+
+    The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government, being desirous
+    of maintaining the general peace in Eastern Asia and further
+    strengthening the friendly relations and good neighbourhood existing
+    between the two nations, agree to the following articles:--
+
+    Article 1. The Chinese Government engages to give full assent to all
+    matters upon which the Japanese Government may hereafter agree with
+    the German Government, relating to the disposition of all rights,
+    interests and concessions, which Germany, by virtue of treaties or
+    otherwise, possesses in relation to the Province of Shantung.
+
+    Article 2. (Changed into an exchange of notes.)
+
+    The Chinese Government declares that within the Province of Shantung
+    and along its coast no territory or island will be ceded or leased
+    to any Power under any pretext.
+
+    Article 3. The Chinese Government consents that as regards the
+    railway to be built by China herself from Chefoo or Lungkow to
+    connect with the Kiaochow-Tsinanfu Railway, if Germany is willing to
+    abandon the privilege of financing the Chefoo-Weihsien line, China
+    will approach Japanese capitalists to negotiate for a loan.
+
+    Article 4. The Chinese Government engages, in the interest of trade
+    and for the residence of foreigners, to open by China herself as
+    soon as possible certain suitable places in the Province of Shantung
+    as Commercial Ports.
+
+    (Supplementary Exchange of Notes)
+
+    The places which ought to be opened are to be chosen and the
+    regulations are to be drafted, by the Chinese Government, but the
+    Japanese Minister must be consulted before making a decision.
+
+
+    GROUP II
+
+    The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government, with a view to
+    developing their economic relations in South Manchuria and Eastern
+    Inner Mongolia, agree to the following articles:--
+
+    Article 1. The two contracting Powers mutually agree that the term
+    of lease of Port Arthur and Dalny and the terms of the South
+    Manchuria Railway and the Antung-Mukden Railway shall be extended to
+    99 years.
+
+    (Supplementary Exchange of Notes)
+
+    The term of lease of Port Arthur and Dalny shall expire in the 86th
+    year of the Republic or 1997. The date for restoring the South
+    Manchurian Railway to China shall fall due in the 91st year of the
+    Republic or 2002. Article 12 in the original South Manchurian
+    Railway Agreement stating that it may be redeemed by China after 36
+    years after the traffic is opened is hereby cancelled. The term of
+    the Antung-Mukden Railway shall expire in the 96th year of the
+    Republic or 2007.
+
+    Article 2. Japanese subjects in South Manchuria may lease or
+    purchase the necessary land for erecting suitable buildings for
+    trade and manufacture or for prosecuting agricultural enterprises.
+
+    Article 3. Japanese subjects shall be free to reside and travel in
+    South Manchuria and to engage in business and manufacture of any
+    kind whatsoever.
+
+    Article 3a. The Japanese subjects referred to in the preceding two
+    articles, besides being required to register with the local
+    authorities passports which they must procure under the existing
+    regulations, shall also submit to police laws and ordinances and tax
+    regulations, which are approved by the Japanese consul. Civil and
+    criminal cases in which the defendants are Japanese shall be tried
+    and adjudicated by the Japanese consul; those in which the
+    defendants are Chinese shall be tried and adjudicated by Chinese
+    Authorities. In either case an officer can be deputed to the court
+    to attend the proceedings. But mixed civil cases between Chinese and
+    Japanese relating to land shall be tried and adjudicated by
+    delegates of both nations conjointly in accordance with Chinese law
+    and local usage. When the judicial system in the said region is
+    completely reformed, all civil and criminal cases concerning
+    Japanese subjects shall be tried entirely by Chinese law courts.
+
+    Article 4. (Changed to an exchange of notes.)
+
+    The Chinese Government agrees that Japanese subjects shall be
+    permitted forthwith to investigate, select, and then prospect for
+    and open mines at the following places in South Manchuria, apart
+    from those mining areas in which mines are being prospected for or
+    worked; until the Mining Ordinance is definitely settled methods at
+    present in force shall be followed.
+
+    PROVINCE OF FENG-TIEN
+
+    |Locality               |District                   |Mineral
+    |                       |                           |
+    |Niu Hsin T'ai          |Pen-hsi                    |Coal
+    |Tien Shih Fu Kou       |Pen-hsi                    |Coal
+    |Sha Sung Kang          |Hai-lung                   |Coal
+    |T'ieh Ch'ang           |Tung-hua                   |Coal
+    |Nuan Ti Tang           |Chin                       |Coal
+    |An Shan Chan region    |From Liaoyang to Pen-hsi   |Iron
+
+    PROVINCE OF KIRIN
+
+    (Southern portion)
+
+    |Sha Sung Kang          |Ho-lung                    |Coal and Iron
+    |Kang Yao               |Chi-lin (Kirin)            |Coal
+    |Chia P'i Kou           |Hua-tien                   |Gold
+
+    Article 5. (Changed to an exchange of notes.)
+
+    The Chinese Government declares that China will hereafter provide
+    funds for building railways in South Manchuria; if foreign capital
+    is required, the Chinese Government agrees to negotiate for the loan
+    with Japanese capitalists first.
+
+    Article 5a. (Changed to an exchange of notes.)
+
+    The Chinese Government agrees that hereafter, when a foreign loan is
+    to be made on the security of the taxes of South Manchuria (not
+    including customs and salt revenue on the security of which loans
+    have already been made by the Central Government), it will negotiate
+    for the loan with Japanese capitalists first.
+
+    Article 6. (Changed to an exchange of notes.)
+
+    The Chinese Government declares that hereafter if foreign advisers
+    or instructors on political, financial, military or police matters,
+    are to be employed in South Manchuria, Japanese will be employed
+    first.
+
+    Article 7. The Chinese Government agrees speedily to make a
+    fundamental revision of the Kirin-Changchun Railway Loan Agreement,
+    taking as a standard the provisions in railroad loan agreements made
+    heretofore between China and foreign financiers. If, in future, more
+    advantageous terms than those in existing railway loan agreements
+    are granted to foreign financiers, in connection with railway loans,
+    the above agreement shall again be revised in accordance with
+    Japan's wishes.
+
+    All existing treaties between China and Japan relating to Manchuria
+    shall, except where otherwise provided for by this Convention,
+    remain in force.
+
+    1. The Chinese Government agrees that hereafter when a foreign loan
+    is to be made on the security of the taxes of Eastern Inner
+    Mongolia, China must negotiate with the Japanese Government first.
+
+    2. The Chinese Government agrees that China will herself provide
+    funds for building the railways in Eastern Inner Mongolia; if
+    foreign capital is required, she must negotiate with the Japanese
+    Government first.
+
+    3. The Chinese Government agrees, in the interest of trade and for
+    the residence of foreigners, to open by China herself, as soon as
+    possible, certain suitable places in Eastern Inner Mongolia as
+    Commercial Ports. The places which ought to be opened are to be
+    chosen, and the regulations are to be drafted, by the Chinese
+    Government, but the Japanese Minister must be consulted before
+    making a decision.
+
+    4. In the event of Japanese and Chinese desiring jointly to
+    undertake agricultural enterprises and industries incidental
+    thereto, the Chinese Government shall give its permission.
+
+
+    GROUP III
+
+    The relations between Japan and the Hanyehping Company being very
+    intimate, if those interested in the said Company come to an
+    agreement with the Japanese capitalists for co-operation, the
+    Chinese Government shall forthwith give its consent thereto. The
+    Chinese Government further agrees that, without the consent of the
+    Japanese capitalists, China will not convert the Company into a
+    state enterprise, nor confiscate it, nor cause it to borrow and use
+    foreign capital other than Japanese.
+
+
+    GROUP IV
+
+    China to give a pronouncement by herself in accordance with the
+    following principle:--
+
+    No bay, harbour, or island along the coast of China may be ceded or
+    leased to any Power.
+
+    Notes to be Exchanged
+
+    A
+
+    As regards the right of financing a railway from Wuchang to connect
+    with the Kiu-kiang-Nanchang line, the Nanchang-Hangchow railway, and
+    the Nanchang-Chaochow railway, if it is clearly ascertained that
+    other Powers have no objection, China shall grant the said right to
+    Japan.
+
+    B
+
+    As regards the rights of financing a railway from Wuchang to connect
+    with the Kiu-kiang-Nanchang railway, a railway from Nanchang to
+    Hangchow and another from Nanchang to Chaochow, the Chinese
+    Government shall not grant the said right to any foreign Power
+    before Japan comes to an understanding with the other Power which is
+    heretofore interested therein.
+
+[Illustration: The Original Constitutional Drafting Committee of 1913,
+photographed on the steps of the Temple of Heaven, where the Draft was
+completed.]
+
+[Illustration: A Presidential Review of Troops in the Southern Hungtung
+Park outside Peking: Arrival of the President.]
+
+    NOTES TO BE EXCHANGED
+
+    The Chinese Government agrees that no nation whatever is to be
+    permitted to construct, on the coast of Fukien Province, a dockyard,
+    a coaling station for military use, or a naval base; nor to be
+    authorized to set up any other military establishment. The Chinese
+    Government further agrees not to use foreign capital for setting up
+    the above mentioned construction or establishment.
+
+    Mr. Lu, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, stated as follows:--
+
+    1. The Chinese Government, shall, whenever, in future, it considers
+    this step necessary, engage numerous Japanese advisers.
+
+    2. Whenever, in future, Japanese subjects desire to lease or
+    purchase land in the interior of China for establishing schools or
+    hospitals, the Chinese Government shall forthwith give its consent
+    thereto.
+
+    3. When a suitable opportunity arises in future, the Chinese
+    Government will send military officers to Japan to negotiate with
+    Japanese military authorities the matter of purchasing arms or that
+    of establishing a joint arsenal.
+
+    Mr. Hioki, the Japanese Minister, stated as follows:--
+
+    As relates to the question of the right of missionary propaganda the
+    same shall be taken up again for negotiation in future.
+
+An ominous silence followed the delivery of this document. The Chinese
+Foreign Office had already exhausted itself in a discussion which had
+lasted three months, and pursuant to instructions from the Presidential
+Palace prepared an exhaustive Memorandum on the subject. It was
+understood by now that all the Foreign Offices in the world were
+interesting themselves very particularly in the matter; and that all
+were agreed that the situation which had so strangely developed was very
+serious. On the 1st May, proceeding by appointment to the Waichiaopu
+(Foreign Office) the Japanese Minister had read to him the following
+Memorandum which it is very necessary to grasp as it shows how
+solicitous China had become of terminating the business before there was
+an open international break. It will also be seen that this Memorandum
+was obviously composed for purpose of public record, the fifth group
+being dealt with in such a way as to fix upon Japan the guilt of having
+concealed from her British Ally matters which conflicted vitally with
+the aims and objects of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance Treaty.
+
+    MEMORANDUM
+
+    Read by the Minister of Foreign Affairs to Mr. Hioki, the Japanese
+    Minister, at a Conference held at Wai Chiao Pu, May 1, 1915.
+
+    The list of demands which the Japanese Government first presented to
+    the Chinese Government consists of five groups, the first relating
+    to Shantung, the second relating to South Manchuria and Eastern
+    Inner Mongolia, the third relating to Hanyehping Company, the fourth
+    asking for non-alienation of the coast of the country, and the fifth
+    relating to the questions of national advisers, national police,
+    national arms, missionary propaganda, Yangtsze Valley railways, and
+    Fukien Province. Out of profound regard for the intentions
+    entertained by Japan, the Chinese Government took these momentous
+    demands into grave and careful consideration and decided to
+    negotiate with the Japanese Government frankly and sincerely what
+    were possible to negotiate. This is a manifestation to Japan of the
+    most profound regard which the Chinese Government entertains for the
+    relations between the two nations.
+
+    Ever since the opening of the negotiations China has been doing her
+    best to hasten their progress holding as many as three conferences a
+    week. As regards the articles in the second group, the Chinese
+    Government being disposed to allow the Japanese Government to
+    develop the economic relations of the two countries in South
+    Manchuria, realizing that the Japanese Government attaches
+    importance to its interests in that region, and wishing to meet the
+    hope of Japan, made a painful effort, without hesitation, to agree
+    to the extension of the 25-year lease of Port Arthur and Dalny, the
+    36-year period of the South Manchurian Railway and the 15-year
+    period of the Antung-Mukden Railway, all to 99 years; and to abandon
+    its own cherished hopes to regain control of these places and
+    properties at the expiration of their respective original terms of
+    lease. It cannot but be admitted that this is a most genuine proof
+    of China's friendship for Japan.
+
+    As to the right of opening mines in South Manchuria, the Chinese
+    Government has already agreed to permit Japanese to work mines
+    within the mining areas designated by Japan. China has further
+    agreed to give Japan a right of preference in the event of borrowing
+    foreign capital for building railways or of making a loan on the
+    security of the local taxes in South Manchuria. The question of
+    revising the arrangement for the Kirin-Changchun Railway has been
+    settled in accordance with the proposal made by Japan. The Chinese
+    Government has further agreed to employ Japanese first in the event
+    of employing foreign advisers on political, military, financial and
+    police matters.
+
+    Furthermore, the provision about the repurchase period in the South
+    Manchurian Railway was not mentioned in Japan's original proposal.
+    Subsequently, the Japanese Government alleging that its meaning was
+    not clear, asked China to cancel the provision altogether. Again,
+    Japan at first demanded the right of Japanese to carry on farming in
+    South Manchuria, but subsequently she considered the word "farming"
+    was not broad enough and asked to replace it with the phrase
+    "agricultural enterprises." To these requests the Chinese
+    Government, though well aware that the proposed changes could only
+    benefit Japan, still acceded without delay. This, too, is a proof of
+    China's frankness and sincerity towards Japan.
+
+    As regards matters relating to Shantung the Chinese Government has
+    agreed to a majority of the demands.
+
+    The question of inland residence in South Manchuria is, in the
+    opinion of the Chinese Government, incompatible with the treaties
+    China had entered into with Japan and other Powers, still the
+    Chinese Government did its best to consider how it was possible to
+    avoid that incompatibility. At first, China suggested that the
+    Chinese Authorities should have full rights of jurisdiction over
+    Japanese settlers. Japan declined to agree to it. Thereupon China
+    reconsidered the question and revised her counter-proposal five or
+    six times, each time making some definite concession, and went so
+    far to agree that all civil and criminal cases between Chinese and
+    Japanese should be arranged according to existing treaties. Only
+    cases relating to land or lease contracts were reserved to be
+    adjudicated by Chinese Courts, as a mark of China's sovereignty over
+    the region. This is another proof of China's readiness to concede as
+    much as possible.
+
+    Eastern Inner Mongolia is not an enlightened region as yet, and the
+    conditions existing there are entirely different from those
+    prevailing in South Manchuria. The two places, therefore, cannot be
+    considered in the same light. Accordingly, China agreed to open
+    commercial marts first, in the interests of foreign trade.
+
+    The Hanyehping Company mentioned in the third group is entirely a
+    private company, and the Chinese Government is precluded from
+    interfering with it and negotiating with another government to make
+    any disposal of the same as the Government likes, but having regard
+    for the interests of the Japanese capitalists, the Chinese
+    Government agreed that whenever, in future, the said company and the
+    Japanese capitalists should arrive at a satisfactory arrangement for
+    co-operation, China will give her assent thereto. Thus the interests
+    of the Japanese capitalists are amply safeguarded.
+
+    Although the demand in the fourth group asking for a declaration not
+    to alienate China's coast is an infringement of her sovereign
+    rights, yet the Chinese Government offered to make a voluntary
+    pronouncement so far as it comports with China's sovereign rights.
+    Thus, it is seen that the Chinese Government, in deference to the
+    wishes of Japan, gave a most serious consideration even to those
+    demands, which gravely affect the sovereignty and territorial rights
+    of China as well as the principle of equal opportunity and the
+    treaties with foreign Powers. All this was a painful effort on the
+    part of the Chinese Government to meet the situation--a fact of
+    which the Japanese Government must be aware.
+
+    As regards the demands in the fifth group, they all infringe China's
+    sovereignty, the treaty rights of other Powers or the principle of
+    equal opportunity. Although Japan did not indicate any difference
+    between this group and the preceding four in the list which she
+    presented to China in respect to their character, the Chinese
+    Government, in view of their palpably objectionable features,
+    persuaded itself that these could not have been intended by Japan as
+    anything other than Japan's mere advice to China. Accordingly China
+    has declared from the very beginning that while she entertains the
+    most profound regard for Japan's wishes, she was unable to admit
+    that any of these matters could be made the subject of an
+    understanding with Japan. Much as she desired to pay regard to
+    Japan's wishes, China cannot but respect her own sovereign rights
+    and the existing treaties with other Powers. In order to be rid of
+    the seed for future misunderstanding and to strengthen the basis of
+    friendship, China was constrained to iterate the reasons for
+    refusing to negotiate on any of the articles in the fifth group, yet
+    in view of Japan's wishes China has expressed her readiness to state
+    that no foreign money was borrowed to construct harbour work in
+    Fukien Province. Thus it is clear that China went so far as to see a
+    solution for Japan of a question that really did not admit of
+    negotiation. Was there, then, evasion, on the part of China?
+
+    Now, since the Japanese Government has presented a revised list of
+    demands and declared at the same time, that it will restore the
+    leased territory of Kiaochow, the Chinese Government reconsiders the
+    whole question and herewith submits a new reply to the friendly
+    Japanese Government.
+
+    In this reply the unsettled articles in the first group are stated
+    again for discussion.
+
+    As regards the second group, those articles which have already been
+    initialled are omitted. In connection with the question of inland
+    residence the police regulation clause has been revised in a more
+    restrictive sense. As for the trial of cases relating to land and
+    lease contracts the Chinese Government now permits the Japanese
+    Consul to send an officer to attend the proceedings.
+
+    Of the four demands in connection with that part of Eastern Inner
+    Mongolia which is within the jurisdiction of South Manchuria and the
+    Jehol intendency, China agrees to three.
+
+    China, also, agrees to the article relating to the Hanyehping
+    Company as revised by Japan.
+
+    It is hoped that the Japanese Government will appreciate the
+    conciliatory spirit of the Chinese Government in making this final
+    concession and forthwith give her assent thereto.
+
+    There is one more point. At the beginning of the present
+    negotiations it was mutually agreed to observe secrecy but
+    unfortunately a few days after the presentation of the demands by
+    Japan an Osaka newspaper published an "Extra" giving the text of the
+    demands. The foreign and the Chinese press has since been paying
+    considerable attention to this question and frequently publishing
+    pro-Chinese or pro-Japanese comments in order to call forth the
+    World's conjecture--a matter which the Chinese Government deeply
+    regrets.
+
+    The Chinese Government has never carried on any newspaper campaign
+    and the Chinese Minister of Foreign Affairs has repeatedly declared
+    this to the Japanese Minster.
+
+    In conclusion, the Chinese Government wishes to express its hope
+    that the negotiations now pending between the two countries will
+    soon come to an end and whatever misgivings foreign countries
+    entertain toward the present situation may be quickly dispelled.
+
+The Peking Government, although fully aware of the perils now
+confronting it, had dared to draft a complete reply to the revised
+Demands and had reduced Japanese redundancy to effective limits. Not
+only were various articles made more compact, but the phraseology
+employed conveyed unmistakably, if in a somewhat subtle way, that China
+was not a subordinate State treating with a suzerain. Moreover, after
+dealing succinctly and seriously with Groups I, II and III, the Chinese
+reply terminates abruptly, the other points in the Japanese List being
+left entirely unanswered. It is important to seize these points in the
+text that follows.
+
+    CHINA'S REPLY TO REVISED DEMANDS
+
+    China's Reply of May 1, 1915, to the Japanese Revised Demands of
+    April 26, 1915.
+
+
+    GROUP I
+
+    The Chinese Government and the Japanese Government, being desirous
+    of maintaining the general peace in Eastern Asia and further
+    strengthening the friendly relations and good neighbourhood existing
+    between the two nations, agree to the following articles:--
+
+    Article I. The Chinese Government declares that they will give full
+    assent to all matters upon which the Japanese and German Governments
+    may hereafter mutually agree, relating to the disposition of all
+    interests, which Germany, by virtue of treaties or recorded cases,
+    possesses in relation to the Province of Shantung.
+
+    The Japanese Government declares that when the Chinese Government
+    give their assent to the disposition of interests above referred to,
+    Japan will restore the leased territory of Kiaochow to China; and
+    further recognize the right of the Chinese Government to participate
+    in the negotiations referred to above between Japan and Germany.
+
+    Article 2. The Japanese Government consents to be responsible for
+    the indemnification of all losses occasioned by Japan's military
+    operation around the leased territory of Kiaochow. The customs,
+    telegraphs and post offices within the leased territory of Kiaochow
+    shall, prior to the restoration of the said leased territory to
+    China, be administered as heretofore for the time being. The
+    railways and telegraph lines erected by Japan for military purposes
+    are to be removed forthwith. The Japanese troops now stationed
+    outside the original leased territory of Kiaochow are now to be
+    withdrawn first, those within the original leased territory are to
+    be withdrawn on the restoration of the said leased territory to
+    China.
+
+    Article 3. (Changed to an exchange of notes.)
+
+    The Chinese Government declares that within the Province of Shantung
+    and along its coast no territory or island will be ceded or leased
+    to any Power under any pretext.
+
+    Article 4. The Chinese Government consent that as regards the
+    railway to be built by China herself from Chefoo or Lungkow to
+    connect with the Kiaochow-Tsinanfu railway, if Germany is willing to
+    abandon the privilege of financing the Chefoo-Weihsien line, China
+    will approach Japanese capitalists for a loan.
+
+    Article 5. The Chinese Government engage, in the interest of trade
+    and for the residence of foreigners, to open by herself as soon as
+    possible certain suitable places in the Province of Shantung as
+    Commercial Ports.
+
+    (Supplementary Exchange of Notes)
+
+    The places which ought to be opened are to be chosen, and the
+    regulations are to be drafted by the Chinese Government, but the
+    Japanese Minister must be consulted before making a decision.
+
+    Article 6. If the Japanese and German Governments are not able to
+    come to a definite agreement in future in their negotiations
+    respecting transfer, etc., this provisional agreement contained in
+    the foregoing articles shall be void.
+
+
+    GROUP II[15]
+
+    The Chinese Government and the Japanese Government, with a view to
+    developing their economic relations in South Manchuria, agree to the
+    following articles:--
+
+    Article 2. Japanese subjects in South Manchuria may, by arrangement
+    with the owners, lease land required for erecting suitable buildings
+    for trade and manufacture or agricultural enterprises.
+
+    Article 3. Japanese subjects shall be free to reside and travel in
+    South Manchuria and to engage in business and manufacture of any
+    kind whatsoever.
+
+    Article 3a. The Japanese subjects referred to in the preceding two
+    articles, besides being required to register with the local
+    authorities passports which they must procure under the existing
+    regulations, shall also observe police rules and regulations and pay
+    taxes in the same manner as Chinese. Civil and criminal cases shall
+    be tried and adjudicated by the authorities of the defendant
+    nationality and an officer can be deputed to attend the proceedings.
+    But all cases purely between Japanese subjects and mixed cases
+    between Japanese or Chinese, relating to land or disputes arising
+    from lease contracts, shall be tried and adjudicated by Chinese
+    Authorities and the Japanese Consul may also depute an officer to
+    attend the proceedings. When the judicial system in the said
+    Province is completely reformed, all the civil and criminal cases
+    concerning Japanese subjects shall be tried entirely by Chinese law
+    courts.
+
+    RELATING TO EASTERN INNER MONGOLIA
+
+    (To be Exchanged by Notes)
+
+    1. The Chinese Government declare that China will not in future
+    pledge the taxes, other than customs and salt revenue of that part
+    of Eastern Inner Mongolia under the jurisdiction of South Manchuria
+    and Jehol Intendency, as security for raising a foreign loan.
+
+    2. The Chinese Government declare that China will herself provide
+    funds for building the railways in the part of Eastern Inner
+    Mongolia under the jurisdiction of South Manchuria and the Jehol
+    Intendency; if foreign capital is required, China will negotiate
+    with Japanese capitalists first, provided this does not conflict
+    with agreements already concluded with other Powers.
+
+    The Chinese Government agree, in the interest of trade and for the
+    residence of foreigners, to open by China herself certain suitable
+    places in that part of Eastern Inner Mongolia under the jurisdiction
+    of South Manchurian and the Jehol Intendency, as Commercial Marts.
+
+    The regulations for the said Commercial Marts will be made in
+    accordance with those of other Commercial Marts opened by China
+    herself.
+
+
+    GROUP III
+
+    The relations between Japan and the Hanyehping Company being very
+    intimate, if the said Company comes to an agreement with the
+    Japanese capitalists for co-operation, the Chinese Government shall
+    forthwith give their consent thereto. The Chinese Government further
+    declare that China will not convert the company into a state
+    enterprise, nor confiscate it, nor cause it to borrow and use
+    foreign capital other than Japanese.
+
+    Letter to be addressed by the Japanese Minister to the Chinese
+    Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+    Excellency: I have the honour to state that a report has reached me
+    that the Chinese Government have given permission to foreign nations
+    to construct, on the coast of Fukien Province, dock-yards, coaling
+    stations for military use, naval bases and other establishments for
+    military purposes; and further, that the Chinese Government are
+    borrowing foreign capital for putting up the above-mentioned
+    constructions or establishments. I shall be much obliged if the
+    Chinese Government will inform me whether or not these reports are
+    well founded in fact.
+
+    Reply to be addressed by the Chinese Minister of Foreign Affairs to
+    the Japanese Minister.
+
+    Excellency: I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your
+    Excellency's Note of.... In reply I beg to state that the Chinese
+    Government have not given permission to foreign Powers to construct,
+    on the coast of Fukien Province, dock-yards, coaling stations for
+    military use, naval bases or other establishments for military
+    purposes; nor do they contemplate to borrow foreign capital for
+    putting up such constructions or establishments.
+
+Within forty-eight hours of this passage-at-arms of the 1st May it was
+understood in Peking that Japan was meditating a serious step. That
+vague feeling of unrest which so speedily comes in capitals when
+national affairs reach a crisis was very evident, and the word
+"ultimatum" began to be whispered. It was felt that whilst China had
+held to her rights to the utmost and had received valuable indirect
+support from both England and the United States, the world-situation was
+such that it would be difficult to prevent Japan from proceeding to
+extremities. Accordingly there was little real surprise when on the 7th
+May Japan filed an ultimatum demanding a satisfactory reply within 48
+hours to her Revised Demands--failing which those steps deemed necessary
+would be taken. A perusal of the text of the Ultimatum will show an
+interesting change in the language employed. Coaxing having failed, and
+Japan being _now convinced that so long as she did not seek to annex the
+rights of other Foreign Powers in China open opposition could not be
+offered to her_, states her case very defiantly. One significant point,
+however, must be carefully noted--that she agrees "to detach Group V
+from the present negotiations and to discuss it separately in the
+future." It is this fact which remains the sword of Damocles hanging
+over China's head; and until this sword has been flung back into the
+waters of the Yellow Sea the Far Eastern situation will remain perilous.
+
+    JAPAN'S ULTIMATUM TO CHINA
+
+    Japan's Ultimatum delivered by the Japanese Minister to the Chinese
+    Government, on May 7th, 1915.
+
+    The reason why the Imperial Government opened the present
+    negotiations with the Chinese Government is first to endeavour to
+    dispose of the complications arising out of the war between Japan
+    and China, and secondly to attempt to solve those various questions
+    which are detrimental to the intimate relations of China and Japan
+    with a view to solidifying the foundation of cordial friendship
+    subsisting between the two countries to the end that the peace of
+    the Far East may be effectually and permanently preserved. With this
+    object in view, definite proposals were presented to the Chinese
+    Government in January of this year, and up to to-day as many as
+    twenty-five conferences have been held with the Chinese Government
+    in perfect sincerity and frankness.
+
+    In the course of the negotiation the Imperial Government have
+    consistently explained the aims and objects of the proposals in a
+    conciliatory spirit, while on the other hand the proposals of the
+    Chinese Government, whether important or unimportant, have been
+    attended to without any reserve.
+
+    It may be stated with confidence that no effort has been spared to
+    arrive at a satisfactory and amicable settlement of those questions.
+
+    The discussion of the entire corpus of the proposals was practically
+    at an end at the twenty-fourth conference; that is on the 17th of
+    the last month. The Imperial Government, taking a broad view of the
+    negotiation and in consideration of the points raised by the Chinese
+    Government, modified the original proposals with considerable
+    concessions and presented to the Chinese Government on the 26th of
+    the same month the revised proposals for agreement, and at the same
+    time it was offered that, on the acceptance of the revised
+    proposals, the Imperial Government would, at a suitable opportunity,
+    restore, with fair and proper conditions, to the Chinese Government
+    the Kiaochow territory, in the acquisition of which the Imperial
+    Government had made a great sacrifice.
+
+    On the 1st of May, the Chinese Government delivered the reply to the
+    revised proposals of the Japanese Government, which is contrary to
+    the expectations of the Imperial Government. The Chinese Government
+    not only did not give a careful consideration to the revised
+    proposals but even with regard to the offer of the Japanese
+    Government to restore Kiaochow to the Chinese Government the latter
+    did not manifest the least appreciation for Japan's good will and
+    difficulties.
+
+    From the commercial and military point of view Kiaochow is an
+    important place, in the acquisition of which the Japanese Empire
+    sacrificed much blood and money, and, after the acquisition the
+    Empire incurs no obligation to restore it to China. But with the
+    object of increasing the future friendly relations of the two
+    countries, they went to the extent of proposing its restoration, yet
+    to their great regret, the Chinese Government did not take into
+    consideration the good intention of Japan and manifest appreciation
+    of her difficulties. Furthermore, the Chinese Government not only
+    ignored the friendly feelings of the Imperial Government in offering
+    the restoration of Kiaochow Bay, but also in replying to the revised
+    proposals they even demanded its unconditional restoration; and
+    again China demanded that Japan should bear the responsibility of
+    paying indemnity for all the unavoidable losses and damages
+    resulting from Japan's military operations at Kiaochow; and still
+    further in connection with the territory of Kiaochow China advanced
+    other demands and declared that she has the right of participation
+    at the future peace conference to be held between Japan and Germany.
+    Although China is fully aware that the unconditional restoration of
+    Kiaochow and Japan's responsibility of indemnification for the
+    unavoidable losses and damages can never be tolerated by Japan yet
+    she purposely advanced these demands and declared that this reply
+    was final and decisive.
+
+    Since Japan could not tolerate such demands the settlement of the
+    other questions, however compromising it may be, would not be to her
+    interest. The consequence is that the present reply of the Chinese
+    Government is, on the whole, vague and meaningless.
+
+    Furthermore, in the reply of the Chinese Government to the other
+    proposals in the revised list of the Imperial Government, such as
+    South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia, where Japan particularly
+    has geographical, commercial, industrial and strategic relations, as
+    recognized by all the nations, and made more remarkable in
+    consequence of the two wars in which Japan was engaged the Chinese
+    Government overlooks these facts and does not respect Japan's
+    position in that place. The Chinese Government even freely altered
+    those articles which the Imperial Government, in a compromising
+    spirit, have formulated in accordance with the statement of the
+    Chinese Representatives thereby making the statements of the
+    Representatives an empty talk; and on seeing them conceding with the
+    one hand and withholding with the other it is very difficult to
+    attribute faithfulness and sincerity to the Chinese authorities.
+
+    As regards the articles relating to the employment of advisers, the
+    establishment of schools, and hospitals, the supply of arms and
+    ammunition and the establishment of arsenals and railway concessions
+    in South China in the revised proposals they were either proposed
+    with the proviso that the consent of the Power concerned must be
+    obtained, or they are merely to be recorded in the minutes in
+    accordance with the statements of the Chinese delegates, and thus
+    they are not in the least in conflict either with Chinese
+    sovereignty or her treaties with the Foreign Powers, yet the Chinese
+    Government in their reply to the proposals, alleging that these
+    proposals are incompatible with their sovereign rights and treaties
+    with Foreign Powers, defeat the expectations of the Imperial
+    Government. However, in spite of such attitude of the Chinese
+    Government, the Imperial Government, though regretting to see that
+    there is no room for further negotiations, yet warmly attached to
+    the preservation of the peace of the Far East, is still hoping for a
+    satisfactory settlement in order to avoid the disturbance of the
+    relations.
+
+    So in spite of the circumstances which admitted no patience, they
+    have reconsidered the feelings of the Government of their
+    neighbouring country and, with the exception of the article relating
+    to Fukien which is to be the subject of an exchange of notes as has
+    already been agreed upon by the Representatives of both nations,
+    will undertake to detach the Group V from the present negotiation
+    and discuss it separately in the future. Therefore the Chinese
+    Government should appreciate the friendly feelings of the Imperial
+    Government by immediately accepting without any alteration all the
+    articles of Group I, II, III, and IV and the exchange of notes in
+    connection with Fukien province in Group V as contained in the
+    revised proposals presented on the 26th of April.
+
+    The Imperial Government hereby again offer their advice and hope
+    that the Chinese Government, upon this advice, will give a
+    satisfactory reply by 6 o'clock P.M. on the 9th day of May. It is
+    hereby declared that if no satisfactory reply is received before or
+    at the specified time, the Imperial Government will take steps they
+    may deem necessary.
+
+
+    EXPLANATORY NOTE
+
+    Accompanying Ultimatum delivered to the Minister of Foreign Affairs
+    by the Japanese Minister, May 7th, 1915.
+
+    1. With the exception of the question of Fukien to be arranged by an
+    exchange of notes, the five articles postponed for later negotiation
+    refer to (a) the employment of advisers, (b) the establishment of
+    schools and hospitals, (c) the railway concessions in South China,
+    (d) the supply of arms and ammunition and the establishment of
+    arsenals and (e) right of missionary propaganda.
+
+    2. The acceptance by the Chinese Government of the article relating
+    to Fukien may be either in the form as proposed by the Japanese
+    Minister on the 26th of April or in that contained in the Reply of
+    the Chinese Government of May 1st. Although the Ultimatum calls for
+    the immediate acceptance by China of the modified proposals
+    presented on April 26th, without alteration but it should be noted
+    that it merely states the principle and does not apply to this
+    article and articles 4 and 5 of this note.
+
+    3. If the Chinese Government accept all the articles as demanded in
+    the Ultimatum the offer of the Japanese Government to restore
+    Kiaochow to China, made on the 26th of April, will still hold good.
+
+    4. Article 2 of Group II relating to the lease or purchase of land,
+    the terms "lease" and "purchase" may be replaced by the terms
+    "temporary lease" and "perpetual lease" or "lease on consultation,"
+    which means a long-term lease with its unconditional renewal.
+
+    Article 4 of Group II relating to the approval of police laws and
+    Ordinances and local taxes by the Japanese Council may form the
+    subject of a secret agreement.
+
+    5. The phrase "to consult with the Japanese Government" in
+    connection with questions of pledging the local taxes for raising
+    loans and the loans for the construction of railways, in Eastern
+    Inner Mongolia, which is similar to the agreement in Manchuria
+    relating to the matters of the same kind, may be replaced by the
+    phrase "to consult with the Japanese capitalists."
+
+    The article relating to the opening of trade marts in Eastern Inner
+    Mongolia in respect to location and regulations, may, following
+    their precedent set in Shantung, be the subject of an exchange of
+    notes.
+
+    6. From the phrase "those interested in the Company" in Group III of
+    the revised list of demands, the words "those interested in" may be
+    deleted.
+
+    7. The Japanese version of the Formal Agreement and its annexes
+    shall be the official text or both the Chinese and Japanese shall be
+    the official texts.
+
+Whilst it would be an exaggeration to say that open panic followed the
+filing of this document, there was certainly very acute alarm,--so much
+so that it is to-day known in Peking that the Japanese Legation cabled
+urgently to Tokio that even better terms could be obtained if the matter
+was left to the discretion of the men on the spot. But the Japanese
+Government had by now passed through a sufficiently anxious time itself,
+being in possession of certain unmistakable warnings regarding what was
+likely to happen after a world-peace had come,--if matters were pressed
+too far. Consequently nothing more was done, and on the following day
+China signified her acceptance of the Ultimatum in the following terms.
+
+    _Reply of the Chinese Government to the Ultimatum of the Japanese
+    Government, delivered to the Japanese Minister by the Minister of
+    Foreign Affairs on the 8th of May, 1915._
+
+    On the 7th of this month, at three o'clock P.M. the Chinese
+    Government received an Ultimatum from the Japanese Government
+    together with an Explanatory Note of seven articles. The Ultimatum
+    concluded with the hope that the Chinese Government by six o'clock
+    P.M. on the 9th of May will give a satisfactory reply, and it is
+    hereby declared that if no satisfactory reply is received before or
+    at the specified time, the Japanese Government will take steps she
+    may deem necessary.
+
+    The Chinese Government with a view to preserving the peace of the
+    Far East hereby accepts, with the exception of those five articles
+    of Group V postponed for later negotiation, all the articles of
+    Group I, II, III, and IV and the exchange of notes in connection
+    with Fukien Province in Group V as contained in the revised
+    proposals presented on the 26th of April, and in accordance with the
+    Explanatory Note of seven articles accompanying the Ultimatum of the
+    Japanese Government with the hope that thereby all the outstanding
+    questions are settled, so that the cordial relationship between the
+    two countries may be further consolidated. The Japanese Minister is
+    hereby requested to appoint a day to call at the Ministry of Foreign
+    Affairs to make the literary improvement of the text and sign the
+    Agreement as soon as possible.
+
+Thus ended one of the most extraordinary diplomatic negotiations ever
+undertaken in Peking.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[13] Refers to preaching Buddhism.
+
+[14] The reader will observe, that the expression "Hanyehping
+enterprises" is compounded by linking together characters denoting the
+triple industry.
+
+[15] Six articles found in Japan's Revised Demands are omitted here as
+they had already been initialled by the Chinese Foreign Minister and the
+Japanese Minister.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE ORIGIN OF THE TWENTY-ONE DEMANDS
+
+
+The key to this remarkable business was supplied by a cover sent
+anonymously to the writer during the course of these negotiations with
+no indication as to its origin. The documents which this envelope
+contained are so interesting that they merit attention at the hands of
+all students of history, explaining as they do the psychology of the
+Demands as well as throwing much light on the manner in which the
+world-war has been viewed in Japan.
+
+The first document is purely introductory, but is none the less
+interesting. It is a fragment, or rather a _precis_ of the momentous
+conversation which took place between Yuan Shih-kai and the Japanese
+Minister when the latter personally served the Demands on the Chief
+Executive and took the opportunity to use language unprecedented even in
+the diplomatic history of Peking.
+
+The _precis_ begins in a curious way. After saying that "the Japanese
+Minister tried to influence President Yuan Shih-kai with the following
+words," several long lines of asterisks suggest that after reflection
+the unknown chronicler had decided, for political reasons of the highest
+importance, to allow others to guess how the "conversation" opened. From
+the context it seems absolutely clear that the excised words have to
+deal with the possibility of the re-establishment of the Empire in
+China--a very important conclusion in view of what followed later in the
+year. Indeed there is no reason to doubt that the Japanese Envoy
+actually told Yuan Shih-kai that as he was already virtually Emperor it
+lay within his power to settle the whole business and to secure his
+position at one blow. In any case the _precis_ begins with these
+illuminating sentences:
+
+    ... Furthermore, the Chinese revolutionists are in close touch and
+    have intimate relations with numerous irresponsible Japanese, some
+    of whom have great influence and whose policy is for strong
+    measures. Our Government has not been influenced by this policy, but
+    if your Government does not quickly agree to these stipulations, it
+    will be impossible to prevent some of our irresponsible people from
+    inciting the Chinese revolutionists to create trouble in China.
+
+    The majority of the Japanese people are also opposed to President
+    Yuan and Yuan's Government. They all declare that the President
+    entertains anti-Japanese feeling and adopts the policy of
+    "befriending the Far" (Europe and America) and "antagonizing the
+    Near" (Japan). Japanese public opinion is therefore exceedingly
+    hostile.
+
+    Our Government has all along from first to last exerted its best
+    efforts to help the Chinese Government, and if the Chinese
+    Government will speedily agree to these stipulations it will have
+    thus manifested its friendship for Japan.
+
+    The Japanese people will then be able to say that the President
+    never entertained anti-Japanese feelings, or adopted the policy of
+    "befriending the Far and antagonizing the Near." Will not this then
+    be indeed a bona fide proof of our friendly relations?
+
+    The Japanese Government also will then be inclined to render
+    assistance to President Yuan's Government whenever it is
+    necessary....
+
+We are admittedly living in a remarkable age which is making waste paper
+of our dearest principles. But in all the welter which the world war has
+made it would be difficult to find anything more extraordinary than
+these few paragraphs. Japan, through her official representative, boldly
+tears down the veil hiding her ambitions, and using the undoubted menace
+which Chinese revolutionary activities then held for the Peking
+Government, declares in so many words that unless President Yuan
+Shih-kai bows his head to the dictation of Tokio, the duel which began
+in Seoul twenty-five years ago would be openly resumed.
+
+Immediately following the "conversation" is the principal document in
+the dossier. This is nothing less than an exhaustive Memorandum, divided
+into two sections, containing the policy advocated by the Japanese
+secret society, called the Black Dragon Society, which is said to have
+assumed that name on account of the members (military officers) having
+studied the situation in the Heilungchiang (or "Black Dragon") province
+of Manchuria. The memorandum is the most remarkable document dealing
+with the Far East which has come to light since the famous Cassini
+Convention was published in 1896. Written presumably late in the autumn
+of 1914 and immediately presented to the Japanese Government, it may
+undoubtedly be called the fulminate which exploded the Japanese mine of
+the 18th January, 1915. It shows such sound knowledge of
+world-conditions, and is so scientific in its detachment that little
+doubt can exist that distinguished Japanese took part in its drafting.
+It can therefore be looked upon as a genuine expression of the highly
+educated Japanese mind, and as such cannot fail to arouse serious
+misgivings. The first part is a general review of the European War and
+the Chinese Question: the second is concerned with the Defensive
+Alliance between China and Japan, which is looked upon as the one goal
+of all Japanese Diplomacy.
+
+    PART I. THE EUROPEAN WAR AND THE CHINESE QUESTION
+
+    The present gigantic struggle in Europe has no parallel in history.
+    Not only will the equilibrium of Europe be affected and its effect
+    felt all over the globe, but its results will create a New Era in
+    the political and social world. Therefore, whether or not the
+    Imperial Japanese Government can settle the Far Eastern Question and
+    bring to realization our great Imperial policy depends on our being
+    able to skilfully avail ourselves of the world's general trend of
+    affairs so as to extend our influence and to decide upon a course of
+    action towards China which shall be practical in execution. If our
+    authorities and people view the present European War with
+    indifference and without deep concern, merely devoting their
+    attention to the attack on Kiaochow, neglecting the larger issues of
+    the war, they will have brought to nought our great Imperial policy,
+    and committed a blunder greater than which it can not be conceived.
+    We are constrained to submit this statement of policy for the
+    consideration of our authorities, not because we are fond of
+    argument but because we are deeply anxious for our national welfare.
+
+    No one at present can foretell the outcome of the European War. If
+    the Allies meet with reverses and victory shall crown the arms of
+    the Germans and Austrians, German militarism will undoubtedly
+    dominate the European Continent and extend southward and eastward to
+    other parts of the world. Should such a state of affairs happen to
+    take place the consequences resulting therefrom will be indeed great
+    and extensive. On this account we must devote our most serious
+    attention to the subject. If, on the other hand, the Germans and
+    Austrians should be crushed by the Allies, Germany will be deprived
+    of her present status as a Federated State under a Kaiser. The
+    Federation will be disintegrated into separate states, and Prussia
+    will have to be content with the status of a second-rate Power.
+    Austria and Hungary, on account of this defeat, will consequently be
+    divided. What their final fate shall be, no one would now venture
+    to predict. In the meantime Russia will annex Galicia and the
+    Austrian Poland: France will repossess Alsace and Lorraine: Great
+    Britain will occupy the German Colonies in Africa and the South
+    Pacific; Servia and Montenegro will take Bosnia, Herzegovina and a
+    certain portion of Austrian Territory; thus making such great
+    changes in the map of Europe that even the Napoleonic War in 1815
+    could not find a parallel.
+
+    When these events take place, not only will Europe experience great
+    changes, but we should not ignore the fact that they will occur also
+    in China and in the South Pacific. After Russia has replaced Germany
+    in the territories lost by Germany and Austria, she will hold a
+    controlling influence in Europe, and, for a long time to come, will
+    have nothing to fear from her western frontier. Immediately after
+    the war she will make an effort to carry out her policy of expansion
+    in the East and will not relax that effort until she has acquired a
+    controlling influence in China. At the same time Great Britain will
+    strengthen her position in the Yangtsze Valley and prohibit any
+    other country from getting a footing there. France will do likewise
+    in Yunnan province using it as her base of operations for further
+    encroachments upon China and never hesitate to extend her
+    advantages. We must therefore seriously study the situation
+    remembering always that the combined action of Great Britain,
+    Russia, and France will not only affect Europe but that we can even
+    foresee that it will also affect China.
+
+    Whether this combined action on the part of England, France and
+    Russia is to terminate at the end of the war or to continue to
+    operate, we can not now predict. But after peace in Europe is
+    restored, these Powers will certainly turn their attention to the
+    expansion of their several spheres of interest in China, and, in the
+    adjustment, their interests will most likely conflict with one
+    another. If their interests do not conflict, they will work jointly
+    to solve the Chinese Question. On this point we have not the least
+    doubt. If England, France and Russia are actually to combine for the
+    coercion of China, what course is to be adopted by the Imperial
+    Japanese Government to meet the situation? What proper means shall
+    we employ to maintain our influence and extend our interests within
+    this ring of rivalry and competition? It is necessary that we bear
+    in mind the final results of the European War and forestall the
+    trend of events succeeding it so as to be able to decide upon a
+    policy towards China and determine the action to be ultimately
+    taken. If we remain passive, the Imperial Japanese Government's
+    policy towards China will lose that subjective influence and our
+    diplomacy will be checked for ever by the combined force of the
+    other Powers. The peace of the Far East will be thus endangered and
+    even the existence of the Japanese Empire as a nation will no doubt
+    be imperilled. It is therefore our first important duty at this
+    moment to enquire of our Government what course is to be adopted to
+    face that general situation after the war? What preparations are
+    being made to meet the combined pressure of the Allies upon China?
+    What policy has been followed to solve the Chinese Question? When
+    the European War is terminated and peace restored we are not
+    concerned so much with the question whether it be the Dual
+    Monarchies or the Triple Entente which emerge victorious but
+    whether, in anticipation of the future expansion of European
+    influence in the Continents of Europe and Asia, the Imperial
+    Japanese Government should or should not hesitate to employ force to
+    check the movement before this occurrence. Now is the most opportune
+    moment for Japan to quickly solve the Chinese Question. Such an
+    opportunity will not occur for hundreds of years to come. Not only
+    is it Japan's divine duty to act now, but present conditions in
+    China favour the execution of such a plan. We should by all means
+    decide and act at once. If our authorities do not avail themselves
+    of this rare opportunity, great difficulty will surely be
+    encountered in future in the settlement of this Chinese Question.
+    Japan will be isolated from the European Powers after the war, and
+    will be regarded by them with envy and jealousy just as Germany is
+    now regarded. Is it not then a vital necessity for Japan to solve at
+    this very moment the Chinese Question?
+
+No one--not even those who care nothing for politics--can deny that
+there is in this document an astounding disclosure of the mental
+attitude of the Japanese not only towards their enemies but towards
+their friends as well. They trust nobody, befriend nobody, envy nobody;
+they content themselves with believing that the whole world may in the
+not distant future turn against them. The burden of their argument
+swings just as much against their British ally as against Germany and
+Austria; and the one and only matter which preoccupies Japanese who make
+it their business to think about such things is to secure that Japan
+shall forestall Europe in seizing control of China. It is admitted in so
+many words that it is too early to know who is to triumph in the
+gigantic European struggle; it is also admitted that Germany will
+forever be the enemy. At the same time it is expected, should the issue
+of the struggle be clear-cut and decisive in favour of the Allies, that
+a new three-Power combination formed by England, France and Russia may
+be made to operate against Japan. Although the alliance with England,
+twice renewed since 1902, should occupy as important a place in the Far
+East as the _Entente_ between England and France occupies in Europe, not
+one Japanese in a hundred knows or cares anything about such an
+arrangement; and even if he has knowledge of it, he coolly assigns to
+his country's major international commitment a minimum and constantly
+diminishing importance. In his view the British Alliance is nothing but
+a piece of paper which may be consumed in the great bonfire now shedding
+such a lurid light over the world. What is germane to the matter is his
+own plan, his own method of taking up arms in a sea of troubles. The
+second part of the Black Dragon Society's Memorandum, pursuing the
+argument logically and inexorably and disclosing traces of real
+political genius, makes this unalterably clear.
+
+Having established clearly the attitude of Japan towards the world--and
+more particularly towards the rival political combinations now locked
+together in a terrible death-struggle, this second part of the
+Memorandum is concerned solely with China and can be broken into two
+convenient sections. The first section is constructive--the plan for the
+reconstruction of China is outlined in terms suited to the Japanese
+genius. This part begins with an illuminating piece of rhetoric.
+
+    PART II. THE CHINESE QUESTION AND THE DEFENSIVE ALLIANCE
+
+    It is a very important matter of policy whether the Japanese
+    Government, in obedience to its divine mission, shall solve the
+    Chinese Question in a heroic manner by making China voluntarily rely
+    upon Japan. To force China to such a position there is nothing else
+    for the Imperial Japanese Government to do but to take advantage of
+    the present opportunity to seize the reins of political and
+    financial power and to enter by all means into a defensive alliance
+    with her under secret terms as enumerated below:
+
+    _The Secret Terms of the Defensive Alliance_
+
+    The Imperial Japanese Government, with due respect for the
+    Sovereignty and Integrity of China and with the object and hope of
+    maintaining the peace of the Far East, undertakes to share the
+    responsibility of co-operating with China to guard her against
+    internal trouble and foreign invasion and China shall accord to
+    Japan special facilities in the matter of China's National Defence,
+    or the protection of Japan's special rights and privileges and for
+    these objects the following treaty of Alliance is to be entered into
+    between the two contracting parties:
+
+    1. When there is internal trouble in China or when she is at war
+    with another nation or nations, Japan shall send her army to render
+    assistance, to assume the responsibility of guarding Chinese
+    territory and to maintain peace and order in China.
+
+    2. China agrees to recognize Japan's privileged position in South
+    Manchuria and Inner Mongolia and to cede the sovereign rights of
+    these regions to Japan to enable her to carry out a scheme of local
+    defence on a permanent basis.
+
+    3. After the Japanese occupation of Kiaochow, Japan shall acquire
+    all the rights and privileges hitherto enjoyed by the Germans in
+    regard to railways, mines and all other interests, and after peace
+    and order is restored in Tsingtao, the place shall be handed back to
+    China to be opened as an International Treaty port.
+
+    4. For the maritime defence of China and Japan, China shall lease
+    strategic harbours along the coast of the Fukien province to Japan
+    to be converted into naval bases and grant to Japan in the said
+    province all railway and mining rights.
+
+    5. For the reorganization of the Chinese army China shall entrust
+    the training and drilling of the army to Japan.
+
+    6. For the unification of China's firearms and munitions of war,
+    China shall adopt firearms of Japanese pattern, and at the same time
+    establish arsenals (with the help of Japan) in different strategic
+    points.
+
+    7. With the object of creating and maintaining a Chinese Navy, China
+    shall entrust the training of her navy to Japan.
+
+    8. With the object of reorganizing her finances and improving the
+    methods of taxation, China shall entrust the work to Japan, and the
+    latter shall elect competent financial experts who shall act as
+    first-class advisers to the Chinese Government.
+
+    9. China shall engage Japanese educational experts as educational
+    advisers and extensively establish schools in different parts of the
+    country to teach Japanese so as to raise the educational standard of
+    the country.
+
+    10. China shall first consult with and obtain the consent of Japan
+    before she can enter into an agreement with another Power for making
+    loans, the leasing of territory, or the cession of the same.
+
+    From the date of the signing of this Defensive Alliance, Japan and
+    China shall work together hand-in-hand. Japan will assume the
+    responsibility of safeguarding Chinese territory and maintaining the
+    peace and order in China. This will relieve China of all future
+    anxieties and enable her to proceed energetically with her reforms,
+    and, with a sense of territorial security, she may wait for her
+    national development and regeneration. Even after the present
+    European War is over and peace is restored China will absolutely
+    have nothing to fear in the future of having pressure brought
+    against her by the foreign powers. It is only thus that permanent
+    peace can be secured in the Far East.
+
+    But before concluding this Defensive Alliance, two points must first
+    be ascertained and settled, (1) Its bearing on the Chinese
+    Government. (2) Its bearing on those Powers having intimate
+    relations with and great interests in China.
+
+    In considering its effect on the Chinese Government, Japan must try
+    to foresee whether the position of China's present ruler Yuan
+    Shih-kai shall be permanent or not; whether the present Government's
+    policy will enjoy the confidence of a large section of the Chinese
+    people; whether Yuan Shih-kai will readily agree to the Japanese
+    Government's proposal to enter into a treaty of alliance with us.
+    These are points to which we are bound to give a thorough
+    consideration. Judging by the attitude hitherto adopted by Yuan
+    Shih-kai we know he has always resorted to the policy of expediency
+    in his diplomatic dealings, and although he may now outwardly show
+    friendliness towards us, he will in fact rely upon the influence of
+    the different Powers as the easiest check against us and refuse to
+    accede to our demands. Take for a single instance, his conduct
+    towards us since the Imperial Government declared war against
+    Germany and his action will then be clear to all. Whether we can
+    rely upon the ordinary friendly methods of diplomacy to gain our
+    object or not it does not require much wisdom to decide. After the
+    gigantic struggle in Europe is over, leaving aside America which
+    will not press for advantage, China will not be able to obtain any
+    loans from the other Powers. With a depleted treasury, without means
+    to pay the officials and the army, with local bandits inciting the
+    poverty-stricken populace to trouble, with the revolutionists
+    waiting for opportunities to rise, should an insurrection actually
+    occur while no outside assistance can be rendered to quell it we are
+    certain it will be impossible for Yuan Shih-kai, single-handed, to
+    restore order and consolidate the country. The result will be that
+    the nation will be cut up into many parts beyond all hope of remedy.
+    That this state of affairs will come is not difficult to foresee.
+    When this occurs, shall we uphold Yuan's Government and assist him
+    to suppress the internal insurrection with the certain assurance
+    that we could influence him to agree to our demands, or shall we
+    help the revolutionists to achieve a success and realize our object
+    through them? This question must be definitely decided upon this
+    very moment so that we may put it into practical execution. If we do
+    not look into the future fate of China but go blindly to uphold
+    Yuan's Government, to enter into a Defensive Alliance with China,
+    hoping thus to secure a complete realization of our object by
+    assisting him to suppress the revolutionists, it is obviously a
+    wrong policy. Why? Because the majority of the Chinese people have
+    lost all faith in the tottering Yuan Shih-kai who is discredited and
+    attacked by the whole nation for having sold his country. If Japan
+    gives Yuan the support, his Government, though in a very precarious
+    state, may possibly avoid destruction. Yuan Shih-kai belongs to that
+    school of politicians who are fond of employing craftiness and
+    cunning. He may be friendly to us for a time, but he will certainly
+    abandon us and again befriend the other Powers when the European war
+    is at an end. Judging by his past we have no doubt as to what he
+    will do in the future. For Japan to ignore the general sentiment of
+    the Chinese people and support Yuan Shih-kai with the hope that we
+    can settle with him the Chinese Question is a blunder indeed.
+    Therefore in order to secure the permanent peace of the Far East,
+    instead of supporting a Chinese Government which can neither be long
+    continued in power nor assist in the attainment of our object, we
+    should rather support the 400,000,000 Chinese people to renovate
+    their corrupt Government, to change its present form, to maintain
+    peace and order in the land and to usher into China a new era of
+    prosperity so that China and Japan may in fact as well as in name be
+    brought into the most intimate and vital relations with each other.
+    China's era of prosperity is based on the China-Japanese Alliance
+    and this Alliance is the foundational power for the repelling of the
+    foreign aggression that is to be directed against the Far East at
+    the conclusion of the European war. This alliance is also the
+    foundation-stone of the peace of the world. Japan therefore should
+    take this as the last warning and immediately solve this question.
+    Since the Imperial Japanese Government has considered it imperative
+    to support the Chinese people, we should induce the Chinese
+    revolutionists, the Imperialists and other Chinese malcontents to
+    create trouble all over China. The whole country will be thrown into
+    disorder and Yuan's Government will consequently be overthrown. We
+    shall then select a man from amongst the most influential and most
+    noted of the 400,000,000 of Chinese and help him to organize a new
+    form of Government and to consolidate the whole country. In the
+    meantime our army must assist in the restoration of peace and order
+    in the country, and in the protection of the lives and properties of
+    the people, so that they may gladly tender their allegiance to the
+    new Government which will then naturally confide in and rely upon
+    Japan. It is after the accomplishment of only these things that we
+    shall without difficulty gain our object by the conclusion of a
+    Defensive Alliance with China.
+
+    For us to incite the Chinese revolutionists and malcontents to rise
+    in China we consider the present to be the most opportune moment.
+    The reason why these men cannot now carry on an active campaign is
+    because they are insufficiently provided with funds. If the Imperial
+    Government can take advantage of this fact to make them a loan and
+    instruct them to rise simultaneously, great commotion and disorder
+    will surely prevail all over China. We can intervene and easily
+    adjust matters.
+
+    The progress of the European War warns Japan with greater urgency of
+    the imperative necessity of solving this most vital of questions.
+    The Imperial Government cannot be considered as embarking on a rash
+    project. This opportunity will not repeat itself for our benefit. We
+    must avail ourselves of this chance and under no circumstances
+    hesitate. Why should we wait for the spontaneous uprising of the
+    revolutionists and malcontents? Why should we not think out and lay
+    down a plan beforehand? When we examine into the form of Government
+    in China, we must ask whether the existing Republic is well suited
+    to the national temperament and well adapted to the thoughts and
+    aspirations of the Chinese people. From the time the Republic of
+    China was established up to the present moment, if what it has
+    passed through is to be compared to what it ought to be in the
+    matter of administration and unification, we find disappointment
+    everywhere. Even the revolutionists themselves, the very ones who
+    first advocated the Republican form of government, acknowledge that
+    they have made a mistake. The retention of the Republican form of
+    Government in China will be a great future obstacle in the way of a
+    Chino-Japanese Alliance. And why must it be so? Because, in a
+    Republic the fundamental principles of government as well as the
+    social and moral aims of the people are distinctly different from
+    that of a Constitutional Monarchy. Their laws and administration
+    also conflict. If Japan act as a guide to China and China models
+    herself after Japan, it will only then be possible for the two
+    nations to solve by mutual effort the Far East Question without
+    differences and disagreements. Therefore to start from the
+    foundation for the purpose of reconstructing the Chinese
+    Government, of establishing a Chino-Japanese Alliance, of
+    maintaining the permanent peace of the Far East and of realizing the
+    consummation of Japan's Imperial policy, we must take advantage of
+    the present opportunity to alter China's Republican form of
+    Government into a Constitutional Monarchy which shall necessarily be
+    identical, in all its details, to the Constitutional Monarchy of
+    Japan, and to no other. This is really the key and first principle
+    to be firmly held for the actual reconstruction of the form of
+    Government in China. If China changes her Republican form of
+    Government to that of a Constitutional Monarchy, shall we, in the
+    selection of a new ruler, restore the Emperor Hsuan T'ung to his
+    throne or choose the most capable man from the Monarchists or select
+    the most worthy member from among the revolutionists? We think,
+    however, that it is advisable at present to leave this question to
+    the exigency of the future when the matter is brought up for
+    decision. But we must not lose sight of the fact that to actually
+    put into execution this policy of a Chino-Japanese Alliance and the
+    transformation of the Republic of China into a Constitutional
+    Monarchy, is, in reality, the fundamental principle to be adopted
+    for the reconstruction of China.
+
+    We shall now consider the bearing of this Defensive Alliance on the
+    other Powers. Needless to say, Japan and China will in no way impair
+    the rights and interests already acquired by the Powers. At this
+    moment it is of paramount importance for Japan to come to a special
+    understanding with Russia to define our respective spheres in
+    Manchuria and Mongolia so that the two countries may co-operate with
+    each other in the future. This means that Japan after the
+    acquisition of sovereign rights in South Manchuria and Inner
+    Mongolia will work together with Russia after her acquisition of
+    sovereign rights in North Manchuria and Outer Mongolia to maintain
+    the status quo, and endeavour by every effort to protect the peace
+    of the Far East. Russia, since the outbreak of the European War, has
+    not only laid aside all ill-feelings against Japan, but has adopted
+    the same attitude as her Allies and shown warm friendship for us. No
+    matter how we regard the Manchurian and Mongolian Questions in the
+    future she is anxious that we find some way of settlement. Therefore
+    we need not doubt but that Russia, in her attitude towards this
+    Chinese Question, will be able to come to an understanding with us
+    for mutual co-operation.
+
+    The British sphere of influence and interest in China is centred in
+    Tibet and the Yangtsze Valley. Therefore if Japan can come to some
+    satisfactory arrangement with China in regard to Tibet and also give
+    certain privileges to Great Britain in the Yangtsze Valley, with an
+    assurance to protect those privileges, no matter how powerful Great
+    Britain might be, she will surely not oppose Japan's policy in
+    regard to this Chinese Question. While this present European War is
+    going on Great Britain has never asked Japan to render her
+    assistance. That her strength will certainly not enable her to
+    oppose us in the future need not be doubted in the least.
+
+    Since Great Britain and Russia will not oppose Japan's policy
+    towards China, it can readily be seen what attitude France will
+    adopt in regard to the subject. What Japan must now somewhat reckon
+    with is America. But America in her attitude towards us regarding
+    our policy towards China has already declared the principle of
+    maintaining China's territorial integrity and equal opportunity and
+    will be satisfied, if we, do not impair America's already acquired
+    rights and privileges. We think America will also have no cause for
+    complaint. Nevertheless America has in the East a naval force which
+    can be fairly relied upon, though not sufficiently strong to be
+    feared. Therefore in Japan's attitude towards America there is
+    nothing really for us to be afraid of.
+
+    Since China's condition is such on the one hand and the Powers'
+    relation towards China is such on the other hand, Japan should avail
+    herself in the meantime of the European War to definitely decide
+    upon a policy towards China, the most important move being the
+    transformation of the Chinese Government to be followed up by
+    preparing for the conclusion of the Defensive Alliance. The
+    precipitate action on the part of our present Cabinet in acceding to
+    the request of Great Britain to declare war against Germany without
+    having definitely settled our policy towards China has no real
+    connection with our future negotiations with China or affect the
+    political condition in the Far East. Consequently all intelligent
+    Japanese, of every walk of life throughout the land, are very deeply
+    concerned about the matter.
+
+    Our Imperial Government should now definitely change our dependent
+    foreign policy which is being directed by others into an independent
+    foreign policy which shall direct others, proclaiming the same with
+    solemn sincerity to the world and carrying it out with
+    determination. If we do so, even the gods and spirits will give way.
+    These are important points in our policy towards China and the
+    result depends on how we carry them out. Can our authorities firmly
+    make up their mind to solve this Chinese Question by the actual
+    carrying out of this fundamental principle? If they show
+    irresolution while we have this heaven-conferred chance and merely
+    depend on the good will of the other Powers, we shall eventually
+    have greater pressure to be brought against the Far East after the
+    European War is over, when the present equilibrium will be
+    destroyed. That day will then be too late for us to repent of our
+    folly. We are therefore impelled by force of circumstances to urge
+    our authorities to a quicker sense of the situation and to come to a
+    determination.
+
+The first point which leaps out of this extraordinarily frank
+disquisition is that the origin of the Twenty-one Demands is at last
+disclosed. A perusal of the ten articles forming the basis of the
+Defensive alliance proposed by the Black Dragon Society, allows us to
+understand everything that occurred in Peking in the spring of 1915. As
+far back as November, 1914, it was generally rumoured in Peking that
+Japan had a surprise of an extraordinary nature in her diplomatic
+archives, and that it would be merely a matter of weeks before it was
+sprung. Comparing this elaborate memorandum of the Black Dragon Society
+with the original text of the Twenty-one Demands it is plain that the
+proposed plan, having been handed to Viscount Kato, had to be passed
+through the diplomatic filters again and again until all gritty matter
+had been removed, and an appearance of innocuousness given to it. It is
+for this reason that the defensive alliance finally emerges as five
+compact little "groups" of demands, with the vital things directly
+affecting Chinese sovereignty labelled _desiderata_, so that Japanese
+ambassadors abroad could leave very warm assurances at every Foreign
+Office that there was nothing in what Japan desired which in any way
+conflicted with the Treaty rights of the Powers in China. The air of
+mystery which surrounded the whole business from the 18th January to the
+7th May--the day of the ultimatum--was due to the fact that Japan
+attempted to translate the conspiracy into terms of ordinary
+intercourse, only to find that in spite of the "filtering" the
+atmosphere of plotting could not be shaken off or the political threat
+adequately hidden. There is an arresting piece of psychology in this.
+
+The conviction expressed in the first portion of the Memorandum that
+bankruptcy was the rock on which the Peking administration must sooner
+or later split, and that the moment which Japan must seize is the
+outbreak of insurrections, is also highly instructive in view of what
+happened later. Still more subtle is the manner in which the ultimate
+solution is left open: it is consistently admitted throughout the mass
+of reasoning that there is no means of knowing whether suasion or force
+will ultimately be necessary. Force, however, always beckons to Japan
+because that is the simplest formula. And since Japan is the
+self-appointed defender of the dumb four hundred millions, her influence
+will be thrown on the side of the populace in order "to usher into China
+a new era of prosperity" so that China and Japan may in fact as well as
+in name be brought into the most intimate and vital relations with each
+other.
+
+The object of the subsidized insurrections is also clearly stated; it is
+to alter China's republican form of government into a Constitutional
+Monarchy which shall necessarily be identical in all its details to the
+Constitutional Monarchy of Japan and to no other. Who the new Emperor is
+to be is a point left in suspense, although we may here again recall
+that in 1912 in the midst of the revolution Japan privately sounded
+England regarding the advisability of lending the Manchus armed
+assistance, a proposal which was immediately vetoed. But there are other
+things: nothing is forgotten in the Memorandum. Russia is to be
+specially placated, England to be specially negotiated with, thus
+incidentally explaining Japan's recent attitude regarding the Yangtsze
+Railways. Japan, released from her dependent foreign policy, that is
+from a policy which is bound by conventions and treaties which others
+respect, can then carry out her own plans without fear of molestation.
+
+And this brings us to the two last documents of the dossier--the method
+of subsidizing and arranging insurrections in China when and wherever
+necessary.
+
+The first document is a detailed agreement between the Revolutionary
+Party and various Japanese merchants. Trained leaders are to be used in
+the provinces South of the Yellow River, and the matter of result is so
+systematized that the agreement specifies the amount of compensation to
+be paid for every Japanese killed on active service; it declares that
+the Japanese will deliver arms and ammunition in the districts of
+Jihchow in Shantung and Haichow in Kiangsu; and it ends by stating that
+the first instalment of cash, Yen 400,000, had been paid over in
+accordance with the terms of the agreement. The second document is an
+additional loan agreement between the interested parties creating a
+special "trading" corporation, perhaps satirically named "The Europe and
+Asia Trading Company," which in a consideration of a loan of half a
+million yen gives Japanese prior rights over all the mines of China.
+
+    ALLEGED SECRET AGREEMENT MADE BETWEEN SUN WEN (SUN YAT SEN) AND THE
+    JAPANESE
+
+    In order to preserve the peace in the Far East, it is necessary for
+    China and Japan to enter into an offensive and defensive alliance
+    whereby in case of war with any other nation or nations Japan shall
+    supply the military force while China shall be responsible for the
+    finances. It is impossible for the present Chinese Government to
+    work hand in hand with the Japanese Government nor does the Japanese
+    Government desire to co-operate with the former. Consequently
+    Japanese politicians and merchants who have the peace of the Far
+    East at heart are anxious to assist China in her reconstruction. For
+    this object the following Agreement is entered into by the two
+    parties:
+
+    1. Before an uprising is started, Terao, Okura, Tseji Karoku and
+    their associates shall provide the necessary funds, weapons and
+    military force, but the funds so provided must not exceed 1,500,000
+    yen and rifles not to exceed 100,000 pieces.
+
+    2. Before the uprising takes place the loan shall be temporarily
+    secured by 10,000,000 yen worth of bonds to be issued by Sun Wen
+    (Sun Yat Sen). It shall however, be secured afterwards by all the
+    movable properties of the occupied territory. (See Article 14 of
+    this Agreement.)
+
+    3. The funds from the present loan and military force to be provided
+    are for operations in the provinces South of the Yellow River, viz.:
+    Yunnan, Kweichow, Hunan, Hupeh, Szechuan, Kiangsi, Anhuei, Kiangsu
+    Chekiang, Fukien, Kwangsi and Kwangtung. If it is intended to invade
+    the Northern provinces North of the Yellow River, Tseji Karoku and
+    his associates shall participate with the revolutionists in all
+    deliberations connected with such operations.
+
+    4. The Japanese volunteer force shall be allowed from the date of
+    their enrolment active service pay in accordance with the
+    regulations of the Japanese army. After the occupation of a place,
+    the two parties will settle the mode of rewarding the meritorious
+    and compensating the family of the killed, adopting the most
+    generous practice in vogue in China and Japan. In the case of the
+    killed, compensation for each soldier shall, at the least, be more
+    than 1,000 yen.
+
+    5. Wherever the revolutionary army might be located the Japanese
+    military officers accompanying these expeditions shall have the
+    right to advise a continuation or cessation of operations.
+
+    6. After the revolutionary army has occupied a region and
+    strengthened its defences, all industrial undertakings and railway
+    construction and the like, not mentioned in the Treaties with other
+    foreign Powers, shall be worked with joint capital together with the
+    Japanese.
+
+    7. On the establishment of a new Government in China, all Japan's
+    demands on China shall be recognized by the new Government as
+    settled and binding.
+
+    8. All Japanese Military Officers holding the rank of Captain or
+    higher ranks engaged by the Chinese revolutionary army shall have
+    the privilege of being continued in their employment with a limit as
+    to date and shall have the right to ask to be thus employed.
+
+    9. The loan shall be paid over in three instalments. The first
+    instalment will be 400,000 yen, the second instalment ... yen and
+    the third instalment ... yen. After the first instalment is paid
+    over, Okura who advances the loan shall have the right to appoint
+    men to supervise the expenditure of the money.
+
+    10. The Japanese shall undertake to deliver all arms and ammunition
+    in the Districts of Jih Chao and Haichow (in Shantung and Kiangsu,
+    South of Kiaochow).
+
+    11. The payment of the first instalment of the loan shall be made
+    not later than three days after the signing of this Agreement.
+
+    12. All the employed Japanese Military officers and Japanese
+    volunteers are in duty bound to obey the orders of the Commander of
+    the revolutionary army.
+
+    13. The Commander of the revolutionary army shall have the right to
+    send back to Japan those Japanese military officers and Japanese
+    volunteers who disobey his orders and their passage money shall not
+    be paid if such decision meets with the approval of three or more of
+    the Japanese who accompany the revolutionary force.
+
+    14. All the commissariat departments in the occupied territory must
+    employ Japanese experts to co-operate in their management.
+
+    15. This Agreement takes effect immediately it is signed by the two
+    parties.
+
+    The foregoing fifteen articles have been discussed several times
+    between the two parties and signed by them in February. The first
+    instalment of 400,000 yen has been paid according to the terms of
+    this Agreement.
+
+
+    LOAN AGREEMENT MADE BETWEEN THE REVOLUTIONARY PARTY REPRESENTED BY
+    CHANG YAO-CHING AND HIS ASSOCIATES OF THE FIRST PART AND KAWASAKI
+    KULANOSKE OF THE SECOND PART
+
+    1. The Europe and Asia Trading Company undertakes to raise a loan of
+    500,000 yen. After the Agreement is signed and sealed by the
+    contracting parties the Japanese Central Bank shall hand over 3/10
+    of the loan as the first instalment. When Chang Yao-Ching and his
+    associates arrive at their proper destination the sum of 150,000 yen
+    shall be paid over as the second instalment. When final arrangements
+    are made the third and last instalment of 200,000 yen shall be paid.
+
+    2. When money is to be paid out, the Europe and Asia Trading Company
+    shall appoint supervisors. Responsible individuals of the
+    contracting parties shall jointly affix their seals (to the cheques)
+    before money is drawn for expenditure.
+
+    3. The Europe and Asia Trading Company shall secure a volunteer
+    force of 150 men, only retired officers of the Japanese army to be
+    eligible.
+
+    4. On leaving Japan the travelling expenses and personal effects of
+    the volunteers shall be borne by themselves. After reaching China,
+    Chang Yao-Ching and his associates shall give the volunteers the pay
+    of officers of the subordinate grade according to the established
+    regulations of the Japanese army.
+
+    5. If a volunteer is wounded while on duty Chang Yao-Ching and his
+    associates shall pay him a provisional compensation of not exceeding
+    1,000 yen. When wounded seriously a provisional compensation of
+    5,000 yen shall be paid as well as a life pension in accordance with
+    the rules of the Japanese army. If a volunteer meets with an
+    accident, thus losing his life, an indemnity of 50,000 yen shall be
+    paid to his family.
+
+    6. If a volunteer is not qualified for duty Chang Yao-Ching and his
+    associates shall have the power to dismiss him. All volunteers are
+    subject to the orders of Chang Yao-Ching and his associates and to
+    their command in the battlefields.
+
+    7. When volunteers are required to attack a certain selected place
+    it shall be their duty to do so. But the necessary expenses for the
+    undertaking shall be determined beforehand by both parties after
+    investigating into existing conditions.
+
+    8. The volunteer force shall be organized after the model of the
+    Japanese army. Two Japanese officers recommended by the Europe and
+    Asia Trading Company shall be employed.
+
+    9. The Europe and Asia Trading Company shall have the power to
+    dispose of the public properties in the places occupied by the
+    volunteer force.
+
+    10. The Europe and Asia Trading Company shall have the first
+    preference for working the mines in places occupied and protected by
+    the volunteer force.
+
+And here ends this extraordinary collection of papers. Is fiction mixed
+with fact--are these only "trial" drafts, or are they real documents
+signed, sealed, and delivered? The point seems unimportant. The thing of
+importance is the undoubted fact that assembled and treated in the way
+we have treated them they present a complete and arresting picture of
+the aims and ambitions of the ordinary Japanese; of their desire to push
+home the attack to the last gasp and so to secure the infeodation of
+China.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE MONARCHIST PLOT
+
+THE PAMPHLET OF YANG TU
+
+
+A shiver of impotent rage passed over the country when the nature and
+acceptance of the Japanese Ultimatum became generally known. The
+Chinese, always an emotional people, responding with quasi-feminine
+volubility to oppressive acts, cried aloud at the ignominy of the
+diplomacy which had so cruelly crucified them. One and all declared that
+the day of shame which had been so harshly imposed upon them would never
+be forgotten and that Japan would indeed pay bitterly for her policy of
+extortion.
+
+Two movements were started at once: one to raise a National Salvation
+Fund to be applied towards strengthening the nation in any way the
+government might decide; the other, to boycott all Japanese articles of
+commerce. Both soon attained formidable proportions. The nation became
+deeply and fervently interested in the double-idea; and had Yuan
+Shih-kai possessed true political vision there is little doubt that by
+responding to this national call he might have ultimately been borne to
+the highest pinnacles of his ambitions without effort on his part. His
+oldest enemies now openly declared that henceforth he had only to work
+honourably and whole-heartedly in the nation's interest to find them
+supporting him, and to have every black mark set against his name wiped
+out.
+
+In these circumstances what did he do? His actions form one of the most
+incredible and, let it be said, contemptible chapters of contemporary
+history.
+
+In dealing with the origins of the Twenty-one Demands we have already
+discussed the hints the Japan Representative had officially made when
+presenting his now famous Memorandum. Briefly Yuan Shih-kai had been
+told in so many words that since he was already autocrat of all the
+Chinese, he had only to endorse the principle of Japanese guidance in
+his administration to find that his Throne would be as good as publicly
+and solidly established. Being saturated with the doleful diplomacy of
+Korea, and seeing in these proposals a mere trap, Yuan Shih-kai, as we
+have shown, had drawn back in apparent alarm. Nevertheless the words
+spoken had sunk in deep, for the simple and excellent reason that ever
+since the _coup d'etat_ of the 4th November, 1913, the necessity of
+"consolidating" his position by something more permanent than a display
+of armed force had been a daily subject of conversation in the bosom of
+his family. The problem, as this misguided man saw it, was simply by
+means of an unrivalled display of cunning to profit by the Japanese
+suggestion, and at the same time to leave the Japanese in the lurch.
