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diff --git a/old/14300.txt b/old/14300.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..11c37d8 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14300.txt @@ -0,0 +1,41028 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Life of Napoleon I (Volumes, 1 and 2) +by John Holland Rose + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Life of Napoleon I (Volumes, 1 and 2) + +Author: John Holland Rose + +Release Date: December 8, 2004 [EBook #14300] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF NAPOLEON I *** + + + + +Produced by Paul Murray, and the PG Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + + + LONDON: G. BELL & SONS, LIMITED, + PORTUGAL STREET, KINGSWAY, W.C. + CAMBRIDGE: DEIGHTON, BELL & CO. + NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN CO. + BOMBAY: A.H. WHEELER & CO + + + + + + THE LIFE OF NAPOLEON I + + INCLUDING NEW MATERIALS FROM THE BRITISH OFFICIAL RECORDS + + + + BY JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, LITT.D. + LATE SCHOLAR OF CHRIST'S COLLEGE, + CAMBRIDGE + + + + "Let my son often read and reflect on history: this is the only + true philosophy."--_Napoleon's last Instructions for the King of + Rome_. + + + + + + + + + LONDON G. BELL AND SONS, LTD. + 1910 + +POST 8VO EDITION, ILLUSTRATED +First Published, December 1901. +Second Edition, revised, March 1902. +Third Edition, revised, January 1903. +Fourth Edition, revised, September 1907. +Reprinted, January 1910. + + +CROWN 8VO EDITION +First Published, September 1904. +Reprinted, October 1907; July 1910. + + +DEDICATED TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE LORD ACTON, +K.C.V.O., D.C.L., LL.D. REGIUS PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY IN THE +UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE, IN ADMIRATION OF HIS PROFOUND HISTORICAL +LEARNING, AND IN GRATITUDE FOR ADVICE AND HELP GENEROUSLY GIVEN. + + + + + + +PREFACE + + +An apology seems to be called for from anyone who gives to the world a +new Life of Napoleon I. My excuse must be that for many years I have +sought to revise the traditional story of his career in the light of +facts gleaned from the British Archives and of the many valuable +materials that have recently been published by continental historians. +To explain my manner of dealing with these sources would require an +elaborate critical Introduction; but, as the limits of my space +absolutely preclude any such attempt, I can only briefly refer to the +most important topics. + +To deal with the published sources first, I would name as of chief +importance the works of MM. Aulard, Chuquet, Houssaye, Sorel, and +Vandal in France; of Herren Beer, Delbrueck, Fournier, Lehmann, Oncken, +and Wertheimer in Germany and Austria; and of Baron Lumbroso in Italy. +I have also profited largely by the scholarly monographs or +collections of documents due to the labours of the "Societe d'Histoire +Contemporaine," the General Staff of the French Army, of MM. Bouvier, +Caudrillier, Capitaine "J.G.," Levy, Madelin, Sagnac, Sciout, Zivy, +and others in France; and of Herren Bailleu, Demelitsch, Hansing, +Klinkowstrom, Luckwaldt, Ulmann, and others in Germany. Some of the +recently published French Memoirs dealing with those times are not +devoid of value, though this class of literature is to be used with +caution. The new letters of Napoleon published by M. Leon Lecestre and +M. Leonce de Brotonne have also opened up fresh vistas into the life +of the great man; and the time seems to have come when we may safely +revise our judgments on many of its episodes. + +But I should not have ventured on this great undertaking, had I not +been able to contribute something new to Napoleonic literature. During +a study of this period for an earlier work published in the "Cambridge +Historical Series," I ascertained the great value of the British +records for the years 1795-1815. It is surely discreditable to our +historical research that, apart from the fruitful labours of the Navy +Records Society, of Messrs. Oscar Browning and Hereford George, and of +Mr. Bowman of Toronto, scarcely any English work has appeared that is +based on the official records of this period. Yet they are of great +interest and value. Our diplomatic agents then had the knack of +getting at State secrets in most foreign capitals, even when we were +at war with their Governments; and our War Office and Admiralty +Records have also yielded me some interesting "finds." M. Levy, in the +preface to his "Napoleon intime" (1893), has well remarked that "the +documentary history of the wars of the Empire has not yet been +written. To write it accurately, it will be more important thoroughly +to know foreign archives than those of France." Those of Russia, +Austria, and Prussia have now for the most part been examined; and I +think that I may claim to have searched all the important parts of our +Foreign Office Archives for the years in question, as well as for part +of the St. Helena period. I have striven to embody the results of this +search in the present volumes as far as was compatible with limits of +space and with the narrative form at which, in my judgment, history +ought always to aim. + +On the whole, British policy comes out the better the more fully it is +known. Though often feeble and vacillating, it finally attained to +firmness and dignity; and Ministers closed the cycle of war with acts +of magnanimity towards the French people which are studiously ignored +by those who bid us shed tears over the martyrdom of St. Helena. +Nevertheless, the splendour of the finale must not blind us to the +flaccid eccentricities that made British statesmanship the laughing +stock of Europe in 1801-3, 1806-7, and 1809. Indeed, it is +questionable whether the renewal of war between England and Napoleon +in 1803 was due more to his innate forcefulness or to the contempt +which he felt for the Addington Cabinet. When one also remembers our +extraordinary blunders in the war of the Third Coalition, it seems a +miracle that the British Empire survived that life and death struggle +against a man of superhuman genius who was determined to effect its +overthrow. I have called special attention to the extent and +pertinacity of Napoleon's schemes for the foundation of a French +Colonial Empire in India, Egypt, South Africa, and Australia; and +there can be no doubt that the events of the years 1803-13 determined, +not only the destinies of Europe and Napoleon, but the general trend +of the world's colonization. + +As it has been necessary to condense the story of Napoleon's life in +some parts, I have chosen to treat with special brevity the years +1809-11, which may be called the _constans aetas_ of his career, in +order to have more space for the decisive events that followed; but +even in these less eventful years I have striven to show how his +Continental System was setting at work mighty economic forces that +made for his overthrow, so that after the _debacle_ of 1812 it came to +be a struggle of Napoleon and France _contra mundum_. + +While not neglecting the personal details of the great man's life, I +have dwelt mainly on his public career. Apart from his brilliant +conversations, his private life has few features of abiding interest, +perhaps because he early tired of the shallowness of Josephine and the +Corsican angularity of his brothers and sisters. But the cause also +lay in his own disposition. He once said to M. Gallois: "Je n'aime pas +beaucoup les femmes, ni le jeu--enfin rien: _je suis tout a fait un +etre politique_." In dealing with him as a warrior and statesman, and +in sparing my readers details as to his bolting his food, sleeping at +concerts, and indulging in amours where for him there was no glamour +of romance, I am laying stress on what interested him most--in a word, +I am taking him at his best. + +I could not have accomplished this task, even in the present +inadequate way, but for the help generously accorded from many +quarters. My heartfelt thanks are due to Lord Acton, Regius Professor +of Modern History in the University of Cambridge, for advice of the +highest importance; to Mr. Hubert Hall of the Public Record Office, +for guidance in my researches there; to Baron Lumbroso of Rome, +editor of the "Bibliografia ragionata dell' Epoca Napoleonica," for +hints on Italian and other affairs; to Dr. Luckwaldt, Privat Docent of +the University of Bonn, and author of "Oesterreich und die Anfaenge des +Befreiungs-Krieges," for his very scholarly revision of the chapters +on German affairs; to Mr. F.H.E. Cunliffe, M.A., Fellow of All Souls' +College, Oxford, for valuable advice on the campaigns of 1800, 1805, +and 1806; to Professor Caudrillier of Grenoble, author of "Pichegru," +for information respecting the royalist plot; and to Messrs. J.E. +Morris, M.A., and E.L.S. Horsburgh, B.A., for detailed communications +concerning Waterloo, The nieces of the late Professor Westwood of +Oxford most kindly allowed the facsimile of the new Napoleon letter, +printed opposite p. 156 of vol. i., to be made from the original in +their possession; and Miss Lowe courteously placed at my disposal the +papers of her father relating to the years 1813-15, as well as to the +St. Helena period. I wish here to record my grateful obligations for +all these friendly courtesies, which have given value to the book, +besides saving me from many of the pitfalls with which the subject +abounds. That I have escaped them altogether is not to be imagined; +but I can honestly say, in the words of the late Bishop of London, +that "I have tried to write true history." + +J.H.R. + +[NOTE.--The references to Napoleon's "Correspondence" in the notes are +to the official French edition, published under the auspices of +Napoleon III. The "New Letters of Napoleon" are those edited by Leon +Lecestre, and translated into English by Lady Mary Loyd, except in a +very few cases where M. Leonce de Brotonne's still more recent edition +is cited under his name. By "F.O.," France, No.----, and "F.O.," +Prussia, No.----, are meant the volumes of _our_ Foreign Office +despatches relating to France and Prussia. For the sake of brevity I +have called Napoleon's Marshals and high officials by their names, not +by their titles: but a list of these is given at the close of vol. +ii.] + + + + + +PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION + + +The demand for this work so far exceeded my expectations that I was +unable to make any considerable changes in the second edition, issued +in March, 1902; and circumstances again make it impossible for me to +give the work that thorough recension which I should desire. I have, +however, carefully considered the suggestions offered by critics, and +have adopted them in some cases. Professor Fournier of Vienna has most +kindly furnished me with details which seem to relegate to the domain +of legend the famous ice catastrophe at Austerlitz; and I have added a +note to this effect on p. 50 of vol. ii. On the other hand, I may +justly claim that the publication of Count Balmain's reports relating +to St. Helena has served to corroborate, in all important details, my +account of Napoleon's captivity. + +It only remains to add that I much regret the omission of Mr. Oman's +name from II. 12-13 of page viii of the Preface, an omission rendered +all the more conspicuous by the appearance of the first volume of his +"History of the Peninsular War" in the spring of this year. + +J.H.R. + +_October, 1902._ + +Notes have been added at the end of ch. v., vol. i.; chs. xxii., +xxiii., xxviii., xxix., xxxv., vol. ii.; and an Appendix on the Battle +of Waterloo has been added on p. 577, vol. ii. + + * * * * * + + + + +CONTENTS + + + CHAPTER + + +VOL. I + + + NOTE ON THE REPUBLICAN CALENDAR + + I. PARENTAGE AND EARLY YEARS + + II. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND CORSICA + + III. TOULON + + IV. VENDEMIAIRE + + V. THE ITALIAN CAMPAIGN (1796) + + VI. THE FIGHTS FOR MANTUA + + VII. LEOBEN TO CAMPO FORMIO + + VIII. EGYPT + + IX. SYRIA + + X. BRUMAIRE + + XI. MARENGO: LUNEVILLE + + XII. THE NEW INSTITUTIONS OF FRANCE + + XIII. THE CONSULATE FOR LIFE + + XIV. THE PEACE OF AMIENS + + XV. A FRENCH COLONIAL EMPIRE: ST. + DOMINGO--LOUISIANA--INDIA--AUSTRALIA + + XVI. NAPOLEON'S INTERVENTIONS + + XVII. THE RENEWAL OF WAR + + XVIII. EUROPE AND THE BONAPARTES + + XIX. THE ROYALIST PLOT + + XX. THE DAWN OF THE EMPIRE + + XXI. THE BOULOGNE FLOTILLA + + APPENDIX: REPORTS HITHERTO UNPUBLISHED + ON + (_a_) THE SALE OF LOUISIANA; + (_b_) THE IRISH DIVISION IN NAPOLEON'S SERVICE + + ILLUSTRATIONS, MAPS, AND PLANS + + THE SIEGE OF TOULON, 1793 + + MAP TO ILLUSTRATE THE CAMPAIGNS IN NORTH ITALY + + PLAN TO ILLUSTRATE THE VICTORY OF ARCOLA + + THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF RIVOLI + + FACSIMILE OF A LETTER OF NAPOLEON TO "LA CITOYENNE + TALLIEN," 1797 + + CENTRAL EUROPE, after the Peace of Campo Formio, 1797 + + PLAN OF THE SIEGE OF ACRE, from a contemporary sketch + + THE BATTLE OF MARENGO, to illustrate Kellermann's charge + + FRENCH MAP OF THE SOUTH OF AUSTRALIA, 1807 + + +VOL. II + + + XXII. ULM AND TRAFALGAR + XXIII. AUSTERLITZ + XXIV. PRUSSIA AND THE NEW CHARLEMAGNE + XXV. THE FALL OF PRUSSIA + XXVI. THE CONTINENTAL SYSTEM: FRIEDLAND + XXVII. TILSIT + XXVIII. THE SPANISH RISING + XXIX. ERFURT + XXX. NAPOLEON AND AUSTRIA + XXXI. THE EMPIRE AT ITS HEIGHT + XXXII. THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN + XXXIII. THE FIRST SAXON CAMPAIGN + XXXIV. VITTORIA AND THE ARMISTICE + XXXV. DRESDEN AND LEIPZIG + XXXVI. FROM THE RHINE TO THE SEINE + XXXVII. THE FIRST ABDICATION + XXXVIII. ELBA AND PARIS + XXXIX. LIGNY AND QUATRE BRAS + XL. WATERLOO + XLI. FROM THE ELYSEE TO ST. HELENA + XLII. CLOSING YEARS + + APPENDIX I: LIST OF THE CHIEF APPOINTMENTS + AND DIGNITIES BESTOWED BY NAPOLEON + + APPENDIX II: THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO + + INDEX + + +MAPS AND PLANS + + BATTLE OF ULM + BATTLE OF AUSTERLITZ + BATTLE OF JENA + BATTLE OF FRIEDLAND + BATTLE OF WAGRAM + CENTRAL EUROPE AFTER 1810 + CAMPAIGN IN RUSSIA + BATTLE OF VITTORIA + THE CAMPAIGN OF 1813 + BATTLE OF DRESDEN + BATTLE OF LEIPZIG + THE CAMPAIGN OF 1814 _to face_ + PLAN OF THE WATERLOO CAMPAIGN + BATTLE OF LIGNY + BATTLE OF WATERLOO, about 11 o'clock a.m. _to face_ + ST. HELENA + + + + + + + + + + + +NOTE ON THE REPUBLICAN CALENDAR + + +The republican calendar consisted of twelve months of thirty days +each, each month being divided into three "decades" of ten days. Five +days (in leap years six) were added at the end of the year to bring it +into coincidence with the solar year. + + An I began Sept. 22, 1792. + " II " " 1793. + " III " " 1794. + " IV (leap year) 1795. + + * * * * * + + " VIII began Sept. 22, 1799. + " IX " Sept. 23, 1800. + " X " " 1801. + + * * * * * + + " XIV " " 1805. + +The new computation, though reckoned from Sept. 22, 1792, was not +introduced until Nov. 26, 1793 (An II). It ceased after Dec. 31, 1805. + +The months are as follows: + + Vendemiaire Sept. 22 to Oct. 21. + Brumaire Oct. 22 " Nov. 20. + Frimaire Nov. 21 " Dec. 20. + Nivose Dec. 21 " Jan. 19. + Pluviose Jan. 20 " Feb. 18. + Ventose Feb. 19 " Mar. 20. + Germinal Mar. 21 " April 19. + Floreal April 20 " May 19. + Prairial May 20 " June 18. + Messidor June 19 " July 18. + Thermidor July 19 " Aug. 17. + Fructidor Aug. 18 " Sept. 16. + +Add five (in leap years six) "Sansculottides" or "Jours +complementaires." + +In 1796 (leap year) the numbers in the table of months, so far as +concerns all dates between Feb. 28 and Sept. 22, will have to be +_reduced by one_, owing to the intercalation of Feb. 29, which is not +compensated for until the end of the republican year. + +The matter is further complicated by the fact that the republicans +reckoned An VIII as a leap year, though it is not one in the Gregorian +Calendar. Hence that year ended on Sept. 22, and An IX and succeeding +years began on Sept. 23. Consequently in the above table of months the +numbers of all days from Vendemiaire 1, An IX (Sept. 23, 1800), to +Nivose 10, An XIV (Dec. 31, 1805), inclusive, will have to be +_increased by one_, except only in the next leap year between Ventose +9, An XII, and Vendemiaire 1, An XIII (Feb. 28-Sept, 23, 1804), when +the two Revolutionary aberrations happen to neutralize each other. + + * * * * * + + + + + +THE LIFE OF NAPOLEON I + + + + + +CHAPTER I + +PARENTAGE AND EARLY YEARS + + +"I was born when my country was perishing. Thirty thousand French +vomited upon our coasts, drowning the throne of Liberty in waves of +blood, such was the sight which struck my eyes." This passionate +utterance, penned by Napoleon Buonaparte at the beginning of the +French Revolution, describes the state of Corsica in his natal year. +The words are instinct with the vehemence of the youth and the +extravagant sentiment of the age: they strike the keynote of his +career. His life was one of strain and stress from his cradle to his +grave. + +In his temperament as in the circumstances of his time the young +Buonaparte was destined for an extraordinary career. Into a tottering +civilization he burst with all the masterful force of an Alaric. But +he was an Alaric of the south, uniting the untamed strength of his +island kindred with the mental powers of his Italian ancestry. In his +personality there is a complex blending of force and grace, of animal +passion and mental clearness, of northern common sense with the +promptings of an oriental imagination; and this union in his nature of +seeming opposites explains many of the mysteries of his life. +Fortunately for lovers of romance, genius cannot be wholly analyzed, +even by the most adroit historical philosophizer or the most exacting +champion of heredity. But in so far as the sources of Napoleon's power +can be measured, they may be traced to the unexampled needs of mankind +in the revolutionary epoch and to his own exceptional endowments. +Evidently, then, the characteristics of his family claim some +attention from all who would understand the man and the influence +which he was to wield over modern Europe. + +It has been the fortune of his House to be the subject of dispute from +first to last. Some writers have endeavoured to trace its descent back +to the Caesars of Rome, others to the Byzantine Emperors; one +genealogical explorer has tracked the family to Majorca, and, altering +its name to Bonpart, has discovered its progenitor in the Man of the +Iron Mask; while the Duchesse d'Abrantes, voyaging eastwards in quest +of its ancestors, has confidently claimed for the family a Greek +origin. Painstaking research has dispelled these romancings of +historical _trouveurs_, and has connected this enigmatic stock with a +Florentine named "William, who in the year 1261 took the surname of +_Bonaparte_ or _Buonaparte_. The name seems to have been assumed when, +amidst the unceasing strifes between Guelfs and Ghibellines that rent +the civic life of Florence, William's party, the Ghibellines, for a +brief space gained the ascendancy. But perpetuity was not to be found +in Florentine politics; and in a short time he was a fugitive at a +Tuscan village, Sarzana, beyond the reach of the victorious Guelfs. +Here the family seems to have lived for well nigh three centuries, +maintaining its Ghibelline and aristocratic principles with surprising +tenacity. The age was not remarkable for the virtue of constancy, or +any other virtue. Politics and private life were alike demoralized by +unceasing intrigues; and amidst strifes of Pope and Emperor, duchies +and republics, cities and autocrats, there was formed that type of +Italian character which is delineated in the pages of Macchiavelli. +From the depths of debasement of that cynical age the Buonapartes +were saved by their poverty, and by the isolation of their life at +Sarzana. Yet the embassies discharged at intervals by the more +talented members of the family showed that the gifts for intrigue were +only dormant; and they were certainly transmitted in their intensity +to the greatest scion of the race. + +In the year 1529 Francis Buonaparte, whether pressed by poverty or +distracted by despair at the misfortunes which then overwhelmed Italy, +migrated to Corsica. There the family was grafted upon a tougher +branch of the Italian race. To the vulpine characteristics developed +under the shadow of the Medici there were now added qualities of a +more virile stamp. Though dominated in turn by the masters of the +Mediterranean, by Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, by the men of Pisa, +and finally by the Genoese Republic, the islanders retained a striking +individuality. The rock-bound coast and mountainous interior helped to +preserve the essential features of primitive life. Foreign Powers +might affect the towns on the sea-board, but they left the clans of +the interior comparatively untouched. Their life centred around the +family. The Government counted for little or nothing; for was it not +the symbol of the detested foreign rule? Its laws were therefore as +naught when they conflicted with the unwritten but omnipotent code of +family honour. A slight inflicted on a neighbour would call forth the +warning words--"Guard thyself: I am on my guard." Forthwith there +began a blood feud, a vendetta, which frequently dragged on its dreary +course through generations of conspiracy and murder, until, the +principals having vanished, the collateral branches of the families +were involved. No Corsican was so loathed as the laggard who shrank +from avenging the family honour, even on a distant relative of the +first offender. The murder of the Duc d'Enghien by Napoleon in 1804 +sent a thrill of horror through the Continent. To the Corsicans it +seemed little more than an autocratic version of the _vendetta +traversale_.[1] + +The vendetta was the chief law of Corsican society up to comparatively +recent times; and its effects are still visible in the life of the +stern islanders. In his charming romance, "Colomba," M. Prosper +Merimee has depicted the typical Corsican, even of the towns, as +preoccupied, gloomy, suspicious, ever on the alert, hovering about his +dwelling, like a falcon over his nest, seemingly in preparation for +attack or defence. Laughter, the song, the dance, were rarely heard in +the streets; for the women, after acting as the drudges of the +household, were kept jealously at home, while their lords smoked and +watched. If a game at hazard were ventured upon, it ran its course in +silence, which not seldom was broken by the shot or the stab--first +warning that there had been underhand play. The deed always preceded +the word. + +In such a life, where commerce and agriculture were despised, where +woman was mainly a drudge and man a conspirator, there grew up the +typical Corsican temperament, moody and exacting, but withal keen, +brave, and constant, which looked on the world as a fencing-school for +the glorification of the family and the clan[2]. Of this type Napoleon +was to be the supreme exemplar; and the fates granted him as an arena +a chaotic France and a distracted Europe. + +Amidst that grim Corsican existence the Buonapartes passed their lives +during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Occupied as advocates +and lawyers with such details of the law as were of any practical +importance, they must have been involved in family feuds and the +oft-recurring disputes between Corsica and the suzerain Power, Genoa. +As became dignitaries in the municipality of Ajaccio, several of the +Buonapartes espoused the Genoese side; and the Genoese Senate in a +document of the year 1652 styled one of them, Jerome, "Egregius +Hieronimus di Buonaparte, procurator Nobilium." These distinctions +they seem to have little coveted. Very few families belonged to the +Corsican _noblesse_, and their fiefs were unimportant. In Corsica, as +in the Forest Cantons of Switzerland and the Highlands of Scotland, +class distinctions were by no means so coveted as in lands that had +been thoroughly feudalized; and the Buonapartes, content with their +civic dignities at Ajaccio and the attachment of their partisans on +their country estates, seem rarely to have used the prefix which +implied nobility. Their life was not unlike that of many an old +Scottish laird, who, though possibly _bourgeois_ in origin, yet by +courtesy ranked as chieftain among his tenants, and was ennobled by +the parlance of the countryside, perhaps all the more readily because +he refused to wear the honours that came from over the Border. + +But a new influence was now to call forth all the powers of this tough +stock. In the middle of the eighteenth century we find the head of the +family, Charles Marie Buonaparte, aglow with the flame of Corsican +patriotism then being kindled by the noble career of Paoli. This +gifted patriot, the champion of the islanders, first against the +Genoese and later against the French, desired to cement by education +the framework of the Corsican Commonwealth and founded a university. +It was here that the father of the future French Emperor received a +training in law, and a mental stimulus which was to lift his family +above the level of the _caporali_ and attorneys with whom its lot had +for centuries been cast. His ambition is seen in the endeavour, +successfully carried out by his uncle, Lucien, Archdeacon of Ajaccio, +to obtain recognition of kinship with the Buonapartes of Tuscany who +had been ennobled by the Grand Duke. His patriotism is evinced in his +ardent support of Paoli, by whose valour and energy the Genoese were +finally driven from the island. Amidst these patriotic triumphs +Charles confronted his destiny in the person of Letizia Ramolino, a +beautiful girl, descended from an honourable Florentine family which +had for centuries been settled in Corsica. The wedding took place in +1764, the bridegroom being then eighteen, and the bride fifteen years +of age. The union, if rashly undertaken in the midst of civil strifes, +was yet well assorted. Both parties to it were of patrician, if not +definitely noble descent, and came of families which combined the +intellectual gifts of Tuscany with the vigour of their later island +home[3]. From her mother's race, the Pietra Santa family, Letizia +imbibed the habits of the most backward and savage part of Corsica, +where vendettas were rife and education was almost unknown. Left in +ignorance in her early days, she yet was accustomed to hardships, and +often showed the fertility of resource which such a life always +develops. Hence, at the time of her marriage, she possessed a firmness +of will far beyond her years; and her strength and fortitude enabled +her to survive the terrible adversities of her early days, as also to +meet with quiet matronly dignity the extraordinary honours showered on +her as the mother of the French Emperor. She was inured to habits of +frugality, which reappeared in the personal tastes of her son. In +fact, she so far retained her old parsimonious habits, even amidst the +splendours of the French Imperial Court, as to expose herself to the +charge of avarice. But there is a touching side to all this. She seems +ever to have felt that after the splendour there would come again the +old days of adversity, and