+
+His eldest son, an individual of whom it has been said that he had
+absorbed every theory his foreign teachers had taught him without being
+capable of applying a single one, was the leader in this family
+intrigue. The unhappy victim of a brutal attempt to kill him during the
+Revolution, this eldest son had been for years semi-paralyzed: but
+brooding over his disaster had only fortified in him the resolve to
+succeed his father as legitimate Heir. Having saturated himself in
+Napoleonic literature, and being fully aware of how far a bold leader
+can go in times of emergency, he daily preached to his father the
+necessity of plucking the pear as soon as it was ripe. The older man,
+being more skilled and more cautious in statecraft than this youthful
+visionary, purposely rejected the idea so long as its execution seemed
+to him premature. But at last the point was reached when he was
+persuaded to give the monarchy advocates the free hand they solicited,
+being largely helped to this decision by the argument that almost
+anything in China could be accomplished under cover of the war,--_so
+long as vested foreign interests were not jeopardized_.
+
+In accordance with this decision, very shortly after the 18th January,
+the dictator's lieutenants had begun to sound the leaders of public
+opinion regarding the feasibility of substituting for the nominal
+Republic a Constitutional Monarchy. Thus, in a highly characteristic
+way, all through the tortuous course of the Japanese negotiations, to
+which he was supposed to be devoting his sole attention in order to save
+his menaced fatherland, Yuan Shih-kai was assisting his henchmen to
+indoctrinate Peking officialdom with the idea that the salvation of the
+State depended more on restoring on a modified basis the old empire than
+in beating off the Japanese assault. It was his belief that if some
+scholar of national repute could be found, who would openly champion
+these ideas and urge them with such persuasiveness and authority that
+they became accepted as a Categorical Imperative, the game would be as
+good as won, the Foreign Powers being too deeply committed abroad to pay
+much attention to the Far East. The one man who could have produced that
+result in the way Yuan Shih-kai desired to see it, the brilliant
+reformer Liang Chi-chao, famous ever since 1898, however, obstinately
+refused to lend himself to such work; and, sooner than be involved in
+any way in the plot, threw up his post of Minister of Justice and
+retired to the neighbouring city of Tientsin from which centre he was
+destined to play a notable part.
+
+This hitch occasioned a delay in the public propaganda, though not for
+long. Forced to turn to a man of secondary ability, Yuan Shih-kai now
+invoked the services of a scholar who had been known to be his secret
+agent in the Old Imperial Senate under the Manchus--a certain Yang
+Tu--whose constant appeals in that chamber had indeed been the means of
+forcing the Manchus to summon Yuan Shih-kai back to office to their
+rescue on the outbreak of the Wuchang rebellion in 1911. After very
+little discussion everything was arranged. In the person of this
+ex-Senator, whose whole appearance was curiously Machiavellian and
+decadent, the neo-imperialists at last found their champion.
+
+Events now moved quickly enough. In the Eastern way, very few weeks
+after the Japanese Ultimatum, a society was founded called the Society
+for the Preservation of Peace (_Chou An Hui_) and hundreds of
+affiliations opened in the provinces. Money was spent like water to
+secure adherents, and when the time was deemed ripe the now famous
+pamphlet of Yang Tu was published broadcast, being in everybody's hands
+during the idle summer month of August. This document is so remarkable
+as an illustration of the working of that type of Chinese mind which
+has assimilated some portion of the facts of the modern world and yet
+remains thoroughly reactionary and illogical, that special attention
+must be directed to it. Couched in the form of an argument between two
+individuals--one the inquirer, the other the expounder--it has something
+of the Old Testament about it both in its blind faith and in its
+insistence on a few simple essentials. It embodies everything essential
+to an understanding of the old mentality of China which has not yet been
+completely destroyed. From a literary standpoint it has also much that
+is valuable because it is so naive; and although it is concerned with
+such a distant region of the world as China its treatment of modern
+political ideas is so bizarre and yet so acute that it will repay study.
+
+It was not, however, for some time, that the significance of this
+pamphlet was generally understood. It was such an amazing departure from
+old precedents for the Peking Government to lend itself to public
+propaganda as a revolutionary weapon that the mind of the people refused
+to credit the fatal turn things were taking. But presently when it
+became known that the "Society for the Preservation of Peace" was
+actually housed in the Imperial City and in daily relations with the
+President's Palace; and that furthermore the Procurator-General of
+Peking, in response to innumerable memorials of denunciation, having
+attempted to proceed against the author and publishers of the pamphlet,
+as well as against the Society, had been forced to leave the capital
+under threats against his life, the document was accepted at its
+face-value. Almost with a gasp of incredulity China at last realized
+that Yuan Shih-kai had been seduced to the point of openly attempting to
+make himself Emperor. From those August days of 1915 until the 6th June
+of the succeeding year, when Fate had her own grim revenge, Peking was
+given up to one of the most amazing episodes that has ever been
+chronicled in the dramatic history of the capital. It was as if the old
+city walls, which had looked down on so much real drama, had determined
+to lend themselves to the staging of an unreal comedy. For from first to
+last the monarchy movement had something unreal about it, and might have
+been the scenario of some vast picture-play. It was acting pure and
+simple--acting done in the hope that the people might find it so
+admirable that they would acclaim it as real, and call the Dictator
+their King. But it is time to turn to the arguments of Yang Tu and allow
+a Chinese to picture the state of his country:
+
+    A DEFENCE OF THE MONARCHICAL MOVEMENT
+
+    PART I
+
+    Mr. Ko (or "the stranger"): Since the establishment of the Republic
+    four years have passed, and upon the President depends the
+    preservation of order at home and the maintenance of prestige
+    abroad. I suppose that after improving her internal administration
+    for ten or twenty years, China will become a rich and prosperous
+    country, and will be able to stand in the front rank with western
+    nations.
+
+    Mr. Hu: No! No! If China does not make any change in the form of
+    government there is no hope for her becoming strong and rich; there
+    is even no hope for her having a constitutional government. I say
+    that China is doomed to perish.
+
+    Mr. Ko: Why so?
+
+    Mr. Hu: The republican form of government is responsible. The
+    Chinese people are fond of good names, but they do not care much
+    about the real welfare of the nation. No plan to save the country is
+    possible. The formation of the Republic as a result of the first
+    revolution has prevented that.
+
+    Mr. Ko: Why is it that there is no hope of China's becoming strong?
+
+    Mr. Hu: The people of a republic are accustomed to listen to the
+    talk of equality and freedom which must affect the political and
+    more especially the military administration. In normal circumstances
+    both the military and student classes are required to lay great
+    emphasis upon unquestioned obedience and respect for those who hold
+    high titles. The German and Japanese troops observe strict
+    discipline and obey the orders of their chiefs. That is why they are
+    regarded as the best soldiers in the world. France and America are
+    in a different position. They are rich but not strong. The sole
+    difference is that Germany and Japan are ruled by monarchs while
+    France and America are republics. Our conclusion therefore is that
+    no republic can be strong.
+
+    But since the French and American peoples possess general education
+    they are in a position to assume responsibility for the good
+    government of their nations which they keep in good order. On that
+    account, although these republics are not strong in dealing with the
+    Powers, they can maintain peace at home. China, however, is unlike
+    these countries, for her standard of popular education is very low.
+    Most of the Chinese soldiers declare as a commonplace: "We eat the
+    imperial food and we must therefore serve the imperial master." But
+    now the Imperial family is gone, and for it has been substituted an
+    impersonal republic, of which they know nothing whatsoever. These
+    soldiers are now law-abiding because they have awe-inspiring and
+    respectful feelings for the man at the head of the state. But as the
+    talk of equality and freedom has gradually influenced them, it has
+    become a more difficult task to control them. As an example of this
+    corrupt spirit, the commanders of the Southern troops formerly had
+    to obey their subordinate officers and the subordinate officers had
+    to obey their soldiers. Whenever there was an important question to
+    be discussed, the soldiers demanded a voice and a share in the
+    solution. These soldiers were called the republican army. Although
+    the Northern troops have not yet become so degenerate, still they
+    never hesitate to disobey the order of their superiors whenever they
+    are ordered to proceed to distant localities. Now we have come to
+    the point when we are deeply satisfied if the army of the Republic
+    does not openly mutiny! We cannot expect any more from them save to
+    hope that they will not mutiny and that they will be able to
+    suppress internal disturbances. In the circumstances there is no use
+    talking about resistance of a foreign invasion by these soldiers. As
+    China, a republic, is situated between two countries, Japan and
+    Russia, both of which have monarchical governments, how can we
+    resist their aggression once diplomatic conversations begin? From
+    this it is quite evident that there is nothing which can save China
+    from destruction. Therefore I say there is no hope of China becoming
+    strong.
+
+    Mr. Ko: But why is it that there is no hope of China ever becoming
+    rich?
+
+    Mr. Hu: People may not believe that while France and America are
+    rich China must remain poor. Nevertheless, the reason why France and
+    America are rich is that they were allowed to work out their own
+    salvation without foreign intervention for many years, and that at
+    the same time they were free from internal disturbances. If any
+    nation wishes to become rich, it must depend upon industries for its
+    wealth. Now, what industries most fear is disorder and civil war.
+    During the last two years order has been restored and many things
+    have returned to their former state, but our industrial condition is
+    the same as under the Manchu Dynasty. Merchants who lost their
+    capital during the troublous times and who are now poor have no way
+    of retrieving their losses, while those who are rich are unwilling
+    to invest their money in industrial undertakings, fearing that
+    another civil war may break out at any moment, since they take the
+    recent abortive second revolution as their warning. In future, we
+    shall have disquietude every few years; that is whenever the
+    president is changed. Then our industrial and commercial condition
+    will be in a still worse condition. If our industries are not
+    developed, how can we expect to be strong? Take Mexico as a warning.
+    There is very little difference between that country and China,
+    which certainly cannot be compared with France and America.
+    Therefore I say there is no hope for China ever becoming rich.
+
+    Mr. Ko: Why is it that you say there is no hope for China having a
+    Constitutional Government?
+
+    Mr. Hu: A true republic must be conducted by many people possessing
+    general education, political experience and a certain political
+    morality. Its president is invested with power by the people to
+    manage the general affairs of the state. Should the people desire to
+    elect Mr. A their president to-day and Mr. B to-morrow, it does not
+    make much difference; for the policy of the country may be changed
+    together with the change of the president without there being any
+    danger of disorder or chaos following such change. We have a very
+    different problem to solve in China. The majority of our people do
+    not know what the republic is, nor do they know anything about a
+    Constitution nor have they any true sense of equality and freedom.
+    Having overthrown the Empire and established in its place a republic
+    they believe that from now on they are subservient to no one, and
+    they think they can do as they please. Ambitious men hold that any
+    person may be president, and if they cannot get the presidency by
+    fair means of election they are prepared to fight for it with the
+    assistance of troops and robbers. The second revolution is an
+    illustration of this point. From the moment that the Emperor was
+    deposed, the centralization of power in the government was
+    destroyed; and no matter who may be at the head of the country, he
+    cannot restore peace except by the re-establishment of the monarchy.
+    So at the time when the republic was formed, those who had
+    previously advocated Constitutional Government turned into
+    monarchists. Although we have a Provisional Constitution now and we
+    have all kinds of legislative organs, which give to the country an
+    appearance of a constitutional government, China has a
+    constitutional government in name only and is a monarchy in spirit.
+    Had the government refrained from exercising monarchical power
+    during the last four years, the people could not have enjoyed one
+    day of peace. In short, China's republic must be governed by a
+    monarchy through a constitutional government. If the constitutional
+    government cannot govern the republic, the latter cannot remain. The
+    question of constitutional government is therefore very important,
+    but it will take ten or twenty years before it can be solved.
+
+    Look at the people of China to-day! They know that something
+    terrible is going to come sooner or later. They dare not think of
+    the future. The corrupt official lines his pocket with unrighteous
+    money, preparing to flee to foreign countries or at least to the
+    Foreign Settlements for safety. The cautious work quietly and do not
+    desire to earn merit but merely try to avoid giving offence. The
+    scholars and politicians are grandiloquent and discourse upon their
+    subjects in a sublime vein, but they are no better than the corrupt
+    officials. As for our President, he can remain at the head of the
+    State for a few years. At most he may hold office for several
+    terms,--or perhaps for his whole life. Then questions must arise as
+    to who shall succeed him; how to elect his successor; how many
+    rivals will there be; whether their policies will be different from
+    his, etc., etc. He personally has no idea regarding the solution of
+    these questions. Even if the president is a sagacious and capable
+    man he will not be able to make a policy for the country or fix a
+    Constitution which will last for a hundred years. Because of this he
+    is driven merely to adopt a policy so as to maintain peace in his
+    own country and to keep the nation intact so long as he may live. In
+    the circumstances such a president can be considered the best
+    executive head we can have. Those who are worshippers of the
+    constitutional government cannot do more than he does. Here we find
+    the reason for the silence of the former advocates of a
+    constitutional administration. They have realized that by the
+    formation of the republic the fundamental problem of the country has
+    been left unsolved. In this wise it happens that the situation is
+    something like this. Whilst the country is governed by an able
+    president, the people enjoy peace and prosperity. But once an
+    incapable man assumes the presidency, chaos will become the order of
+    the day, a state of affairs which will finally lead to the overthrow
+    of the president himself and the destruction of the country. In such
+    circumstances, how can you devise a general policy for the country
+    which will last for a hundred years? I say that there is no hope for
+    China establishing a truly constitutional government.
+
+    Mr. Ko: In your opinion there is no hope for China becoming strong
+    and rich or for her acquiring a constitutional government. She has
+    no choice save ultimately to disappear. And yet is there no plan
+    possible whereby she may be saved?
+
+    Mr. Hu: If China wishes to save herself from ultimate disappearance
+    from the face of the earth, first of all she must get rid of the
+    republic. Should she desire wealth and strength, she must adopt a
+    constitutional government. Should she want constitutional government
+    she must first establish a monarchy.
+
+    Mr. Ko: How is it that should China desire wealth and strength she
+    must first adopt the constitutional form of government?
+
+    Mr. Hu: Wealth and strength is the object of the country, and a
+    constitutional government is the means to realizing this object. In
+    the past able rulers could accomplish their purpose without a
+    constitutional government. We refer to Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty
+    and Emperor Tai Chung of the Tang Dynasty. However, when these able
+    rulers died their system of administration died with them. This
+    contention can be supported by numerous historical instances; but
+    suffice to say that in China as well as in Europe, the lack of a
+    constitutional government has been the cause of the weakness of most
+    of the nations in ancient times. Japan was never known as a strong
+    nation until she adopted a constitutional government. The reason is
+    this: when there is no constitutional government, the country cannot
+    continue to carry out a definite policy.
+
+    Within comparatively recent times there was born in Europe the
+    constitutional form of government. European nations adopted it, and
+    they became strong. The most dangerous fate that can confront a
+    nation is that after the death of an able ruler the system of
+    administration he has established disappears with him; but this the
+    constitutional form of government is able to avert. Take for
+    instance William I. of Germany who is dead but whose country
+    continues to this day strong and prosperous. It is because of
+    constitutional government. The same is true of Japan, which has
+    adopted constitutional government and which is becoming stronger and
+    stronger every day. The change of her executive cannot affect her
+    progress in respect of her strength. From this it is quite clear
+    that constitutional government is a useful instrument for building
+    up a country. It is a government with a set of fixed laws which
+    guard the actions of both the people and the president none of whom
+    can overstep the boundary as specified in the laws. No ruler,
+    whether be he a good man or a bad man, can change one iota of the
+    laws. The people reap the benefit of this in consequence. It is easy
+    to make a country strong and rich but it is difficult to establish a
+    constitutional government. When a constitutional government has been
+    established, everything will take care of itself, prosperity
+    following naturally enough. The adoption of a constitutional
+    government at the present moment can be compared to the problem of a
+    derailed train. It is hard to put the train back on the track, but
+    once on the track it is very easy to move the train. What we should
+    worry about is not how to make the country rich and prosperous, but
+    how to form a genuine constitutional government. Therefore I say
+    that if China desires to be strong and prosperous, she should first
+    of all adopt the constitutional form of government.
+
+    Mr. Ko: I do not understand why it is that a monarchy should be
+    established before the constitutional form of government can be
+    formed?
+
+    Mr. Hu: Because if the present system continues there will be
+    intermittent trouble. At every change of the president there will be
+    riot and civil war. In order to avert the possibility of such awful
+    times place the president in a position which is permanent. It
+    follows that the best thing is to make him Emperor. When that bone
+    of contention is removed, the people will settle down to business
+    and feel peace in their hearts, and devote their whole energy and
+    time to the pursuit of their vocations. It is logical to assume that
+    after the adoption of the monarchy they will concentrate their
+    attention on securing a constitutional government which they know is
+    the only salvation for their country. As for the Emperor, knowing
+    that he derives his position from the change from a republic, and
+    filled with the desire of pacifying the people, he cannot help
+    sanctioning the formation of the constitutional form of government
+    which in addition, will insure to his offspring the continuation of
+    the Throne. Should he adopt any other course, he will be exposed to
+    great personal danger. If he is broadminded, he will further
+    recognize the fact that if no constitutional form of government is
+    introduced, his policy will perish after his death. Therefore I say
+    that before the adoption of the constitutional form of government, a
+    monarchy should be established. William I. of Germany and the
+    Emperor Meiji of Japan both tried the constitutional form of
+    government and found it a success.
+
+    Mr. Ko: Please summarize your discussion.
+
+    Mr. Hu: In short, the country cannot be saved except through the
+    establishment of a constitutional form of government. No
+    constitutional government can be formed except through the
+    establishment of a monarchy. The constitutional form of government
+    has a set of fixed laws, and the monarchy has a definite head who
+    cannot be changed, in which matters lies the source of national
+    strength and wealth.
+
+    Mr. Ko: What you have said in regard to the adoption of the
+    constitutional monarchy as a means of saving the country from
+    dismemberment is quite true, but I would like to have your opinion
+    on the relative advantages and disadvantages of a republic and a
+    monarchy, assuming that China adopts the scheme of a monarchy.
+
+    Mr. Hu: I am only too glad to give you my humble opinion on this
+    momentous question.
+
+    Mr. Ko: You have said that China would be devastated by contending
+    armies of rival leaders trying to capture the presidency. At what
+    precise moment will that occur?
+
+    Mr. Hu: The four hundred million people of China now rely upon the
+    President alone for the protection of their lives and property. Upon
+    him likewise falls the burden of preserving both peace and the
+    balance of power in the Far East. There is no time in the history of
+    China that the Head of the State has had to assume such a heavy
+    responsibility for the protection of life and property and for the
+    preservation of peace in Asia; and at no time in our history has the
+    country been in greater danger than at the present moment. China can
+    enjoy peace so long as His Excellency Yuan Shih-kai remains the
+    President, and no longer. Should anything befall the President,
+    every business activity will at once be suspended, shops will be
+    closed, disquietude will prevail, people will become panic-stricken,
+    the troops uncontrollable, and foreign warships will enter our
+    harbours. European and American newspapers will be full of special
+    dispatches about the complicated events in China, and martial law
+    will be declared in every part of the country. All this will be due
+    to the uncertainty regarding the succession to the presidency.
+
+It will be seen from the first section of this long and extraordinary
+pamphlet how the author develops his argument. One of his major premises
+is the inherent unruliness of Republican soldiery,--the armies of
+republics not to be compared with the armed forces of monarchies,--and
+consequently constituting a perpetual menace to good government. Passing
+on from this, he lays down the proposition that China cannot hope to
+become rich so long as the fear of civil war is ever-present; and that
+without a proper universal education a republic is an impossibility. The
+exercise of monarchical power in such circumstances can only be called
+an inevitable development,--the one goal to be aimed at being the
+substitution of Constitutional Government for the dictatorial rule. The
+author deals at great length with the background to this idea, playing
+on popular fears to reinforce his casuistry. For although constitutional
+government is insisted upon as the sole solution, he speedily shows that
+this constitutionalism will depend more on the benevolence of the
+dictator than on the action of the people. And should his advice be not
+heeded, when Fortune wills that Yuan Shih-kai's rule shall end, chaos
+will ensue owing to the "uncertainty" regarding the succession.
+
+Here the discussion reaches its climax--for the demand that salvation be
+sought by enthroning Yuan Shih-kai now becomes clear and unmistakable.
+Let the author speak for himself.
+
+    Mr. Ko: But it is provided in the Constitutional Compact that a
+    president must be selected from among the three candidates whose
+    names are now kept in a golden box locked in a stone room. Do you
+    think this provision is not sufficient to avert the terrible times
+    which you have just described?
+
+    Mr. Hu: The provision you have mentioned is useless. Can you find
+    any person who is able to be at the head of the state besides His
+    Excellency Yuan Shih-kai? The man who can succeed President Yuan
+    must enjoy the implicit confidence of the people and must have
+    extended his influence all over the country and be known both at
+    home and abroad. He must be able to maintain order, and then no
+    matter what the constitution provides, he will be unanimously
+    elected President. He must also be able to assure himself that the
+    two other candidates for the presidency have no hope for success in
+    the presidential campaign. The provision in the constitution, as
+    well as the golden casket in which the names of the three candidates
+    are kept which you have mentioned, are nothing but nominal measures.
+    Moreover there is no man in China who answers the description of a
+    suitable, successor which I have just given. Here arises a difficult
+    problem; and what has been specified in the Constitutional Compact
+    is a vain attempt to solve it. It is pertinent to ask why the
+    law-makers should not have made the law in such a way that the
+    people could exercise their free choice in the matter of the
+    presidential successor? The answer is that there is reason to fear
+    that a bad man may be elected president by manipulations carried out
+    with a masterly hand, thereby jeopardizing the national welfare.
+    This fear has influenced the constitution-makers to settle upon
+    three candidates from among whom the president must be elected. Then
+    it may be asked why not fix upon one man instead of upon three since
+    you have already deprived the people of part of their freedom? The
+    answer is that: there is not a single man whose qualifications are
+    high enough to be the successor. As it is, three candidates of equal
+    qualifications are put forward for the people to their selection. No
+    matter how one may argue this important question from the legal
+    point of view, there is the fact that the law makers fixed upon
+    three candidates for the presidency, believing that we do not
+    possess a suitable presidential successor. The vital question of the
+    day setting aside all paper talk, is whether or not China has a
+    suitable man to succeed President Yuan Shih-kai. Whether or not the
+    constitutional compact can be actually carried out in future I do
+    not know; but I do know that that instrument will eventually become
+    ineffective.
+
+    Mr. Ko: I desire a true picture of the chaos which you have hinted
+    will ensue in this country. Can you tell me anything along that
+    line?
+
+    Mr. Hu: In a time of confusion, the soldiers play the most
+    important part, virtuous and experienced and learned statesmen being
+    unable to cope with the situation. The only qualification which a
+    leader at such a time needs to possess is the control of the
+    military, and the ability to suppress Parliament. Should such a
+    person be made the president, he cannot long hold his enviable post
+    in view of the fact that he cannot possess sufficient influence to
+    control the troops of the whole country. The generals of equal rank
+    and standing will not obey each other, while the soldiers and
+    politicians, seeing a chance in these differences for their
+    advancement, will stir up their feelings and incite one another to
+    fight. They will fight hard among themselves. The rebels, who are
+    now exiles in foreign lands, taking advantage of the chaos in China,
+    will return in very little time to perpetrate the worst crimes known
+    in human history. The royalists who are in retirement will likewise
+    come out to fish in muddy waters. Persons who have the
+    qualifications of leaders will be used as tools to fight for the
+    self-aggrandizement of those who use them. I do not wish to mention
+    names, but I can safely predict that more than ten different parties
+    will arise at the psychological moment. Men who will never be
+    satisfied until they become president, and those who know they
+    cannot get the presidency but who are unwilling to serve others,
+    will come out one after another. Confusion and disturbance will
+    follow with great rapidity. Then foreign countries which have
+    entertained wild ambitions, availing themselves of the distressful
+    situation in China will stir up ill-feelings among these parties and
+    so increase the disturbances. When the proper time comes, various
+    countries, unwilling to let a single country enjoy the privilege of
+    controlling China, will resort to armed intervention. In consequence
+    the eastern problem will end in a rupture of the international
+    peace. Whether China will be turned at that time into a battleground
+    for the Chinese people or for the foreign Powers I cannot tell you.
+    It is too dreadful to think of the future which is enshrouded in a
+    veil of mystery. However, I can tell you that the result of this
+    awful turmoil will be either the slicing of China like a melon or
+    the suppression of internal trouble with foreign assistance which
+    will lead to dismemberment. As to the second result some explanation
+    is necessary. After foreign countries have helped us to suppress
+    internal disturbances, they will select a man of the type of Li Wang
+    of Korea, who betrayed his country to Japan, and make him Emperor of
+    China. Whether this man will be the deposed emperor or a member of
+    the Imperial family or the leader of the rebel party, remains to be
+    seen. In any event he will be a figurehead in whose hand will not be
+    vested political, financial and military power, which will be
+    controlled by foreigners. All the valuable mines, various kinds of
+    industries and our abundant natural resources will likewise be
+    developed by others. China will thus disappear as a nation. In
+    selecting a man of the Li Wang type, the aforesaid foreign countries
+    will desire merely to facilitate the acquisition of China's
+    territory. But there can be easily found such a man who bears
+    remarkable resemblance to Li Wang, and who will be willing to make a
+    treaty with the foreigners whereby he unpatriotically sells his
+    country in exchange for a throne which he can never obtain or keep
+    without outside assistance. His procedure will be something like
+    this: He will make an alliance with a foreign nation by which the
+    latter will be given the power to carry on foreign relations on
+    behalf of his country. In the eyes of foreigners, China will have
+    been destroyed, but the people will continue deceived and made to
+    believe that their country is still in existence. This is the first
+    step. The second step will be to imitate the example of Korea and
+    make a treaty with a certain power, whereby China is annexed and the
+    throne abolished. The imperial figurehead then flees to the foreign
+    country where he enjoys an empty title. Should you then try to make
+    him devise means for regaining the lost territory it will be too
+    late. For China will have been entirely destroyed by that time. This
+    is the second procedure in the annexation of Chinese territory. The
+    reason why that foreign country desires to change the republic into
+    the monarchy is to set one man on the throne and make him witness
+    the whole process of annexation of his country, thereby simplifying
+    the matter. When that time has come, the people will not be
+    permitted to make any comment upon the form of government suitable
+    for China, or upon the destruction of their country. The rebels who
+    raised the standard of the republic have no principles and if they
+    now find that some other tactics will help to increase their power
+    they will adopt these tactics. China's republic is doomed, no matter
+    what happens. If we do not change it ourselves, others will do it
+    for us. Should we undertake the change ourselves we can save the
+    nation: otherwise there is no hope for China to remain a nation. It
+    is to be regretted that our people now assume an attitude of
+    indifference, being reluctant to look forward to the future, and
+    caring not what may happen to them and their country. They are
+    doomed to become slaves after the loss of their national
+    independence.
+
+    Mr. Ko: I am very much frightened by what you have said. You have
+    stated that the adoption of a constitutional monarchy can avert such
+    terrible consequences; but is there not likely to be disturbance
+    during the change of the republic to monarchy, since such
+    disturbance must always accompany the presidential election?
+
+    Mr. Hu: No comparison can be formed between these two things. There
+    may be tumult during the change of the form of government, but it
+    will be better in comparison with the chaos that will some day ensue
+    in the republic. There is no executive head in the country when a
+    republic endeavours to select a presidential successor. At such a
+    time, the ambitious try to improve their future, while the patriotic
+    are at a loss now to do anything which will assist in the
+    maintenance of order. Those who are rebellious rise in revolt while
+    those who are peace-loving are compelled by circumstances to join
+    their rank and file. Should the form of government be transformed
+    into a monarchical one, and should the time for change of the head
+    of the state come, the successor having already been provided for,
+    that will be well-known to the people. Those who are patriotic will
+    exert their utmost to preserve peace, and as result the
+    heir-apparent can peacefully step on the throne. There are persons
+    who will contend for the office of the President, but not for the
+    throne. Those who contend for the office of President do not commit
+    any crime, but those who try to seize the throne are rebels. Who
+    dares to contend for the Throne?
+
+    At the time of the change of the president in a republic, ambitious
+    persons arise with the intention of capturing this most honourable
+    office, but not so when the emperor is changed. Should there be a
+    body of persons hostile to the heir-apparent, that body must be very
+    small. Therefore I say that the enemies of a succeeding Emperor are
+    a few, whilst there are many in the case of a presidential
+    successor. This is the first difference.
+
+    Those who oppose the monarchy are republican enthusiasts or persons
+    who desire to make use of the name of the republic for their own
+    benefit. These persons will raise trouble even without the change of
+    the government. They do not mind disturbing the peace of the country
+    at the present time when the republic exists. It is almost certain
+    that at the first unfurling of the imperial flags they will at once
+    grasp such an opportune moment and try to satisfy their ambition.
+    Should they rise in revolt at the time when the Emperor is changed
+    the Government, supported by the loyal statesmen and officials,
+    whose interests are bound up with the welfare of the imperial family
+    and whose influence has spread far and wide, will be able to deal
+    easily with any situation which may develop. Therefore I declare
+    that the successor to the throne has more supporters while the
+    presidential successor has few. This is the second difference
+    between the republic and the constitutional monarchy.
+
+    Why certain persons will contend for the office of the President can
+    be explained by the fact that there is not a single man in the
+    country whose qualifications are above all the others. Succession to
+    the throne is a question of blood-relation with the reigning
+    Emperor, and not a question of qualifications. The high officials
+    whose qualifications are unusually good are not subservient to
+    others but they are obedient to the succeeding Emperor, because of
+    their gratitude for what the imperial family has done for them, and
+    because their well-being is closely associated with that of the
+    imperial household. I can cite an historical incident to support my
+    contention. Under the Manchu Dynasty, at one time General Chu
+    Chung-tang was entrusted with the task of suppressing the Mohammedan
+    rebellion. He appointed General Liu Sung San generalissimo. Upon the
+    death of General Liu, Chu Chung-tang appointed his subordinate
+    officers to lead the army but the subordinate officers competed for
+    power. Chu Chung-tang finally made the step-son of General Liu the
+    Commander-in-Chief and the officers and soldiers all obeyed his
+    order as they did his father's. But it may be mentioned that this
+    young man was not more able than any of his father's subordinate
+    commanders. Nevertheless prestige counted. He owed his success to
+    his natural qualification, being a step-son to General Liu. So is
+    the case with the emperor whose successor nobody dares openly to
+    defy--to say nothing of actually disputing his right to the throne.
+    This is the third difference between the republic and the monarchy.
+
+    I will not discuss the question: as to whether there being no
+    righteous and able heir-apparent to succeed his Emperor-father,
+    great danger may not confront the nation. However, in order to
+    provide against any such case, I advocate that the formation of a
+    constitutional government should go hand in hand with the
+    establishment of the monarchy. At first it is difficult to establish
+    and carry out a constitutional government, but once it is formed it
+    will be comparatively easy. When the constitutional government has
+    been established, the Emperor will have to seek his fame in such
+    useful things as the defence of his country and the conquest of his
+    enemy. Everything has to progress, and men possessing European
+    education will be made use of by the reigning family. The first
+    Emperor will certainly do all he can to capture the hearts of the
+    people by means of adopting and carrying out in letter as well as in
+    spirit constitutional government. The heir-apparent will pay
+    attention to all new reforms and new things. Should he do so, the
+    people will be able to console themselves by saying that they will
+    aways be the people of a constitutional monarchy even after the
+    succession to the throne of the heir-apparent. When the time comes
+    for the heir-apparent to mount the throne the people will extend to
+    him their cordial welcome, and there will be no need to worry about
+    internal disturbances.
+
+    Therefore, I conclude that the successor to the presidential chair
+    has to prevent chaos by wielding the monarchical power, while the
+    new emperor can avert internal disquietude forever by means of his
+    constitutional government. This is the fourth difference between the
+    republic and the monarchy. These four differences are accountable
+    for the fact that there will not be as much disturbance at the time
+    of the change of emperors as at the time when the president is
+    changed.
+
+    Mr. Ko: I can understand what you have said with regard to the
+    advantages and disadvantages of the republic and the monarchy, but
+    there are many problems connected with the formation of a
+    constitutional monarchy which we have to solve. Why is it that the
+    attempt to introduce constitutional government during the last years
+    of the Manchu Dynasty proved a failure?
+
+    Mr. Hu: The constitutional government of the Manchu Dynasty was one
+    in name only, and as such the forerunner of the revolution of 1911.
+    Towards the end of the Manchu Dynasty, the talk of starting a
+    revolution to overthrow the imperial regime was in everybody's
+    mouth, although the constitutional party endeavoured to accomplish
+    something really useful. At that time His Excellency Yuan Shih-kai
+    was the grand chancellor, and realizing the fact that nothing except
+    the adoption of a constitutional government could save the throne of
+    the Manchus, he assumed the leadership of the constitutional party,
+    which surpassed in strength the revolutionary party as a result of
+    his active support. The people's hearts completely turned to the
+    constitutional party for salvation, while the revolutionary party
+    lost that popular support which it had formerly enjoyed. Then it
+    seemed that the imperial household would soon adopt the
+    constitutional monarchy and the threatening revolution could be
+    averted. Unfortunately, the elaborate plans of His Excellency Yuan
+    Shih-kai regarding the adoption of the constitutional government
+    were not carried out by the imperial household. A great change took
+    place: His Excellency retired to his native province; and after
+    losing this powerful leader the constitutional party was pitilessly
+    shattered. A monarchist party suddenly made its appearance on the
+    political arena to assist the imperial family, which pretended to do
+    its very best for the development of a constitutional government,
+    but secretly exerted itself to the utmost for the possession and
+    retention of the real power. This double-dealing resulted in
+    bringing about the revolution of 1911. For instance, when the people
+    cried for the convening of a parliament, the imperial family said
+    "No." The people also failed to secure the abolition of certain
+    official organs for the imperialists. They lost confidence in the
+    Reigning House, and simultaneously the revolutionary party raised
+    its banner and gathered its supporters from every part of the
+    country. As soon as the revolt started at Wuchang the troops all
+    over the country joined in the movement to overthrow the Manchu
+    Dynasty. The members of the Imperial Senate, most of whom were
+    members of the constitutional party, could not help showing their
+    sympathy with the revolutionists. At last the imperial household
+    issued a proclamation containing Nineteen Articles--a veritable
+    _magna charta_--but it was too late. The constitutional government
+    which was about to be formed was thus laid aside. What the imperial
+    family did was the mere organization of an advisory council. A
+    famous foreign scholar aptly remarked: "A false constitutional
+    government will eventually result in a true revolution." In trying
+    to deceive the people by means of a false constitutional government
+    the imperial house encompassed its own destruction. Once His
+    Excellency Yuan Shih-kai stated in a memorial to the throne that
+    there were only two alternatives: to give the people a
+    constitutional government or to have them revolt. What happened
+    afterwards is a matter of common knowledge. Therefore I say that the
+    government which the imperial family attempted to form was not a
+    constitutional government.
+
+    Mr. Ko: Thank you for your discussion of the attempt of the imperial
+    household to establish a constitutional government; but how about
+    the Provisional Constitution, the parliament and the cabinet in the
+    first and second years of the Republic? The parliament was then so
+    powerful that the government was absolutely at its mercy, thereby
+    disturbing the peaceful condition of the country. The people have
+    tasted much of the bitterness of constitutional government. Should
+    you mention the name of constitutional government again they would
+    be thoroughly frightened. Is that true?
+
+    Mr. Hu: During the first and second years of the Republic, in my
+    many conversations with the members of the Kuo Ming Tang, I said
+    that the republic could not form an efficient method of control, and
+    that there would be an over centration of power through the adoption
+    of monarchical methods of ruling, knowing as well as I did the
+    standards of our people. When the members of the Kuo Ming Tang came
+    to draw up the Provisional Constitution they purposely took
+    precisely the opposite course of action and ignored my suggestion.
+    It may, however, be mentioned that the Provisional Constitution made
+    in Nanking was not so bad, but after the government was removed to
+    Peking, the Kuo Ming Tang people tied the hand and foot of the
+    government by means of the Cabinet System and other restrictions
+    with the intention of weakening the power of the central
+    administration in order that they might be able to start another
+    revolution. From the dissolution of the Nanking government to the
+    time of the second revolution they had this one object in view,
+    namely to weaken the power of the central administration so that
+    they could contend for the office of the president by raising
+    further internal troubles in China. Those members of the Kuo Ming
+    Tang who made the constitution know as well as I that China's
+    republic must be governed through a monarchical administration; and
+    therefore the unreasonable restrictions in the Provisional
+    Constitution were purposely inserted.
+
+    Mr. Ko: What is the difference between the constitutional government
+    which you have proposed and the constitutional government which the
+    Manchu Dynasty intended to adopt?
+
+    Mr. Hu: The difference lies in the proper method of procedure and in
+    honesty of purpose, which are imperative if constitutional
+    government expects to be successful.
+
+    Mr. Ko: What do you mean by the proper method of procedure?
+
+    Mr. Hu: The Provisional Constitution made in Nanking, which was
+    considered good, is not suitable for insertion in the future
+    constitution, should a constitutional monarchy be established. In
+    making a constitution for the future constitutional monarchy we have
+    to consult the constitutions of the monarchies of the world. They
+    can be divided into three classes which are represented by England,
+    Prussia and Japan. England is advanced in its constitutional
+    government, which has been in existence for thousands of years,
+    (_sic_) and is the best of all in the world. The English king enjoys
+    his empty title and the real power of the country is exercised by
+    the parliament, which makes all the laws for the nation. As to
+    Prussia, the constitutional monarchy was established when the people
+    started a revolution. The ruler of Prussia was compelled to convene
+    a parliament and submitted to that legal body a constitution.
+    Prussia's constitution was made by its ruler together with the
+    parliament. Its constitutional government is not so good as the
+    English. As to the Japanese constitutional monarchy, the Emperor
+    made a constitution and then convened a parliament. The
+    constitutional power of the Japanese people is still less than that
+    of the Prussian people. According to the standard of our people we
+    cannot adopt the English constitution as our model, for it is too
+    advanced. The best thing for us to do is to adopt part of the
+    Prussian and part of the Japanese in our constitution-making. As our
+    people are better educated now than ever before, it is decidedly
+    unwise entirely to adopt the Japanese method, that is, for the
+    Emperor to make a constitution without the approval of the
+    parliament and then to convoke a legislative body. In the
+    circumstances China should adopt the Prussian method as described
+    above with some modifications, which will be very suitable to our
+    conditions. As to the contents of the constitution we can copy such
+    articles as those providing the right for the issue of urgent orders
+    and appropriation of special funds, etc., from the Japanese
+    Constitution, so that the power of the ruler can be increased
+    without showing the slightest contempt for the legislative organ. I
+    consider that this is the proper method of procedure for the
+    formation of a constitutional monarchy for China.
+
+    Mr. Ko: Can I know something about the contents of our future
+    constitution in advance?
+
+    Mr. Hu: If you want to know them in detail I recommend you to read
+    the Constitutions of Prussia and Japan. But I can tell you this
+    much. Needless to say that such stipulations as articles
+    guaranteeing the rights of the people and the power of the
+    parliament will surely be worked into the future constitution. These
+    are found in almost every constitution in the world. But as the
+    former Provisional Constitution has so provided that the power of
+    the parliament is unlimited, while that of the president is very
+    small, the Chief Executive, besides conferring decorations and
+    giving Orders of Merit, having almost nothing to do without the
+    approval of the Senate, it is certain that nothing will be taken
+    from that instrument for the future constitution. Nor will the
+    makers of the future constitution take anything from the nineteen
+    capitulations offered by the Manchu Government, which gave too much
+    power to the legislative organ. According to the Nineteen Articles
+    the Advisory Council was to draw up the constitution, which was to
+    be ratified by the parliament; the Premier being elected by the
+    parliament; whilst the use of the army and navy required the
+    parliament's sanction; the making of treaties with foreign countries
+    have likewise to be approved by the parliament, etc., etc. Such
+    strict stipulations which are not even known in such an advanced
+    country in matters constitutional as England were extorted from the
+    imperial family by the advisory council. Therefore it is most
+    unlikely that the makers of the future constitution will take any
+    article from the nineteen capitulations of "confidence." They will
+    use the Constitutions of Japan and Prussia as joint model and will
+    always have in their mind the actual conditions of this country and
+    the standard of the people. In short, they will copy some of the
+    articles in the Japanese constitution, and adopt the Prussian method
+    of procedure for the making of the constitution.
+
+    Mr. Ko: What do you mean by honesty?
+
+    Mr. Hu: It is a bad policy to deceive the people. Individually the
+    people are simple, but they cannot be deceived collectively. The
+    Manchu Government committed an irretrievable mistake by promising
+    the people a constitutional government but never carrying out their
+    promise. This attitude on the part of the then reigning house
+    brought about the first revolution. As the standard of our people at
+    the present time is not very high, they will be satisfied with less
+    power if it is properly given to them. Should any one attempt to
+    deceive them his cause will finally be lost. I do not know how much
+    power the people and the parliament will get in the constitutional
+    monarchy, but I would like to point out here that it is better to
+    give them less power than to deceive them. If they are given less
+    power, and if they want more, they will contend for it. Should the
+    government deem it advisable to give them a little more, well and
+    good. Should they be unfit for the possession of greater power, the
+    government can issue a proclamation giving the reasons for not
+    complying with their request, and they will not raise trouble
+    knowing the true intention of the government. However, honesty is
+    the most important element in the creation of a constitutional
+    monarchy. It is easy and simple to practise it. The parliament must
+    have the power to decide the laws and fix the budgets. Should its
+    decision be too idealistic or contrary to the real welfare of the
+    country, the Government can explain its faults and request it to
+    reconsider its decision. Should the parliament return the same
+    decision, the Government can dissolve it and convoke another
+    parliament. In so doing the Government respects the parliament
+    instead of despising it. But what the parliament has decided should
+    be carried out strictly by the Government, and thus we will have a
+    real constitutional Government. It is easy to talk but difficult to
+    act, but China like all other countries has to go through the
+    experimental stage and face all kinds of difficulties before a
+    genuine constitutional government can be evolved. The beginning is
+    difficult but once the difficulty is over everything will go on
+    smoothly. I emphasize that it is better to give the people less
+    power at the beginning than to deceive them. Be honest with them is
+    my policy.
+
+    Mr. Ko: I thank you very much for what you have said. Your
+    discussion is interesting and I can understand it well. The proper
+    method of procedure and honesty of purpose which you have mentioned
+    will tend to wipe out all former corruption.
+
+    Mr. Ko, or the stranger, then departed.
+
+On this note the pamphleteer abruptly ends. Having discussed _ad
+nauseam_ the inadequacy of all existing arrangements, even those made by
+Yuan Shih-kai himself, to secure a peaceful succession to the
+presidency; and having again insisted upon the evil part soldiery cannot
+fail to play, he introduces a new peril, the certainty that the foreign
+Powers will set up a puppet Emperor unless China solves this problem
+herself, the case of Korea being invoked as an example of the fate of
+divided nations. Fear of Japan and the precedent of Korea, being
+familiar phenomena, are given a capital position in all this debate,
+being secondary only to the crucial business of ensuring the peaceful
+succession to the supreme office. The transparent manner in which the
+history of the first three years of the Republic is handled in order to
+drive home these arguments will be very apparent. A fit crown is put on
+the whole business by the final suggestion that the Constitutional
+Government of China under the new empire must be a mixture of the
+Prussian and Japanese systems, Yang Tu's last words being that it is
+best to be honest with the people!
+
+No more damning indictment of Yuan Shih-kai's regime could possibly have
+been penned.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE MONARCHY PLOT
+
+THE MEMORANDUM OF DR. GOODNOW
+
+
+Although this extraordinary pamphlet was soon accepted by Chinese
+society as a semi-official warning of what was coming, it alone was not
+sufficient to launch a movement which to be successful required the
+benign endorsement of foreign opinion. The Chinese pamphleteer had dealt
+with the emotional side of the case: it was necessary to reinforce his
+arguments with an appeal which would be understood by Western statesmen
+as well as by Eastern politicians. Yuan Shih-kai, still pretending to
+stand aside, had kept his attention concentrated on this very essential
+matter; for, as we have repeatedly pointed out, he never failed to
+understand the superlative value of foreign support in all his
+enterprises,--that support being given an exaggerated value by the
+public thanks to China's reliance on foreign money. Accordingly, as if
+still unconvinced, he now very naively requested the opinion of his
+chief legal adviser, Dr. Goodnow, an American who had been appointed to
+his office through the instrumentality of the Board of the Carnegie
+Institute as a most competent authority on Administrative Law.
+
+Even in this most serious matter the element of comedy was not lacking.
+Dr. Goodnow had by special arrangement returned to Peking at the
+psychological moment; for having kicked his heels during many weary
+months in the capital, he had been permitted in 1914 to take up the
+appointment of President of an American University on condition that he
+would be available for legal "advice" whenever wanted. The Summer
+vacation gave him the opportunity of revisiting in the capacity of a
+transient adviser the scenes of his former idleness; and the
+holiday-task set him by his large-hearted patron was to prove in as few
+folios as possible that China ought to be a Monarchy and not a
+Republic--a theme on which every schoolboy could no doubt write with
+fluency. Consequently Dr. Goodnow, arming himself with a limited amount
+of paper and ink, produced in very few days the Memorandum which
+follows,--a document which it is difficult to speak of dispassionately
+since it seems to have been deliberately designed to play into the hands
+of a man who was now openly set on betraying the trust the nation
+reposed in him, and who was ready to wade through rivers of blood to
+satisfy his insensate ambition.
+
+[Illustration: President Li Yuan-Hung and the General Staff watching the
+Review.]
+
+[Illustration: March-past of an Infantry Division.]
+
+Nothing precisely similar to this Goodnow Memorandum has ever been seen
+before in the history of Asia: it was the ultramodern spirit impressed
+into the service of mediaeval minds. In any other capital of the world
+the publication of such a subversive document, following the Yang Tu
+pamphlet, would have led to riot and tumult. In China, the home of
+pacifism, the politicians and people bowed their heads and bided their
+time. Even foreign circles in China were somewhat nonplussed by the
+insouciance displayed by the peripatetic legal authority; and the
+Memorandum was for many days spoken of as an unnecessary
+indiscretion.[16] Fastening at once on the point to which Yang Tu had
+ascribed such importance--the question of succession--Dr. Goodnow in his
+arguments certainly shows a detachment from received principles which
+has an old-world flavour about it, and which has damned him for ever in
+the eyes of the rising generation in China. The version which follows is
+the translation of the Chinese translation, the original English
+Memorandum having been either mislaid or destroyed; and it is best that
+this argument should be carefully digested before we add our comments.
+
+    DR. GOODNOW'S MEMORANDUM
+
+    A country must have a certain form of government, and usually the
+    particular form of government of a particular country is not the
+    result of the choice of the people of that country. There is not any
+    possibility even for the most intellectual to exercise any mental
+    influence over the question. Whether it be a monarchy or republic,
+    it cannot be the creation of human power except when it is suitable
+    to the historical, habitual, social and financial conditions of that
+    country. If an unsuitable form of government is decided upon, it may
+    remain for a short while, but eventually a system better suited will
+    take its place.
+
+    In short, the form of government of a country is usually the natural
+    and only result of its circumstances. The reasons for such an
+    outcome are many, but the principal one is Force. If we study the
+    monarchical countries we will find that usually a dynasty is created
+    by a person who is capable of controlling the force of the entire
+    country and overthrowing other persons opposed to him, working
+    towards his goal with an undaunted spirit. If this man is capable of
+    ruling the nation and if he is a rare genius of the day, and the
+    conditions of the country are suited for a monarchical government,
+    he as a rule creates a new dynasty and his descendants inherit the
+    same from generation to generation.
+
+    If this is so, then the solution of a difficult position of a
+    country is to be found in a monarchy rather than a republic. For on
+    the death of a monarch no doubt exists as to who shall succeed him,
+    and there is no need of an election or other procedure. Englishmen
+    say, "The King is dead, Long live the King." This expresses the
+    point. But in order to attain this point it is necessary that the
+    law of succession be definitely defined and publicly approved;
+    otherwise there will not be lacking, on the death of the monarch,
+    men aspiring to the throne; and as no one is qualified to settle the
+    dispute for power, internal disturbance will be the result.
+
+    Historically speaking no law of succession is so permanently
+    satisfactory as that used by the nations of Europe. According to
+    this system the right of succession belongs to the eldest son of the
+    monarch, or failing him, the nearest and eldest male relative. The
+    right of succession, however, may be voluntarily surrendered by the
+    rightful successor if he so desires; thus if the eldest son declines
+    to succeed to the throne the second son takes his place. This is the
+    rule of Europe.
+
+    If instead of this law of a succession a system is adopted by which
+    the successor is chosen by the monarch from among his sons or
+    relatives without any provision being made for the rights of the
+    eldest son, disturbance will be the inevitable result. There will
+    not be a few who would like to take possession of the throne and
+    they will certainly plot in the very confines of the palace,
+    resulting in an increase of the sufferings of an aged monarch; and,
+    even if the disaster of civil war be avoided, much dispute will
+    arise owing to the uncertainty of the successor--a dangerous
+    situation indeed.
+
+    Such is the lesson we learn from history. The conclusion is,
+    speaking from the viewpoint of the problem of transmission of power,
+    that the superiority of the monarchical system over the republican
+    system is seen in the law of succession,--that is the eldest son of
+    the ruler should succeed to the throne.
+
+    Leaving out the nations of ancient times, the majority of countries
+    in Europe and Asia have adopted the monarchical system. There are,
+    however, exceptions such as _Wen-ni-shih_ (Venice) and Switzerland,
+    which adopted the republican form of government; but they are in the
+    minority while most of the great nations of the world have adopted
+    the monarchical form of government.
+
+    During the recent century and a half the attitude of Europe has
+    undergone a sudden change and the general tendency is to discredit
+    monarchism and adopt republicanism. The one great European power
+    which first attempted to make a trial of republicanism is Great
+    Britain. In the Seventeenth Century a revolution broke out in
+    England and King Charles I. was condemned to death by Parliament and
+    executed as a traitor to the nation. A republic was established and
+    the administration was called republican with Cromwell as regent,
+    _i.e._ President. Cromwell was able to control the power of
+    government because at the head of the revolutionary army he defeated
+    the King. This English republic, however, only existed for a few
+    years and was finally defeated in turn. The reason was that the
+    problem of succession after the death of Cromwell was difficult to
+    solve. Cromwell had a desire to place his son in his place as regent
+    after his death, but as the English people were then unsuited for a
+    republic and his son had not the ability to act as chief executive,
+    the republic of England suddenly disappeared. The British people
+    then abandoned the republican system and readopted the monarchical
+    system. Thus Charles II., the son of Charles I., was made King not
+    only with the support of the army but also with the general consent
+    of the country.
+
+    The second European race which attempted to have a republic was the
+    American. In the Eighteenth Century the United States of America was
+    established in consequence of the success of a revolution. But the
+    American revolution was not at first intended to overthrow the
+    monarchy. What it sought to do was to throw off the yoke of the
+    monarchy and become independent. The revolution, however, succeeded
+    and the circumstances were such that there was no other alternative
+    but to have a republic: for there was no royal or Imperial
+    descendant to shoulder the responsibilities of the state. Another
+    factor was the influence of the advocates of republicanism who came
+    to America in the previous century from England and saturated the
+    minds of the Americans with the ideas of republicanism. The minds of
+    the American people were so imbued with the ideas of republicanism
+    that a republican form of government was the ideal of the entire
+    race. Had General Washington--the leader of the revolutionary
+    army--had the desire to become a monarch himself he would probably
+    have been successful. But Washington's one aim was to respect
+    republicanism and he had no aspiration to become King. Besides he
+    had no son capable of succeeding him on the throne. Consequently on
+    the day independence was won, the republican form of government was
+    adopted without hesitation, and it has survived over a hundred
+    years.
+
+    There is no need to ask whether the result of the establishment of
+    the American Republic has been good or bad. The republican form of
+    government is really the making of the United States of America.
+    But it should be remembered that long before the establishment of
+    the republic, the American people had already learned the good laws
+    and ordinances of England, and the constitution and parliamentary
+    system of England had been long in use in America for over a hundred
+    years. Therefore the change in 1789 from a colony into a Republic
+    was not a sudden change from a monarchy to a republic. Thorough
+    preparations had been made and self-government was well practiced
+    before the establishment of the republic. Not only this, but the
+    intellectual standard of the American people was then already very
+    high; for ever since the beginning of American history attention was
+    given to universal education. No youth could be found who could not
+    read, and the extent of education can thus be gauged.
+
+    Soon after the formation of the American Republic, the French
+    Republic followed in her footsteps. Now in France a monarchical
+    government was in existence before the declaration of independence,
+    and the supreme power of administration was in the hands of the
+    King. The people, having never participated in the administration
+    and lacking experience in self-government, made a poor experiment of
+    the republican system which they suddenly set up. The result was
+    that for many years disorder reigned, and the tyranny of the
+    military governments held sway one after another. After the defeat
+    of Napoleon, the monarchical system was restored as a result of the
+    intervention of other Powers. The second revolution in 1830 again
+    resulted in the restoration of the monarchy but the power of the
+    common people was considerably increased. The monarchy was again
+    overthrown in 1848 and a Republic formed in its stead--the nephew of
+    Napoleon was then made President. This President, however, once more
+    discarded republicanism and set up a monarchy for himself. It was
+    not until after the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 that Napoleon III.
+    was overthrown and the final Republic established which has lived
+    for half a century now, there being every likelihood of its
+    continuing in its present form.
+
+    Indeed the Republic of France has every prospect of being permanent,
+    but the permanency is only the result of a hundred years' political
+    revolution. For a hundred years the foundations were being laid by
+    means of an energetic and persistent campaign of education, which
+    increased the political knowledge of the people. The people were
+    also allowed to participate in political affairs, and so gained
+    experience in self-government. This is why the French Republic is a
+    success. Then in France and America they have found a solution for
+    the difficult problem of the nation, that is the problem of
+    succession of the government in power. The President of France is
+    elected by the Parliament while the President of America is elected
+    by the people. The people of these two countries are all experienced
+    in self-government as a result of participation in political
+    affairs. Furthermore, for the last fifty years these two countries
+    have all laid emphasis on universal education by having an extensive
+    system of schools, subsidized by the Government. The intellectual
+    standard of these two peoples is therefore fairly high.
+
+    As a result of the examples set up by France and America, at the
+    end of the Eighteenth Century the Spanish colonies in Central and
+    South America also declared their independence one after the other.
+    The conditions then prevailing in those countries were somewhat
+    similar to those of America. When their independence was declared,
+    it seemed that the republican system was best suited to their
+    condition. For on the one hand there was no imperial house to direct
+    the people, on the other hand the Republic of North America was a
+    good example to follow. Public opinion was at that time unanimous
+    that since the republican form of government was the ideal form, it
+    was suitable for any country and any people. The idea thus quickly
+    spread and almost every country became a republic. The independence
+    of these countries, however, was secured only at the cost of a hard
+    struggle and once the spirit of rebellion was aroused it became
+    difficult to suppress in a short while. And since education was not
+    then universal the intellect of the people was low. What they were
+    expert in was in autocratic methods. No task is harder than to
+    establish a republic in a country, the intelligence of whose people
+    is low. These republics, therefore, reaped no good results although
+    they tried to retain republicanism unnaturally. The consequence is
+    that the republics of Central and South America have been a living
+    drama of continuous internal disturbance. One after another their
+    military leaders have grasped the power of administration.
+    Occasionally there has been peace but this peace has only been
+    secured by the iron hand of one or two powerful men holding the
+    power. Such powerful men, however, seldom pay any attention to
+    educational matters, and one never hears of their establishing any
+    schools. As to the people under them, they are not allowed to
+    participate in political affairs by which their experience in
+    politics may be ripened. The result is, on the man in power becoming
+    sick or dying--and the iron rule relaxed--that those who wish to
+    usurp the power of the state rise at once; and as the satisfactory
+    solution of the problem of succession cannot be found, those
+    undertakings which have made progress during the time of peace are
+    swept away without a single exception. In extreme cases the
+    disturbances continue to such an extent that the country falls into
+    a state of anarchy. Thus the social and financial factors of the
+    whole country are trodden on and destroyed under foot.
+
+    The conditions now prevailing in Mexico have been many times
+    duplicated in other republics in Central and South America. For this
+    can be the only result from adopting the republican form of
+    government where the political and financial conditions are
+    unsuited. Diaz, a military leader, once held the power of state in
+    his own hand, and when he became the President of Mexico it looked
+    as if the political problem was solved thereby. Diaz, however, did
+    not push education but instead oppressed the people and did not
+    allow them to participate in politics. When he was advanced in age
+    and his influence decreased, he lost entire control once the banner
+    of rebellion was raised. Ever since the overthrow of Diaz, military
+    leaders of that country have been fighting one another and the
+    disturbance is developing even to-day. In the present circumstances
+    there is no other means to solve the political problem of Mexico
+    except by intervention from abroad. (_Sic._)
+
+    Among the republics of Central and South America, however, there are
+    some which have made fairly good progress, the most prominent of
+    which are Argentina, Chili, and Peru. For some time there was
+    disorder in the first two republics immediately after the adoption
+    of the republican system, but later peace was gradually restored and
+    the people have been enjoying peace. As regards Peru, although some
+    disturbances have occurred since the establishment of the republican
+    government, the life of the Republic as a whole has been peaceful.
+    All of these three countries, however, developed constitutional
+    government with the utmost vigour. Even as far back as in the
+    earlier part of the Nineteenth Century Argentina and Chili were
+    already endeavouring to excel each other in their progress, and as
+    for Peru, its people were encouraged even while under the Imperial
+    regime, to participate in political affairs. The success of these
+    three republics is, therefore, not a mere chance happening.
+
+    The study of the experiences of these republics of Central and South
+    America and the history of France and the United States brings
+    forward two points which we should carefully consider:--
+
+    1. In order to make a satisfactory solution of the problem of
+    succession to the chief executive in a republican country, it is
+    necessary that the country be in possession of an extensive system
+    of schools; that the intellect of its people has been brought up to
+    a high standard by means of a patient process of universal
+    education; and that they be given a chance to participate in
+    political affairs for the purpose of gaining the needed experience,
+    before the republican form can be adopted without harm;
+
+    2. It is certain that the adoption of a republican form of
+    government in a country where the people are low in intellect and
+    lack experience and knowledge in political affairs, will not yield
+    any good result. For as the position of the President is not
+    hereditary, and consequently the problem of succession cannot be
+    satisfactorily solved, the result will be a military dictatorship.
+    It might be possible to have a short-lived peace but such a period
+    of peace is usually intermingled with periods of disturbances,
+    during which the unduly ambitious people may rise and struggle with
+    each other for the control of power, and the disaster which will
+    follow will be irremediable.
+
+    This is not all. The present tendency is that the European and other
+    western Powers will not tolerate the existence of a military
+    government in the world; for experience shows that the result of
+    military government is anarchy. Now this is of vital importance to
+    the interests of the European Powers. Since their financial
+    influence has extended so far, their capital as well as their
+    commercial undertakings of all branches and sorts have reached every
+    corner of the world, they will not hesitate to express their views
+    for the sake of peace, as to the system of government a country
+    should adopt, although they have no right to interfere with the
+    adoption of a form of government by another nation. For unless this
+    is done they cannot hope to get the due profit on the capital they
+    have invested. If this view is carried to the extreme, the political
+    independence of a nation may be interfered with or even the
+    Government may be replaced with some other organ. If such steps are
+    necessary to attain their views the Powers will not scruple to take
+    them. Therefore no nation will be allowed hereafter to choose its
+    own form of government if that results in constant revolution, as in
+    the case of South America in the last century. The Governments of
+    the future should, therefore, carefully consider the system to be
+    adopted for the maintenance of peace; otherwise control by
+    foreigners will be unavoidable.
+
+    We will now proceed to consider what significance these points
+    reviewed above have for the political conditions of China. China,
+    owing to the folly of an absolute monarchical system, has neglected
+    the education of the masses, whose intellectual attainments have
+    been consequently of a low standard. Then, there is the additional
+    fact that the people have never had a voice in the doings of their
+    government. Therefore they have not the ability to discuss politics.
+    Four years ago the absolute monarchy was suddenly changed into a
+    Republic. This movement was all too sudden to expect good results.
+    If the Manchus had not been an alien race, which the country wished
+    to overthrow, the best step which could then have been adopted was
+    to retain the Emperor and gradually lead him to a constitutional
+    government. What the Commissioners on Constitutional Government
+    suggested was quite practical if carried out gradually until
+    perfection was reached. Unfortunately the feeling of alien control
+    was bitter to the people and the maintenance of the throne was an
+    utter impossibility. Thus the monarchy was overthrown and the
+    adoption of a republican system was the only alternative.
+
+    Thus we see that China has during the last few years been
+    progressing in constitutional government. The pioneering stage of
+    the process was, however, not ideal. The results could have been
+    much better if a person of royal blood, respected by the people, had
+    come out and offered his service. Under the present conditions China
+    has not yet solved the problem of the succession to the Presidency.
+    What provisions we have now are not perfect. If the President should
+    one day give up his power the difficulties experienced by other
+    nations will manifest themselves again in China. The conditions in
+    other countries are similar to those obtaining in China and the
+    dangers are also the same. It is quite within the bounds of
+    possibility that the situation might threaten China's independence
+    if internal disturbance should occur in connection with this problem
+    and not be immediately put down.
+
+    What attitude then should those who have the good of the nation at
+    heart, take under the present circumstances? Should they advocate
+    the continuance of the Republic or suggest a change for a monarchy?
+    It is difficult to answer these questions. But I have no doubt in
+    saying that the monarchical system is better suited to China than
+    the republican system. For, if China's independence is to be
+    maintained, the government should be constitutional, and in
+    consideration of China's conditions as well as her relations with
+    other Powers, it will be easier to form a constitutional government
+    by adopting a monarchy than a Republic.
+
+    However, it must be remembered that in order to secure the best
+    results from changing the Republic into a Monarchy not a single one
+    of the following points can be dispensed with:
+
+    1. Such a change must not arouse the opposition of the Chinese
+    people or the Foreign Powers, which will cause the disturbances so
+    energetically suppressed by the Republican Government to appear
+    again in China. For the peace now prevailing in the country should
+    be maintained at any price so that no danger may come therefrom.
+
+    2. If the law of succession be not definitely defined in such a way
+    that it will leave no doubts as to the proper successor, no good can
+    come from the change from Republic to Monarchy. I have said enough
+    about the necessity of not allowing the monarch to choose his own
+    successor. Although the power of an Emperor is greater than that of
+    a President, when the majority of the people know nothing, it is
+    more respected by the people. But the reason for such a change will
+    not be valid if the change is brought about merely to add to the
+    power of the chief executive without the question of succession
+    being definitely settled. For the definiteness about succession is
+    the most prominent point of superiority of the monarchical system
+    over the republican system.
+
+    3 If the Government should fail to make provisions for the
+    development of the constitutional government, no permanent benefit
+    will result from the change of a republic into a monarchy. For if
+    China wishes to occupy a suitable place among the world powers, the
+    patriotism of her people must be made to grow so that the government
+    will be more than strong enough to cope with outside aggression. The
+    patriotism of the people will not grow if they are not allowed to
+    participate in political affairs, and without the hearty assistance
+    of the people no government can become strong. For the reason why
+    the people will assist the government is because they feel they are
+    a part of the government. Therefore the government should make the
+    people realize that the government is the organ which aims at
+    bringing blessing to the people, and make the people understand that
+    they have the right to superintend the government before the
+    government can achieve great things.
+
+    Every one of the points mentioned above are indispensable for the
+    change of the Republic into a monarchy. Whether the necessary
+    conditions are present must be left to those who know China well and
+    are responsible for her future progress. If these conditions are all
+    present then I have no doubt that the change of the form of the
+    government will be for the benefit of China.
+
+The first illuminating point, as we have already said, to leap up and
+lock attention to the exclusion of everything else in this memorandum,
+is that the chief difficulty which perplexes Dr. Goodnow is not the
+consolidation of a new government which had been recognized by all the
+Treaty Powers only two years previously but the question of _succession_
+to the supreme office in the land, a point which had already been fully
+provided for in the one chapter of the Permanent Constitution which had
+been legally passed prior to the _Coup d'etat_ of the 4th November,
+1913. But Yuan Shih-kai's first care after that _coup d'etat_ had been
+to promulgate with the assistance of Dr. Goodnow and others, a bogus
+Law, resting on no other sanction than his personal volition, with an
+elaborate flummery about three candidates whose names were to be
+deposited in the gold box in the Stone House in the gardens of the
+Palace. Therefore since the provisional nature of this prestidigitation
+had always been clear, the learned doctor's only solution is to
+recommend the overthrow of the government; the restoration of the Empire
+under the name of Constitutional Monarchy; and, by means of a fresh plot
+to do in China what all Europe has long been on the point of abandoning,
+namely, to substitute Family rule for National rule.
+
+Now had these suggestions been gravely made in any country but China by
+a person officially employed it is difficult to know what would have
+happened. Even in China had an Englishman published or caused to be
+published--especially after the repeated statements Yuan Shih-kai had
+given out that any attempt to force the sceptre on him would cause him
+to leave the country and end his days abroad[17]--that Englishman, we
+say, would have been liable under the Orders in Council to summary
+imprisonment, the possibility of tumult and widespread internal
+disturbances being sufficient to force a British Court to take action.
+What are the forces which brought an American to say things which an
+Englishman would not dare to say--that in 1915 there was a sanction for
+a fresh revolutionary movement in China? First, an interpretation of
+history so superficial, combined with such an amazing suppression of
+contemporary political thought, that it is difficult to believe that the
+requirements of the country were taken in the least bit seriously;
+secondly, in the comparisons made between China and the Latin republics,
+a deliberate scouting of the all-important racial factor; and, lastly, a
+total ignorance of the intellectual qualities which are by far the most
+outstanding feature of Chinese civilization.
+
+Dr. Goodnow's method is simplicity itself. In order to prove the
+superiority of Monarchism over Republicanism--and thus deliberately
+ignoring the moral of the present cataclysmic war--he ransacks the
+dust-laden centuries. The English Commonwealth, which disappeared nearly
+three hundred years ago, is brought forward as an example of the dangers
+which beset a republic, though it is difficult to see what relation an
+experiment made before the idea of representative government had been
+even understood bears to our times. But there is worse. The statement is
+deliberately made that the reason for the disappearance of that
+Commonwealth was "that the problem of succession after the death of
+Cromwell was difficult to solve." English historians would no doubt have
+numerous remarks to offer on this strange untruth which dismisses a
+remarkably interesting chapter of history in the most misleading way,
+and which tells Chinese political students nothing about the complete
+failure which military government--not republicanism--must always have
+among the Anglo-Saxon peoples and which is the sole reason why
+Cromwellism disappeared. Even when treating the history of his own
+country Dr. Goodnow seems to take pleasure in being absurd. For he says:
+"The mind of the American people was so imbued with the idea of
+republicanism that a republican form of government was the ideal of the
+whole race"; then adding as if to refute his own statements, "Had
+General Washington--the leader of the revolutionary army--had the desire
+to become a monarch he would probably have been successful." We do not
+know how Americans will like this kind of interpretation of their
+history; but at least they will not fail to note what dismal results it
+hastened on in China. With the experimental Eighteenth Century French
+Republic; with the old Spanish Colonies of Central and South America;
+and above all with Mexico, Dr. Goodnow deals in the same vein. Vast
+movements, which can be handled only tentatively even in exhaustive
+essays are dismissed in misleading sentences framed so as to serve as
+mere introduction to the inevitable climax--the Chinese Constitutional
+Monarchy of 1915 with Yuan Shih-kai as Emperor.
+
+Yet this is not all. As if in alarm at the very conclusions he so
+purposely reaches, at the end of his Memorandum he reduces these
+conclusions to naught by stating that three impossible conditions are
+necessary to consummate the Restoration of the Monarchy in China, (1) no
+opposition should be aroused, (2) the law of succession must be properly
+settled, (3) Full provision must be made for the development of
+Constitutional Government. That these conditions were known to be
+impossible, everyone in the Far East had long admitted. Had Dr. Goodnow
+paid the slightest attention to the course of history in China he would
+have known (a) that any usurpation of the Throne would infallibly lead
+to rebellion in China and intervention on the part of Japan, (b) that
+Yuan Shih-kai's power was purely personal and as such could not be
+transmitted to any son by any means known to the human intellect, (c)
+that all Yuan Shih-kai's sons were worthless, the eldest son being
+semi-paralyzed, (d) that constitutional government and the Eastern
+conception of kingship, which is purely theocratic, are so antithetical
+that they cannot possibly co-exist, any re-establishment of the throne
+being _ipso facto_ the re-establishment of a theocracy, (e) that
+although he so constantly speaks of the low political knowledge of the
+people, the Chinese have had a most complete form of local
+self-government from the earliest times, the political problem of the
+day being simply to gather up and express these local forms in some
+centralized system: (f) the so-called non-patriotism of the Chinese is
+non-existent and is an idea which has been spread abroad owing to the
+complete foreign misunderstanding of certain basic facts--for instance
+that under the Empire foreign affairs were the sole concern of the
+Emperors, provincial China prior to 1911 being a socio-economic
+confederation resembling mediaeval contrivances such as the Hanseatic
+League--a provincial confederation not concerning itself with any matter
+which lay outside its everyday economic life, such as territorial
+overlordship or frontier questions or the regulation of sea-port
+intercourse etc., because such matters were meaningless. It was only
+when foreign encroachment in the _post_-Japanese war period (_i.e._
+after 1895) carried problems from the fringes of the Empire into the
+economic life of the people that their pride was touched and that in
+spite of "their lack of experience and knowledge in political affairs"
+they suddenly displayed a remarkable patriotic feeling, the history of
+China during the past two decades being only comprehensible when this
+capital contention, namely the reality of Chinese patriotism, is given
+the central place.
+
+It is useless, however, to pursue the subject: we have said enough to
+disclose the utter levity of those who should have realized from the
+first that the New China is a matter of life and death to the people,
+and that the first business of the foreigner is to uphold the new
+beliefs. The Goodnow Memorandum, immediately it was published, was put
+to precisely those base uses which any one with an elementary knowledge
+of China might have foreseen: it was simply exploited in an unscrupulous
+way, its recommendations being carried out in such a manner as to
+increase one's contempt for the men who were pushing the monarchist plot
+with any means that they could seize hold of, and who were not averse
+from making responsible foreigners their tools.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[16] It is perhaps of importance to note that Dr. Goodnow carried out
+all his studies in Germany.
+
+[17] The most widely-quoted statement on this subject is the remarkable
+interview, published in the first week of July, 1915, throughout the
+metropolitan press, between President Yuan Shih-kai and General Feng
+Kuo-chang, commanding the forces on the lower Yangtsze. This statement
+was telegraphed by foreign correspondents all over the world. Referring
+to the many rumours afloat that titles of nobility would be revived as a
+precursor to the monarchy the President declared that even if he seized
+the Throne that would not increase his powers, whilst as for
+transmitting the Imperial Yellow to his sons none were fitted for that
+honour which would mean the collapse of any new dynasty. Here General
+Feng Kuo-chang interrupted with the remark that the people of South
+China would not oppose such a change ultimately, though they thought it
+was too early to talk about it just now. Thereupon the President's
+features became stern and he declared in a heightened voice: "You and
+others seem still to believe that I harbour secret ambitions. I affirm
+positively that when I sent my sons to study in England, I privately
+ordered the purchase of a small estate there as a possible home. If the
+people of China insist upon my accepting the sceptre I shall leave this
+country and spend the remaining days of my life abroad." This interview,
+so far from being denied, has been affirmed to the present writer as
+being substantially correct.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE MONARCHY MOVEMENT IS OPPOSED
+
+THE APPEAL OF THE SCHOLAR LIANG CH'I-CHAO
+
+
+We have already referred in several places to the extraordinary role
+scholarship and the literary appeal play in the governance of China. It
+is necessary to go back to the times of the birth of the Roman Empire,
+and to invoke the great figure of Cicero, to understand how greatly the
+voice of men of recognized intellectual qualities influences the nation.
+Liang Ch'i-chao, a man of some forty-five years, had long been
+distinguished for his literary attainments and for the skill with which,
+though unversed in any Western language, he had expounded the European
+theory and practice of government to his fellow-countrymen. To his brain
+is due the coining of many exact expressions necessary for parliamentary
+government, his mentality having grown with the modern growth of China
+and adapted itself rather marvellously to the requirements of the
+Twentieth Century. A reformer of 1898--that is one of the small devoted
+band of men who under Kang Yu Wei almost succeeded in winning over the
+ill-fated Emperor Kwang Hsu to carrying out a policy of modernizing the
+country in the teeth of fierce mandarin opposition, he possessed in his
+armoury every possible argument against the usurpation Yuan Shih-kai
+proposed to practise. He knew precisely where to strike--and with what
+strength; and he delivered himself over to his task with whole-hearted
+fervour. It having become known that he was engaged in preparing this
+brief for the people of China, every influence was brought to bear to
+prevent such a disastrous publication. Influential deputations were sent
+to him to implore him to remember the parlous international situation
+China found herself in,--a situation which would result in open
+disaster if subjected to the strain of further discords. For a time he
+hesitated launching his counter-stroke. But at length the Republican
+Party persuaded him to deal the tyrant the needed blow; and his now
+famous accusation of the Chief Executive was published.
+
+Its effect was immediate and very far-reaching. Men understood that
+armed revolt was in the air. The almost Biblical fervour which pervades
+this extraordinary document shows an unusual sense of moral outrage. The
+masterly analysis of the Diaz regime in Mexico coupled with the manner
+in which--always pretending to be examining the conduct of the
+Mexican--he stabs at Yuan Shih-kai, won the applause of a race that
+delights in oblique attacks and was ample proof that great trouble was
+brewing. The document was read in every part of China and everywhere
+approved. Although it suffers from translation, the text remains
+singularly interesting as a disclosure of the Chinese mentality; whilst
+the exhaustive examination of political terms it contains shows that
+some day Chinese will carry their inventive genius into fields they have
+hitherto never openly invaded. Especially interesting is it to contrast
+the arguments of such a man with those of a decadent such as Yang Tu.
+
+    FROM REPUBLIC TO MONARCHY
+
+    Before I proceed with my argument I wish to make plain two points.
+    One is that I am not one of those reformers whose ears are their
+    brains, and who are intoxicated with the doctrine of republicanism.
+    I have, therefore, no partiality for the republican form of
+    government nor any bias for or against other forms of government.
+    This can be proved by my literary work during the last ten years.
+    The second point is that I am not one of the veteran conservatives
+    who lay so much stress on the importance of having a dynasty. For
+    such are the thoughts of men who only seek to adjust themselves to
+    existing conditions. If one wishes to consider the present situation
+    of the country without bias or prejudice he must disregard the rise
+    or fall of any particular family. Only those who bear in mind these
+    two points can read my argument with real understanding.
+
+
+    I. THE QUESTION OF KUO-TI
+
+    Some time ago I said that, as political students, we should only
+    care for _Cheng-ti_, _i.e._, the form of government and not for
+    _Kuo-ti_, _i.e._, the form of state. Do not call this trifling with
+    words, for it is a principle which all critics of politics should
+    follow and never depart from. The reason is that critics of politics
+    should not, because they cannot, influence the question of _Kuo-ti_.
+    They should not influence the question of _Kuo-ti_ because so long
+    as the question of _Kuo-ti_ remains unsettled the major portion of
+    the administration remains at a stand-still. Thus there will be no
+    political situation properly so called and there will be no
+    political questions to discuss (here the term political means really
+    administrative). If a critic of politics, therefore, interfere with
+    the question of _Kuo-ti_, he will be leading the nation into a
+    condition of political instability, thus undermining the ground on
+    which the people stand. Such critics can be likened unto a man
+    trying to enter a house without ascending the steps or crossing a
+    river without a boat.
+
+    They cannot influence the question of _Kuo-ti_. The force which
+    drives and steers the change of one form of State or _vice versa_ is
+    generally not derived from mere politics. If the time is not ripe,
+    then no amount of advocacy on the part of critics can hasten it. If
+    the time is ripe, nothing the critics say can prevent it. He who
+    indulges himself in the discussion of the problem of
+    _Kuo-ti_--_i.e._, the form of States, as a political student, is
+    ignorant of his own limitations and capacity. This is as true of the
+    active politicians as of the critics; for the first duty of an
+    active politician is to seek for the improvement and progress of the
+    administration of the existing foundation of government. A step
+    beyond this line is revolution and intrigue, and such cannot be the
+    attitude of a right-minded active politician or statesman. This is
+    looking at it from the negative side.
+
+    From the positive, that is, the progressive point of view, there is
+    also a boundary. Such actions under one form of government are
+    political activities, and under the opposite form of government are
+    also political activities. But these are not questions of political
+    principle. For only when a man sacrifices the ideals which he has
+    advocated and cherished during the whole of his life does the
+    question of principle arise. Therefore the great principle of
+    looking to the actual state of administration of the form of
+    government and leaving the mere form of state in the background is a
+    principle that is applicable under all circumstances and should be
+    followed by all critics of politics.
+
+
+    II. THE ARGUMENT AGAINST CHANGE
+
+    No form of government is ideal. Its reason of existence can only be
+    judged by what it has achieved. It is the height of folly to rely on
+    theoretical conclusions as a basis for artificial arbitration as to
+    what should be accepted and what discarded. Mere folly, however, is
+    not to be seriously condemned. But the danger and harm to the
+    country will be unmeasurable if a person has prejudiced views
+    respecting a certain form of government and in order to prove the
+    correctness of his prejudiced views, creates artificially a
+    situation all by himself. For this reason my view has always been
+    not to oppose any form of government. But I am always opposed to
+    any one who engages in a propaganda in favour of a form of
+    government other than the one under which we actually live. In the
+    past I opposed those who tried to spread the republican form of
+    government while the country was under monarchical government, and
+    the arguments I advanced in support of my views were written in no
+    fewer than 200,000 words. Even so late as the ninth month after the
+    outbreak of the Revolution I issued a pamphlet entitled "The Problem
+    of the Building of the New China," which was my last attempt to
+    express my views respecting the maintenance of the old form of
+    government.
+
+    What obligations had I to the then Imperial House? Did it not heap
+    persecution and humiliation on me to the utmost of its power and
+    resources? I would have been an exile even to this day had it not
+    been for the Revolution. Further, I was no child and I was fully
+    aware of the disappointment which the then Government caused in the
+    minds of the people. Yet I risked the opposition of the whole
+    country and attempted to prolong the life of the dying dynasty. I
+    had no other view in mind except that there would be some
+    possibility of our hope being realized if the whole nation would
+    unite in efforts to improve the administration under the then
+    existing form of government. I believed that because the people were
+    not educated for a change. But if the status of the country should
+    be changed before the people are educated and accustomed to the new
+    order of things, the danger and hardship during the transitional
+    period of several years would be incalculable. In certain
+    circumstances this might lead to the destruction of the nation. Even
+    if we are spared the tragedy of national extinction, the losses
+    sustained by the retarding of the progress of the administration
+    would be unredeemable. It is painful to recall past experiences; but
+    if my readers will read once more my articles in the _Hsin Min Tung
+    Pao_ during the years 1905 and 1906 they will see that all the
+    sufferings which the Republic has experienced bear out the
+    predictions made then. The different stages of the sinister
+    development have been unfolding themselves one by one just as I said
+    they would. It was unfortunate that my words were not heeded
+    although I wept and pleaded. Such has been the consequence of the
+    change of the state of the country--a change of _Kuo-ti_.
+
+    Yet before we have hardly ceased panting, this talk of a second
+    change is on us. I am not in a position to say exactly how this talk
+    had its beginning. Ostensibly it was started by the remarks of Dr.
+    Goodnow. But I am unable to say whether Dr. Goodnow actually gave
+    out such a view or for what purpose he expressed such a view. From
+    what he told the representative of a Peking newspaper he never
+    expressed the views attributed to him. Be this as it may, I cannot
+    help having my doubts. All Dr. Goodnow is alleged to have said
+    bearing on the merits of the monarchical and republican system of
+    government as an abstract subject of discussion, such as the
+    necessity of the form of state (_Kuo-ti_) being suited to the
+    general conditions of the country and the lessons we should learn
+    from the Central and South American republics, are really points of
+    a very simple nature and easily deduced. How strange that among all
+    this large number of politicians and scholars, who are as numerous
+    as the trees in the forest and the perch in the stream, should have
+    failed for all these years to notice these simple points; and now
+    suddenly make a fetish of them because they have come out of the
+    mouth of a foreigner. Is it because no one except a foreign doctor
+    can discover such facts? Why even a humble learner like myself,
+    though not so learned even to the extent of one ten-thousandth part
+    of his knowledge, more than ten years ago anticipated what the good
+    doctor has said; and I said much more and in much more comprehensive
+    terms. I have no desire to talk about my work, but let my readers
+    glance through the copies of the _Hsin Min Tsung Pao, Yin Ping Shih
+    Wen Chi_, the "Fight between Constitutional Advocates" and
+    "Revolutionary Advocates," the "Question of the Building of the New
+    China," etc., etc. My regret is that my eyes are not blue and my
+    hair not brown, and hence my words were not acceptable to the
+    nation!
+
+
+    III. RES JUDICATA
+
+    I do not say that the merits or otherwise of the republican system
+    should not be discussed, but the time for such a discussion has
+    passed. The most opportune time for such a discussion was in 1911
+    when the Revolution had just begun; but since then further
+    discussions should not be tolerated. There might have been some
+    excuse if this subject had been brought up for discussion when the
+    second revolution broke out at Hukow on the Yangtsze river or before
+    the President was formally inaugurated, or before the Powers
+    formally recognized the Republic; but the excuse even then would
+    have been a weak one. Where were you then, advocates of monarchy?
+    Could you not at that time have brought out an essay by one of the
+    great scholars of the world as a subject for discussion? Could you
+    not have cited the cases of American republics as a warning for us
+    that these republics were by no means peaceful? Yet at that time
+    when the heroes of discretion were daily pushing the progress of the
+    republican cause, stating that republicanism was the panacea for all
+    the world's administrations and that republicanism was not a new
+    factor in Chinese history, a humble and ignorant man like myself,
+    then a stranger in a foreign land, was burdened with the fear of the
+    unsuitability of the republican system to China and wrote articles
+    in support of his own views and wept till his eyes were dry.
+
+    Do you not realize that the State is a thing of great importance and
+    should not be disturbed carelessly? How can you then experiment with
+    it and treat it as if you were putting a chest into a dead hole,
+    saying "Let me place it here for the moment and I will see to it
+    later." The status of the State can be likened to marriage between
+    man and woman. The greatest care should be taken during courtship.
+    The lady should then exercise care to see that the man whom she is
+    taking to be a life companion is worthy of her. During this period
+    it is the duty of her relatives and friends to point out to her any
+    danger or misunderstanding even to the extent of offending her
+    feelings. But if you leave her alone at this stage when there is
+    plenty of time to change her course, and--what is more--urge her to
+    tie the knot despite incompatibility, what right have you afterwards
+    to make the impudent suggestion to the wife that her husband is not
+    a man to whom she should cling for life? Is such a course a
+    charitable way of doing things?
+
+    If indeed the republican cause is enough to cause the destruction of
+    the nation then you, the advocates of monarchy, have placed the
+    country in a position from which she has no hope of ever coming out
+    independent. You are the men who--to the best of your
+    ability--inculcated and pressed the adoption of the republican
+    cause. The proverb says, "If now, why not then?" How many days can a
+    person live that you, not satisfied with one great sin, are again to
+    commit another. It is not long since the Republic was first
+    established; yet you, the veterans of republicanism, are the leaders
+    to-day in advocating the overthrow of the Republic. Yes. It is
+    indeed strange that I, a man who once opposed the republican cause,
+    should now be opposing you. Nothing is stranger and nothing is so
+    fateful.
+
+    But our modern critics say we prefer a constitutional monarchy to an
+    autocratic republic. Now whether we are constitutional or not is a
+    question concerning the administration, while the question whether
+    we are republican or not is a question concerning the form or status
+    of the country. We have always held that the question of _Kuo-ti_ is
+    above discussion and that what we should consider is the actual
+    condition of administration. If the administration (government) is
+    constitutional, then it matters not whether the country is a
+    Republic or a Monarchy. If the government is not constitutional then
+    neither a republic nor a monarchy will avail. There is no connexion,
+    therefore, between the question of _Kuo-ti_ and the question of
+    _Cheng-ti_. It is an absurd idea to say that in order to improve the
+    administration we must change the _Kuo-ti_--the status or form of
+    the country--as a necessity. If this idea is to be entertained for a
+    single moment the changes even in constitutional countries will be
+    endless. But the curious paradox is that in former days the critics
+    said that only a republic, not a monarchy, could be constitutional;
+    whereas, the critics now say that a monarchy, not a republic, can
+    alone be constitutional!
+
+
+    IV. THE PRESIDENT AND THE CONSTITUTION
+
+    Let me therefore lay down a simple definition of what a Constitution
+    is before discussing whether the contentions of the critics are
+    reasonable. My opponents will agree with me that the main principle
+    of a constitutional government is that the legislative organ should
+    always balance the executive and that the exercising of the
+    administrative power is always limited to a certain extent. They
+    will also agree that the most important point of a so-called
+    constitutional monarchy is that the monarch should act as a
+    figurehead, and that the establishment of a responsible cabinet is
+    an indispensable accompaniment. If these simple principles are
+    recognized then we must put up the theory for discussion. Let us
+    then raise the question who shall be the monarch. In plain words, is
+    the person in our mind the President? or any other person? (In view
+    of the repeated declarations of the President that he will never
+    consent to become an Emperor, this suggestion on my part is a gross
+    insult to his character, but I crave to excuse myself as this is
+    only mere speculation and supposition.) What shall we do with the
+    President if we find another man? The President, having so long
+    borne the burdens of the State, will certainly be only too willing
+    to vacate his post to live in retirement as far as his own person is
+    concerned, but can we imagine that the country will allow the
+    President to retire? If not, then are we going to ask the President
+    to form a responsible cabinet under a figurehead monarch? Even if we
+    take it for granted that the President, out of love for the country,
+    would be willing to sacrifice his own principles and yield to the
+    wish of the country, it will be dangerous indeed if he--a person on
+    whom the whole nation depends--is placed in the path of parliament.
+    Therefore the contention that a constitutional monarchy will be
+    attained if a person other than the President be made a monarch is
+    false and baseless.
+
+    Shall we then make the present President a monarch? Of course the
+    President will not consent to this. But leaving this aside let us
+    suppose that the President, in consideration of the permanent
+    welfare of the country, is willing to sacrifice everything to
+    satisfy the wish of the people, do we expect that he will become a
+    mere figurehead? A figurehead monarch is, to adapt the saying of the
+    west, a fat porker, a guinea-pig, that is, good as an expensive
+    ornament. Will it be wise to place so valuable a personage in so
+    idle a position at a time when the situation is so extremely
+    critical?
+
+    Even if we are willing to suffer the President to become a
+    figurehead it will remain a question whether a responsible cabinet
+    can ever be formed. I do not say that the President will not allow a
+    responsible cabinet to exist under him. My contention is that there
+    is no one, within my knowledge, who commands respect enough and is
+    capable of taking over the responsibilities of President Yuan. For
+    who can replace the Great President in coping with our numerous
+    difficulties? If we select an ordinary man and make him bear the
+    great burdens, we will find that in addition to his lack of ability
+    rendering him unequal to the occasion, his lack of dominating
+    influence will disqualify him from exercising authority. It was for
+    the purpose of meeting the requirements of the existing conditions
+    that the Cabinet system was changed into a Presidential system--an
+    excellent substitution for a weakened administration. Conditions in
+    the next two or three years will not be very much different from
+    what they are now. Therefore, the contention that the administration
+    will be changed overnight for the better after a change in the form
+    of the State is, if not a wicked untruth to deceive the common
+    people, the ridiculous absurdity of a bookworm. Thus the theory that
+    a constitutional monarchy will immediately follow, if the President
+    consents to become a monarch, is also fallacious.
+
+    Can it be possible that those who are now holding up the
+    constitutional principle as a shield for their monarchical views
+    have a different definition for the term "constitution"? The Ching
+    (Manchu) Dynasty considered itself as possessing a constitution in
+    its last days. Did we recognize it as such? Let me also ask the
+    critics what guarantee they have to offer that the constitution will
+    be put into effect without hindrance as soon as the form of State is
+    changed. If they cannot give any definite guarantee, then what they
+    advocate is merely an absolute monarchy and not a constitutional
+    monarchy. As it is not likely to be a constitutional monarchy, we
+    may safely assume that it will be an imperial autocracy. I cannot
+    regard it as a wise plan if, owing to dislike of its defects, the
+    Republic should be transformed into an Imperial autocracy. Owing to
+    various unavoidable reasons, it is excusable in spite of violent
+    opposition to adopt temporarily autocratic methods in a republican
+    country. But if the plan proposed by present-day critics be put into
+    effect, that on the promise of a constitution we should agree to the
+    adoption of a monarchy, then the promise must be definitely made to
+    the country at the time of transition that a constitutional
+    government will become an actuality. But if, after the promise is
+    made, existing conditions are alleged to justify the continuance of
+    autocratic methods, I am afraid the whole country will not be so
+    tolerant towards the Chief Executive. To assume outwardly the role
+    of constitutional government, but in reality to rule in an
+    unconstitutional manner, was the cause of the downfall of the Ching
+    Dynasty. The object lesson is not obscure. Let us take warning by
+    it.
+
+
+    V. FALLACIES OF THE MONARCHISTS
+
+    If, on the other hand, the present-day critics are really in earnest
+    for a constitution, then I am unable to understand why they believe
+    that this cannot be secured under the Republic but must be obtained
+    in a roundabout way by means of a monarchy. In my view the real
+    hindrances to the adoption of a constitution at the present day in
+    China are the existing conditions, viz. the attitude of the
+    officials and the traditions and intellectual standards of the
+    people. But these hindrances have not resulted from the adoption of
+    republicanism. Therefore they cannot be expected to disappear with
+    the disappearance of the Republic. For instance, from the President
+    downward to the minor official of every official organ in the
+    capital or in the provinces, every one inclines to be independent of
+    the law, and considers it convenient to deal with affairs as he
+    pleases. This is the greatest obstacle to constitutional government.
+    Now has that anything to do with the change or not of the form of
+    State? Again, the absence, on the part of the people, of interest in
+    political affairs, of knowledge of politics, of political morality
+    and strength, and their inability to organize proper political
+    parties to make use of an inviolable parliament, are also hindrances
+    to the attainment of a constitution. Now what have these things to
+    do with a change in the form of the States? If I were to go on
+    naming such hindrances one by one, I should count my fingers many
+    times over and I should not be through. Yet it is quite plain that
+    not a single one of these hindrances can be attributed to
+    republicanism.
+
+    To say that what we cannot get under the republic can be secured
+    immediately upon accepting a monarchical regime, or to say that
+    what can be secured under a monarchical regime can never be secured
+    in a republican period is beyond the understanding of a stupid man
+    like myself, although I have searched my brain for a valid reason.
+
+    My view is that if China is really in earnest for a constitution,
+    the President should set the example himself by treating the
+    Constitutional Compact as sacredly inviolable and compel his
+    subordinates to do the same. Every letter of the compact should be
+    carried out and no attempt should be made to step beyond its limits.
+
+    Meantime give the people as many opportunities as possible to
+    acquaint themselves with political affairs, and do not stifle the
+    aspirations of the people or weaken their strength or damp their
+    interest or crush their self-respect. Then within a few years we
+    shall be rewarded with results. If, instead of doing all these
+    things, we vainly blame the form of State, we are, as Chu Tse says,
+    like a boat that blames the creek for its curves.
+
+    The most powerful argument of those who advocate a change to a
+    monarchy is that there is every possibility of disturbance at the
+    time of a Presidential election. This is a real danger. It is for
+    this reason that ten years ago I did not dare to associate myself
+    with the advocates of republicanism. If the critics want to attack
+    me on this point to support of their contentions, I advise them not
+    to write another article but to reprint my articles written some
+    time ago, which, I think, will be more effective. Fortunately,
+    however, we have discovered a comparatively effective remedy. For,
+    according to the latest President Election Law, the term of the
+    President is to all intents and purposes a term for life. It is
+    therefore impossible for such dangers to appear during the life of
+    the President. What concerns us is therefore what will happen after
+    the departure of the present President for another world. This, of
+    course, is a question that we do not wish to touch upon; but since
+    every one, even the patriarchs, must die some day, let us face the
+    matter openly. If Heaven blesses China and allows the Great
+    President to devote himself to the country for ten or more
+    years--during which he will be able to assert the authority of the
+    government, cleanse officialdom, store-up strength, consolidate the
+    country, and banish all hidden dangers--then there will be nothing
+    to choose between a republic or a monarchy. If, on the other hand,
+    Heaven should not be pleased so to favour us and takes away our
+    Great President before he is half through with his great task, then
+    the fate of China is sealed. No changes in the form of State will
+    avail under any circumstances. Therefore the question whether China
+    will be left in peace or not depends entirely on the length of years
+    the Great President will live and what he will be able to accomplish
+    in his lifetime. Whether the country is ruled as a republic or a
+    monarchy, the consequences will be the same.
+
+    Do you still doubt my words? Let me go deeper into the analysis. The
+    difference between a republic and a monarchy lies only in the
+    methods of succession of the head of the nation. It is evident that
+    although a certain law of succession may be made during the lifetime
+    of the Head, it cannot take effect until his death; and whether or
+    not the effect thus intended will come up to expectations will
+    depend on two factors: (1) whether or not the merits and personal
+    influence of the predecessor will continue effective after his
+    death, and (2) whether or not there will be unscrupulous and
+    insubordinate claimants at the death of the Head, and, if any, the
+    number of such men and whether the point of dispute they raise be
+    well-founded. If these are taken as the basis for discerning the
+    future we will arrive at the same conclusion whether the country be
+    a republic or a monarchy.
+
+
+    VI. THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION LAW
+
+    The Presidential Election Law, however, provides that the successor
+    should be nominated by his predecessor, and the name of the
+    successor so nominated is to be locked in the golden box in the
+    stone strong-room. The President may now, on the one hand, multiply
+    his merits and strengthen his personal influence so that the whole
+    country will gladly bow to his wishes to the extent that even after
+    his death they will not want to disobey his last wish, and on the
+    other hand, the President may quietly ascertain the likely causes
+    which would produce dissension, and take suitable steps to prevent
+    and be rid of them. If the seed of dissension is in the ordinances,
+    then alter the ordinances so that they may not be used as a tool by
+    possible claimants. If the seed of dissension is in a person then
+    cultivate that man, lead him to righteousness, place him in a
+    suitable position so that he may be protected from temptation.
+    Meanwhile let the President carefully select his successor on whom
+    he may eventually lay the responsibilities of State (according to
+    the Presidential Election Law the President is at liberty to suggest
+    any one he likes, his own son or some one else). Let the nominee be
+    placed in a responsible position so as to bring him to public
+    notice. Give him real authority so that he may establish his
+    influence. Place his name at the head of other men of little
+    consequence in the golden box. Then there will be absolutely no
+    ground for dispute when the time comes to open the box.
+
+    If every President will do likewise this system can be used without
+    fear of a break for hundreds of years. Otherwise we will have only
+    the Imperial system on paper to rely on for assistance, which is not
+    even to be thought of. A glance through the pages of Chinese history
+    will show the numerous cases in the reign of Emperors when princes
+    fought in the very confines of the Emperor's palace while the corpse
+    of their royal father lay unburied in the hall. Thus it is seen that
+    the hidden cause of the safety or otherwise of the country does not
+    lie with the mere formality of a constitution either in a republic
+    or a monarchy.
+
+
+    VII. THE CASE OF DIAZ, THE DICTATOR
+
+    The critics bring up the example of Mexico where live rivals have
+    been struggling with each other for the presidency, and the internal
+    confusion of the Central and South American republics as well as
+    Portugal, as an unquestionable proof of their contention that a
+    republic is not so good as a monarchy. I imagine that the idea of
+    these critics is that all these disturbances can be avoided if all
+    these republics were changed into monarchies. Let me tell them that
+    Diaz ruled over Mexico for thirty years, and only died as an exile
+    in May last (I am not quite sure of the exact month). If indeed the
+    struggle in Mexico was a fight for succession then the fight should
+    not have begun until this year. And indeed if it were necessary to
+    have a monarch to avoid the disturbance, and supposing that Diaz,
+    thirty years ago, had a man like Dr. Goodnow to make the suggestion,
+    and men like the Chou An Hui to spread it, and suppose that Diaz
+    boldly took the advice and set up an Imperial system for himself,
+    would Mexico then have a peace that would last as long as the ages?
+
+    If Diaz had assumed the throne I am positive he would long ago have
+    been an exile in a foreign country before his imperial system could
+    have come into effect or he himself become the proud founder of a
+    new dynasty. What he would have held as an imperial charter would
+    have become a mere scrap of paper. If he could not prevent rebellion
+    even during his lifetime how can we expect an empty Imperial system
+    to prevent it after his death. Even a child can see this. The
+    disturbances in Mexico were unavoidable no matter under a republic
+    or a monarchy. The reason? It is because Diaz, under the mask of a
+    republic, actually played the role of a despot. During all the
+    thirty years he held office he never devoted himself to the
+    strengthening of the fundamental things of State, but diligently
+    strengthened his own position. He massed an enormous number of
+    troops for his own protection so that he might overawe the people.
+    For fear that the troops might become arrogant and insubordinate, he
+    provoked disagreement among them in order that he might play them
+    round his fingers. He banished all those who opposed him, relying on
+    force alone. In dealing with those who were really patriotic, he
+    either corrupted their character by buying them with silver or
+    removed them by assassination. He was a vainglorious man and spent
+    money like water. From the foreign capitalists he borrowed in a most
+    indiscriminate manner, while on the Mexican people he levied all
+    sorts of cruel taxes. Thus the strength of the people was drained
+    and the resources of the country were exhausted, creating a position
+    over which he eventually had no control whatever. Ten years ago I
+    wrote an article in the _Hsin Min Tsung Pao_ remarking that Diaz was
+    a matchless fraud. I said then that a nation-wide calamity would
+    befall Mexico after his death and that the Mexican nation would be
+    reduced to a mere shadow. (My friend Mr. Tang Chio-tun also wrote an
+    article, before the internal strife in Mexico broke out, on the same
+    subject and in an even more comprehensive way.) Luckily for Diaz he
+    ruled under the mask of republicanism, for only by so doing did he
+    manage to usurp and keep the presidential chair for thirty years. He
+    would long ago have disappeared had he attempted to assume the role
+    of an emperor. This is also true of the other republics of Central
+    and South America. Their presidents almost without a single
+    exception used military force as a stepping-stone to the
+    presidential chair. We have yet to see the last military aspirant.
+    The unsuitability of the country to the republican system is of
+    course one of the reasons but I cannot agree with those who say that
+    this is the only reason.
+
+    As to Portugal it is true that the change from the monarchy to
+    republic has not stopped internal disturbance; but is it not a fact
+    that Portugal became a republic as a result of internal disturbance
+    and was it not during the existence of the monarch that the
+    disturbance started? It is ridiculous to suppose that a republic
+    will surely court disturbance while a monarchy will surely ensure
+    peace and order. Is not Persia a monarchy? Is not Turkey a monarchy?
+    Is not Russia a monarchy?
+
+    Read their history in recent decades and see how many years of peace
+    they have had. There have been no election of presidents in these
+    countries. Why then such unrest?
+
+    Again, why was the state of affairs during the Sixteen States of the
+    Five Dynasty-Period and the Ten States of the Five Successions as
+    deplorably miserable and disastrous as the state of affairs now
+    prevailing in Mexico, although there was no election of Presidents
+    then? In quoting objective facts as illustrations the critic should
+    not allow his choice to be dictated by his personal like or dislike.
+    Otherwise he will not be deceiving others than himself. Soberly
+    speaking, any form of state is capable of either ensuring a
+    successful government or causing rebellion. And nine cases out of
+    ten the cause of rebellion lies in the conditions of the
+    administration and not in the form of state. It cannot be denied,
+    however, that the chances of rebellion and dissension are more
+    frequent and easier when the form of state does not suit the
+    conditions of the people. That is why I did not advocate
+    republicanism; and even now I am not a blind believer in
+    republicanism. In this I agree with you, the Chou An Hui people.
+
+    The reason why I have not decided to advocate boldly a change in the
+    form of state is because for years my heart has been burdened with
+    an unspeakable sorrow and pain, believing that ever since the
+    mistake made in 1911 the hope for China's future has dwindled to
+    almost nothing. On one hand I have been troubled with our inability
+    to make the Republic a success, and on the other I have been
+    worrying over the fact that it would be impossible to restore the
+    monarchy. The situation has so worked on my troubled mind that at
+    times I seemed to be beside myself. But as the whole country seemed
+    to be already in a state of desperation I have come to the
+    conclusion that it would not do any good to add pain to sorrow.
+    Therefore, instead of uttering pessimistic views I have been
+    speaking words of encouragement to raise our spirits. In this,
+    however, I have exhausted my own strength. My friend, Mr. Hsu Fo-su,
+    told me some five or six years ago that it was impossible for China
+    to escape a revolution, and as a result of the revolution could not
+    escape from becoming a republic, and by becoming a republic China
+    would be bound to disappear as a nation. I have been meditating on
+    these words of ill-omen and sought to help the country to escape
+    from his prediction but I have not yet found the way.
+
+
+    VIII. "DIVINITY DOTH HEDGE A KING"
+
+    Now my friends, you have stated in a worthy manner the reasons why
+    the republican form of state cannot assist China to maintain her
+    existence; now let me state why it is impossible to restore the
+    monarchical system. The maintenance of the dignity of a monarch
+    depends on a sort of mystical, historical, traditional influence or
+    belief. Such an influence was capable of producing unconsciously and
+    spontaneously a kind of effect to assist directly or indirectly in
+    maintaining order and imparting blessing to the country. In this
+    lies the value of a monarchy. But dignity is a thing not to be
+    trifled with. Once it is trodden down it can never rise again. We
+    carve wood or mould clay into the image of a person and call it a
+    god (idol). Place it in a beautiful temple, and seat it in a
+    glorious shrine and the people will worship it and find it
+    miraculously potent. But suppose some insane person should pull it
+    down, tread it under foot and throw it into a dirty pond and suppose
+    some one should discover it and carry it back to its original sacred
+    abode, you will find the charm has gone from it. Ever since the days
+    of monarchical government the people have looked on the monarch with
+    a sort of divine reverence, and never dared to question or criticize
+    his position. After a period of republicanism, however, this
+    attitude on the part of the common people has been abruptly
+    terminated with no possibility of resurrection. A survey of all the
+    republics of the world will tell us that although a large number of
+    them suffered under republican rule, not a single one succeeded in
+    shaking itself free of the republican fetters. Among the world
+    republics only France has had her monarchical system revived twice
+    after the republic was first inaugurated. The monarchy, however,
+    disappeared almost immediately. Thus we may well understand how
+    difficult it is for a country to return to its monarchical state
+    after a republican regime. It may be said that China has had only a
+    short experience of the republican regime; but it must also be
+    remembered that the situation has been developing for more than ten
+    years and in actual existence for about four years. During the
+    period of development the revolutionists denounced the monarch in
+    most extravagant terms and compared him to the devil. Their aim was
+    to kill the mystic belief of the people in the Emperor; for only by
+    diminishing the dignity of the monarch could the revolutionary cause
+    make headway. And during and after the change all the official
+    documents, school text-books, press views and social gossip have
+    always coupled the word monarch with reprobation. Thus for a long
+    while this glorious image has been lying in the dirty pond! Leaving
+    out the question that it is difficult to restore the monarchy at the
+    present day, let us suppose that by arbitrary method we do succeed
+    in restoring it. You will then find that it will be impossible for
+    it to regain in former dignity and influence.
+
+    Turning to another aspect, the most natural course would seem to be
+    a revival of the last dynasty. It might have been possible for a
+    Charles II and Louis XVIII of China to appear again, if not for the
+    hatred of racial domination. But since the last dynasty was Manchu
+    this is out of the question. If a new dynasty were set up it would
+    require many years of hard labour and a great deal of organizing to
+    succeed. Even then only a few have succeeded in this way in
+    prolonging their dynasties by actually convincing the people of
+    their merits. Therefore for several years I have been saying to
+    myself that it would be easier to strengthen the country and place
+    it on a sounder basis if it were possible for us to return to our
+    monarchical state. And to revive the monarchical government there
+    are two ways.
+
+    One is that after thoroughly reforming the internal administration
+    under the leadership of the present Great President, that is, when
+    all the neglected affairs of the country have been well attended to,
+    every family in the land made happy and prosperous, the army
+    well-trained and all the necessary bitterness "eaten," the
+    President, when a suitable opportunity presented itself, should have
+    the rare fortune to gain a decisive victory over a foreign foe; then
+    his achievements would be such that the millions of people would
+    compel him to ascend the throne, and so he would hand his sceptre on
+    to his descendants for endless ages.
+
+    The second possibility is that after a second great internal
+    disturbance, resulting in the whole country being thrown into a
+    state of utter confusion and cut up into small independent states,
+    the President should suppress them and unite the country into one
+    empire. We will, of course, not pray for the second possibility to
+    come about as then there will be little left of the Chinese people.
+    And no one can be certain whether the person who shall succeed in
+    suppressing the internal strife will be a man of our own race or
+    not. Thus the result will not differ very much from national
+    extinction. As to the first possibility, we know that an exceedingly
+    capable man is now in a most powerful position; let him be given
+    time and he will soon show himself to be a man of success. Does not
+    the last ray of hope for China depend on this?
+
+
+    IX. THE UNRIPE PEAR
+
+    This is why I say we should not deliberately create trouble for the
+    Republic at this time to add to the worries of the Great President
+    so that he might devote his puissant thoughts and energies to the
+    institution of great reforms. Then our final hope will be satisfied
+    some day. But what a year and what a day we are now living in? The
+    great crisis (_Note: The reference is to the Japanese demands_) has
+    just passed and we have not yet had time for a respite. By the
+    pressure of a powerful neighbour we have been compelled to sign a
+    "certain" Treaty. Floods, drought, epidemics and locusts visit our
+    country and the land is full of suffering while robbers plunder the
+    people. In ancient times this would have been a day for the Imperial
+    Court to remove their ornaments and live in humiliation. What do the
+    people of our day mean by advising and urging the President to
+    ascend the throne? To pluck the fruit before it is ripe, injures the
+    roots of the tree; and to force the premature birth of a child kills
+    the mother. If the last "ray of hope" for China should be
+    extinguished by the failure of a premature attempt to force matters,
+    how could the advocates of such a premature attempt excuse
+    themselves before the whole country? Let the members of the Chou An
+    Hui meditate on this point.
+
+    The Odes say, "The people are tired. Let them have a respite." In
+    less than four years' time from the 8th moon of the year Hsin Hai we
+    have had many changes. Like a bolt from the blue we had the Manchu
+    Constitution, then "the Republic of Five Races," then the
+    Provisional President, then the formal Presidency, then the
+    Provisional Constitution was promulgated, then it was suddenly
+    amended, suddenly the National Assembly was convoked, suddenly it
+    was dissolved, suddenly we had a Cabinet System, suddenly it was
+    changed to a Presidential System, suddenly it was a short-term
+    Presidency, suddenly it was a life-term Presidency, suddenly the
+    Provisional Constitution was temporarily placed in a legal position
+    as a Permanent Constitution, suddenly the drafting of the Permanent
+    Constitution was pressed. Generally speaking the average life of
+    each new system has been less than six months, after which a new
+    system quite contrary to the last succeeded it. Thus the whole
+    country has been at a loss to know where it stood and how to act;
+    and thus the dignity and credit of the Government in the eyes of the
+    people have been lowered down to the dust. There are many subjects
+    respecting internal and diplomatic affairs which we can profitably
+    discuss. If you wish to serve the country in a patriotic way you
+    have many ways to do so. Why stir the peaceful water and create a
+    sea of troubles by your vain attempt to excite the people and sow
+    seeds of discord for the State?
+
+
+    X. THE ASSEVERATIONS OF THE PRESIDENT
+
+    One or two points more, and I am finished. These will be in the
+    nature of a straight talk to the Chou An Hui. The question I would
+    ask in plain words is, who is the person you have in your mind as
+    the future Emperor? Do you wish to select a person other than the
+    Great President? You know only too well that the moment the
+    President relieves his shoulder of the burdens of State the country
+    will be thrown into confusion. If you entertain this plot with the
+    deliberation of a person bent upon the destruction of the country,
+    then the four hundred million of people will not excuse you.
+
+    Is the man you have in mind the present President? Heaven and earth
+    as well as all living creatures in China and other lands know what
+    the President swore to when he took the oath of office as President.
+    Rumours have indeed been circulated, but whenever they reached the
+    ears of the President he has never hesitated to express his
+    righteous mind, saying that no amount of pressure could compel him
+    to change his determination. All officials who have come into close
+    contact with the President have heard such sentiments from the lips
+    of the President on not a few occasions. To me his words are still
+    ringing in my ears. General Feng Kuo-chang has conveyed to me what
+    he was told by the President. He says that the President has
+    prepared a "few rooms" in England, and that if the people would not
+    spare him he would flee to the refuge he has prepared. Thus we may
+    clearly see how determined the President is. Can it be possible that
+    you have never heard of this and thus raise this extraordinary
+    subject without any cause? If the situation should become such that
+    the President should be compelled to carry out his threat and desert
+    the Palace, what would you say and do then?
+
+    Or, perhaps, you are measuring the lordly conduct of a gentleman
+    with the heart of a mean man, saying to yourself that what the
+    President has been saying cannot be the truth, but, as Confucius has
+    said, "say you are not but make a point to do it," and that, knowing
+    that he would not condemn you, you have taken the risk. If so, then
+    what do you take the President for? To go back on one's words is an
+    act despised by a vagabond. To suggest such an act as being capable
+    of the President is an insult, the hideousness of which cannot be
+    equalled by the number of hairs on one's head. Any one guilty of
+    such an insult should not be spared by the four hundred million of
+    people.
+
+
+    XI. THE CHOU AN HUI AND THE LAW
+
+    Next let me ask if you have read the Provisional Constitution, the
+    Provisional Code, the Meeting and Association Law, the Press
+    Regulations, the various mandates bearing on the punishment of
+    persons who dare conspire against the existing form of state? Do you
+    not know that you, as citizens of the Republic, must in duty bound
+    observe the Constitution and obey the laws and mandates? Yet you
+    have dared openly to call together your partisans and incite a
+    revolution (the recognized definition in political science for
+    revolution is "to change the existing form of state"). As the
+    Judiciary have not been courageous enough to deal with you since you
+    are all so closely in touch with the President, you have become
+    bolder still and carry out your sinister scheme in broad daylight. I
+    do not wish to say what sort of peace you are planning for China;
+    but this much I know, that the law has been violated by you to the
+    last letter. I will be silent if you believe that a nation can be
+    governed without law. Otherwise tell me what you have got to say?
+
+    It is quite apparent that you will not be satisfied with mere
+    shouting and what you aim at is the actual fulfilment of your
+    expectations. That is, you wish that once the expected monarchy is
+    established it may continue for ever. Now by what principle can such
+    a monarchy continue for ever, except that the laws and orders of
+    that dynasty be obeyed, and obeyed implicitly by all, from the Court
+    down to the common people? For one to adopt methods that violate the
+    law while engaged in creating a new dynasty is like a man, who, to
+    secure a wife, induces the virtuous virgin to commit fornication
+    with him, on the plea that as a marriage will be arranged
+    preservation of her virtue need not be insisted upon. Can such a man
+    blame his wife for immorality after marriage? If, while still
+    citizens of a republican country, one may openly and boldly call
+    meetings and organize societies for the overthrow of the Republic,
+    who shall say that we may not in due time openly and boldly call
+    meetings and organize societies for the overthrow of the monarchy?
+    What shall you say if in future there should be another foreign
+    doctor to suggest another theory and another society to engage in
+    another form of activity? The Odes have it, "To prevent the monkey
+    from climbing a tree is like putting mud on a man in the mire." For
+    a person to adopt such methods while engaged in the making of a
+    dynasty is the height of folly. Mencius says, "a Chuntse when
+    creating a dynasty aims at things that can be handed down as good
+    examples." Is it not the greatest misfortune to set up an example
+    that cannot be handed down as a precedent? The present state of
+    affairs is causing me no small amount of anxiety.
+
+
+    XII. A POSTSCRIPT
+
+    A copy of Yang Tu's pamphlet, "Constitutional Monarchy or the
+    Salvation of China" reached me after I had finished writing the
+    above discussion. On a casual glance through it I alighted upon the
+    following passage: "What is known as a constitutional country is a
+    country which has definite laws and in which no one, from the ruler
+    down to the common people, can take any action that is not permitted
+    by law. Good men cannot do good outside of the bounds of law;
+    neither can bad men do evil in violation of it." This is indeed a
+    passage that breathes the very spirit of constitutionalism. Let us
+    ask Mr. Yang if the activities of the Chou An Hui, of which he is
+    the President, are acts within the bounds of law? Mr. Yang is a good
+    man. It is therefore possible for him to believe that he is not
+    doing evil in violation of the law; but has he not at least been
+    doing good outside of the bounds of law? If an advocate of
+    constitutional monarchy is capable of doing such unlawful acts, we
+    may easily imagine what sort of a constitutional monarchy he
+    advocates; and we may also easily imagine what the fate of his
+    constitutional monarchy will be.
+
+    Mencius says, "Am I argumentative? I cannot help it." Who would have
+    thought that a man, who cares not for the question of the form of
+    state like myself and who opposed you--Mr. Yang Tu--during your
+    first campaign for the change in the form of State--you were a
+    Republican then--would be opposing you again now that you are
+    engaged in advocating another change in the form of state? A change
+    in the form of government is a manifestation of progress while a
+    change in the status of the State is a sign of revolution. The path
+    of progress leads to further progress, but the path of revolution
+    leads to more revolution. This is a fact proved by theory as well as
+    actual experience. Therefore a man who has any love for his country,
+    is afraid to mention revolution; and as for myself I am always
+    opposed to revolution. I am now opposing your theory of monarchical
+    revolution, just as I once opposed your theory of republican
+    revolution, in the same spirit, and I am doing the same duty. My
+    belief is that since the country is now in a most weakened state, we
+    may yet fail even if we do all we can at all times to nurse its
+    wound and gather up its scattered strength. How can any one devote
+    his time and energy to the discussion of a question of no importance
+    such as the form of state, and so obstruct the progress of the
+    administration? But this is not all. The whole country is now
+    stirred up to an excited state and is wondering how long this
+    ever-changing situation is going to stop. The loss caused by this
+    state of affairs, though unnoticed, is incalculable. In the Odes,
+    it is written "Alas! my brethren. Befriended of the countrymen. No
+    one wants rebellion. What has no parents?" Let the critics remember
+    this--let them remember.
+
+    Some will say to me that a revolution is an unavoidable thing. Of
+    all things only the facts cannot be undone. Why then should I bother
+    myself especially as my last effort fell on deaf ears. This I
+    realize; but it is not my nature to abandon what is my conviction.
+    Therefore, although aware of the futility of my words, I cannot
+    refrain from uttering them all the same. Chu Yuan drowned himself in
+    the Pilo and Chia Sheng died from his horse. Ask them why they did
+    these things, they will say they did not know. Once I wrote a piece
+    of poetry containing the following lines:
+
+        "Ten years after you will think of me,
+        The country is excited. To whom shall I speak?"
+
+    I have spoken much in my life, and all my words have become subjects
+    for meditation ten years after they were uttered. Never, however,
+    have any of my words attracted the attention of my own countrymen
+    before a decade has spent itself. Is it a misfortune for my words or
+    a misfortune to the Country? My hope is that there will be no
+    occasion for the country to think of my present words ten years
+    hence.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE DREAM EMPIRE
+
+"THE PEOPLE'S VOICE," AND THE ACTION OF THE POWERS (FROM SEPTEMBER TO
+DECEMBER, 1915)
+
+
+The effect of Liang Ch'i-chao's appeal was noticeable at once: there
+were ominous mutterings among all the great class of "intellectuals" who
+form such a remarkable element throughout the country. Nevertheless
+there were no overt acts attempted against the authority of Peking.
+Although literary and liberal China was now thoroughly convinced that
+the usurpation which Yuan Shih-kai proposed to practise would be a
+national disgrace and lead to far-reaching complications, this force
+were too scattered and too much under the power of the military to
+tender at once any active opposition as would have been the case in
+Western countries. Yuan Shih-kai, measuring this situation very
+accurately, and aware that he could easily become an object of popular
+detestation if the people followed the lead of the scholars, decided to
+place himself outside and beyond the controversy by throwing the entire
+responsibility on the Tsan Cheng Yuan, the puppet Senate he had erected
+in place of the parliament destroyed by his _coup d'etat_ of the 4th
+November, 1913. In a message issued to that body on the 6th September,
+1915, he declared that although in his opinion the time was
+inappropriate for making any change in the form of State, the matter
+demanded the most careful and serious consideration which he had no
+doubt would be given to it. If a change of so momentous a character as
+was now being publicly advocated were decided in too great a haste it
+might create grave complications: therefore the opinion of the nation
+should be consulted by the method of the ballot. And with this _nunc
+dimittis_ he officially washed his hands of a plot in which he had been
+the prime mover.
+
+The Senate now openly delivered itself over to the accomplishment of the
+scheme which had been broached by Yang Tu, the monarchist pamphleteer.
+Although this individual still posed as the leader of the movement, in
+reality he was nothing but the tool of a remarkable man, one Liang
+Shih-yi, famous throughout the country as the most unscrupulous and
+adroit politician the Revolution had thrown up. This person, who is
+known to have been gravely implicated in many assassinations, and who
+was the instrument used in 1912 by Yuan Shih-kai to persuade the Manchu
+Imperial Family to abdicate, had in a brief four years accumulated a
+vast fortune by the manipulations he had indulged in as Director-General
+of The Bank of Communications, an institution which, because it disposed
+of all the railway receipts, was always in funds even when the Central
+Treasury itself was empty. By making himself financially indispensable
+to Yuan Shih-kai he had become recognized as the power behind the
+Throne; for although, owing to foreign clamour, he had been dismissed
+from his old office of Chief Secretary to the President (which he had
+utilized to effect the sale of offices far and wide) he was a daily
+visitor to the Presidential Palace and his creatures daily pulled all
+the numerous strings.
+
+The scheme now adopted by the Senate was to cause the provinces to flood
+Peking with petitions, sent up through the agency of "The Society for
+the Preservation of Peace," demanding that the Republic be replaced by
+that form of government which the people alone understood, the name
+Constitutional Monarchy being selected merely as a piece of political
+window-dressing to please the foreign world. A vast amount of organizing
+had to be done behind the scenes before the preliminaries were
+completed: but on the 6th October the scheme was so far advanced that in
+response to "hosts of petitions" the Senate, sitting in its capacity of
+Legislative Chamber (_Li Fa Yuan_) passed a so-called King-making bill
+in which elaborate regulations were adopted for referring the question
+under discussion to a provincial referendum. According to this naive
+document the provinces were to be organized into electoral colleges, and
+the votes of the electors, after being recorded, were to be sent up
+to Peking for scrutiny. Some attempt was made to follow Dr. Goodnow's
+advice to secure as far as possible that the various classes of the
+community should be specially represented: and provision was therefore
+made in the voting for the inclusion of "learned scholars," Chambers of
+Commerce, and "oversea merchants," whose votes were to be directly
+recorded by their special delegates. To secure uniformly satisfactory
+results, the whole election was placed absolutely and without
+restriction in the hands of the high provincial authorities, who were
+invited to bestow on the matter their most earnest attention.
+
+[Illustration: Modern Peking: The Palace Entrance lined with Troops.
+Note the New-type Chinese Policeman in foreground.]
+
+[Illustration: The Premier General Tuan Chi-jui, Head of the Cabinet
+which decided to declare war on Germany.]
+
+In a Mandate, issued in response to this Bill, Yuan Shih-kai merely
+limits himself to handing over the control of the elections and voting
+to the local authorities, safe in the knowledge that every detail of the
+plot had been carefully worked out in advance. By this time the fact
+that a serious and dangerous movement was being actively pushed had been
+well-impressed on the Peking Legations, and some anxiety was publicly
+manifested. It was known that Japan, as the active enemy of Yuan
+Shih-kai, could not remain permanently silent: and on the 28th October
+in association with Great Britain and Russia, she indeed made official
+inquiries at the Chinese Foreign Office regarding the meaning of the
+movement. She was careful, however, to declare that it was her
+solicitude for the general peace that alone dictated her action.[18]
+Nevertheless, her warning had an unmistakable note about it and
+occasioned grave anxiety, since the ultimatum of the previous May in
+connection with the Twenty-one Demands had not been forgotten. At the
+beginning of November the Chinese Minister of Foreign Affairs, replying
+verbally to these representations, alleged that the movement had gone
+too far for it to be stopped and insisted that no apprehensions need be
+felt by the Foreign Powers regarding the public safety. Dissatisfied by
+this reply all the Entente Powers, now including France and Italy,
+renewed their representations, receiving a few days later a formal Note
+in which absolute guarantees were given that law and order would be
+sedulously preserved. Baffled by this firmness, and conscious that
+further intervention in such matter would be fraught with grave
+difficulties, the Entente Powers decided to maintain a watchful attitude
+but to do no more publicly. Consequently events marched forward so
+rapidly that by December the deed was done, and Yuan Shih-kai had
+apparently been elected unanimously Emperor of China by the provincial
+ballot.
+
+The explanation of this extraordinary business was only made public
+months later with the outbreak of the Yunnan rebellion and the secession
+of the Southern provinces. In a remarkable publication, entitled
+satirically "The People's Will," the Southern Republican Party, which
+now possessed access to all the confidential archives of the provinces,
+published in full the secret instructions from Peking which had brought
+about this elaborate comedy. Though considerations of space prevent all
+documents being included in our analysis, the salient ones are here
+textually quoted so as to exhibit in its proper historical light the
+character of the chief actor, and the _regime_ the Powers had
+supported--until they were forced by Japan to be more honest. These
+documents, consisting mainly of telegraphic dispatches sent from Peking
+to the provinces, do more to explain the working of the Government of
+China than a dozen treatises; for they drag into the garish light of day
+the most secret Yamen machinery and show precisely how it is worked.
+
+The play was set in motion by a circular code telegram sent out on the
+30th August by Tuan Chih-kuei, Governor of Moukden and one of Yuan
+Shih-kai's most trusted lieutenants, the device of utilizing a centre
+other than the capital to propagate revolutionary ideas being a
+familiar one and looked upon as a very discreet procedure. This initial
+telegram is a document that speaks for itself:
+
+    CODE TELEGRAM DATED AUGUST 30, 1915, FROM TUAN CHI-KUEI, MILITARY
+    GOVERNOR OF MOUKDEN, ET ALIA, CONTAINING INSTRUCTIONS FOR PRESENTING
+    PETITIONS TO PEKING IN THE NAME OF THE CITIZENS OF THE PROVINCES
+
+    To the Military and Civil Governors of the Provinces:--
+
+    (To be deciphered personally with the Council of State Code)
+
+    The proposal of changing the form of the State into a monarchy
+    having been unanimously agreed to by the provinces, the first step
+    to be taken has now to be decided. We propose that petitions be sent
+    in the name of the citizens of the respective provinces to the
+    Senate acting in the capacity of Legislative Chamber, so as to
+    demonstrate the wish of the people to have a monarchy. The acting
+    Legislative Chamber will then decide upon the course to be adopted.
+
+    The plan suggested is for each province to send in a separate
+    petition, the draft of which will be made in Peking and wired to the
+    respective provinces in due course. If you approve, you will insert
+    your name as well as those of the gentry and merchants of the
+    province who agree to the draft. These petitions are to be presented
+    one by one to the Legislative Chamber, as soon as it is convoked. At
+    all events, the change in the form of the State will have to be
+    effected under the colour of carrying out the people's will.
+
+    As leading members of political and military bodies, we should wait
+    till the opportune moment arrives when we will give collateral
+    support to the movement. Details of the plan will be made known to
+    you from time to time.
+
+This method of circular telegrams, which had been inherited from the
+last days of the Manchus, and vastly extended during the
+_post_-revolutionary period, was now to be used to the very utmost in
+indoctrinating the provinces with the idea that not only was the
+Republic doomed but that prompt steps must be taken to erect the
+Constitutional Monarchy by use of fictitious legal machinery so that it
+should not be said that the whole enterprise was a mere plot.
+Accordingly, on the 10th September, as a sequel to the telegram we have
+just quoted, an enormous circular message of several thousand words was
+sent in code from Peking to all the Military and Civil Governors in the
+provinces instructing them precisely how to act in order to throw a
+cloak over the nefarious deed. After explaining the so-called "Law on
+the General Convention of the Citizens' Representatives" (_i.e._
+national referendum) the following illuminating sentences occur which
+require no comment showing as they do what apt pupils reactionary
+Chinese are in the matter of ballot-fraud.
+
+    ... (1) The fact that no fewer than one hundred petitions for a
+    change in the form of State have been received from people residing
+    in all parts of the country shows that the people are of one mind
+    concerning this matter. Hence the words in the "General Convention
+    Law": "to be decided by the General Convention of the Citizens'
+    Representatives," refer to nothing more than the formal approval of
+    the Convention and are by no means intended to give room for
+    discussion of any kind. Indeed, it was never intended that the
+    citizens should have any choice between a republic and a monarchy.
+    For this reason at the time of voting all the representatives must
+    be made unanimously to advocate a change of the Republic into a
+    Monarchy.
+
+    It behooves you, therefore, prior to the election and voting,
+    privately to search for such persons as are willing to express the
+    people's will in the sense above indicated. You will also make the
+    necessary arrangements beforehand, and devise every means to have
+    such persons elected, so that there may be no divergence of opinion
+    when the time arrives for putting the form of the State to the vote.
+
+    (2) Article 2 provides: "The citizens' representatives shall be
+    elected by separate ballot signed by the person voting. The person
+    who obtains the greatest number of votes cast shall be declared
+    elected."
+
+    The citizens' representatives, though nominally elected by the
+    electors, are really appointed beforehand by you acting in the
+    capacity of Superintendent of Election. The principle of separate
+    signed ballot is adopted in this article with the object of
+    preventing the voters from casting their votes otherwise than as
+    directed, and of awakening in them a sense of responsibility for
+    their votes....
+
+These admirable principles having been officially laid down by Peking,
+it is not hard to understand that the Military and Civil Governors in
+the provinces, being anxious to retain their posts and conciliate the
+great personage who would be king, gave the problem their most earnest
+attention, and left no stone unturned to secure that there should be no
+awkward contretemps. On the 28th September, the Peking Government, being
+now entirely surrendered into the hands of the plotters, thought it
+advisable to give the common people a direct hint of what was coming, by
+sending circular instructions regarding the non-observance of the
+Republican anniversary (10th October). The message in question is so
+frankly ingenuous that it merits inclusion in this singular _dossier_:
+
+    CODE TELEGRAM DATED SEPTEMBER 26, 1915, FROM THE COUNCIL OF STATE TO
+    THE MILITARY AND CIVIL GOVERNORS OF THE PROVINCES RESPECTING THE
+    NON-OBSERVANCE OF THE ANNIVERSARY OF THE REPUBLIC
+
+    To the Military and Civil Governors and the Military Commissioners
+    of the Provinces and the Intendant of Shanghai:--
+
+    (Code Telegram)
+
+    Now that a monarchical form of government has been advocated, the
+    National Anniversary in commemoration of the Republic should, of
+    course, be observed with least possible display, under the pretext
+    either of the necessity for economy owing to the impoverished
+    condition of the people, or of the advisability of celebrating the
+    occasion quietly so as to prevent disturbances arising in
+    consequence of the many rumours now afloat. In this way public peace
+    and order may be maintained on the one hand, money and trouble saved
+    on the other. How to put this suggestion into practice will be left
+    to your discretion.
+
+    (Signed) COUNCIL OF STATE.
+
+By October such progress had been made in Peking in the general work of
+organizing this _coup d'etat_ that, as we have seen, the Senate had
+passed on the 6th of that month the so-called "King-making Bill." The
+very next day, so that nothing should be left in doubt, the following
+circular telegram was dispatched to all the provinces:
+
+    CODE TELEGRAM DATED OCTOBER 7, 1915, FROM CHU CHI-CHUN, MINISTER OF
+    THE INTERIOR, ET ALIA, DEVISING PLANS FOR NOMINATING YUAN SHIH-KAI
+    AS EMPEROR
+
+    To the Military and Civil Governors of the Provinces:--
+
+    (To be deciphered with the Hua Code)
+
+    Our telegram of the 12th ult. must have reached you by this time.
+
+    The Administrative Council, at a meeting held on the 4th inst.,
+    passed the Bill for a General Convention of the Citizens'
+    Representatives. Article 12 of the Bill was amended so as to contain
+    the following clause:--"The Superintendent of Election may, in case
+    of necessity, delegate his functions to the several district
+    magistrates." This will soon be communicated officially to the
+    provinces. You are therefore requested to make the necessary
+    preparations beforehand in accordance with the instructions
+    contained in our telegram of the 29th September.
+
+    We propose that the following steps be taken after the votes have
+    been duly polled:--
+
+    (1) After the form of the state has been put to the vote, the
+    result should be reported to the sovereign (meaning Yuan Shih-kai)
+    and to the Administrative Council in the name of the General
+    Convention of the Citizens' Representatives.
+
+    (2) In the telegrams to be sent by the General Convention of the
+    Citizens' Representatives for nominating the emperor, the following
+    words should be specifically used: "We respectfully nominate the
+    present President Yuan Shih-kai as Emperor of the Chinese Empire."
+
+    (3) The telegrams investing the Administrative Council with general
+    powers to act on behalf of the General Convention of the Citizens'
+    Representatives should be dispatched in the name of the General
+    Convention of the Citizens of the Provinces.
+
+    The drafts of the dispatches under the above-mentioned three heads
+    will be wired to you beforehand. As soon as the votes are cast,
+    these are to be shown to the representatives, who will sign them
+    after perusal. Peking should be immediately informed by telegram.
+
+    As for the telegrams to be sent by the commercial, military, and
+    political bodies, they should bear as many signatures as possible,
+    and be wired to the Central Government within three days after the
+    voting.
+
+    When the enthronement is promulgated by edict, letters of
+    congratulation from the General Convention of the Citizens'
+    Representatives, as well as from the commercial, military, and
+    political bodies, will also have to be sent in. You are therefore
+    requested to draw up these letters in advance.
+
+    This is specially wired for your information beforehand. The details
+    will be communicated by letter.
+
+In ordinary circumstances it would have been thought that sufficiently
+implicit instructions had already been given to permit leaving the
+matter in the hands of the provincial authorities. Great anxiety,
+however, was beginning to reign in Peking owing to continual rumours
+that dangerous opposition, both internal and external, was developing.
+It was therefore held necessary to clinch the matter in such a way that
+no possible questions should be raised later. Accordingly, before the
+end of October--and only two days before the "advice" was tendered by
+Japan and her Allies,--the following additional instructions were
+telegraphed wholesale to the provinces, being purposely designed to make
+it absolutely impossible for any slip to occur between cup and lip. The
+careful student will not fail to notice in these remarkable messages
+that as the game develops, all disguise is thrown to the four winds, and
+the central and only important point, namely the prompt election and
+enthronement of Yuan Shih-kai as Emperor, insisted on with almost
+indecent directness, every possible precaution being taken to secure
+that end:
+
+    CODE TELEGRAM DATED OCTOBER 26, 1915, FROM CHU CHI-CHUN, MINISTER OF
+    THE INTERIOR, ET ALIA, RESPECTING THE NOMINATION OF YUAN SHIH-KAI AS
+    EMPEROR
+
+    To the Military and Civil Governors of the Provinces:--
+
+    (To be deciphered with the Hua Code)
+
+    Your telegram of the 24th inst. came duly to hand.
+
+    After the form of the state has been put to the vote, the nomination
+    of Yuan Shih-kai as emperor should be made forthwith without further
+    voting. You should address the representatives and tell them that a
+    monarchy having been decided on, not even a single day should pass
+    without an emperor; that the citizens' representatives present
+    should nominate Yuan Shih-kai as the Great Emperor of the Chinese
+    Empire; and that if they are in favour of the proposal, they should
+    signify their assent by standing up. This done, the text of the
+    proposed letter of nomination from the citizens should be handed to
+    the representatives for their signatures; after which you should
+    again address them to the effect that in all matters concerning the
+    nomination and the petition for immediate enthronement, they may, in
+    the name of the citizens' representatives, invest the acting
+    Legislative Council with general powers to act on their behalf and
+    to do the necessary things until their petition is granted. The text
+    (already prepared) of the proposed telegram from the citizens'
+    representatives to the acting Legislative Council should then be
+    shown to the representatives for approval. Whereupon three separate
+    telegrams are to be drawn up: one giving the number of votes in
+    favour of a change in the form of the state, one containing the
+    original text of the letter of nomination, and the third concerning
+    the vesting of the acting Legislative Council with general powers to
+    act on behalf of the citizens' representatives. These should be sent
+    officially to the acting Legislative Council in the name of the
+    citizens' representatives. You should at the same time wire to the
+    President all that has taken place. The votes and the letter of
+    nomination are to be forwarded to Peking in due course.
+
+    As for the exact words to be inserted in the letter of nomination,
+    they have been communicated to you in our telegram of the 23rd inst.
+    These characters, forty-five in all, must on no account be altered.
+    The rest of the text is left to your discretion.
+
+    We may add that since the letter of nomination and the vesting of
+    the acting Legislative Council with general powers to act on behalf
+    of the citizens' representatives are matters which transgress the
+    bounds of the law, you are earnestly requested not to send to the
+    National Convention Bureau any telegraphic enquiry concerning them,
+    so that the latter may not find itself in the awkward position of
+    having to reply.
+
+Two days after this telegram had been dispatched the longfeared action
+on the part of Japan had been taken and a new situation had been
+created. The Japanese "advice" of the 28th October was in fact a
+veritable bombshell playing havoc with the house of cards which had been
+so carefully erected. But the intrigue had gone so far, and the prizes
+to be won by the monarchical supporters were so great that nothing could
+induce them to retrace their footsteps. For a week and more a desperate
+struggle went on behind the scenes in the Presidential Palace, since
+Yuan Shih-kai was too astute a man not to understand that a most
+perilous situation was being rapidly created and that if things went
+wrong he would be the chief victim. But family influences and the voice
+of the intriguers proved too strong for him, and in the end he gave his
+reluctant consent to a further step. The monarchists, boldly acting on
+the principle that possession is nine points of the law, called upon the
+provinces to anticipate the vote and to substitute the title of Emperor
+for that of President in all government documents and petitions so that
+morally the question would be _chose jugee_.
+
+    CODE TELEGRAM DATED NOVEMBER 7, 1915, FROM CHU CHI-CHUN, MINISTER OF
+    THE INTERIOR, ET ALIA, ENJOINING A STRONG ATTITUDE TOWARDS
+    INTERFERENCE ON THE PART OF A CERTAIN FOREIGN POWER
+
+    To the Military and Civil Governors of the Provinces:--
+
+    (To be deciphered personally with the Council of State Code)
+
+    A certain foreign power, under the pretext that the Chinese people
+    are not of one mind and that troubles are to be apprehended, has
+    lately forced England and Russia to take part in tendering advice to
+    China. In truth, all foreign nations know perfectly well that there
+    will be no trouble, and they are obliged to follow the example of
+    that power. If we accept the advice of other Powers concerning our
+    domestic affairs and postpone the enthronement, we should be
+    recognizing their right to interfere. Hence action should under no
+    circumstance be deferred. When all the votes of the provinces
+    unanimously recommending the enthronement shall have reached Peking,
+    the Government will, of course, ostensibly assume a wavering and
+    compromising attitude, so as to give due regard to international
+    relations. The people, on the other hand, should show their firm
+    determination to proceed with the matter at all costs, so as to let
+    the foreign powers know that our people are of one mind. If we can
+    only make them believe that the change of the republic into a
+    monarchy will not in the least give rise to trouble of any kind, the
+    effects of the advice tendered by Japan will _ipso facto_ come to
+    nought.
+
+    At present the whole nation is determined to nominate Yuan Shih-kai
+    Emperor. All civil and military officers, being the natural leaders
+    of the people, should accordingly give effect to the nomination. If
+    this can be done without friction, the confidence of both Chinese
+    and foreigners in the Government will be greatly strengthened. This
+    is why we suggested to you in a previous telegram the necessity of
+    immediately substituting the title of "Emperor" for "President." We
+    trust you will concur in our suggestion and carry it out without
+    delay.
+
+    We may add that this matter should be treated as strictly
+    confidential.
+
+    A reply is requested.
+
+    (Signed)
+
+The die now being cast all that was left to be done was to rush through
+the voting in the Provinces. Obsequious officials returned to the use of
+the old Imperial phraseology and Yuan Shih-kai, even before his
+"election," was memorialized as though he were the legitimate successor
+of the immense line of Chinese sovereigns who stretch back to the
+mythical days of Yao and Shun (2800 B.C.). The beginning of December saw
+the voting completed and the results telegraphed to Peking; and on the
+11th December, the Senate hastily meeting, and finding that "the
+National Convention of Citizens" had unanimously elected Yuan Shih-kai
+Emperor, formally offered him the Throne in a humble petition. Yuan
+Shih-kai modestly refused: a second petition was promptly handed to him,
+which he was pleased to accept in the following historic document:
+
+    YUAN SHIH-KAI'S ACCEPTANCE OF THE IMPERIAL THRONE
+
+    The prosperity and decline of the country is a part of the
+    responsibility of every individual, and my love for the country is
+    certainly not less than that of others. But the task imposed on me
+    by the designation of the millions of people is of extraordinary
+    magnitude. It is therefore impossible for one without merit and
+    without virtue like myself to shoulder the burdens of State involved
+    in the enhancing of the welfare of the people, the strengthening of
+    the standing of the country, the reformation of the administration
+    and the advancement of civilization. My former declaration was,
+    therefore, the expression of a sincere heart and not a mere
+    expression of modesty. My fear was such that I could not but utter
+    the words which I have expressed. The people, however, have viewed
+    with increasing impatience that declaration and their expectation of
+    me is now more pressing than ever. Thus I find myself unable to
+    offer further argument just as I am unable to escape the position.
+    The laying of a great foundation is, however, a thing of paramount
+    importance and it must not be done in a hurry. I, therefore, order
+    that the different Ministries and Bureaux take concerted action in
+    making the necessary preparations in the affairs in which they are
+    concerned; and when that is done, let the same be reported to me
+    for promulgation. Meanwhile all our citizens should go on peacefully
+    in their daily vocations with the view to obtain mutual benefit. Let
+    not your doubts and suspicions hinder you in your work. All the
+    officials should on their part be faithful at their posts and
+    maintain to the best of their ability peace and order in their
+    localities, so that the ambition of the Great President to work for
+    the welfare of the people may thus be realized. Besides forwarding
+    the memorial of the principal representatives of the Convention of
+    the Representatives of Citizens and that of the provinces and
+    special administrative area to the Cheng Shih Tang and publishing
+    the same by a mandate, I have the honour to notify the acting Li Fan
+    Yuan as the principal representatives of the Convention of the
+    Representatives of Citizens, to this effect.
+
+Cautious to the end, it will be seen that Yuan Shih-kai's very
+acceptance is so worded as to convey the idea that he is being forced to
+a course of action which is against his better instincts. There is no
+word of what came to be called the Grand Ceremony, _i.e._ the
+enthronement. That matter is carefully left in abeyance and the
+government departments simply told to make the necessary preparations.
+The attitude of Peking officialdom is well-illustrated in a circular
+telegram dispatched to the provinces three days later, the analysis of
+Japan's relationship to the Entente Powers being particularly revealing.
+The obsequious note which pervades this document is also particularly
+noticeable and shows how deeply the canker of sycophancy had now eaten
+in.
+
+    CODE TELEGRAM DATED DECEMBER 14, 1915, FROM THE OFFICE OF
+    COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF OF THE LAND AND NAVAL FORCES, RESPECTING CHINA'S
+    ATTITUDE TOWARDS FOREIGN NATIONS
+
+    To the Military and Civil Governors of the Provinces:--
+
+    (To be deciphered with the Hua Code)
+
+    On the 11th inst. the acting Legislature Council submitted a
+    memorial to the Emperor, reporting on the number of votes cast by
+    the people in favour of a monarchy and the letters of nomination of
+    Yuan Shih-kai as Emperor received from all parts of the country, and
+    begged that he would ascend the Throne at an early date. His Majesty
+    was, however, so modest as to decline. The Council presented a
+    second memorial couched in the most entreating terms, and received
+    an order to the effect that all the ministries and departments were
+    to make the necessary preparations for the enthronement. The details
+    of this decision appeared in the Presidential Orders of the past few
+    days, so need not be repeated now.
+
+    The people are unanimously of the opinion that in a republic the
+    foundation of the state is very apt to be shaken and the policy of
+    the government to be changed; and that consequently there is no
+    possibility of enjoying everlasting peace and prosperity, nor any
+    hope for the nation to become powerful. Now that the form of the
+    state has been decided in favour of a monarchy and the person who is
+    to sit on the Throne agreed upon, the country is placed on a secure
+    basis, and the way to national prosperity and strength is thus
+    paved.
+
+    Being the trustworthy ministers and, as it were, the hands and feet
+    of His Majesty, we are united to him by more ties than one. On this
+    account we should with one mind exert our utmost efforts in
+    discharging our duty of loyalty to the country. This should be the
+    spirit which guides us in our action at the beginning of the new
+    dynasty. As for the enthronement, it is purely a matter of ceremony.
+    Whether it takes place earlier or later is of no moment. Moreover
+    His Majesty has always been modest, and does everything with
+    circumspection. We should all appreciate his attitude.
+
+    So far as our external relations are concerned, a thorough
+    understanding must be come to with the foreign nations, so that
+    recognition of the new regime may not be delayed and diplomatic
+    intercourse interrupted. Japan, has, in conjunction with the Entente
+    Powers, tendered advice to postpone the change of the Republic into
+    an empire. As a divergence of opinion exists between Japan and the
+    Entente Powers, the advice is of no great effect. Besides, the
+    Elders and the Military Party in Japan are all opposed to the action
+    taken by their Government. Only the press in Tokio has spread all
+    sorts of threatening rumours. This is obviously the upshot of
+    ingenious plots on the part of irresponsible persons. If we postpone
+    the change we shall be subject to foreign interference, and the
+    country will consequently cease to exist as an independent state. On
+    the other hand, if we proclaim the enthronement forthwith, we shall
+    then be flatly rejecting the advice,--an act which, we apprehend,
+    will not be tolerated by Japan. As a result, she will place
+    obstacles in the way of recognition of the new order of things.
+
+    Since a monarchy has been decided to be the future form of the
+    state, and His Majesty has consented to accept the Throne, the
+    change may be said to be an accomplished fact. There is no question
+    about it. All persons of whatever walk of life can henceforth
+    continue their pursuits without anxiety. In the meantime we will
+    proceed slowly and surely with the enthronement, as it involves many
+    ceremonies and diplomatic etiquette. In this way both our domestic
+    and our foreign policies will remain unchanged.
+
+    We hope you will comprehend our ideas and treat them as strictly
+    confidential.
+
+    (Signed) Office of the Commander-in-Chief of the Land and Naval
+    Force.
+
+After this one last step remained to be taken--it was necessary to burn
+all the incriminating evidence. On the 21st December, the last circular
+telegram in connection with this extraordinary business was dispatched
+from Peking, a delightful naivete being displayed regarding the
+possibility of certain letters and telegrams having transgressed the
+bounds of the law. All such delinquencies are to be mercifully wiped out
+by the simple and admirable method of invoking the help of the
+kitchen-fires. And in this appropriate way does the monster-play end.
+
+    CODE TELEGRAM DATED DECEMBER 21, 1915, FROM THE NATIONAL CONVENTION
+    BUREAU, ORDERING THE DESTRUCTION OF DOCUMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE
+    ELECTIONS
+
+    To the Military and Civil Governors of the Provinces, the Military
+    Commissioners at Foochow and Kweiyang; the Military Commandants at
+    Changteh, Kweihuating, and Kalgan; and the Commissioner of Defence
+    at Tachienlu:--(To be deciphered with the Hua Code)
+
+    The change in the form of the state is now happily accomplished.
+    This is due not only to the unity of the people's minds, but more
+    especially to the skill with which, in realizing the object of
+    saving the country, you have carried out the propaganda from the
+    beginning, managed affairs according to the exigencies of the
+    occasions, and adapted the law to suit the circumstances. The people
+    have, to be sure, become tired of the Republic; yet unless you had
+    taken the lead, they would not have dared to voice their sentiments.
+    We all appreciate your noble efforts.
+
+    Ever since the monarchical movement was started, the people as well
+    as the high officials in the different localities have repeatedly
+    petitioned for the change, a fact which proves that the people's
+    will is in favour of it. In order to enable the people to express
+    their will through a properly constituted organ, the General
+    Convention of the Citizens' Representatives has been created.
+
+    Since the promulgation of the Law on the Organization of the
+    Citizens' Representatives, we, who are devoted to the welfare of the
+    state, desire to see that the decisions of that Convention do not
+    run counter to the wishes of the people. We are so anxious about the
+    matter that we have striven so to apply the law to meet the
+    circumstances as to carry out our designs. It is out of patriotic
+    motives that we have adopted the policy of adhering to the law,
+    whenever possible, and, at the same time, of yielding to expediency,
+    whenever necessary. During the progress of this scheme there may
+    have been certain letters and telegrams, both official and private,
+    which have transgressed the bounds of the law. They will become
+    absolutely useless after the affair is finished.' Moreover, no
+    matter how carefully their secrets may have been guarded, still they
+    remain as permanent records which might compromise us; and in the
+    event of their becoming known to foreigners, we shall not escape
+    severe criticism and bitter attacks, and, what is worse, should they
+    be handed down as part of the national records, they will stain the
+    opening pages of the history of the new dynasty. The Central
+    Government, after carefully considering the matter, has concluded
+    that it would be better to sort out and burn the documents so as to
+    remove all unnecessary records and prevent regrettable consequences.
+    For these reasons you are hereby requested to sift out all
+    telegrams, letters, and dispatches concerning the change in the form
+    of the state, whether official or private, whether received from
+    Peking or the provinces (excepting those required by law to be filed
+    on record), and cause the same to be burnt in your presence. As for
+    those which have already been communicated to the local officials,
+    you are likewise requested to order them to be returned immediately;
+    to commit them to the flames; and to report to this Bureau for
+    future reference the total number of documents so destroyed.
+
+    The present change in the form of the state constitutes the most
+    glorious episode of our national history. Not only is this far
+    superior to the succession of dynasties by right of conquest or in
+    virtue of voluntary transfer (as in the days of Yao and Shun), but
+    it compares favourably with all the peaceful changes that have taken
+    place in western politics. Everything will be perfect if whatever
+    mars it (meaning the documents) is done away with.
+
+    All of you have acquired greatness in founding the dynasty. You will
+    doubtless concur with us, and will, we earnestly hope, lose no time
+    in cautiously and secretly carrying out our request.
+
+    We respectfully submit this to your consideration and wait for a
+    reply.
+
+    (Signed) NATIONAL CONVENTION BUREAU.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[18] A very remarkable illustration of the manner in which Yuan Shih-kai
+was trapped by official Japan during the monarchist movement has
+recently been extensively quoted in the Far Eastern press. Here is the
+substance of a Japanese (vernacular) newspaper account showing the uses
+to which Japanese politicians put the Press:
+
+"... When that question was being hotly discussed in China Marquis
+Okuma, interviewed by the Press, stated that monarchy was the right form
+of government for China and that in case a monarchical regime was
+revived Yuan Shih-kai was the only suitable person to sit on the Throne.
+When this statement by Marquis Okuma was published in the Japanese
+papers, Yuan Shih-kai naturally concluded that the Japanese Government,
+at the head of which Marquis Okuma was, was favourably disposed towards
+him and the monarchical movement. It can well be imagined, therefore,
+how intense was his surprise when he later received a warning from the
+Japanese Government against the resuscitation of the monarchy in China.
+When this inconsistency in the Marquis's actions was called in question
+in the Japanese House of Representatives, the ex-Premier absolutely
+denied the truth of the statement attributed to him by the Japanese
+papers, without any show of hesitancy, and thus boldly shirked the
+responsibility which, in reality, lay on him...."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+"THE THIRD REVOLUTION"
+
+THE REVOLT OF YUNNAN
+
+
+In all the circumstances it was only natural that the extraordinary
+chapter of history we have just narrated should have marched to its
+appointed end in just as extraordinary a manner as it had commenced.
+Yuan Shih-kai, the uncrowned king, actually enjoyed in peace his empty
+title only for a bare fortnight, the curious air of unreality becoming
+more and more noticeable after the first burst of excitement occasioned
+by his acceptance of the Throne had subsided. Though the year 1915 ended
+with Peking brightly illuminated in honour of the new regime, which had
+adopted in conformity with Eastern precedents a new calendar under the
+style of Hung Hsien or "glorious Constitutionalism," that official joy
+was just as false as the rest had been and awakened the incredulity of
+the crowd.
+
+On Christmas Day ominous rumours had spread in the diplomatic circle
+that dramatic developments in South China had come which not only
+directly challenged the patient plotting of months but made a debacle
+appear inevitable. Very few days afterwards it was generally known that
+the southernmost province of China, Yunnan--on the borders of
+French-Indo-China--had telegraphed the Central Government a thinly
+veiled ultimatum, that either the monarchy must be cancelled and the
+chief monarchists executed at once or the province would take such steps
+as were deemed advisable. The text of these telegrams which follows was
+published by the courageous editor of the Peking Gazette on the 31st
+December and electrified the capital. The reader will not fail to note
+how richly allegorical they are in spite of their dramatic nature:
+
+    FIRST TELEGRAM
+
+    To the Great President:
+
+    Since the question of _Kuo-ti_ (form of State) was raised
+    consternation has seized the public mind; and on account of the
+    interference of various Powers the spirit of the people has been
+    more and more aroused. They have asked the question:--"Who has
+    invited the disaster, and brought upon us such great disgrace?" Some
+    one must be responsible for the alien insults heaped on us.
+
+    We have learned that each day is given to rapid preparations for the
+    Grand Ceremony; and it is now true that, internally, public opinion
+    has been slighted, and, externally, occasions have been offered to
+    foreigners to encroach on our rights. Our blood runs cold when we
+    face the dangers at the door. Not once but twice hath the President
+    taken the oath to observe and obey the Constitution and protect and
+    maintain the Republic. The oath was sworn before Heaven and Earth;
+    and it is on record in the hearts of millions of people and the
+    words thereof still echo in the ears of the people of all nations.
+    In the Classics it is said that "in dealing with the people of the
+    country, faith is of the essence of great rule." Again it is written
+    that "without faith a people cannot endure as a nation." How then
+    can one rule the people when he "eats" his own words and tears his
+    own oath? Principle has now been cast to the winds and the _Kuo-ti_
+    has been changed. We know not how the country can be administered.
+
+    Since the suspension of the National Assembly and the revision of
+    the Constitution, the powers of Government have been centred in one
+    person, with the implied freedom to do whatever seems meet without
+    let or hindrance. If the Government were to use this power in order
+    to reform the administration and consolidate the foundations of the
+    nation, there would be no fear of failure. For the whole country
+    would submit to the measures of the Central Government. Thus there
+    is not the least necessity to commit treason by changing the
+    _Kuo-ti_.
+
+    But although the recent decision of the Citizens' Representatives in
+    favour of a monarchy and the request of the high local officials for
+    the President's accession to the Throne have been represented as
+    inspired by the unanimous will of the people, it is well known that
+    the same has been the work of ignoble men whose bribery and
+    intimidation have been sanctioned by the authorities. Although inept
+    efforts have been made to disguise the deceit, the same is unhidden
+    to the eyes of the world.
+
+    Fortunately it is said that the President has from the very
+    beginning maintained a calm attitude, speaking not his mind on the
+    subject. It is now as easy to turn the tide as the reversing of the
+    palm. It may be objected that if the "face" of the nation is not
+    preserved in view of the interference of Foreign Powers, there will
+    be great danger in future. But it must be observed that official
+    declaration can only be made in accordance with the will of the
+    people, the tendency of which can easily be ascertained by searching
+    for the facts. If the will of the people that the country should be
+    the common property of the Nation be obeyed and the idea of the
+    President that a Dynasty is as cheap as a worn-out shoe is heeded,
+    the latter has it in his power to loosen the string that suspends
+    the bell just as much as the person who has hung it. If the wrong
+    path is not forsaken, it is feared that as soon as the heart of the
+    people is gone, the country will be broken to pieces and the
+    dismemberment of the Nation will take place when alien pressure is
+    applied to us. We who have hitherto received favours from the
+    President and have received high appointments from him hereby offer
+    our faithful advice in the spirit of men who are sailing in common
+    in a boat that is in danger; we speak as do those who love sincerity
+    and cherish the unbroken word. We hope that the President will, with
+    courage, refuse to listen to the speech of evil counsellors and heed
+    the voice of conscience and of honour. We further hope that he will
+    renew his promise to protect the Republic; and will publicly swear
+    that a monarchical system will never again appear.
+
+    Thus the heart of the people will be settled and the foundations of
+    the Nation will be consolidated. Then by enlisting the services of
+    sagacious colleagues in order to surmount the difficulties of the
+    time and sweeping away all corruption and beginning anew with the
+    people, it may be that the welfare and interest of the Nation will
+    be furthered. In sending this telegram our eyes are wet with tears,
+    knowing not what more to say. We respectfully await the order of the
+    President with our troops under arms.
+
+    (Signed) THE GOVERNORS OF YUNNAN.
+
+
+    SECOND TELEGRAM
+
+    For the Perusal of the Great President:--
+
+    In our humble opinion the reason why the people--Chinese and
+    foreign--cannot excuse the President is because the movement for the
+    change of Kuo-ti has been inspired, and indeed actually originated
+    in Peking, and that the ringleaders of the plot against the _Min
+    Kuo_ are all "bosom-men" of the President. The Chou An Hui,
+    organized by Yang Tu and five other men, set the fire ablaze and the
+    circular telegram sent by Chu Chi-chien and six other persons
+    precipitated the destruction of the Republican structure. The
+    President knew that the bad deed was being done and yet he did
+    nothing to arrest the same or punish the evil-doers. The people
+    therefore, are suspicious. A mandate was issued on the 24th of the
+    11th month of the 3rd year in which it is affirmed: "Democracy and
+    republicanism are laid down in the Constitutional Compact; and there
+    is also a law relating to the punishment of those who spread
+    sedition in order to disturb the minds of the people. If any one
+    Shall hereafter dare to advance strange doctrines and misconstrue
+    the meaning of the Constitution, he will be punished severely in
+    accordance with the law of sedition."