her instincts were in one sense correct. +She lived on to the advanced age of eighty-six, and died twenty-one +years after the break-up of her son's empire--a striking proof of the +vitality and tenacity of her powers. + +A kindly Providence veiled the future from the young couple. Troubles +fell swiftly upon them both in private and in public life. Their first +two children died in infancy. The third, Joseph, was born in 1768, +when the Corsican patriots were making their last successful efforts +against their new French oppressors: the fourth, the famous Napoleon, +saw the light on August 15th, 1769, when the liberties of Corsica were +being finally extinguished. Nine other children were born before the +outbreak of the French Revolution reawakened civil strifes, amidst +which the then fatherless family was tossed to and fro and finally +whirled away to France. + +Destiny had already linked the fortunes of the young Napoleon +Buonaparte with those of France. After the downfall of Genoese rule in +Corsica, France had taken over, for empty promises, the claims of the +hard-pressed Italian republic to its troublesome island possession. It +was a cheap and practical way of restoring, at least in the +Mediterranean the shattered prestige of the French Bourbons. They had +previously intervened in Corsican affairs on the side of the Genoese. +Yet in 1764 Paoli appealed to Louis XV. for protection. It was +granted, in the form of troops that proceeded quietly to occupy the +coast towns of the island under cover of friendly assurances. In 1768, +before the expiration of an informal truce, Marbeuf, the French +commander, commenced hostilities against the patriots[4]. In vain did +Rousseau and many other champions of popular liberty protest against +this bartering away of insular freedom: in vain did Paoli rouse his +compatriots to another and more unequal struggle, and seek to hold the +mountainous interior. Poor, badly equipped, rent by family feuds and +clan schisms, his followers were no match for the French troops; and +after the utter break-up of his forces Paoli fled to England, taking +with him three hundred and forty of the most determined patriots. With +these irreconcilables Charles Buonaparte did not cast in his lot, but +accepted the pardon offered to those who should recognize the French +sway. With his wife and their little child Joseph he returned to +Ajaccio; and there, shortly afterwards, Napoleon was born. As the +patriotic historian, Jacobi, has finely said, "The Corsican people, +when exhausted by producing martyrs to the cause of liberty, produced +Napoleon Buonaparte[5]." + +Seeing that Charles Buonaparte had been an ardent adherent of Paoli, +his sudden change of front has exposed him to keen censure. He +certainly had not the grit of which heroes are made. His seems to have +been an ill-balanced nature, soon buoyed up by enthusiasms, and as +speedily depressed by their evaporation; endowed with enough of +learning and culture to be a Voltairean and write second-rate +verses; and with a talent for intrigue which sufficed to embarrass +his never very affluent fortunes. Napoleon certainly derived no +world-compelling qualities from his father: for these he was indebted +to the wilder strain which ran in his mother's blood. The father +doubtless saw in the French connection a chance of worldly advancement +and of liberation from pecuniary difficulties; for the new rulers now +sought to gain over the patrician families of the island. Many of them +had resented the dictatorship of Paoli; and they now gladly accepted +the connection with France, which promised to enrich their country and +to open up a brilliant career in the French army, where commissions +were limited to the scions of nobility. + +Much may be said in excuse of Charles Buonaparte's decision, and no +one can deny that Corsica has ultimately gained much by her connection +with France. But his change of front was open to the charge that it +was prompted by self-interest rather than by philosophic foresight. At +any rate, his second son throughout his boyhood nursed a deep +resentment against his father for his desertion of the patriots' +cause. The youth's sympathies were with the peasants, whose allegiance +was not to be bought by baubles, whose constancy and bravery long held +out against the French in a hopeless guerilla warfare. His hot +Corsican blood boiled at the stories of oppression and insult which he +heard from his humbler compatriots. When, at eleven years of age, he +saw in the military college at Brienne the portrait of Choiseul, the +French Minister who had urged on the conquest of Corsica, his passion +burst forth in a torrent of imprecations against the traitor; and, +even after the death of his father in 1785, he exclaimed that he could +never forgive him for not following Paoli into exile. + +What trifles seem, at times, to alter the current of human affairs! +Had his father acted thus, the young Napoleon would in all probability +have entered the military or naval service of Great Britain; he might +have shared Paoli's enthusiasm for the land of his adoption, and have +followed the Corsican hero in his enterprises against the French +Revolution, thenceforth figuring in history merely as a greater +Marlborough, crushing the military efforts of democratic France, and +luring England into a career of Continental conquest. Monarchy and +aristocracy would have gone unchallenged, except within the "natural +limits" of France; and the other nations, never shaken to their +inmost depths, would have dragged on their old inert fragmentary +existence. + +The decision of Charles Buonaparte altered the destiny of Europe. He +determined that his eldest boy, Joseph, should enter the Church, and +that Napoleon should be a soldier. His perception of the characters of +his boys was correct. An anecdote, for which the elder brother is +responsible, throws a flood of light on their temperaments. The master +of their school arranged a mimic combat for his pupils--Romans against +Carthaginians. Joseph, as the elder was ranged under the banner of +Rome, while Napoleon was told off among the Carthaginians; but, piqued +at being chosen for the losing side, the child fretted, begged, and +stormed until the less bellicose Joseph agreed to change places with +his exacting junior. The incident is prophetic of much in the later +history of the family. + +Its imperial future was opened up by the deft complaisance now shown +by Charles Buonaparte. The reward for his speedy submission to France +was soon forthcoming. The French commander in Corsica used his +influence to secure the admission of the young Napoleon to the +military school of Brienne in Champagne; and as the father was able to +satisfy the authorities not only that he was without fortune, but also +that his family had been noble for four generations, Napoleon was +admitted to this school to be educated at the charges of the King of +France (April, 1779). He was now, at the tender age of nine, a +stranger in a strange land, among a people whom he detested as the +oppressors of his countrymen. Worst of all, he had to endure the taunt +of belonging to a subject race. What a position for a proud and +exacting child! Little wonder that the official report represented him +as silent and obstinate; but, strange to say, it added the word +"imperious." It was a tough character which could defy repression +amidst such surroundings. As to his studies, little need be said. In +his French history he read of the glories of the distant past (when +"Germany was part of the French Empire"), the splendours of the reign +of Louis XIV., the disasters of France in the Seven Years' War, and +the "prodigious conquests of the English in India." But his +imagination was kindled from other sources. Boys of pronounced +character have always owed far more to their private reading than to +their set studies; and the young Buonaparte, while grudgingly learning +Latin and French grammar, was feeding his mind on Plutarch's +"Lives"--in a French translation. The artful intermingling of the +actual and the romantic, the historic and the personal, in those vivid +sketches of ancient worthies and heroes, has endeared them to many +minds. Rousseau derived unceasing profit from their perusal; and +Madame Roland found in them "the pasture of great souls." It was so +with the lonely Corsican youth. Holding aloof from his comrades in +gloomy isolation, he caught in the exploits of Greeks and Romans a +distant echo of the tragic romance of his beloved island home. The +librarian of the school asserted that even then the young soldier had +modelled his future career on that of the heroes of antiquity; and we +may well believe that, in reading of the exploits of Leonidas, +Curtius, and Cincinnatus, he saw the figure of his own antique +republican hero, Paoli. To fight side by side with Paoli against the +French was his constant dream. "Paoli will return," he once exclaimed, +"and as soon as I have strength, I will go to help him: and perhaps +together we shall be able to shake the odious yoke from off the neck +of Corsica." + +But there was another work which exercised a great influence on his +young mind--the "Gallic War" of Caesar. To the young Italian the +conquest of Gaul by a man of his own race must have been a congenial +topic, and in Caesar himself the future conqueror may dimly have +recognized a kindred spirit. The masterful energy and all-conquering +will of the old Roman, his keen insight into the heart of a problem, +the wide sweep of his mental vision, ranging over the intrigues of the +Roman Senate, the shifting politics of a score of tribes, and the +myriad administrative details of a great army and a mighty +province--these were the qualities that furnished the chief mental +training to the young cadet. Indeed, the career of Caesar was destined +to exert a singular fascination over the Napoleonic dynasty, not only +on its founder, but also on Napoleon III.; and the change in the +character and career of Napoleon the Great may be registered mentally +in the effacement of the portraits of Leonidas and Paoli by those of +Caesar and Alexander. Later on, during his sojourn at Ajaccio in 1790, +when the first shadows were flitting across his hitherto unclouded +love for Paoli, we hear that he spent whole nights poring over Caesar's +history, committing many passages to memory in his passionate +admiration of those wondrous exploits. Eagerly he took Caesar's side as +against Pompey, and no less warmly defended him from the charge of +plotting against the liberties of the commonwealth[6]. It was a +perilous study for a republican youth in whom the military instincts +were as ingrained as the genius for rule. + +Concerning the young Buonaparte's life at Brienne there exist few +authentic records and many questionable anecdotes. Of these last, that +which is the most credible and suggestive relates his proposal to his +schoolfellows to construct ramparts of snow during the sharp winter of +1783-4. According to his schoolfellow, Bourrienne, these mimic +fortifications were planned by Buonaparte, who also directed the +methods of attack and defence: or, as others say, he reconstructed +the walls according to the needs of modern war. In either case, the +incident bespeaks for him great power of organization and control. But +there were in general few outlets for his originality and vigour. He +seems to have disliked all his comrades, except Bourrienne, as much as +they detested him for his moody humours and fierce outbreaks of +temper. He is even reported to have vowed that he would do as much +harm as possible to the French people; but the remark smacks of the +story-book. Equally doubtful are the two letters in which he prays to +be removed from the indignities to which he was subjected at +Brienne[7]. In other letters which are undoubtedly genuine, he refers +to his future career with ardour, and writes not a word as to the +bullying to which his Corsican zeal subjected him. Particularly +noteworthy is the letter to his uncle begging him to intervene so as +to prevent Joseph Buonaparte from taking up a military career. Joseph, +writes the younger brother, would make a good garrison officer, as he +was well formed and clever at frivolous compliments--"good therefore +for society, but for a fight--?" + +Napoleon's determination had been noticed by his teachers. They had +failed to bend his will, at least on important points. In lesser +details his Italian adroitness seems to have been of service; for the +officer who inspected the school reported of him: "Constitution, +health excellent: character submissive, sweet, honest, grateful: +conduct very regular: has always distinguished himself by his +application to mathematics: knows history and geography passably: very +weak in accomplishments. He will be an excellent seaman: is worthy to +enter the School at Paris." To the military school at Paris he was +accordingly sent in due course, entering there in October, 1784. The +change from the semi-monastic life at Brienne to the splendid edifice +which fronts the Champ de Mars had less effect than might have +been expected in a youth of fifteen years. Not yet did he become +French in sympathy. His love of Corsica and hatred of the French +monarchy steeled him against the luxuries of his new surroundings. +Perhaps it was an added sting that he was educated at the expense of +the monarchy which had conquered his kith and kin. He nevertheless +applied himself with energy to his favourite studies, especially +mathematics. Defective in languages he still was, and ever remained; +for his critical acumen