+
+    Yang Tu for having publicly organized the said Society and Chu
+    Chi-chien for having directly plotted by telegram are the principal
+    offenders in the present flagrant case of sedition. As their crimes
+    are obvious and the subject of abundant proof, we hereby ask the
+    President to carry out at once the terms of the said mandate and
+    publicly execute Yang Tu, Sun Yu-yun, Yen Fu, Liu Shih-pei, Li
+    Hsieh-ho, Hu Ying, Chu Chi-chien, Tuan Chih-kuei, Chow Tzu-chi,
+    Liang Shih-yi, Chang Cheng-fang and Yuan Nai-kuan to the end that
+    the whole nation may be pacified. Then, and not till then, will the
+    world believe in the sincerity of the President, in his love for the
+    country and his intention to abide by the law. All the troops and
+    people here are in anger; and unless a substantial proof from the
+    Central Authorities is forthcoming, guaranteeing the maintenance of
+    the Republic, it will be impossible to suppress or pacify them. We
+    await a reply within twenty-four hours.
+
+    (Signed) THE GOVERNORS OF YUNNAN PROVINCE.
+
+[Illustration: General Feng Kuo-chang, President of the Republic.]
+
+[Illustration: The Scholar Liang Chi-chao, sometime Minister of Justice,
+and the foremost "Brain" in China.]
+
+It was evident from the beginning that pride prevented Yuan Shih-kai
+from retreating from the false position he had taken up. Under his
+instructions the State Department sent a stream of powerful telegraphic
+messages to Yunnan attempting to dissuade the Republican leaders from
+revolt. But the die had been cast and very gravely the standard of
+rebellion was raised in the capital city of Yunnan and the people
+exhorted to shed their blood. Everything pointed to the fact that this
+rising was to be very different from the abortive July outbreak of 1913.
+There was a soberness and a deliberation about it all which impressed
+close observers with a sense of the ominous end which was now in sight.
+
+Still Peking remained purblind. During the month of January the
+splendour of the dream empire, which was already dissolving into thin
+air, filled the newspapers. It was reported that an Imperial Edict
+printed on Yellow Paper announcing the enthronement was ready for
+universal distribution: that twelve new Imperial Seals in jade or gold
+were being manufactured: that a golden chair and a magnificent State
+Coach in the style of Louis XV were almost ready. Homage to the portrait
+of Yuan Shih-kai by all officials throughout the country was soon to be
+ordered; sycophantic scholars were busily preparing a volume poetically
+entitled "The Golden Mirror of the Empire," in which the virtues of the
+new sovereign were extolled in high-sounding language. A recondite
+significance, it was said, was to be given to the old ceremonial dress,
+which was to be revived, from the fact that every official would carry a
+Hu or Ivory Tablet to be held against the breast. The very mention of
+this was sufficient to make the local price of ivory leap skywards! In
+the privacy of drawing-rooms the story went the rounds that Yuan
+Shih-kai, now completely deluded into believing in the success of his
+great scheme, had held a full dress rehearsal of a ceremony which would
+be the first one at his new Court when he would invest the numerous
+ladies of his establishment with royal rank. Seated on his Throne he had
+been engaged in instructing these interested females, already robed in
+magnificent costumes, in the parts they were to play, when he had
+noticed the absence of the Korean Lady--a consort he had won, it is
+said, in his Seoul days in competition against the Japanese Envoy
+accredited to Korea, thereby precipitating the war of 1894-95.[19] The
+Korean Lady had refused to enter the Throne-room, he was told, because
+she was dissatisfied with the rank he proposed to confer on her. Sternly
+he sent for her and told her to take her place in the circle. But no
+sooner had she arrived than hysterically she screamed, "You told me when
+you wedded me that no wife would be my superior: now I am counted only a
+secondary consort." With that she hurled herself at the eldest wife who
+was occupying the post of honour and assailed her bitterly. Amidst the
+general confusion the would-be-Emperor hastily descended from his Throne
+and vainly intervened, but the women were not to be parted until their
+robes were in tatters.
+
+In such childishnesses did Peking indulge when a great disaster was
+preparing. To explain what had occurred in Yunnan it is necessary to go
+back and tell the story of a remarkable young Chinese--General Tsao-ao,
+the soul of the new revolt.
+
+In the revolution of 1911 each province had acted on the assumption that
+it possessed inherent autonomous rights and could assume sovereignty as
+soon as local arrangements had allowed the organization of a complete
+provisional government. Yunnan had been one of the earliest provinces to
+follow the lead of the Wuchang rebels and had virtually erected itself
+into a separate republic, which attracted much attention because of the
+iron discipline which was preserved. Possessing a fairly well-organized
+military system, largely owing to the proximity of the French frontier
+and the efforts which a succession of Viceroys had made to provide
+adequate frontier defence, it was amply able to guarantee its newly won
+autonomy. General Tsao-ao, then in command of a division of troops had
+been elected Generalissimo of the province; and bending himself to his
+task in very few weeks he had driven into exile all officials who
+adhered to the Imperialist cause and made all local institutions
+completely self-supporting. Even in 1911 it had been reported that this
+young man dreamed of founding a dynasty for himself in the mountains of
+South China--an ambition by no means impossible of realization since he
+had received a first-class military education in the Tokio Military
+Schools and was thoroughly up-to-date and conversant with modern
+theories of government.
+
+These reports had at the time greatly concerned Yuan Shih-kai who heard
+it stated by all who knew him that the Yunnan leader was a genius in his
+own way. In conformity with his policy of bringing to Peking all who
+might challenge his authority, he had induced General Tsao-ao, since the
+latter had played no part in the rebellion of 1913, to lay down his
+office of Yunnan Governor-General and join him in the capital at the
+beginning of 1914--another high provincial appointment being held out to
+him as a bait.
+
+Once in Peking, however, General Tsao-ao had been merely placed in
+charge of an office concerned with the reorganization of the land-tax,
+nominally a very important piece of work long advocated by foreign
+critics. But as there were no funds available, and as the purpose was
+plainly merely to keep him under observation, he fretted at the
+restraint, and became engaged in secret political correspondence with
+men who had been exiled abroad. As he was soon an open suspect, in order
+to avoid arrest he had taken the bold step at the very inception of the
+monarchy movement of heading the list of Generals in residence in Peking
+who petitioned the Senate to institute a Monarchy, this act securing him
+against summary treatment. But owing to his secret connection with the
+scholar Liang Chi-chao, who had thrown up his post of Minister of
+Justice and left the capital in order to oppose the new movement, he was
+watched more and more carefully--his death being even hinted at.
+
+He was clever enough to meet this ugly development with a masterly
+piece of trickery conceived in the Eastern vein. One day a carefully
+arranged dispute took place between him and his wife, and the police
+were angrily called in to see that his family and all their belongings
+were taken away to Tientsin as he refused any longer to share the same
+roof with them. Being now alone in the capital, he apparently abandoned
+himself to a life of shameless debauch, going nightly to the haunts of
+pleasure and becoming a notorious figure in the great district in the
+Outer City of Peking which is filled with adventure and adventuresses
+and which is the locality from which Haroun al-Raschid obtained through
+the medium of Arab travellers his great story of "Aladdin and the
+Wonderful Lamp." When governmental suspicions were thoroughly lulled, he
+arranged with a singing-girl to let him out by the backdoor of her house
+at dawn from whence he escaped to the railway-station, rapidly reaching
+Tientsin entirely unobserved.
+
+The morning was well-advanced before the detectives who nightly watched
+his movements became suspicious. Then finding that his whereabouts were
+unknown to the coachman dozing on the box of his carriage, they roughly
+entered the house where he had passed the night only to find that the
+bird had flown. Hasty telegrams were dispatched in every direction,
+particularly to Tientsin--the great centre for political refugees--and
+his summary arrest ordered. But fortune favoured him. A bare
+quarter-of-an-hour before the police began their search he had embarked
+with his family on a Japanese steamer lying in the Tientsin river and
+could snap his fingers at Yuan Shih-kai.
+
+Once in Japan he lost no time in assembling his revolutionary friends
+and in a body they embarked for South China. As rapidly as possible he
+reached Yunnan province from Hongkong, travelling by way of the French
+Tonkin railway. Entering the province early in December he found
+everything fairly ready for revolt, though there was a deficiency in
+arms and munitions which had to be made good. Yuan Shih-kai, furious at
+this evasion, had telegraphed to confidential agents in Yunnan to kill
+him at sight, but fortunately he was warned and spared to perform his
+important work. Had a fortnight of grace been vouchsafed him, he would
+have probably made the most brilliant modern campaign that has been
+witnessed in China, for he was an excellent soldier. Acting from the
+natural fortress of Yunnan it was his plan to descend suddenly on the
+Yangtsze Valley by way of Chungking and to capture the upper river in
+one victorious march thus closing the vast province of Szechuan to the
+Northern troops. But circumstances had made it imperative for him and
+his friends to telegraph the Yunnan ultimatum a fortnight sooner than it
+should have been dispatched, and the warning thus conveyed to the
+Central Government largely crippled the Yunnan offensive.
+
+The circumstances which had made instant action necessary were as
+follows. As we have seen from the record of the previous risings, the
+region of the Yangtsze river has superlative value in Chinese politics.
+Offering as it does an easy road into the heart of the country and
+touching more than half the Provinces, it is indeed a priceless means of
+communication, and for this reason Yuan Shih-kai had been careful after
+the crushing of the rebellion of 1913 to load the river-towns with his
+troops under the command of Generals he believed incorruptible. Chief of
+these was General Feng Kuo-chang at Nanking who held the balance of
+power on the great river, and whose politics, though not entirely above
+suspicion, had been proof against all the tempting offers South China
+made to him until the ill-fated monarchy movement had commenced. But
+during this movement General Feng Kuo-chang had expressed himself in
+such contemptuous terms of the would-be Emperor that orders had been
+given to another high official--Admiral Tseng, Garrison Commissioner at
+Shanghai--to have him assassinated. Instead of obeying his instructions,
+Admiral Tseng had conveyed a warning to his proposed victim, the
+consequence being that the unfortunate admiral was himself brutally
+murdered on the streets of Shanghai by revolver-shots for betraying the
+confidence of his master. After this denouement it was not very strange
+that General Feng Kuo-chang should have intimated to the Republican
+Party that as soon as they entered the Yangtsze Valley he would throw in
+his lot with them together with all his troops. Of this Yuan Shih-kai
+became aware through his extraordinary system of intelligence; and
+following his usual practice he had ordered General Feng Kuo-chang to
+Peking as Chief of the General Staff--an appointment which would place
+him under direct surveillance. First on one excuse, then on another,
+General Feng Kuo-chang had managed to delay his departure from day to
+day without actually coming under the grave charge of refusing to obey
+orders. But finally the position was such that he telegraphed to General
+Tsao-ao that unless the Yunnan arrangements were hastened he would have
+to leave Nanking--and abandon this important centre to one of Yuan
+Shih-kai's own henchmen--which meant the end of all hopes of the
+Yangtsze Valley rising _en masse_.
+
+It was to save Feng Kuo-chang, then, that the young patriot Tsao-ao
+caused the ultimatum to be dispatched fourteen days too soon, _i.e._,
+before the Yunnan troops had marched over the mountain-barrier into the
+neighbouring province of Szechuan and seized the city of
+Chungking--which would have barred the advance of the Northern troops
+permanently as the river defiles even when lightly defended are
+impassable here to the strongest force. It was largely due to the
+hardships of forced marches conducted over these rugged mountains, which
+raise their precipitous peaks to the heavens, that Tsao-ao subsequently
+lost his life, his health being undermined by exposure, tuberculosis
+finally claiming him. But one thing at least did his resolute action
+secure. With Yunnan in open revolt and several other provinces about to
+follow suit, General Feng Kuo-chang was able to telegraph Peking that it
+was impossible for him to leave his post at Nanking without rebellion
+breaking out. This veiled threat was understood by Yuan Shih-kai. Grimly
+he accepted the checkmate.
+
+Yet all the while he was acting with his customary energy. Troops were
+dispatched towards Szechuan in great numbers, being tracked up the
+rapids of the upper river on board fleets of junks which were ruthlessly
+commandeered. Now commenced an extraordinary race between the Yunnan
+mountaineers and the Northern plainsmen for the strategic city of
+Chungking. For some weeks the result was in doubt; for although Szechuan
+province was held by Northern garrisons, they were relatively speaking
+weak and surrounded by hostile Szechuan troops whose politics were
+doubtful. In the end, however, Yuan Shih-kai's men reached their goal
+first and Chungking was saved. Heavy and continuous mountain-fighting
+ensued, in which the Southern troops were only partially successful.
+Being less well-equipped in mountain artillery and less well-found in
+general supplies they were forced to rely largely on guerrilla warfare.
+There is little accurate record of the desperate fighting which occurred
+in this wild region but it is known that the original Yunnan force was
+nearly annihilated, and that of the remnant numbers perished from
+disease and exposure.
+
+Other events were, however, hastening the debacle. Kueichow province had
+almost at once followed the example of Yunnan. A third province,
+Kwangsi, under a veteran who was much respected, General Lu Yun Ting,
+was soon added; and gradually as in 1911 it became clear that the army
+was only one chessman in a complicated and very ingenious game.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[19] This story is firmly believed by many, namely that a beautiful
+woman caused the loss of Korea.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+"THE THIRD REVOLUTION" (Continued)
+
+THE DOWNFALL AND DEATH OF YUAN SHIH-KAI
+
+
+As had been the case during the previous revolts, it was not publicly or
+on the battlefield that the most crucial work was performed: the
+decisive elements in this new and conclusive struggle were marshalled
+behind the scenes and performed their task unseen. Though the
+mandarinate, at the head of which stood Yuan Shih-kai, left no stone
+unturned to save itself from its impending fate, all was in vain. Slowly
+but inexorably it was shown that a final reckoning had to be faced.
+
+The reasons are not far to seek. Too long had the moral sense of
+educated men been outraged by common fraud and deceit for any
+continuance of a regime which had disgraced China for four long years to
+be humanly possible. Far and wide the word was rapidly passing that Yuan
+Shih-kai was not the man he had once been; he was in reality feeble and
+choleric--prematurely old from too much history-making and too many
+hours spent in the harem. He had indeed become a mere Colossus with feet
+of clay,--a man who could be hurled to the ground by precisely the same
+methods he had used to destroy the Manchus. Even his foreign supporters
+were becoming tired and suspicious of him, endless trouble being now
+associated with his name, there being no promise that quieter times
+could possibly come so long as he lived. A very full comprehension of
+the general position is given by perusing the valedictory letter of the
+leader of the Chinese intellectuals, that remarkable man--Liang
+Ch'i-chao, who in December had silently and secretly fled from Tientsin
+on information reaching him that his assassination was being planned. On
+the even of his departure he had sent the following brilliant document
+to the Emperor-elect as a reply to an attempt to entrap him to Peking, a
+document the meaning of which was clear to every educated man. Its
+exquisite irony mixed with its bluntness told all that was necessary to
+tell--and forecasted the inevitable fall. It runs:--
+
+    For the Kind Perusal of the Great President:--
+
+    A respectful reading of your kind instructions reveals to me your
+    modesty and the brotherly love which you cherish for your humble
+    servant, who is so moved by your heart-touching sympathy that he
+    does not know how to return your kindness. A desire then seized him
+    to submit his humble views for your wise consideration; though on
+    the one hand he has thought that he might fail to express what he
+    wishes to say if he were to do so in a set of brief words, while on
+    the other hand he has no desire to trouble the busy mind of one on
+    whose shoulders fall myriads of affairs, with views expressed in
+    many words. Furthermore, what Ch'i-chao desires to say relates to
+    what can be likened to the anxiety of one who, fearing that the
+    heavens may some day fall on him, strives to ward off the
+    catastrophe. If his words should be misunderstood, it would only
+    increase his offence. Time and again he has essayed to write; but
+    each time he has stopped short. Now he is going South to visit his
+    parents; and looking at the Palace-Gate from afar, he realizes that
+    he is leaving the Capital indefinitely. The thought that he has been
+    a protege of the Great President and that dangers loom ahead before
+    the nation as well as his sense of duty and friendly obligations,
+    charge him with the responsibility of saying something. He therefore
+    begs to take the liberty of presenting his humble but extravagant
+    views for the kind consideration of the Great President.
+
+    The problem of _Kuo-ti_ (form of State) appears to have gone too far
+    for reconsideration: the position is like unto a man riding on the
+    back of a wild tiger.... Ch'i-chao therefore at one moment thought
+    he would say no more about it, since added comment thereon might
+    make him all the more open to suspicion. But a sober study of the
+    general situation and a quiet consideration of the possible future
+    make him tremble like an autumn leaf; for the more he meditates, the
+    more dangerous the situation appears. It is true that the minor
+    trouble of "foreign advice" and rebel plotting can be settled and
+    guarded against; but what Ch'i-chao bitterly deplores is that the
+    original intention of the Great President to devote his life and
+    energy to the interest of the country--an intention he has fulfilled
+    during the past four years--will be difficult to explain to the
+    world in future. The trust of the world in the Great President would
+    be shattered with the result that the foundation of the country will
+    be unsettled. Do not the Sages say: "In dealing with the people aim
+    at faithfulness?" If faithfulness to promises be observed by those
+    in authority, then the people will naturally surrender themselves.
+    Once, however, a promise is broken, it will be as hard to win back
+    the people's trust as to ascend to the very Heavens. Several times
+    have oaths of office been uttered; yet even before the lips are dry,
+    action hath falsified the words of promise. In these circumstances,
+    how can one hope to send forth his orders to the country in the
+    future, and expect them to be obeyed? The people will say "he
+    started in righteousness but ended in self-seeking: how can we trust
+    our lives in his hands, if he should choose to pursue even further
+    his love of self-enrichment?" It is possible for Ch'i-chao to
+    believe that the Great President has no desire to make profit for
+    himself by the sacrifice of the country, but how can the mass of the
+    people--who believe only what they are told--understand what
+    Ch'i-chao may, perchance, believe?
+
+    The Great President sees no one but those who are always near him;
+    and these are the people who have tried to win his favour and gain
+    rewards by concocting the alleged unanimous petitions of the whole
+    country urging his accession to the Throne. In reality, however, the
+    will of the people is precisely the opposite. Even the high
+    officials in the Capital talk about the matter in a jeering and
+    sarcastic way. As for the tone of the newspapers outside Peking,
+    that is better left unmentioned. And as for the "small people" who
+    crowd the streets and the market-places, they go about as if
+    something untoward might happen at any moment. If a kingdom can be
+    maintained by mere force, then the disturbance at the time of Ch'in
+    Chih-huang and Sui Yang Ti could not have been successful. If, on
+    the other hand, it is necessary to secure the co-operation and the
+    willing submission of the hearts of the people, then is it not time
+    that our Great President bethinks himself and boldly takes his own
+    stand?
+
+    Some argue that to hesitate in the middle of a course after
+    indulging in much pomp and pageantry at the beginning will result in
+    ridicule and derision and that the dignity of the Chief Executive
+    will be lowered. But do they even know whether the Great President
+    has taken the least part in connection with the phantasies of the
+    past four months? Do they know that the Great President has, on many
+    occasions, sworn fidelity before high Heaven and the noon-day sun?
+    Now if he carries out his sacrosanct promise and is deaf to the
+    unrighteous advice of evil counsellors, his high virtue will be made
+    even more manifest than ever before. Wherein then is there need of
+    doubt or fear?
+
+    Others may even suggest that since the proposal was initiated by
+    military men, the tie that has hitherto bound the latter to the
+    Great President may be snapped in case the pear fails to ripen. But
+    in the humble opinion of Ch'i-chao, the troops are now all fully
+    inspired with a sense of obedience to the Chief Executive. Who then
+    can claim the right to drag our Great President into unrighteousness
+    for the sake of vanity and vainglory? Who will dare disobey the
+    behests of the Great President if he should elect to open his heart
+    and follow the path of honour and unbroken vows? If to-day, as Head
+    of the nation, he is powerless to silence the riotous clamour of the
+    soldiery as happened at Chen-chiao in ancient time, then be sure in
+    the capacity of an Emperor he will not be able to suppress an
+    outbreak of troops even as it happened once at Yuyang in the Tang
+    dynasty.[20] To give them the handle of the sword is simply courting
+    trouble for the future. But can we suspect the troops--so long
+    trained under the Great President--of such unworthy conduct? The
+    ancients say "However a thing is done, do not hurt the feelings of
+    those who love you, or let your enemy have a chance to rejoice."
+    Recently calamities in the forms of drought and flood have
+    repeatedly visited China; and the ancients warn us that in such ways
+    does Heaven manifest its Will regarding great movements in our
+    country. In addition to these we must remember the prevailing evils
+    of a corrupt officialdom, the incessant ravages of robbers, excesses
+    in punishment, the unusually heavy burdens of taxation, as well as
+    the irregularity of weather and rain, which all go to increase the
+    murmurs and complaints of the people. Internally, the rebels are
+    accumulating strength against an opportune time to rise; externally,
+    powerful neighbouring countries are waiting for an opportunity to
+    harass us. Why then should our Great President risk his precious
+    person and become a target of public criticism; or "abandon the rock
+    of peace in search of the tiger's tail"; or discourage the loyalty
+    of faithful ones and encourage the sinister ambitions of the
+    unscrupulous? Ch'i-chao sincerely hopes that the Great President
+    will devote himself to the establishment of a new era which shall be
+    an inspiration to heroism and thus escape the fate of those who are
+    stigmatized in our annals with the name of Traitor. He hopes that
+    the renown of the Great President will long be remembered in the
+    land of _Chung Hua_ (China) and he prays that the fate of China may
+    not end with any abrupt ending that may befall the Great President.
+    He therefore submits his views with a bleeding heart. He realizes
+    that his words may not win the approval of one who is wise and
+    clever; but Ch'i-chao feels that unless he unburdens what is in his
+    heart, he will be false to the duty which bids him speak and be true
+    to the kindness that has been showered on him by the Great
+    President. Whether his loyalty to the Imperative Word will be
+    rewarded with approval or with reproof, the order of the Great
+    President will say.
+
+    There are other words of which Ch'i-chao wishes to tender to the
+    Great President. To be an independent nation to-day, we must need
+    follow the ways of the present age. One who opposes the current of
+    the world and protects himself against the enriching influence of
+    the world-spirit must eventually share the fate of the unselected.
+    It is sincerely hoped that the Great President will refrain to some
+    extent from restoring the old and withal work for real reform. Law
+    can only be made a living force by both the ruler and the people
+    obeying it with sincerity. When the law loses its strength, the
+    people will not know how to act; and then the dignity of Government
+    will disappear. It is hoped that the Great President will keep
+    himself within the bounds of law and not lead the officials and the
+    people to juggle with words. Participation in politics and
+    patriotism are closely related. Bear well in mind that it is
+    impossible to expect the people to share the responsibilities of the
+    country, unless they are given a voice in the transaction of public
+    business. The hope is expressed that the Great President will
+    establish a real organ representing the true will of the people and
+    encourage the natural growth of the free expression of public
+    opinion. Let us not become so arrogant and oppressive that the
+    people will have no chance to express their views, as this may
+    inspire hatred on the part of the people. The relation between the
+    Central Government and the provincial centres is like that between
+    the trunk and branches of a tree. If the branches are all withered,
+    how can the trunk continue to grow? It is hoped that the Great
+    President, while giving due consideration to the maintenance of the
+    dignity of the Central Government, will at the same time allow the
+    local life of the provinces to develop. Ethics, Righteousness,
+    Purity and Conscientiousness are four great principles. When these
+    four principles are neglected, a country dies. If the whole country
+    should come in spirit to be like "concubines and women," weak and
+    open to be coerced and forced along with whomsoever be on the
+    stronger side, how can a State be established? May the Great
+    President encourage principle, and virtue, stimulate purity of
+    character, reject men of covetous and mean character, and grant wise
+    tolerance to those who know no fear in defending the right. Only
+    then will the vitality of the country be retained in some degree;
+    and in time of emergency, there will be a reserve of strength to be
+    drawn upon in support of the State. All these considerations are of
+    the order of obvious truths and it must be assumed that the Great
+    President, who is greatly wise, is not unaware of the same. The
+    reason why Ch'i-chao ventures to repeat them is this. He holds it
+    true that a duty is laid on him to submit whatever humble thoughts
+    are his, and at the same time he believes that the Great President
+    will not condemn a proper physic even though it may be cheap and
+    simple. How fortunate will Ch'i-chao be if advice so tendered shall
+    meet with approval. He is proceeding farther and farther away from
+    the Palace every day and he does not know how soon he will be able
+    to seek an audience again. He writes these words with tears dropping
+    into the ink-slab and he trusts that his words may receive the
+    attention of the Great President.
+
+So ends this remarkable missive which has become an historic document in
+the archives of the Republic. Once again it was whispered that so great
+an impression did this fateful warning produce on the Emperor-elect that
+he was within an ace of cancelling the disastrous scheme which now
+enmeshed him. But in the end family influence won the day; and
+stubbornly and doggedly the doomed man pushed on with his attempt to
+crush revolt and consolidate his crumbling position.
+
+Every possible effort was made to minimize the effect of international
+influence on the situation. As the sycophantic vernacular press of the
+capital, long drilled to blind subservience, had begun to speak of his
+enthronement as a certainty on the 9th February, a Circular Note was
+sent to the Five Allied Powers that no such date had been fixed, and
+that the newspaper reports to that effect were inventions. In order
+specially to conciliate Japan, a high official was appointed to proceed
+on an Embassy to Tokio to grant special industrial concessions--a
+manoeuvre which was met with the official refusal of the Tokio
+Government to be so placated. Peking was coldly informed that owing to
+"court engagements" it would be impossible for the Emperor of Japan to
+receive any Chinese Mission. After this open rebuff attention was
+concentrated on "the punitive expedition" to chastise the disaffected
+South, 80,000 men being put in the field and a reserve of 80,000
+mobilized behind them. An attempt was also made to win over waverers by
+an indiscriminate distribution of patents of nobility. Princes, Dukes,
+Marquises, Viscounts and Barons were created in great batches overnight
+only to be declined in very many cases, one of the most precious
+possessions of the Chinese race being its sense of humour. Every one, or
+almost every one, knew that the new patents were not worth the paper
+they were written on, and that in future years the members of this
+spurious nobility would be exposed to something worse than contempt.
+France was invited to close the Tonkin frontier, but this request also
+met with a rebuff, and revolutionists and arms were conveyed in an
+ever-more menacing manner into the revolted province of Yunnan by the
+French railways. A Princedom was at length conferred on Lung Chi Kwang,
+the Military Governor of Canton, Canton being a pivotal point and Lung
+Chi Kwang, one of the most cold-blooded murderers in China, in the hope
+that this would spur him to such an orgy of crime that the South would
+be crushed. Precisely the opposite occurred, since even murderers are
+able to read the signs of the times. Attempts were likewise made to
+enforce the use of the new Imperial Calendar, but little success crowned
+such efforts, no one outside the metropolis believing for a moment that
+this innovation possessed any of the elements of permanence.
+
+Meanwhile the monetary position steadily worsened, the lack of money
+becoming so marked as to spread panic. Still, in spite of this, the
+leaders refused to take warning, and although the political impasse was
+constantly discussed, the utmost concession the monarchists were willing
+to make was to turn China into a Federal Empire with the provinces
+constituted into self-governing units. The over-issue of paper currency
+to make good the gaps in the National Finance, now slowly destroyed the
+credit of the Central Government and made the suspension of specie
+payment a mere matter of time. By the end of February the province of
+Kueichow was not only officially admitted by the Peking Government to be
+in open revolt as well as Yunnan, but rebel troops were reported to be
+invading the neighbouring province of Hunan. Kwangsi was also reported
+to be preparing for secession whilst in Szechuan local troops were
+revolting in increasing numbers. Rumours of an attempted assassination
+of Yuan Shih-kai by means of bombs now circulated,--and there were many
+arrests and suicides in the capital. Though by a mandate issued on the
+23rd February, the enthronement ceremony was indefinitely postponed,
+that move came too late. The whole country was plainly trembling on the
+edge of a huge outbreak when, less than four weeks later, Yuan Shih-kai
+reluctantly and publicly admitted that the game was up. It is understood
+that a fateful interview he had with the British Minister greatly
+influenced him, though the formal declaration of independence of Kwangsi
+on the 16th March, whither the scholar Liang Ch'i-chao had gone, was
+also a powerful argument. On the 22nd March the Emperor-elect issued the
+mandate categorically cancelling the entire monarchy scheme, it being
+declared that he would now form a Responsible Cabinet. Until that date
+the Government Gazette had actually perpetrated the folly of publishing
+side by side Imperial Edicts and Presidential Mandates--the first for
+Chinese eyes, the second for foreign consumption. Never before even in
+China had such a farce been seen. A rapid perusal of the Mandate of
+Cancellation will show how lamely and poorly the retreat is made:
+
+    DECREE CANCELLING THE EMPIRE (22ND MARCH)
+
+    After the establishment of the _Min Kuo_ (_i.e._ the Republic),
+    disturbances rapidly followed one another; and a man of little
+    virtue like me was called to take up the vast burden of the State.
+    Fearing that disaster might befall us any day, all those who had the
+    welfare of the country at heart advocated the reinstitution of the
+    monarchical system of government to the end that a stop be put to
+    all strife for power and a regime of peace be inaugurated.
+    Suggestions in this sense have unceasingly been made to me since the
+    days of Kuei Chou (the year of the first Revolution, 1911) and each
+    time a sharp rebuke has been administered to the one making the
+    suggestion. But the situation last year was indeed so different from
+    the circumstances of preceding years that it was impossible to
+    prevent the spread of such ideas.
+
+    It was said that China could never hope to continue as a nation
+    unless the constitutional monarchical form of state were adopted;
+    and if quarrels like those occurring in Mexico and Portugal were to
+    take place in China, we would soon share the fate of Annam and
+    Burmah. A large number of people then advocated the restoration of a
+    monarchy and advanced arguments which were reasonable. In this
+    proposal all the military and civil officials, scholars and people
+    concurred; and prayers were addressed to me in most earnest tone by
+    telegram and in petitions. Owing to the position I was at the time
+    holding, which laid on me the duty of maintaining the then existing
+    situation, I repeatedly made declarations resisting the adoption of
+    the advice; but the people did not seem to realize my embarrassment.
+    And so it was decided by the acting Li Fa Yuan (_i.e._ the Senate)
+    that the question of _Kuo-ti_ (form of State) should be settled by
+    the Convention of Citizens' Representatives. As the result, the
+    representatives of the Provinces and of the Special Administrative
+    Areas unanimously decided in favour of a constitutional monarchy,
+    and in one united voice elected me as the Emperor. Since the
+    sovereignty of the country has been vested in the citizens of China
+    and as the decision was made by the entire body of the
+    representatives, there was no room left to me for further
+    discussion. Nevertheless, I continued to be of the conviction that
+    my sudden elevation to the Great Seat would be a violation of my
+    oath and would compromise my good faith, leaving me unable to
+    explain myself; I, therefore, declined in earnest words in order to
+    make clear the view which hath always been mine. The said Senate
+    however, stated with firmness that the oath of the Chief Executive
+    rested on a peculiar sanction and should be observed or discarded
+    according to the will of the people. Their arguments were so
+    irresistible that there was in truth no excuse for me further to
+    decline the offer.
+
+    Therefore I took refuge behind the excuse of "preparations" in order
+    that the desire of the people might be satisfied. But I took no
+    steps actually to carry out the programme. When the trouble in
+    Yunnan and Kueichow arose, a mandate was officially issued
+    announcing the decision to postpone the measure and forbidding
+    further presentation of petitions praying for the enthronement. I
+    then hastened the convocation of the Li Fa Yuan (_i.e._, a new
+    Parliament) in order to secure the views of that body and hoping
+    thus to turn back to the original state of affairs, I, being a man
+    of bitter experiences, had at once given up all ideas of world
+    affairs; and having retired into the obscurity of the river Yuan (in
+    Honan), I had no appetite for the political affairs of the country.
+    As the result of the revolution in Hsin Hai, I was by mistake
+    elected by the people. Reluctantly I came out of my retirement and
+    endeavoured to prop up the tottering structure. I cared for nothing,
+    but the salvation of the country. A perusal of our history of
+    several thousand years will reveal in vivid manner the sad fate of
+    the descendants of ancient kings and emperors. What then could have
+    prompted me to aspire to the Throne? Yet while the representatives
+    of the people were unwilling to believe in the sincerity of my
+    refusal of the offer, a section of the people appear to have
+    suspected me of harbouring the desire of gaining more power and
+    privileges. Such difference in thought has resulted in the creation
+    of an exceedingly dangerous situation. As my sincerity has not been
+    such as to win the hearts of the people and my judgment has not been
+    sound enough to appraise every man, I have myself alone to blame for
+    lack of virtue. Why then should I blame others? The people have been
+    thrown into misery and my soldiers have been made to bear hardships;
+    and further the people have been cast into panic and commerce has
+    rapidly declined. When I search my own heart a measure of sorrow
+    fills it. I shall, therefore, not be unwilling to suppress myself in
+    order to yield to others.
+
+    I am still of the opinion that the "designation petitions" submitted
+    through the Tsan Cheng Yuan are unsuited to the demands of the time;
+    and the official acceptance of the Imperial Throne made on the 11th
+    day of the 12th month of last year (11th December, 1915) is hereby
+    cancelled. "The designation petitions" of the Provinces and of the
+    Special Administrative Areas are hereby all returned through the
+    State Department to the Tsan Cheng Yuan, _i.e._, the acting Li Fa
+    Yuan (Parliament), to be forwarded to the petitioners for
+    destruction; and all the preparations connected therewith are to
+    cease at once. In this wise I hope to imitate the sincerity of the
+    Ancients by taking on myself all the blame so that my action may
+    fall in line with the spirit of humanity which is the expression of
+    the will of Heaven. I now cleanse my heart and wash my thoughts to
+    the end that trouble may be averted and the people may have peace.
+    Those who advocated the monarchical system were prompted by the
+    desire to strengthen the foundation of the country; but as their
+    methods have proved unsuitable their patriotism might harm the
+    country. Those who have opposed the monarchy have done so out of
+    their desire to express their political views. It may be therefore
+    presumed that they would not go to the extreme and so endanger the
+    country. They should, therefore, all hearken to the voice of their
+    own conscience and sacrifice their prejudices, and with one mind and
+    one purpose unite in the effort of saving the situation so that the
+    glorious descendants of the Sacred Continent may be spared the
+    horrors of internal warfare and the bad omens may be changed into
+    lucky signs.
+
+    In brief I now confess that all the faults of the country are the
+    result of my own faults. Now that the acceptance of the Imperial
+    Throne has been cancelled every man will be responsible for his own
+    action if he further disturbs the peace of the locality and thus
+    gives an opportunity to others. I, the Great President, being
+    charged with the duty of ruling over the whole country, cannot
+    remain idle while the country is racing to perdition. At the present
+    moment the homesteads are in misery, discipline has been
+    disregarded, administration is being neglected and real talents have
+    not been given a chance. When I think of such conditions I awake in
+    the darkness of midnight. How can we stand as a nation if such a
+    state of affairs is allowed to continue? Hereafter all officials
+    should thoroughly get rid of their corrupt habits and endeavour to
+    achieve merits. They should work with might and main in their
+    duties, whether in introducing reforms or in abolishing old
+    corruptions. Let all be not satisfied with empty words and entertain
+    no bias regarding any affair. They should hold up as their main
+    principle of administration the policy that only reality will count
+    and deal out reward or punishment with strict promptness. Let all
+    our generals, officials, soldiers and people all, all, act in
+    accordance with this ideal.
+
+This attempt at an _Amende honorable_, so far from being well-received,
+was universally looked upon as an admission that Yuan Shih-kai had
+almost been beaten and that a little more would complete his ruin.
+Though, as we have said, the Northern troops were fighting well in his
+cause on the upper reaches of the great Yangtsze, the movement against
+him was now spreading as though it had been a dread contagious disease,
+the entire South uniting against Peking. His promise to open a proper
+Legislative Chamber on 1st May was met with derision. By the middle of
+April five provinces--Yunnan, Kueichow, Kwangsi, Kwangtung and
+Chekiang--had declared their independence, and eight others were
+preparing to follow suit. A Southern Confederacy, with a Supreme
+Military Council sitting at Canton, was organized, the brutal Governor
+Lung Chi Kwang having been won over against his master, and the scholar
+Liang Ch'i-chao flitting from place to place, inspiring move after move.
+The old parliament of 1913 was reported to be assembling in Shanghai,
+whilst terrorist methods against Peking officials were bruited abroad
+precipitating a panic in the capital and leading to an exodus of
+well-to-do families who feared a general massacre.
+
+An open agitation to secure Yuan Shih-kai's complete retirement and
+exile now commenced. From every quarter notables began telegraphing him
+that he must go,--including General Feng Kuo-chang who still held the
+balance of power on the Yangtsze. Every enemy Yuan Shih-kai had ever had
+was also racing back to China from exile. By the beginning of May the
+situation was so threatening that the Foreign Legations became alarmed
+and talked of concerting measures to insure their safety. On the 6th May
+came the _coup de grace_. The great province of Szechuan, which has a
+population greater than the population of France, declared its
+independence; and the whole Northern army on the upper reaches of the
+Yangtsze was caught in a trap. The story is still told with bated breath
+of the terrible manner in which Yuan Shih-kai sated his rage when this
+news reached him--Szechuan being governed by a man he had hitherto
+thoroughly trusted--one General Chen Yi. Arming himself with a sword and
+beside himself with rage he burst into the room where his favourite
+concubine was lying with her newly-delivered baby. With a few savage
+blows he butchered them both, leaving them lying in their gore, thus
+relieving the apoplectic stroke which threatened to overwhelm him.
+Nothing better illustrates the real nature of the man who had been so
+long the selected bailiff of the Powers.
+
+On the 12th May it became necessary to suspend specie payment in Peking,
+the government banks having scarcely a dollar of silver left, a last
+attempt to negotiate a loan in America having failed. Meanwhile under
+inspiration of General Feng Kuo-chang, a conference to deal with the
+situation was assembling at Nanking; but on the 11th May, the Canton
+Military Government, representing the Southern Confederacy, had already
+unanimously elected Vice-President Li Yuan Hung as president of the
+Republic, it being held that legally Yuan Shih-kai had ceased to be
+President when he had accepted the Throne on the previous 13th December.
+The Vice-President, who had managed to remove his residence outside the
+Palace, had already received friendly offers of protection from certain
+Powers which he declined, showing courage to the end. Even the Nanking
+Conference, though composed of trimmers and wobblers, decided that the
+retirement of Yuan Shih-kai was a political necessity, General Feng
+Kuo-chang as chairman of the Conference producing at the last moment a
+telegram from the fallen Dictator declaring that he was willing to go if
+his life and property were guaranteed.
+
+A more dramatic collapse was, however, in store. As May drew to an end
+it was plain that there was no government at all left in Peking. The
+last phase had been truly reached. Yuan Shih-kai's nervous collapse was
+known to all the Legations which were exceedingly anxious about the
+possibility of a soldiers' revolt in the capital. The arrival of a first
+detachment of the savage hordes of General Chang Hsun added Byzantine
+touches to a picture already lurid with a sickened ruler and the
+Mephistophelian figure of that ruler's _ame damnee_, the Secretary Liang
+Shih-yi, vainly striving to transmute paper into silver, and find the
+wherewithal to prevent a sack of the capital. It was said at the time
+that Liang Shih-yi had won over his master to trying one last throw of
+the dice. The troops of the remaining loyal Generals, such as Ni
+Shih-chung of Anhui, were transported up the Yangtsze in an attempt to
+restore the situation by a savage display,--but that effort came to
+nought.
+
+The situation had become truly appalling in Peking. It was even said
+that the neighbouring province of Shantung was to become a separate
+state under Japanese protection. Although the Peking administration was
+still nominally the Central Government of China, it was amply clear to
+observers on the spot that by a process of successive collapses all that
+was left of government was simply that pertaining to a city-state of the
+antique Greek type--a mal-administration dominated by the enigmatic
+personality of Liang Shih-yi. The writ of the capital no longer ran more
+than ten miles beyond the city walls. The very Government Departments,
+disgusted with, and distrustful of, the many hidden influences at work,
+had virtually declared their independence and went their own way,
+demanding foreign dollars and foreign banknotes from the public, and
+refusing all Chinese money. The fine residuum of undisputed power left
+in the hands of the Mal-administrator-in-chief, Liang Shih-yi, was the
+control of the copper cash market which he busily juggled with to the
+very end netting a few last thousands for his own purse, and showing
+that men like water inevitably find their true level. In all China's
+tribulations nothing similar had ever been seen. Even in 1900, after the
+Boxer bubble had been pricked and the Court had sought safety in flight,
+there was a certain dignity and majesty left. Then an immense misfortune
+had fallen across the capital; but that misfortune was like a cloak
+which hid the nakedness of the victim; and there was at least no
+pretence at authority. In the Summer of 1916, had it not been for the
+fact that an admirable police and gendarmerie system, comprising 16,000
+men, secured the safety of the people, there can be little doubt that
+firing and looting would have daily taken place and no woman been safe.
+It was the last phase of political collapse with a vengeance: and small
+wonder if all Chinese officials, including even high police officers,
+sent their valuables either out of the city or into the Legation Quarter
+for safe custody. Extraordinary rumours circulated endlessly among the
+common people that there would be great trouble on the occasion of the
+Dragon Festival, the 5th June; and what actually took place was perhaps
+more than a coincidence.
+
+Early on the 6th June an electric thrill ran through Peking--Yuan
+Shih-kai was dead! At first the news was not believed, but by eleven
+o'clock it was definitely known in the Legation Quarter that he had died
+a few minutes after ten o'clock that morning from uraemia of the
+blood--the surgeon of the French Legation being in attendance almost to
+the last. A certificate issued later by this gentleman immediately
+quieted the rumours of suicide, though many still refused to believe
+that he was actually dead. "I did not wish this end," he is reported to
+have whispered hoarsely a few minutes before he expired, "I did not wish
+to be Emperor. Those around me said that the people wanted a king and
+named me for the Throne. I believed and was misled." And in this way did
+his light flicker out. If there are sermons in stones and books in the
+running brooks surely there is an eloquent lesson in this tragedy!
+Before expiring the wretched man issued the following Death Mandate in
+accordance with the ancient tradition, attempting as the long night fell
+on him to make his peace with men:--
+
+    LAST MANDATE OF YUAN SHIH-KAI
+
+    The Min Kuo has been established for five years. Unworthily have I,
+    the Great President, been entrusted with the great task by the
+    citizens. Owing to my lack of virtue and ability I have not been
+    able fully to transform into deeds what I have desired to
+    accomplish; and I blush to say that I have not realized one
+    ten-thousandth part of my original intention to save the country and
+    the people. I have, since my assumption of the office, worked in
+    day and thought in the night, planning for the country. It is true
+    that the foundation of the country is not yet consolidated, the
+    hardships of the people not yet relieved, and innumerable reforms
+    are still unattended to. But by the valuable services of the civil
+    officials and military men, some semblance of peace and order has
+    been maintained in the provinces and friendly relations with the
+    Powers upheld till now.
+
+    While on the one hand I comfort myself with such things
+    accomplished, on the other hand I have much to blame myself for. I
+    was just thinking how I could retire into private life and rest
+    myself in the forest and near the springs in fulfilment of my
+    original desire, when illness has suddenly overtaken me. As the
+    affairs of the State are of gravest importance, the right man must
+    be secured to take over charge of the same. In accordance with
+    Article 29 of the Provisional Constitution, which states that in
+    case the office of the Great President should be vacated for certain
+    reasons or when the Great President is incapacitated from doing his
+    duties, the Vice-President shall exercise authority and power in his
+    stead. I, the Great President, declare in accordance with the
+    Provisional Constitution that the Vice-President shall exercise in
+    an acting capacity, the authority and power of the Great President
+    of the Chung Hua Min Kuo.
+
+    The Vice-President being a man of courtesy, good nature, benevolence
+    and wisdom, will certainly be capable of greatly lessening the
+    difficulties of the day and place the country on the foundation of
+    peace, and so remedy the defects of me, the Great President, and
+    satisfy the expectations of the people of the whole country. The
+    civil and military officials outside of the Capital as well as the
+    troops, police and scholars and people should doubly keep in mind
+    the difficulties and perils of the nation, and endeavour to maintain
+    peace and order to the best of their ability, placing before
+    everything else the welfare of the country. The ancients once said:
+    "It is only when the living do try to become strong that the dead
+    are not dead." This is also the wish of me, the Great President.
+
+    (Signed) TUAN CHI-JUI,
+    Secretary of State and
+    Minister of War
+
+    TSAO JU-LIN,
+    Minister of Foreign Affairs and
+    Communications.
+
+    WANG YI-TANG,
+    Minister of Interior.
+
+    CHOW TZU-CHI,
+    Minister of Finance.
+
+    LIU-KUAN-HSIUNG,
+    Minister of Navy.
+
+    CHANG TSUNG-HSIANG,
+    Minister of Justice and
+    Agriculture and Commerce.
+
+    CHANG KUO-KAN,
+    Minister of Education.
+
+    6th day of the 6th month of the 5th year of Chung Hua Min Kuo.
+
+This tragic denouement did not fail to awaken within very few days
+among thinking minds a feeling of profound sympathy for the dead man
+coupled with sharp disgust for the part that foreigners had played--not
+all, of course--but a great number of them. Briefly, when all the facts
+are properly grouped it can be said that Yuan Shih-kai was killed by his
+foreign friends--by the sort of advice he has been consistently given in
+Constitutional Law, in Finance, in Politics, in Diplomacy. It is easy to
+trace step by step the broad road he had been tempted to travel, and to
+see how at each turning-point the men who should have taught him how to
+be true and loyal to the Western things the country had nominally
+adhered to from the proclamation of the Republic, showed him how to be
+disloyal and untrue. The tragedy is one which is bound to be deeply
+studied throughout the whole world when the facts are properly known and
+there is time to think about them, and if there is anything to-day left
+to poetic justice the West will know to whom to apportion the blame.
+
+Yuan Shih-kai, the man, when he came out of retirement in 1911, was in
+many ways a wonderful Chinese: he was a fount of energy and of a
+physical sturdiness rare in a country whose governing classes have
+hitherto been recruited from attenuated men, pale from study and the
+lotus life. He had a certain task to which to put his hand, a huge task,
+indeed, since the reformation of four hundred millions was involved, yet
+one which was not beyond him if wisely advised. He was an ignorant man
+in certain matters, but he had had much political experience and
+apparently possessed a marvellous aptitude for learning. The people
+needed a leader to guide them through the great gateway of the West, to
+help them to acquire those jewels of wisdom and experience which are a
+common heritage. An almost Elizabethan eagerness filled them, as if a
+New World they had never dreamed of had been suddenly discovered for
+them and lay open to their endeavours. China, hitherto derided as a
+decaying land, had been born anew; and in single massive gesture had
+proclaimed that she, too, would belong to the elect and be governed
+accordingly.
+
+What was the foreign response--the official response? In every
+transaction into which it was possible to import them, reaction and
+obscurantism were not only commonly employed but heartily recommended.
+Not one trace of genuine statesmanship, not one flash of altruism, was
+ever seen save the American flash in the pan of 1913, when President
+Wilson refused to allow American participation in the great
+Reorganization Loan because he held that the terms on which it was to be
+granted infringed upon China's sovereign rights. Otherwise there was
+nothing but a tacit endorsement of the very policy which has been
+tearing the entrails out of Europe--namely militarism. That was the fine
+fruit which was offered to a hopeful nation--something that would wither
+on the branch or poison the people as they plucked it. They were taught
+to believe that political instinct was the ability to misrepresent in a
+convincing way the actions and arguments of your opponents and to profit
+by their mistakes--not that it is a mighty impulse which can re-make
+nations. The Republic was declared by the actions of Western bureaucrats
+to be a Republic _pour rire_, not a serious thing; and by this false and
+cruel assumption they killed Yuan Shih-kai.
+
+If that epitaph is written on his political tombstone, it will be as
+full of blinding truth as is only possible with Last Things.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[20] The incident of Chen-chiao is very celebrated in Chinese annals. A
+yellow robe, the symbol of Imperial authority, was thrown around General
+Chao Kuang-ying, at a place called Chen-chiao, by his soldiers and
+officers when he commanded a force ordered to the front. Chao returned
+to the Capital immediately to assume the Imperial Throne, and was thus
+"compelled" to become the founder of the famous Sung dynasty.
+
+The "incident of Yuyang" refers to the execution of Yang Kuei-fei, the
+favourite concubine of Emperor Yuan Tsung of the Tang dynasty. The
+Emperor for a long time was under the alluring influence of Yang
+Kuei-fei, who had a paramour named An Lo-hsan. The latter finally
+rebelled against the Emperor. The Emperor left the capital and proceeded
+to another place together with his favourite concubine, guarded by a
+large force of troops. Midway, however, the soldiers threatened to rebel
+unless the concubine was killed on the spot. The clamour was such that
+the Emperor was forced to sacrifice the favourite of his harem, putting
+her to death in the presence of his soldiers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+THE NEW REGIME,--FROM 1916 TO 1917
+
+
+Within an hour of the death of Yuan Shih-kai, the veteran General Tuan
+Chi-jui, in his capacity of Secretary of State, had called on
+Vice-President Li Yuan-hung--the man whom years before he had been sent
+to the Yangtsze to bring captive to Peking--and welcomed him as
+President of the Republic. At one o'clock on the same day the Ministers
+of the Allied Powers who had hastily assembled at the Waichiaopu
+(Foreign Office), were informed that General Li Yuan-hung had duly
+assumed office and that the peace and security of the capital were fully
+guaranteed. No unrest of any sort need be apprehended; for whilst
+rumours would no doubt circulate wildly as soon as the populace realized
+the tragic nature of the climax which had come the Gendarmerie Corps and
+the Metropolitan Police--two forces that numbered 18,000 armed men--were
+taking every possible precaution.
+
+In spite of these assurances great uneasiness was felt. The foreign
+Legations, which are very imperfectly informed regarding Chinese affairs
+although living in the midst of them, could not be convinced that
+internal peace could be so suddenly attained after five years of such
+fierce rivalries. Among the many gloomy predictions made at the time,
+the most common to fall from the lips of Foreign Plenipotentiaries was
+the remark that the Japanese would be in full occupation of the country
+within three months--the one effective barrier to their advance having
+been removed. No better illustration could be given of the inadequate
+grasp of politics possessed by those whose peculiar business it should
+be to become expert in the science of cause and effect. In China, as in
+the Balkans, professional diplomacy errs so constantly because it has
+in the main neither the desire nor the training to study dispassionately
+from day to day all those complex phenomena which go to make up modern
+nationalism. Guided in its conduct almost entirely by a policy of
+personal predilections, which is fitfully reinforced by the recollection
+of precedents, it is small wonder if such mountains of mistakes choke
+every Legation dossier. Determined to have nothing whatever to do, save
+in the last resort, with anything that savours of Radicalism, and
+inclining naturally towards ideals which have long been abandoned in the
+workaday world, diplomacy is the instinctive lover of obscurantism and
+the furtive enemy of progress. Distrusting all those generous movements
+which spring from the popular desire to benefit by change, it follows
+from this that the diplomatic brotherhood inclines towards those truly
+detestable things--secret compacts. In the present instance, having been
+bitterly disappointed by the complete collapse of the strong man theory,
+it was only natural that consolation should be sought by casting doubt
+on the future. Never have sensible men been so absurd. The life-story of
+Yuan Shih-kai, and the part European and Japanese diplomacy played in
+that story, form a chapter which should be taught as a warning to all
+who enter politics as a career, since there is exhibited in this history
+a complete compendium of all the more vicious traits of Byzantinism.
+
+The first acts of President Li Yuan-hung rapidly restored confidence and
+advertised to the keen-eyed that the end of the long drawn-out
+Revolution had come. Calling before him all the generals in the capital,
+he told them with sincerity and simplicity that their country's fortunes
+rested in their hands; and he asked them to take such steps as would be
+in the nature of a permanent insurance against foreign interference in
+the affairs of the Republic. He was at once given fervent support. A
+mass meeting of the military was followed by the whole body of
+commissioned men volunteering to hold themselves personally responsible
+for the maintenance of peace and order in the capital. The dreadful
+disorders which had ushered in the Yuan Shih-kai regime were thus made
+impossible; and almost at once men went about their business as usual.
+
+The financial wreckage left by the mad monarchy adventure was, however,
+appalling. Not only was there no money in the capital but hardly any
+food as well; for since the suspension of specie payments country
+supplies had ceased entering the city as farmers refused to accept
+inconvertible paper in payment for their produce. It became necessary
+for the government to sell at a nominal price the enormous quantities of
+grain which had been accumulated for the army and the punitive
+expedition against the South; and for many days a familiar sight was the
+endless blue-coated queues waiting patiently to receive as in war-time
+their stipulated pittance.
+
+Meanwhile, although the troops remained loyal to the new regime, not so
+the monarchist politicians. Seeing that their hour of obliteration had
+come, they spared no effort to sow secret dissensions and prevent the
+provinces from uniting again with Peking. It would be wearisome to give
+in full detail the innumerable schemes which were now hourly formulated,
+to secure that the control of the country should not be exercised in a
+lawful way. Finding that it was impossible to conquer the general
+detestation felt for them, the monarchists, led by Liang Shih-yi,
+changed their tactics and exhausted themselves in attempting to secure
+the issue of a general amnesty decree. But in spite of every argument
+President Li Yuan-hung remained unmoved and refused absolutely to
+consider their pardon. A just and merciful man, it was his intention to
+allow the nation to speak its mind before issuing orders on the subject;
+but to show that he was no advocate of the terrorist methods practised
+by his predecessor, he now issued a Mandate summarily abolishing the
+infamous _Chih Fa Chu_, or Military Court, which Yuan Shih-kai had
+turned into an engine of judicial assassination, and within whose gloomy
+precincts many thousands of unfortunate men had perished practically
+untried in the period 1911-1916.
+
+Meanwhile the general situation throughout the country only slowly
+ameliorated. The Northern Military party, determined to prevent
+political power from passing solely into the hands of the Southern
+Radicals, bitterly opposed the revival of the Nanking Provisional
+Constitution, and denounced the re-convocation of the old Parliament of
+1913, which had already assembled in Shanghai, preparatory to coming up
+to the capital. It needed a sharp manoeuvre to bring them to their
+senses. The Chinese Navy, assembled in the waters near Shanghai, took
+action; and in an ultimatum communicated to Peking by their Admiral,
+declared that so long as the government in the hands of General Tuan
+Chi-jui refused to conform to popular wishes by reviving the Nanking
+Provisional Constitution and resummoning the old Parliament, so long
+would the Navy refuse to recognize the authority of the Central
+Government. With the fleet in the hands of the Southern Confederacy,
+which had not yet been formally dissolved, the Peking Government was
+powerless in the whole region of the Yangtsze; consequently, after many
+vain manoeuvres to avoid this reasonable and proper solution, it was at
+last agreed that things should be brought back precisely where they had
+been before the _coup d'etat_ of the 4th November, 1913--the Peking
+Government being reconstituted by means of a coalition cabinet in which
+there would be both nominees of the North and South--the premiership
+remaining in the hands of General Tuan Chi-jui.
+
+On the 28th June a long funeral procession wended its way from the
+Presidential Palace to the railway Station; it was the remains of the
+great dictator being taken to their last resting-place in Honan.
+Conspicuous in this cortege was the magnificent stage-coach which had
+been designed to bear the founder of the new dynasty to his throne but
+which only accompanied him to his grave. The detached attitude of the
+crowds and the studied simplicity of the procession, which was designed
+to be republican, proved more clearly than reams of arguments that
+China--despite herself perhaps--had become somewhat modernized, the
+oldest country in the world being now the youngest republic and timidly
+trying to learn the lessons of youth.
+
+Once Yuan Shih-kai had been buried, a Mandate ordering the summary
+arrest of all the chief monarchist plotters was issued; but the gang of
+corrupt men had already sought safety in ignominious flight; and it was
+understood that so long as they remained on soil under foreign
+jurisdiction, no attempt would be made even to confiscate their goods
+and chattels as would certainly have been done under former governments.
+The days of treachery and double-dealing and cowardly revenge were
+indeed passing away and the new regime was committed to decency and
+fairplay. The task of the new President was no mean one, and in all the
+circumstances if he managed to steer a safe middle course and avoid both
+Caesarism and complete effacement, that is a tribute to his training.
+Born in 1864 in Hupeh, one of the most important mid-Yangtsze provinces,
+President Li Yuan-hung was now fifty-two years old, and in the prime of
+life; but although he had been accustomed to a military atmosphere from
+his earliest youth his policy had never been militaristic. His father
+having been in command of a force in North China for many years, rising
+from the ranks to the post of _Tsan Chiang_ (Lieutenant-Colonel), had
+been constrained to give him the advantage of a thoroughly modern
+training. At the age of 20 he had entered the Naval School at Tientsin;
+whence six years later he had graduated, seeing service in the navy as
+an engineer officer during the Chino-Japanese war of 1894. After that
+campaign he had been invited by Viceroy Chang Chih-tung, then one of the
+most distinguished of the older viceroys, to join his staff at Nanking,
+and had been entrusted with the supervision of the construction of the
+modern forts at the old Southern capital, which played such a notable
+part in the Revolution. When Chang Chih-tung was transferred to the
+Wuchang viceroyalty, General Li Yuan-hung had accompanied him, actively
+participating in the training of the new Hupeh army, and being assisted
+in that work by German instructors. In 1897 he had gone to Japan to
+study educational, military and administrative methods, returning to
+China after a short stay, but again proceeding to Tokio in 1897 as an
+officer attached to the Imperial Guards. In the autumn of the following
+year he had returned to Wuchang and been appointed Commander of the
+Cavalry. Yet another visit was paid by him to Japan in 1902 to attend
+the grand military manoeuvres, these journeys giving him a good working
+knowledge of Japanese, in addition to the English which had been an
+important item in the curriculum of the Naval School, and which he
+understands moderately well. In 1903 he was promoted Brigadier-General,
+being subsequently gazetted as the Commander of the 2nd Division of
+Regulars (_Chang Pei Chun_) of Hupeh. He also constantly held various
+subsidiary posts, in addition to his substantive appointment, connected
+with educational and administrative work of various kinds, and has
+therefore a sound grasp of provincial government. He was
+Commander-in-Chief of the 8th Division during the famous military
+manoeuvres of 1906 at Changtehfu in Honan province, which are said to
+have given birth to the idea of a universal revolt against the Manchus
+by using the army as the chief instrument.
+
+On the memorable day of October 11, 1911, when the standard of revolt
+was raised at Wuchang, somewhat against his will as he was a loyal
+officer, he was elected military Governor, thus becoming the first real
+leader of the Republic. Within the space of ten days his leadership had
+secured the adhesion of fourteen provinces to the Republican cause; and
+though confronted by grave difficulties owing to insufficiency of
+equipment and military supplies, he fought the Northern soldiery for two
+months around Wuchang with varying success. He it was, when the Republic
+had been formally established and the Manchu regime made a thing of the
+past, who worked earnestly to bring about better relations between the
+armies of North and South China which had been arrayed against one
+another during many bitter weeks. It was he, also, who was the first to
+advocate the complete separation of the civil and military
+administration--the administrative powers in the early days of the
+Republic being entirely in the hands of the military governors of the
+provinces who recruited soldiery in total disregard to the wishes of the
+Central Government. Although this reform has even to-day only been
+partially successful, there is no reason to doubt that before the
+Republic is many years older the idea of the military dictating the
+policy and administration of the country will pass away. The so-called
+Second Revolution of 1913 awakened no sympathy in General Li Yuan-hung,
+because he was opposed to internal strife and held that all Chinese
+should work for unity and concerted reform rather than indulge in
+fruitless dissensions. His disapproval of the monarchy movement had been
+equally emphatic in the face of an ugly outlook. He was repeatedly
+approached by the highest personages to give in his adhesion to Yuan
+Shih-kai becoming emperor, but he persistently refused although grave
+fears were publicly expressed that he would be assassinated. Upon the
+formal acceptance of the Throne by Yuan Shih-kai, he had had conferred
+on him a princedom which he steadfastly refused to accept; and when the
+allowances of a prince were brought to him from the Palace he returned
+them with the statement that as he had not accepted the title the money
+was not his. Every effort to break his will proved unavailing, his
+patience and calmness contributing very materially to the vast moral
+opposition which finally destroyed Yuan Shih-kai.
+
+Such was the man who was called upon to preside over the new government
+and parliament which was now assembling in Peking; and certainly it may
+be counted as an evidence of China's traditional luck which brought him
+to the helm. General Li Yuan-hung knew well that the cool and singular
+plan which had been pursued to forge a national mandate for a revival of
+of the empire would take years completely to obliterate, and that the
+octopus-hold of the Military Party--the army being the one effective
+organization which had survived the Revolution--could not be loosened
+in a day,--in fact would have to be tolerated until the nation asserted
+itself and showed that it could and would be master. In the
+circumstances his authority could not but be very limited, disclosing
+itself in passive rather than in active ways. Wishing to be above all a
+constitutional President, he quickly saw that an interregnum must be
+philosophically accepted during which the Permanent Constitution would
+be worked out and the various parties forced to a general agreement; and
+thanks to this decision the year which has now elapsed since Yuan
+Shih-kai's death has been almost entirely eventless, with the exception
+of the crisis which arose over the war-issue, a matter which is fully
+discussed elsewhere.
+
+Meanwhile, in the closing months of 1916, the position was not a little
+singular. Two great political parties had arisen through the
+Revolution--the Kuo Ming Tang or Nationalists, who included all the
+Radical elements, and the Chinputang or Progressives, whose adherents
+were mainly men of the older official classes, and therefore
+conservative. The Yunnan movement, which had led to the overthrow of
+Yuan Shih-kai, had been inspired and very largely directed by the
+scholar Liang Ch'i-chao, a leader of the Chinputang. To this party,
+then, though numerically inferior to the Kuo Ming Tang, was due the
+honour and credit of re-establishing the Republic, the Kuo Ming Tang
+being under a cloud owing to the failure of the Second Revolution of
+1913 which it had engineered. Nevertheless, owing to the Kuo Ming Tang
+being more genuinely republican, since it was mainly composed of younger
+and more modern minds, it was from its ranks that the greatest check to
+militarism sprang; and therefore although its work was necessarily
+confined to the Council-chamber, its moral influence was very great and
+constantly representative of the civilian element as opposed to the
+militarist. By staking everything on the necessity of adhering to the
+Nanking Provisional Constitution until a permanent instrument was drawn
+up, the Kuo Ming Tang rapidly established an ascendancy; for although
+the Nanking Constitution had admittedly failed to bring representative
+government because of the difficulty of defining powers in such a way as
+to make a practical autocracy impossible, it had at least established as
+a basic principle that China could no longer be ruled as a family
+possession, which in itself marked a great advance on all previous
+conceptions. President Li Yuan-hung's policy, in the circumstances, was
+to play the part of a moderator and to seek to bring harmony to a mass
+of heterogeneous elements that had to carry out the practical work of
+government over four hundred millions of people.
+
+His success was at the outset hampered by the appeal the military were
+quick in making to a new method--to offset the power of Parliament in
+Peking. We have already dealt with the evils of the circular telegram in
+China--surely one of the most unexpected results of adapting foreign
+inventions to native life. By means of these telegraphic campaigns a
+rapid exchange of views is made possible among the provincial governors;
+and consequently in the autumn of 1916, inspired by the Military Party,
+a wholly illegal Conference of generals was organized by the redoubtable
+old General Chang Hsun on the Pukow railway for the purpose of overawing
+parliament, and securing that the Military Party retained a controlling
+hand behind the scenes. It is perhaps unnecessary to-day to do more than
+note the fact that the peace of the country was badly strained by this
+procedure; but thanks to moderate counsels and the wisdom of the
+President no open breach occurred and there is reason to believe that
+this experiment will not be repeated,--at least not in the same way.[21]
+
+The difficulty to be solved is of an unique nature. It is not that the
+generals and the Military Party are necessarily reactionary: it is that,
+not belonging to the intellectual-literary portion of the ruling
+elements, they are less advanced and less accustomed to foreign ways,
+and therefore more in touch with the older China which lingers on in the
+vast agricultural districts, and in all those myriad of townships which
+are dotted far and wide across the provinces to the confines of Central
+Asia. Naturally it is hard for a class of men who hold the balance of
+power and carry on much of the actual work of governing to submit to the
+paper decrees of an institution they do not accept as being responsible
+and representative: but many indications are available that when a
+Permanent Constitution has been promulgated, and made an article of
+faith in all the schools, a change for the better will come and the old
+antagonisms gradually disappear.
+
+It is on this Constitution that Parliament has been at work ever since
+it re-assembled in August, 1916, and which is now practically completed.
+Sitting together three times a week as a National Convention, the two
+Houses have subjected the Draft Constitution (which was prepared by a
+Special Parliamentary Drafting Committee) to a very exhaustive
+examination and discussion. Many violent scenes have naturally marked
+the progress of this important work, the two great parties, the Kuo Ming
+Tang and the Chinputang, coming to loggerheads again and again. But in
+the main the debates and the decisions arrived at have been satisfactory
+and important, because they have tended to express in a concrete and
+indisputable form the present state of the Chinese mind and its immense
+underlying commonsense. Remarkable discussions and fierce enmities, for
+instance, marked the final decision not to make the Confucian cult the
+State Religion; but there is not the slightest doubt that in formally
+registering this veritable revolution in the secret stronghold of
+Chinese political thought, a Bastille has been overthrown and the
+ground left clear for the development of individualism and personal
+responsibility in a way which was impossible under the leaden formulae
+of the greatest of the Chinese sages. In defining the relationship which
+must exist between the Central Government and the provinces even more
+formidable difficulties have been encountered, the apostles of
+decentralization and the advocates of centralization refusing for many
+months to agree on the so-called Provincial system, and then fighting a
+battle _a outrance_ on the question of whether this body of law should
+form a chapter in the Constitution or be simply an annexure to the main
+instrument. The agreement which was finally arrived at--to make it part
+and parcel of the Constitution--was masterly in that it has secured that
+the sovereignty of the people will not tend to be expressed in the
+provincial dietines which have now been re-erected (after having been
+summarily destroyed by Yuan Shih-kai), the Central Parliament being left
+the absolute master. This for a number of years will no doubt be more of
+a theory than a practice; but there is every indication that
+parliamentary government will within a limited period be more successful
+in China than in some European countries; and that the Chinese with
+their love of well-established procedure and cautious action, will
+select open debate as the best method of sifting the grain from the
+chaff and deciding every important matter by the vote of the majority.
+Already in the period of 1916-1917 Parliament has more than justified
+its re-convocation by becoming a National Watch Committee.
+Interpellations on every conceivable subject have been constant and
+frequent; fierce verbal assaults are delivered on Cabinet Ministers; and
+slowly but inexorably a real sense of Ministerial responsibility is
+being created, the fear of having to run the gauntlet of Parliament
+abating, if it has not yet entirely destroyed, many malpractices. In the
+opinion of the writer in less than ten years Parliament will have
+succeeded in coalescing the country into an organic whole, and will have
+placed the Cabinet in such close daily relations with it that something
+very similar to the Anglo-Saxon theory of government will be impregnably
+entrenched in Peking. That such a miracle should be possible in extreme
+Eastern Asia is one more proof that there are no victories beyond the
+capacity of the human mind.
+
+[Illustration: General Tsao-ao, the Hero of the Yunnan Rebellion of
+1915-16, who died from the effects of the campaign.]
+
+[Illustration: Liang Shih-yi, who was the Power behind Yuan Shih-kai,
+now proscribed and living in exile at Hong-Kong.]
+
+Meanwhile, for the time being, in China as in countries ten thousand
+miles away, ministerial irresponsibility is the enemy; that is to say
+that so-called Cabinet-rule, with the effacement of the Chief Executive,
+has tended to make Cabinet Ministers removed from effective daily
+control. All sorts of things are done which should not be done and men
+are still in charge of portfolios who should be summarily expelled from
+the capital for malpractices.[22] But although Chinese are slow to take
+action and prefer to delay all decisions until they have about them the
+inexorable quality which is associated with Fate, there is not the
+slightest doubt that in the long run the dishonest suffer, and an
+increasingly efficient body of men take their place. From every point of
+view then there is reason for congratulation in the present position,
+and every hope that the future will unroll peacefully.
+
+A visit to Parliament under the new regime is a revelation to most men:
+the candid come away with an impression which is never effaced from
+their minds. There is a peculiar suggestiveness even in the location of
+the Houses of the National Assembly. They are tucked away in the distant
+Western city immediately under the shadow of the vast Tartar Wall as if
+it had been fully expected when they were called into being that they
+would never justify their existence, and that the crushing weight of the
+great bastion of brick and stone surrounding the capital would soon
+prove to them how futile it was for such palpable intruders to aspire to
+national control. Under Yuan Shih-kai, as under the Manchus, they were
+an exercise in the arm of government, something which was never to be
+allowed to harden into a settled practice. They were first cousins to
+railways, to electrical power, to metalled roadways and all those other
+modern instances beginning to modify an ancient civilization entirely
+based on agriculture; and because they were so distantly related to the
+real China of the farm-yard it was thought that they would always stand
+outside the national life.
+
+That was what the fools believed. Yet in a copy of the rules of
+procedure of the old Imperial Senate (Tzuchengyuan) the writer finds
+this note written in 1910: "The Debates of this body have been
+remarkable during the very first session. They make it seem clear that
+the first National Parliament of 1913 will seize control of China and
+nullify the power of the Throne. Result, revolution--" Though the dating
+is a little confused, the prophecy is worthy of record.
+
+The watchfulness of the special police surrounding the Parliament of
+1916-1917 and the great number of these men also tells a story as
+eloquent as the location of the building. It is not so much that any
+contemplated violence sets these guardians here as the necessity to
+advertise that there has been unconstitutional violence in the past
+which, if possible, will be rigidly defeated in the future. Probably no
+National Assembly in the world has been held up to greater contempt than
+the Parliament of Peking and probably no body deserves it less. An
+afternoon spent in the House of Representatives would certainly surprise
+most open-minded men who have been content to believe that the Chinese
+experiment was what some critics have alleged it to be. The Chinese as a
+people, being used to guild-house proceedings, debates, in which the
+welfare of the majority is decided after an examination of the
+principles at stake, are a very old and well-established custom; and
+though at present there are awkwardnesses and gaucheries to be noted,
+when practice has become better fixed, the common sense of the race will
+abundantly disclose itself and make a lasting mark on contemporary
+history. There can be no doubt about this at all.
+
+Take your seat in the gallery and see for yourself. The first question
+which rises to the lips is--where are the young men, those crude and
+callow youths masquerading as legislators which the vernacular press has
+so excessively lampooned? The majority of the members, so far from being
+young, are men of thirty or forty, or even fifty, with intelligent and
+tired faces that have lost the Spring of youth. Here and there you will
+even see venerable greybeards suffering from rheumy coughs who ought to
+be at home; and though occasionally there is a lithe youngster in
+European clothes with the veneer he acquired abroad not yet completely
+rubbed off, the total impression is that of oldish men who have reached
+years of maturity and who are as representative of the country and as
+good as the country is in a position to-day to provide. No one who knows
+the real China can deny that.
+
+The Continental arrangement of the Members' desks and the raised tribune
+of the Speaker, with its rows of clerks and recorders, make an
+impression of orderliness, tinged nevertheless with a faint
+revolutionary flavour. Perhaps it is the straight black Chinese hair and
+the rich silk clothing, set on a very plain and unadorned background,
+which recall the pictures of the French Revolution. It is somehow
+natural in such circumstances that there should occasionally be dramatic
+outbursts with the blood of offenders bitterly demanded as though we
+were not living in the Twentieth Century when blood alone is admittedly
+no satisfaction. The presence of armed House police at every door, and
+in the front rows of the strangers' gallery as well, contributes to this
+impression which has certain qualities of the theatre about it and is
+oddly stimulating. China at work legislating has already created her
+first traditions: she is proceeding deliberately armed--with the
+lessons of the immediate past fully noted.
+
+This being the home of a literary race, papers and notebooks are on most
+Members' desks. As the electric bells ring sharply an unending
+procession of men file in to take their seats, for there has been a
+recess and the House has been only half-filled. Nearly every one is in
+Chinese dress (_pien-yi_) with the Member's badge pinned conspicuously
+on the breast. The idea speedily becomes a conviction that this after
+all is not extraneous to the nation, but actually of the living flesh, a
+vital and imperative thing. The vastness and audacity of it all cannot
+fail to strike the imaginative mind, for the four or five hundred men
+who are gathered here typify, if they do not yet represent, the four or
+five hundred millions who make up the country. You see as it were the
+nation in profile, a ponderous, slow-moving mass, quickly responsive to
+curious sub-conscious influences--suddenly angry and suddenly calm again
+because Reason has after all always been the great goddess which is
+perpetually worshipped. All are scholarly and deliberate in their
+movements. When the Speaker calls the House in order and the debate
+commences, deep silence comes save for the movement of hundreds of
+nervous hands that touch papers or fidget to and fro. Every man uses
+his hands, particularly when he speaks, not clenched as a European would
+do, but open, with the slim fingers speaking a language of their own,
+twisting, turning, insinuating, deriding, a little history of
+compromises. It would be interesting to write the story of China from a
+study of the hands.
+
+Each man goes to the rostrum to speak, and each has much to say. Soon
+another impression deepens--that the Northerners with their clear-cut
+speech and their fuller voices have an advantage over the Southerners of
+the kind that all public performers know. The mandarin language of
+Peking is after all the mother-language of officialdom, the _madre
+lingua_, less nervous and more precise than any other dialect and
+invested with a certain air of authority which cannot be denied. The
+sharp-sounding, high-pitched Southern voice, though it may argue very
+acutely and rapidly, appears at an increasing disadvantage. There seems
+to be a tendency inherent in it to become querulous, to make its
+pleading sound specious because of over-much speech. These are curious
+little things which have been not without influence in other regions of
+the world.
+
+The applause when it comes proves the same thing as applause does
+everywhere; that if you want to drive home your points in a large
+assembly you must be condensed and simple, using broad, slashing
+arguments. This is precisely what distinguishes melodrama from drama,
+and which explains why excessive analysis is no argument in the popular
+mind. Generally, however, there is not much applause and the voice of
+the speaker wanders through the hall uninterrupted by signs of content
+or discontent. Sometimes, although rather rarely, there is a gust of
+laughter as a point is scored against a hated rival. But it dies away as
+suddenly as it arose--almost before you have noted it, as if it were
+superfluous and must make room for more serious things.
+
+With the closing of a debate there is the vote. An electric bell rings
+again, and with a rough hand the House police close all the exits. The
+clerks come down into the aisles. They seem to move listlessly and
+indifferently; yet very quickly they have checked the membership to
+insure that the excessively large quorum requisite is present. Now the
+Speaker calls for the vote. Massively and stiffly, as at a word of
+command the "ayes" rise in their seats. There is a round of applause;
+the bill has been carried almost unanimously. That, however, is not
+always so. When there is an obstreperous mood abroad, the House will
+decline to proceed with the agenda, and a dozen men will rise at a time
+and speak from behind their desks, trying to talk each other down. The
+Speaker stands patiently wrestling with the problem of procedure--and
+often failing since practice is still in process of being formed. Years
+must elapse before absolutely hard-and-fast rules are established. Still
+the progress already made since August, 1916, is remarkable, and
+something is being learned every day. The business of a Parliament is
+after all to debate--to give voice to the uppermost thoughts in the
+nation's mind; and how those thoughts are expressed is a continual
+exposition of the real state of the nation's political beliefs.
+Parliament is--or should be--a microcosm of the race; parliament is
+never any better or any worse than the mass of the people. The rule of
+the majority as expressed in the voting of the National Assembly must be
+taken as a fundamental thing; China is no exception to the rule--the
+rule of the majority must be decisive. But here another complexity of
+the new Chinese political life enters into the problem. The existence of
+a responsible Cabinet, which is not yet linked to the Legislative body
+in any well-understood way, and which furthermore has frequently acted
+in opposition to the President's office, makes for a daily struggle in
+the administration of the country which is strongly to be condemned and
+which has already led to some ugly clashes. But nevertheless there are
+increasing indications that parliamentary government is making steady
+headway and that when both the Permanent Constitution and the Local
+Government system have been enforced, a new note will be struck. No
+doubt it will need a younger generation in office to secure a complete
+abandonment of all the old ways, but the writer has noted with
+astonishment during the past twelve-month how eager even viceroys
+belonging to the old Manchu regime have become to fall in with the new
+order and to lend their help, a sharp competition to obtain ministerial
+posts being evident in spite of the fact that the gauntlet of Parliament
+has to be run and a majority vote recorded before any appointment is
+valid.
+
+One last anomaly has, however, yet to be done away with in Peking. The
+deposed boy Emperor still resides in the Winter Palace surrounded by a
+miniature court,--a state of affairs which should not be tolerated any
+longer as it no doubt tends to assist the rumours which every now and
+again are mysteriously spread by interested parties that a Restoration
+is imminent. The time has arrived when not only must the Manchu Imperial
+Family be removed far from the capital but a scheme worked out for
+commuting the pension-system of so-called Bannerman families who still
+draw their monthly allowances as under the Manchus, thanks to the
+articles of Favourable Treatment signed at the time of abdication of
+1912. When these two important questions have been settled, imperialism
+in China will tend rapidly to fade into complete oblivion.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[21] Although the events dealt with in Chapter XVI have brought China
+face to face with a new crisis the force of the arguments used here is
+in no wise weakened.
+
+[22] Since this was written two Cabinet Ministers have been summarily
+arrested.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+THE REPUBLIC IN COLLISION WITH REALITY: TWO TYPICAL INSTANCES OF
+"FOREIGN AGGRESSION"
+
+
+Such, then, were the internal conditions which the new administration
+was called upon to face with the death of Yuan Shih-kai. With very
+little money in the National Treasury and with the provinces unable or
+unwilling to remit to the capital a single dollar, it was fortunate that
+at least one public service, erected under foreign pressure, should be
+brilliantly justifying its existence. The Salt Administration,
+efficiently reorganized in the space of three years by the great Indian
+authority, Sir Richard Dane, was now providing a monthly surplus of
+nearly five million dollars; and it was this revenue which kept China
+alive during a troubled transitional period when every one was declaring
+that she must die. By husbanding this hard cash and mixing it liberally
+with paper money, the Central Government has been able since June, 1916,
+to meet its current obligations and to keep the general machinery from
+breaking down.
+
+But in a country such as China new dangers have to be constantly faced
+and smoothed away--the interests of the outer world pressing on the
+country and conflicting with the native interest at a myriad points. And
+in order to illustrate and make clear the sort of daily exacerbation
+which the nation must endure because of the vastness of its territory
+and the octopus-hold of the foreigner we give two typical cases of
+international trouble which have occurred since Yuan Shih-kai's death.
+The first is the well-known Chengchiatun incident which occurred in
+Manchuria in August, 1916: the second is the Lao-hsi-kai affair which
+took place in Tientsin in November of the same year and created a storm
+of rage against France throughout North China which at the moment of
+writing has not yet abated.
+
+The facts about the Chengchiatun incident are incredibly simple and
+merit being properly told. Chengchiatun is a small Mongol-Manchurian
+market-town lying some sixty miles west of the South Manchurian railway
+by the ordinary cart-roads, though as the crow flies the distance is
+much less. The country round about is "new country," the prefecture in
+which Chengchiatun lies being originally purely Mongol territory on
+which Chinese squatted in such numbers that it was necessary to erect
+the ordinary Chinese civil administration. Thirty or forty miles due
+west of the town cultivation practically ceases; and then nothing meets
+the eye but the rolling grasslands of Mongolia, with their sparse
+encampments of nomad horsemen and shepherds which stretch so
+monotonously into the infinities of High Asia.
+
+The region is strategically important because the trade-routes converge
+there from the growing marts of the Taonanfu administration, which is
+the extreme westernly limit of Chinese authority in the Mongolian
+borderland. A rich exchange in hides, furs, skins, cattle and foodstuffs
+has given this frontier town from year to year an increasing importance
+in the eyes of the Chinese who are fully aware of the dangers of a
+laissez aller policy and are determined to protect the rights they have
+acquired by pre-emption. The fact that notorious Mongol brigand-chiefs,
+such as the famous Babachapu who was allied to the Manchu Restoration
+Party and who was said to have been subsidized by the Japanese Military
+Party, had been making Chengchiatun one of their objectives, brought
+concern early in 1916 to the Moukden Governor, the energetic General
+Chang Tso-lin, who in order to cope with the danger promptly established
+a military cordon round the district, with a relatively large reserve
+based on Chengchiatun, drawn from the 28th Army Division. A certain
+amount of desultory fighting months before any one had heard of the town
+had given Chengchiatun the odour of the camp; and when in the summer the
+Japanese began military manoeuvres in the district with various
+scattered detachments, on the excuse that the South Manchuria railway
+zone where they alone had the right under the Portsmouth Peace Treaty to
+be, was too cramped for field exercises, it became apparent that
+dangerous developments might be expected--particularly as a body of
+Japanese infantry was billeted right in the centre of the town.
+
+On the 13th August a Japanese civilian at Chengchiatun--there is a small
+Japanese trading community there--approached a Chinese boy who was
+selling fish. On the boy refusing to sell at the price offered him, the
+Japanese caught hold of him and started beating him. A Chinese soldier
+of the 28th Division who was passing intervened; and a scuffle commenced
+in which other Chinese soldiers joined and which resulted in the
+Japanese being severely handled. After the Chinese had left him, the man
+betook himself to the nearest Japanese post and reported that he had
+been grievously assaulted by Chinese soldiers for no reason whatsoever.
+A Japanese gendarme made a preliminary investigation in company with the
+man; then returning to the Japanese barracks, declared that he could
+find no one in authority; that his attempts at discovering the culprits
+had been resisted; and that he must have help. The Japanese officer in
+command, who was a captain, detailed a lieutenant and twenty men to
+proceed to the Chinese barracks to obtain satisfaction from the Chinese
+Commander--using force if necessary. It was precisely in this way that
+the play was set in motion.
+
+The detachment marched off to the headquarters of the offending Chinese
+detachment, which was billeted in a pawnshop, and tried to force their
+way past a sentry who stood his ground, into the inner courtyards. A
+long parley ensued with lowered bayonets; and at last on the Chinese
+soldier absolutely refusing to give way, the lieutenant gave orders to
+cut him down. There appears to be no doubt about these important
+facts--that is to say, that the act of war was the deliberate attack by
+a Japanese armed detachment on a Chinese sentry who was guarding the
+quarters of his Commander.
+
+A frightful scene followed. It appears that scattered groups of Chinese
+soldiers, some with their arms, and some without, had collected during
+this crisis and point-blank firing at once commenced. The first shots
+appear to have been fired--though this was never proved--by a Chinese
+regimental groom, who was standing with some horses some distance away
+in the gateway of some stabling and who is said to have killed or
+wounded the largest number of Japanese. In any case, seven Japanese
+soldiers were killed outright, five more mortally wounded and four
+severely so, the Chinese themselves losing four killed, besides a number
+of wounded. The remnant of the Japanese detachment after this rude
+reverse managed to retreat with their wounded officer to their own
+barracks where the whole detachment barricaded themselves in, firing for
+many hours at everything that moved on the roads though absolutely no
+attempt was made by the Chinese soldiery to advance against them.
+
+The sound of this heavy firing, and the wild report that many Japanese
+had been killed, had meanwhile spread panic throughout the town, and
+there was a general _sauve qui peut_, a terrible retribution being
+feared. The local Magistrate finally restored some semblance of order;
+and after dark proceeded in person with some notables of the town to the
+Japanese barracks to tender his regrets and to arrange for the removal
+of the Japanese corpses which were lying just as they had fallen, and
+which Chinese custom demanded should be decently cared for, though they
+constituted important and irrefragible evidence of the armed invasion
+which had been practised. The Japanese Commander, instead of meeting
+these conciliatory attempts half-way, thereupon illegally arrested the
+Magistrate and locked him up, being impelled to this action by the
+general fear among his men that a mass attack would be made in the night
+by the Chinese troops in garrison and the whole command wiped out.
+Nothing, however, occurred and on the 14th instant the Magistrate was
+duly released on his sending for his son to take his place as hostage.
+On the 16th the Magistrate had successfully arranged the withdrawal of
+all Chinese troops five miles outside the town to prevent further
+clashes. On the 15th Japanese cavalry and infantry began to arrive in
+large numbers from the South Manchuria railway zone (where they alone
+have the Treaty right to be) and the town of Chengchiatun was
+arbitrarily placed by them in a state of siege.
+
+Here is the stuff of which the whole incident was made: there is nothing
+material beyond the facts stated which illustrate very glaringly the
+manner in which a strong Power acts towards a weak one.
+
+Meanwhile the effect in Tokio of these happenings had been electrical.
+Relying on the well-known Japanese police axiom, that the man who gets
+in his story first is the prosecutor and the accused the guilty party,
+irrespective of what the evidence may be, the newspapers all came out
+with the same account of a calculated attack by "ferocious Chinese
+soldiers" on a Japanese detachment and the general public were asked to
+believe that a number of their enlisted nationals had been deliberately
+and brutally murdered. It was not, however, until more than a week after
+the incident that an official report was published by the Tokio Foreign
+Office, when the following garbled account was distributed far and wide
+as the Japanese case:--
+
+    "When one Kiyokishy Yoshimoto, aged 27, an employe of a Japanese
+    apothecary at Chengchiatun, was passing the headquarters of the
+    Chinese troops on the 13th instant, a Chinese soldier stopped him,
+    and, with some remarks, which were unintelligible to the Japanese,
+    suddenly struck him on the head. Yoshimoto became enraged, but was
+    soon surrounded by a large number of Chinese soldiers and others,
+    who subjected him to all kind of humiliation. As a result of this
+    lawlessness on the part of the Chinese, the Japanese sustained
+    injuries in seven or eight places, but somehow he managed to break
+    away and reach a Japanese police box, where he applied for help. On
+    receipt of this news, a policeman, named Kowase, hastened to the
+    spot, but by the time he arrived there all the offenders had fled.
+    He therefore repaired to the headquarters of the Chinese to lay a
+    complaint, but the sentry stopped him, and presented a pistol at
+    him, and under these circumstances he was obliged to apply to the
+    Japanese Garrison headquarters, where Captain Inone instructed
+    Lieutenant Matsuo with twenty men to escort the policeman to the
+    Chinese headquarters. When the party approached the Chinese
+    headquarters, Chinese troops began to fire, and the policeman and
+    others were either killed or wounded. Despite the fact that the
+    Japanese troops retired, the Chinese troops did not give up firing,
+    but besieged the Japanese garrison, delivering several severe
+    attacks. Soon after the fighting ceased, the Chinese authorities
+    visited the Japanese barracks, and expressed the desire that the
+    affair be settled amicably. It was the original intention of the
+    Japanese troops to fight it out, but they were completely
+    outnumbered, and lest the safety of the Japanese residents be
+    endangered, they stopped fighting. On examination of the dead bodies
+    of seven Japanese soldiers, who were attacked outside the barracks,
+    it was discovered that they had been all slain by the Chinese
+    troops, the bodies bearing marks of violence."
+
+Without entering again into the merits of the case, we would ask those
+who are acquainted with recent history whether it is likely that Chinese
+soldiers, knowing all the pains and penalties attaching to such action,
+would deliberately attack a body of twenty armed Japanese under an
+officer as the Japanese official account states? We believe that no
+impartial tribunal, investigating the matter on the spot, could fail to
+point out the real aggressors and withal lay bare the web of a most
+amazing state of affairs. For in order to understand what occurred, on
+the 13th August, 1916, it is necessary to turn far away from
+Chengchiatun and see what lies behind it all.
+
+At the back of the brain of the Japanese Military Party, which by no
+means represents the Japanese nation or the Japanese Government although
+it exercises a powerful influence on both, is the fixed idea that South
+Manchuria and Inner Mongolia must be turned into a strongly held and
+fortified Japanese _enclave_, if the balance of power in Eastern Asia is
+to be maintained. Pursuant to this idea, Japanese diplomacy was induced
+many months ago to concentrate its efforts on winning--if not
+wringing--from Russia the strategically important strip of railway south
+of the Sungari River, because (and this should be carefully noted) with
+the Sungari as the undisputed dividing-line between the Russian and
+Japanese spheres in Manchuria, and with Japanese shallow-draft gun-boats
+navigating that waterway and entering the Nonni river, it would be easily
+possible for Japan to complete a "Continental quadrilateral" which would
+include Korea, South Manchuria and Inner Mongolia, the extreme western
+barrier of which would be the new system of Inner Mongolian railways
+centring round Taonanfu and terminating at Jehol, for which Japan already
+holds the building rights[23]. Policing rights--in the outer zone of this
+_enclave_,--with a total exclusion of all Chinese garrisons, is the
+preliminary goal towards which the Japanese Military Party has been long
+plainly marching; and long before anybody had heard of Chengchiatun, a
+scheme of reconnoitring detachments had been put in force to spy out the
+land and form working alliances with the Mongol bands in order to harass
+and drive away all the representatives of Chinese authority. What
+occurred, then, at Chengchiatun might have taken place at any one of
+half-a-dozen other places in this vast and little-known region whither
+Japanese detachments have silently gone; and if Chinese diplomacy in the
+month of August, 1916, was faced with a rude surprise, it was only what
+political students had long been expecting. For though Japan should be
+the real defender of Chinese liberties, it is a fact that in Chinese
+affairs Japanese diplomacy has been too long dictated to by the Military
+Party in Tokio and attempts nothing save when violence allows it to tear
+from China some fresh portion of her independence.
+
+And here we reach the crux of the matter. One of the little known
+peculiarities of the day lies in the fact that Japan is the land of
+political inaction _because there is no tradition of action save that
+which has been built up by the military and naval chiefs since the
+Chinese war of_ 1894-95. Having only visualized the world in
+international terms during two short decades, there has been no time for
+a proper tradition to be created by the civil government of Japan; and
+because there is no such tradition, the island empire of the East has no
+true foreign policy and is at the mercy of manufactured crises, being
+too often committed to petty adventures which really range her on the
+side of those in Europe the Allies have set themselves to destroy. It is
+for this reason that the Chinese are consistently treated as though they
+were hewers of wood and drawers of water, helots who are occasionally
+nattered in the columns of the daily press and yet are secretly looked
+upon as men who have been born merely to be cuffed and conquered. The
+Moukden Governor, General Chang Tso-lin, discussing the Chengchiatun
+affair with the writer, put the matter in a nutshell. Striking the table
+he exclaimed: "After all we are not made of wood like this, we too are
+flesh and blood and must defend our own people. A dozen times I have
+said, 'Let them come and take Manchuria openly if they dare, but let
+them cease their childish intrigues.' Why do they not do so? Because
+they are not sure they can swallow us--not at all sure. Do you
+understand? We are weak, we are stupid, we are divided, but we are
+innumerable, and in the end, if they persist, China will burst the
+Japanese stomach."
+
+Such passionate periods are all very well, but when it comes to the
+sober business of the council chamber it is a regrettable fact that
+Chinese, although foreign friends implore them to do so, do not properly
+use the many weapons in their armoury. Thus in this particular case,
+instead of at once hurrying to Chengchiatun some of the many foreign
+advisers who sit kicking their heels in Peking from one end of the year
+to the other and who number competent jurisconsults, China did next to
+nothing. No proper report was drawn up on the spot; sworn statements
+were not gathered, nor were witnesses brought to Peking; and it
+therefore happened that when Japan filed her demands for redress, China
+had not in her possession anything save an utterly inadequate defence.
+Mainly because of this she was forced to agree to forgoing any direct
+discussion of the rights and wrongs of the case, proceeding directly to
+negotiations based on the various claims which Japan filed and which
+were as follows:--
+
+    1. Punishment of the General commanding the 28th Division.
+
+    2. The dismissal of officers at Chengchiatun responsible for the
+    occurrence as well as the severe punishment of those who took direct
+    part in the fracas.
+
+    3. Proclamations to be posted ordering all Chinese soldiers and
+    civilians in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia to refrain
+    from any act calculated to provoke a breach of the peace with
+    Japanese soldiers or civilians.
+
+    4. China to agree to the stationing of Japanese police officers in
+    places in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia where their
+    presence was considered necessary for the protection of Japanese
+    subjects. China also to agree to the engagement by the officials of
+    South Manchuria of Japanese police advisers.
+
+    _And in addition_:--
+
+    1. Chinese troops stationed in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner
+    Mongolia to employ a certain number of Japanese Military officers as
+    advisers.
+
+    2. Chinese Military Cadet schools to employ a certain number of
+    Japanese Military officers as instructors.
+
+    3. The Military Governor of Moukden to proceed personally to Port
+    Arthur to the Japanese Military Governor of Kwantung to apologize
+    for the occurrence and to tender similar personal apologies to the
+    Japanese Consul General in Moukden.
+
+    4. Adequate compensation to be paid by China to the Japanese
+    sufferers and to the families of those killed.
+
+The merest tyro will see at once that so far from caring very much about
+the killing of her soldiery, Japan was bent on utilizing the opportunity
+to gain a certain number of new rights and privileges in the zone of
+Southern Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia--notably an extension of
+her police and military-supervision rights. In spite, however, of the
+faulty procedure to which she had consented, China showed considerable
+tenacity in the course of negotiations which lasted nearly half a year,
+and by the end of January, 1917, had whittled down the question of
+Japanese compensation to fairly meagre proportions. To be precise the
+two governments agreed to embody by the exchange of Notes the five
+following stipulations:--
+
+    1. The General commanding the 28th Division to be reprimanded.
+
+    2. Officers responsible to be punished according to law. If the law
+    provides for severe punishment, such punishment will be inflicted.
+
+    3. Proclamations to be issued enjoining Chinese soldiers and
+    civilians in the districts where there is mixed residence to accord
+    considerate treatment to Japanese soldiers and civilians.
+
+    4. The Military Governor of Moukden to send a representative to Port
+    Arthur to convey his regret when the Military Governor of Kwantung
+    and Japanese Consul General at Moukden are there together.
+
+    5. A solatium of $500 (Five Hundred Dollars) to be given to the
+    Japanese merchant Yoshimoto.
+
+But though the incident was thus nominally closed, and amicable
+relations restored, the most important point--the question of Japanese
+police-rights in Southern Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia--was left
+precisely where it had been before, the most vigorous Chinese protests
+not having induced Japan to abate in the slightest her pretensions.
+During previous years a number of Japanese police-stations and
+police-boxes had been established in defiance of the local authorities
+in these regions, and although China in these negotiations recorded her
+strongest possible objection to their presence as being the principal
+cause of the continual friction between Chinese and Japanese, Japan
+refused to withdraw from her contention that they did not constitute any
+extension of the principle of extraterritoriality, and that indeed
+Japanese police, distributed at such points as the Japanese consular
+authorities considered necessary, must be permanently accepted. Here
+then is a matter which will require careful consideration when the
+Powers meet to revise their Chinese Treaties as they must revise them
+after the world-war; for Japan in Manchuria is fundamentally in no
+different a position from England in the Yangtsze Valley and what
+applies to one must apply to the other. The new Chinese police which are
+being distributed in ever greater numbers throughout China form an
+admirable force and are superior to Japanese police in the performance
+of nearly all their duties. It is monstrous that Japan, as well as other
+Powers, should act in such a reprehensible manner when the Chinese
+administration is doing all it can to provide efficient guardians of the
+peace.
+
+[Illustration: The Famous or Infamous General Chang-Hsun, the leading
+Reactionary in China to-day, who still commands a force of 30,000 men
+astride of the Pukow Railway.]
+
+[Illustration: The Bas-relief in a Peking Temple, well illustrating
+Indo-Chinese influences.]
+
+The second case was one in which French officialdom by a curious act of
+folly gravely alienated Chinese sympathies and gave a powerful weapon to
+the German propaganda in China at the end of 1916. The Lao-hsi-kai
+dispute, which involved a bare 333 acres of land in Tientsin, has now
+taken its place beside the Chengchiatun affair, and has become a leading
+case in that great dossier of griefs which many Chinese declare make up
+the corpus of Euro-Chinese relations. Here again the facts are
+absolutely simple and absolutely undisputed. In 1902 the French consular
+authorities in Tientsin filed a request to have their Concession
+extended on the ground that they were becoming cramped. The Chinese
+authorities, although not wishing to grant the request and indeed
+ignoring it for a long time, were finally induced to begin fitful
+negotiations; and in October, 1916, after having passed through various
+processes of alteration, reduction, and re-statement during the interval
+of fourteen years, the issue had been so fined down that a virtual
+agreement regarding the administration of the new area had been
+reached--an agreement which the Peking Government was prepared to put
+into force subject to one reasonable stipulation, that the local
+opposition to the new grant of territory which was very real, as Chinese
+feel passionately on the subject of the police-control of their
+land-acreage, was first overcome. The whole essence or soul of the
+disputes lay therein: that the lords of the soil, the people of China,
+and in this case more particularly the population of Tientsin, should
+accept the decision arrived at which was that a joint Franco-Chinese
+administration be established under a Chinese Chairman.
+
+When the terms of this proposed agreement were communicated to the
+Tientsin Consulate by the French Legation the arrangement did not please
+the French Consul-General, who was under transfer to Shanghai and who
+proposed to settle the case to the satisfaction of his nationals before
+he left. There is absolutely no dispute about this fact either--namely
+that the main pre-occupation of a consular officer, charged primarily
+under the Treaties with the simple preservation of law and order among
+his nationals, was the closing-up of a vexatious outstanding case, by
+force if necessary, before he handed over his office to his successor.
+It was with this idea that an ultimatum was drawn up by the French
+Consul General and, having been weakly approved by the French Legation,
+was handed to the Chinese local authorities. It gave them a time-limit
+of twenty-four hours in which to effect the complete police evacuation
+of the coveted strip of territory on the ground that the delay in the
+signature of a formal Protocol had been wilful and deliberate and had
+closed the door to further negotiations; and as no response came at the
+end of the time-limit, an open invasion of Chinese territory was
+practised by an armed French detachment; nine uniformed Chinese
+constables on duty being forcibly removed and locked up in French
+barracks and French sentries posted on the disputed boundary.
+
+The result of this misguided action was an enormous Chinese outcry and
+the beginning of a boycott of the French in North China,--and this in
+the middle of a war when France has acted with inspiring nobility. Some
+2,000 native police, servants and employe's promptly deserted the French
+Concession _en masse_; popular unions were formed to keep alive
+resentment; and although in the end the arrested police were set at
+liberty, the friendly intervention of the Allies proved unable to effect
+a settlement of the case which at the moment of writing remains
+precisely where it was a year ago.[24]
+
+Here you have the matter of foreign interests in China explained in the
+sense that they appear to Chinese. It is not too much to say that this
+illustration of the deliberate lawlessness, which has too often been
+practised in the past by consuls who are simply Justices of the Peace,
+would be incredible elsewhere; and yet it is this lawlessness which has
+come to be accepted as part and parcel of what is called "policy" in
+China because in the fifty years preceding the establishment of the
+Republic a weak and effeminate mandarinate consistently sought safety in
+surrenders. It is this lawlessness which must at all costs be suppressed
+if we are to have a happy future. The Chinese people have so far
+contented themselves by pacific retaliation and have not exploded into
+rage; but those who see in the gospel of boycott an ugly manifestation
+of what lies slumbering should give thanks nightly that they live in a
+land where reason is so supreme. Think of what might not happen in China
+if the people were not wholly reasonable! Throughout the length and
+breadth of the land you have small communities of foreigners, mere drops
+in a mighty ocean of four hundred millions, living absolutely secure
+although absolutely at the mercy of their huge swarms of neighbours. All
+such foreigners--or nearly all--have come to China for purposes of
+profit; they depend for their livelihood on co-operation with the
+Chinese; and once that co-operation ceases they might as well be dead
+and buried for all the good residence will do them. In such
+circumstances it would be reasonable to suppose that a certain decency
+would inspire their attitude, and that a policy of give-and-take would
+always be sedulously practised; and we are happy to say that there is
+more of this than there used to be. It is only when incidents such as
+the Chengchiatun and Laihsikai affairs occur that the placid population
+is stirred to action. Even then, instead of turning and rending the many
+little defenceless communities--as European mobs would certainly
+do--they simply confine themselves to boycotting the offenders and
+hoping that this evidence of their displeasure will finally induce the
+world to believe that they are determined to get reasonable treatment.
+The Chinese as a people may be very irritating in the slowness with
+which they do certain things--though they are as quick in business as
+the quickest Anglo-Saxon--but that is no excuse why men who call
+themselves superior should treat them with contempt. The Chinese are the
+first to acknowledge that it will take them a generation at least to
+modernize effectively their country and their government; but they
+believe that having erected a Republic and having declared themselves as
+disciples of the West they are justified in expecting the same treatment
+and consideration which are to be given after the war even to the
+smallest and weakest nations of Europe.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[23] Russian diplomats now deny that the Japanese proposals regarding
+the cession of the railway south of the Sungari river have ever been
+formally agreed to.
+
+[24] A further illustration of the action of French diplomacy in China
+has just been provided (April, 1917) in the protest lodged by France
+against the building of a railway in Kwangsi Province by American
+engineers with American capital--France claiming _exclusive rights_ in
+Kwangsi by virtue of a letter sent by the Chinese Minister of Foreign
+Affairs to the French Legation in 1914 as settlement for a frontier
+dispute in that year. The text of the letter is as follows:
+
+"The dispute that rose in consequence of the disturbance at the border
+of Annam and Kwangsi has been examined into by the Joint Committee
+detailed by both parties concerned, and a conclusion has been reached to
+the effect that all matters relating to the solution of the case would
+be carried out in accordance with the request of Your Excellency.
+
+"In order to demonstrate the especially good friendly relations existing
+between the two countries, the Republican Government assures Your
+Excellency that in case of a railway construction or a mining enterprise
+being undertaken in Kwangsi Province in the future, for which foreign
+capital is required, France would first be consulted for a loan of the
+necessary capital. On such an occasion, the Governor of Kwangsi will
+directly negotiate with a French syndicate and report to the
+Government."
+
+It is high time that the United States raises the whole question of the
+open door in China again, and refuses to tolerate any longer the old
+disruptive and dog-in-the-manger policy of the Powers. America is now
+happily in a position to inaugurate a new era in the Far East as in the
+Far West and to stop exploitation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+CHINA AND THE WAR
+
+
+The question of Chinese sentiments on the subject of the war, as well as
+the precise relations between the Chinese Government and the two groups
+of belligerents, are matters which have been totally misunderstood. To
+those who have grasped the significance of the exhaustive preceding
+account of the Republic in travail, this statement should not cause
+surprise; for China has been in no condition to play anything but an
+insignificant and unsatisfactory role in world-politics.
+
+When the world-war broke out China was still in the throes of her
+domestic troubles and without any money at all in her Central Treasury;
+and although Yuan Shih-kai, on being suddenly confronted with an
+unparalleled international situation, did initiate certain negotiations
+with the German Legation with a view to securing a cancellation of the
+Kiaochow lease, the ultimatum which Japan dispatched to Germany on the
+15th August, 1914, completely nullified his tentative proposals. Yuan
+Shih-kai had, indeed, not been in the slightest degree prepared for such
+a sensational development as war between Japan and Germany over the
+question of a cruiser-base established on territory leased from China;
+and although he considered the possibility of sending a Chinese force to
+co-operate in the attack on the German stronghold, that project was
+never matured, whilst his subsequent contrivances, notably the
+establishment of a so-called war-zone in Shantung, were without
+international value, and attracted no attention save in Japan.
+
+Chinese, however, did not remain blind to the trend of events. After the
+fall of Tsingtao and the subsequent complications with Japan, which so
+greatly served to increase the complexities of a nebulous situation,
+certain lines of thought insensibly developed. That the influential
+classes in China should have desired that Germany should by some means
+rehabilitate herself in Europe and so be placed in a position to
+chastise a nation that for twenty years had brought nothing but sorrow
+to them was perhaps only natural; and it is primarily to this one cause
+that so-called sympathy with Germany during the first part of the war
+has been due. But it must also be noticed that the immense German
+propaganda in China during the first two years of the war, coupled with
+the successes won in Russia and elsewhere, powerfully impressed the
+population--not so much because they were attracted by the feats of a
+Power that had enthroned militarism, but because they wrongly supposed
+that sooner or later the effects of this military display would be not
+only to secure the relaxation of the Japanese grip on the country but
+would compel the Powers to re-cast their pre-war policies in China and
+abandon their attempts at placing the country under financial
+supervision. Thus, by the irony of Fate, Germany in Eastern Asia for the
+best part of 1914, 1915 and 1916, stood for the aspirations of the
+oppressed--a moral which we may very reasonably hope will not escape the
+attention of the Foreign Offices of the world. Nor must it be forgotten
+that the modern Chinese army, being like the Japanese, largely
+Germany-trained and Germany-armed, had a natural predilection for
+Teutonism; and since the army, as we have shown, plays a powerful role
+in the politics of the Republic, public opinion was greatly swayed by
+what it proclaimed through its accredited organs.
+
+Be this as it may, it was humanly impossible for such a vast country
+with such vast resources in men and raw materials to remain permanently
+quiescent during an universal conflagration when there was so much to be
+salvaged. Slowly the idea became general in China that something had to
+be done; that is that a state of technical neutrality would lead nowhere
+save possibly to Avernus.
+
+As early as November, 1915, Yuan Shih-kai and his immediate henchmen had
+indeed realized the internal advantages to be derived from a formal
+war-partnership with the signatories of the Pact of London, the impulse
+to the movement being given by certain important shipments of arms and
+ammunition from China which were then made. A half-surreptitious
+attempt to discuss terms in Peking caused no little excitement, the
+matter being, however, only debated in very general terms. The principal
+item proposed by the Peking government was characteristically the
+stipulation that an immediate loan of two million pounds should be made
+to China, in return for her technical belligerency. But when the
+proposal was taken to Tokio, Japan rightly saw that its main purpose was
+simply to secure an indirect foreign endorsement of Yuan Shih-kai's
+candidature as Emperor; and for that reason she threw cold-water on the
+whole project. To subscribe to a formula, which besides enthroning Yuan
+Shih-kai would have been a grievous blow to her Continental ambitions,
+was an unthinkable thing; and therefore the manoeuvre was foredoomed to
+failure.
+
+The death of Yuan Shih-kai in the summer of 1916 radically altered the
+situation. Powerful influences were again set to work to stamp out the
+German cult and to incline the minority of educated men who control the
+destinies of the country to see that their real interests could only lie
+with the Allies, who were beginning to export Chinese man-power as an
+auxiliary war-aid and who were very anxious to place the whole matter on
+a sounder footing. Little real progress was, however, made in the face
+of the renewed German efforts to swamp the country with their
+propaganda. By means of war-maps, printed in English and Chinese, and
+also by means of an exhaustive daily telegraphic service which hammered
+home every possible fact illustrative of German invincibility, the
+German position in China, so far from being weakened, was actually
+strengthened during the period when Rumania was being overrun. By a
+singular destiny, any one advocating an alliance with the Allies was
+bitterly attacked not only by the Germans but by the Japanese as
+well--this somewhat naive identification of Japan's political interest
+with those of an enemy country being an unique feature of the situation
+worthy of permanent record.
+
+It was not until President Wilson sent out his Peace offering of the
+19th December, 1916, that a distinct change came. On this document being
+formally communicated to the Chinese Government great interest was
+aroused, and the old hopes were revived that it would be somehow
+possible for China to gain entry at the definitive Peace Congress which
+would settle beyond repeal the question of the disposal of Kiaochow and
+the whole of German interests in Shantung Province,--a subject of
+burning interest to the country not only because of the harsh treatment
+which had been experienced at the hands of Japan, but because the
+precedent established in 1905 at the Portsmouth Treaty was one which it
+was felt must be utterly shattered if China was not to abandon her claim
+of being considered a sovereign international State. On that occasion
+Japan had simply negotiated direct with Russia concerning all matters
+affecting Manchuria, dispatching a Plenipotentiary to Peking, after the
+Treaty of Peace had been signed, to secure China's adhesion to all
+clauses _en bloc_ without discussion. True enough, by filing the
+Twenty-one Demands on China in 1915--when the war was hardly half-a-year
+old--and by forcing China's assent to all Shantung questions under the
+threat of an Ultimatum, Japan had reversed the Portsmouth Treaty
+procedure and apparently settled the issues at stake for all time;
+nevertheless the Chinese hoped when the facts were properly known to the
+world that this species of diplomacy would not be endorsed, and that
+indeed the Shantung question could be reopened.
+
+Consequently great pains were taken at the Chinese Foreign Office to
+draft a reply to the Wilson Note which would tell its own story. The
+authorized translation of the document handed to the American Legation
+on the 8th January has therefore a peculiar political interest. It runs
+as follows:--
+
+    "I have examined with the care which the gravity of the question
+    demands the note concerning peace which President Wilson has
+    addressed to the Governments of the Allies and the Central Powers
+    now at war and the text of which Your Excellency has been good
+    enough to transmit to me under instructions of your Government.
+
+    "China, a nation traditionally pacific, has recently again
+    manifested her sentiments in concluding treaties concerning the
+    pacific settlement of international disputes, responding thus to the
+    voeux of the Peace Conference held at the Hague.
+
+    "On the other hand, the present war, by its prolongation, has
+    seriously affected the interests of China, more so perhaps than
+    those of other Powers which have remained neutral. She is at present
+    at a time of reorganization which demands economically and
+    industrially the co-operation of foreign countries, a co-operation
+    which a large number of them are unable to accord on account of the
+    war in which they are engaged.
+
+    "In manifesting her sympathy for the spirit of the President's
+    Note, having in view the ending as soon as possible of the
+    hostilities, China is but acting in conformity not only with her
+    interests but also with her profound sentiments.
+
+    "On account of the extent which modern wars are apt to assume and
+    the repercussions which they bring about, their effects are no
+    longer limited to belligerent States. All countries are interested
+    in seeing wars becoming as rare as possible. Consequently China
+    cannot but show satisfaction with the views of the Government and
+    people of the United States of America who declare themselves ready,
+    and even eager, to co-operate when the war is over, by all proper
+    means to assure the respect of the principle of the equality of
+    nations, whatever their power may be, and to relieve them of the
+    peril of wrong and violence. China is ready to join her efforts with
+    theirs for the attainment of such results which can only be obtained
+    through the help of all."
+
+Already, then, before there had been any question of Germany's ruthless
+submarine war necessitating a decisive move, China had commenced to show
+that she could not remain passive during a world-conflict which was
+indirectly endangering her interests. America, by placing herself in
+direct communication with the Peking Government on the subject of a
+possible peace, had given a direct hint that she was solicitous of
+China's future and determined to help her as far as possible. All this
+was in strict accordance with the traditional policy of the United
+States in China, a policy which although too idealistic to have had much
+practical value--being too little supported by battleships and bayonets
+to be respected--has nevertheless for sixty years tempered the wind to
+the shorn lamb. The ground had consequently been well prepared for the
+remarkable denouement which came on the 9th February, 1917, and which
+surprised all the world.
+
+On the fourth of that month the United States formally communicated with
+China on the subject of the threatened German submarine war against
+neutral shipping and invited her to associate herself with America in
+breaking-off diplomatic relations with Germany. China had meanwhile
+received a telegraphic communication from the Chinese Minister in Berlin
+transmitting a Note from the German Government making known the measures
+endangering all merchant vessels navigating the prescribed zones. The
+effect of these two communications on the mind of the Chinese Government
+was at first admittedly stunning and very varied expressions of opinion
+were heard in Peking. For the first time in the history of the country
+the government had been invited to take a step which meant the
+inauguration of a definite Foreign policy from which there could be no
+retreat. For four days a discussion raged which created the greatest
+uneasiness; but by the 8th February, President Li Yuan-hung had made up
+his mind--the final problem being simply the "conversion" of the
+Military Party to the idea that a decisive step, which would for ever
+separate them from Germany, must at last be taken. It is known that the
+brilliant Scholar Liang Ch'i-chao, who was hastily summoned to Peking,
+proved a decisive influence and performed the seemingly impossible in a
+few hours' discussion. Realizing at once the advantages which would
+accrue from a single masculine decision he advised instant action in
+such a convincing way that the military leaders surrendered. Accordingly
+on the 9th February the presence of the German Minister was requested at
+the Chinese Foreign Office when the following Note was read to him and
+subsequently transmitted telegraphically to Berlin.
+
+    Your Excellency:
+
+    A telegraphic communication has been received from the Chinese
+    Minister at Berlin transmitting a note from the German Government
+    dated February 1st, 1917, which makes known that the measures of
+    blockade newly adopted by the Government of Germany will, from that
+    day, endanger neutral merchant vessels navigating in certain
+    prescribed zones.
+
+    The new measures of submarine warfare, inaugurated by Germany,
+    imperilling the lives and property of Chinese citizens to even a
+    greater extent than the measures previously taken which have already
+    cost so many human lives to China, constitute a violation of the
+    principles of public international law at present in force; the
+    tolerance of their application would have as a result the
+    introduction into international law of arbitrary principles
+    incompatible with even legitimate commercial intercourse between
+    neutral states and between neutral states and belligerent powers.
+
+    The Chinese Government, therefore, protests energetically to the
+    Imperial German Government against the measures proclaimed on
+    February 1st, and sincerely hopes that with a view to respecting the
+    rights of neutral states and to maintaining the friendly relations
+    between these two countries, the said measures will not be carried
+    out.
+
+    In case, contrary to its expectations, its protest be ineffectual
+    the Government of the Chinese Republic will be constrained, to its
+    profound regret, to sever the diplomatic relations at present
+    existing between the two countries. It is unnecessary to add that
+    the attitude of the Chinese Government has been dictated purely by
+    the desire to further the cause of the world's peace and by the
+    maintenance of the sanctity of international law.
+
+    I avail myself of this opportunity to renew to Your Excellency the
+    assurance of my highest consideration.
+
+At the same time the following reply was handed to the American Minister
+in Peking thus definitely clinching the matter:
+
+    Your Excellency:
+
+    I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's
+    Note of the 4th February, 1917, informing me that the Government of
+    the United States of America, in view of the adoption by the German
+    Government of its new policy of submarine warfare on the 1st of
+    February, has decided to take certain action which it judges
+    necessary as regards Germany.
+
+    The Chinese Government, like the President of the United States of
+    America, is reluctant to believe that the German Government will
+    actually carry into execution those measures which imperil the lives
+    and property of citizens of neutral states and jeopardize the
+    commerce, even legitimate, between neutrals as well as between
+    neutrals and belligerents and which tend, if allowed to be enforced
+    without opposition, to introduce a new principle into public
+    international law.
+
+    The Chinese Government being in accord with the principles set forth
+    in Your Excellency's note and firmly associating itself with the
+    Government of the United States, has taken similar action by
+    protesting energetically to the German Government against the new
+    measures of blockade. The Chinese Government also proposes to take
+    such action in the future as will be deemed necessary for the
+    maintenance of the principles of international law.
+
+    I avail myself of this opportunity to renew to Your Excellency the
+    assurance of my highest consideration.
+
+    His Excellency Paul S. Reinsch,
+    Envoy Extraordinary & Minister Plenipotentiary of
+    The United States of America.
+
+When these facts became generally known an extraordinary ferment was
+noticeable. What efforts had to be made to overcome the not
+inconsiderable opposition of the Military Party who were opposed to any
+departure from a policy of passive neutrality need not now be set down;
+but it is sufficient to state that the decision arrived at was in every
+sense a victory of the younger intellectual forces over the older
+mandarinate, whose traditions of _laissez faire_ and spineless diplomacy
+had hitherto cost the country so dear. A definite and far-reaching
+Foreign Policy had at last been inaugurated. By responding rapidly and
+firmly to the invitation of the United States to associate herself with
+the stand taken against Germany's piratical submarine warfare, China has
+undoubtedly won for herself a new place in the world's esteem. Both in
+Europe and America the news of this development awakened
+well-understandable enthusiasm, and convinced men that the Republic at
+last stood for something vital and real. Until the 9th February, 1917,
+what China had been doing was not really to maintain her neutrality,
+since she had been unable to defend her territory from being made a
+common battleground in 1914: she had been engaged in guarding and
+perpetuating her traditional impotency. For whilst it may be accurate to
+declare--a fact which few Westerners have realized--that to the mass of
+the Chinese nation the various members of the European Family are
+undistinguishable from one another, there being little to choose in
+China between a Russian or a German, an Englishman or an Austrian, a
+Frenchman or a Greek, the trade-contact of a century had certainly
+taught to a great many that there was profit in certain directions and
+none in certain others. It was perfectly well-known, for instance, that
+England stood for a sea-empire; that the sea was an universal road; that
+British ships, both mercantile and military, were the most numerous; and
+that other things being equal it must primarily be Britain more than any
+other European country which would influence Chinese destinies. But the
+British Alliance with Japan had greatly weakened the trust which
+originally existed; and this added to the fact that Germany, although
+completely isolated and imprisoned by the sea, still maintained herself
+intact by reason of her marvellous war-machine, which had ploughed
+forward with such horrible results in a number of directions, had made
+inaction seem the best policy. And yet, although the Chinese may be
+pardoned for not forming clear concepts regarding the rights and wrongs
+of the present conflict, they had undoubtedly realized that it was
+absolutely essential for them not to remain outside the circle of
+international friendships when a direct opportunity was offered them to
+step within.
+
+It was a sudden inkling of these things which now dawned on the public
+mind and slowly awakened enthusiasm. For the first time since Treaty
+relations with the Powers had been established Chinese diplomatic action
+had swept beyond the walls of Peking and embraced world-politics within
+its scope. The Confucianist conception of the State, as being simply a
+regional creation, a thing complete in itself and all sufficient because
+it was locked to the past and indifferent to the future, had hitherto
+been supreme, foreign affairs being the result of unwilling contact at
+sea-ports or in the wastes of High Asia where rival empires meet. To
+find Chinese--five years after the inauguration of their Republic--ready
+to accept literally and loyally in the western way all the duties and
+obligations which their rights of eminent domain confer was a great and
+fine discovery. It has been supposed by some that a powerful role was
+played in this business by the temptation to benefit materially by an
+astute move: that is that China was greatly influenced in her decision
+by the knowledge that the denouncing of the German treaties would
+instantly suspend the German Boxer indemnity and pour into the depleted
+Central Treasury a monthly surplus of nearly two million Mexican
+dollars. Paradoxical as it may sound in a country notoriously
+hard-pressed for cash, monetary considerations played no part whatever
+in convincing the Peking Government that the hour for action had
+arrived; nor again was there any question of real hostility to a nation
+which is so far removed from the East as to be meaningless to the
+masses. The deep, underlying, decisive influence was simply
+expediency--the most subtle of all political reasons and the hardest to
+define. But just as Britain declared war because the invasion of Belgium
+brought to a head all the vague grounds for opposition to German policy;
+and just as America broke off relations because the scrapping of
+undertaking after undertaking regarding the sea-war made it imperative
+for her to act, so did China choose the right moment to enunciate the
+doctrine of her independence by voicing her determination to hold to the
+whole corpus of international sanctions on which her independence
+finally rests. In the last analysis, then, the Chinese note of the 9th
+February to the German Government was a categorical and unmistakable
+reply to all the insidious attempts which had been made since the
+beginning of the war to place her outside and beyond the operation of
+the Public Law of Europe; and it is solely and entirely in that light
+that her future actions must be judged. The leaders who direct the
+destinies of China became fully prepared for a state of belligerency
+from the moment they decided to speak; but they could not but be
+supremely anxious concerning the expression of that belligerency, since
+their international position had for years been such that a single false
+move might cripple them.
+
+Let us make this clear. Whilst China has been from the first fully
+prepared to co-operate with friendly Powers in the taking of
+war-measures which would ultimately improve her world-position, she has
+not been prepared to surrender the initiative in these matters into
+foreign hands. The argument that the mobilization of her resources could
+only be effectively dealt with by specially designated foreigners, for
+instance, has always been repellent to her because she knows from bitter
+experience that although Japan has played little or no part in the war,
+and indeed classifies herself as a semi-belligerent, the Tokio
+Government would not hesitate to use any opportunity which presented
+itself in China for selfish ends; and by insisting that as she is on the
+spot she is the most competent to insure the effectiveness of Chinese
+co-operation, attempt to tighten her hold on the country. It is a fact
+which is self-evident to observers on the spot that ever since the coup
+of the Twenty-one Demands, many Japanese believe that their country has
+succeeded in almost completely infeodating China and has become the
+sovereign arbitrator of all quarrels, as well as the pacificator of the
+Eastern World. Statements which were incautiously allowed to appear in
+the Japanese Press a few days prior to the Chinese Note of the 9th
+February disclose what Japan really thought on the subject of China
+identifying herself with the Allies. For instance, the following, which
+bears the hall-mark of official inspiration, reads very curiously in the
+light of after-events:
+
+    ... "Dispatches from Peking say that England and France have already
+    started a flanking movement to induce China to join the anti-German
+    coalition. The intention of the Chinese Government has not yet been
+    learned. But it is possible that China will agree, if conditions are
+    favourable, thus gaining the right to voice her views at the coming
+    peace conference. Should the Entente Powers give China a firm
+    guarantee, it is feared here that China would not hesitate to act.
+
+    "The policy of the Japanese Government toward this question cannot
+    yet be learned. It appears, however, that the Japanese Government is
+    not opposed to applying the resolutions of the Paris Economic
+    Conference, in so far as they concern purely economic questions,
+    since Japan desires that German influence in the commerce and
+    finance of the Orient should be altogether uprooted. But should the
+    Entente Powers of Europe try to induce China to join them, Japan may
+    object on the ground that it will create more disturbances in China
+    and lead to a general disturbance of peace in the Orient."
+
+Now there is not the slightest doubt in the writer's mind--and he can
+claim to speak as a student of twenty years' standing--that this
+definition of Japanese aims and objects is a very true one; and that the
+subsequent invitation to China to join the Allies which came from Tokio
+after a meeting between the Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs and the
+Allied Ambassadors was simply made when a new orientation of policy had
+been forced by stress of circumstances. Japan has certainly always
+wished German influence in the Far East to be uprooted if she can take
+the place of Germany; but if she cannot take that place absolutely and
+entirely she would vastly prefer the influence to remain, since it is in
+the nature of counterweight to that of other European Powers and of
+America--foreign influence in China, as Mr. Hioki blandly told the late
+President Yuan Shih-kai in his famous interview of the 18th January,
+1915, being a source of constant irritation to the Japanese people, and
+the greatest stumbling-block to a permanent understanding in the Far
+East.
+
+Chinese suspicion of any invitation coming by way of Tokio has been,
+therefore, in every way justified, if it is a reasonable and legitimate
+thing for a nation of four hundred millions of people to be acutely
+concerned about their independence; for events have already proved up to
+the hilt that so far from the expulsion of Germany from Shantung having
+resulted in the handing-back of interests which were forcibly acquired
+from China in 1898, that expulsion has merely resulted in Japan
+succeeding to such interests and thereby obliterating all trace of her
+original promise to the world in 1914 that she would restore to China
+what was originally taken from her. Here it is necessary to remark that
+not only did Japan in her negotiations over the Twenty-one Demands force
+China to hand over the twelve million pounds of German improvements in
+Shantung province, but that Baron Hayashi, the present Japanese Minister
+to China, has recently declared that Japan would demand from China a
+vast settlement or concession at Tsingtao, thus making even the alleged
+handing-back of the leased territory--which Japan is pledged to force
+from Germany at the Peace Conference--wholly illusory, the formula of a
+Settlement being adopted because twelve years' experience of Port Arthur
+has shown that territorial "leases," with their military garrisons and
+administrative offices, are expensive and antiquated things, and that it
+is easier to push infiltration by means of a multitude of Settlements in
+which police-boxes and policemen form an important element, than to cut
+off slices of territory under a nomenclature which is a clamant
+advertisement of disruptive aims.
+
+Now although these matters appear to be taking us far from the
+particular theme we are discussing, it is not really so. Like a dark
+thunder-cloud on the horizon the menace of Japanese action has rendered
+frank Chinese co-operation, even in such a simple matter as war-measures
+against Germany, a thing of supreme difficulty. The mere rumour that
+China might dispatch an Expeditionary Force to Mesopotamia was
+sufficient to send the host of unofficial Japanese agents in Peking
+scurrying in every direction and insisting that if the Chinese did
+anything at all they should limit themselves to sending troops to
+Russia, where they would be "lost"--a suggestion made because that was
+what Japan herself offered to do when she declined in 1915 the Allies'
+proposal to dispatch troops to Europe. Nor must the fact be lost sight
+of that as in other countries so in China, foreign affairs provide an
+excellent opportunity for influencing the march of internal events.
+Thus, as we have clearly shown, the Military Party, although originally
+averse to any action at all, saw that a strong foreign policy would
+greatly enhance its reputation and allow it to influence the important
+elections for the Parliament of 1918 which, sitting as a National
+Convention, will elect the next President. Thus, in the extraordinary
+way which happens throughout the world, the whole of February was
+consumed in the rival political parties manoeuvring for position, the
+Vice-President, General Feng Kuo-chang, himself coming hastily to Peking
+from Nanking to take part in this elaborate game in which many were now
+participating merely for what they could get out of it.
+
+On the 4th March matters were brought to a climax by an open breach
+between President Li Yuan-hung and the Premier, General Tuan Chi-jui, at
+a Cabinet meeting regarding the procedure to be observed in breaking off
+diplomatic relations with Germany. Although nearly a month had elapsed,
+no reply had been received from Berlin; and of the many plans of action
+proposed nothing had been formally decided. Owing to the pressure Japan
+was exerting from Tokio to get China to come to a definite arrangement,
+popular anxiety was growing. Over the question of certain telegrams to
+be communicated to the Japanese Government, of which he had been kept in
+ignorance, President Li Yuan-hung took a firm stand; with the result
+that the Premier, deeply offended, abruptly left the Council Chamber,
+handed in his resignation and left the capital--a course of action which
+threatened to provoke a national crisis.
+
+Fortunately in President Li Yuan-hung China had a cool and dispassionate
+statesman. At the first grave crisis in his administration he wished at
+all costs to secure that the assent of Parliament should be given to all
+steps taken, and that nothing so speculative as a policy which had not
+been publicly debated should be put into force. He held to this point
+doggedly; and after some negotiations, the Premier was induced to return
+to the capital and resume office, on the understanding that nothing
+final was to be done until a popular endorsement had been secured.
+
+On the 10th March the question was sent to Parliament for decision.
+After a stormy debate of several hours in the Lower House the policy of
+the Government was upheld by 330 votes to 87: on the following day the
+Senate endorsed this decision by 158 votes to 37. By a coincidence which
+was too extraordinary not to have been artificially contrived, the
+long-awaited German reply arrived on the morning of this 10th March,
+copies of the document being circulated wholesale by German agents among
+the Members of Parliament in a last effort to influence their decision.
+The actual text of the German reply was as follows, and it will be seen
+how transparently worded it is:
+
+    _To the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China_:
+
+    YOUR EXCELLENCY: By the instructions of my home Government--which
+    reached me on the 10th inst.--I beg to forward you the following
+    reply to China's protest to the latest blockade policy of Germany:--
+
+    "The Imperial German Government expresses its great surprise at the
+    action threatened by the Government of the Republic of China in its
+    Note of protest. Many other countries have also protested, but
+    China, which has been in friendly relations with Germany, is the
+    only State which has added a threat to its protest. The surprise is
+    doubly great, because of the fact that, as China has no shipping
+    interests in the seas of the barred zones, she will not suffer
+    thereby.
+
+    "The Government of the Republic of China mentions that loss of life
+    of Chinese citizens has occurred as the results of the present
+    method of war. The Imperial German Government wishes to point out
+    that the Government of the Republic of China has never communicated
+    with the Imperial Government regarding a single case of this kind
+    nor has it protested in this connexion before. According to reports
+    received by the Imperial Government, such losses as have been
+    actually sustained by Chinese subjects have occurred in the firing
+    line while they were engaged in digging trenches and in other war
+    services. While thus engaged, they were exposed to the dangers
+    inevitable to all forces engaged in war. The fact that Germany has
+    on several occasions protested against the employment of Chinese
+    citizens for warlike purpose is evidence that the Imperial
+    Government has given excellent proof of its friendly feelings toward
+    China. In consideration of these friendly relations the Imperial
+    Government is willing to treat the matter as if the threat had never
+    been uttered. It is reasonable for the Imperial Government to expect
+    that the Government of the Republic of China will revise its views
+    respecting the question.
+
+    "Germany's enemies were the first to declare a blockade on Germany
+    and the same is being persistently carried out. It is therefore
+    difficult for Germany to cancel her blockade policy. The Imperial
+    Government is nevertheless willing to comply with the wishes of the
+    Government of the Republic of China by opening negotiations to
+    arrive at a plan for the protection of Chinese life and property,
+    with the view that the end may be achieved and thereby the utmost
+    regard be given to the shipping rights of China. The reason which
+    has prompted the Imperial Government to adopt this conciliatory
+    policy is the knowledge that, once diplomatic relations are severed
+    with Germany, China will not only lose a truly good friend but will
+    also be entangled in unthinkable difficulties."
+
+    In forwarding to Your Excellency the above instructions from my home
+    Government, I beg also to state that--if the Government of China be
+    willing--I am empowered to open negotiations for the protection of
+    the shipping rights of China.
+
+    I have the honour to be....
+
+    (Signed by the German Minister.)
+
+    March 10, 1917.
+
+With a Parliamentary endorsement behind them there remained nothing for
+the Peking Government but to take the vital step of severing diplomatic
+relations. Certain details remained to be settled but these were
+expeditiously handled. Consequently, without any further discussion, at
+noon on the 14th March the German Minister was handed his passports,
+with the following covering dispatch from the Chinese Foreign Office. It
+is worthy of record that in the interval between the Chinese Note of the
+9th February and the German reply of the 10th March the French
+mail-steamer _Athos_ had been torpedoed in the Mediterranean and five
+hundred Chinese labourers proceeding to France on board her drowned.
+
+    _Your Excellency_:--
+
+    With reference to the new submarine policy of Germany, the
+    Government of the Republic of China, dictated by the desire to
+    further the cause of world's peace and to maintain the sanctity of
+    International Law, addressed a protest to Your Excellency on
+    February 9th and declared that in case, contrary to its
+    expectations, its protest be ineffectual, it would be constrained to
+    sever the diplomatic relations at present existing between the two
+    countries.
+
+    During the lapse of a month no heed has been paid to the protest of
+    the Government of the Republic in the activities of the German
+    Submarines, activities which have caused the loss of many Chinese
+    lives. On March 10, a reply was received from Your Excellency.
+    Although it states that the Imperial German Government is willing to
+    open negotiations to arrive at a plan for the protection of Chinese
+    life and property, yet it declares that it is difficult for Germany
+    to cancel her blockade policy. It is therefore not in accord with
+    the object of the protest and the Government of the Chinese
+    Republic, to its deep regret, considers its protest to be
+    ineffectual. The Government of the Republic is constrained to sever
+    the diplomatic relations at present existing with the Imperial
+    German Government. I have the honour to send herewith to Your
+    Excellency, the passport for Your Excellency, the members of the
+    German Legation and their families and retinue for protection while
+    leaving Chinese territory. With regard to the Consular Officers of
+    Germany in China, this Ministry has instructed the different
+    Commissioners of Foreign Affairs to issue to them similarly
+    passports for leaving the country.
+
+    I avail myself of this opportunity to renew to Your Excellency the
+    assurance of my highest consideration.
+
+    March 14th, 1917.
+
+It was not until eleven days later--on the 25th March--that the German
+Minister and his suite reluctantly left Peking for Germany via America.
+Meanwhile the Chinese Government remained undecided regarding the taking
+of the final step as a number of important matters had still to be
+settled. Not only had arrangements to be made with the Allies but there
+was the question of adjusting Chinese policy with American action. A
+special commission on Diplomatic affairs daily debated the procedure to
+be observed, but owing to the conflict of opinion in the provinces
+further action was greatly delayed. As it is necessary to show the
+nature of this conflict we give two typical opinions submitted to the
+Government on the question of a formal declaration of war against
+Germany (and Austria). The first Memorandum was written for the
+Diplomatic Commission by the scholar Liang Ch'i-chao and is singularly
+lucid:--
+
+    THE NECESSITY FOR WAR
+
+    "Those who question the necessity for war can only quote the
+    attitude of America as example. The position of China is, however,
+    different from that of America in two points. First, actual warfare
+    will follow immediately after America's declaration of war, so it is
+    necessary for her to make the necessary preparations before taking
+    the step. For this purpose, America has voted several hundred
+    million dollars for an increase of her naval appropriations. America
+    therefore cannot declare war until she has completed every
+    preparation. With China it is different. Even after the declaration
+    of war, there will be no actual warfare. It is therefore unnecessary
+    for us to wait.
+
+    "Secondly, America has no such things as foreign settlements,
+    consular jurisdiction or other unequal treaties with Germany. Under
+    the existing conditions America has no difficulties in safeguarding
+    herself against the Germans residing in America after the severance
+    of diplomatic relations even though war has not yet been actually
+    declared, and as to future welfare, America will have nothing to
+    suffer even though her old treaties with Germany should continue to
+    be operative. It is impossible for China to take the necessary steps
+    to safeguard the country against the Germans residing in China
+    unless the old treaties be cancelled. For unless war is declared it
+    is impossible to cancel the consular jurisdiction of the Germans,
+    and so long as German consular jurisdiction remains in China we will
+    meet with difficulties everywhere whenever we wish to deal with the
+    Germans. If our future is to be considered, unless war is declared,
+    the old treaties will again come into force upon the resumption of
+    diplomatic relations, in which case we shall be held responsible for
+    all the steps which we have taken in contravention of treaties
+    during the rupture. It will be advantageous to China if the old
+    treaties be cancelled by a declaration of war and new treaties be
+    negotiated after the conclusion of peace.
+
+    "In short by severing diplomatic relations with Germany China has
+    already incurred the ill-feelings of that country. We shall not be
+    able to lessen the hostile feelings of the Germans even if we
+    refrain from declaring war on them. It is therefore our obligation
+    to choose the course that will be advantageous to us. This is not
+    reluctantly yielding to the request of the Entente Allies. It is the
+    course we must take in our present situation.
+
+
+    THE REASON FOR DECLARING WAR
+
+    "The presumptuous manner in which Germany has replied to our demand
+    is an open affront to our national integrity. Recently Germany has
+    deliberately shown hostility to our advice by reiterating her
+    determination to carry out the ruthless submarine policy with
+    increased vigour. All these are reasons for diplomatic rupture as
+    well as for declaration of war. Furthermore, the peace of the Far
+    East was broken by the occupation of Kiachow by Germany. This event
+    marked the first step of the German disregard for international law.
+    In the interests of humanity and for the sake of what China has
+    passed through, she should rise and punish such a country, that
+    dared to disregard international law. Such a reason for war is
+    certainly beyond criticism.
+
+
+    THE TIME TO DECLARE WAR
+
+    "War should be declared as soon as possible. The reason for the
+    diplomatic rupture is sufficient reason for declaring war. This has
+    already been explained. It would be impossible for us to find an
+    excuse for declaring war if war be not declared now. According to
+    usual procedure war is declared when the forces of the two countries
+    come into actual conflict. Now such a possibility does not exist
+    between China and Germany. Since it is futile to expect Germany to
+    declare war on us first, we should ask ourselves if war is
+    necessary. If not, then let us go on as we are, otherwise we must
+    not hesitate any more.
+
+    "Some say that China should not declare war on Germany until we have
+    come to a definite understanding with the Entente Allies respecting
+    certain terms. This is indeed a wrong conception of things. We
+    declare war because we want to fight for humanity, international law
+    and against a national enemy. It is not because we are partial
+    towards the Entente or against Germany or Austria. International
+    relations are not commercial connexions. Why then should we talk
+    about exchange of privileges and rights? As to the revision of
+    Customs tariff, it has been our aspiration for more than ten years
+    and a foremost diplomatic question, for which we have been looking
+    for a suitable opportunity to negotiate with the foreign Powers. It
+    is our view that the opportunity has come because foreign Powers are
+    now on very friendly terms with China. It is distinctly a separate
+    thing from the declaration of war. Let no one try to confuse the
+    two.
+
+
+    THE QUESTION OF AUSTRIA
+
+    "If China decides to declare war on Germany the same attitude should
+    be taken towards Austria. We have severed diplomatic relations with
+    Germany but retain the _status quo_ with Austria. This is fraught
+    with danger. German intrigue is to be dreaded. What they have done
+    in America and Mexico is enough to shock us. The danger can easily
+    be imagined when we remember that they have in China the Austrian
+    Legation, Austrian Consulates and Austrian concessions as their
+    bases of operation for intrigue and plotting. Some say we should
+    follow America, which has not yet severed diplomatic relations with
+    Austria. This is a great mistake. America can afford to ignore
+    Austria because there are no Austrian concessions and Austrian
+    consular jurisdiction in America.
+
+    "The question is then what steps should be taken to sever diplomatic
+    relations with and declare war on Austria. The solution is that
+    since Austria has also communicated to our Minister regarding her
+    submarine policy we can serve her with an ultimatum demanding that
+    the submarine policy be cancelled within twenty-four hours. If
+    Austria refuses, China may sever diplomatic relations and declare
+    war at the same time immediately upon the expiry of the twenty-four
+    hour limit.
+
+    "In conclusion I wish to say that whenever a policy is adopted we
+    should carry out the complete scheme. If we should hesitate in the
+    middle and become afraid to go ahead we will soon find ourselves in
+    an embarrassing position. The Government and Parliament should
+    therefore stir up courage and boldly make the decision and take the
+    step."
+
+Unanswerable as seem these arguments to the Western mind, they were by
+no means so to the mass of Chinese who are always fearful lest some
+sudden reshuffling in the relationships existing between foreign Powers
+exposes them to new and greater calamities. This Chinese viewpoint, with
+its ignorance of basic considerations, is well-illustrated by the Second
+Memorandum, which follows. Written by the famous reformer of 1898 Kang
+Yu-wei, it demonstrates how greatly the revolutionists of 1911 are in
+advance of a school which was the vogue less than twenty years ago and
+which is completely out of touch with the thought which the war has made
+world-wide. Nevertheless the line of argument which characterizes this
+utterance is still a political factor in China and must be understood.
+
+    MEMORANDUM
+
+    ... "The breach between the United States and Germany is no concern
+    of ours. But the Government suddenly severed diplomatic relations
+    with Germany and is now contemplating entry into the war. This is to
+    advance beyond the action of the United States which continues to
+    observe neutrality. And if we analyse the public opinion of the
+    country, we find that all peoples--high and low, well-informed and
+    ignorant--betray great alarm when informed of the rupture and the
+    proposal to declare war on Germany, fearing that such a development
+    may cause grave peril to the country. This war-policy is being urged
+    by a handful of politicians, including a few members of Parliament
+    and several party men with the view of creating a diplomatic
+    situation to serve their political ends and to reap great profits.
+
+    "Their arguments are that China--by siding with the Entente--may
+    obtain large loans, the revision of the Customs Tariff and the
+    suspension of the Boxer indemnity to Germany, as well as the
+    recovery of the German concessions, mining and railroad rights and
+    the seizure of German commerce. Pray, how large is Germany's share
+    of the Boxer indemnity? Seeing that German commerce is protected by
+    international law, will China be able to seize it; and does she not
+    know that the Kaiser may in the future exact restitution?
+
+
+    PERILS OF WAR
+
+    "News from Holland tells of a rumoured secret understanding between
+    Germany, Japan and Russia. The Japanese Government is pursuing a
+    policy of friendship toward Germany. This is very disquieting news
+    to us. As to foreign loans and the revision of the Customs Tariff,
+    we can raise these matters at any time. Why then should we traffic
+    for these things at the risk of grave dangers to the nation? My view
+    is that what we are to obtain from the transaction is far less than
+    what we are to give. If it be argued that the policy aims at
+    securing for China her right to live as an unfettered nation, then
+    we ought to ask for the cancellation of the entire Boxer
+    Indemnities, the abolition of exterritoriality, the retrocession of
+    the foreign concessions and the repeal or amendment of all unjust
+    treaties after the war. But none of these have we demanded. If we
+    ourselves cannot improve our internal administration in order to
+    become a strong country, it is absurd to expect our admission to the
+    ranks of the first-class Powers simply by being allowed a seat at
+    the Peace Conference and by taking a side with the Entente!
+
+    "Which side will win the war? I shall not attempt to predict here.
+    But it is undoubted that all the arms of Europe--and the industrial
+    and financial strength of the United States and Japan--have proved
+    unavailing against Germany. On the other hand France has lost her
+    Northern provinces and Belgium, Serbia and Rumania are blotted off
+    the map. Should Germany be victorious, the whole of Europe--not to
+    speak of a weak country like China--would be in great peril of
+    extinction. Should she be defeated, Germany still can--after the
+    conclusion of peace--send a fleet to war against us. And as the
+    Powers will be afraid of a second world-war, who will come to our
+    aid? Have we not seen the example of Korea? There is no such thing
+    as an army of righteousness which will come to the assistance of
+    weak nations. I cannot bear to think of hearing the angry voice of
+    German guns along our coasts!
+
+    "If we allow the Entente to recruit labour in our country without
+    restriction, thousands upon thousands of our fellow countrymen will
+    die for no worthy cause; and if we allow free exportation of
+    foodstuff, in a short time the price of daily necessaries will mount
+    ten to a hundredfold. This is calculated to cause internal troubles.
+    Yea, all gains from this policy will go to the politicians but the
+    people will suffer the evil consequences through no fault of theirs.
+
+
+    DIPLOMACY OF CONFUCIUS
+
+    "In the matter of diplomacy, we do not need to go to the West for
+    the apt learning on the point at issue. Confucius has said: 'Be
+    truthful and cultivate friendship--this is the foundation of human
+    happiness.' Our country being weak and undeveloped, if we strive to
+    be truthful and cultivate friendship, we can still be a civilized
+    nation, albeit hoary with age. But we are now advised to take
+    advantage of the difficulties of Germany and abandon honesty in
+    order that we may profit thereby. Discarding treaties is to be
+    unfaithful, grasping for gains is not the way of a gentleman, taking
+    advantage of another's difficulties is to be mean and joining the
+    larger in numbers is cowardice. How can we be a nation, if we throw
+    away all these fundamental qualities.
+
+    "Even in the press of England and the United States, there is
+    opposition to America entering the war. If we observe neutrality, we
+    are not bound to any side; and when the time comes for peace--as a
+    friend to both sides--we may be able to bring about the ends of the
+    war. Is this not a service to humanity and the true spirit of
+    civilization?
+
+    "Now it is proposed to take the existence of this great nation of
+    five thousand years and four hundred million people in order to
+    serve the interests of politicians in their party struggles. We are
+    now to be bound to foreign nations, without freedom to act for
+    ourselves and running great risks of national destruction. Can you
+    gentlemen bear to see this come to pass? China has severed relations
+    with Germany but the decision for war has not yet been reached. The
+    whole country is telegraphing opposition to the Government's policy
+    and wants to know whether Germany will not in the future take
+    revenge on account of our rupture with her; and if we are not
+    secured against this eventuality, what are the preparations to meet
+    with a contingency? The Government must not stake the fate of the
+    nation as if it be a child's toy, and the people must not be cast
+    into the whirlpool of slaughter. The people are the backbone of a
+    country, and if the people are all opposed to war on Germany, the
+    Government--in spite of the support of Parliament--must call a great
+    citizens' convention to decide the question. We must persist in our
+    neutrality. You gentlemen are patriotic sons of this country and
+    must know that the existence of China as a nation depends upon what
+    she does now in this matter. In tears, I appeal to you.
+
+    "KANG YU-WEI."
+
+March and April were consumed in this fruitless discussion in which
+everybody participated. The Premier, General Tuan Chi-jui, in view of
+the alleged provincial opposition, now summoned to Peking a Conference
+of Provincial Military Governors to endorse his policy, but this action
+although crowned with success so far as the army chiefs were
+concerned--the conference voting solidly for war--was responsible for
+greatly alarming Parliament which saw in this procedure a new attempt
+to undermine its power and control the country by extra-legal means.
+Furthermore, publication in the Metropolitan press of what the Japanese
+were doing behind the scenes created a fear that extraordinary intrigues
+were being indulged in with the object of securing by means of secret
+diplomacy certain guarantees of a personal nature. Apart from being
+associated with the semi-official negotiations of the Entente Powers in
+Peking, Japan was carrying on a second set of negotiations partly by
+means of a confidential agent named Kameio Nishihara dispatched from
+Tokio specially for that purpose by Count Terauchi, the Japanese
+Premier, a procedure which led to the circulation of highly sensational
+stories regarding China's future commitments. When the Premier, General
+Tuan Chi-jui, had made his statement to Parliament on the 10th March,
+regarding the necessity of an immediate rupture with Germany, he had
+implied that China had already received assurances from the Allies that
+there would be a postponement of the Boxer Indemnities for a term of
+years, an immediate increase in the Customs Tariff, and a modification
+of the Peace Protocol of 1901 regarding the presence of Chinese troops
+near Tientsin. Suddenly all these points were declared to be in doubt.
+Round the question of the length of time the Indemnities might be
+postponed, and the actual amount of the increase in the Customs Tariff,
+there appeared to be an inexplicable muddle largely owing to the
+intervention of so many agents and to the fact that the exchange of
+views had been almost entirely verbal, unofficial, and secret. It would
+be wearisome to analyse a dispute which belongs to the peculiar
+atmosphere of Peking diplomacy; but the vast difficulties of making even
+a simple decision in China were glaringly illustrated by this matter.
+With a large section of the Metropolitan press daily insisting that the
+future of democracy in China would be again imperilled should the
+Military Party have its own way, small wonder if the question of a
+formal declaration of war on Germany (and Austria) now assumed an
+entirely different complexion.
+
+On the 1st May, in spite of all these trials and tribulations, being
+pressed by the Premier to do so, the Cabinet unanimously decided that a
+declaration of war was imperative; and on the 7th May, after an
+agreement with the President had been reached, Parliament received the
+following dispatch--this method of communication being the usual one
+between the executive and legislative branches of the Government:
+
+    The President has the honour to communicate to the House of
+    Representatives the following proposal. Since the severance of
+    diplomatic relations with Germany, Germany has continued to violate
+    the rights of the neutral nations and to damage and cause losses in
+    life and property to our people as well as to trample on
+    international law and disregard principles of humanity. For the
+    purpose of hastening peace, upholding international law and
+    protecting the life and property of our people, the President is of
+    the view that it is necessary to declare war on the German
+    Government. In accordance with Article 35 of the Provisional
+    Constitution, he now asks for the approval of the House, and
+    demands--in accordance with Article 21 of the Provisional
+    Constitution--that the meeting in the House be held in secret.
+
+On 8th May, after hearing a statement made in person by the Premier, the
+House of Representatives in secret session referred the question for
+examination to the House sitting as a Committee in order to gain time to
+make up its mind. On the same day the Senate sat on the same question. A
+very heated and bitter discussion followed in the upper House, not
+because of any real disagreement regarding the matter at issue, but
+because a large section of Senators were extremely anxious regarding the
+internal consequences. This is well-explained by the following written
+interpellation which was addressed to the government by a large number
+of parliamentarians:
+
+    We, the undersigned, hereby address this interpellation to the
+    Government. As a declaration of war on Germany has become an object
+    of the foreign policy of the Government, the latter has held
+    informal meetings to ascertain the views of parliament on the
+    question; and efforts are being made by the Government to secure the
+    unanimous support of both Houses for its war policy. In pursuing
+    this course, the Government appears to believe that its call for
+    support will be readily complied with by the Houses. But in our view
+    there are quite a number of members in both Houses who fail
+    thoroughly to understand the war decision of the Government. The
+    reason for this is that, according to recent reports, both foreign
+    and vernacular, the Government has entered into secret treaties with
+    a "neighbouring country." It is also reported that secret agents on
+    both sides are active and are travelling between the two countries.
+    The matter seems to be very grave; and it has already attracted the
+    attention of Parliament, which in the near future will discuss the
+    war-issue.
+
+    Being in doubt as to the truth of such a report, we hereby request
+    the Government for the necessary information in the matter. We also
+    beg to suggest that, if there is any secret diplomatic agreement, we
+    consider it expedient for the Government to submit the matter to
+    Parliament for the latter's consideration. This will enable the
+    members in Parliament to study the question with care and have a
+    clear understanding of the matter. When this is done, Parliament
+    will be able to support the Government in the prosecution of its war
+    policy according to the dictates of conscience. In this event both
+    Parliament and Government will be able to co-operate with each other
+    in the solution of the present diplomatic problem. Troubled not a
+    little with the present diplomatic situation of the country, we
+    hereby address this interpellation to the Government in accordance
+    with law. It is hoped that an answer from the Government will be
+    dispatched to us within three days from date.
+
+On the 10th May Parliament met in secret session and it was plain that a
+crisis had come. Members of the House of Representatives experienced
+great difficulties in forcing their way through a mob of several
+thousand roughs who surrounded the approaches to Parliament, many
+members being hustled if not struck. The mob was so plainly in control
+of a secret organization that the House of Representatives refused to
+sit. Urgent messages were sent to the Police and Gendarmerie
+headquarters for reinforcements of armed men as a protection, whilst the
+presence of the Premier was also demanded. Masses of police were soon on
+the ground, but whilst they prevented the mob from entering Parliament
+and carrying out their threat of burning the buildings, and murdering
+the members, they could not--or would not--disperse the crowds, it
+transpiring subsequently that half a battalion of infantry in plain
+clothes under their officers formed the backbone of the demonstrators.
+
+It was not until nearly dark, after six or seven hours of these
+disorderly scenes, that the Premier finally arrived. Cavalry had
+meanwhile also been massed on the main street; but it was only when the
+report spread that a Japanese reporter had been killed that the order
+was finally given to charge the mob and disperse it by force. This was
+very rapidly done, as apart from the soldiers in plain clothes the mass
+of people belonged to the lowest class, and had no stomach for a fight,
+having only been paid to shout. It was nearly midnight, after twelve
+hours of isolation and a foodless day, that the Representatives were
+able to disperse without having debated the war-question. The upshot
+was that with the exception of the Minister of Education, the Premier
+found that his entire Cabinet had resigned, the Ministers being
+unwilling to be associated with what had been an attempted coercion of
+Parliament carried out by the Military.
+
+The Premier, General Tuan Chi-jui, however, remained determined to carry
+his point, and within a week a second dispatch was sent to the House of
+Representatives demanding, in spite of what had happened, that the
+declaration of war be immediately brought up for debate. Meanwhile
+publication in a leading Peking newspaper of further details covering
+Japan's subterranean activities greatly inflamed the public, and made
+the Liberal political elements more determined than ever to stand firm.
+It was alleged that Count Terauchi was reviving in a more subtle form
+Group V of the Twenty-one Demands of 1915, the latest Japanese proposal
+taking the form of a secret Treaty of twenty articles of which the main
+stipulations were to be a loan of twenty million yen to China to
+reorganize the three main Chinese arsenals under Japanese guidance, and
+a further loan of eighty million yen to be expended on the Japanization
+of the Chinese army. As a result of this publication, which rightly or
+wrongly was declared to be without foundation, the editor of _The Peking
+Gazette_ was seized in the middle of the night and thrown into gaol; but
+Parliament so far from being intimidated passed the very next day (19th
+May) a resolution refusing to consider in any form the declaration of
+war against Germany until the Cabinet had been reorganized--which meant
+the resignation of General Tuan Chi-jui. A last effort was made by the
+reactionary element to jockey the President into submission by
+presenting to the Chief Executive a petition from the Military Governors
+assembled in Peking demanding the immediate dissolution of Parliament.
+On this proposal being absolutely rejected by the President as wholly
+unconstitutional, and the Military Governors soundly rated for their
+interference, an ominous calm followed.
+
+Parliament, however, remained unmoved and continued its work. Although
+the draft of the Permanent Constitution had been practically completed,
+important additions to the text were now proposed, such additions being
+designed to increase parliamentary control and provide every possible
+precaution against arbitrary acts in the future. Thus the new provision
+that a simple vote of want of confidence in the Cabinet must be followed
+by the President either dismissing the Cabinet or dissolving the House
+of Representatives--but that the dissolution of the Lower House could
+not be ordered without the approval of the Senate--was generally
+recognized as necessary to destroy the last vestiges of the Yuan
+Shih-kai regime. Furthermore a new article, conferring on the President
+the right to dismiss the Premier summarily by Presidential Mandate
+without the counter-signature of the other Cabinet Ministers, completed
+the disarray of the conservatives who saw in this provision the dashing
+of their last hopes.[25]
+
+By the 21st May, the last remaining Cabinet Minister--the Minister of
+Education--had resigned and the Premier was left completely isolated. On
+the 23rd May the President, relying on the general support of the
+nation, summarily dismissed General Tuan Chi-jui from the Premiership
+and appointed the veteran diplomat Dr. Wu Ting-fang to act during the
+interim period in his stead, at the same time placing the metropolitan
+districts under four trustworthy Generals who were vested with
+provost-marshals' powers under a system which gave them command of all
+the so-called "precautionary troops" holding the approaches to the
+capital. The Military Governors, who a few hours before these events had
+left Peking precipitately in a body on the proclaimed mission of allying
+themselves with the redoubtable General Chang Hsun at Hsuchowfu, and
+threatening the safety of the Republic, were, however, coolly received
+in the provinces in spite of all their most bitter attempts to stir up
+trouble. This, however, as will be shown, had no influence on their
+subsequent conduct. The quiet disappearance of the ex-Premier in the
+midst of this upheaval caused the report to spread that all the members
+of the corrupt camarilla which had surrounded him were to be arrested,
+but the President soon publicly disclaimed any intention of doing
+so,--which appears to have been a fatal mistake. It is disheartening to
+have to state that nearly all the Allied Legations in Peking had been in
+intimate relations with this gang--always excepting the American
+Legation whose attitude is uniformly correct--the French Minister going
+so far as to entertain the Military Governors and declare, according to
+reports in the native press, that Parliament was of no importance at
+all, the only important thing being for China promptly to declare war.
+That some sort of public investigation into Peking diplomacy is
+necessary before there can be any hope of decent relations between China
+and the Powers seems indisputable.[26]
+
+Before the end of May the militarists being now desperate, attempted the
+old game of inciting the provincial capitals "to declare their
+independence," although the mass of the nation was plainly against them.