in literature ever fastened on the matter +rather than on style. To the end of his days he could never write +Italian, much less French, with accuracy; and his tutor at Paris not +inaptly described his boyish composition as resembling molten granite. +The same qualities of directness and impetuosity were also fatal to +his efforts at mastering the movements of the dance. In spite of +lessons at Paris and private lessons which he afterwards took at +Valence, he was never a dancer: his bent was obviously for the exact +sciences rather than the arts, for the geometrical rather than the +rhythmical: he thought, as he moved, in straight lines, never in +curves. + +The death of his father during the year which the youth spent at Paris +sharpened his sense of responsibility towards his seven younger +brothers and sisters. His own poverty must have inspired him with +disgust at the luxury which he saw around him; but there are good +reasons for doubting the genuineness of the memorial which he is +alleged to have sent from Paris to the second master at Brienne on +this subject. The letters of the scholars at Paris were subject to +strict surveillance; and, if he had taken the trouble to draw up a +list of criticisms on his present training, most assuredly it would +have been destroyed. Undoubtedly, however, he would have sympathized +with the unknown critic in his complaint of the unsuitableness of +sumptuous meals to youths who were destined for the hardships of the +camp. At Brienne he had been dubbed "the Spartan," an instance of that +almost uncanny faculty of schoolboys to dash off in a nickname the +salient features of character. The phrase was correct, almost for +Napoleon's whole life. At any rate, the pomp of Paris served but to +root his youthful affections more tenaciously in the rocks of Corsica. + +In September, 1785, that is, at the age of sixteen, Buonaparte was +nominated for a commission as junior lieutenant in La Fere regiment of +artillery quartered at Valence on the Rhone. This was his first close +contact with real life. The rules of the service required him to +spend three months of rigorous drill before he was admitted to his +commission. The work was exacting: the pay was small, viz., 1,120 +francs, or less than L45, a year; but all reports agree as to his keen +zest for his profession and the recognition of his transcendent +abilities by his superior officers.[8] There it was that he mastered +the rudiments of war, for lack of which many generals of noble birth +have quickly closed in disaster careers that began with promise: +there, too, he learnt that hardest and best of all lessons, prompt +obedience. "To learn obeying is the fundamental art of governing," +says Carlyle. It was so with Napoleon: at Valence he served his +apprenticeship in the art of conquering and the art of governing. + +This spring-time of his life is of interest and importance in many +ways: it reveals many amiable qualities, which had hitherto been +blighted by the real or fancied scorn of the wealthy cadets. At +Valence, while shrinking from his brother officers, he sought society +more congenial to his simple tastes and restrained demeanour. In a few +of the best bourgeois families of Valence he found happiness. There, +too, blossomed the tenderest, purest idyll of his life. At the country +house of a cultured lady who had befriended him in his solitude, he +saw his first love, Caroline de Colombier. It was a passing fancy; +but to her all the passion of his southern nature welled forth. She +seems to have returned his love; for in the stormy sunset of his life +at St. Helena he recalled some delicious walks at dawn when Caroline +and he had--eaten cherries together. One lingers fondly over these +scenes of his otherwise stern career, for they reveal his capacity for +social joys and for deep and tender affection, had his lot been +otherwise cast. How different might have been his life, had France +never conquered Corsica, and had the Revolution never burst forth! But +Corsica was still his dominant passion. When he was called away from +Valence to repress a riot at Lyons, his feelings, distracted for a +time by Caroline, swerved back towards his island home; and in +September, 1786, he had the joy of revisiting the scenes of his +childhood. Warmly though he greeted his mother, brothers and sisters, +after an absence of nearly eight years, his chief delight was in the +rocky shores, the verdant dales and mountain heights of Corsica. The +odour of the forests, the setting of the sun in the sea "as in the +bosom of the infinite," the quiet proud independence of the +mountaineers themselves, all enchanted him. His delight reveals almost +Wertherian powers of "sensibility." Even the family troubles could not +damp his ardour. His father had embarked on questionable speculations, +which now threatened the Buonapartes with bankruptcy, unless the +French Government proved to be complacent and generous. With the hope +of pressing one of the family claims on the royal exchequer, the +second son procured an extension of furlough and sped to Paris. There +at the close of 1787 he spent several weeks, hopefully endeavouring to +extract money from the bankrupt Government. It was a season of +disillusionment in more senses than one; for there he saw for himself +the seamy side of Parisian life, and drifted for a brief space about +the giddy vortex of the Palais Royal. What a contrast to the limpid +life of Corsica was that turbid frothy existence--already swirling +towards its mighty plunge! + +After a furlough of twenty-one months he rejoined his regiment, now at +Auxonne. There his health suffered considerably, not only from the +miasma of the marshes of the river Saone, but also from family +anxieties and arduous literary toils. To these last it is now needful +to refer. Indeed, the external events of his early life are of value +only as they reveal the many-sidedness of his nature and the growth of +his mental powers. + +How came he to outgrow the insular patriotism of his early years? The +foregoing recital of facts must have already suggested one obvious +explanation. Nature had dowered him so prodigally with diverse gifts, +mainly of an imperious order, that he could scarcely have limited his +sphere of action to Corsica. Profoundly as he loved his island, it +offered no sphere commensurate with his varied powers and masterful +will. It was no empty vaunt which his father had uttered on his +deathbed that his Napoleon would one day overthrow the old monarchies +and conquer Europe.[9] Neither did the great commander himself +overstate the peculiarity of his temperament, when he confessed that +his instincts had ever prompted him that his will must prevail, and +that what pleased him must of necessity belong to him. Most spoilt +children harbour the same illusion, for a brief space. But all the +buffetings of fortune failed to drive it from the young Buonaparte; +and when despair as to his future might have impaired the vigour of +his domineering instincts, his mind and will acquired a fresh rigidity +by coming under the spell of that philosophizing doctrinaire, +Rousseau. + +There was every reason why he should early be attracted by this +fantastic thinker. In that notable work, "Le Contrat Social" (1762), +Rousseau called attention to the antique energy shown by the Corsicans +in defence of their liberties, and in a startlingly prophetic phrase +he exclaimed that the little island would one day astonish Europe. The +source of this predilection of Rousseau for Corsica is patent. Born +and reared at Geneva, he felt a Switzer's love for a people which was< +"neither rich nor poor but self-sufficing "; and in the simple life +and fierce love of liberty of the hardy islanders he saw traces of +that social contract which he postulated as the basis of society. +According to him, the beginnings of all social and political +institutions are to be found in some agreement or contract between +men. Thus arise the clan, the tribe, the nation. The nation may +delegate many of its powers to a ruler; but if he abuse such powers, +the contract between him and his people is at an end, and they may +return to the primitive state, which is founded on an agreement of +equals with equals. Herein lay the attractiveness of Rousseau for all +who were discontented with their surroundings. He seemed infallibly +to demonstrate the absurdity of tyranny and the need of returning to +the primitive bliss of the social contract. It mattered not that the +said contract was utterly unhistorical and that his argument teemed +with fallacies. He inspired a whole generation with detestation of the +present and with longings for the golden age. Poets had sung of it, +but Rousseau seemed to bring it within the grasp of long-suffering +mortals. + +The first extant manuscript of Napoleon, written at Valence in April, +1786, shows that he sought in Rousseau's armoury the logical weapons +for demonstrating the "right" of the Corsicans to rebel against the +French. The young hero-worshipper begins by noting that it is the +birthday of Paoli. He plunges into a panegyric on the Corsican +patriots, when he is arrested by the thought that many censure them +for rebelling at all. "The divine laws forbid revolt. But what have +divine laws to do with a purely human affair? Just think of the +absurdity--divine laws universally forbidding the casting off of a +usurping yoke! ... As for human laws, there cannot be any after the +prince violates them." He then postulates two origins for government +as alone possible. Either the people has established laws and +submitted itself to the prince, or the prince has established laws. In +the first case, the prince is engaged by the very nature of his office +to execute the covenants. In the second case, the laws tend, or do not +tend, to the welfare of the people, which is the aim of all +government: if they do not, the contract with the prince dissolves of +itself, for the people then enters again into its primitive state. +Having thus proved the sovereignty of the people, Buonaparte uses his +doctrine to justify Corsican revolt against France, and thus concludes +his curious medley: "The Corsicans, following all the laws of justice, +have been able to shake off the yoke of the Genoese, and may do the +same with that of the French. Amen." + +Five days later he again gives the reins to his melancholy. "Always +alone, though in the midst of men," he faces the thought of suicide. +With an innate power of summarizing and balancing thoughts and +sensations, he draws up arguments for and against this act. He is in +the dawn of his days and in four months' time he will see "la patrie," +which he has not seen since childhood. What joy! And yet--how men have +fallen away from nature: how cringing are his compatriots to their +conquerors: they are no longer the enemies of tyrants, of luxury, of +vile courtiers: the French have corrupted their morals, and when "la +patrie" no longer survives, a good patriot ought to die. Life among +the French is odious: their modes of life differ from his as much as +the light of the moon differs from that of the sun.--A strange +effusion this for a youth of seventeen living amidst the full glories +of the spring in Dauphine. It was only a few weeks before the ripening +of cherries. Did that cherry-idyll with Mdlle. de Colombier lure him +back to life? Or did the hope of striking a blow for Corsica stay his +suicidal hand? Probably the latter; for we find him shortly afterwards +tilting against a Protestant minister of Geneva who had ventured to +criticise one of the dogmas of Rousseau's evangel. + +The Genevan philosopher had asserted that Christianity, by enthroning +in the hearts of Christians the idea of a Kingdom not of this world, +broke the unity of civil society, because it detached the hearts of +its converts from the State, as from all earthly things. To this the +Genevan minister had successfully replied by quoting Christian +teachings on the subject at issue. But Buonaparte fiercely accuses +the pastor of neither having understood, nor even read, "Le Contrat +Social": he hurls at his opponent texts of Scripture which enjoin +obedience to the laws: he accuses Christianity of rendering men slaves +to an anti-social tyranny, because its priests set up an authority in +opposition to civil laws; and as for Protestantism, it propagated +discords between its followers, and thereby violated civic unity. +Christianity, he argues, is a foe to civil government, for it aims at +making men happy in this life by inspiring them with hope of a future +life; while the aim of civil government is "to lend assistance to the +feeble against the strong, and by this means to allow everyone to +enjoy a sweet tranquillity, the road of happiness." He therefore +concludes that Christianity and civil government are diametrically +opposed. + +In this tirade we see the youth's spirit of revolt flinging him not +only against French law, but against the religion which sanctions it. +He sees none of the beauty of the Gospels which Rousseau had +admitted. His views are more rigid than those of his teacher. +Scarcely can he conceive of two influences, the spiritual and the +governmental, working on parallel lines, on different parts of man's +nature. His conception of human society is that of an indivisible, +indistinguishable whole, wherein materialism, tinged now and again by +religious sentiment and personal honour, is the sole noteworthy +influence. He finds no worth in a religion which seeks to work from +within to without, which aims at transforming character, and thus +transforming the world. In its headlong quest of tangible results his +eager spirit scorns so tardy a method: he will "compel men to be +happy," and for this result there is but one practicable means, the +Social Contract, the State. Everything which mars the unity of the +Social Contract shall be shattered, so that the State may have a clear +field for the exercise of its beneficent despotism. Such is +Buonaparte's political and religious creed at the age of seventeen, +and such it remained (with many reservations suggested by maturer +thought and self-interest) to the end of his days. It reappears in his +policy anent the Concordat of 1802, by which religion was reduced to +the level of handmaid to the State, as also in his frequent assertions +that he would never have quite the same power as the Czar and the +Sultan, because he had not undivided sway over the consciences of his +people.