+Some measure of success attended this move, since the soldiery of the
+northern provinces obediently followed their leaders and there was a
+sudden wild demand for a march on Peking. A large amount of
+rolling-stock on the main railways was seized with this object, the
+confusion being made worse confounded by the fierce denunciations which
+now came from the southernmost provinces, coupled with their threats to
+attack the Northern troops all along the line as soon as they could
+mobilize.
+
+The month of June opened with the situation more threatening than it had
+been for years. Emissaries of the recalcitrant Military Governors,
+together with all sorts of "politicals" and disgruntled generals,
+gathered in Tientsin--which is 80 miles from Peking--and openly
+established a Military Headquarters which they declared would be
+converted into a Provisional Government which would seek the recognition
+of the Powers. Troops were moved and concentrated against Peking; fresh
+demands were made that the President should dissolve Parliament; whilst
+the Metropolitan press was suddenly filled with seditious articles. The
+President, seeing that the situation was becoming cataclysmic, was
+induced, through what influences is not known, to issue a mandate
+summoning General Chang Hsun to Peking to act as a mediator, which was
+another fatal move. He arrived in Tientsin with many troops on the 7th
+June where he halted and was speedily brought under subversive
+influences, sending at once up to Peking a sort of ultimatum which was
+simply the old demand for the dissolution of Parliament.
+
+Meanwhile on the 5th June, the United States, which had been alarmed by
+these occurrences, had handed China the following Note hoping thereby to
+steady the situation:
+
+    The Government of the United States learns with the most profound
+    regret of the dissension in China and desires to express the most
+    sincere desire that tranquillity and political co-ordination may be
+    forthwith re-established.
+
+    The entry of China into war with Germany--or the continuance of the
+    _status quo_ of her relations with that Government--are matters of
+    secondary consideration.
+
+    The principal necessity for China is to resume and continue her
+    political entity, to proceed along the road of national development
+    on which she has made such marked progress.
+
+    With the form of Government in China or the personnel which
+    administers that Government, the United States has an interest only
+    in so far as its friendship impels it to be of service to China. But
+    in the maintenance by China of one Central United and alone
+    responsible Government, the United States is deeply interested, and
+    now expresses the very sincere hope that China, in her own interest
+    and in that of the world, will immediately set aside her factional
+    political disputes, and that all parties and persons will work for
+    the re-establishment of a co-ordinate Government and the assumption
+    of that place among the Powers of the World to which China is so
+    justly entitled, but the full attainment of which is impossible in
+    the midst of internal discord.
+
+The situation had, however, developed so far and so rapidly that this
+expression of opinion had little weight. The Vice-President of the
+Republic, General Feng Kuo-chang, unwilling or unable to do anything,
+had already tendered his resignation from Nanking, declaring that he
+would maintain the "neutrality" of the important area of the lower
+Yangtsze during this extraordinary struggle; and his action, strange as
+it may seem, typified the vast misgivings which filled every one's mind
+regarding the mad course of action which the rebellious camarilla had
+decided upon.
+
+Until Saturday the 9th June, the President had seemed adamant. On that
+day he personally saw foreign press correspondents and assured them
+that, in spite of every threat, he would in no conceivable
+circumstances attempt the unconstitutional step of dissolving
+Parliament,--unconstitutional because the Nanking Provisional
+Constitution under which the country was still governed pending the
+formal passage of the Permanent Constitution through Parliament, only
+provided for the creation of Parliament as a grand constitutional
+Drafting Committee but gave no power to the Chief Executive to dissolve
+it during its "life" which was three years. As we have already shown,
+the period between the _coup d'etat_ of 4th November, 1913, and the
+re-convocation of Parliament on 1st August, 1916, had been treated as a
+mere interregnum: therefore until 1918, if the law were properly
+construed, no power in the land could interrupt the Parliamentary
+sessions except Parliament itself. Parliament, in view of these
+threatening developments, had already expressed its willingness (a) to
+reconsider certain provisions of the draft constitution in such a
+conciliatory manner as to insure the passage of the whole instrument
+through both houses within two weeks; (b) to alter the Election Law in
+such fashion as to conciliate the more conservative elements in the
+country; (c) to prorogue the second session (1916-1917) immediately
+these things were done and after a very short recess to open the third
+session (1917-1918) and close it within three months, allowing new
+elections to be held in the early months of 1918,--the new Parliament to
+be summoned in April, 1918, to form itself into a National Convention
+and elect the President for the quinquennial period 1918-1923.
+
+All these reasonable plans were knocked on the head on Sunday, the 10th
+June, by the sudden report that the President having been peremptorily
+told that the dissolution of Parliament was the sole means of saving the
+Republic and preventing the sack of Peking, as well as an open armed
+attempt to restore the boy-emperor Hsuan Tung, had at last made up his
+mind to surrender to the inevitable. He had sealed a Mandate decreeing
+the dissolution of Parliament which would be promulgated as soon as it
+had received the counter-signature of the acting Premier, Dr. Wu
+Ting-fang, such counter-signature being obligatory under Article 45 of
+the Provisional Constitution.
+
+At once it became clear again, as happens a thousand times during every
+year in the East, that what is not nipped in the bud grows with such
+malignant swiftness as finally to blight all honest intentions. Had
+steps been taken on or about the 23rd May to detain forcibly in Peking
+the ringleader of the recalcitrant Military Governors, one General Ni
+Shih-chung of Anhui, history would have been very different and China
+spared much national and international humiliation. Six years of stormy
+happenings had certainly bred in the nation a desire for
+constitutionalism and a detestation of military domination. But this
+desire and detestation required firm leadership. Without that leadership
+it was inchoate and powerless, and indeed made furtive by the constant
+fear of savage reprisals. A great opportunity had come and a great
+opportunity had been lost. President Li Yuan-hung's personal argument,
+communicated to the writer, was that in sealing the Mandate dissolving
+Parliament he had chosen the lesser of two evils, for although South
+China and the Chinese Navy declared they would defend Parliament to the
+last, they were far away whilst large armies were echeloned along the
+railways leading into Peking and daily threatening action. The events of
+the next year or so must prove conclusively, in spite of what has
+happened in this month of June, 1917, that the corrupt power of the
+sword can no longer even nominally rule China.
+
+[Illustration: The Late President Yuan Shih-kai]
+
+[Illustration: President Yuan Shi-kai photographed immediately after his
+Inauguration as Provisional President, March 10th, 1912.]
+
+Meanwhile the veteran Dr. Wu Ting-fang, true to his faith, declared that
+no power on earth would cause him to sign a Mandate possessing no
+legality behind it; and he indeed obstinately resisted every attempt to
+seduce him. Although his resignation was refused he stood his ground
+manfully, and it became clear that some other expedient would have to be
+resorted to. In the small hours of the 13th June what this was was made
+clear: by a rapid reshuffling of the cards Dr. Wu Ting-fang's
+resignation was accepted and the general officer commanding the Peking
+Gendarmerie, a genial soul named General Chiang Chao-tsung, who had
+survived unscathed the vicissitudes of six years of revolution, was
+appointed to act in his stead and duly counter-signed the fateful
+Mandate which was at once printed and promulgated at four o'clock in the
+morning. It has been stated to the writer that had it not been so issued
+four battalions of Chang Hsun's savage pigtailed soldiery, who had been
+bivouacked for some days in the grounds of the Temple of Heaven, would
+have been let loose on the capital. The actual text of the Mandate
+proves conclusively that the President had no hand in its drafting--one
+argument being sufficient to prove that, namely the deliberate ignoring
+of the fact that Parliament had been called into being by virtue of
+article 53 of the Nanking Provisional Constitution and that under
+article 54 its specific duty was to act as a grand constitutional
+conference to draft and adopt the Permanent Constitution, article 55
+furthermore giving Parliament the right summarily to amend the
+Provisional Constitution before the Promulgation of the permanent
+instrument, should that be necessary. Provisions of this sort would
+naturally carry no weight with generals of the type of Chang Hsun, of
+whom it is said that until recent years he possessed only the most
+elementary education; but it is a dismal thing to have to record that
+the Conservative Party in China should have adopted a platform of brute
+force in the year of grace, 1917.
+
+    MANDATE DISSOLVING PARLIAMENT
+
+    In the 6th month of last year I promulgated a Mandate stating that
+    in order to make a Constitution it was imperative that Parliament
+    should be convened. The Republic was inaugurated five years ago and
+    yet there was no Constitution, which should be the fundamental law
+    of a nation, therefore it was ordered that Parliament be re-convened
+    to make the Constitution, etc., at once.
+
+    Therefore the main object for the re-convocation of Parliament was
+    to make a formal constitution for the country. Recently a petition
+    was received from Meng En-yuen, Tu-chun of Kirin, and others, to the
+    effect that "in the articles passed by the Constitution Conference
+    there were several points as follows: 'when the House of
+    Representatives passes a vote of want of confidence against the
+    Cabinet Ministers, the President may dismiss the Cabinet Ministers,
+    or dissolve the said House, but the dissolution of the House shall
+    have the approval of the Senate.' Again, 'When the President
+    dismisses his Prime Minister, it is unnecessary for him to secure
+    the counter-signature of the Cabinet Ministers.' Again 'when a bill
+    is passed by the Two Houses it shall have the force of the law.' We
+    were surprised to read the above provisions.
+
+    "According to the precedents of other nations the Constitution has
+    never been made by Parliament. If we should desire a good and
+    workable Constitution, we should seek a fundamental solution. Indeed
+    Parliament is more important than any other organ in the country;
+    but when the national welfare is imperilled, we must take action. As
+    the present Parliament does not care about the national welfare, it
+    is requested that in view of the critical condition of the country,
+    drastic measures be taken and both the House of Representatives and
+    the Senate be dissolved so that they may be reorganized and the
+    Constitution may be made without any further delay. Thus the form of
+    the Republican Government be preserved, etc."
+
+    Of late petitions and telegrams have been received from the military
+    and civil officials, merchants, scholars, etc., containing similar
+    demands. The Senate and the House of Representatives have held the
+    Constitution Conference for about one year, and the Constitution has
+    not yet been completed. Moreover at this critical time most of the
+    M.P.'s of both Houses have tendered their resignation. Hence it is
+    impossible to secure quorums to discuss business. There is therefore
+    no chance to revise the articles already passed. Unless means be
+    devised to hasten the making of the Constitution, the heart of the
+    people will never be satisfied.
+
+    I, the President, who desire to comply with the will of the populace
+    and to consolidate the foundation of the nation, grant the request
+    of the Tuchuns and the people. It is hereby ordered that the Senate
+    and the House of Representatives be dissolved, and that another
+    election be held immediately. Thus a Constitutional Government can
+    be maintained. It must be pointed out that the object for the
+    reorganization of Parliament is to hasten the making of the
+    Constitution, and not to abolish the Legislative Organ of the
+    Republic. I hope all the citizens of the Republic will understand my
+    motives.
+
+A great agitation and much public uneasiness followed the publication of
+this document; and the parliamentarians, who had already been leaving
+Peking in small numbers, now evacuated the capital _en masse_ for the
+South. The reasonable and wholly logical attitude of the
+Constitutionalists is well-exhibited in the last Memorandum they
+submitted to the President some days prior to his decision to issue the
+Mandate above-quoted; and a perusal of this document will show what may
+be expected in the future. It will be noted that the revolting Military
+Governors are boldly termed rebels and that the constitutional view of
+everything they may contrive as from the 13th June, 1917, is that it
+will be bereft of all legality and simply mark a fresh interregnum.
+Furthermore, it is important to note that the situation is brought back
+by the Mandate of the 13th June to where it was on the 6th June, 1916,
+with the death of Yuan Shih-kai, and that a period of civil commotion
+seems inevitable.
+
+    MEMORANDUM
+
+    To the President: Our previous memorandum to Your Excellency must
+    have received your attention. We now beg further to inform you that
+    the rebels are now practically in an embarrassing predicament on
+    account of internal differences, the warning of the friendly Powers,
+    and the protest of the South-western provinces. Their position is
+    becoming daily more and more untenable. If Your Excellency strongly
+    holds out for another ten days or so, their movement will collapse.
+
+    Some one, however, has the impudence to suggest that with the entry
+    of Chang Hsun's troops into the Capital, and delay in the settlement
+    of the question will mean woe and disaster. But to us, there need be
+    no such fear. As the troops in the Capital have no mind to oppose
+    the rebels, Tsao Kun and his troops alone will be adequate for their
+    purposes in the Capital. But now the rebel troops have been halting
+    in the neighbourhood of the Capital for the last ten days. This
+    shows that they dare not open hostilities against the Government,
+    which step will certainly bring about foreign intervention and incur
+    the strong opposition of the South-western provinces. Having refused
+    to participate in the rebellion at the invitation of Ni Shih-chung
+    and Chang Tso-lin, Chang Hsun will certainly not do what Tsao Kun
+    has not dared to do. But the rebels have secret agents in the
+    Capital to circulate rumours to frighten the public and we hope that
+    the President will remain calm and unperturbed, lest it will give an
+    opportunity for the rebel agents to practise their evil tricks.
+
+    Respecting Parliament, its re-assembly was one of the two most
+    important conditions by means of which the political differences
+    between the North and the South last year were healed. The
+    dissolution of Parliament would mean the violation of the terms of
+    settlement entered into between the North and the South last year
+    and an open challenge to the South. Would the South remain silent
+    respecting this outrageous measure? If the South rises in arms
+    against this measure, what explanation can the Central Government
+    give? It will only serve to hasten the split between the North and
+    the South. From a legal point of view, the Power of Government is
+    vested in the Provisional Constitution. When the Government
+    exercises power which is not provided for by the Constitution, it
+    simply means high treason.
+
+    Some one has suggested that it would not be an illegal act for the
+    Government to dissolve Parliament, since it is not provided in the
+    Provisional Constitution as to how Parliament should be dissolved,
+    nor does that instrument specifically prohibit the Government from
+    dissolving Parliament. But this is a misinterpretation. For
+    instance, the Provisional Constitution has not provided that the
+    President shall not proclaim himself Emperor, nor does it prohibit
+    him from so doing. According to such interpretation, it would not be
+    illegal, if the President were to proclaim himself Emperor of the
+    country.
+
+    In short, the action taken by Ni Shih-chung and others is nothing
+    short of open rebellion. From the legal point of view, any
+    suggestion of compromise would be absurd. It has already been a
+    fatal mistake for the President to have allowed them to do what they
+    like, and if he again yields to their pressure by dissolving
+    Parliament, he will be held responsible, when the righteous troops
+    rise and punish the rebels. If the President, deceived by ignoble
+    persons, take upon himself to dissolve the assembly, his name will
+    go down in history as one committing high treason against the
+    Government, and the author of the break between the North and the
+    South. The President has been known as the man by whose hands the
+    Republic was built. We have special regard for his benevolent
+    character and kind disposition. We are reluctant to see him
+    intimidated and misled by evil counsels to take a step which will
+    undo all his meritorious services to the county and shatter the
+    unique reputation he has enjoyed.
+
+The unrolling of these dramatic events was the signal for the greatest
+subterranean activity on the part of the Japanese, who were now
+everywhere seen rubbing their hands and congratulating themselves on the
+course history was taking. General Tanaka, Vice-Chief of the Japanese
+General Staff, who had been on an extensive tour of inspection in China,
+so _planned as to include every arsenal north of the Yangtsze_ had
+arrived at the psychological moment in Peking and was now deeply engaged
+through Japanese field-officers in the employ of the Chinese Government,
+in pulling every string and in trying to commit the leaders of this
+unedifying plot in such a way as to make them puppets of Japan. The
+Japanese press, seizing on the American Note of the 5th June as an
+excuse, had been belabouring the United States for some days for its
+"interference" in Chinese affairs, and also for having ignored Japan's
+"special position" in China, which according to these publicists
+demanded that no Power take any action in the Far East, or give any
+advice, without first consulting Japan. That a stern correction will
+have to be offered to this presumption as soon as the development of the
+war permits it is certain. But not only Japanese military officers and
+journalists were endlessly busy: so-called Japanese advisers to the
+Chinese Government had done their utmost to assist the confusion. Thus
+Dr. Ariga, the Constitutional expert, when called in at the last moment
+for advice by President Li Yuan-hung had flatly contradicted Dr.
+Morrison, who with an Englishman's love of justice and constitutionalism
+had insisted that there was only one thing for the President to do--to
+be bound by legality to the last no matter what it might cost him. Dr.
+Ariga had falsely stated that the issue was a question of expediency,
+thus deliberately assisting the forces of disruption. This is perhaps
+only what was to be expected of a man who had advised Yuan Shih-kai to
+make himself Emperor--knowing full well that he could never succeed and
+that indeed the whole enterprise from the point of view of Japan was an
+elaborate trap.
+
+The provincial response to the action taken on the 13th June became what
+every one had expected: the South-western group of provinces, with their
+military headquarters at Canton, began openly concerting measures to
+resist not the authority of the President, who was recognized as a just
+man surrounded by evil-minded persons who never hesitated to betray him,
+but to destroy the usurping generals and the corrupt camarilla behind
+them; whilst the Yangtsze provinces, with their headquarters at Nanking,
+which had hitherto been pledged to "neutrality," began secretly
+exchanging views with the genuinely Republican South. The group of
+Tientsin generals and "politicals," confused by these developments,
+remained inactive; and this was no doubt responsible for the mad coup
+attempted by the semi-illiterate General Chang Hsun. In the small hours
+of July 1st General Chang Hsun, relying on the disorganization in the
+capital which we have dealt with in our preceding account entered the
+Imperial City with his troops by prearrangement with the Imperial Family
+and at 4 o'clock on the morning of the 1st July the Manchu boy-emperor
+Hsuan Tung, who lost the Throne on the 12th February, 1912, was
+enthroned before a small assembly of Manchu nobles, courtiers and
+sycophantic Chinese. The capital woke up to find military patrols
+everywhere and to hear incredulously that the old order had returned.
+The police, obeying instructions, promptly visited all shops and
+dwelling-houses and ordered every one to fly the Dragon Flag. In the
+afternoon of the same day the following Restoration Edict was issued,
+its statements being a tissue of falsehoods, the alleged memorial from
+President Li Yuan-hung, which follows the principal document, being a
+bare-faced forgery, whilst no single name inserted in the text save that
+of Chang Hsun had any right to be there. There is also every reason to
+believe that the Manchu court party was itself coerced, terror being
+felt from the beginning regarding the consequences of this mad act which
+was largely possible because Peking is a Manchu city.
+
+    IMPERIAL EDICT
+
+    Issued the 13th day of the 5th Moon of the 9th year of Hsuan Tung.
+
+    While yet in our boyhood the inheritance of the great domain was
+    unfortunately placed in our possession; and since we were then all
+    alone, we were unable to weather the numerous difficulties. Upon the
+    outbreak of the uprising in the year of Hsin Hai, (1911) Our
+    Empress, Hsiao Ting Chin, owing to her Most High Virtue and Most
+    Deep Benevolence was unwilling to allow the people to suffer, and
+    courageously placed in the hands of the late Imperial Councillor,
+    Yuan Shih-kai, the great dominion which our forefathers had built
+    up, and with it the lives of the millions of Our People, with orders
+    to establish a provisional government.
+
+    The power of State was thus voluntarily given to the whole country
+    with the hope that disputes might disappear, disturbances might stop
+    and the people enabled to live in peace. But ever since the form of
+    State was changed into a Republic, continuous strife has prevailed
+    and several wars have taken place. Forcible seizure, excessive
+    taxation and bribery have been of everyday occurrence. Although the
+    annual revenue has increased to 400 millions this amount is still
+    insufficient to meet the needs. The total amount of foreign
+    obligations has reached a figure of more than ten thousand millions
+    yet more loans are being contracted. The people within the seas are
+    shocked by this state of affairs and interest in life has forsaken
+    them. The step reluctantly taken by Our Empress Hsiao Ting Chin for
+    the purpose of giving respite to the people has resulted untowardly
+    in increasing the burdens of Our People. This indeed Our Empress
+    Hsiao Ting Chin was unable to foresee, and the result must have made
+    her Spirit in Heaven to weep sorely. And it is owing to this that we
+    have been praying to Heaven day and night in the close confines of
+    the palace, meditating and weeping in silent suffering.
+
+    Recently party strife has resulted in war and the country has
+    remained too long in an unsettled condition. The Republic has fallen
+    to pieces and means of remedy have been exhausted.
+
+    Chang Hsun, Feng Kuo-chang and Lu Yung-ting have jointly
+    memorialized the Throne stating that the minds of people are
+    disturbed and they are longing to see the old regime restored, and
+    asking that the throne be reoccupied in order to comfort the people.
+
+    Chu Hung-chi and others have also memorialized us stating that the
+    country is in imminent danger and that the people have lost their
+    faith in the Republic, and asking that we ascend the Throne in
+    obedience to the mandate of Heaven and man.
+
+    Li Yuan-hung has also memorialized the throne, returning the great
+    power of State to us in order to benefit the country and save the
+    people.
+
+    A perusal of the said memorials, which are worded in earnest terms,
+    has filled our heart with regret and fear. On the one hand We, being
+    yet in Our boyhood, are afraid to assume the great responsibilities
+    for the existence of the country but on the other hand We are
+    unwilling to turn our head away from the welfare of the millions
+    simply because the step might affect Our own safety.
+
+    After weighing the two sides and considering the mandates of Heaven
+    and man, we have decided reluctantly to comply with the prayers, and
+    have again occupied the Court to attend to the affairs of State
+    after resuming possession of the great power on the 13th day of the
+    5th moon of the 9th year of Hsuan Tung.
+
+    A new beginning will be made with our people. Hereafter the
+    principles of morality and the sacred religion shall be our
+    constitution in spirit, and order, righteousness, honesty and
+    conscience will be practised to rebind the minds of the people who
+    are now without bonds. People high and low will be uniformly treated
+    with sincerity, and will not depend on obedience of law alone as the
+    means of co-operation. Administration and orders will be based on
+    conscientious realization and no one will be allowed to treat the
+    form of State as material for experiment. At this time of exhaustion
+    when its vitality is being wasted to the last drop and the existence
+    of the country is hanging in the balance, we, as if treading on thin
+    ice over deep waters, dare not in the slightest degree indulge in
+    license on the principle that the Sovereign is entitled to
+    enjoyment. It is our wish therefore that all officials, be they high
+    or low, should purify their hearts and cleanse themselves of all
+    forms of old corruption; constantly keeping in mind the real
+    interests of the people. Every bit of vitality of the people they
+    shall be able to preserve shall go to strengthen the life of the
+    country for whatever it is worth. Only by doing so can the danger be
+    averted and Heaven moved by our sincerity.
+
+
+    THE NINE ARTICLES
+
+    Herewith we promulgate the following principal things, which we must
+    either introduce as reforms or abolish as undesirable in
+    restoration.
+
+    1. We shall obey the edict of Emperor Teh Tsung Chin (Kuang Hsu),
+    namely, that the sovereign power shall be controlled by the Court
+    (state) but the detailed administration shall be subject to public
+    opinion. The country shall be called The Empire of Ta Ching; and the
+    methods of other constitutional monarchies shall be carefully
+    copied.
+
+    2. The allowance for the Imperial House shall be the same as before,
+    namely, $4,000,000 per year. The sum shall be paid annually and not
+    a single cent is to be added.
+
+    3. We shall strictly obey the instructions of our forefathers to the
+    extent that no member of the imperial family shall be allowed to
+    interfere with administrative affairs.
+
+    4. The line of demarcation between Man (Manchu) and Han (Chinese)
+    shall be positively obliterated. All Manchurian and Mongolian posts
+    which have already been abolished shall not be restored. As to
+    intermarriage and change of customs the officials concerned are
+    hereby commanded to submit their views on the points concerning them
+    respectively.
+
+    5. All treaties and loan agreements, money for which has already
+    been paid, formally concluded and signed with any eastern and
+    western countries before this 13th day of the 5th Moon of the 9th
+    year of Hsuan Tung, shall continue to be valid.
+
+    6. The stamp duty which was introduced by the Republic is hereby
+    abolished so that the people may be relieved of their burdens. As to
+    other petty taxes and contributions the Viceroys and Governors of
+    the provinces are hereby commanded to make investigations and report
+    on the same for their abolition.
+
+    7. The criminal code of the Republic is unsuited to this country. It
+    is hereby abolished. For the time being the provisional criminal
+    code as adopted in the first year of Hsuan Tung shall be observed.
+
+    8. The evil custom of political parties is hereby forbidden. Old
+    political offenders are all pardoned. We shall, however, not be able
+    to pardon those who deliberately hold themselves aloof and disturb
+    peace and order.
+
+    9. All of our people and officials shall be left to decide for
+    themselves the custom of wearing or cutting their queues as
+    commanded in the 9th moon of the 3rd year of Hsuan Tung.
+
+    We swear that we and our people shall abide by these articles. The
+    Great Heaven and Earth bear witness to our words. Let this be made
+    known to all.
+
+    Counter-signed by Chang Hsun,
+    Member of the Imperial Privy Council.
+
+    ALLEGED MEMORIAL BY PRESIDENT LI YUAN-HUNG
+
+    In a memorial submitted this day, offering to return the sovereign
+    power of State and praying that we again ascend the throne to
+    control the great empire, Li Yuan-hung states that some time ago he
+    was forced by mutinous troops to steal the great throne and falsely
+    remained at the head of the administration but failed to do good to
+    the difficult situation. He enumerates the various evils in the
+    establishment of a Republic and prays that we ascend the throne to
+    again control the Empire with a view that the people may thereby be
+    saved. As to himself he awaits punishment by the properly instituted
+    authorities, etc. As his words are so mournful and full of remorse
+    they must have been uttered from a sincere heart. Since it was not
+    his free choice to follow the rebellion, the fact that he has
+    returned the great power of administration to us shows that he knows
+    the great principle of righteousness. At this time of national
+    danger and uncertainty, he has taken the lead of the people in
+    obeying their sovereign, and decided before others the plan to save
+    the country from ruin. The merit is indeed great, and we are highly
+    pleased with his achievement. Li Yuan-hung is hereby to have
+    conferred on him the dignity of Duke of the first class so as to
+    show our great appreciation. Let him accept our Edict and for ever
+    receive our blessings.
+
+    Counter-signed by Chang Hsun,
+    Member of the Privy Council.
+
+
+    PRIVY COUNCIL
+
+    At this time of restoration a Privy Council is hereby established in
+    order that we may be assisted in our duties and that responsibility
+    may be made definite. Two Under-Secretaries of the Council are also
+    created. Other officials serving outside of the capital shall remain
+    as under the system in force during the first year of Hsuan Tung.
+    All civil and military officials who are now serving at their
+    various posts are hereby commanded to continue in office as
+    hitherto.
+
+    Counter-signed by Chang Hsun.
+
+(Hereafter follow many appointments of reactionary Chinese officials.)
+
+The general stupefaction at the madness of this act and the military
+occupation of all posts and telegraph-offices in Peking allowed 48 hours
+to go by before the reaction came. On the 2nd July Edicts still
+continued to appear attempting to galvanize to life the corpse of
+Imperialism and the puzzled populace flew the Dragon Flag. On the
+morning of the 3rd, however, the news suddenly spread that President Li
+Yuan-hung, who had virtually been made a prisoner in the Presidential
+Palace, had escaped at nine o'clock the night before by motorcar
+accompanied by two aides-de-camp, and after attempting to be received at
+the French Hospital in the Legation Quarter, had proceeded to the
+Japanese Legation where he was offered a suitable residence. On the
+evening of the 3rd the Japanese Legation issued the following official
+communique (in French) defining its attitude:
+
+
+    TRANSLATION
+
+    President Li, accompanied by two members of his staff, came at 9.30
+    on the evening of July 2 to the residence of General Saito, Military
+    Attache of the Japanese Legation, and asked protection from him. He
+    arrived in a spontaneous manner and without previous notice.
+
+    Under these circumstances, the Imperial Japanese Legation, following
+    international usage, has decided to accord him the necessary
+    protection and has placed at his disposal a part of the military
+    barracks.
+
+    The Legation further declares that as long as President Li remains
+    there, it will not permit any political action on his part.
+
+Following this sensational development it became known that President Li
+Yuan-hung had completely frustrated the efforts of the Imperialists by
+sending away a number of important telegraphic Mandates by courier to
+Tientsin as well as the Presidential Seal. By a masterly move in one of
+these Mandates General Tuan Chi-jui was reappointed Premier, whilst
+Vice-President Feng Kuo-chang was asked to officiate as President, the
+arrangements being so complete as at once to catch Chang Hsun in his own
+net.
+
+Here is the text of these four historically important messages:
+
+    (1) Dated July 1. To-day Inspector General Chang Hsun entered the
+    city with his troops and actually restored the monarchy. He stopped
+    traffic and sent Liang Ting-fen and others to my place to persuade
+    me. Yuan-hung refused in firm language and swore that he would not
+    recognize such a step. It is his hope that the Vice-President and
+    others will take effective means to protect the Republic.
+
+    Li Yuan-hung.
+
+    (2) Dated July 1. As Heaven does not scorn calamity so has the
+    monarchy been restored. It is said that in an edict issued by the
+    Ching House it is stated that Yuan-hung had actually memorialized to
+    return the power of State to the said House. This is an
+    extraordinary announcement. China changed from autocracy to a
+    Republic by the unanimous wish of the five races of the country.
+    Since Yuan-hung was entrusted by the people with the great
+    responsibilities it is his natural duty to maintain the Republic to
+    the very end. Nothing more or less than this will he care to say. He
+    is sending this in order to avoid misunderstanding.
+
+    Li Yuan-hung.
+
+    (3) The President to the Vice-President.
+
+    To the Vice-President Feng at Nanking--It is to be presumed that the
+    two telegrams sent on the 1st have safely reached you. I state with
+    deepest regret and greatest sorrow that as the result of my lack of
+    ability to handle the situation the political crisis has eventually
+    affected the form of government. For this Yuan-hung realizes that he
+    owes the country apology. The situation in Peking is daily becoming
+    more precarious. Since Yuan-hung is now unable to exercise his power
+    the continuity of the Republic may be suddenly interrupted. You are
+    also entrusted by the citizens with great responsibilities; I ask
+    you to temporarily exercise the power and functions of the President
+    in your own office in accordance with the provisions of Article 42
+    of the Provisional Constitution and Article 5 of the Presidential
+    Election Law. As the means of communication is effectively blocked
+    it is feared that the sending of my seal will meet with difficulty
+    and obstruction. Tuan Chih-chuan (Tuan Chi-jui) has been appointed
+    Premier, and is also ordered to temporarily protect the seal, and
+    later to devise a means to forward it on to you. Hereafter
+    everything pertaining to the important question of saving the
+    country shall be energetically pushed by you and Chih-chuan with
+    utmost vigour. The situation is pressing and your duty is clear. In
+    great anxiety and expectation I am sending you this telegram.
+
+    Li Yuan-hung.
+
+    (4) Dated July 3. To Vice-President Feng, Tu Chuns and Governors of
+    the Provinces, Provincial Assemblies, Inspector General Lu:--I
+    presume that the two telegrams dated 1st and one dated 3rd inst.
+    have safely reached your place. With bitter remorse to myself I now
+    make the statement that the political crisis has resulted in
+    affecting the form of government. Tuan Chih-chuan has been appointed
+    on the 1st inst. as Premier; and the Vice-President has been asked
+    to exercise the power and functions of the President in accordance
+    of office by the Vice-President. Premier Tuan is authorized to act
+    at his discretion. All the seal and documents have been sent to
+    Tientsin, and Premier Tuan has been told to keep and guard the same
+    for the time being. He has also been asked to forward the same to
+    the Vice-President. The body guards of the President's Office have
+    suddenly been replaced and I have been pressed to give up the Three
+    Lakes. Yuan-hung has therefore removed to a sanctuary. As regards
+    the means to save the country I trust that you will consult and work
+    unitedly with Vice-President Feng and Premier Tuan. In great
+    expectation, and with much of my heart not poured out.
+
+    Li Yuan-hung.
+
+Meanwhile, whilst these dramatic events were occurring in Peking, others
+no less sensational were taking place in the provinces. The Tientsin
+group, suddenly realizing that the country was in danger, took action
+very swiftly, disclosing that in spite of all disputes Republicanism had
+become very dear to every thinking man in the country, and that at last
+it was possible to think of an united China. The Scholar Liang Chi Chao,
+spokesman of Chinese Liberalism, in an extraordinarily able message
+circularized the provinces in terms summarizing everything of
+importance. Beginning with the fine literary flight that "heaven has
+refused to sympathize with our difficulties by allowing traitors to be
+born" he ends with the astounding phrase that although he had proposed
+to remain silent to the end of his days, "at the sight of the fallen
+nest he has, however, spat the stopper out of his throat," and he calls
+upon all China to listen to his words which are simply that the Republic
+must be upheld or dissolution will come.
+
+Arms now united with Literature. General Tuan Chi-jui, immediately
+accepting the burden placed on him, proceeded to the main entrenched
+camp outside Tientsin and assumed command of the troops massed there,
+issuing at the same time the following manifesto:
+
+    TUAN CHI-JUI'S MANIFESTO
+
+    To Vice-President Feng Kuo-chang, Inspector General of Wumin, Tu
+    Chuns, Governors, Tu-tungs....
+
+    Heaven is chastening this country by the series of disturbances that
+    have taken place. Chang Hsun, filled with sinister designs, has
+    occupied the capital by bringing up his troops under the pretext of
+    effecting a compromise with the astounding result that last night
+    the Republican form of government was overthrown. The question of
+    the form of Government is the very fundamental principle on which
+    the national existence depends. It requires assiduous efforts to
+    settle the form of government and once a decision has been reached
+    on the subject, any attempt to change the same is bound to bring on
+    unspeakable disasters to the country. To-day the people of China are
+    much more enlightened and democratic in spirit than ever before. It
+    is, therefore, absolutely impossible to subjugate the millions by
+    holding out to the country the majesty of any one family.
+
+    When the Republic of China was being founded, the Ching House, being
+    well aware of the general inclinations of modern peoples, sincerely
+    and modestly abdicated its power. Believing that such spirit
+    deserved handsome recognition the people were willing to place the
+    Ching House under the protection of special treatment and actually
+    recorded the covenant on paper, whereby contentment and honour were
+    vouchsafed the Ching House. Of the end of more than 20 dynasties of
+    Chinese history, none can compare with the Ching dynasty for peace
+    and safety.
+
+    Purely for sake of satisfying his ambitions of self-elevation Chang
+    Hsun and others have audaciously committed a crime of inconceivable
+    magnitude and are guilty of high treason. Like Wang Mang and Tung
+    Tso he seeks to sway the whole nation by utilizing a young and
+    helpless emperor. Moreover he has given the country to understand
+    that Li Yuan-hung has memorialized the Ching House that many evils
+    have resulted from republicanism and that the ex-emperor should be
+    restored to save the masses. That Chang Hsun has been guilty of
+    usurpation and forging documents is plain and the scandal is one
+    that shocks all the world.
+
+    Can it be imagined that Chang Hsun is actuated by a patriotic
+    motive? Surely despotism is no longer tolerated in this stage of
+    modern civilization. Such a scheme can only provoke universal
+    opposition. Five years have already passed since the friendly Powers
+    accorded their recognition of the Chinese Republic and if we think
+    we could afford to amuse ourselves with changes in the national
+    fabric, we could not expect foreign powers to put up with such
+    childishness. Internal strife is bound to invite foreign
+    intervention and the end of the country will then be near.
+
+    Can it be possible that Chang Hsun has acted in the interest of the
+    Ching House? The young boy-emperor lives in peace and contentment
+    and has not the slightest idea of ever ruling China again. It is
+    known that his tutors have been warning him of the dangers of
+    intriguing for power. That the boy-emperor has been dragged on the
+    throne entirely against his own wishes is undeniable. History tells
+    us that no dynasty can live for ever. It is an unprecedented
+    privilege for the Ching dynasty to be able to end with the gift of
+    special treatment. How absurd to again place the Tsing house on the
+    top of a high wall so that it may fall once more and disappear for
+    ever.
+
+    Chi-jui, after his dismissal, resolved not to participate in
+    political affairs, but as he has had a share, however insignificant,
+    in the formation of the Chinese Republic, and having served the
+    Republic for so long he cannot bear to see its destruction without
+    stretching out a helping hand. Further, he has been a recipient of
+    favours from the defunct dynasty, and he cannot bear to watch
+    unmoved, the sight of the Ching House being made the channel of
+    brigandage with suicidal results. Wherever duty calls, Chi-jui will
+    go in spite of the danger of death. You, gentlemen, are the pillars
+    of the Republic of China and therefore have your own duties to
+    perform. In face of this extraordinary crisis, our indignation must
+    be one. For the interest of the country we should abide by our oath
+    of unstinted loyalty; and for the sake of the Tsing House let us
+    show our sympathy by sane and wise deeds. I feel sure you will put
+    forth every ounce of your energy and combine your efforts to combat
+    the great disaster. Though I am a feeble old soldier, I will follow
+    you on the back of my steed.
+
+    (Sgd) TUAN CHI-JUI.
+
+Following the publication of this manifesto a general movement of troops
+began. On the 5th July the important Peking-Tientsin railway was
+reported interrupted forty miles from the capital--at Langfang which is
+the station where Admiral Seymour's relief expedition in 1900 was nearly
+surrounded and exterminated. Chang Hsun, made desperate by the swift
+answer to his coup, had moved out of Peking in force stiffening his own
+troops with numbers of Manchu soldiery, and announcing that he would
+fight it out to the bitter end, although this proved as false as the
+rest had been. The first collision occurred on the evening of the 5th
+July and was disastrous for the King-maker. The whole Northern army,
+with the exception of a Manchu Division in Peking, was so rapidly
+concentrated on the two main railways leading to the capital that Chang
+Hsun's army, hopelessly outnumbered and outmanoeuvred, fell back after a
+brief resistance. Chang Hsun himself was plainly stupefied by the
+discovery that imperialism of the classic type was as much out of date
+in the North as in the South; and within one week of his _coup_ he was
+prepared to surrender if his life and reputation were spared. By the 9th
+July the position was this: the Republican forces had surrounded
+Peking: Chang Hsun had resigned every appointment save the command of
+his own troops: the Manchu Court party had drafted a fresh Edict of
+Renunciation, but being terrorized by the pigtailed troops surrounding
+the Palace did not dare to issue it.
+
+The usual bargaining now commenced with the Legation Quarter acting as a
+species of middleman. No one was anxious to see warfare carried into the
+streets of Peking, as not only might this lead to the massacres of
+innocent people, but to foreign complications as well. The novelty had
+already been seen of a miniature air-raid on the Imperial city, and the
+panic that exploding bombs had carried into the hearts of the Manchu
+Imperial Family made them ready not only to capitulate but to run away.
+The chief point at issue was, however, not the fate of the monarchy,
+which was a dead thing, but simply what was going to happen to Chang
+Hsun's head--a matter which was profoundly distressing Chang Hsun. The
+Republican army had placed a price of L10,000 on it, and the firebrands
+were advocating that the man must be captured, dead or alive, and suffer
+decapitation in front of the Great Dynastic Gate of the Palace as a
+revenge for his perfidy. Round this issue a subtle battle raged which
+was not brought to a head until the evening of the 11th July, when all
+attempts at forcing Chang Hsun to surrender unconditionally having
+failed, it was announced that a general attack would be made on his
+forces at daylight the next morning.
+
+Promptly at dawn on the 12th July a gun-signal heralded the assault.
+Large Republican contingents entered the city through various Gates, and
+a storm of firing aroused terror among the populace. The main body of
+Chang Hsun's men, entrenched in the great walled enclosure of the Temple
+of Heaven, were soon surrounded, and although it would have been
+possible for them to hold out for several days, after a few hours'
+firing a parley began and they quietly surrendered. Similarly in the
+Imperial city, where Chang Hsun had taken up his residence, this leader,
+in spite of his fire-eating declarations, soon fled to the Legation
+Quarter and besought an asylum. His men held out until two in the
+afternoon, when their resistance collapsed and the cease-fire sounded.
+The number of casualties on both sides was infinitesimal, and thus after
+eleven days' farce the Manchu dynasty found itself worse off than ever
+before. It is necessary, however, not to lose sight of the main problem
+in China, which is the establishment of a united government and a
+cessation of internecine warfare,--issues which have been somewhat
+simplified by Chang Hsun's escapade, but not solved. That a united
+government will ultimately be established is the writer's belief, based
+on a knowledge of all the facts. But to attain that further provincial
+struggles are inevitable, since China is too large a unit to find common
+ground without much suffering and bitterness. President Li Yuan-hung
+having declared that nothing would induce him to resume office,
+Vice-President Feng Kuo-chang has become the legal successor and has
+quietly assumed office. Chang Hsun's abortive coup has already cleared
+the air in North China to this extent: that the Manchu Imperial Family
+is to be removed from Peking and the Imperial allowance greatly reduced,
+whilst the proscription of such out-and-out imperialists as Kang Yu-wei
+has destroyed the last vestiges of public support. Finally the
+completion of China's foreign policy, _i.e._ the declaration of war
+against Germany and Austria, has at last been made on the 14th August,
+1917, and a consistent course of action mapped out.
+
+[Illustration: The National Assembly sitting as a National Convention
+engaged on the Draft of the Permanent Constitution.
+
+_Specially photographed by permission of the Speakers for the Present
+Work_.]
+
+[Illustration: View from rear of Hall of the National Assembly sitting
+as a National Convention engaged on the Draft of the Permanent
+Constitution.
+
+_Specially photographed by permission of the Speakers for the Present
+Work_.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[25] The final text of the Permanent Constitution as it stood on the
+28th May, 1917, will be found in the appendix. Its accuracy has been
+guaranteed to the writer by the speakers of the two Houses.
+
+[26] Since this was written certain diplomatists in Peking have been
+forced to resign.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+THE FINAL PROBLEM:--REMODELLING THE POLITICO-ECONOMIC RELATIONSHIP
+BETWEEN CHINA AND THE WORLD
+
+
+The careful narrative we have made--supported as it is by documents--of
+the history of China since the inception of the Republic six years ago
+should not fail to awaken profound astonishment among those who are
+interested in the spread of good government throughout the world. Even
+casual readers will have no difficulty in realizing how many lives have
+been lost and how greatly the country has been crippled both owing to
+the blind foreign support given to Yuan Shih-kai during four long and
+weary years and to the stupid adhesion to exploded ideas, when a little
+intelligence and a little generosity and sympathy would have guided the
+nation along very different paths. To have to go back, as China was
+forced to do in 1916, and begin over again the work which should have
+been performed in 1912 is a handicap which only persistent resolution
+can overcome; for the nation has been so greatly impoverished that years
+must elapse before a complete recovery from the disorders which have
+upset the internal balance can be chronicled: and when we add that the
+events of the period May-July, 1917, are likely still further to
+increase the burden the nation carries, the complicated nature of the
+outlook will be readily understood.
+
+Happily foreign opinion has lately taken turn for the better. Whilst the
+substitution of a new kind of rule in place of the Yuan Shih-kai regime,
+with its thinly disguised Manchuism and its secret worship of fallen
+gods, was at first looked upon as a political collapse tinged with
+tragedy--most foreigners refusing to believe in an Asiatic Republic--the
+masculine decision of the 9th February, 1917, which diplomatically
+ranged China definitely on the side of the Liberal Powers, has caused
+something of a _volte face_. Until this decision had been made it was
+the fashion to declare that China was not only not fit to be a Republic
+but that her final dissolution was only a matter of time. Though the
+empire disappeared because it had become an impossible rule in the
+modern world--being womanish, corrupt, and mediaeval--to the foreign
+mind the empire remained the acme of Chinese civilization; and to kill
+it meant to lop off the head of the Chinese giant and to leave lying on
+the ground nothing but a corpse. It was in vain to insist that this
+simile was wrong and that it was precisely because Chinese civilization
+had exhausted itself that a new conception of government had to be
+called in to renew the vitality of the people. Men, and particularly
+diplomats, refused to understand that this embodied the heart and soul
+of the controversy, and that the sole mandate for the Republic, as well
+as the supreme reason why it had to be upheld if the country was not to
+dissolve, has always lain in the fact that it postulates something which
+is the very antithesis of the system it has replaced and which should be
+wholly successful in a single generation, if courage is shown and the
+whip unflinchingly used.
+
+The chief trouble, in the opinion of the writer, has been the simplicity
+of the problem and not its complexity. By eliminating the glamour which
+surrounded the Throne, and by kicking away all the pomp and circumstance
+which formed the age-old ritual of government, the glaring simplicity
+and _barrenness_ of Chinese life--when contrasted with the complex
+West--has been made evident. Bathed in the hard light of modern
+realities, the poetic China which Haroun al-Raschid painted in his
+Aladdin, and which still lives in the beautiful art of the country, has
+vanished for ever and its place has been taken by a China of prose. To
+those who have always pictured Asia in terms of poetry this has no doubt
+been a very terrible thing--a thing synonymous with political death. And
+yet in point of fact the elementary things remain much as they have
+always been before, and if they appear to have acquired new meaning it
+is simply because they have been moved into the foreground and are no
+longer masked by a gaudy superstructure.
+
+For if you eliminate questions of money and suppose for a moment that
+the national balance-sheet is entirely in order, China is the old China
+although she is stirred by new ideas. Here you have by far the greatest
+agricultural community in the world, living just as it has always lived
+in the simplest possible manner, and remitting to the cities (of which
+there are not ten with half-a-million inhabitants) the increment which
+the harvests yield. These cities have made much municipal progress and
+developed an independence which is confessedly new. Printing presses
+have spread a noisy assertiveness, as well as a very critical and
+litigious spirit, which tends to resent and oppose authority.[27] Trade,
+although constantly proclaimed to be in a bad way, is steadily growing
+as new wants are created and fashions change. An immense amount of new
+building has been done, particularly in those regions which the
+Revolution of 1911 most devastated. The archaic fiscal system, having
+been tumbled into open ruin, has been partially replaced by European
+conceptions which are still only half-understood, but which are not
+really opposed. The country, although boasting a population which is
+only some fifty millions less than the population of the nineteen
+countries of Europe, has an army and a police-force so small as to allow
+one to say that China is virtually disarmed since there are only 900,000
+men with weapons in their hands. Casting about to discover what really
+tinges the outlook, that must simply be held to be the long delay the
+world has made in extending the same treatment to China as is now
+granted to the meanest community of Latin America. It has been almost
+entirely this, coupled with the ever-present threat of Japanese
+chauvinism, which has given China the appearance of a land that is
+hopelessly water-logged, although the National Debt is relatively the
+smallest in the world and the people the most industrious and
+law-abiding who have ever lived. In such circumstances that ideas of
+collapse should have spread so far is simply due to a faulty estimate
+of basic considerations.
+
+For we have to remember that in a country in which the thoroughly
+English doctrine of _laissez faire_ has been so long practised that it
+has become second nature, and in which the philosophic spirit is so
+undisputed that the pillars of society are just as much the beggars who
+beg as the rich men who support them, influences of a peculiar character
+play an immense role and can be only very slowly overcome. Passivity has
+been so long enthroned that of the Chinese it may be truly said that
+they are not so much too proud to fight as too indifferent,--which is
+not a fruitful state of affairs. Looking on the world with callous
+detachment the masses go their own way, only pausing in their work on
+their ancient Festival days which they still celebrate just as they have
+always celebrated them since the beginning of their history. The petty
+daily activities of a vast legion of people grouped together in this
+extraordinary way, and actuated by impulses which seem sharply to
+conflict with the impulses of the other great races of the world, appear
+incredible to Westerners who know what the outer perils really are, and
+who believe that China is not only at bay but encircled--caught in a
+network of political agreements and commitments which have permanently
+destroyed her power of initiative and reduced her to inanition. To find
+her lumbering on undisturbed, ploughing the fields, marrying and giving
+in marriage, buying, selling, cursing and laughing, carrying out
+rebellions and little plots as though the centuries that stretch ahead
+were still her willing slaves, has in the end become to onlookers a
+veritable nightmare. Puzzled by a phenomenon which is so disconcerting
+as to be incapable of any clear definition, they have ended by declaring
+that an empty Treasury is an empty rule, adding that as it is solely
+from this monetary viewpoint that the New China ought to be judged,
+their opinion is the one which will finally be accepted as
+authoritative. The situation is admittedly dangerous; and it is
+imperative that a speedy remedy be sought; for the heirs and assigns of
+an estate which has been mismanaged to the brink of bankruptcy must
+secure at all costs that no public receivership is made.
+
+What is the remedy? That must consist simply enough in attacking the
+grand simplicities directly; in recognizing, as we have clearly shown,
+that the bases of Chinese life having collapsed through Euro-Japanese
+pressure, the politico-economic relationship between the Republic and
+the world must be remodelled at the earliest possible opportunity, every
+agreement which has been made since the Treaties of 1860 being carefully
+and completely revised.[28]
+
+To say this is to give utterance to nothing very new or brilliant: it is
+the thought which has been present in everyone's mind for a number of
+years. So far back as 1902, when Great Britain negotiated with China the
+inoperative Mackay Commercial Treaty, provision was not only made for a
+complete reform of the Tariff--import duties to be made two and a
+half times as large in return for a complete abolition of _likin_
+or inter-provincial trade-taxation--but for the abolition of
+extraterritoriality when China should have erected a modern and efficient
+judicial system. And although matters equally important, such as the
+funding of all Chinese indemnities and loans into one Consolidated Debt,
+as well as the withdrawal of the right of foreign banks to make banknote
+issues in China, were not touched upon, the same principles would
+undoubtedly have been applied in these instances, as being conducive to
+the re-establishment of Chinese autonomy, had Chinese negotiators been
+clever enough to urge them as being of equal importance to the older
+issues. For it is primarily debt, and the manipulation of debt, which is
+the great enemy.
+
+Three groups of indebtedness and three groups of restrictions,
+corresponding with the three vital periods in Chinese history, lie
+to-day like three great weights on the body of the Chinese giant. First,
+there is the imbroglio of the Japanese war of 1894-5; second, the
+settlement following the Boxer explosion of 1900; and third, the cost of
+the revolution of 1911-1912. We have already discussed so exhaustively
+the Boxer Settlement and the finance of the Revolutionary period that it
+is necessary to deal with the first period only.
+
+In that first period China, having been rudely handled by Japan,
+recovered herself only by indulging in the sort of diplomacy which had
+become traditional under the Manchus. Thankful for any help in her
+distress, she invited and welcomed the intervention of Russia, which
+gave her back the Liaotung Peninsula and preserved for her the shadow of
+her power when the substance had already been so sensationally lost. Men
+are apt to forget to-day that the financial accommodation which allowed
+China to liquidate the Japanese war-debt was a remarkable transaction in
+which Russia formed the controlling element. In 1895 the Tsar's
+Government had intervened for precisely the same motives that animate
+every State at critical times in history, that is, for reasons of
+self-interest. The rapid victory which Japan had won had revived in an
+acute form the whole question of the future of the vast block of
+territory which lies south of the Amur regions and is bathed by the
+Yellow Sea. Russian statesmen suddenly became conscious that the policy
+of which Muravieff-Amurski in the middle of the nineteenth century had
+been the most brilliant exponent--the policy of reaching "warm
+water"--was in danger of being crucified, and the work of many years
+thrown away. Action on Russia's part was imperative; she was great
+enough to see that; and so that it should not be said that she was
+merely depriving a gallant nation of the fruits of victory and thereby
+issuing to her a direct challenge, she invited the chief Powers in
+Treaty relations with China to co-operate with her in readjusting what
+she described as the threatened balance. France and Germany responded to
+that invitation; England demurred. France did so because she was already
+the devoted Ally of a nation that was a guarantee for the security of
+her European frontiers: Germany because she was anxious to see that
+Russia should be pushed into Asiatic commitments and drawn away from the
+problems of the Near East. England on her part very prudently declined
+to be associated with a transaction which, while not opposed to her
+interests, was filled with many dubious elements.
+
+It was in Petrograd that this account was liquidated. The extraordinary
+chapter which only closed with the disastrous Peace of Portsmouth opened
+for Russia in a very brilliant way. The presence in Moscow of the
+veteran statesman Li Hung-chang on the occasion of the Tsar's Coronation
+afforded an opportunity for exhaustively discussing the whole problem of
+the Far East. China required money: Russia required the acceptance of
+plans which ultimately proved so disastrous to her. Under Article IV of
+the Treaty of Shimonoseki (April, 1895) China had agreed to pay Japan as
+a war-indemnity 200 million Treasury taels in eight instalments: that is
+50 million taels within six months, a further 50 millions within twelve
+months, and the remaining 100 millions in six equal instalments spread
+over seven years, as well as an additional sum of 50 millions for the
+retrocession of the Liaotung Peninsula.
+
+China, therefore, needed at once 80 million taels. Russia undertook to
+lend her at the phenomenally low rate of 4 per cent. the sum of
+L16,000,000 sterling--the interest and capital of which the Tsar's
+Government guaranteed to the French bankers undertaking the flotation.
+In return for this accommodation, the well known Russo-Chinese
+Declaration of the 24th June (6th July), 1895, was made in which the
+vital article IX states that--"In consideration of this Loan the Chinese
+Government declares that it will not grant to any foreign Power any
+right or privilege of no matter what description touching the control or
+administration of the revenues of the Chinese Empire. Should, however,
+the Chinese Government grant to any foreign Power rights of this nature,
+it is understood that the mere fact of having done so will extend those
+rights to the Russian Government."
+
+This clause has a monumental significance: it started the scramble in
+China: and all the history of the past 22 years is piled like a pyramid
+on top of it. Now that the Romanoffs have been hurled from the throne,
+Russia must prove eager to reverse the policy which brought Japan to her
+Siberian frontiers and which pinned a brother democracy to the ground.
+
+For China, instead of being nearly bankrupt as so many have asserted,
+has, thanks to the new scale of indebtedness which the war has
+established, become one of the most debt-free countries in the world,
+her entire national debt (exclusive of railway debt) amounting to less
+than 150 millions sterling, or seven shillings per head of population,
+which is certainly not very terrible. No student who has given due
+attention to the question can deny that it is primarily on the proper
+handling of this nexus of financial interests, and not by establishing
+any artificial balance of power between foreign nations, that the peace
+of the Far East really hinges. The method of securing national
+redemption is ready-made: Western nations should use the Parliament of
+China as an instrument of reform, and by limiting themselves to this one
+method secure that civil authority is reinforced to such a point that
+its behests have behind them all the wealth of the West. In questions of
+currency, taxation, railways and every other vexatious problem, it is
+solely by using this instrument that satisfactory results can be
+attained.[29] For once Chinese realize that parliamentary government is
+not merely an experimental thing but the last chance the country is to
+be given to govern itself, they will rally to the call and prove that
+much of the trouble and turmoil of past years has been due to the
+misunderstanding of the internal problem by Western minds which has
+incited the population to intrigue against one another and remain
+disunited. And if we insist that there is urgent need for a settlement
+of these matters in the terms we have indicated, it is because we know
+very precisely what Japanese thought on this subject really is.
+
+What is that thought--whither does it lead?
+
+It may be broadly said that Japanese activities throughout the Far East
+are based on a thorough and adequate appreciation of the fact that apart
+from the winning of the hegemony of China, there is the far more
+difficult and knotty problem of overshadowing and ultimately dislodging
+the huge network of foreign interests--particularly British
+interests--which seventy-five years of Treaty intercourse have entwined
+about the country. These interests, growing out of the seed planted in
+the early Canton Factory days, had their origin in the termination by
+the act of the British Government of the trading monopoly enjoyed until
+the thirties of last century by the East India Company. Left without
+proper definition until the Treaty of Nanking in 1842 had formally won
+the principle of trading-rights at five open ports, and thus established
+a first basis of agreement between England and China (to which all the
+trading powers hastened to subscribe), these interests expanded in a
+half-hearted way until 1860, when in order to terminate friction, the
+principle of extraterritoriality was boldly borrowed from the Turkish
+Capitulations, and made the rock on which the entire fabric of
+international dealings in China was based. These treaties, with their
+always-recurring "most-favoured nation" clause, and their implication of
+equal treatment for all Powers alike, constitute the Public Law of the
+Far East, just as much as the Treaties between the Nations constitute
+the Public Law of Europe; and any attempt to destroy, cripple, or limit
+their scope and function has been very generally deemed an assault on
+all the High Contracting Parties alike. By a thoroughly Machiavellian
+piece of reasoning, those who have been responsible for the framing of
+recent Japanese policy, have held it essential to their plan to keep the
+world chained to the principle of extraterritoriality and Chinese Tariff
+and economic subjection because these things, imposing as they
+necessarily do restrictions and limitations in many fields, leave it
+free to the Japanese to place themselves outside and beyond these
+restrictions and limitations; and, by means of special zones and secret
+encroachments, to extend their influence so widely that ultimately
+foreign treaty-ports and foreign interests may be left isolated and at
+the mercy of the "Higher machinery" which their hegemony is installing.
+The Chinese themselves, it is hoped, will be gradually cajoled into
+acquiescing in this very extraordinary state of affairs, because being
+unorganized and split into suspicious groups, they can be manipulated in
+such a way as to offer no effective mass resistance to the Japanese
+advance, and in the end may be induced to accept it as inevitable.
+
+If the reader keeps these great facts carefully in mind a new light will
+dawn on him and the urgency of the Chinese question will be disclosed.
+The Japanese Demands of 1915, instead of being fantastic and
+far-fetched, as many have supposed, are shown to be very intelligently
+drawn-up, the entire Treaty position in China having been most
+exhaustively studied, and every loophole into the vast region left
+untouched by the ex-territorialized Powers marked down for invasion. For
+Western nations, in spite of exorbitant demands at certain periods in
+Chinese history, having mainly limited themselves to acquiring coastal
+and communication privileges, which were desired more for genuine
+purposes of trade than for encompassing the destruction of Chinese
+autonomy, are to-day in a disadvantageous position which the Japanese
+have shown they thoroughly understand by not only tightening their hold
+on Manchuria and Shantung, but by going straight to the root of the
+matter and declaring on every possible occasion that they alone are
+responsible for the peace and safety of the Far East--and this in spite
+of the fact that their plan of 1915 was exposed and partially
+frustrated. But the chief force behind the Japanese Foreign Office, it
+should be noted, is militarist; and it is a point of honour for the
+Military Party to return to the charge in China again and again until
+there is definite success or definite failure.
+
+Now in view of the facts which have been so voluminously set forth in
+preceding chapters, it is imperative for men to realize that the
+struggle in the Far East is like the Balkan Question a thing rooted in
+geography and peoples, and cannot be brushed aside or settled by
+compromises. The whole future of Chinese civilization is intimately
+bound up with the questions involved, and the problem instead of
+becoming easier to handle must become essentially more difficult from
+day to day. Japan's real objective being the termination of the implied
+trusteeship which Europe and America still exercise in the Far East, the
+course of the European war must intimately effect the ultimate outcome.
+If that end is satisfactory for democracies, China may reasonably claim
+to share in the resulting benefits; if on the other hand the Liberal
+Powers do not win an overwhelming victory which shall secure the
+sanctity of Treaties for all time, it will go hard for China. Outwardly,
+the immediate goal which Japan seeks to attain is merely to become the
+accredited spokesman of Eastern Asia, the official representative; and,
+using this attorneyship as a cloak for the advancement of objects which
+other Powers would pursue on different principles, so impregnably to
+entrench herself where she has no business to be that no one will dare
+to attempt to turn her out. For this reason we see revived in Manchuria
+on a modified scale the Eighteenth Century device, once so essential a
+feature of Dutch policy in the struggle against Louis XIV, namely the
+creation of "barrier-cities" for closing and securing a frontier by
+giving them a special constitution which withdraws them from ordinary
+jurisdiction and places foreign garrisons in them. This is precisely
+what is going on from the Yalu to Eastern Mongolia, and this procedure
+no doubt will be extended in time to other regions as opportunities
+arise. Already in Shantung the same policy is being pursued and there
+are indications that it is being thought of in Fuhkien; whilst the
+infantry garrison which was quietly installed at Hankow--600 miles up
+the Yangtsze river--at the time of the Revolution of 1911 is apparently
+to be made permanent. Allowing her policy to be swayed by men who know
+far too little of the sea, Japan stands in imminent danger of forgetting
+the great lesson which Mahan taught, that for island-peoples sea-power
+is everything and that land conquests which diminish the efficacy of
+that power are merely a delusion and snare. Plunging farther and farther
+into the vast regions of Manchuria and Mongolia which have been the
+graves of a dozen dynasties, Japan is displaying increasing indifference
+for the one great lesson which the war has yielded--the overwhelming
+importance of the sea.[30] Necessarily guardian of the principles on
+which intercourse in Asia is based, because she framed those principles
+and fought for them and has built up great edifices under their
+sanction, British sea-power--now allied for ever, let us hope, with
+American power--nevertheless remains and will continue to remain, in
+spite of what may be half-surreptitiously done to-day, the dominant
+factor in the Far East as it is in the Far West. Withdrawn from view for
+the time being, because of the exigencies of the hour and because the
+Anglo-Japanese Alliance is still counted a binding agreement, Western
+sea-power nevertheless stands there, a heavy cloud in the offing, full
+of questionings regarding what is going on in the Orient, and fully
+determined, let us pray, one day to receive frank answers. For the right
+of every race, no matter how small or weak, to enjoy the inestimable
+benefits of self-government and independence may be held to have been so
+absolutely established that it is a mere question of time for the
+doctrine not only to be universally accepted but to be universally
+applied. In many cases, it is true, the claims of certain races are as
+yet incapable of being expressed in practical state-forms; but where
+nationalities have long been well-defined, there can be no question
+whatsoever that a properly articulated autonomy must be secured in such
+a way as to preclude the possibility of annexations.
+
+Now although in their consideration of Asia it is notorious that Western
+statesmen have not cared to keep in mind political concepts which have
+become enthroned in Europe, owing to the fact that an active element of
+opposition to such concepts was to be found in their own policies, a
+vast change has undoubtedly been recently worked, making it certain
+that the claims of nationalism are soon to be given the same force and
+value in the East as in the West. But before there can be any question
+of Asia for the Asiatics being adopted as a root principle by the whole
+world, it will have to be established in some unmistakable form that the
+surrender of the policy of conquest which Europe has pursued for four
+centuries East of the Suez Canal will not lead to its adoption by an
+Asiatic Power under specious forms which hide the glittering sword. If
+that can be secured, then the present conflict will have truly been a
+War of Liberation for the East as well as for the West. For although
+Japan has been engaged for some years in declaring to all Asiatics under
+her breath that she holds out the hand of a brother to them, and dreams
+of the days when the age of European conquests will be nothing but a
+distant memory, her actions have consistently belied her words and shown
+that she has not progressed in political thought much beyond the crude
+conceptions of the Eighteenth Century. Thus Korea, which fell under her
+sway because the nominal independence of the country had long made it
+the centre of disastrous international intrigues, is governed to-day as
+a conquered province by a military viceroy without a trace of autonomy
+remaining and without any promise that such a regime is only temporary.
+Although nothing in the undertakings made with the Powers has ever
+admitted that a nation which boasts of an ancient line of kings, and
+which gave Japan much of her own civilization, should be stamped under
+foot in such manner, the course which politics have taken in Korea has
+been disastrous in the extreme ever since Lord Lansdowne in 1905, as
+British Secretary for Foreign Affairs, pointed out in a careful dispatch
+to the Russian Government that Korea was a region which fell naturally
+under the sway of Japan. Not only has a tragic fate overcome the sixteen
+million inhabitants of that country, but there has been a covert
+extension of the principles applied to them to the people of China.
+
+Now if as we say European concepts are to have universal meaning, and if
+Japan desires European treatment, it is time that it is realized that
+the policy followed in Korea, combined with the attempt to extend that
+treatment to soil where China rightly claims undisputed sovereignty,
+forms an insuperable barrier to Japan being admitted to the inner
+council of the nations.[31] No one wishes to deny to Japan her proper
+place in the world, in view of her marvellous industrial progress, but
+that place must be one which fits in with modern conceptions and is not
+one thing to the West and another to the East. Even the saying which was
+made so much of during the Russian war of 1904, that Korea in foreign
+hands was a dagger pointed at the heart of Japan--has been shown to be
+inherently false by the lessons of the present struggle, the Korean
+dagger-point being 120 sea miles from the Japanese coast. Such arguments
+clearly show that if the truce which was hastily patched up in 1905 is
+to give way to a permanent peace, that can be evolved only by locking on
+to the Far East the principles which are in process of being vindicated
+in Europe. In other words, precisely as Poland is to be given autonomy,
+so must Korea enjoy the same privileges, the whole Japanese theory of
+suzerainty on the Eastern Asiatic Continent being abandoned. To
+re-establish a proper balance of power in the Far East, the Korean
+nation, which has had a known historical existence of 1,500 years, must
+be reinstated in something resembling its old position; for Korea has
+always been the keystone of the Far Eastern arch, and it is the
+destruction of that arch more than anything else which has brought the
+collapse of China so perilously near.
+
+Once the legitimate aspirations of the Korean people have been
+satisfied, the whole Manchurian-Mongolian question will assume a
+different aspect, and a true peace between China and Japan will be made
+possible. It is to no one's interest to have a Polish question in the
+Far East with all the bitterness and the crimes which such a question
+must inevitably lead to; and the time to obviate the creation of such a
+question is at the very beginning before it has become an obsession and
+a great international issue. Although the Japanese annexation may be
+held to have settled the question once and for all, we have but to point
+to Poland to show that a race can pass through every possible
+humiliation and endure every possible species of truncation without
+dying or abating by one whit its determination to enjoy what happier
+races have won.
+
+The issue is a vital one. China by her recent acts has given a
+categorical and unmistakable reply to all the insidious attempts to
+place her outside and beyond the operation of international law and all
+those sanctions which make life worth living; and because of the formal
+birth of a Foreign Policy it can be definitely expected that this
+nation, despite its internal troubles and struggles, will never rest
+content until she has created a new nexus of world-relationships which
+shall affirm and apply every one of the principles experience elsewhere
+has proved are the absolute essentials to peace and happiness. China is
+already many decades ahead of Japan in her theory of government, no
+matter what the practice may be, the marvellous revolution of 1911
+having given back to this ancient race its old position of leader in
+ideas on the shores of the Yellow Sea. The whole dream Japan has
+cherished, and has sought to give form to during the war, is in the last
+analysis antiquated and forlorn and must ultimately dissolve into thin
+air; for it is monstrous to suppose, in an age when European men have
+sacrificed everything to free themselves from the last vestiges of
+feudalism, that in the Far East the cult of Sparta should remain a
+hallowed and respected doctrine. Japan's policy in the Far East during
+the period of the war has been uniformly mischievous and is largely
+responsible for the fierce hatreds which burst out in 1917 over the war
+issue; and China will be forced to raise at the earliest possible moment
+the whole question of the validity of the undertakings extorted from her
+in 1915 under the threat of an ultimatum. Although the precise nature
+of Anglo-Japanese diplomacy during the vital eleven days from the 4th to
+the 15th August, 1914 [_i.e._ from the British declaration of war on
+Germany to the Japanese ultimatum regarding Kiaochow] remains a sealed
+book, China suspects that Japan from the very beginning of the present
+war world-struggle has taken advantage of England's vast commitments and
+acted _ultra vires_. China hopes and believes that Britain will never
+again renew the Japanese alliance, which expires in 1921, in its present
+form, particularly now that an Anglo-American agreement has been made
+possible. China knows that in spite of all coquetting with both the
+extreme radical and military parties which is going on daily in Peking
+and the provinces the secret object of Japanese diplomacy is either the
+restoration of the Manchu dynasty, or the enthronement of some pliant
+usurper, a puppet-Emperor being what is needed to repeat in China the
+history of Korea. Japan would be willing to go to any lengths to secure
+the attainment of this reactionary object. Faithful to her "divine
+mission," she is ceaselessly stirring up trouble and hoping that time
+may still be left her to consolidate her position on the Asiatic
+mainland, one of her latest methods being to busy herself at distant
+points in the Pacific so that Western men for the sake of peace may be
+ultimately willing to abandon the shores of the Yellow Seas to her
+unchallenged mastery.
+
+The problem thus outlined becomes a great dramatic thing. The lines
+which trace the problem are immense, stretching from China to every
+shore bathed by the Pacific and then from there to the distant west.
+Whenever there is a dull calm, that calm must be treated solely as an
+intermission, an interval between the acts, a preparation for something
+more sensational than the last episode, but not as a permanent
+settlement which can only come by the methods we have indicated. For the
+Chinese question is no longer a local problem, but a great world-issue
+which statesmen must regulate by conferences in which universal
+principles will be vindicated if they wish permanently to eliminate what
+is almost the last remaining international powder-magazine. A China that
+is henceforth not only admitted to the family of nations on terms of
+equality but welcomed as a representative of Liberalism and a subscriber
+to all those sanctions on which the civilization of peace rests, will
+directly tend to adjust every other Asiatic problem and to prevent a
+recrudescence of those evil phenomena which are the enemies of progress
+and happiness. Is it too much to dream of such a consummation? We think
+not. It is to America and to England that China looks to rehabilitate
+herself and to make her Republic a reality. If they lend her their help,
+if they are consistent, there is still no reason why this democracy on
+the shores of the Yellow Sea should not be reinstated in the proud
+position it occupied twenty centuries ago, when it furnished the very
+silks which clothed the daughters of the Caesars.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[27] The growth of the Chinese press is remarkable. Although no complete
+statistics are available there is reason to believe that the number of
+periodicals in China now approximates 10,000, the daily vernacular
+newspapers in Peking alone exceeding 60. Although no newspaper in China
+prints more than 20,000 copies a day, the reading public is growing at a
+phenomenal rate, it being estimated that at least 50 million people read
+the daily publications, or hear what they say,--a fact which is deemed
+so politically important that all political parties and groups have
+their chains of organs throughout the country.
+
+[28] The mediaeval condition of Chinese trade taxation is well
+illustrated by a Memorandum which the reader will find in the appendix.
+One example may be quoted. Timber shipped from the Yalu river, _i.e._
+from Chinese territory, to Peking, pays duties at _five_ different
+places, the total amount of which aggregates 20 per cent. of its market
+value; whilst timber from America, with transit dues and Peking Octroi
+added, only pays 10 per cent.! China is probably the only country that
+has ever existed that discriminates against its own goods and gives
+preference to the foreigner,--through the operation of the Treaties.
+
+[29] We need only give a single example of what we mean. If, in the
+matter of the reform of the currency, instead of authorizing
+trade-agencies, _i.e._ the foreign Exchange Banks, to make a loan to
+China, which is necessarily hedged round with conditions favourable to
+such trade-agencies, the Powers took the matter directly in their own
+hands; and selecting the Bank of China--the national fiscal agent--as
+the instrument of reform agreed to advance all the sums necessary,
+_provided_ a Banking Law was passed by the Parliament of China of a
+satisfying nature, and the necessary guarantees were forthcoming, it
+would soon be possible to have a uniform National Currency which would
+be everywhere accepted and lead to a phenomenal trade expansion. It
+should be noted that China is still on a Copper Standard basis,--the
+people's buying and selling being conducted in multiples of copper
+cent-pieces of which there has been an immense over-issue, the latest
+figures showing that there are no less than 22,000,000,000 1-cent, ten
+cash pieces in circulation or 62 coins per head of population--roughly
+twenty-five millions sterling in value,--or 160,000 tons of copper! The
+number of silver dollars and subsidiary silver coins is not accurately
+known,--nor is the value of the silver bullion; but it certainly cannot
+greatly exceed this sum. In addition there is about L15,000,000 of paper
+money. A comprehensive scheme of reform, placed in the hands of the Bank
+of China, would require at least L15,000,000; but this sum would be
+sufficient to modernize the currency and establish a universal silver
+dollar standard.
+
+The Bank of China requires at least 600 branches throughout the country
+to become a true fiscal agent. It has to-day one-tenth of this number.
+
+[30] It should be carefully noted that not only has Japan no unfriendly
+feelings for Germany but that German Professors have been appointed to
+office during the war. In the matter of enemy trading Japan's policy has
+been even more extraordinary. Until there was a popular outcry among the
+Entente Allies, German merchants were allowed to trade more or less as
+usual. They were not denied the use of Japanese steamers, shipping
+companies being simply "advised" not to deal with them, the two German
+banks in Yokohama and Kobe being closed only in the Autumn of 1916. It
+was not until April, 1917, that Enemy Trading Regulations were formally
+promulgated and enforced,--that is when the war was very far
+advanced--the action of China against Germany being no doubt largely
+responsible for this step.
+
+That the Japanese nation greatly admires the German system of government
+and is in the main indifferent to the results of the war has long been
+evident to observers on the spot.
+
+[31] A very remarkable confirmation of these statements is afforded in
+the latest Japanese decision regarding Manchuria which will be
+immediately enforced. The experience of the past three years having
+proved conclusively that the Chinese, in spite of their internal strife,
+are united to a man in their determination to prevent Japan from
+tightening her hold on Manchuria and instituting an open Protectorate,
+the Tokio Government has now drawn up a subtle scheme which it is
+believed will be effective. A Bill for the unification of administration
+in South Manchuria has passed the Japanese Cabinet Conference and will
+soon be formally promulgated. Under the provisions of this Bill, the
+Manchuria Railway Company will become the actual organ of Japanese
+administration in South Manchuria; the Japanese Consular Service will be
+subordinate to the administration of the Railway; and all the powers
+hitherto vested in the Consular Service, political, commercial, judicial
+and administrative, will be made part of the organization of the South
+Manchuria Railway. This is not all. From another Japanese source we
+learn that a law is about to take effect by which the administration of
+the South Manchuria Railway will be transferred directly to the control
+of the Government-General of Korea, thus making the Railway at once an
+apparently commercial but really political organization. In future the
+revenues of the South Manchuria Railway are to be paid direct to the
+Government-General of Korea; and the yearly appropriation for the upkeep
+and administration of the Railway is to be fixed at Yen 12,000,000.
+These arrangements, especially the amalgamation of the South Manchuria
+Railway, are to take effect from the 1st July, 1917, and are an attempt
+to do in the dark what Japan dares not yet attempt in the open.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+DOCUMENTS IN GROUP I
+
+
+(1) The so-called Nineteen Articles, being the grant made by the Throne
+after the outbreak of the Wuchang Rebellion in 1911 in a vain attempt to
+satisfy the nation.
+
+(2) The Abdication Edicts issued on the 12th February, 1912, endorsing
+the establishment of the Republic.
+
+(3) The terms of abdication, generally referred to as "The articles of
+Favourable Treatment," in which special provision is made for the
+"rights" of Manchus, Mongols, Mohammedans and Tibetans, who are
+considered as being outside the Chinese nation.
+
+
+THE NINETEEN ARTICLES
+
+1. The Ta-Ching Dynasty shall reign for ever.
+
+2. The person of the Emperor shall be inviolable.
+
+3. The power of the Emperor shall be limited by a Constitution.
+
+4. The order of the succession shall be prescribed in the Constitution.
+
+5. The Constitution shall be drawn up and adopted by the National
+Assembly, and promulgated by the Emperor.
+
+6. The power of amending the Constitution belongs to Parliament.
+
+7. The members of the Upper House shall be elected by the people from
+among those particularly eligible for the position.
+
+8. Parliament shall select, and the Emperor shall appoint, the Premier,
+who will recommend the other members of the Cabinet, these also being
+appointed by the Emperor. The Imperial Princes shall be ineligible as
+Premier, Cabinet Ministers, or administrative heads of provinces.
+
+9. If the Premier, on being impeached by Parliament, does not dissolve
+Parliament he must resign but one Cabinet shall not be allowed to
+dissolve Parliament more than once.
+
+10. The Emperor shall assume direct control of the army and navy, but
+when that power is used with regard to internal affairs, he must observe
+special conditions, to be decided upon by Parliament, otherwise he is
+prohibited from exercising such power.
+
+11. Imperial decrees cannot be made to replace the law except in the
+event of immediate necessity in which case decrees in the nature of a
+law may be issued in accordance with special conditions, but only when
+they are in connection with the execution of a law or what has by law
+been delegated.
+
+12. International treaties shall not be concluded without the consent
+of Parliament, but the conclusion of peace or a declaration of war may
+be made by the Emperor if Parliament is not sitting, the approval of
+Parliament to be obtained afterwards.
+
+13. Ordinances in connection with the administration shall be settled by
+Acts of Parliament.
+
+14. In case the Budget fails to receive the approval of Parliament the
+Government cannot act upon the previous year's Budget, nor may items of
+expenditure not provided for in the Budget be appended to it. Further,
+the Government shall not be allowed to adopt extraordinary financial
+measures outside the Budget.
+
+15. Parliament shall fix the expenses of the Imperial household, and any
+increase or decrease therein.
+
+16. Regulations in connection with the Imperial family must not conflict
+with the Constitution.
+
+17. The two Houses shall establish the machinery of an administrative
+court.
+
+18. The Emperor shall promulgate the decisions of Parliament.
+
+19. The National Assembly shall act upon Articles 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14,
+15 and 18 until the opening of Parliament.