[10] In this boyish essay we may perhaps discern the +fundamental reason of his later failures. He never completely +understood religion, or the enthusiasm which it can evoke; neither did +he ever fully realize the complexity of human nature, the +many-sidedness of social life, and the limitations that beset the +action even of the most intelligent law-maker.[11] + +His reading of Rousseau having equipped him for the study of human +society and government, he now, during his first sojourn at Auxonne +(June, 1788--September, 1789), proceeds to ransack the records of the +ancient and modern world. Despite ill-health, family troubles, and the +outbreak of the French Revolution, he grapples with this portentous +task. The history, geography, religion, and social customs of the +ancient Persians, Scythians, Thracians, Athenians, Spartans, +Egyptians, and Carthaginians--all furnished materials for his +encyclopaedic note-books. Nothing came amiss to his summarizing genius. +Here it was that he gained that knowledge of the past which was to +astonish his contemporaries. Side by side with suggestions on +regimental discipline and improvements in artillery, we find notes on +the opening episodes of Plato's "Republic," and a systematic summary +of English history from the earliest times down to the Revolution of +1688. This last event inspired him with special interest, because the +Whigs and their philosophic champion, Locke, maintained that James II. +had violated the original contract between prince and people. +Everywhere in his notes Napoleon emphasizes the incidents which led to +conflicts between dynasties or between rival principles. In fact, +through all these voracious studies there appear signs of his +determination to write a history of Corsica; and, while inspiriting +his kinsmen by recalling the glorious past, he sought to weaken the +French monarchy by inditing a "Dissertation sur l'Autorite Royale." +His first sketch of this work runs as follows: + + "23 October, 1788. Auxonne. + + "This work will begin with general ideas as to the origin and the + enhanced prestige of the name of king. Military rule is favourable + to it: this work will afterwards enter into the details of the + usurped authority enjoyed by the Kings of the twelve Kingdoms of + Europe. + + "There are very few Kings who have not deserved dethronement[12]." + +This curt pronouncement is all that remains of the projected work. It +sufficiently indicates, however, the aim of Napoleon's studies. One +and all they were designed to equip him for the great task of +re-awakening the spirit of the Corsicans and of sapping the base of +the French monarchy. + +But these reams of manuscript notes and crude literary efforts have an +even wider source of interest. They show how narrow was his outlook on +life. It all turned on the regeneration of Corsica by methods which he +himself prescribed. We are therefore able to understand why, when his +own methods of salvation for Corsica were rejected, he tore himself +away and threw his undivided energies into the Revolution. + +Yet the records of his early life show that in his character there was +a strain of true sentiment and affection. In him Nature carved out a +character of rock-like firmness, but she adorned it with flowers of +human sympathy and tendrils of family love. At his first parting from +his brother Joseph at Autun, when the elder brother was weeping +passionately, the little Napoleon dropped a tear: but that, said the +tutor, meant as much as the flood of tears from Joseph. Love of his +relatives was a potent factor of his policy in later life; and slander +has never been able wholly to blacken the character of a man who loved +and honoured his mother, who asserted that her advice had often been +of the highest service to him, and that her justice and firmness of +spirit marked her out as a natural ruler of men. But when these +admissions are freely granted, it still remains true that his +character was naturally hard; that his sense of personal superiority +made him, even as a child, exacting and domineering; and the sequel +was to show that even the strongest passion of his youth, his +determination to free Corsica from France, could be abjured if +occasion demanded, all the force of his nature being thenceforth +concentrated on vaster adventures. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND CORSICA + + +"They seek to destroy the Revolution by attacking my person: I will +defend it, for I am the Revolution." Such were the words uttered by +Buonaparte after the failure of the royalist plot of 1804. They are a +daring transcript of Louis XIV.'s "L'etat, c'est moi." That was a bold +claim, even for an age attuned to the whims of autocrats: but this of +the young Corsican is even more daring, for he thereby equated himself +with a movement which claimed to be wide as humanity and infinite as +truth. And yet when he spoke these words, they were not scouted as +presumptuous folly: to most Frenchmen they seemed sober truth and +practical good sense. How came it, one asks in wonder, that after the +short space of fifteen years a world-wide movement depended on a +single life, that the infinitudes of 1789 lived on only in the form, +and by the pleasure, of the First Consul? Here surely is a political +incarnation unparalleled in the whole course of human history. The +riddle cannot be solved by history alone. It belongs in part to the +domain of psychology, when that science shall undertake the study, not +merely of man as a unit, but of the aspirations, moods, and whims of +communities and nations. Meanwhile it will be our far humbler task to +strive to point out the relation of Buonaparte to the Revolution, and +to show how the mighty force of his will dragged it to earth. + +The first questions that confront us are obviously these. Were the +lofty aims and aspirations of the Revolution attainable? And, if so, +did the men of 1789 follow them by practical methods? To the former of +these questions the present chapter will, in part at least, serve as +an answer. On the latter part of the problem the events described in +later chapters will throw some light: in them we shall see that the +great popular upheaval let loose mighty forces that bore Buonaparte on +to fortune. + +Here we may notice that the Revolution was not a simple and therefore +solid movement. It was complex and contained the seeds of discord +which lurk in many-sided and militant creeds. The theories of its +intellectual champions were as diverse as the motives which spurred on +their followers to the attack on the outworn abuses of the age. + +Discontent and faith were the ultimate motive powers of the +Revolution. Faith prepared the Revolution and discontent accomplished +it. Idealists who, in varied planes of thought, preached the doctrine +of human perfectibility, succeeded in slowly permeating the dull +toiling masses of France with hope. Omitting here any notice of +philosophic speculation as such, we may briefly notice the teachings +of three writers whose influence on revolutionary politics was to be +definite and practical. These were Montesquieu, Voltaire, and +Rousseau. The first was by no means a revolutionist, for he decided in +favour of a mixed form of government, like that of England, which +guaranteed the State against the dangers of autocracy, oligarchy, and +mob-rule. Only by a ricochet did he assail the French monarchy. But he +re-awakened critical inquiry; and any inquiry was certain to sap the +base of the _ancien regime_ in France. Montesquieu's teaching inspired +the group of moderate reformers who in 1789 desired to re-fashion the +institutions of France on the model of those of England. But popular +sentiment speedily swept past these Anglophils towards the more +attractive aims set forth by Voltaire. + +This keen thinker subjected the privileged classes, especially the +titled clergy, to a searching fire of philosophic bombs and barbed +witticisms. Never was there a more dazzling succession of literary +triumphs over a tottering system. The satirized classes winced and +laughed, and the intellect of France was conquered, for the +Revolution. Thenceforth it was impossible that peasants who were +nominally free should toil to satisfy the exacting needs of the +State, and to support the brilliant bevy of nobles who flitted gaily +round the monarch at Versailles. The young King Louis XVI., it is +true, carried through several reforms, but he had not enough strength +of will to abolish the absurd immunities from taxation which freed the +nobles and titled clergy from the burdens of the State. Thus, down to +1789, the middle classes and peasants bore nearly all the weight of +taxation, while the peasants were also encumbered by feudal dues and +tolls. These were the crying grievances which united in a solid +phalanx both thinkers and practical men, and thereby gave an immense +impetus to the levelling doctrines of Rousseau. + +Two only of his political teachings concern us here, namely, social +equality and the unquestioned supremacy of the State; for to these +dogmas, when they seemed doomed to political bankruptcy, Napoleon +Buonaparte was to act as residuary legatee. According to Rousseau, +society and government originated in a social contract, whereby all +members of the community have equal rights. It matters not that the +spirit of the contract may have evaporated amidst the miasma of +luxury. That is a violation of civil society; and members are +justified in reverting at once to the primitive ideal. If the +existence of the body politic be endangered, force may be used: +"Whoever refuses to obey the general will shall be constrained to do +so by the whole body; which means nothing else than that he shall be +forced to be free." Equally plausible and dangerous was his teaching +as to the indivisibility of the general will. Deriving every public +power from his social contract, he finds it easy to prove that the +sovereign power, vested in all the citizens, must be incorruptible, +inalienable, unrepresentable, indivisible, and indestructible. +Englishmen may now find it difficult to understand the enthusiasm +called forth by this quintessence of negations; but to Frenchman +recently escaped from the age of privilege and warring against the +coalition of kings, the cry of the Republic one and indivisible was a +trumpet call to death or victory. Any shifts, even that of a +dictatorship, were to be borne, provided that social equality could be +saved. As republican Rome had saved her early liberties by intrusting +unlimited powers to a temporary dictator, so, claimed Rousseau, a +young commonwealth must by a similar device consult Nature's first law +of self-preservation. The dictator saves liberty by temporarily +abrogating it: by momentary gagging of the legislative power he +renders it truly vocal. + +The events of the French Revolution form a tragic commentary on these +theories. In the first stage of that great movement we see the +followers of Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau marching in an +undivided host against the ramparts of privilege. The walls of the +Bastille fall down even at the blast of their trumpets. Odious feudal +privileges disappear in a single sitting of the National Assembly; and +the _Parlements_, or supreme law courts of the provinces, are swept +away. The old provinces themselves are abolished, and at the beginning +of 1790 France gains social and political unity by her new system of +Departments, which grants full freedom of action in local affairs, +though in all national concerns it binds France closely to the new +popular government at Paris. But discords soon begin to divide the +reformers: hatred of clerical privilege and the desire to fill the +empty coffers of the State dictate the first acts of spoliation. +Tithes are abolished: the lands of the Church are confiscated to the +service of the State; monastic orders are suppressed; and the +Government undertakes to pay the stipends of bishops and priests. +Furthermore, their subjection to the State is definitely secured by +the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (July, 1790) which invalidates +their allegiance to the Pope. Most of the clergy refuse: these are +termed non-jurors or orthodox priests, while their more complaisant +colleagues are known as constitutional priests. Hence arises a serious +schism in the Church, which distracts the religious life of the land, +and separates the friends of liberty from the champions of the +rigorous equality preached by Rousseau. + +The new constitution of 1791 was also a source of discord. In its +jealousy of the royal authority, the National Assembly seized very +many of the executive functions of government. The results were +disastrous. Laws remained without force, taxes went uncollected, the +army was distracted by mutinies, and the monarchy sank slowly into the +gulf of bankruptcy and anarchy. Thus, in the course of three years, +the revolutionists goaded the clergy to desperation, they were about +to overthrow the monarchy, every month was proving their local +self-government to be unworkable, and they themselves split into +factions that plunged France into war and drenched her soil by +organized massacres. + + * * * * * + +We know very little about the impression made on the young Buonaparte +by the first events of the Revolution. His note-book seems even to +show that he regarded them as an inconvenient interference with his +plans for Corsica. But gradually the Revolution excites his interest. +In September, 1789, we find him on furlough in Corsica sharing the +hopes of the islanders that their representatives in the French +National Assembly will obtain the boon of independence. He exhorts +his compatriots to favour the democratic cause, which promises a +speedy deliverance from official abuses. He urges them to don the new +tricolour cockade, symbol of Parisian triumph over the old monarchy; +to form a club; above all, to organize a National Guard. The young +officer knew that military power was passing from the royal army, now +honeycombed with discontent, to the National Guard. Here surely was +Corsica's means of salvation. But the French governor of Corsica +intervenes. The club is closed, and the National Guard is dispersed. +Thereupon Buonaparte launches a vigorous protest against the tyranny +of the governor and appeals to the National Assembly of France for +some guarantee of civil liberty. His name is at the head of this +petition, a sufficiently daring step for a junior lieutenant on +furlough. But his patriotism and audacity carry him still further. He +journeys to Bastia, the official capital of his island, and is +concerned in an affray between the populace and the royal troops +(November 5th, 1789). The French authorities, fortunately for him, are +nearly powerless: he is merely requested to return to Ajaccio; and +there he organizes anew the civic force, and sets the dissident +islanders an example of good discipline by mounting guard outside the +house of a personal opponent. + +Other events now transpired which began to assuage his opposition to +France. Thanks to the eloquent efforts of Mirabeau, the Corsican +patriots who had remained in exile since 1768 were allowed to return +and enjoy the full rights of citizenship. Little could the friends of +liberty at Paris, or even the statesman himself, have foreseen all the +consequences of this action: it softened the feelings of many +Corsicans towards their conquerors; above all, it caused the heart of +Napoleon Buonaparte for the first time to throb in accord with that of +the French nation. His feelings towards Paoli also began to cool. The +conduct of this illustrious exile exposed him to the charge of +ingratitude towards France. The decree of the French National +Assembly, which restored him to Corsican citizenship, was graced by +acts of courtesy such as the generous French nature can so winningly +dispense. Louis XVI. and the National Assembly warmly greeted him, and +recognized him as head of the National Guard of the island. Yet, +amidst all the congratulations, Paoli saw the approach of anarchy, and +behaved with some reserve. Outwardly, however, concord seemed to be +assured, when on July 14th, 1790, he landed in Corsica; but the hatred +long nursed by the mountaineers and fisherfolk against France was not +to be exorcised by a few demonstrations. In truth, the island was +deeply agitated. The priests were rousing the people against the newly +decreed Civil Constitution of the Clergy; and one of these +disturbances endangered the life of Napoleon himself. He and his +brother Joseph chanced to pass by when one of the processions of +priests and devotees was exciting the pity and indignation of the +townsfolk. The two brothers, who were now well known as partisans of +the Revolution, were threatened with violence, and were saved only by +their own firm demeanour and the intervention of peacemakers. + +Then again, the concession of local self-government to the island, as +one of the Departments of France, revealed unexpected difficulties. +Bastia and Ajaccio struggled hard for the honour of being the official +capital. Paoli favoured the claims of Bastia, thereby annoying the +champions of Ajaccio, among whom the Buonapartes were prominent. The +schism was widened by the dictatorial tone of Paoli, a demeanour which +ill became the chief of a civic force. In fact, it soon became +apparent that Corsica was too small a sphere for natures so able and +masterful as those of Paoli and Napoleon Buonaparte. + +The first meeting of these two men must have been a scene of deep +interest. It was on the fatal field of Ponte Nuovo. Napoleon doubtless +came there in the spirit of true hero-worship. But hero-worship which +can stand the strain of actual converse is rare indeed, especially +when the expectant devotee is endowed with keen insight and habits of +trenchant expression. One phrase has come down to us as a result of +the interview; but this phrase contains a volume of meaning. After +Paoli had explained the disposition of his troops against the French +at Ponte Nuovo, Buonaparte drily remarked to his brother Joseph, "The +result of these dispositions was what was inevitable." [13] + +For the present, Buonaparte and other Corsican democrats were closely +concerned with the delinquencies of the Comte de Buttafuoco, the +deputy for the twelve nobles of the island to the National Assembly of +France. In a letter written on January 23rd, 1791, Buonaparte +overwhelms this man with a torrent of invective.--He it was who had +betrayed his country to France in 1768. Self-interest and that alone +prompted his action then, and always. French rule was a cloak for his +design of subjecting Corsica to "the absurd feudal _regime_" of the +barons. In his selfish royalism he had protested against the new +French constitution as being unsuited to Corsica, "though it was +exactly the same as that which brought us so much good and was wrested +from us only amidst streams of blood."--The letter is remarkable for +the southern intensity of its passion, and for a certain hardening of +tone towards Paoli. Buonaparte writes of Paoli as having been ever +"surrounded by enthusiasts, and as failing to understand in a man any +other passion than fanaticism for liberty and independence," and as +duped by Buttafuoco in 1768.[14] The phrase has an obvious reference +to the Paoli of 1791, surrounded by men who had shared his long exile +and regarded the English constitution as their model. Buonaparte, on +the contrary, is the accredited champion of French democracy, his +furious epistle being printed by the Jacobin Club of Ajaccio. + +After firing off this tirade Buonaparte returned to his regiment at +Auxonne (February, 1791). It was high time; for his furlough, though +prolonged on the plea of ill-health, had expired in the preceding +October, and he was therefore liable to six months' imprisonment. But +the young officer rightly gauged the weakness of the moribund +monarchy; and the officers of his almost mutinous regiment were glad +to get him back on any terms. Everywhere in his journey through +Provence and Dauphine, Buonaparte saw the triumph of revolutionary +principles. He notes that the peasants are to a man for the +Revolution; so are the rank and file of the regiment. The officers +are aristocrats, along with three-fourths of those who belong to "good +society": so are all the women, for "Liberty is fairer than they, and +eclipses them." The Revolution was evidently gaining completer hold +over his mind and was somewhat blurring his insular sentiments, when a +rebuff from Paoli further weakened his ties to Corsica. Buonaparte had +dedicated to him his work on Corsica, and had sent him the manuscript +for his approval. After keeping it an unconscionable time, the old man +now coldly replied that he did not desire the honour of Buonaparte's +panegyric, though he thanked him heartily for it; that the +consciousness of having done his duty sufficed for him in his old age; +and, for the rest, history should not be written in youth. A further +request from Joseph Buonaparte for the return of the slighted +manuscript brought the answer that he, Paoli, had no time to search +his papers. After this, how could hero-worship subsist? + +The four months spent by Buonaparte at Auxonne were, indeed, a time of +disappointment and hardship. Out of his slender funds he paid for the +education of his younger brother, Louis, who shared his otherwise +desolate lodging. A room almost bare but for a curtainless bed, a +table heaped with books and papers, and two chairs--such were the +surroundings of the lieutenant in the spring of 1791. He lived on +bread that he might rear his brother for the army, and that he might +buy books, overjoyed when his savings mounted to the price of some +coveted volume. + +Perhaps the depressing conditions of his life at Auxonne may account +for the acrid tone of an essay which he there wrote in competition for +a prize offered by the Academy of Lyons on the subject--"What truths +and sentiments ought to be inculcated to men for their happiness." It +was unsuccessful; and modern readers will agree with the verdict of +one of the judges that it was incongruous in arrangement and of a bad +and ragged style. The thoughts are set forth in jerky, vehement +clauses; and, in place of the _sensibilite_ of some of his earlier +effusions, we feel here the icy breath of materialism. He regards an +ideal human society as a geometrical structure based on certain +well-defined postulates. All men ought to be able to satisfy certain +elementary needs of their nature; but all that is beyond is +questionable or harmful. The ideal legislator will curtail wealth so +as to restore the wealthy to their true nature--and so forth. Of any +generous outlook on the wider possibilities of human life there is +scarcely a trace. His essay is the apotheosis of social mediocrity. By +Procrustean methods he would have forced mankind back to the dull +levels of Sparta: the opalescent glow of Athenian life was beyond his +ken. But perhaps the most curious passage is that in which he preaches +against the sin and folly of ambition. He pictures Ambition as a +figure with pallid cheeks, wild eyes, hasty step, jerky movements and +sardonic smile, for whom crimes are a sport, while lies and calumnies +are merely arguments and figures of speech. Then, in words that recall +Juvenal's satire on Hannibal's career, he continues: "What is +Alexander doing when he rushes from Thebes into Persia and thence into +India? He is ever restless, he loses his wits, he believes himself +God. What is the end of Cromwell? He governs England. But is he not +tormented by all the daggers of the furies?"--The words ring false, +even for this period of Buonaparte's life; and one can readily +understand his keen wish in later years to burn every copy of these +youthful essays. But they have nearly all survived; and the diatribe +against ambition itself supplies the feather wherewith history may +wing her shaft at the towering flight of the imperial eagle.[15] + +At midsummer he is transferred, as first lieutenant, to another +regiment which happened to be quartered at Valence; but his second +sojourn there is remarkable only for signs of increasing devotion to +the revolutionary cause. In the autumn of 1791 he is again in Corsica +on furlough, and remains there until the month of May following. He +finds the island rent by strifes which it would be tedious to +describe. Suffice it to say that the breach between Paoli and the +Buonapartes gradually widened owing to the dictator's suspicion of all +who favoured the French Revolution. The young officer certainly did +nothing to close the breach. Determined to secure his own election as +lieutenant-colonel in the new Corsican National Guard, he spent much +time in gaining recruits who would vote for him. He further assured +his success by having one of the commissioners, who was acting in +Paoli's interest, carried off from his friends and detained at the +Buonapartes' house in Ajaccio--his first _coup_[16] Stranger events +were to follow. At Easter, when the people were excited by the +persecuting edicts against the clergy and the closing of a monastery, +there was sharp fighting between the populace and Buonaparte's +companies of National Guards. Originating in a petty quarrel, which +was taken up by eager partisans, it embroiled the whole of the town +and gave the ardent young Jacobin the chance of overthrowing his +enemies. His plans even extended to the seizure of the citadel, where +he tried to seduce the French regiment from its duty to officers +whom he dubbed aristocrats. The attempt was a failure. The whole +truth can, perhaps, scarcely be discerned amidst the tissue of +lies which speedily enveloped the affair; but there can be no +doubt that on the second day of strife Buonaparte's National +Guards began the fight and subsequently menaced the regular troops in +the citadel. The conflict was finally stopped by commissioners sent by +Paoli; and the volunteers were sent away from the town. + +Buonaparte's position now seemed desperate. His conduct exposed him to +the hatred of most of his fellow-citizens and to the rebukes of the +French War Department. In fact, he had doubly sinned: he had actually +exceeded his furlough by four months: he was technically guilty, first +of