+
+
+EDICTS OF ABDICATION
+
+I
+
+We (the Emperor) have respectfully received the following Imperial Edict
+from Her Imperial Majesty the Empress Dowager Lung Yu:--
+
+As a consequence of the uprising of the Republican Army, to which the
+different provinces immediately responded, the Empire seethed like a
+boiling cauldron and the people were plunged into utter misery. Yuan
+Shih-kai was, therefore, especially commanded some time ago to dispatch
+commissioners to confer with the representatives of the Republican Army
+on the general situation and to discuss matters pertaining to the
+convening of a National Assembly for the decision of the suitable mode
+of settlement. Separated as the South and the North are by great
+distances, the unwillingness of either side to yield to the other can
+result only in the continued interruption of trade and the prolongation
+of hostilities, for, so long as the form of government is undecided, the
+Nation can have no peace. It is now evident that the hearts of the
+majority of the people are in favour of a republican form of government:
+the provinces of the South were the first to espouse the cause, and the
+generals of the North have since pledged their support. From the
+preference of the people's hearts, the Will of Heaven can be discerned.
+How could We then bear to oppose the will of the millions for the glory
+of one Family! Therefore, observing the tendencies of the age on the one
+hand and studying the opinions of the people on the other, We and His
+Majesty the Emperor hereby vest the sovereignty in the People and decide
+in favour of a republican form of constitutional government. Thus we
+would gratify on the one hand the desires of the whole nation who, tired
+of anarchy, are desirous of peace, and on the other hand would follow in
+the footsteps of the Ancient Sages, who regarded the Throne as the
+sacred trust of the Nation.
+
+Now Yuan Shih-kai was elected by the Tucheng-yuan to be the Premier.
+During this period of transference of government from the old to the
+new, there should be some means of uniting the South and the North. Let
+Yuan Shih-kai organize with full powers a provisional republican
+government and confer with the Republican Army as to the methods of
+union, thus assuring peace to the people and tranquillity to the Empire,
+and forming the one Great Republic of China by the union as heretofore,
+of the five peoples, namely, Manchus, Chinese, Mongols, Mohammedans, and
+Tibetans together with their territory in its integrity. We and His
+Majesty the Emperor, thus enabled to live in retirement, free from
+responsibilities, and cares and passing the time in ease and comfort,
+shall enjoy without interruption the courteous treatment of the Nation
+and see with Our own eyes the consummation of an illustrious government.
+Is not this highly advisable?
+
+Bearing the Imperial Seal and Signed by
+  Yuan Shih-kai, the Premier;
+  Hoo Wei-teh, Acting Minister of Foreign Affairs;
+  Chao Ping-chun, Minister of the Interior;
+  Tan Hsuen-heng, Acting Minister of Navy;
+  Hsi Yen, Acting Minister of Agriculture, Works and Commerce;
+  Liang Shih-yi, Acting Minister of Communications;
+  Ta Shou, Acting Minister of the Dependencies.
+
+25th day of the 12th moon of the 3rd year of Hsuan Tung.
+
+II
+
+We have respectfully received the following Imperial Edict from Her
+Imperial Majesty the Empress Dowager Lung Yu:--
+
+On account of the perilous situation of the State and the intense
+sufferings of the people, We some time ago commanded the Cabinet to
+negotiate with the Republican Army the terms for the courteous treatment
+of the Imperial House, with a view to a peaceful settlement. According
+to the memorial now submitted to Us by the Cabinet embodying the
+articles of courteous treatment proposed by the Republican Army, they
+undertake to hold themselves responsible for the perpetual offering of
+sacrifices before the Imperial Ancestral Temples and the Imperial
+Mausolea and the completion as planned of the Mausoleum of His Late
+Majesty the Emperor Kuang Hsu. His Majesty the Emperor is understood to
+resign only his political power, while the Imperial Title is not
+abolished. There have also been concluded eight articles for the
+courteous treatment of the Imperial House, four articles for the
+favourable treatment of Manchus, Mongols, Mohammedans, and Tibetans. We
+find the terms of perusal to be fairly comprehensive. We hereby proclaim
+to the Imperial Kinsmen and the Manchus, Mongols, Mohammedans, and
+Tibetans that they should endeavour in the future to fuse and remove
+all racial differences and prejudices and maintain law and order with
+united efforts. It is our sincere hope that peace will once more be seen
+in the country and all the people will enjoy happiness under a
+republican government.
+
+Bearing the Imperial Seal and Signed by
+  Yuan Shih-kai, the Premier;
+  Hoo Wei-teh, Acting Minister of Foreign Affairs;
+  Chao Ping-chun, Minister of the Interior;
+  Tan Hsuen-heng, Acting Minister of the Navy;
+  Hsi Yen, Acting Minister of Agriculture, Works and Commerce;
+  Liang Shih-yi, Acting Minister of Communications;
+  Ta Shou, Acting Minister of the Dependencies.
+
+25th day of the 12th moon of the 3rd year of Hsuan Tung.
+
+III
+
+We have respectfully received the following Edict from Her Imperial
+Majesty the Empress Dowager Lung Yu:--
+
+In ancient times the ruler of a country emphasized the important duty of
+protecting the lives of his people, and as their shepherd could not have
+the heart to cause them injury. Now the newly established form of
+government has for its sole object the appeasement of the present
+disorder with a view to the restoration of peace. If, however, renewed
+warfare were to be indefinitely maintained, by disregarding the opinion
+of the majority of the people, the general condition of the country
+might be irretrievably ruined, and there might follow mutual slaughter
+among the people, resulting in the horrible effects of a racial war. As
+a consequence, the spirits of Our Imperial Ancestors might be greatly
+disturbed and millions of people might be terrorized. The evil
+consequences cannot be described. Between the two evils, We have adopted
+the lesser one. Such is the motive of the Throne in modelling its policy
+in accordance with the progress of time, the change of circumstances,
+and the earnest desires of Our People. Our Ministers and subjects both
+in and out of the Metropolis should, in conformity with Our idea,
+consider most carefully the public weal and should not cause the country
+and the people to suffer from the evil consequences of a stubborn pride
+and of prejudiced opinions.
+
+The Ministry of the Interior, the General Commandant of the Gendarmerie,
+Chiang Kuei-ti, and Feng Kuo-chang, are ordered to take strict
+precautions, and to make explanations to the peoples so clearly and
+precisely as to enable every and all of them to understand the wish of
+the Throne to abide by the ordinance of heaven, to meet the public
+opinion of the people and to be just and unselfish.
+
+The institution of the different offices by the State has been for the
+welfare of the people, and the Cabinet, the various Ministries in the
+Capital, the Vice-royalties, Governorships, Commissionerships, and
+Taotaiships, have therefore been established for the safe protection of
+the people, and not for the benefit of one man or of one family.
+Metropolitan and Provincial officials of all grades should ponder over
+the present difficulties and carefully perform their duties. We hereby
+hold it the duty of the senior officials earnestly to advise and warn
+their subordinates not to shirk their responsibilities, in order to
+conform with Our original sincere intention to love and to take care of
+Our people.
+
+Bearing the Imperial Seal and Signed by
+  Yuan Shih-kai, the Premier;
+  Hoo Wei-teh, Minister of Foreign Affairs;
+  Chao Ping-chun, Minister of the Interior;
+  Tan Hsuen-heng, Acting Minister of the Navy;
+  Hsi Yen, Acting Minister of Agriculture, Works and Commerce;
+  Liang Shih-yi, Acting Minister of Communications;
+  Ta Shou, Acting Minister of the Dependencies.
+
+25th day of the 12th moon of the 3rd year of Hsuan Tung.
+
+
+TERMS OF ABDICATION
+
+N.B. These terms are generally referred to in China as "The Articles of
+Favourable Treatment."
+
+A.--Concerning the Emperor.
+
+The Ta Ching Emperor having proclaimed a republican form of government,
+the Republic of China will accord the following treatment to the Emperor
+after his resignation and retirement.
+
+Article 1. After abdication the Emperor may retain his title and shall
+receive from the Republic of China the respect due to a foreign
+sovereign.
+
+Article 2. After the abdication the Throne shall receive from the
+Republic of China an annuity of Tls. 4,000,000 until the establishment
+of a new currency, when the sum shall be $4,000,000.
+
+Article 3. After abdication the Emperor shall for the present be allowed
+to reside in the Imperial Palace, but shall later remove to the Eho
+Park, retaining his bodyguards at the same strength as hitherto.
+
+Article 4. After abdication the Emperor shall continue to perform the
+religious ritual at the Imperial Ancestral Temples and Mausolea, which
+shall be protected by guards provided by the Republic of China.
+
+Article 5. The Mausoleum of the late Emperor not being completed, the
+work shall be carried out according to the original plans, and the
+services in connection with the removal of the remains of the late
+Emperor to the new Mausoleum shall be carried out as originally
+arranged, the expense being borne by the Republic of China.
+
+Article 6. All the retinue of the Imperial Household shall be employed
+as hitherto, but no more eunuchs shall be appointed.
+
+Article 7. After abdication all the private property of the Emperor
+shall be respected and protected by the Republic of China.
+
+Article 8. The Imperial Guards will be retained without change in
+members or emolument, but they will be placed under the control of the
+Department of War of the Republic of China.
+
+B.--Concerning the Imperial Clansmen.
+
+Article 1. Princes, Dukes and other hereditary nobility shall retain
+their titles as hitherto.
+
+Article 2. Imperial Clansmen shall enjoy public and private rights in
+the Republic of China on an equality with all other citizens.
+
+Article 3. The private property of the Imperial Clansmen shall be duly
+protected.
+
+Article 4. The Imperial Clansmen shall be exempt from military service.
+
+C.--Concerning Manchus, Mongols, Mohammedans and Tibetans.
+
+The Manchus, Mongols, Mohammedans and Tibetans having accepted the
+Republic, the following terms are accorded to them:--
+
+Article 1. They shall enjoy full equality with Chinese.
+
+Article 2. They shall enjoy the full protection of their private
+property.
+
+Article 3. Princes, Dukes and other hereditary nobility shall retain
+their titles as hitherto.
+
+Article 4. Impoverished Princes and Dukes shall be provided with means
+of livelihood.
+
+Article 5. Provision for the livelihood of the Eight Banners, shall with
+all dispatch be made, but until such provision has been made the pay of
+the Eight Banners shall be continued as hitherto.
+
+Article 6. Restrictions regarding trade and residence that have hitherto
+been binding on them are abolished, and they shall now be allowed to
+reside and settle in any department or district.
+
+Article 7. Manchus, Mongols, Mohammedans and Tibetans shall enjoy
+complete religious freedom.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+DOCUMENTS IN GROUP II
+
+
+(1) The Provisional Constitution passed at Nanking in January, 1912.
+
+(2) The Presidential Election Law passed on the 4th October, 1913, by
+the full Parliament, under which Yuan Shih-kai was elected
+President,--and now formally incorporated as a separate chapter in the
+Permanent Constitution.
+
+(3) The Constitutional Compact, promulgated on 1st May, 1914. This "law"
+which was the first result of the _coup d'etat_ of 4th November, 1913,
+and designed to take the place of the Nanking Constitution is wholly
+illegal and disappeared with the death of Yuan Shih-kai.
+
+(4) The Presidential Succession Law.
+
+This instrument, like the Constitutional Compact, was wholly illegal and
+drawn up to make Yuan Shih-kai dictator for life.
+
+
+THE PROVISIONAL CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF CHINA
+
+_Passed at Nanking in 1912, currently referred to as the old Constitution_
+
+CHAPTER I.--GENERAL PROVISIONS
+
+Article 1. The Republic of China is composed of the Chinese people.
+
+Art. 2. The sovereignty of the Chinese Republic is vested in the people.
+
+Art. 3. The territory of the Chinese Republic consists of the 18
+provinces, Inner and Outer Mongolia, Tibet and Chinghai.
+
+Art. 4. The sovereignty of the Chinese Republic is exercised by the
+National Council, the Provisional President, the Cabinet and the
+Judiciary.
+
+CHAPTER II.--CITIZENS
+
+Art. 5. Citizens of the Chinese Republic are all equal, and there shall
+be no racial, class or religious distinctions.
+
+Art. 6. Citizens shall enjoy the following rights:--
+
+(a) The person of the citizens shall not be arrested, imprisoned, tried
+or punished except in accordance with law.
+
+(b) The habitations of citizens shall not be entered or searched except
+in accordance with law.
+
+(c) Citizens shall enjoy the right of the security of their property and
+the freedom of trade.
+
+(d) Citizens shall have the freedom of speech, of composition, of
+publication, of assembly and of association.
+
+(e) Citizens shall have the right of the secrecy of their letters.
+
+(f) Citizens shall have the liberty of residence and removal.
+
+(g) Citizens shall have the freedom of religion.
+
+Art. 7. Citizens shall have the right to petition the Parliament.
+
+Art. 8. Citizens shall have the right of petitioning the executive
+officials.
+
+Art. 9. Citizens shall have the right to institute proceedings before
+the Judiciary, and to receive its trial and judgment.
+
+Art. 10. Citizens shall have the right of suing officials in the
+Administrative Courts for violation of law or against their rights.
+
+Art. 11. Citizens shall have the right of participating in civil
+examinations.
+
+Art. 12. Citizens shall have the right to vote and to be voted for.
+
+Art. 13. Citizens shall have the duty to pay taxes according to law.
+
+Art. 14. Citizens shall have the duty to enlist as soldiers according to
+law.
+
+Art. 15. The rights of citizens as provided in the present Chapter shall
+be limited or modified by laws, provided such limitation or modification
+shall be deemed necessary for the promotion of public welfare, for the
+maintenance of public order, or on account of extraordinary exigency.
+
+CHAPTER III.--THE NATIONAL COUNCIL
+
+Art. 16. The legislative power of the Chinese Republic is exercised by
+the National Council.
+
+Art. 17. The Council shall be composed of members elected by the several
+districts as provided in Article 18.
+
+Art. 18. The Provinces, Inner and Outer Mongolia, and Tibet shall each
+elect and depute five members to the Council, and Chinghai shall elect
+one member.
+
+The election districts and methods of elections shall be decided by the
+localities concerned.
+
+During the meeting of the Council each member shall have one vote.
+
+Art. 19. The National Council shall have the following powers:
+
+(a) To pass all Bills.
+
+(b) To pass the budgets of the Provisional Government.
+
+(c) To pass laws of taxation, of currency, and weights and measures for
+the whole country.
+
+(d) To pass measures for the calling of public loans and to conclude
+contracts affecting the National Treasury.
+
+(e) To give consent to matters provided in Articles 34, 35 and 40.
+
+(f) To reply to inquiries from, the Provisional Government.
+
+(g) To receive and consider petitions of citizens.
+
+(h) To make suggestions to the Government on legal or other matters.
+
+(i) To introduce interpellations to members of the Cabinet, and to
+insist on their being present in the Council in making replies thereto.
+
+(j) To insist on the Government investigating into any alleged bribery
+and infringement of laws by officials.
+
+(k) To impeach the Provisional President for high treason by a majority
+vote of three-fourths of the quorum consisting of more than four-fifths
+of the total number of the members.
+
+(l) To impeach members of the Cabinet for failure to perform their
+official duties or for violation of the law by majority votes of
+two-thirds of the quorum consisting of over three-fourths of the total
+number of the members.
+
+Art. 20. The National Council shall itself convoke, conduct and adjourn
+its own meetings.
+
+Art. 21. The meetings of the Advisory Council shall be conducted
+publicly, but secret meetings may be held at the suggestion of members
+of the Cabinet or by the majority vote of its quorum.
+
+Art. 22. Matters passed by the Advisory Council shall be communicated to
+the Provisional President for promulgation and execution.
+
+Art. 23. If the Provisional President should veto matters passed by the
+National Council he shall, within ten days after he has received such
+resolutions, return the same with stated reasons to the Council for
+reconsideration. If by a two-thirds vote of the quorum of the Council,
+it shall be dealt with in accordance with Article 22.
+
+Art. 24. The Chairman of the National Council shall be elected by
+ballots signed by the voting members and the one receiving more than
+one-half of the total number of the votes cast shall be elected.
+
+Art. 25. Members of the National Council shall not, outside the Council,
+be responsible for their opinion expressed and votes cast in the
+Council.
+
+Art. 26. Members of the Council shall not be arrested without the
+permission of the Chairman of the Council except for crimes pertaining
+to civil and international warfare.
+
+Art. 27. Procedure of the National Council shall be decided by its own
+members.
+
+Art. 28. The National Council shall be dissolved on the day of the
+convocation of the National Assembly, and its powers shall be exercised
+by the latter.
+
+CHAPTER IV.--THE PROVISIONAL PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENT
+
+Art. 29. The Provisional President and Vice-President shall be elected
+by the National Council, and he who receives two-thirds of the total
+number of votes cast by a sitting of the Council consisting of over
+three-fourths of the total number of members shall be elected.
+
+Art. 30. The Provisional President represents the Provisional Government
+as the fountain of all executive powers and for promulgating all laws.
+
+Art. 31. The Provisional President may issue or cause to be issued
+orders for the execution of laws and of powers delegated to him by the
+law.
+
+Art. 32. The Provisional President shall be the Commander-in-Chief of
+the Army and Navy of the whole of China.
+
+Art. 33. The Provisional President shall ordain and establish the
+administrative system and official regulations, but he must first submit
+them to the National Council for its approval.
+
+Art. 34. The Provisional President shall appoint and remove civil and
+military officials, but in the appointment of Members of the Cabinet,
+Ambassadors and Ministers he must have the concurrence of the National
+Council.
+
+Art. 35. The Provisional President shall have power, with the
+concurrence of the National Council, to declare war and conclude
+treaties.
+
+Art. 36. The Provisional President may, in accordance with law, declare
+a state of siege.
+
+Art. 37. The Provisional President shall, representing the whole
+country, receive Ambassadors and Ministers of foreign countries.
+
+Art. 38. The Provisional President may introduce Bills into the National
+Council.
+
+Art. 39. The Provisional President may confer decorations and other
+insignia of honour.
+
+Art. 40. The Provisional President may declare general amnesty, grant
+special pardon, commute punishment, and restore rights, but in the case
+of a general amnesty he must have the concurrence of the National
+Council.
+
+Art. 41. In case the Provisional President is impeached by the National
+Council he shall be tried by a special Court consisting of nine judges
+elected among the justices of the Supreme Court of the realm.
+
+Art. 42. In case the Provisional President vacates his office for
+various reasons, or is unable to discharge the powers and duties of the
+said office, the Provisional Vice-President shall take his place.
+
+CHAPTER V.--MEMBERS OF THE CABINET
+
+Art. 43. The Premier and the Chiefs of the Government Departments shall
+be called Members of the Cabinet (literally, Secretaries of State
+Affairs).
+
+Art. 44. Members of the Cabinet shall assist the Provisional President
+in assuming responsibilities.
+
+Art. 45. Members of the Cabinet shall countersign all Bills introduced
+by the Provisional President, and all laws and orders issued by him.
+
+Art. 46. Members of the Cabinet and their deputies may be present and
+speak in the National Council.
+
+Art. 47. Upon members of the Cabinet having been impeached by the
+National Council, the Provisional President may remove them from office,
+but such removal shall be subject to the reconsideration of the National
+Council.
+
+CHAPTER VI.--THE JUDICIARY
+
+Art. 48. The Judiciary shall be composed of those judges appointed by
+the Provisional President and the Minister of Justice.
+
+The organization of the Courts and the qualifications of judges shall be
+determined by law.
+
+Art. 49. The Judiciary shall try civil and criminal cases, but cases
+involving administrative affairs or arising from other particular causes
+shall be dealt with according to special laws.
+
+Art. 50. The trial of cases in the law Courts shall be conducted
+publicly, but those affecting public safety and order may be _in
+camera_.
+
+Art. 51. Judges shall be independent, and shall not be subject to the
+interference of higher officials.
+
+Art. 52. Judges during their continuance in office shall not have their
+emoluments decreased and shall not be transferred to other offices, nor
+shall they be removed from office except when they are convicted of
+crimes, or of offences punishable according to law by removal from
+office.
+
+Regulations for the punishment of judges shall be determined by law.
+
+CHAPTER VII.--SUPPLEMENTARY ARTICLES
+
+Art. 53. Within ten months after the promulgation of this Provisional
+Constitution the Provisional President shall convene a National
+Assembly, the organization of which and the laws for the election of
+whose members shall be decided by the National Council.
+
+Art. 54. The Constitution of the Republic of China shall be adopted by
+the National Assembly, but before the promulgation of the Constitution,
+the Provisional Constitution shall be as effective as the Constitution
+itself.
+
+Art. 55. The Provisional Constitution may be amended by the assent of
+two-thirds of the members of the National Council or upon the
+application of the Provisional President and being passed by over
+three-fourths of the quorum of the Council consisting of over
+four-fifths of the total number of its members.
+
+Art. 56. The present Provisional Constitution shall take effect on the
+date of its promulgation, and the fundamental articles for the
+organization of the Provisional Government shall cease to be effective
+on the same date.
+
+Sealed by
+
+THE NATIONAL COUNCIL.
+
+
+THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION LAW
+
+_Passed October 4 1913, by the National Assembly and promulgated by the
+then Provisional President on October 5 of the same year_.
+
+Article 1. A citizen of the Chinese Republic, who is entitled to all the
+rights of citizenship, is 40 years or more in age and has resided in
+China for not less than ten years, is eligible for election as
+President.
+
+Art. 2. The President shall be elected by an Electoral College organized
+by the members of the National Assembly of the Chinese Republic.
+
+The said election shall be held by a quorum of two-thirds or more of the
+entire membership of the said Electoral College and shall be conducted
+by secret ballot. A candidate shall be deemed elected when the number of
+votes in his favour shall not be less than three-fourths of the total
+number of votes cast at the election. If no candidate secures the
+requisite number of votes after two ballotings, a final balloting shall
+be held with the two persons, securing the greatest number of votes at
+the second balloting, as candidates. The one securing a majority of
+votes shall be elected.
+
+Art. 3. The term of office of the President shall be five years; and if
+re-elected, he may hold office for one more term.
+
+Three months previous to the expiration of the term, the members of the
+National Assembly shall convene and organize by themselves the Electoral
+College to elect the President for the next period.
+
+Art. 4. The President on taking office shall make oath as follows:
+
+"I hereby swear that I will most sincerely obey the constitution and
+faithfully discharge the duties of the President."
+
+Art. 5. Should the post of the President become vacant, the
+Vice-President shall succeed to the same _to the end of the term of the
+original President_.
+
+Should the President be unable to discharge his duties for any cause the
+Vice-President shall act in his stead.
+
+Should the Vice-President vacate his post at the same time, the Cabinet
+shall officiate for the President. In this event the members of the
+National Assembly of the Chinese Republic shall convene themselves
+within three months to organize an Electoral College to elect a new
+President.
+
+Art. 6. The President shall vacate office on the expiry of his term.
+Should the election of the next President or Vice-President be not
+effected for any cause, or having been elected should they be unable to
+be inaugurated, the President and Vice-President whose terms have
+expired shall quit their posts and the Cabinet shall officiate for them.
+
+Art. 7. The election of the Vice-President shall be according to the
+fixed regulations for the election of the President, and the election of
+the Vice-President shall take place at the same time when the President
+is elected. Should there be a vacancy for the Vice-Presidency a
+Vice-President shall be elected according to the provisions herein set
+forth.
+
+APPENDIX
+
+Before the completion of the Formal Constitution, with regard to the
+duties and privileges of the President the Provisional Constitution
+regarding the same shall temporarily be followed.
+
+
+"THE CONSTITUTIONAL COMPACT"
+
+_Drafted by Dr. Frank Johnson Goodnow, Legal Adviser to Yuan Shih-kai,
+and promulgated on May 1, 1914_
+
+CHAPTER I.--THE NATION
+
+Article 1. The Chung Hua Min Kuo is organized by the people of Chung
+Hua.
+
+Art. 2. The sovereignty of Chung Hua Min Kuo originates from the whole
+body of the citizens.
+
+Art. 3. The territory of the Chung Hua Min Kuo is the same as that
+possessed by the former Empire.
+
+CHAPTER II.--THE PEOPLE
+
+Art. 4. The people of the Chung Hua Min Kuo are all equal in law,
+irrespective of race, caste, or religion.
+
+Art. 5. The people are entitled to the following rights of liberty:--
+
+(1) No person shall be arrested, imprisoned, tried, or punished except
+in accordance with law.
+
+(2) The habitation of any person shall not be entered or searched except
+in accordance with law.
+
+(3) The people have the right of possession and protection of property
+and the freedom of trade within the bounds of law.
+
+(4) The people have the right of freedom of speech, of writing and
+publication, of meeting and organizing association, within the bounds of
+law.
+
+(5) The people have the right of the secrecy of correspondence within
+the bounds of law.
+
+(6) The people have the liberty of residence and removal, within the
+bounds of law.
+
+(7) The people have freedom of religious belief, within the bounds of
+law.
+
+Art. 6. The people have the right to memorialize the Li Fa Yuan
+according to the provisions of law.
+
+Art. 7. The people have the right to institute proceedings at the
+judiciary organ in accordance with the provisions of law.
+
+Art. 8. The people have the right to petition the administrative organs
+and lodge protests with the Administrative Court in accordance with the
+provisions of law.
+
+Art. 9. The people have the right to attend examinations held for
+securing officials and to join the public service in accordance with the
+provisions of law.
+
+Art. 10. The people have the right to vote and to be voted for in
+accordance with the provisions of law.
+
+Art. 11. The people have the obligation to pay taxes according to the
+provisions of law.
+
+Art. 12. The people have the obligation to serve in a military capacity
+in accordance with the provisions of law.
+
+Art. 13. The provisions made in this Chapter, except when in conflict
+with the Army or Naval orders and rules, shall be applicable to military
+and naval men.
+
+CHAPTER III.--THE PRESIDENT
+
+Art. 14. The President is the Head of the nation, and controls the power
+of the entire administration.
+
+Art. 15. The President represents the Chung Hua Min Kuo.
+
+Art. 16. The President is responsible to the entire body of citizens.
+
+Art. 17. The President convokes the Li Fa Yuan, declares the opening,
+the suspension and the closing of the sessions.
+
+The President may dissolve the Li Fa Yuan with the approval of the Tsan
+Cheng Yuan; but in that case he must have the new members elected and
+the House convoked within six months from the day of dissolution.
+
+Art. 18. The President shall submit Bills of Law and the Budget to the
+Li Fa Yuan.
+
+Art. 19. For the purposes of improving the public welfare or enforcing
+law or in accordance with the duties imposed upon him by law, the
+President may issue orders and cause orders to be issued, but he shall
+not alter the law by his order.
+
+Art. 20. In order to maintain public peace or to prevent extraordinary
+calamities at a time of great emergency when time will not permit the
+convocation of the Li Fa Yuan, the President may, with the approval of
+the Tsan Cheng Yuan [Senate], issue provisional orders which shall have
+the force of law; but in that case he shall ask the Li Fa Yuan [House of
+Representatives] for indemnification at its next session.
+
+The provisional orders mentioned above shall immediately become void
+when they are rejected by the Li Fa Yuan.
+
+Art. 21. The President shall fix the official systems and official
+regulations. The President shall appoint and dismiss military and civil
+officials.
+
+Art. 22. The President shall declare war and conclude peace.
+
+Art. 23. The President is the Commander-in-Chief of, and controls, the
+Army and Navy of the whole country. The President shall decide the
+system of organization and the respective strength of the Army and Navy.
+
+Art. 24. The President shall receive the Ambassadors and Ministers of
+the foreign countries.
+
+Art. 25. The President makes treaties.
+
+But the approval of the Li Fa Yuan must be secured if the articles
+should change the territories or increase the burdens of the citizens.
+
+Art. 26. The President may, according to law, declare Martial Law.
+
+Art. 27. The President may confer titles of nobility, decorations and
+other insignia of honour.
+
+Art. 28. The President may declare general amnesty, special pardon,
+commutation of punishment, or restoration of rights. In case of general
+amnesty the approval of the Li Fa Yuan must be secured.
+
+Art. 29. When the President, for any cause, vacates his post or is
+unable to attend to his duties, the Vice-President shall assume his
+duties and authority in his stead.
+
+CHAPTER IV.--THE LEGISLATURE
+
+Art. 30. Legislation shall be done by the Legislature organized with the
+members elected by the people.
+
+The organization of the Legislature and the method of electing the
+legislative members shall be fixed by the Provisional Constitution
+Conference.
+
+Art. 31. The duties and authorities of the Li Fa Yuan shall be as
+follows:
+
+(1) To discuss and pass all bills of law.
+
+(2) To discuss and pass the Budget.
+
+(3) To discuss and pass or approve articles relating to raising of
+public loans and national financial responsibilities.
+
+(4) To reply to the inquiries addressed to it by the Government.
+
+(5) To receive petitions of the people.
+
+(6) To bring up bills on law.
+
+(7) To bring up suggestions and opinions before the President regarding
+law and other affairs.
+
+(8) To bring out the doubtful points of the administration and request
+the President for an explanation; but when the President deems it
+necessary for a matter to be kept secret he may refuse to give the
+answer.
+
+(9) Should the President attempt treason the Li Fa Yuan may institute
+judicial proceedings in the Supreme Court against him by a three-fourths
+or more vote of a four-fifths attendance of the total membership.
+
+Regarding the clauses from 1 to 8 and articles 20, 25, 28, 55 and 27,
+the approval of a majority of more than half of the attending members
+will be required to make a decision.
+
+Art. 32. The regular annual session of the Li Fa Yuan will be four
+months in duration; but when the President deems it necessary it may be
+prolonged. The President may also call special sessions when it is not
+in session.
+
+Art. 33. The meetings of the Li Fa Yuan shall be "open sessions," but
+they may be held in secret at the request of the President or the
+decision of the majority of more than half of the members present.
+
+Art. 34. The law bills passed by the Li Fa Yuan shall be promulgated by
+the President and enforced.
+
+When the President vetoes a law bill passed by the Li Fa Yuan he must
+give the reason and refer it again to the Li Fa Yuan for
+reconsideration. If such bill should be again passed by a two-thirds
+vote of the members present at the Li Fa Yuan but at the same time the
+President should firmly hold that it would greatly harm the internal
+administration or diplomacy to enforce such law or there will be great
+and important obstacles against enforcing it, he may withhold
+promulgation with the approval of the Tsan Cheng Yuan.
+
+Art. 35. The Speaker and vice-Speaker of the Li Fa Yuan shall be elected
+by and from among the members themselves by ballot. The one who secures
+more than half of the votes cast shall be considered elected.
+
+Art. 36. The members of the Li Fa Yuan shall not be held responsible to
+outsiders for their speeches, arguments and voting in the House.
+
+Art. 37. Except when discovered in the act of committing a crime or for
+internal rebellion or external treason, the members of the Li Fa Yuan
+shall not be arrested during the session period without the permission
+of the House.
+
+Art. 38. The House laws of the Li Fa Yuan shall be made by the House
+itself.
+
+CHAPTER V.--THE ADMINISTRATION
+
+Art. 39. The President shall be the Chief of the Administration. A
+Secretary of State shall be provided to assist him.
+
+Art. 40. The affairs of the Administration shall be separately
+administered by the Ministries of Foreign Affairs, of Interior, of
+Finance, of Army, of Navy, of Justice, of Education, of Agriculture and
+Commerce and of Communications.
+
+Art. 41. The Minister of each Ministry shall control the affairs in
+accordance with law and orders.
+
+Art. 42. The Secretary of State, Ministers of the Ministries and the
+special representative of the President may take seats in the Li Fa Yuan
+and express their views.
+
+Art. 43. The Secretary of State or any of the Ministers when they commit
+a breach of law shall be liable to impeachment by the Censorate
+(Suchengting) and trial by the Administrative Court.
+
+CHAPTER VI.--THE JUDICIARY
+
+Art. 44. The judicial power shall be administered by the Judiciary
+formed by the judicial officials appointed by the President.
+
+The organization of the Judiciary and the qualifications of the Judicial
+officials shall be fixed by law.
+
+Art. 45. The Judiciary shall independently try and decide cases of civil
+and criminal law suits according to law. But with regard to
+administrative law suits and other special law cases they shall be
+attended to according to the provisions of this law.
+
+Art. 46. As to the procedure the Supreme Court should adopt for the
+impeachment case stated in clause 9 of article 31, special rules will be
+made by law.
+
+Art. 47. The trial of law suits in the judicial courts should be open to
+the public; but when they are deemed to be harmful to peace and order or
+good custom, they may be held _in camera_.
+
+Art. 48. The judicial officials shall not be given a reduced salary or
+shifted from their posts when functioning as such, and except when a
+sentence has been passed upon him for punishment or he is sentenced to
+be removed, a judicial official shall not be dismissed from his post.
+
+The regulations regarding punishment shall be fixed by law.
+
+CHAPTER VII.--THE TSAN CHENG YUAN
+
+Art. 49. The Tsan Cheng Yuan shall answer the inquiries of the President
+and discuss important administrative affairs.
+
+The organization of the Tsan Cheng Yuan shall be fixed by the
+Provisional Constitution Conference.
+
+CHAPTER VIII.--FINANCES
+
+Art. 50. Levying of new taxes and dues and change of tariff shall be
+decided by law.
+
+The taxes and dues which are now in existence shall continue to be
+collected as of old except as changed by law.
+
+Art. 51. With regard to the annual receipts and expenditures of the
+nation, they shall be dealt with in accordance with the Budget approved
+by the Li Fa Yuan.
+
+Art. 52. For special purposes continuous expenditures for a specified
+number of years may be included in the budget.
+
+Art. 53. To prepare for any deficiency of the budget and expenses needed
+outside of the estimates in the budget, a special reserve fund must be
+provided in the budget.
+
+Art. 54. The following items of expenditures shall not be cancelled or
+reduced except with the approval of the President:--
+
+1. Any duties belonging to the nation according to law.
+
+2. Necessities stipulated by law.
+
+3. Necessities for the purpose of carrying out the treaties.
+
+4. Expenses for the Army and Navy.
+
+Art. 55. For national war or suppression of internal disturbance or
+under unusual circumstances when time will not permit to convoke the Li
+Fa Yuan, the President may make emergency disposal of finance with the
+approval of the Tsan Cheng Yuan, but in such case he shall ask the Li Fa
+Yuan for indemnification at its next session.
+
+Art. 56. When a new Budget cannot be established, the Budget of the
+previous year will be used. The same procedure will be adopted when the
+Budget fails to pass at the time when the fiscal year has begun.
+
+Art. 57. When the closed accounts of the receipts and expenditures of
+the nation have been audited by the Board of Audit, they shall be
+submitted by the President to the Li Fa Yuan for approval.
+
+Art. 58. The organization of the Board of Audit shall be fixed by the
+Provisional Constitution Conference.
+
+CHAPTER IX.--PROCEDURE OF CONSTITUTION MAKING
+
+Art. 59. The Constitution of Chung Hua Min Kuo shall be drafted by the
+Constitution Draft Committee, which shall be organized with the members
+elected by and from among the members of the Tsan Cheng Yuan. The number
+of such drafting Committee shall be limited to ten.
+
+Art. 60. The Bill on the Constitution of Chung Hua Min Kuo shall be
+fixed by the Tsan Cheng Yuan.
+
+Art. 61. When the Bill on the Constitution of the Chung Hua Min Kuo has
+been passed by the Tsan Cheng Yuan, it shall be submitted by the
+President to the Citizens' Conference for final passage.
+
+The organization of the Citizens' Conference shall be fixed by the
+Provisional Constitution Conference.
+
+Art. 62. The Citizens' Conference shall be convoked and dissolved by the
+President.
+
+Art. 63. The Constitution of Chung Hua Min Kuo shall be promulgated by
+the President.
+
+CHAPTER X.--APPENDIX
+
+Art. 64.--Before the Constitution of Chung Hua Min Kuo comes into force
+this Provisional Constitution shall have equal force to the Permanent
+Constitution.
+
+The order and instructions in force before the enforcement of this
+Provisional Constitution shall continue to be valid, provided that they
+do not come into conflict with the provisions of this Provisional
+Constitution.
+
+Art. 65. The articles published on the 12th of the Second Month of the
+First Year of Chung Hua Min Kuo, regarding the favourable treatment of
+the Ta Ching Emperor after his abdication, and the special treatment of
+the Ching Imperial Clan, as well as the special treatment of the
+Manchus, Mongols, Mahommedans and Tibetans shall never lose their
+effect.
+
+As to the Articles dealing with the special treatment of Mongols in
+connexion with the special treatment articles, it is guaranteed that
+they shall continue to be effective, and that the same will not be
+changed except by law.
+
+Art. 66. This Provisional Constitution may be amended at the request of
+two-thirds of the members of the Li Fa Yuan, or the proposal of the
+President, by a three-fourths majority of a quorum consisting of
+four-fifths or more of the whole membership of the House. The
+Provisional Constitution Conference will then be convoked by the
+President to undertake the amendment.
+
+Art. 67. Before the establishment of the Li Fa Yuan the Tsan Cheng Yuan
+shall have the duty and authority of the former and function in its
+stead.
+
+Art. 68. This Provisional Constitution shall come into force from the
+date of promulgation. The Temporary Provisional Constitution promulgated
+on the 11th day of the Third Month of the First Year of the Min Kuo
+shall automatically cease to have force from the date on which this
+Provisional Constitution comes into force.
+
+
+THE PRESIDENTIAL SUCCESSION
+
+_Passed by a puppet political body and promulgated by Yuan Shih-kai on
+December 29, 1914_
+
+Article 1. A male citizen of the Republic of Chung Hua, possessing the
+rights of citizenship, 40 or more years of age and having resided in the
+Republic for not less than 20 years shall be eligible for election as
+President.
+
+Art. 2. The Presidential term shall be ten years with eligibility for
+re-election.
+
+Art. 3. At the time of the Presidential Election the then President
+shall, representing the opinion of the people carefully and reverently
+nominate (recommend) three persons, with the qualifications stated in
+the first Article, as candidates for the Presidential Office.
+
+The names of these nominated persons shall be written by the then
+President on a gold Chia-ho-plate, sealed with the National Seal and
+placed in a gold box, which shall be placed in a stone house in the
+residence of the President.
+
+The key of the box will be kept by the President while the keys to the
+Stone House shall be kept separately by the President, the Chairman of
+the Tsan Cheng Yuan and the Secretary of State. The Stone House may not
+be opened without an order from the President.
+
+Art. 4. The Presidential Electoral College shall be organized with the
+following members:
+
+1. Fifty members elected from the Tsan Cheng Yuan.
+
+2. Fifty members elected from the Li Fa Yuan.
+
+The said members shall be elected by ballot among the members
+themselves. Those who secure the largest number of votes shall be
+elected. The election shall be presided over by the Minister of
+Interior. If it should happen that the Li Fa Yuan is in session at the
+time of the organization of the Presidential Electoral College, the
+fifty members heading the roll of the House and then in the Capital,
+shall be automatically made members of the Electoral College.
+
+Art. 5. The Electoral College shall be convocated by the President and
+organized within three days before the election.
+
+Art. 6. The house of the Tsan Cheng Yuan shall be used as a meeting
+place for the Presidential Electoral College. The chairman of the Tsan
+Cheng Yuan shall act as the chairman of the College.
+
+If the Vice-President is the chairman of the Tsan Cheng Yuan or for
+other reasons, the chairman of the Li Fa Yuan shall act as the chairman.
+
+Art. 7. On the day of the Presidential Election the President shall
+respectfully make known to the Presidential Electoral College the names
+of the persons recommended by him as qualified candidates for the
+Presidential office.
+
+Art. 8. The Electoral College may vote for the re-election of the then
+President, besides three candidates recommended by him.
+
+Art. 9. The single ballot system will be adopted for the Presidential
+Election. There should be an attendance of not less than three-fourths
+of the total membership. One who receives a two-thirds majority or
+greater of the total number of votes cast shall be elected. If no one
+secures a two-thirds majority the two persons receiving the largest
+number of votes shall be put to the final vote.
+
+Art. 10. When the year of election arrives should the members of the
+Tsan Cheng Yuan consider it a political necessity, the then President
+may be re-elected for another term by a two-thirds majority of the Tsan
+Cheng Yuan without a formal election. The decision shall then be
+promulgated by the President.
+
+Art. 11. Should the President vacate his post before the expiration of
+his term of office a special Presidential Electoral College shall be
+organized within three days. Before the election takes place the
+Vice-President shall officiate as President according to the provisions
+of Article 29 of the Constitutional Compact and if the Vice-President
+should also vacate his post at the same time, or be absent from the
+Capital or for any other reasons be unable to take up the office, the
+Secretary of State shall officiate but he shall not assume the duties of
+clauses I and 2, either as a substitute or a temporary executive.
+
+Art. 12. On the day of the Presidential Election, the person officiating
+as President or carrying on the duties as a substitute shall notify the
+Chairman of the Special Presidential Electoral College to appoint ten
+members as witnesses to the opening of the Stone House or the Gold Box,
+which shall be carried reverently to the House and opened before the
+assembly and its contents made known to them. Votes shall then be
+forthwith cast for the election of one of the three candidates
+recommended as provided for in article 9.
+
+Art. 13. Whether at the re-election of the old President or the
+assumption of office of the new President, he shall take oath in the
+following words at the time of taking over the office:
+
+"I swear that I shall with all sincerity adhere to the Constitution and
+execute the duties of the President. I reverently swear."
+
+Before the promulgation of the Constitution it shall be specifically
+stated in the oath that the President shall adhere to the Constitutional
+Compact.
+
+Art. 14. The term of office for the Vice-President shall be the same as
+that of the President. Upon the expiration of the term, three
+candidates, possessing the qualifications of article 1, shall be
+nominated by the re-elected or the new President, for election. The
+regulations governing the election of the President shall be applicable.
+
+Should the Vice-President vacate his post before the expiration of his
+term for some reasons, the President shall proceed according to the
+provisions of the preceding article.
+
+Art. 15. The Law shall be enforced from the date of promulgation.
+
+On the day of enforcement of this Law the Law on the Election of the
+President as promulgated on the 5th day of the 10th Month of the 2nd
+Year of the Min Kuo shall be cancelled.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+DOCUMENTS IN GROUP III
+
+
+(1) The Russo-Chinese agreement of 5th November, 1913, which affirmed
+the autonomy of Outer Mongolia.
+
+(2) The Russo-Chinese-Mongolian tripartite agreement of the 7th June,
+1915, ratifying the agreement of the 5th November, 1913.
+
+(3) The Chino-Japanese Treaties and annexes of the 25th May, 1915, in
+settlement of the Twenty-one Demands of the 18th January, 1915.
+
+
+THE RUSSO-CHINESE AGREEMENT REGARDING OUTER MONGOLIA
+
+(Translation from the official French Text)
+
+DECLARATION
+
+The Imperial Russian Government having formulated the principles on
+which its relations with China on the subject of Outer Mongolia should
+be based; and the Government of the Republic of China having signified
+its approval of the aforesaid principles, the two Governments have come
+to the following agreement:
+
+Article I. Russia recognizes that Outer Mongolia is placed under the
+suzerainty of China.
+
+Art. II. China recognizes the autonomy of Outer Mongolia.
+
+Art. III. Similarly, recognizing the exclusive right of the Mongols of
+Outer Mongolia to carry on the internal administration of autonomous
+Mongolia and to regulate all commercial and industrial questions
+affecting that country, China undertakes not to interfere in these
+matters, nor to dispatch troops to Outer Mongolia nor to appoint any
+civil or military officer nor to carry out any colonization scheme in
+this region. It is nevertheless understood that an envoy of the Chinese
+Government may reside at Urga and be accompanied by the necessary staff
+as well as an armed escort. In addition the Chinese Government may, in
+case of necessity, maintain her agents for the protection of the
+interests of her citizens at certain points in Outer Mongolia to be
+agreed upon during the exchange of views provided for in Article V of
+this agreement. Russia on her part undertakes not to quarter troops in
+Outer Mongolia, excepting Consular Guards, nor to interfere in any
+question affecting the administration of the country and will likewise
+abstain from all colonization.
+
+Art. IV. China declares herself ready to accept the good offices of
+Russia in order to establish relations in conformity with the principles
+mentioned above and with the stipulations of the Russo-Mongolian
+Commercial Treaty of the 21st October, 1912.
+
+Art. V. Questions affecting the interests of Russia and China in Outer
+Mongolia which have been created by the new conditions of affairs in
+that country shall be discussed at subsequent meetings. In witness
+whereof the undersigned, duly authorized to that effect, have signed and
+sealed the Present Declaration. Done in Duplicate in Peking on the 5th
+November, 1913, corresponding to the 5th Day of the 11th Month of the
+Second Year of the Republic of China.
+
+(Signed) B. KRUPENSKY.
+
+(Signed) SUN PAO CHI.
+
+ADDENDUM
+
+In signing the Declaration of to-day's date covering Outer Mongolia, the
+undersigned Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of His
+Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias, duly authorized to that effect,
+has the honour to declare in the name of his Government to His
+Excellency Monsieur Sun Pao Chi, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the
+Republic of China as follows:
+
+I. Russia recognizes that the territory of Outer Mongolia forms part of
+the territory of China.
+
+II. In all questions affecting matters of a political or territorial
+nature, the Chinese Government will come to an understanding with the
+Russian Government by means of negotiations at which the authorities of
+Outer Mongolia shall take part.
+
+III. The discussions which have been provided for in Article V of the
+Declaration shall take place between the three contracting parties at a
+place to be designated by them for that purpose for the meeting of their
+delegates.
+
+IV. Autonomous Outer Mongolia comprises the regions hitherto under the
+jurisdiction of the Chinese Amban of Urga, the Tartar General of
+Uliasoutai and the Chinese Amban of Kobdo. In view of the fact that
+there are no detailed maps of Mongolia, and that the boundaries of the
+administrative divisions of this country are ill-defined, it is hereby
+agreed that the precise boundaries of Outer Mongolia, as well as the
+delimitation of the district of Kobdo and the district of Altai, shall
+be the subject of subsequent negotiations as provided for by Article V
+of the Declaration.
+
+The undersigned seizes the present occasion to renew to His Excellency
+Sun Pao Chi the assurance of his highest consideration.
+
+(Signed) B. KRUPENSKY.
+
+In signing the Declaration of to-day's date covering Outer Mongolia, the
+undersigned Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China, duly
+authorized to that effect, has the honour to declare in the name of his
+Government to His Excellency Monsieur Krupensky, Envoy Extraordinary and
+Minister Plenipotentiary of His Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias
+as follows:
+
+I. Russia recognizes that the territory of Outer Mongolia forms part of
+the territory of China.
+
+II. In all questions affecting matters of a political or territorial
+nature, the Chinese Government will come to an understanding with the
+Russian Government by means of negotiations at which the authorities of
+Outer Mongolia shall take part.
+
+III. The discussions which have been provided for in Article V of the
+Declaration shall take place between the three contracting parties at a
+place to be designated by them for that purpose for the meeting of their
+delegates.
+
+IV. Autonomous Outer Mongolia comprises the regions hitherto under the
+jurisdiction of the Chinese Amban of Urga, the Tartar General of
+Uliasoutai and the Chinese Amban of Kobdo. In view of the fact that
+there are no detailed maps of Mongolia, and that the boundaries of the
+administrative divisions of this country are ill-defined, it is hereby
+agreed that the precise boundaries of Outer Mongolia, as well as the
+delimitation of the district of Kobdo and the district of Altai, shall
+be the subject of subsequent negotiations as provided for by Article V
+of the Declaration.
+
+The Undersigned seizes the present occasion to renew to His Excellency
+Monsieur Krupensky the assurance of his highest consideration.
+
+(Signed) SUN PAO CHI.
+
+
+SINO-RUSSO MONGOLIAN AGREEMENT
+
+(Translation from the French)
+
+The President of the Republic of China, His Imperial Majesty the Emperor
+of all Russias, and His Holiness the Bogdo Djembzoun Damba Khoutoukhtou
+Khan of Outer Mongolia, animated by a sincere desire to settle by mutual
+agreement various questions created by a new state of things in Outer
+Mongolia, have named for that purpose their Plenipotentiary Delegates,
+that is to say:
+
+The President of the Republic of China, General Py-Koue-Fang and
+Monsieur Tcheng-Loh, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of
+China to Mexico;
+
+His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of all Russias, His Councillor of
+State, Alexandre Miller, Diplomatic Agent and Consul-General in
+Mongolia; and His Holiness the Bogdo Djembzoun Damba Khoutoukhtou Khan
+of Outer Mongolia, Erdeni Djonan Beise Shirnin Damdin, Vice-Chief of
+Justice, and Touchetou Tsing Wang Tchakdourjab, Chief of Finance, who
+having verified their respective full powers found in good and due form,
+have agreed upon the following:
+
+Article 1. Outer Mongolia recognizes the Sino-Russian Declaration and
+the Notes exchanged between China and Russia of the fifth day of the
+eleventh month of the second year of the Republic of China (23rd
+October, 1913. Old style).
+
+Art. 2. Outer Mongolia recognizes China's suzerainty. China and Russia
+recognize the autonomy of Outer Mongolia forming part of Chinese
+territory.
+
+Art. 3. Autonomous Mongolia has no right to conclude international
+treaties with foreign powers respecting political and territorial
+questions.
+
+As respects questions of a political and territorial nature in Outer
+Mongolia, the Chinese Government engages to conform to Article II of the
+Note exchanged between China and Russia on the fifth day of the eleventh
+month of the second year of the Republic of China, 23rd October, 1913.
+
+Art. 4. The title: "Bogdo Djembzonn Damba Khoutoukhtou Khan of Outer
+Mongolia" is conferred by the President of the Republic of China. The
+calendar of the Republic as well as the Mongol calendar of cyclical
+signs are to be used in official documents.
+
+Art. 5. China and Russia, conformably to Article 2 and 3 of the
+Sino-Russian Declaration of the fifth day of the eleventh month of the
+second year of the Republic of China, 23rd October, 1913, recognize the
+exclusive right of the autonomous government of Outer Mongolia to attend
+to all the affairs of its internal administration and to conclude with
+foreign powers international treaties and agreements respecting
+questions of a commercial and industrial nature concerning autonomous
+Mongolia.
+
+Art. 6. Conformably to the same Article III of the Declaration, China
+and Russia engage not to interfere in the system of autonomous internal
+administration existing in Outer Mongolia.
+
+Art. 7. The military escort of the Chinese Dignitary at Urga provided
+for by Article III of the above-mentioned Declaration is not to exceed
+two hundred men. The military escorts of his assistants at Ouliassoutai,
+at Kobdo, and at the Mongolian-Kiachta are not to exceed fifty men each.
+If, by agreement with the autonomous government of Outer Mongolia,
+assistants of the Chinese Dignitary are appointed in other localities of
+Outer Mongolia, their military escorts are not to exceed fifty men each.
+
+Art. 8. The Imperial Government of Russia is not to send more than one
+hundred and fifty men as consular guard for its representative at Urga.
+The military escorts of the Imperial consulates and vice-consulates of
+Russia, which have already been established or which may be established
+by agreement with the autonomous government of Outer Mongolia, in other
+localities of Outer Mongolia, are not to exceed fifty men each.
+
+Art. 9. On all ceremonial or official occasions the first place of
+honour is due to the Chinese Dignitary. He has the right, if necessary,
+to present himself in private audience with His Holiness Bogdo Djembzoun
+Damba Khoutoukhtou Khan of Outer Mongolia. The Imperial Representative
+of Russia enjoys the same right of private audience.
+
+Art. 10. The Chinese Dignitary at Urga and his assistants in the
+different localities of Outer Mongolia provided for by Article VII of
+this agreement are to exercise general control lest the acts of the
+autonomous government of Outer Mongolia and its subordinate authorities
+may impair the suzerain rights and the interests of China and her
+subjects in autonomous Mongolia.
+
+Art. 11. Conformably to Article IV of the Note exchanged between China
+and Russia on the fifth day of the eleventh month of the second year of
+the Republic of China (23rd October, 1915), the territory of autonomous
+Outer Mongolia comprises the regions which were under the jurisdiction
+of the Chinese Amban at Ourga, or the Tartar-General at Ouliassoutai and
+of the Chinese Amban at Kobdo; and connects with the boundary of China
+by the limits of the banners of the four aimaks of Khalkha and of the
+district of Kobdo, bounded by the district of Houloun-Bourie on the
+east, by Inner Mongolia on the south, by the Province of Sinkiang on the
+southwest, and by the districts of Altai on the West.
+
+The formal delimitation between China and autonomous Mongolia is to be
+carried out by a special commission of delegates of China, Russia and
+autonomous Outer Mongolia, which shall set itself to the work of
+delimitation within a period of two years from the date of signature of
+the present Agreement.
+
+Art. 12. It is understood that customs duties are not to be established
+for goods of whatever origin they may be, imported by Chinese merchants
+into autonomous Outer Mongolia. Nevertheless, Chinese merchants shall
+pay all the taxes on internal trade which have been established in
+autonomous Outer Mongolia and which may be established therein in the
+future, payable by the Mongols of autonomous Outer Mongolia. Similarly
+the merchants of autonomous Outer Mongolia, when importing any kind of
+goods of local production into "Inner China," shall pay all the taxes on
+trade which have been established in "Inner China" and which may be
+established therein in the future, payable by Chinese merchants. Goods
+of foreign origin imported from autonomous Outer Mongolia into "Inner
+China" shall be subject to the customs duties stipulated in the
+regulations for land trade of the seventh year of the reign of
+Kouang-Hsu (1881).
+
+Art. 13. Civil and criminal actions arising between Chinese subjects
+residing in autonomous Outer Mongolia are to be examined and adjudicated
+by the Chinese Dignitary at Urga and by his assistants in the other
+localities of autonomous Outer Mongolia.
+
+Art. 14. Civil and criminal actions arising between Mongols of
+autonomous Outer Mongolia and Chinese subjects residing therein are to
+be examined and adjudicated by the Chinese Dignitary at Urga and his
+assistants in the other localities of autonomous Outer Mongolia, or
+their delegates, and the Mongolian authorities. If the defendant or
+accused is of autonomous Outer Mongolia, the joint examination and
+decision of the case are to be held at the Chinese Dignitary's place at
+Niga and that of his assistants in the other localities of autonomous
+Outer Mongolia; if the defendant or the accused is a Mongol of
+autonomous Outer Mongolia and the claimant or the complainant is a
+Chinese subject, the case is to be examined and decided in the same
+manner in the Mongolian yamen. The guilty are to be punished according
+to their own laws. The interested parties are free to arrange their
+disputes amicably by means of arbitrators chosen by themselves.
+
+Art. 15. Civil and criminal actions arising between Mongols of
+autonomous Outer Mongolia and Russian subjects residing therein are to
+be examined and decided conformably to the stipulations of Article XVI
+of the Russo-Mongolian Commercial protocol of 21st October, 1912.
+
+Art. 16. All civil and criminal actions arising between Chinese and
+Russian subjects in autonomous Outer Mongolia are to be examined and
+decided in the following manner: in an action wherein the claimant or
+the complainant is a Russian subject and the defendant or accused is a
+Chinese subject, the Russian Consul personally or through his delegate
+participates in the judicial trial, enjoying the same right as the
+Chinese Dignitary at Urga or his delegate or his assistants in the other
+localities of autonomous Outer Mongolia. The Russian Consul or his
+delegate proceeds to the hearing of the claimant and the Russian
+witnesses in the court in session, and interrogates the defendant and
+the Chinese witnesses through the medium of the Chinese Dignitary at
+Urga or his delegates or of his assistants in the other localities of
+autonomous Outer Mongolia; the Russian Consul or his delegate examines
+the evidence presented, demands security for "revindication" and has
+recourse to the opinion of experts, if he considers such expert opinion
+necessary for the elucidation of the rights of the parties, etc.; he
+takes part in deciding and in the drafting of the judgment, which he
+signs with the Chinese Dignitary at Urga or his delegates or his
+assistants in the other localities of Autonomous Outer Mongolia. The
+execution of the judgment constitutes a duty of the Chinese authorities.
+
+The Chinese Dignitary at Urga and his Assistants in the other localities
+of autonomous Outer Mongolia may likewise personally or through their
+delegates be present at the hearing of an action in the Consulates of
+Russia wherein the defendant or the accused is a Russian subject and the
+claimant or the complainant is a Chinese subject. The execution of the
+judgment constitutes a duty of the Russian authorities.
+
+Art. 17. Since a section of the Kiachta-Urga-Kalgan telegraph line lies
+in the territory of autonomous Outer Mongolia, it is agreed that the
+said section of the said telegraph line constitutes the complete
+property of the Autonomous Government of Outer Mongolia. The details
+respecting the establishment on the borders of that country and Inner
+Mongolia of a station to be administered by Chinese and Mongolian
+employes for the transmission of telegrams, as well as the questions of
+the tariff for telegrams transmitted and of the apportionment of the
+receipts, etc., are to be examined and settled by a special commission
+of technical delegates of China, Russia and Autonomous Outer Mongolia.
+
+Art. 18. The Chinese postal institutions at Urga and Mongolian Kiachta
+remain in force on the old basis.
+
+Art. 19. The Autonomous Government of Outer Mongolia will place at the
+disposal of the Chinese Dignitary at Urga and of his assistants at
+Ouliassoutai, Kobdo and Mongolian-Kiachta as well as of their staff the
+necessary houses, which are to constitute the complete property of the
+Government of the Republic of China. Similarly, necessary grounds in the
+vicinity of the residences of the said staff are to be granted for their
+escorts.
+
+Art. 20. The Chinese Dignitary at Urga and his assistants in the other
+localities of autonomous Outer Mongolia and also their staff are to
+enjoy the right to use the courier stations of the autonomous Mongolian
+Government conformably to the stipulations of Article XI of the
+Russo-Mongolian Protocol of 21st October, 1912.
+
+Art. 21. The stipulations of the Sino-Russian declaration and the Notes
+exchanged between China and Russia of the 5th day of the 11th month of
+the 2nd year of the Republic of China, 23rd October, 1913, as well as
+those of the Russo-Mongolian Commercial Protocol of the 21st October,
+1912, remain in full force.
+
+Art. 22. The present Agreement, drawn up in triplicate in Chinese,
+Russian, Mongolian and French languages, comes into force from the day
+of its signature. Of the four texts which have been duly compared and
+found to agree, the French text shall be authoritative in the
+interpretation of the Present Agreement.
+
+Done at Kiachta the 7th day of the Sixth Month of the Fourth year of the
+Republic of China, corresponding to the Twenty-fifth of May, Seventh of
+June, One Thousand Nine Hundred Fifteen.
+
+
+CHINO-JAPANESE TREATIES AND ANNEXES
+
+COMPLETE ENGLISH TEXT OF THE DOCUMENTS
+
+_The following is an authoritative translation of the two Treaties and
+thirteen Notes exchanged between His Excellency the President of the
+Republic of China and His Majesty the Emperor of Japan through their
+respective plenipotentiaries_:
+
+TREATY RESPECTING THE PROVINCE OF SHANTUNG
+
+His Excellency the President of the Republic of China and His Majesty
+the Emperor of Japan, having resolved to conclude a Treaty with a view
+to the maintenance of general peace in the Extreme East and the further
+strengthening of the relations of friendship and good neighbourhood now
+existing between the two nations, have for that purpose named as their
+Plenipotentiaries, that is to say:
+
+His Excellency the President of the Republic of China, Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+_Chung-ching_, First Class _Chia Ho_ Decoration, Minister of Foreign
+Affairs.
+
+And His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, Hioki Eki, _Jushii_, Second Class
+of the Imperial Order of the Sacred Treasure, Minister Plenipotentiary,
+and Envoy Extraordinary:
+
+Who, after having communicated to each other their full powers and found
+them to be in good and due form, have agreed upon and concluded the
+following Articles:--
+
+Article 1. The Chinese Government agrees to give full assent to all
+matters upon which the Japanese Government may hereafter agree with the
+German Government relating to the disposition of all rights, interests
+and concessions which Germany, by virtue of treaties or otherwise,
+possesses in relation to the Province of Shantung.
+
+Art. 2. The Chinese Government agrees that as regards the railway to be
+built by China herself from Chefoo or Lungkow to connect with the
+Kiaochow-Tsinanfu railway, if Germany abandons the privilege of
+financing the Chefoo-Weihsien line, China will approach Japanese
+capitalists to negotiate for a loan.
+
+Art. 3. The Chinese Government agrees in the interest of trade and for
+the residence of foreigners, to open by China herself as soon as
+possible certain suitable places in the Province of Shantung as
+Commercial Ports.
+
+Art. 4. The present treaty shall come into force on the day of its
+signature.
+
+The present treaty shall be ratified by His Excellency the President of
+the Republic of China and His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, and the
+ratification thereof shall be exchanged at Tokio as soon as possible.
+
+In witness whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries of the High
+Contracting Parties have signed and sealed the present Treaty, two
+copies in the Chinese language and two in Japanese.
+
+Done at Peking this twenty-fifth day of the fifth month of the fourth
+year of the Republic of China, corresponding to the same day of the same
+month of the fourth year of Taisho.
+
+EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING SHANTUNG
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre.
+
+In the name of the Chinese Government I have the honour to make the
+following declaration to your Government:--"Within the Province of
+Shantung or along its coast no territory or island will be leased or
+ceded to any foreign Power under any pretext."
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+
+Excellency,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you made the following declaration in the
+name of the Chinese Government:--"Within the Province of Shantung or
+along its coast no territory or island will be leased or ceded to any
+foreign Power under any pretext."
+
+In reply I beg to state that I have taken note of this declaration.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) HIOKI EKI.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE OPENING OF PORTS IN SHANTUNG
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre.
+
+I have the honour to state that the places which ought to be opened as
+Commercial Ports by China herself, as provided in Article 3 of the
+Treaty respecting the Province of Shantung signed this day, will be
+selected and the regulations therefor, will be drawn up, by the Chinese
+Government itself, a decision concerning which will be made after
+consulting the Minister of Japan.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+
+Excellency,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you stated "that the places which ought to
+be opened as Commercial Ports by China herself, as provided in Article 3
+of the Treaty respecting the province of Shantung signed this day, will
+be selected and the regulations therefor, will be drawn up by the
+Chinese Government itself, a decision concerning which will be made
+after consulting the Minister of Japan."
+
+In reply, I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) HIOKI EKI.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE RESTORATION OF THE LEASED TERRITORY OF
+KIAOCHOW BAY
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+
+Excellency,
+
+In the name of my Government I have the honour to make the following
+declaration to the Chinese Government:--
+
+When, after the termination of the present war, the leased territory of
+Kiaochow Bay is completely left to the free disposal of Japan, the
+Japanese Government will restore the said leased territory to China
+under the following conditions:--
+
+1. The whole of Kiaochow Bay to be opened as a Commercial Port.
+
+2. A concession under the exclusive jurisdiction of Japan to be
+established at a place designated by the Japanese Government.
+
+3. If the foreign Powers desire it, an international concession may be
+established.
+
+4. As regards the disposal to be made of the buildings and properties of
+Germany and the conditions and procedure relating thereto, the Japanese
+Government and the Chinese Government shall arrange the matter by mutual
+agreement before the restoration.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) HIOKI EKI.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you made the following declaration in the
+name of your Government:--
+
+"When, after the termination of the present war the leased territory of
+Kiaochow Bay is completely left to the free disposal of Japan, the
+Japanese Government will restore the said leased territory to China
+under the following conditions:--
+
+"1. The whole of Kiaochow Bay to be opened as a Commercial Port.
+
+"2. A concession under the exclusive jurisdiction of Japan to be
+established at a place designated by the Japanese Government.
+
+"3. If the foreign Powers desire it, an international concession may be
+established.
+
+"4. As regards the disposal to be made of the buildings and properties of
+Germany and the conditions and procedure relating thereto, the Japanese
+Government and the Chinese Government shall arrange the matter by mutual
+agreement before the restoration."
+
+In reply, I beg to state that I have taken note of this declaration.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) Lou Tseng-tsiang.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+TREATY RESPECTING SOUTH MANCHURIA AND EASTERN INNER MONGOLIA
+
+His Excellency the President of the Republic of China and His Majesty
+the Emperor of Japan, having resolved to conclude a Treaty with a view
+to developing their economic relations in South Manchuria and Eastern
+Inner Mongolia, have for that purpose named as their Plenipotentiaries,
+that is to say;
+
+His Excellency the President of the Republic of China, Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+_Chung-ching_, First Class _Chia-ho_ Decoration, and Minister of Foreign
+Affairs; And His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, Hioki Eki, _Jushii_,
+Second Class of the Imperial Order of the Sacred Treasure, Minister
+Plenipotentiary and Envoy Extraordinary;
+
+Who, after having communicated to each other their full powers, and
+found them to be in good and due form, have agreed upon and concluded
+the following Articles:--
+
+Article 1. The two High Contracting Parties agree that the term of lease
+of Port Arthur and Dalny and the terms of the South Manchuria Railway
+and the Antung-Mukden Railway, shall be extended to 99 years.
+
+Art. 2. Japanese subjects in South Manchuria may, by negotiation, lease
+land necessary for erecting suitable buildings for trade and manufacture
+or for prosecuting agricultural enterprises.
+
+Art. 3. Japanese subjects shall be free to reside and travel in South
+Manchuria and to engage in business and manufacture of any kind
+whatsoever.
+
+Art. 4. In the event of Japanese and Chinese desiring jointly to
+undertake agricultural enterprises and industries incidental thereto,
+the Chinese Government may give its permission.
+
+Art. 5. The Japanese subjects referred to in the preceding three
+articles, besides being required to register with the local Authorities
+passports which they must procure under the existing regulations, shall
+also submit to the police laws and ordinances and taxation of China.
+
+Civil and criminal cases in which the defendants are Japanese shall be
+tried and adjudicated by the Japanese Consul: those in which the
+defendants are Chinese shall be tried and adjudicated by Chinese
+Authorities. In either case an officer may be deputed to the court to
+attend the proceedings. But mixed civil cases between Chinese and
+Japanese relating to land shall be tried and adjudicated by delegates of
+both nations conjointly in accordance with Chinese law and local usage.
+
+When, in future, the judicial system in the said region is completely
+reformed, all civil and criminal cases concerning Japanese subjects
+shall be tried and adjudicated entirely by Chinese law courts.
+
+Art. 6. The Chinese Government agrees, in the interest of trade and for
+the residence of foreigners, to open by China herself, as soon as
+possible, certain suitable places in Eastern Inner Mongolia as
+Commercial Ports.
+
+Art. 7. The Chinese Government agrees speedily to make a fundamental
+revision of the Kirin-Changchun Railway Loan Agreement, taking as a
+standard the provisions in railway loan agreements made heretofore
+between China and foreign financiers.
+
+When in future, more advantageous terms than those in existing railway
+loan agreements are granted to foreign financiers in connection with
+railway loans, the above agreement shall again be revised in accordance
+with Japan's wishes.
+
+Art. 8. All existing treaties between China and Japan relating to
+Manchuria shall, except where otherwise provided for by this Treaty,
+remain in force.
+
+Art. 9. The present Treaty shall come into force on the date of its
+signature. The present Treaty shall be ratified by His Excellency the
+President of the Republic of China and His Majesty the Emperor of Japan,
+and the ratifications thereof shall be exchanged at Tokio as soon as
+possible.
+
+In witness whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries of the two High
+Contracting Parties have signed and sealed the present Treaty, two
+copies in the Chinese language and two in Japanese.
+
+Done at Peking this twenty-fifth day of the fifth month of the fourth
+year of the Republic of China, corresponding to the same day of the same
+month of the fourth year of Taisho.
+
+EXCHANGE OF NOTES
+
+_Respecting the Terms of Lease of Port Arthur and Dalny and the Terms of
+South Manchurian and Antung-Mukden Railways_.
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre,
+
+I have the honour to state that, respecting the provisions contained in
+Article I of the Treaty relating to South Manchuria and Eastern Inner
+Mongolia, signed this day, the term of lease of Port Arthur and Dalny
+shall expire in the 86th year of the Republic or 1997. The date for
+restoring the South Manchuria Railway to China shall fall due in the
+91st year of the Republic or 2002. Article 12 in the original South
+Manchurian Railway Agreement providing that it may be redeemed by China
+after 36 years from the day on which the traffic is opened is hereby
+cancelled. The term of the Antung-Mukden Railway shall expire in the
+96th year of the Republic or 2007.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) Lou Tseng-tsiang.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+
+Excellency,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date, in which you stated that respecting the provisions
+contained in Article I of the Treaty relating to South Manchuria and
+Eastern Inner Mongolia, signed this day, the term of lease of Port
+Arthur and Dalny shall expire in the 86th year of the Republic or 1997.
+The date for restoring the South Manchurian Railway to China shall fall
+due in the 91st year of the Republic or 2002. Article 12 in the original
+South Manchurian Railway Agreement providing that it may be redeemed by
+China after 36 years from the day on which the traffic is opened, is
+hereby cancelled. The term of the Antung-Mukden Railway shall expire in
+the 96th year of the Republic or 2007.
+
+In reply I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) Hioki Eki.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE OPENING OF PORTS IN EASTERN INNER
+MONGOLIA
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre,
+
+I have the honour to state that the places which ought to be opened as
+Commercial Ports by China herself, as provided in Article 6 of the
+Treaty respecting South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia signed this
+day, will be selected, and the regulations therefor, will be drawn up
+by the Chinese Government itself, a decision concerning which will be
+made after consulting the Minister of Japan.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) Lou TSENG-TSIANG.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+
+Excellency,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you stated "that the places which ought to
+be opened as Commercial Ports by China herself, as provided in Article 6
+of the Treaty respecting South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia
+signed this day, will be selected, and the regulations therefor, will be
+drawn up, by the Chinese Government itself, a decision concerning which
+will be made after consulting the Minister of Japan."
+
+In reply, I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) HIOKO EKI.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+SOUTH MANCHURIA
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre,
+
+I have the honour to state that Japanese subjects shall, as soon as
+possible, investigate and select mines in the mining areas in South
+Manchuria specified hereinunder, except those being prospected for or
+worked, and the Chinese Government will then permit them to prospect or
+work the same; but before the Mining regulations are definitely settled,
+the practice at present in force shall be followed. Provinces
+Fengtien:--
+
+  |Locality            |District                 |Mineral
+  |                    |                         |
+  |Niu Hsin T'ai       |Pen-hsi                  |Coal
+  |Tien Shih Fu Kou    |Pen-hsi                  |Coal
+  |Sha Sung Kang       |Hai-lung                 |Coal
+  |T'ieh Ch'ang        |Tung-hua                 |Coal
+  |Nuan Ti T'ang       |Chin                     |Coal
+  |An Shan Chan region |From Liaoyang to Pen-hsi |Iron
+
+KIRIN (_Southern portion_)
+
+  |Locality            |District                 |Mineral
+  |                    |                         |
+  |Sha Sung Kang       |Ho-lung                  |C. & I.
+  |Kang Yao Chia       |Chi-lin (Kirin)          |Coal
+  |P'i Kou             |Hua-tien                 |Gold
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+Excellency,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day respecting the opening of mines in South Manchuria, stating;
+"Japanese subjects shall, as soon as possible, investigate and select
+mines in the mining areas in South Manchuria specified hereinunder,
+except those being prospected for or worked, and the Chinese Government
+will then permit them to prospect or work the same; but before the
+Mining regulations are definitely settled, the practice at present in
+force shall be followed.
+
+1 Provinces Fengtien.
+
+  |Locality               |District                 |Mineral
+  |                       |                         |
+  |1. Niu Hsin T'ai       |Pen-hsi                  |Coal
+  |2. Tien Shih Fu Kou    |Pen-hsi                  |Coal
+  |3. Sha Sung Kang       |Hai-lung                 |Coal
+  |4. T'ieh Ch'ang        |Tung-hua                 |Coal
+  |5. Nuan Ti T'ang       |Chin                     |Coal
+  |6. An Shan Chan region |From Liaoyang to Pen-hsi |Iron
+
+KIRIN (_Southern portion_)
+
+  |1. Sha Sung Kang       |Ho-lung                  |C. & I.
+  |2. Kang Yao            |Chi-lin (Kirin)          |Coal
+  |3. Chia P'i Kou        |Hua-tien                 |Gold
+
+"I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) "HIOKI EKI."
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China.
+
+EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING RAILWAYS AND TAXES IN SOUTH MANCHURIA AND
+EASTERN INNER MONGOLIA
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre,
+
+In the name of my Government.
+
+I have the honour to make the following declaration to your
+Government:--
+
+China will hereafter provide funds for building necessary railways in
+South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia; if foreign capital is
+required China may negotiate for a loan with Japanese capitalists first;
+and further, the Chinese Government, when making a loan in future on the
+security of the taxes in the above-mentioned places (excluding the salt
+and customs revenue which has already been pledged by the Chinese
+Central Government) may negotiate for it with Japanese capitalists
+first.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+
+Excellency,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date respecting railways and taxes in South Manchuria and
+Eastern Inner Mongolia in which you stated:
+
+"China will hereafter provide funds for building necessary railways in
+South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia; if foreign capital is
+required China may negotiate for a loan with Japanese capitalists first;
+and further, the Chinese Government, when making a loan in future on the
+security of taxes in the above mentioned places (excluding the salt and
+customs revenue which has already been pledged by the Chinese Central
+Government) may negotiate for it with Japanese capitalists first."
+
+In reply I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) HIOKO EKI.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE EMPLOYMENT OF ADVISERS IN SOUTH
+MANCHURIA
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre,
+
+In the name of the Chinese Government, I have the honour to make the
+following declaration to your Government:--
+
+"Hereafter, if foreign advisers or instructors on political, financial,
+military or police matters are to be employed in South Manchuria,
+Japanese may be employed first."
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+
+Excellency,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you made the following declaration in the
+name of your Government:--
+
+"Hereafter if foreign advisers or instructors in political, financial,
+military or police matters are to be employed in South Manchuria,
+Japanese may be employed first."
+
+In reply, I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) HIOKI EKI.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE EXPLANATION OF "LEASE BY NEGOTIATION"
+IN SOUTH MANCHURIA
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+
+Excellency,
+
+I have the honour to state that the term lease by negotiation contained
+in Article 2 of the Treaty respecting South Manchuria and Eastern Inner
+Mongolia signed this day shall be understood to imply a long-term lease
+of not more than thirty years and also the possibility of its
+unconditional renewal.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) HIOKI EKI.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you state.
+
+"The term lease by negotiation contained in Article 2 of the Treaty
+respecting South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia signed this day
+shall be understood to imply a long-term lease of not more than thirty
+years and also the possibility of its unconditional renewal."
+
+In reply I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE ARRANGEMENT FOR POLICE LAWS AND
+ORDINANCES AND TAXATION IN SOUTH MANCHURIA AND EASTERN INNER MONGOLIA
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre,
+
+I have the honour to state that the Chinese Authorities will notify the
+Japanese Consul of the police laws and ordinances and the taxation to
+which Japanese subjects shall submit according to Article 5 of the
+Treaty respecting South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia signed this
+day so as to come to an understanding with him before their enforcement.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+
+Excellency,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you state:
+
+"The Chinese Authorities will notify the Japanese Consul of the Police
+laws and ordinances and the taxation to which Japanese subjects shall
+submit according to Article 5 of the Treaty respecting South Manchuria
+and Eastern Inner Mongolia signed this day so as to come to an
+understanding with him before their enforcement."
+
+In reply, I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) HIOKI EKI.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre,
+
+I have the honour to state that, inasmuch as preparations have to be
+made regarding Articles 2, 3, 4 and 5 of the Treaty respecting South
+Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia signed this day, the Chinese
+Government proposes that the operation of the said Articles be postponed
+for a period of three months beginning from the date of the signing of
+the said Treaty.
+
+I hope your Government will agree to this proposal.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+
+Excellency,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you stated that "inasmuch as preparations
+have to be made regarding Articles 2, 3, 4 and 5 of the Treaty
+respecting South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia signed this day,
+the Chinese Government proposes that the operation of the said Articles
+be postponed for a period of three months beginning from the date of
+the signing of the said Treaty."
+
+In reply, I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) HIOKI EKI.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE MATTER OF HANYEHPING
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre,
+
+I have the honour to state that if in future the Hanyehping Company and
+the Japanese capitalists agree upon co-operation, the Chinese
+Government, in view of the intimate relations subsisting between the
+Japanese capitalists and the said Company, will forthwith give its
+permission. The Chinese Government further agrees not to confiscate the
+said Company, nor, without the consent of the Japanese capitalists to
+convert it into a state enterprise, nor cause it to borrow and use
+foreign capital other than Japanese.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of Taisho.
+
+Excellency,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date in which you state:
+
+"If in future the Hanyehping Company and the Japanese capitalists agree
+upon co-operation, the Chinese Government, in view of the intimate
+relations subsisting between the Japanese capitalists and the said
+Company, will forthwith give its permission. The Chinese Government
+further agrees not to confiscate the said Company, nor, without the
+consent of the Japanese capitalists to convert it into a state
+enterprise, nor cause it to borrow and use foreign capital other than
+Japanese."
+
+In reply, I beg to state that I have taken note of the same.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) HIOKI EKI.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+EXCHANGE OF NOTES RESPECTING THE FUKIEN QUESTION
+
+--Note--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Excellency,
+
+A report has reached me to the effect that the Chinese Government has
+the intention of permitting foreign nations to establish, on the coast
+of Fukien Province, dock-yards, coaling stations for military use, naval
+bases, or to set up other military establishments; and also of borrowing
+foreign capital for the purpose of setting up the above-mentioned
+establishments.
+
+I have the honour to request that Your Excellency will be good enough to
+give me reply stating whether or not the Chinese Government really
+entertains such an intention.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) HIOKI EKI.
+
+His Excellency,
+Lou Tseng-tsiang,
+Minister of Foreign Affairs.
+
+--Reply--
+
+Peking, the 25th day of the 5th month of the 4th year of the Republic of
+China.
+
+Monsieur le Ministre,
+
+I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Your Excellency's note
+of this day's date which I have noted.
+
+In reply I beg to inform you that the Chinese Government hereby declares
+that it has given no permission to foreign nations to construct, on the
+coast of Fukien Province, dock-yards, coaling stations for military use,
+naval bases, or to set up other military establishments; nor does it
+entertain an intention of borrowing foreign capital for the purpose of
+setting up the above-mentioned establishments.
+
+I avail, etc.,
+
+(Signed) LOU TSENG-TSIANG.
+
+His Excellency,
+Hioki Eki,
+Japanese Minister.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+DOCUMENTS IN GROUP IV
+
+
+(1) The Draft of the Permanent Constitution completed in May, 1917.
+
+(2) The proposed Provincial System, _i.e._, the local government law.
+
+(3) Memorandum by the Ministry of Commerce on Tariff Revision,
+illustrating the anomalies of present trade taxation.
+
+(4) The leading outstanding cases between China and the Foreign Powers.
+
+
+DRAFT OF THE NATIONAL CONSTITUTION OF CHINA
+
+(As it stood on May 28th, 1917, in its second reading at the
+Constitutional Conference.)
+
+The Constitutional Conference of the Republic of China, in order to
+enhance the national dignity, to unite the national dominion, to advance
+the interest of society and to uphold the sacredness of humanity, hereby
+adopt the following constitution which shall be promulgated to the whole
+country, to be universally observed, and handed down unto the end of
+time.
+
+CHAPTER I. THE FORM OF GOVERNMENT
+
+Article 1. The Republic of China shall for ever be a consolidated
+Republic.
+
+CHAPTER II. NATIONAL TERRITORY
+
+Art. 2. The National Territory of the Republic of China shall be in
+accordance with the dominion hithertofore existing.
+
+No change in National Territory and its divisions can be made save in
+accordance with the law.
+
+CHAPTER ... GOVERNING AUTHORITY
+
+Art ... The power of Government of the Republic of China shall be
+derived from the entire body of citizens.
+
+CHAPTER III. THE CITIZENS
+
+Art. 3. Those who are of Chinese nationality according to law shall be
+called the citizens of the Republic of China.
+
+Art. 4. Among the citizens of the Republic of China, there shall be, in
+the eyes of the law, no racial, class, or religious distinctions, but
+all shall be equal.
+
+Art. 5. No citizens of the Republic of China shall be arrested,
+detained, tried, or punished save in accordance with the law. Whoever
+happens to be detained in custody shall be entitled, on application
+therefore, to the immediate benefit of the writ of habeas corpus,
+bringing him before a judicial court of competent jurisdiction for an
+investigation of the case and appropriate action according to law.
+
+Art. 6. The private habitations of the citizens of the Republic of China
+shall not be entered or searched except in accordance with the law.
+
+Art. 7. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have the right of
+secrecy of correspondence, which may not be violated except as provided
+by law.
+
+Art. 8. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have liberty of
+choice of residence and of profession which shall be unrestricted except
+in accordance with law.
+
+Art. 9. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have liberty to call
+meetings or to organize societies which shall be unrestricted except in
+accordance with the law.
+
+Art. 10. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have freedom of
+speech, writing and publication which shall be unrestricted except in
+accordance with the law.
+
+Art. 11. The citizens of the Republic of China shall be entitled to
+honour Confucius and shall enjoy freedom of religious belief which shall
+be unrestricted except in accordance with the law.
+
+Art. 12. The citizens of the Republic of China shall enjoy the
+inviolable right to the security of their property and any measure to
+the contrary necessitated by public interest shall be determined by law.
+
+Art. ... The citizens of the Republic of China shall enjoy all other
+forms of freedom aside from those hithertofore mentioned, provided they
+are not contrary to the spirit of the Constitution.
+
+Art. 13. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have the right to
+appeal to the Judicial Courts according to law.
+
+Art. 14. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have the right to
+submit petitions or make complaints according to law.
+
+Art. 15. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have the right to
+vote and to be voted for according to law.
+
+Art. 16. The citizens of the Republic of China shall have the right to
+hold official posts according to law.
+
+Art. 17. The citizens of the Republic of China shall perform the
+obligation of paying taxes according to law.
+
+Art. 18. The citizens of the Republic of China shall perform the
+obligation of military service according to law.
+
+Art. 19. The citizens of the Republic of China shall be under the
+obligation to receive primary education according to law.
+
+CHAPTER IV. THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY
+
+Art. 20. The legislative power of the Republic of China shall be
+exercised by the National Assembly exclusively.
+
+Art. 21. The National Assembly shall consist of a Senate and House of
+Representatives.
+
+Art. 22. The Senate shall be composed of the Senators elected by the
+highest local legislative assemblies and other electoral bodies.
+
+Art. 23. The House of Representatives shall be composed of the
+representatives elected by the various electoral districts in proportion
+to the population.
+
+Art. 24. The members of both Houses shall be elected according to law.
+
+Art. 25. In no case shall one person be a member of both Houses
+simultaneously.
+
+Art. 26. No member of either House shall hold any official post, civil
+or military during his term.
+
+Art. 27. The qualifications of the members of either House shall be
+determined by the respective Houses.
+
+Art. 28. The term of office for a member of the Senate shall be six
+years. One-third of the members shall retire and new ones be elected
+every two years.
+
+Art. 29. The term of office for a member of the House of Representatives
+shall be three years.
+
+Art. 30. Each House shall have a President and a Vice-President who
+shall be elected from among its members.
+
+Art. 31. The National Assembly shall itself convene, open and close its
+sessions, but as to extraordinary sessions, they shall be called under
+one of the following circumstances:
+
+(1) A signed request of more than one-third of the members of each
+House.
+
+(2) A mandate of the President.
+
+Art. 32. The ordinary sessions of the National Assembly shall begin on
+the first day of the eighth month in each year.
+
+Art. 33. The period for the ordinary session of the National Assembly
+shall be four months which may be prolonged, but the prolonged period
+shall not exceed the length of the ordinary session.
+
+Art. 34. (Eliminated.)
+
+Art. 35. Both Houses shall meet in joint session at the opening and
+closing of the National Assembly.
+
+If one House suspends its session, the other House shall do likewise
+during the same period.
+
+When the House of Representatives is dissolved, the Senate shall
+adjourn during the same period.
+
+Art. 36. The work of the National Assembly shall be conducted in the
+Houses separately. No bill shall be introduced in both Houses
+simultaneously.
+
+Art. 37. Unless there be an attendance of over half of the total number
+of members of either House, no sitting shall be held.
+
+Art. 38. Any subject discussed in either House shall be decided by the
+votes of the majority of members attending the sitting. The President of
+each House shall have a deciding vote in case of a tie.
+
+Art. 39. A decision of the National Assembly shall require the decision
+of both Houses.
+
+Art. 40. The sessions of both Houses shall be held in public, except on
+request of the government, or decision of the Houses when secret
+sessions may be held.
+
+Art. 41. Should the House of Representatives consider either the
+President or the Vice-President of the Republic of China has committed
+treason, he may be impeached by the decision of a majority of over
+two-thirds of the members present, there being a quorum of over
+two-thirds of the total membership of the House.
+
+Art. 42. Should the House of Representatives consider that the Cabinet
+Ministers have violated the law, an impeachment may be instituted with
+the approval of over two-thirds of the members present.
+
+Art. 43. The House of Representatives may pass a vote of want of
+Confidence in the Cabinet Ministers.
+
+Art. 44. The Senate shall try the impeached President, Vice-President
+and Cabinet Ministers.
+
+With regard to the above-mentioned trial, no judgment of guilt or
+violation of the law shall be passed without the approval of over
+two-thirds of the members present.
+
+When a verdict of "Guilty" is pronounced on the President or
+Vice-President, he shall be deprived of his post, but the infliction of
+punishment shall be determined by the Supreme Court of Justice.
+
+When the verdict of "Guilty" is pronounced upon a Cabinet Minister, he
+shall be deprived of his office and may forfeit his public rights.
+Should the above penalty be insufficient for his offence, he shall be
+tried by the Judicial Court.
+
+Art. ... Either of the two Houses shall have power to request the
+government to inquire into any case of delinquency or unlawful act on
+the part of any official and to punish him accordingly.
+
+Art. 45. Both Houses shall have the right to offer suggestions to the
+Government.
+
+Art. 46. Both Houses shall receive and consider the petitions of the
+citizens.
+
+Art. 47. Members of either House may introduce interpellations to the
+members of the Cabinet and demand their attendance in the House to reply
+thereto.
+
+Art. 48. Members of either House shall not be responsible to those
+outside the House for opinions expressed and votes cast in the House.
+
+Art. 49. No member of either House during session shall be arrested or
+detained in custody without the permission of his respective House,
+unless he be arrested in the commission of the offence or act.
+
+When any member of either House has been so arrested, the government
+should report the cause to his respective House. Such member's House,
+during session, may with the approval of its members demand for the
+release of the arrested member and for temporary suspension of the legal
+proceedings.
+
+Art. 50. The annual allowance and other expenses of the members of both
+Houses shall be fixed by law.
+
+(CHAPTER V. on Resident Committee of the National Assembly with 4
+articles has been eliminated.)
+
+CHAPTER VI. THE PRESIDENT
+
+Art. 55. The administrative power of the Republic of China shall be
+vested in the President with the assistance of the Cabinet Ministers.
+
+* Art. 56. A person of the Republic of China in the full enjoyment
+of public rights, of the age of forty years or more, and resident in
+China for at least ten years, is eligible for election as President.
+
+* Art. 57. The President shall be elected by a Presidential
+Election Convention, composed of the members of the National Assembly.
+
+For the above election, an attendance of at least two-thirds of the
+number of electors shall be required, and the voting shall be performed
+by secret ballot. The person obtaining three-fourths of the total votes
+cast shall be elected; but should no definite result be obtained after
+the second ballot, the two candidates obtaining the most votes in the
+second ballot shall be voted for and the candidate receiving the
+majority vote shall be elected.
+
+* Art. 58. The period of office of the President shall be five
+years, and if re-elected, he may hold office for another term.
+
+Three months previous to the expiration of the term, the members of the
+National Assembly of the Republic shall themselves convene and organize
+the President Election Convention to elect a President for the next
+term.
+
+* Art. 59. When the President is being inaugurated, he shall make
+an oath as follows: "I hereby solemnly swear that I will most faithfully
+obey the Constitution and discharge the duties of the President."
+
+* Art. 60. Should the post of the President become vacant, the
+Vice-President shall succeed him until the expiration of the term of
+office of the President. Should the President be unable to discharge his
+duties for any cause, the Vice-President shall act for him.
+
+Should the Vice-President vacate his post at the same time, the Cabinet
+shall officiate for the President, but at the same time, the members of
+the National Assembly shall within three months convene themselves and
+organize the Presidential Election Convention to elect a new President.
+
+* Art. 61. The President shall be relieved of his office at the
+expiration of his term of his office. If, at the end of the period, the
+new President has not been elected, or, having been elected, be unable
+to assume office and when the Vice-President is also unable to act as
+President, the Cabinet shall officiate for the President.
+
+* Art. 62. The election of the Vice-President shall be in
+accordance with the regulations fixed for the election of the President;
+and the election of the Vice-President shall take place simultaneously
+with the election of the President. Should the post of the
+Vice-President become vacant, a new Vice-President shall be elected.
+
+Art. 63. The President shall promulgate all laws and supervise and
+secure their enforcement.
+
+Art. 64. The President may issue and publish mandates for the execution
+of laws in accordance with the powers delegated to him by the law.
+
+Art. 65. (Eliminated.)
+
+Art. 66. The President shall appoint and remove all civil and military
+officials, with the exception of those specially provided for by the
+Constitution or laws.
+
+Art. 67. The President shall be the Commander-in-Chief of the Army and
+Navy of the Republic.
+
+The organization of the Army and Navy shall be fixed by law.
+
+Art. 68. In intercourse with foreign countries, the President shall be
+the representative of the Republic.
+
+Art. 69. The President may, with the concurrence of the National
+Assembly, declare war, but, in case of defence against foreign invasion,
+he may request recognition of the National Assembly after the
+declaration of the war.
+
+Art. 70. The President may conclude treaties; but with regard to
+treaties of peace, and those affecting legislation, they shall not be
+valid, if the consent of the National Assembly is not obtained.
+
+Art. 71. The President may proclaim martial law according to law; but if
+the National Assembly should consider that there is no such necessity,
+he should declare the withdrawal of the martial law.
+
+Art. 72. (Eliminated.)
+
+Art. 73. The President may, with the concurrence of the Supreme Court of
+Justice, grant pardons, commute punishment, and restore rights; but with
+regard to a verdict of impeachment, unless with the concurrence of the
+National Assembly, he shall not make any announcement of the restoration
+of rights.
+
+Art. 74. The President may suspend the session of either the Senate or
+the House of Representatives for a period not exceeding ten days, but
+during any one session, he may not exercise this right more than once.
+
+Art. 75. With the concurrence of two-thirds or more of the members of
+the Senate present, the President may dissolve the House of
+Representatives, but there must not be a second dissolution during the
+period of the same session.
+
+When the House of Representatives is dissolved by the President,
+another election shall take place immediately, and the convocation of
+the House at a fixed date within five months should be effected to
+continue the session.
+
+Art. 76. With the exception of high treason, no criminal charges shall
+be brought against the President before he has vacated his office.
+
+Art. 77. The salaries of the President and Vice-President shall be fixed
+by law.
+
+CHAPTER VII. THE CABINET
+
+Art. 78. The Cabinet shall be composed of the Cabinet Ministers.
+
+Art. 79. The Premier and the Ministers of the various ministries shall
+be called the Cabinet Ministers.
+
+Art. 80. The appointment of the Premier shall be approved by the House
+of Representatives.
+
+Should a vacancy in the Premiership occur during the time of adjournment
+of the National Assembly, the President may appoint an Acting-Premier,
+but it shall be required that the appointment must be submitted to the
+House of Representatives for approval within seven days after the
+convening of the next session.
+
+Art. 81. Cabinet Ministers shall assist the President and shall be
+responsible to the House of Representatives.
+
+Without the counter-signature of the Cabinet Minister to whose Ministry
+the Mandate or dispatch applies, the mandate or dispatch of the
+President in connection with State affairs shall not be valid; but this
+shall not apply to the appointment or dismissal of the Premier.
+
+Art. 82. When a vote of want of confidence in the Cabinet Ministers is
+passed, if the President does not dissolve the House of Representatives
+according to the provisions made in Art. 75, he should remove the
+Cabinet Ministers.
+
+Art. 83. The Cabinet Ministers shall be allowed to attend both Houses
+and make speeches, but in case of introducing bills for the Executive
+Department, their delegates may act for them.
+
+CHAPTER VIII. COURTS OF JUSTICE
+
+Art. 84. The Judicial authority of the Republic of China shall be
+exercised by the Courts of Justice exclusively.
+
+Art. 85. The organization of the Courts of Justice and the
+qualifications of the Judges shall be fixed by law.
+
+The appointment of the Chief-Justice of the Supreme Court should have
+the approval of the Senate.
+
+Art. 86. The Judiciary shall attend to and settle all civil, criminal,
+administrative and other cases, but this does not include those cases
+which have been specially provided for by the Constitution or law.
+
+Art. 87. The trial of cases in the law courts shall be conducted
+publicly, but those affecting public peace and order or propriety may be
+held in camera.
+
+Art. 88. The Judges shall be independent in the conducting of trials
+and none shall be allowed to interfere.
+
+Art. 89. Except in accordance with law, judges, during their
+continuation of office shall not have their emoluments decreased, nor be
+transferred to other offices, nor shall they be removed from office.
+
+During his tenure of office, no judge shall be deprived of his office
+unless he is convicted of crime, or for offences punishable by law. But
+the above does not include cases of reorganization of Judicial Courts
+and when the qualification of the Judges are modified. The punishments
+and fines of the Judicial Officials shall be fixed by law.
+
+CHAPTER IX. LEGISLATION
+
+Art. 90. The members of both Houses and the Executive Department may
+introduce bills of law, but if any bill of law is rejected by the House
+it shall not be re-introduced during the same session.
+
+Art. 91. Any bill of law which has been passed by the National Assembly
+shall be promulgated by the President within 15 days after receipt of
+the same.
+
+Art. 92. Should the President disapprove of any bill of law passed by
+the National Assembly, he shall within the period allowed for
+promulgation, state the reason of his disapproval and request the
+reconsideration of the same by the National Assembly.
+
+If a bill of law has not yet been submitted with a request for
+consideration and the period for promulgation has passed; it shall
+become law. But the above shall not apply to the case when the session
+of the National Assembly is adjourned, or, the House of Representatives
+dissolved before the period for the promulgation is ended.
+
+Art. 93. The law shall not be altered or repealed except in accordance
+with the law.
+
+Art. 94. Any law that is in conflict with the Constitution shall not be
+valid.
+
+CHAPTER X. NATIONAL FINANCE
+
+Art. 95. The introduction of new taxes and alterations in the rate of
+taxation shall be fixed by law.
+
+Art. 96. (Eliminated.)
+
+Art. 97. The approval of the National Assembly must be obtained for
+National loans, or the conclusion of agreements which tend to increase
+the burden of the National Treasury.
+
+Art. ... Financial bills involving direct obligation on the part of the
+citizens shall first be submitted to the House of Representatives.
+
+Art. 98. The Executive Department of the Government shall prepare a
+budget setting forth expenditures and receipts of the Nation for the
+fiscal year which shall be submitted to the House of Representatives
+within 15 days after the opening of the session of the National
+Assembly.
+
+Should the Senate amend or reject the budget passed by the House of
+Representatives, it shall request the concurrence of the House of
+Representatives in its amendment or rejection, and, if such concurrence
+is not obtained, the budget shall be considered as passed.
+
+Art. 99. In case of special provisions, the Executive Department may fix
+in advance in the budget the period over which the appropriations are to
+be spread and may provide for the successive appropriations continuing
+over this period.
+
+Art. 100. In order to provide for a safe margin for under-estimates or
+for items left out of the budget, the Executive Department may include
+contingent items in the budget under the heading of Reserve Fund. The
+sum expended under the above provision shall be submitted to the House
+of Representatives at the next session for recognition.
+
+Art. 101. Unless approved by the Executive Department, the National
+Assembly shall have no right to abolish or curtail any of the following
+items:
+
+(1) Items in connection with obligations of the Government according to
+law.
+
+(2) Items necessitated by the observance of treaties.
+
+(3) Items legally fixed.
+
+(4) Successive appropriations continuing over a period.
+
+Art. 102. The National Assembly shall not increase the annual
+expenditures as set down in the budget.
+
+Art. 103. In case the budget is not yet passed, when the fiscal year
+begins, the Executive Department may, during this period, follow the
+budget for the preceding year by limiting its expenditures and receipts
+by one-twelfth of the total amount for each month.
+
+Art. 104. Should there be a defensive war against foreign invasion, or
+should there be a suppression of internal rebellion, or to provide
+against extraordinary calamity, when it is impossible to issue writs for
+summoning the National Assembly, the Executive Department may adopt
+financial measures for the emergency, but it should request the
+recognition thereof by the House of Representatives within seven days
+after the convening of the next session of the National Assembly.
+
+Art. 105. Orders on the Treasury for payments on account of the annual
+expenditures of the Government shall first be passed by the Auditing
+Department.
+
+Art. 106. Accounts of the annual expenditures and annual receipts for
+each year should first be referred to the Auditing Department for
+investigation and then the Executive Department shall report the same to
+the National Assembly.
+
+If the account be rejected by the House of Representatives, the Cabinet
+shall be held responsible.
+
+Art. 107. The method of organization of the Auditing Department and the
+qualification of the Auditors shall be fixed by law.
+
+During his tenure of office, the auditor shall not be dismissed or
+transferred to any other duty or his salary be reduced except in
+accordance with the law.
+
+The manner of punishment of Auditors shall be fixed by law.
+
+Art. 108. The Chief of the Auditing Department shall be elected by the
+Senate. The Chief of the Auditing Department may attend sittings of both
+Houses and report on the Audit with explanatory statements.
+
+CHAPTER XI. AMENDMENTS, INTERPRETATION AND INVIOLABILITY OF THE
+CONSTITUTION
+
+Art. 109. The National Assembly may bring up bills for the amendment of
+the National Constitution.
+
+Bills of this nature shall not take effect unless approved by two-thirds
+of the members of each House present.
+
+No bill for the amendment of the Constitution shall be introduced unless
+signed by one-fourth of the members of each House.
+
+Art. 110. The amendment of the National Constitution shall be discussed
+and decided by the National Constitutional Conference.
+
+Art. 111. No proposal for a change of the form of Government shall be
+allowed as a subject for amendment.
+
+Art. 112. Should there be any doubt as to the meaning of the text of the
+Constitution, it shall be interpreted by the National Constitutional
+Conference.
+
+Art. 113. The National Constitutional Conference shall be composed of
+the members of the National Assembly.
+
+Unless there be a quorum of two-thirds of the total number of the
+members of the National Assembly, no Constitutional Conference shall be
+held, and unless three-fourths of the members present vote in favour, no
+amendment shall be passed. But with regard to the interpretation of the
+Constitution, only two-thirds of the members present is required to
+decide an issue.
+
+Art. ... The National Constitution shall be the Supreme Law of the Land
+and shall be inviolable under any circumstances unless duly amended in
+accordance with the procedure specified in this Constitution.
+
+[Symbol: tick mark] A Chapter on Provincial or local organization is to
+be inserted under Chapter ..., providing for certain powers and rights
+to be given to local governments with the residual power left in the
+hands of the central government. The exact text is not yet settled.
+
+Note: The Mark (*) indicates that the article has already been
+formally adopted as a part of the finished Constitution.
+
+The Mark ([Symbol: tick mark]) indicates that the article has not yet
+passed through the second reading.
+
+Those without marks have passed through the second reading on May 28th,
+1917. Articles bearing no number are additions to the original draft as
+presented to the Conference by the Drafting Committee.
+
+
+THE LOCAL SYSTEM
+
+DRAFT SUBMITTED TO PARLIAMENT
+
+The following Regulations on the Local System have been referred to the
+Parliamentary Committee for consideration:--
+
+Article 1. The Local System shall embrace provinces and hsien districts.
+
+Any change for the existing division of provinces and hsien districts
+shall be decided by the Senate. As to Mongolia, Tibet, Chinghai and
+other places where no provinces and hsien districts have been fixed,
+Parliament shall enforce these regulations there in future.
+
+Art. 2. A province shall have the following duties and rights: (a) To
+fix local laws. (b) To manage provincial properties. (c) To attend to
+the affairs in connexion with police organization, sanitation,
+conservancy, roads, and public works. (d) To develop education and
+industry in accordance with the order and mandates of the Central
+Government. (e) To improve its navigation and telegraphic lines, or to
+undertake such enterprises with the co-operation of other provinces. (f)
+To organize precautionary troops for the protection of local interests,
+the method of whose organization, uniforms and arms shall be similar to
+those of the National Army. With the exception of the matter of
+declaring war against foreign countries, the President shall have no
+power to transfer these troops to other provinces: and unless the
+province is unable to suppress its own internal troubles, it shall not
+ask the Central Government for the service of the National Army. (g) The
+province shall defray its own expenses for the administration and the
+maintenance of precautionary troops; but the provinces which have
+hitherto received subsidies, shall continue to receive same from the
+National Treasury with the approval of Parliament. (h) Land, Title Deed,
+License, Mortgage, Tobacco and Wine, Butchery, Fishery and all other
+principal and additional taxes shall be considered as local revenues.
+(i) The province may fix rates for local tax or levy additional tax on
+the National Taxes. (j) The province shall have a provincial treasury.
+(k) It may raise provincial public loans. (l) It shall elect a certain
+number of Senators. (m) It shall fix regulations for the smaller local
+Self-Governing Bodies.
+
+Art. 3. Besides the above rights and privileges, a province shall bear
+the following responsibilities:
+
+(a) In case of financial difficulties of the Central Government, it
+shall share the burden according to the proportion of its revenue. (b)
+It shall enforce the laws and mandates promulgated by the Central
+Government. (c) It shall enforce the measures entrusted by the Central
+Government, but the latter shall bear the expenses. (d) In case the
+local laws and regulations are in conflict with those of the Central
+Government the latter may with the approval of Parliament cancel or
+modify the same. (e) In case of great necessity the provincial
+telegraph, railway, etc., may be utilized by the Central Government. (f)
+In case of negligence, or blunder made by the provincial authorities,
+which injures the interests of the nation, the Central Government, with
+the approval of Parliament, may reprimand and rectify same. (g) It shall
+not make laws on the grant of monopoly and of copyrights; neither issue
+bank notes, manufacture coins, make implements of weights and measures;
+neither grant the right to local banks to manage the Government
+Treasury; nor sign contracts with foreigners on the purchase or sale of
+lands and mines, or mortgage land tax to them or construct naval
+harbours or arsenals. (h) All local laws, budgets, and other important
+matters shall be reported to the President from time to time. (i) The
+Central Government may transfer to itself the ownership of enterprises
+or rights which Parliament has decided should become national. (j) In
+case of a quarrel arising between the Central Government and the
+province, or between provinces, it shall be decided by Parliament. (k)
+In case of refusal to obey the orders of the Central Government, the
+President with the approval of Parliament may change the Shenchang
+(Governor) or dissolve the Provincial Assembly. (l) The President with
+the approval of Parliament may suppress by force any province which
+defies the Central Authorities.
+
+Art 4. A Shenchang shall be appointed for each province to represent the
+Central Government in the supervision of the local administration. The
+appointment shall be made with the approval of the Senate, the term, of
+office for the Shenchang shall be four years, and his annual salary
+shall be $24,000, which shall be paid out of the National Treasury.
+
+Art. 5. The administration measures entrusted by the Government to the
+Shenchang shall be enforced by the administrative organs under his
+supervision, and he shall be responsible for same.
+
+Art. 6. In the enforcement of the laws and mandates of the Central
+Government, or of the laws and regulations of his province, he may issue
+orders.
+
+Art. 7. The province shall establish the following five Departments,
+namely Interior, Police, Finance, Education and Industry. There shall be
+one Department Chief for each Department, to be appointed by the
+Shenchang.
+
+Art. 8. A Provincial Council shall be organized to assist the Shenchang
+to enforce the administrative measures, and it shall be responsible to
+the Provincial Assembly for same.
+
+This Council shall be composed of all the Departmental Chiefs, and five
+members elected out of the Provincial Assembly. It shall discuss the
+Bills on Budget, on administration, and on the organization of police
+forces, submitted by the Shenchang.
+
+Art. 9. If one member of the Council be impeached by the Provincial
+Assembly, the Shenchang shall replace him, but if the whole body of the
+Council be impeached, the Shenchang shall either dissolve the Assembly
+or dismiss all his Departmental Chiefs. In one session the Assembly
+shall not be dissolved twice, and after two months of the dissolution,
+it shall be convened again.
+
+Art. 10. The organization and election of the Provincial Assembly shall
+be fixed by law.
+
+Art. 11. The Provincial Assembly shall have the following duties and
+powers: (a) It may pass such laws as allowed by the Constitution. (b) It
+may pass the bills on the provincial Budget and Accounts. (c) It may
+impeach the members of the Provincial Council. (d) It may address
+interpellations or give suggestions to the Provincial Council. (e) It
+may elect Members for the Provincial Council. (f) It may attend to the
+petitions submitted by the public.
+
+Art. 12. A Magistrate shall be appointed for each hsien district to
+enforce administrative measures. He shall be appointed directly by the
+Shenchang, and his term of office shall be three years.
+
+Art. 13. The Central Government shall hold examinations in the provinces
+for candidates for the Magistracy. In a province half of the total
+number of magistrates shall be natives of the province and the other
+half of other provinces; but a native shall hold office of Magistrate
+300 _li_ away from his home.
+
+Art. 14. The organization for the legislative organ of the hsien
+district shall be fixed by law.
+
+
+TARIFF REVISION IN CHINA
+
+The following is a translation of a memorandum prepared by the Ministry
+of Agriculture and Commerce regarding abolition of likin and an increase
+of the Customs duties:--
+
+THE MEMORANDUM
+
+"Disproportionate taxation on commodities at inland towns and cities
+tends to cripple the productive power of a country. Acting upon this
+principle, France in the 17th, England, America, Germany and Austria in
+the 18th Century abolished such kind of taxation, the Customs tariff
+remaining, which is a levy on imports at the first port of entry. Its
+purpose is to increase the cost of production of imported goods and to
+serve as a protection of native products (sic). Raw materials from
+abroad are, however, exempt from Customs duty in order to provide cheap
+material for home manufactures. An altogether different state of
+affairs, however, exists in this country. Likin stations are found
+throughout the country, while raw materials are taxed. Take the Hangchow
+silk for instance. When transported to the Capital for sale, it has to
+pay a tax on raw material of 18 per cent. Foreign imported goods on the
+other hand, are only taxed at the rate of five per cent _ad valorem_
+Customs duty at the first port of entry with another 2.5 per cent
+transit duty at one of the other ports through which the goods pass.
+Besides these only landing duty is imposed upon imported goods at the
+port of destination. Upon timber being shipped from Fengtien and Antung
+to Peking, it has to pay duties at five different places, the total
+amount of which aggregates 20 per cent of its market value, while timber
+from America is taxed only ten per cent. Timber from Jueichow to Hankow
+and Shanghai is taxed at six different places, the total amount of duty
+paid aggregating 17.5 per cent., while timber imported from abroad to
+these ports is required to pay Customs duty only one-third thereof. The
+above-mentioned rates on native goods are the minimum. Not every
+merchant can, however, obtain such special 'exemption,' without a long
+negotiation and special arrangements with the authorities. Otherwise, a
+merchant must pay 25 per cent of the market value of his goods as duty.
+For this reason the import of timber into this country has greatly
+increased within the last few years, the total amount of which being
+valued at $13,000,000 a year. Is this not a great injustice to native
+merchants?
+
+THE CHINESE METHOD
+
+"Respecting the improvement of the economic condition of the people, a
+country can hardly attain this object without developing its foreign
+commerce. The United States of America, Germany and Japan have one by
+one abolished their export duty as well as made appropriations for
+subsidies to encourage the export of certain kinds of commodities. We,
+on the other hand, impose likin all along the line upon native
+commodities destined for foreign markets in addition to export duty.
+Goods for foreign markets are more heavily taxed than for home
+consumption. Take the Chekiang silk for instance. Silk for export is
+more heavily taxed than that for home use. Different rates of taxation
+are imposed upon tea for foreign and home markets. Other kinds of native
+products for export are also heavily taxed with the result that, within
+the last two decades, the annual exports of this country are exceeded by
+imports by over Tls. 640,000,000,000. From the 32nd year of the reign of
+Kuang Hsu to the 4th year of the Republic, imports exceed exports on the
+average by Tls. 120,000,000. These, figures speak for themselves.
+
+LIKIN
+
+"Likin stations have been established at places where railway
+communication is available. This has done a good deal of harm to
+transportation and the railway traffic. Lately a proposal has been made
+in certain quarters that likin stations along the railways be abolished;
+and the measure has been adopted by the Peking-Tientsin and
+Tientsin-Pukow Railways at certain places. When the towns and cities
+throughout the country are connected by railways, there will be no place
+for likin stations. With the increase in the number of treaty ports, the
+'likin zone' will be gradually diminished. Thencefrom the proceeds from
+likin will be decreased year by year.
+
+"Owing to the collection of likin the development of both home and
+foreign trade has been arrested and the people are working under great
+disadvantages. Hence in order to develop foreign and home trade the
+Government must do away with likin, which will bring back business
+prosperity, and in time the same will enable the Government to obtain
+new sources of revenues.
+
+"From the above-mentioned considerations, the Government can hardly
+develop and encourage trade without the abolition of likin. By treaty
+with Great Britain, America and Japan, the Government can increase the
+rate of Customs tariff to cover losses due to the abolition of likin.
+The question under consideration is not a new one. But the cause which
+has prevented the Government from reaching a prompt decision upon this
+question is the fear that, after the abolition of likin, the proceeds
+from the increased Customs tariff would not be sufficient to cover the
+shortage caused by the abolition of likin.
+
+COST OF ABOLITION OF LIKIN
+
+"But such a fear should disappear when the Authorities remember the
+following facts:--
+
+"(a) The loss as the result of the abolition of likin: $38,900,000.
+
+"(b) The loss as the result of the abolition of a part of duty collected
+by the native Customs houses: $7,300,000.
+
+"(c) Annual proceeds from different kinds of principal and miscellaneous
+taxes which shall be done away with the abolition of likin $11,800,000.
+
+"The above figures are determined by comparing the actual amount of
+proceeds collected by the Government in the 3rd and 4th years of the
+Republic with the estimated amount in the Budget of the fifth year. The
+total amount of loss caused by the abolition of likin will be
+$58,000,000.
+
+INCREASE OF CUSTOMS TARIFF
+
+"The amount of increase in the Customs tariff which the Government
+expects to collect is as follows:--(a) The increase in import duties
+$29,000,000. (b) The increase in export duties Tls. 6,560,000.
+
+"The above figures are determined according to the Customs returns of
+the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th years of the Republic. By deducting Tls. 2,200,000
+of transit duty, the net increase will be Tls. 33,600,000, which is
+equal to $48,500,000. For the sake of prudence, allowance of five per
+cent. of the total amount is made against any incidental shortage. The
+net revenue thus increased would amount to $46,100,000. Against the loss
+of $58,000,000, there will be a shortage of some $11,900,000. This,
+however, will not be difficult to make good by new sources of revenue as
+the result of a tariff revision:--(a) Tax on goods at the time of
+manufacture $800,000. (b) Tax on goods at the time of sale $8,000,000.
+(c) Tax on cattle and slaughtering houses $2,000,000. (d) Tax on
+foodstuffs $4,000,000.
+
+"Under (a) and (b) are the taxes to be collected on native made foreign
+imitation goods and various kinds of luxurious articles. Under (c) and
+(d) are taxes which are already enforced in the provinces but which can
+be increased to that much by reorganizing the method of collection. The
+total sum of the proceeds set forth under above items will amount to
+$14,800,000. These will be quite sufficient to cover the loss caused by
+the abolition of likin.
+
+A VITAL INTEREST
+
+"As the abolition of likin concerns the vital interest of the merchants
+and manufacturers, it should be carried out without delay. The
+commercial and industrial enterprises of the country can only thrive
+after likin is abolished and only then can new sources of revenue be
+obtained. This measure will form the fundamental factor of our
+industrial and economical development. But one thing to which we should
+like to call the special attention of the Government is the procedure to
+be adopted to negotiate with the Foreign countries respecting the
+adoption of this measure. The first step in this connection should be
+the increase of the present Customs tariff to the actual five per cent
+_ad valorem_ rate. When this is done, proposals should be made to the
+Powers having treaty relations with us concerning the abolition of likin
+and revision of Customs tariff. The transit destination duties on
+imported goods should at the same time be done away with. This would not
+entail any disadvantage to the importers of foreign goods and any
+diplomatic question would not be difficult of solution. Meantime
+preparatory measures should be devised for reorganizing the method of
+collecting duties set forth above so that the abolition of likin can
+take place as soon as the Government obtains the consent of the foreign
+Powers respecting the increase of Customs tariff."
+
+MEMORANDUM
+
+THE LEADING OUTSTANDING CASES BETWEEN CHINA AND THE FOREIGN POWERS
+
+(Author's note. The following memorandum was drawn up by Dr. C.C. Wu,
+Councillor at the Chinese Foreign Office and son of Dr. Wu Ting-fang,
+the Foreign Minister, and is a most competent and precise statement. It
+is a noteworthy fact that not only is Dr. C.C. Wu a British barrister
+but he distinguished himself above all his fellows in the year he was
+called to the Bar. It is also noteworthy that the Lao Hsi-kai case does
+not figure in this summary, China taking the view that French action
+throughout was _ultra vires_, and beyond discussion.)
+
+BY DR. C.C. WU
+
+Republican China inherited from imperial China the vast and rich
+territory of China Proper and its Dependencies, but the inheritance was
+by no means free from incumbrances as in the case of Outer Mongolia,
+Tibet and Manchuria, and other impediments in the form of unfavourable
+treaty obligations and a long list of outstanding foreign cases
+affecting sovereign and territorial rights.
+
+I have been asked by the Editor of the _North-China Daily News_ to
+contribute an article on some of the outstanding questions between China
+and foreign powers, instancing Tibet, Manchuria, Mongolia, and to give
+the Chinese point of view on these questions. Although the subject is a
+delicate one to handle, particularly in the press, being as it is one in
+which international susceptibilities are apt to be aroused, I have yet
+accepted the invitation in the belief that a calm and temperate
+statement of the Chinese case will hurt no one whose case will bear
+public discussion but will perhaps do some good by bringing about a
+clear understanding of the points at issue between China and the foreign
+Powers concerned, and thus facilitating an early settlement which is so
+earnestly desired by China. I may say that I have appreciated the
+British sense of justice and fairplay displayed by the "North-China
+Daily News" in inviting a statement of the Chinese case in its own
+columns on questions one of which concerns British interests in no small
+degree, and the discussion cannot be conducted under a better spirit
+than that expressed in the motto of the senior British journal in the
+Far East: "Impartial not Neutral."
+
+1st MANCHURIA
+
+The treaty between China and Japan of 1915 respecting South Manchuria
+and Eastern Inner Mongolia giving that power special rights and
+privileges in those regions has given rise to many knotty problems for
+the diplomatists of the two countries to solve. Two of such problems are
+mentioned here.
+
+JAPANESE POLICE BOXES IN MANCHURIA AND MONGOLIA
+
+Since the last days of the Tsings, the Japanese have been establishing
+police boxes in different parts of South Manchuria and Eastern Inner
+Mongolia always under protest of the local and Peking authorities. Since
+the treaty of 1915, a new reason has become available in the right of
+mixed residence given to Japanese in these regions. It is said that for
+the protection and control of their subjects, and indeed for the
+interest of the Chinese themselves, it is best that this measure should
+be taken. It is further contended that the stationing of police officers
+is but a corollary to the right of exterritoriality, and that it is in
+no way a derogation of Chinese sovereignty.
+
+It is pointed out by the Chinese Government that in the treaty of 1915,
+express provision is made for Japanese in South Manchuria and Eastern
+Inner Mongolia to submit to the police laws and ordinances and taxation
+of China (Article 5). This leaves the matter in no doubt. If the
+Japanese wish to facilitate the Chinese police in their duty of
+protection and control of the Japanese, they have many means at their
+command for so doing. It is unnecessary to point out that the
+establishment of foreign police on Chinese soil (except in foreign
+settlements and concessions where it is by the permission of the Chinese
+Government) is, to our thinking, at any rate, a very grave derogation to
+China's sovereign rights. Furthermore, from actual experience, we know
+that the activities of these foreign police will not be confined to
+their countrymen; in a dispute between a Chinese and a Japanese both
+will be taken to the Japanese station by the Japanese policeman. This
+existence of an imperium in imperio, so far from accomplishing its
+avowed object of "improving the relations of the countries and bringing
+about the development of economic interests to no small degree," will,
+it is feared, be the cause of continual friction between the officials
+and people of the two countries.
+
+As to the legal contention that the right of police control is a natural
+corollary to the right of exterritoriality, it must be said that ever
+since the grant of consular jurisdiction to foreigners by China in her
+first treaties, this is the first time that such a claim has been
+seriously put forward. We can only say that if this interpretation of
+exterritoriality is correct the other nations enjoying exterritoriality
+in China have been very neglectful in the assertion of their just
+rights.
+
+In the Chengchiatun case, the claim of establishing police boxes
+wherever the Japanese think necessary was made one of the demands. The
+Chinese Government in its final reply which settled the case took the
+stand as above outlined.
+
+It may be mentioned in passing that in Amoy the Japanese have also
+endeavoured to establish similar police rights. The people of that city
+and province, and indeed of the whole country, as evidenced by the
+protests received from all over China, have been very much exercised
+over the matter. It is sincerely hoped that with the undoubted
+improvement of relations between the two countries within the last
+several months, the matter will be smoothly and equitably settled.
+
+LEGAL STATUS OF KOREANS IN CHIENTAO
+
+The region which goes by the name of Chientao, a Japanese denomination,
+comprises several districts in the Yenchi Circuit of Kirin Province
+north of the Tumen Kiang (or the Tiumen River) which here forms the
+boundary between China and Korea. For over thirty years Koreans have
+been allowed here to cultivate the waste lands and acquire ownership
+therein, a privilege which has not been permitted to any other
+foreigners in China and which has been granted to these Koreans on
+account of the peculiar local conditions. According to reliable sources,
+the Korean population now amounts to over 200,000 which is more than the
+Chinese population itself. In 1909 an Agreement, known as the Tumen
+Kiang Boundary Agreement, was arrived at between China and Japan, who
+was then the acknowledged suzerain of Korea, dealing, inter alia, with
+the status of these Koreans. It was provided that while Koreans were to
+continue to enjoy protection of their landed property, they were to be
+subject to Chinese laws and to the jurisdiction of Chinese courts. The
+subsequent annexation of Korea did not affect this agreement in point of
+international law, and as a matter of practice Japan has adhered to it
+until September, 1915. Then the Japanese Consul suddenly interfered in
+the administration of justice by the local authorities over the Koreans
+and claimed that he should have jurisdiction.
+
+The Japanese claim is based on the Treaty Respecting South Manchuria and
+Eastern Inner Mongolia signed in May, 1915, article 5 of which provides
+that civil and criminal cases in which the defendants are Japanese shall
+be tried and adjudicated by the Japanese consul.
+
+The Chinese view is that this article is inapplicable to Koreans in this
+region and that the Tumen Kiang Agreement continues in force. This view
+is based on a saving clause in article 8 of the Treaty of 1915 which
+says that "all existing treaties between China and Japan relating to
+Manchuria shall, except where otherwise provided for by treaty, remain
+in force."
+
+In the first place, the origin of the Tumen Kiang Agreement supports
+this view. When the Japanese assumed suzerainty over Korea they raised
+certain questions as to the boundary between China and Korea. There were
+also outstanding several questions regarding railways and mines between
+China and Japan. Japan insisted that the boundary question and the
+railway and mining questions be settled at the same time. As a result,
+two agreements were concluded in 1909 one respecting the boundary
+question, the Tumen Kiang Agreement, and the other respecting railways
+and mines whereby Japan obtained many new and valuable privileges and
+concessions, such as the extension of the Kirin-Changchun Railway to the
+Korean frontier, the option on the Hsinminfu-Fakumen line, and the
+working of the Fushun and Yentai mines, while in return China obtained a
+bare recognition of existing rights, namely the boundary between China
+and Korea and the jurisdiction over the Koreans in the Yenchi region.
+The two settlements were in the nature of quid pro quo though it is
+clear that the Japanese side of the scale heavily outweighed that of the
+Chinese. Now Japan endeavours to repudiate, for no apparent reason so
+far as we can see, the agreement which formed the consideration whereby
+she obtained so many valuable concessions.
+
+Secondly, while Koreans are now Japanese subjects, it is contended by
+the Chinese that the particular Koreans inhabiting the Yenchi region
+are, as regards China, in a different position from Japanese subjects
+elsewhere. These Koreans enjoy the rights of free residence and of
+cultivating and owning land in the interior of China, rights denied to
+other foreigners, including Japanese who, even by the new treaty, may
+only lease land in South Manchuria. For this exceptional privilege, they
+are subject to the jurisdiction of Chinese laws and Chinese courts, a
+duty not imposed on other foreigners. It would be "blowing hot and cold
+at the same time" in the language of English lawyers if it is sought to
+enjoy the special privileges without performing the duties.
+
+Thirdly, Japanese under the Treaty of 1915 are required to register
+their passports with the local authorities. On the other hand, Koreans
+in Yenchi have never been nor are they now required to procure
+passports. This would seem to be conclusive proof that Koreans in that
+region are not within the provisions of the treaty of 1915 but are still
+governed by the Tumen Kiang Agreement.
+
+The question is something more than one of academic or even merely
+judicial importance. As has been stated, the Koreans in Yenchi outnumber
+the Chinese and the only thing that has kept the region Chinese
+territory in fact as well as in name is the possession by the Chinese of
+jurisdiction over every inhabitant, whether Chinese or Korean. Were
+China to surrender that jurisdiction over a majority of those
+inhabitants, it would be tantamount to a cession of territory.
+
+2nd MACAO
+
+The dispute between China and Portugal over the Macao question has been
+one of long standing. The first treaty of commerce signed between them
+on August 13, 1862, at Tientsin, was not ratified in consequence of a
+dispute respecting the Sovereignty of Macao. By a Protocol signed at
+Lisbon on March 26, 1887, China formally recognized the perpetual
+occupation and government of Macao and its dependencies by Portugal, as
+any other Portuguese possession; and in December of the same year, when
+the formal treaty was signed, provision was made for the appointment of
+a Commission to delimit the boundaries of Macao; "but as long as the
+delimitation of the boundaries is not concluded, everything in respect
+to them shall continue as at present without addition, diminution or
+alteration by either of the Parties."
+
+In the beginning of 1908, a Japanese steamer, the _Tatsu Maru_, engaged
+in gun-running was captured by a Chinese customs cruiser near the
+Kauchau archipelago (Nove Ilhas). The Portuguese authorities demanded
+her release on the ground that she was seized in Portuguese territorial
+waters thus raising the question of the status of the waters surrounding
+Macao.
+
+In the same year the Portuguese authorities of Macao attempted the
+imposition of land tax in Maliaoho, and proposed to dredge the waterways
+in the vicinity of Macao. The Chinese Government thereupon instructed
+its Minister in France, who was also accredited to Portugal, to make
+personal representations to the Portuguese Foreign Office in regard to
+the unwarrantable action of the local Portuguese authorities. The
+Portuguese Government requested the withdrawal of Chinese troops on the
+Island of Lappa as a quid pro quo for the appointment of a new
+Demarcation Commissioner, reserving to itself the right to refer to The
+Hague Tribunal any dispute that may arise between the Commissioners
+appointed by the respective Governments.
+
+After protracted negotiations it was agreed between the Chinese Minister
+and the Portuguese Government by an exchange of notes that the
+respective Governments should each appoint a Demarcation Commissioner to
+delimit the boundaries of Macao and its dependencies in pursuance of the
+Lisbon Protocol and Article 2 of the Sino-Portuguese Treaty of 1887,
+subject to the decision of their respective Governments.
+
+THE PORTUGUESE CLAIM
+
+In February, 1909, Portugal appointed General Joaquim Machado and China
+Mr. Kao Erh-chien as their respective Commissioners and they met at
+Hongkong in June of the same year.
+
+The Portuguese claim consisted of the whole of the Peninsula of Macao as
+far north as Portas do Cerco, the Island of Lappa, Green Island (Ilha
+Verde), Ilhas de Taipa, Ilha de Coloane, Ilha Macarira, Ilha da
+Tai-Vong-Cam, other small islands, and the waters of Porto Interior.
+The Portuguese Commissioner also demanded that the portion of Chinese
+territory between Portas de Cerco and Peishanling be neutralized.
+
+In the absence of evidence, documentary or otherwise, China could not
+admit Portugal's title to half the territory claimed, but was prepared
+to concede all that part of the Peninsula of Macao south of Portas do
+Cerco which was already beyond the limits of the original Portuguese
+Possession of Macao, and also to grant the developed parts of Ilhas de
+Coloane as Portuguese settlements. The ownership of territorial waters
+was to remain vested in China.
+
+The negotiations having proved fruitless were transferred to Lisbon but
+on the outbreak of the Revolution in Portugal they were suspended. No
+material progress has been made since.
+
+3rd TIBET
+
+In November, 1911, the Chinese garrison in Lhassa, in sympathy with the
+revolutionary cause in China, mutinied against Amban Lien-yu, a Chinese
+Bannerman, and a few months later the Tibetans, by order of the Dalai
+Lama, revolted and besieged the Chinese forces in Lhassa till they were
+starved out and eventually evacuated Tibet. Chinese troops in Kham were
+also ejected. An expedition was sent from Szechuan and Yunnan to Tibet,
+but Great Britain protested and caused its withdrawal.
+
+In August, 1912, the British Minister in Peking presented a Memorandum
+to the Chinese Government outlining the attitude of Great Britain
+towards the Tibetan question. China was asked to refrain from
+dispatching a military expedition into Tibet, as the re-establishment of
+Chinese authority would, it is stated, constitute a violation of the
+Anglo-Chinese Treaty of 1906. Chinese suzerainty in regard to Tibet was
+recognized. But Great Britain could not consent to the assertion of
+Chinese sovereignty over a State enjoying independent treaty relations
+with her. In conclusion, China was invited to come to an agreement
+regarding Tibet on the lines indicated in the Memorandum, such agreement
+to be antecedent to Great Britain's recognition of the Republic. Great
+Britain also imposed an embargo on the communications between China and
+Tibet via India.
+
+In deference to the wishes of the British Government, China at once
+issued orders that the expeditionary force should not proceed beyond
+Giamda. In her reply she declared that the Chinese Government had no
+intention of converting Tibet into another province of China and that
+the preservation of the traditional system of Tibetan government was as
+much the desire of China as of Great Britain. The dispatch of troops
+into Tibet was, however, necessary for the fulfilment of the
+responsibilities attaching to China's treaty obligations with Great
+Britain, which required her to preserve peace and order throughout that
+vast territory, but she did not contemplate the idea of stationing an
+unlimited number of soldiers in Tibet. China considered that the
+existing treaties defined the status of Tibet with sufficient clearness,
+and therefore there was no need to negotiate a new treaty. She
+expressed the regret that the Indian Government had placed an embargo on
+the communications between China and Tibet via India, as China was at
+peace with Great Britain and regretted that Great Britain should
+threaten to withhold recognition of the Republic, such recognition being
+of mutual advantage to both countries. Finally, the Chinese Government
+hoped that the British Government would reconsider its attitude.
+
+THE SIMLA CONFERENCE
+
+In May, 1913, the British Minister renewed his suggestion of the
+previous year that China should come to an agreement on the Tibetan
+question, and ultimately a Tripartite Conference was opened on October
+13, at Simla with Mr. Ivan Chen, Sir Henry McMahon, and Lonchen Shatra
+as plenipotentiaries representing China, Great Britain, and Tibet,
+respectively.
+
+The following is the substance of the Tibetan proposals:--
+
+1. Tibet shall be an independent State, repudiating the Anglo-Chinese
+Convention of 1906.
+
+2. The boundary of Tibet in regard to China includes that portion of
+Sinkiang south of Kuenlun Range and Altyn Tagh, the whole territory of
+Chinghai, the western portion of Kansuh and Szechuan, including
+Tachienlu and the northwestern portion of Yunnan, including Atuntzu.
+
+3. Great Britain and Tibet to negotiate, independent of China, new trade
+regulations.
+
+4. No Chinese officials and troops to be stationed in Tibet.
+
+5. China to recognize Dalai Lama as the head of the Buddhist Religion
+and institutions in Mongolia and China.
+
+6. China to compensate Tibet for forcible exactions of money or property
+taken from the Tibetan Government.
+
+The Chinese Plenipotentiary made the following counter-proposals:--
+
+1. Tibet forms an integral part of Chinese territory and Chinese rights
+of every description which have existed in consequence of this integrity
+shall be respected by Tibet and recognized by Great Britain. China
+engages not to convert Tibet into a province and Great Britain not to
+annex Tibet or any portion of it.
+
+2. China to appoint a Resident at Lhassa with an escort of 2,600
+soldiers.
+
+3. Tibet undertakes to be guided by China in her foreign and military
+affairs and not to enter into negotiations with any foreign Power except
+through the intermediary of China but this engagement does not exclude
+direct relations between British Trade Agents and Tibetan authorities as
+provided in the Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1906.
+
+4. Tibet to grant amnesty to those Tibetans known for their pro-Chinese
+inclinations and to restore to them their property.
+
+5. Clause 5 of Tibetan claims can be discussed.
+
+6. Revision of Trade Regulations of 1893 and 1908, if found necessary,
+must be made by all the parties concerned.
+
+7. In regard to the limits of Tibet China claims Giamda and all the
+places east of it.
+
+THE BOUNDARY DEADLOCK
+
+The British plenipotentiary sustained in the main the Tibetan view
+concerning the limits of Tibet. He suggested the creation of Inner and
+Outer Tibet by a line drawn along the Kuenlun Range to the 96th
+longitude, turning south reaching a point south of the 34th latitude,
+then in south-easterly direction to Niarong, passing Hokow, Litang,
+Batang in a western and then southern and southwestern direction to
+Rima, thus involving the inclusion of Chiamdo in Outer Tibet and the
+withdrawal of the Chinese garrison stationed there. He proposed that
+recognition should be accorded to the autonomy of Outer Tibet whilst
+admitting the right of the Chinese to re-establish such a measure of
+control in Inner Tibet as would restore and safeguard their historic
+position there, without in any way infringing the integrity of Tibet as
+a geographical and political entity. Sir Henry McMahon also submitted to
+the Conference a draft proposal of the Convention to the
+plenipotentiaries. After some modification this draft was initialled by
+the British and Tibetan delegates but the Chinese delegate did not
+consider himself authorized to do so. Thereupon the British member after
+making slight concessions in regard to representation in the Chinese
+Parliament and the boundary in the neighbourhood of Lake Kokonor
+threatened, in the event of his persisting in his refusal, to eliminate
+the clause recognizing the suzerainty of China, and ipso facto the
+privileges appertaining thereto from the draft Convention already
+initialled by the British and Tibetan plenipotentiaries. In order to
+save the situation, the Chinese delegate initialled the documents, but
+on the clear understanding that to initial and to sign were two
+different things and that to sign he must obtain instructions from his
+Government.
+
+China, dissatisfied with the suggested division into an Inner and Outer
+Tibet the boundaries of which would involve the evacuation of those
+districts actually in Chinese effective occupation and under its
+administration, though otherwise in accord with the general principles
+of the draft Convention, declared that the initialled draft was in no
+way binding upon her and took up the matter with the British Government
+in London and with its representative in Peking. Protracted negotiations
+took place thereafter, but, in spite of repeated concessions from the
+Chinese side in regard to the boundary question, the British Government
+would not negotiate on any basis other than the initialled convention.
+On July 3 an Agreement based on the terms of the draft Convention but
+providing special safe-guards for the interests of Great Britain and
+Tibet in the event of China continuing to withhold her adherence, was
+signed between Great Britain and Tibet, not, however, before Mr. Ivan
+Chen had declared that the Chinese Government would recognize any treaty
+or similar document that might then or thereafter be signed between
+Great Britain and Tibet.
+
+CHINA'S STANDPOINT
+
+With the same spirit of compromise and a readiness to meet the wishes of
+the British Government and even to the extent of making considerable
+sacrifices in so far as they were compatible with her dignity, China has
+more than once offered to renew negotiations with the British Government
+but the latter has up to the present declined to do so. China wants
+nothing more than the re-establishment of Chinese suzerainty over Tibet,
+with recognition of the autonomy of the territory immediately under the
+control of the Lhassa Government; she is agreeable to the British idea
+of forming an effective buffer territory in so far as it is consistent
+with equity and justice; she is anxious that her trade interest should
+be looked after by her trade agents as do the British, a point which is
+agreeable even to the Tibetans, though apparently not to the British; in
+other words, she expects that Great Britain would at least make with her
+an arrangement regarding Tibet which should not be any less
+disadvantageous to her than that made with Russia respecting Outer
+Mongolia.
+
+Considering that China has claimed and exercised sovereign rights over
+Tibet, commanded the Tibetan army, supervised Tibetan internal
+administration, and confirmed the appointments of Tibetan officials,
+high and low, secular and even ecclesiastical, such expectations are
+modest enough, surely. At the present moment, with communication via
+India closed, with no official representative or agent present, with
+relations unsettled and unregulated, the position of China _vis-a-vis_
+Tibet is far from satisfactory and altogether anomalous, while as
+between China and Great Britain there is always this important question
+outstanding. An early settlement in a reciprocal spirit of give and take
+and giving reasonable satisfaction to the legitimate aspirations and
+claims of all parties is extremely desirable.
+
+4th OUTER MONGOLIA
+
+The world is more or less acquainted with the events in Urga in
+December, 1911, and the proclamation of independence of Outer Mongolia
+with Jetsun Dampa Hutukhtu as its ruler. By the Russo-Chinese
+Declaration of November 5, 1913, and the Tripartite Convention of
+Kiakhta of 1914 China has re-established her suzerainty over Outer
+Mongolia and obtained the acknowledgment that it forms a part of the
+Chinese territory. There remains the demarcation of boundary between
+Inner and Outer Mongolia which will take place shortly, and the
+outstanding question of the status of Tannu Uriankhai where Russia is
+lately reported to be subjecting the inhabitants to Russian jurisdiction
+and expelling Chinese traders.
+
+The Tannu Uriankhai lands, according to the Imperial Institutes of the
+Tsing Dynasty, were under the control of the Tartar General of
+Uliasutai, the Sain Noin Aimak, the Jasaktu Khan Aimak and the Jetsun
+Dampa Hutkhta, and divided into forty-eight somons (tsoling).
+Geographically, according to the same authority, Tannu Uriankhai is
+bounded on the north by Russia, east by Tushetu Khan Aimak, west by the
+various aimaks of Kobdo, and south by Jasaktu Khan Aimak. By a Joint
+Demarcation Commission in 1868 the Russo Chinese boundary in respect to
+Uriankhai was demitted and eight wooden boundary posts were erected to
+mark their respective frontiers.
+
+In 1910, however, a Russian officer removed and burnt the boundary post
+at Chapuchi Yalodapa. The matter was taken up by the then Waiwupu with
+the Russian Minister. He replied to the effect that the limits of
+Uriankhai were an unsettled question and the Russian Government would
+not entertain the Chinese idea of taking independent steps to remark the
+boundary or to replace the post and expressed dissatisfaction with the
+work of the Joint Demarcation Commission of 1868, a dissatisfaction
+which would seem to be somewhat tardily expressed, to say the least. The
+case was temporarily dropped on account of the secession of Uliasutai
+from China in the following year.
+
+While Uriankhai forms part of Autonomous Outer Mongolia, yet since Outer
+Mongolia is under China's suzerainty, and its territory is expressly
+recognized to form part of that of China, China cannot look on with
+indifference to any possible cession of territory by Outer Mongolia to
+Russia. Article 3 of the Kaikhta Agreement, 1915, prohibiting Outer
+Mongolia from concluding treaties with foreign powers respecting
+political and territorial questions acknowledges China's right to
+negotiate and make such treaties. It is the firm intention of the
+Chinese Government to maintain its territorial integrity basing its case
+on historical records, on treaty rights and finally on the principle of
+nationality. It is notorious that the Mongols will be extremely
+unwilling to see Uriankhai incorporated into the Russian Empire. While
+Russia is spending countless lives and incalculable treasure in fighting
+for the sacred principle of nationality in Europe, we cannot believe
+that the will deliberately violate the same principle in Asia.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Abdication Edict of 1912, text of
+Absolutism, the myth of
+Agreement between the Revolutionary Party and Europe and Asia Trading Co.
+America drops out of the Six-Power group
+American press agents
+  treaty opening Korea
+America's Chinese policy
+Anglo-Japanese treaty
+Annuity of Manchu Imperial Family
+Antung-Mukden railway
+Ariga, Dr.
+Army Reorganization Council
+"Articles of Favourable Treatment for the Manchus"
+  text of
+
+Babachapu
+Bannerman families
+Belgian loan, the
+  Syndicate
+Black Dragon Society, the
+  memorandum of
+Black Dragon Society's review of European war issues
+Boycott on Japanese commerce
+Boxer Indemnities postponed
+  rebellion, the
+  and European intervention
+British policies in China
+  position towards the Yuan Shih-kai regime
+
+Cambaluc of Marco Polo, the
+Canton province
+Cassini Convention, the
+Catholic, Roman, controversies
+Central Government, organization of
+Chang Cheng-wu, Gen.
+  execution of
+Chang Chih-tung
+Chang Hsun, Gen.
+Chang Kuo-kan
+Chang Tso-lin, Gen.
+Chang, Tsung-hsiang
+Chang Yao Ching and the Europe
+  and Asia Trading Co.
+Chen Yi, Gen.
+Chengchiatun incident, the
+Chekiang revolts against Yuan Shih-kai
+Chia Ching, emperor
+Chiang Chao-tsung, Gen.
+Chiang Chun, the
+Ch'ien Lung, emperor
+Chih Fa Chu, or Military Court, at Pekin
+Chihli province
+China,
+  and her foreign residents
+  and the Foreign Powers, outstanding
+  cases between
+  and the German submarine war
+  considers war with Germany
+  declares war against Germany
+China's,
+  break with Germany, causes leading to
+  economics, weakness of
+  financial reorganization
+  future in Manchuria
+  Imperial Government, negativeness
+  disguised
+  indignation at Japan's ultimatum
+  note to Germany severing relations
+  neutrality position
+  new regime
+  passivity
+  polity, principles of
+  protest against submarine war
+  reception of Wilson's Peace note
+  reply to Demands of Japan
+  reply to Japan's ultimatum
+  reply to President Wilson
+  tariff question
+Chinese army,
+  German trained
+  boycott of the French
+  intrigues in Korea
+Ching, Prince
+Chino-Japanese,
+  relations
+  secret alliance proposed
+  treaties of 1915, text of
+Chinputang, the (Progressives)
+_Chou An Hui_ (Society for the Preservation of Peace)
+Chow Tzu-chi
+Chu Chi-chun's telegram devising plans for electing Yuan Shih-kai as
+    Emperor
+Ch'un, Prince Regent
+Chungking, open port
+Clausewitz, war-principle of
+Conference of Governors on the war question
+Confucian worship re-established by Yuan Shih-kai
+Conquest,
+  Manchu, of XVIIth Century
+  Mongol, of XIIIth Century
+Consolidating national debt
+Constitution,
+  first granted in Japan
+  Permanent, work on
+"Constitutional Compact"
+  of Yuan Shih-kai
+  text of
+  monarchy planned
+Continental quadrilateral, the, of Japan
+_Coup d'etat_, the, of Sept., 1898
+_Coup d'etat_, the parliamentary of 1913
+Crisp, Birch, attempts to float loan
+
+Dane, Sir Richard
+Death of Empress Lun Yi
+Decree cancelling the Empire
+Defence of the monarchial movement,
+  by Yang Tu
+  by Dr. Goodnow
+_Dementi_, 1913, of Yuan Shih-kai
+Diet of Japan, first summoned
+Diplomatic relations with China broken
+Distance in China, philosophy of
+
+Eastern Asia, contestants for land-power in
+Election,
+  of 1913
+  of Yuan Shih-kai as emperor, machinery of
+  the, of 1915
+  records ordered burnt
+Electoral College, provision for
+Emperor,
+  analysis of powers of
+  Chia Ching
+  Ch'ien Lung
+  Hsiaouri
+  Hsuan Tung
+  K'ang-hsi
+  Kwanghsu
+Emperors, immurement of in Forbidden City
+Empire, the dissolution of
+Empress,
+  Lun Yi, death of
+  Tsu Hsi
+Europe and Asia Trading Co., the
+European War,
+  the, its effect in China
+  China's predilection for Teutonism
+  consideration of war-partnership with the Allies
+  Japan's opposition
+  German propaganda
+  Pres. Wilson's Peace Note
+  China's reply
+  the submarine question
+  note to Germany
+  reply to
+America
+  Chinese diplomacy enters a new field
+  Japan's policies
+  China considers breaking diplomatic relations with Germany
+  Parliament's action
+  Germany's reply to China's note
+  diplomatic relations severed
+  German Minister leaves Pekin
+  Liang Ch'i-chao's Memorandum
+  Kang Yu-wei's Memorandum
+  Cabinet decides on war
+  interpellation to the Government
+  Parliament mobbed
+  Cabinet resigns
+  Japan's subterranean activities
+  note of the United States
+  war against Germany declared
+Europeans failed to recognize true state of Chinese government
+
+Feng Kuo-chang, Gen.
+Fengtien, Manchurian province
+Feudal organization of Japan
+Finance,
+  between the provinces
+  the binding chain between provincial
+  and metropolitan China
+Financial troubles
+Foochow arsenal
+Forbidden City, immurement of emperors in
+Foreign Debt Commission
+  intervention threatened
+  loan, the first
+  loans
+Foreigners in China, position of
+Four-Power group, the
+France's status after the war
+Franco-Belgian Syndicate
+French,
+  diplomacy in China
+  Republic, Goodnow review of
+  the, and the Lao-hsi-kai dispute
+  the, Chinese boycott of
+Fuhkien province
+
+German,
+  Boxer indemnity
+  diplomatic relations broken
+  minister leaves Pekin
+  negotiations with Yuan Shih-kai
+  propaganda in China
+  reply to China's protest
+  war declaration considered
+Germany, war against declared
+Germany's status after the war
+Goodnow, Dr.
+  legal adviser of Yuan Shih-kai
+  memorandum of
+Gordon, General
+Government, the Central, definition of
+Governmental system of the Manchu dynasty
+Great Britain's status after the war
+
+Hankow editor flogged to death
+Hangchow, open port
+Hanyang arsenal
+Hanyehping Company, the
+Heilungchiang, Manchurian province
+Hioki, Dr., Japanese Minister
+Hsianfu flight, the
+Hsaiochan camp, the
+  Division, the
+Hsiaowu, emperor
+Hsuan Tung,
+  boy emperor
+  enthroned
+_Huai Chun_, the
+Huang Hsin
+Hutuktu, the Living Buddha of Urga
+
+Imperial Clan Society
+Imperialist-Republican conflict of 1917
+Inner Mongolia, political unrest in
+Insurrection of the "White Wolfs"
+International Debt Commission
+  financial contests
+Interpellation to the government on
+  the question of war with Germany
+Ito, Prince
+
+Japan,
+  and Korea
+  and the Kiaochow campaign
+  demands participation in loan
+  demands the Kiaochow territory from Germany
+  feudal organization of
+  first Diet summoned
+  forced to revise the Twenty-one Demands
+  forecasts result of European War
+  formation of the Shogunate in
+  inquires as to the monarchial movement
+  militarism in
+  receives fugitive President Li Yuan-hung
+  recognizes Yuan Shih-kai as Dictator
+  socialism in
+  the new Far Eastern policy after Russian war
+Japan-China secret alliance proposed
+Japanese,
+  Constitution first granted
+  driven from Tong Kwan Palace
+  incident at Chengchiatun
+  intrigues
+  Liberalism vs. Imperialism
+  merchants and Lun Yat Sen, alleged secret agreement
+  war indemnity
+  war of 1894
+Japan's,
+  activities in the Yangtsze Valley
+  account of the Chengchiatun incident
+  alarm at the Chinese revolution
+  animosity towards Yuan Shih-kai
+  attitude toward Yuan Shih-kai
+  Chinese policy
+  "Continental quadrilateral"
+  Doctrine of Maximum Pressure
+  Far East activities
+  German policy
+  government foundry at Wakamatsu
+  influence in China on European war question
+  influence on the monarchial election
+  influence over China's war measures
+  original Twenty-one Demands
+  Pekin Expeditionary Force
+  police rights in Manchuria
+  political history
+  pressure on Yuan Shih-kai
+  subterranean activities in China in 1916
+  ultimatum to China, 88-91; China's reply
+  ultimatum, China's indignation at
+  Twenty-four Demands
+Jehol, mountain palaces of
+Jung Lu, viceroy of Chihli
+
+Kameio Nishihara
+Kang Yu Wei
+K'ang-hsi, emperor
+Kato, Japanese Viscount
+Kawasaki Kulanoske
+Kiaochow campaign,
+  unpopularity of, in Japan
+  demanded by Japan
+Kirin, Manchurian province
+Kirin-Changchun railway
+Kiushiu, island of
+Ko-lao-hui, the, origin of
+Korea, the opening of
+Korean question, the
+_Kowshing_, British steamer, sinking of
+Kublai Khan
+Kueichow province, revolt of
+Kuomingtang, the
+Kuo-ti,
+  the question of
+Kwanghsu, emperor
+Kwangsi province, revolt of
+Kwangtung revolts against Yuan Shih-kai
+Lansdowne, Lord
+Lao-hsi-kai dispute, the
+Legations in Pekin,
+  their attitude towards Yuan Shih-kai
+  inquire as to the monarchial movement
+Li Hung Chang
+Li Lieh-chun, Gen.
+Li Yuan-hung
+  elected President
+  assumes the office
+  first presidential acts
+  monarchists plot against him
+  his early life and career
+  his position as to breaking diplomatic relations with Germany
+  he dissolves Parliament
+  escapes from Pekin
+  his important telegrams
+Liang Ch'i-chao,
+  resigns from Ministry of Justice
+  his accusation of Yuan Shih-kai
+  his address to Yuan Shih-kai
+  opposes the movement
+  directs the Yunnan revolt
+  writes note to Germany on the submarine war
+  his Memorandum on the war question
+  upholds the Republic
+Liang Shih-yi, political power of
+_Likin_ taxation, introduction of
+Liu-Kuan-hsiung
+Loan Agreement,
+  details of
+  first foreign
+  foreign, struggles over
+Local Government Law, draft of
+Lu Yun Ting, Gen.
+Lun Yi, empress, death of
+Lung Chi-Kwang, Gen.
+  created Prince
+Lung Yu, Empress
+Mahommedan rebellions
+Manchu conquest, the,
+  of XVIIth Century
+  dynasty, governmental system of
+  plots against
+  Imperial Family annuity
+  people, number and distribution
+Manchuria,
+  Chinese domination of
+  Japan's intrigues in
+Manchurian policy of the Twenty-One
+  Demands
+Mandate of Cancellation,
+  the
+  Yuan Shih-kai's last
+Manifesto of Gen. Tuan Chi-jui
+Marco Polo
+Marriage, immunity of Chinese women,
+  with Manchus
+Meiji, Japanese Emperor
+Memorandum,
+  of Dr. Goodnow
+  of policy of the Black Dragon Society
+  on Tariff Revision, draft of
+Militarism in Japan
+Military Governors,
+  independence of
+  attempt to coerce Parliament
+  leave Pekin
+  assemble in rebellion at Tientsin
+  party opposition to New Republic
+Mining privileges demanded by Japan
+Ministerial irresponsibility
+Modern commercialism, invasion of
+Monarchial movement,
+  Yang Tu's defence of
+  Dr. Goodnow's defence of
+Monarchy adopts a new calendar
+Monarchy vs. Republicanism, memorandum
+  by Dr. Goodnow
+Monetary confusion in the new Republic
+Money the bond of Chinese union
+Mongol conquest, the, of XIIIth Century
+Mongolian policy of the Twenty-one Demands
+Nanking
+  Conference, the
+  Delegates
+  Provisional Constitution
+National debt, consolidation of
+  Salvation Fund
+Nationalists, the (Kuomingtang)
+New calendar adopted
+New Republic,
+  organization of
+  opposition of the Military party
+Neutrality position of China
+Ni Shih-chung, Gen.
+Nineteen Articles, the, text of
+  Fundamental Articles, the
+
+Oath of office, presidential
+Outer Mongolia question
+  autonomy conceded to
+
+"Palace of Generals"
+Pamphlet of Yang Tu
+Parliament,
+  composition of
+  provides for election of President
+  Radical members unseated
+  session of 1916
+  dissensions over dissolution
+  is dissolved
+Parliamentary,
+  change by the "Constitutional Compact"
+  struggles
+Peace note, President Wilson's, China's
+  reply to
+Peace of Portsmouth
+Pekin, distances from
+Peking System vs. Manchu Dynasty
+Permanent Constitution
+  draft of
+Pinghsiang collieries
+Presidential,
+  Election Law of 1913
+  oath of office
+  Succession Law, the
+    text of
+Progressives, the (Chinputang)
+Provincial capitals, influence and power of
+  financial system
+  system of government
+Provisional Constitution of 1912,
+  text of
+  Nanking Constitution, the
+
+Railway concessions demanded by Japan
+  construction, progress of, under Yuan Shih-kai
+Rebellion of 1813
+Referendum arranged for by Senate
+Reform Edicts of 1898
+Religious provisions of "The Constitutional Compact"
+Reorganization loan, the
+Republic proclaimed
+  recognition of by the Powers
+Republic's anniversary, non-observance of
+  review of in Goodnow Memorandum
+Republican-Imperialist Conflict of 1917
+Restoration Edict of Hsuan Tung
+Revolt of February, 1912
+Revolution of 1911
+  effect on Japan
+Revolutionary base at Hankow, Hanyang and Wuchang
+  Party and the Europe and Asia Trading Co. agreement
+Rioting in Pekin
+Russia demands participation in loan
+  recognizes the independence of Tibet
+  agrees to autonomy of Outer Mongolia
+Russian loan, the
+Russia's Chinese policy
+  role in the Far East
+  status after the war
+Russo-Chinese Agreement of 1913, text of
+  Declaration, the
+  -Mongolian tripartite agreement of 1915, text of
+
+Salt Administration, the
+Santuao harbour
+Secret society plots
+Sectional dispute
+Senate, rules of
+Shanghai, specie hoarded at
+Shansi Bankers
+Shantung and the Twenty-One Demands
+  province, Yuan Shih-kai appointed governor
+Shasi, open port
+Shogunate, establishment of, in Japan
+Six-Power group, the
+Socialism in Japan
+Society for the Preservation of Peace (Chou An Hui)
+Soochow, open port
+South Manchurian railway
+Southern Confederacy formed
+  dissolution of
+  Rebellion, the
+Special Constitutional Drafting Committee
+Specie payment suspended in Pekin
+Submarine war question
+Sun Yat Sen, Dr.
+  his alleged secret agreement with Japan
+Sung Chiao-jen, assassination of
+Sungari River
+Szechuan province revolts against Yuan Shih-kai
+
+Taiping rebellion
+Tanaka, Gen.
+Taonanfu administration
+Tariff reformation
+Tax collection
+Tayeh iron mines
+Tibet, independence of recognized by Russia
+Tieh Liang
+Tientsin rebellion of the Military Governors
+Tong Kwan Palace, the battle at
+Tong Shao-yi
+Treaty of Shimonoseki
+Treaty-ports, economical effects of
+Tsao-ao, Gen.
+Tsao Ju-lin
+Tsan Cheng Yuan, passes a "king-making" bill
+Tseng Kuo-fan, Marquis
+Tsung She Tang, the
+Tuan Chi-jui, Gen.
+Tung Fu-hsiang
+Twenty-Four Demands,
+  Japan's revised
+  China's reply to
+Twenty-One Demands of Japan
+  Japan forced to revise
+  the psychology of
+  China's reply to
+Tzu-Hsi, Empress
+
+United States, Goodnow's review of
+
+Viceroy's, prerogatives of in Chinese government
+
+Wai Chiao Pu conference
+Wakamatsu, Japanese government foundry at
+Wang Yi-tang
+War memorandums
+"White Wolfs," insurrection of
+Wilson, President
+Wu, C.C., Dr.
+Wu Chang-ching, Gen.
+Wu Ting-fang, Dr.
+
+Yang Tu,
+  champion of neo-imperialists
+  publisher famous pamphlet
+  the pamphlet
+Yangtsze Valley, Japanese activities in
+Yuan Shih-kai
+  the bailiff of the Powers
+  his early life
+  first emerges into public view
+  in Seoul
+  appointed Imperial Resident at Seoul
+  leaves Korea
+  in command of Hsaiochan camp
+  refuses to depose Empress Tzu-Hsi
+  appointed Governor of Shantung
+  defeats the Boxers
+  made Viceroy of Chihli
+  reorganizes the army
+  made Grand Councillor and President of
+  the Board of Foreign Affairs
+  made "Senior Guardian of the Heir Apparent"
+  dismissed from Pekin
+  appointed Viceroy of Hupeh and Hunan
+  appointed President of Grand Council
+  schemes for the abdication of the Manchu Dynasty
+  attempted, assassination of
+  commissioned to organize the Republic
+  elected Provisional President
+  takes oath of office
+  negotiates the Reorganization loan
+  negotiates and controls the great foreign loan
+  suppresses the Southern rebellion
+  elected full President
+  unseats Radical members of Parliament
+  entices Vice-President to Pekin
+  position strengthened by death of
+  Empress Lun Yi
+  ruthless suppression of opposition
+  brings out the Constitutional Compact
+  promulgates the Presidential Succession law
+  creates a "Palace of Generals"
+  negotiates with Germany
+  animosity of Japan
+  his _dementi_ of
+  bribes the Japanese press
+  his Dictatorship recognized by Japan
+  the _precis_ of Japanese Minister's coercive conversation
+  reviewed in Black Dragon Society's Memorandum
+  intrigues of his family
+  he yields to advocates of monarchy
+  invokes services of Yang-tu
+  his interview with Gen. Feng Kuo-chang
+  his accusation by Liang Chi-chao
+  throws responsibility on the Senate
+  his Mandate for a referendum
+  elected Emperor
+  substitutes title of Emperor for President
+  refuses, then accepts the throne
+  the revolt of Yunnan
+  he rehearses court ceremonies
+  his position weakens
+  the communication from Liang Ch'i-chao
+  attempts to placate Japan
+  distributes patents of nobility
+  financial troubles
+  issues the Mandate of Cancellation
+  his retirement sought
+  he offers to resign
+  his death
+  his last mandate
+  his funeral
+  his policy towards the European War
+Yunnan revolt of 1916
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FIGHT FOR THE REPUBLIC IN
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