desertion, and secondly of treason. In ordinary times he would have +been shot, but the times were extraordinary, and he rightly judged +that when a Continental war was brewing, the most daring course was +also the most prudent, namely, to go to Paris. Thither Paoli allowed +him to proceed, doubtless on the principle of giving the young madcap +a rope wherewith to hang himself. + +On his arrival at Marseilles, he hears that war has been declared by +France against Austria; for the republican Ministry, which Louis XVI. +had recently been compelled to accept, believed that war against an +absolute monarch would intensify revolutionary fervour in France and +hasten the advent of the Republic. Their surmises were correct. +Buonaparte, on his arrival at Paris, witnessed the closing scenes of +the reign of Louis XVI. On June 20th he saw the crowd burst into the +Tuileries, when for some hours it insulted the king and queen. Warmly +though he had espoused the principles of the Revolution, his patrician +blood boiled at the sight of these vulgar outrages, and he exclaimed: +"Why don't they sweep off four or five hundred of that _canaille_ with +cannon? The rest would then run away fast enough." The remark is +significant. If his brain approved the Jacobin creed, his instincts +were always with monarchy. His career was to reconcile his reason with +his instincts, and to impose on weary France the curious compromise of +a revolutionary Imperialism. + +On August 10th, from the window of a shop near the Tuileries, he +looked down on the strange events which dealt the _coup de grace_ to +the dying monarchy. Again the chieftain within him sided against the +vulture rabble and with the well-meaning monarch who kept his troops +to a tame defensive. "If Louis XVI." (so wrote Buonaparte to his +brother Joseph) "had mounted his horse, the victory would have been +his--so I judge from the spirit which prevailed in the morning." +When all was over, when Louis sheathed his sword and went for +shelter to the National Assembly, when the fierce Marseillais were +slaughtering the Swiss Guards and bodyguards of the king, Buonaparte +dashed forward to save one of these unfortunates from a southern +sabre. "Southern comrade, let us save this poor wretch.--Are you +of the south?--Yes.--Well, we will save him." + +Altogether, what a time of disillusionment this was to the young +officer. What depths of cruelty and obscenity it revealed in the +Parisian rabble. What folly to treat them with the Christian +forbearance shown by Louis XVI. How much more suitable was grapeshot +than the beatitudes. The lesson was stored up for future use at a +somewhat similar crisis on this very spot. + +During the few days when victorious Paris left Louis with the sham +title of king, Buonaparte received his captain's commission, which was +signed for the king by Servan, the War Minister. Thus did the +revolutionary Government pass over his double breach of military +discipline at Ajaccio. The revolutionary motto, "La carriere ouverte +aux talents," was never more conspicuously illustrated than in the +facile condoning of his offences and in this rapid promotion. It was +indeed a time fraught with vast possibilities for all republican or +Jacobinical officers. Their monarchist colleagues were streaming over +the frontiers to join the Austrian and Prussian invaders. But National +Guards were enrolling by tens of thousands to drive out the Prussian +and Austrian invaders; and when Europe looked to see France fall for +ever, it saw with wonder her strength renewed as by enchantment. Later +on it learnt that that strength was the strength of Antaeus, of a +peasantry that stood firmly rooted in their native soil. Organization +and good leadership alone were needed to transform these ardent masses +into the most formidable soldiery; and the brilliant military +prospects now opened up certainly knit Buonaparte's feelings more +closely with the cause of France. Thus, on September 21st, when the +new National Assembly, known as the Convention, proclaimed the +Republic, we may well believe that sincere convictions no less than +astute calculations moved him to do and dare all things for the sake +of the new democratic commonwealth.[17] + +For the present, however, a family duty urges him to return to +Corsica. He obtains permission to escort home his sister Elise, and +for the third time we find him on furlough in Corsica. This laxity of +military discipline at such a crisis is explicable only on the +supposition that the revolutionary chiefs knew of his devotion to +their cause and believed that his influence in the island would render +his informal services there more valuable than his regimental duties +in the army then invading Savoy. For the word Republic, which fired +his imagination, was an offence to Paoli and to most of the +islanders; and the phrase "Republic one and indivisible," ever on the +lips of the French, seemed to promise that the island must become a +petty replica of France--France that was now dominated by the authors +of the vile September massacres. The French party in the island was +therefore rapidly declining, and Paoli was preparing to sever the +union with France. For this he has been bitterly assailed as a +traitor. But, from Paoli's point of view, the acquisition of the +island by France was a piece of rank treachery; and his allegiance to +France was technically at an end when the king was forcibly dethroned +and the Republic was proclaimed. The use of the appellation "traitor" +in such a case is merely a piece of childish abuse. It can be +justified neither by reference to law, equity, nor to the popular +sentiment of the time. Facts were soon to show that the islanders were +bitterly opposed to the party then dominant in France. This hostility +of a clannish, religious, and conservative populace against the +bloodthirsty and atheistical innovators who then lorded it over France +was not diminished by the action of some six thousand French +volunteers, the off-scourings of the southern ports, who were landed +at Ajaccio for an expedition against Sardinia. In their zeal for +Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity, these _bonnets rouges_ came to +blows with the men of Ajaccio, three of whom they hanged. So fierce +was the resentment caused by this outrage that the plan of a joint +expedition for the liberation of Sardinia from monarchical tyranny had +to be modified; and Buonaparte, who was again in command of a +battalion of Corsican guards, proposed that the islanders alone should +proceed to attack the Madalena Isles. + +These islands, situated between Corsica and Sardinia, have a double +interest to the historical student. One of them, Caprera, was destined +to shelter another Italian hero at the close of his career, the noble +self-denying Garibaldi: the chief island of the group was the +objective of Buonaparte's first essay in regular warfare. After some +delays the little force set sail under the command of Cesari-Colonna, +the nephew of Paoli. According to Buonaparte's own official statement +at the close of the affair, he had successfully landed his men near +the town to be assailed, and had thrown the Sardinian defences into +confusion, when a treacherous order from his chief bade him to cease +firing and return to the vessels. It has also been stated that this +retreat was the outcome of a secret understanding between Paoli and +Cesari-Colonna that the expedition should miscarry. This seems highly +probable. A mutiny on board the chief ship of the flotilla was +assigned by Cesari-Colonna as the cause of his order for a retreat; +but there are mutinies and mutinies, and this one may have been a +trick of the Paolists for thwarting Buonaparte's plan and leaving him +a prisoner. In any case, the young officer only saved himself and his +men by a hasty retreat to the boats, tumbling into the sea a mortar +and four cannon. Such was the ending to the great captain's first +military enterprise. + +On his return to Ajaccio (March 3rd, 1793), Buonaparte found affairs +in utter confusion. News had recently arrived of the declaration of +war by the French Republic against England and Holland. Moreover, +Napoleon's young brother, Lucien, had secretly denounced Paoli to the +French authorities at Toulon; and three commissioners were now sent +from Paris charged with orders to disband the Corsican National +Guards, and to place the Corsican dictator under the orders of the +French general commanding the army of Italy.[18] + +A game of truly Macchiavellian skill is now played. The French +commissioners, among whom the Corsican deputy, Salicetti, is by far +the most able, invite Paoli to repair to Toulon, there to concert +measures for the defence of Corsica. Paoli, seeing through the ruse +and discerning a guillotine, pleads that his age makes the journey +impossible; but with his friends he quietly prepares for resistance +and holds the citadel of Ajaccio. Meanwhile the commissioners make +friendly overtures to the old chief; in these Napoleon participates, +being ignorant of Lucien's action at Toulon. The sincerity of these +overtures may well be called in question, though Buonaparte still used +the language of affection to his former idol. However this may be, all +hope of compromise is dashed by the zealots who are in power at Paris. +On April 2nd they order the French commissioners to secure Paoli's +person, by whatever means, and bring him to the French capital. At +once a cry of indignation goes up from all parts of Corsica; and +Buonaparte draws up a declaration, vindicating Paoli's conduct and +begging the French Convention to revoke its decree.[19] Again, one +cannot but suspect that this declaration was intended mainly, if not +solely, for local consumption. In any case, it failed to cool the +resentment of the populace; and the partisans of France soon came to +blows with the Paolists. + +Salicetti and Buonaparte now plan by various artifices to gain the +citadel of Ajaccio from the Paolists, but guile is three times foiled +by guile equally astute. Failing here, the young captain seeks to +communicate with the French commissioners at Bastia. He sets out +secretly, with a trusty shepherd as companion, to cross the island: +but at the village of Bocognano he is recognized and imprisoned by the +partisans of Paoli. Some of the villagers, however, retain their old +affection to the Buonaparte family, which here has an ancestral +estate, and secretly set him free. He returns to Ajaccio, only to find +an order for his arrest issued by the Corsican patriots. This time he +escapes by timely concealment in the grotto of a friend's garden; and +from the grounds of another family connection he finally glides away +in a vessel to a point of safety, whence he reaches Bastia. + +Still, though a fugitive, he persists in believing that Ajaccio is +French at heart, and urges the sending of a liberating force. The +French commissioners agree, and the expedition sails--only to meet +with utter failure. Ajaccio, as one man, repels the partisans of +France; and, a gale of wind springing up, Buonaparte and his men +regain their boats with the utmost difficulty. At a place hard by, he +finds his mother, uncle, brothers and sisters. Madame Buonaparte, with +the extraordinary tenacity of will that characterized her famous son, +had wished to defend her house at Ajaccio against the hostile +populace; but, yielding to the urgent warnings of friends, finally +fled to the nearest place of safety, and left the house to the fury of +the populace, by whom it was nearly wrecked. + +For a brief space Buonaparte clung to the hope of regaining Corsica +for the Republic, but now only by the aid of French troops. For the +islanders, stung by the demand of the French Convention that Paoli +should go to Paris, had rallied to the dictator's side; and the aged +chief made overtures to England for alliance. The partisans of France, +now menaced by England's naval power, were in an utterly untenable +position. Even the steel-like will of Buonaparte was bent. His career +in Corsica was at an end for the present; and with his kith and kin he +set sail for France. + +The interest of the events above described lies, not in their +intrinsic importance, but in the signal proof which they afford of +Buonaparte's wondrous endowments of mind and will. In a losing cause +and in a petty sphere he displays all the qualities which, when the +omens were favourable, impelled him to the domination of a Continent. +He fights every inch of ground tenaciously; at each emergency he +evinces a truly Italian fertility of resource, gliding round obstacles +or striving to shatter them by sheer audacity, seeing through men, +cajoling them by his insinuations or overawing them by his mental +superiority, ever determined to try the fickle jade Fortune to the +very utmost, and retreating only before the inevitable. The sole +weakness discoverable in this nature, otherwise compact of strength, +is an excess of will-power over all the faculties that make for +prudence. His vivid imagination only serves to fire him with the full +assurance that he must prevail over all obstacles. + +And yet, if he had now stopped to weigh well the lessons of the past, +hitherto fertile only in failures and contradictions, he must have +seen the powerlessness of his own will when in conflict with the +forces of the age; for he had now severed his connection with the +Corsican patriots, of whose cause he had only two years before been +the most passionate champion. It is evident that the schism which +finally separated Buonaparte and Paoli originated in their divergence +of views regarding the French Revolution. Paoli accepted revolutionary +principles only in so far as they promised to base freedom on a due +balance of class interests. He was a follower of Montesquieu. He +longed to see in Corsica a constitution similar to that of England or +to that of 1791 in France. That hope vanished alike for France and +Corsica after the fall of the monarchy; and towards the Jacobinical +Republic, which banished orthodox priests and guillotined the amiable +Louis, Paoli thenceforth felt naught but loathing: "We have been the +enemies of kings," he said to Joseph Buonaparte; "let us never be +their executioners." Thenceforth he drifted inevitably into alliance +with England. + +Buonaparte, on the other hand, was a follower of Rousseau, whose ideas +leaped to power at the downfall of the monarchy. Despite the excesses +which he ever deplored, this second Revolution appeared to him to be +the dawn of a new and intelligent age. The clear-cut definitions of +the new political creed dovetailed in with his own rigid views of +life. Mankind was to be saved by law, society being levelled down and +levelled up until the ideals of Lycurgus were attained. Consequently +he regarded the Republic as a mighty agency for the social +regeneration not only of France, but of all peoples. His insular +sentiments were gradually merged in these vaster schemes. +Self-interest and the differentiating effects of party strifes +undoubtedly assisted the mental transformation; but it is clear that +the study of the "Social Contract" was the touchstone of his early +intellectual growth. He had gone to Rousseau's work to deepen his +Corsican patriotism: he there imbibed doctrines which drew him +irresistibly into the vortex of the French Revolution, and of its wars +of propaganda and conquest. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER III + +TOULON + + +When Buonaparte left Corsica for the coast of Provence, his career had +been remarkable only for the strange contrast between the brilliance +of his gifts and the utter failure of all his enterprises. His French +partisanship had, as it seemed, been the ruin of his own and his +family's fortunes. At the age of twenty-four he was known only as the +unlucky leader of forlorn hopes and an outcast from the island around +which his fondest longings had been entwined. His land-fall on the +French coast seemed no more promising; for at that time Provence was +on the verge of revolt against the revolutionary Government. Even +towns like Marseilles and Toulon, which a year earlier had been noted +for their republican fervour, were now disgusted with the course of +events at Paris. In the third climax of revolutionary fury, that of +June 2nd, 1793, the more enlightened of the two republican factions, +the Girondins, had been overthrown by their opponents, the men of the +Mountain, who, aided by the Parisian rabble, seized on power. Most of +the Departments of France resented this violence and took up arms. But +the men of the Mountain acted with extraordinary energy: they +proclaimed the Girondins to be in league with the invaders, and +blasted their opponents with the charge of conspiring to divide France +into federal republics. The Committee of Public Safety, now installed +in power at Paris, decreed a _levee en masse_ of able-bodied patriots +to defend the sacred soil of the Republic, and the "organizer of +victory," Carnot, soon drilled into a terrible efficiency the hosts +that sprang from the soil. On their side the Girondins had no +organization whatever, and were embarrassed by the adhesion of very +many royalists. Consequently their wavering groups speedily gave way +before the impact of the new, solid, central power. + +A movement so wanting in definiteness as that of the Girondins was +destined to slide into absolute opposition to the men of the Mountain: +it was doomed to become royalist. Certainly it did not command the +adhesion of Napoleon. His inclinations are seen in his pamphlet, "Le +Souper de Beaucaire," which he published in August, 1793. He wrote it +in the intervals of some regimental work which had come to hand: and +his passage through the little town of Beaucaire seems to have +suggested the scenic setting of this little dialogue. It purports to +record a discussion between an officer--Buonaparte himself--two +merchants of Marseilles, and citizens of Nimes and Montpellier. It +urges the need of united action under the lead of the Jacobins. The +officer reminds the Marseillais of the great services which their city +has rendered to the cause of liberty. Let Marseilles never disgrace +herself by calling in the Spanish fleet as a protection against +Frenchmen. Let her remember that this civil strife was part of a fight +to the death between French patriots and the despots of Europe. That +was, indeed, the practical point at issue; the stern logic of facts +ranged on the Jacobin side all clear-sighted men who were determined +that the Revolution should not be stamped out by the foreign invaders. +On the ground of mere expediency, men must rally to the cause of the +Jacobinical Republic. Every crime might be condoned, provided that the +men now in power at Paris saved the country. Better their tyranny than +the vengeance of the emigrant _noblesse_. Such was the instinct of +most Frenchmen, and it saved France. + +As an _expose_ of keen policy and all-dominating opportunism, "Le +Souper de Beaucaire" is admirable. In a national crisis anything that +saves the State is justifiable--that is its argument. The men of the +Mountain are abler and stronger than the Girondins: therefore the +Marseillais are foolish not to bow to the men of the Mountain. The +author feels no sympathy with the generous young Girondins, who, under +the inspiration of Madame Roland, sought to establish a republic of +the virtues even while they converted monarchical Europe by the sword. +Few men can now peruse with undimmed eyes the tragic story of their +fall. But the scenes of 1793 had transformed the Corsican youth into a +dry-eyed opportunist who rejects the Girondins as he would have thrown +aside a defective tool: nay, he blames them as "guilty of the greatest +of crimes."[20] + +Nevertheless Buonaparte was alive to the miseries of the situation. He +was weary of civil strifes, in which it seemed that no glory could be +won. He must hew his way to fortune, if only in order to support his +family, which was now drifting about from village to village of +Provence and subsisting on the slender sums doled out by the Republic +to Corsican exiles. + +He therefore applied, though without success, for a regimental +exchange to the army of the Rhine. But while toiling through his +administrative drudgery in Provence, his duties brought him near to +Toulon, where the Republic was face to face with triumphant royalism. +The hour had struck: the man now appeared. + +In July, 1793, Toulon joined other towns of the south in declaring +against Jacobin tyranny; and the royalists of the town, despairing of +making headway against the troops of the Convention, admitted English +and Spanish squadrons to the harbour to hold the town for Louis XVII, +(August 28th). This event shot an electric thrill through France. It +was the climax of a long series of disasters. Lyons had hoisted the +white flag of the Bourbons, and was making a desperate defence against +the forces of the Convention: the royalist peasants of La Vendee had +several times scattered the National Guards in utter rout: the +Spaniards were crossing the Eastern Pyrenees: the Piedmontese were +before the gates of Grenoble; and in the north and on the Rhine a +doubtful contest was raging. + +Such was the condition of France when Buonaparte drew near to the +republican forces encamped near Ollioules, to the north-west of +Toulon. He found them in disorder: their commander, Carteaux, had left +the easel to learn the art of war, and was ignorant of the range of +his few cannon; Dommartin, their artillery commander, had been +disabled by a wound; and the Commissioners of the Convention, who were +charged to put new vigour into the operations, were at their wits' end +for lack of men and munitions. One of them was Salicetti, who hailed +his coming as a godsend, and urged him to take Dommartin's place. +Thus, on September 16th, the thin, sallow, threadbare figure took +command of the artillery. + +The republicans menaced the town on two sides. Carteaux with some +8,000 men held the hills between Toulon and Ollioules, while a corps +3,000 strong, under Lapoype, observed the fortress on the side of La +Valette. Badly led though they were, they wrested the valley north of +Mount Faron from the allied outposts, and nearly completed the +besiegers' lines (September 18th). In fact, the garrison, which +comprised only 2,000 British troops, 4,000 Spaniards, 1,500 French +royalists, together with some Neapolitans and Piedmontese, was +insufficient to defend the many positions around the city on which its +safety depended. Indeed, General Grey wrote to Pitt that 50,000 men +were needed to garrison the place; but, as that was double the +strength of the British regular army then, the English Minister could +only hold out hopes of the arrival of an Austrian corps and a few +hundred British.[21] + +Before Buonaparte's arrival the Jacobins had no artillery: true, they +had a few field-pieces, four heavier guns and two mortars, which a +sergeant helplessly surveyed; but they had no munitions, no tools, +above all no method and no discipline. Here then was the opportunity +for which he had been pining. At once he assumes the tone of a master. +"You mind your business, and let me look after mine," he exclaims to +officious infantrymen; "it is artillery that takes fortresses: +infantry gives its help." The drudgery of the last weeks now yields +fruitful results: his methodical mind, brooding over the chaos before +him, flashes back to this or that detail in some coast fort or +magazine: his energy hustles on the leisurely Provencaux, and in a few +days he has a respectable park of artillery--fourteen cannon, four +mortars, and the necessary stores. In a brief space the Commissioners +show their approval of his services by promoting him to the rank of +_chef de bataillon_. + +By this time the tide was beginning to turn in favour of the Republic. +On October 9th Lyons fell before the Jacobins. The news lends a new +zest to the Jacobins, whose left wing had (October 1st) been severely +handled by the allies on Mount Faron. Above all, Buonaparte's +artillery can be still further strengthened. "I have despatched," he +wrote to the Minister of War, "an intelligent officer to Lyons, +Briancon, and Grenoble, to procure what might be useful to us. I have +requested the Army of Italy to furnish us with the cannon now useless +for the defence of Antibes and Monaco.... I have established at +Ollioules an arsenal with 80 workers. I have requisitioned horses from +Nice right to Valence and Montpellier.... I am having 5,000 gabions +made every day at Marseilles." But he was more than a mere organizer. +He was ever with his men, animating them by his own ardour: "I always +found him at his post," wrote Doppet, who now succeeded Carteaux; +"when he needed rest he lay on the ground wrapped in his cloak: he +never left the batteries." There, amidst the autumn rains, he +contracted the febrile symptoms which for several years deepened the +pallor of his cheeks and furrowed the rings under his eyes, giving him +that uncanny, almost spectral, look which struck a chill to all who +saw him first and knew not the fiery energy that burnt within. There, +too, his zeal, his unfailing resource, his bulldog bravery, and that +indefinable quality which separates genius from talent speedily +conquered the hearts of the French soldiery. One example of this +magnetic power must here suffice. He had ordered a battery to be made +so near to Fort Mulgrave that Salicetti described it as within a +pistol-shot of the English guns. Could it be worked, its effect would +be decisive. But who could work it? The first day saw all its gunners +killed or wounded, and even the reckless Jacobins flinched from facing +the iron hail. "Call it _the battery of the fearless_," ordered the +young captain. The generous French nature was touched at its tenderest +point, personal and national honour, and the battery thereafter never +lacked its full complement of gunners, living and dead. + +The position at Fort Mulgrave, or the Little Gibraltar, was, indeed, +all important; for if the republicans seized that commanding position, +the allied squadrons could be overpowered, or at least compelled to +sail away; and with their departure Toulon must fall. + +Here we come on to ground that has been fiercely fought over in wordy +war. Did Bonaparte originate the plan of attack? Or did he throw his +weight and influence into a scheme that others beside him had +designed? Or did he merely carry out orders as a subordinate? +According to the Commissioner Barras, the last was the case. But +Barras was with the eastern wing of the besiegers, that is, some miles +away from the side of La Seyne and L'Eguillette, where Buonaparte +fought. Besides, Barras' "Memoires" are so untruthful where Buonaparte +is concerned, as to be unworthy of serious attention, at least on +these points.[22] The historian M. Jung likewise relegates Buonaparte +to a quite subordinate position.[23] But his narrative omits some of +the official documents which show that Buonaparte played a very +important part in the siege. Other writers claim that Buonaparte's +influence on the whole conduct of operations was paramount and +decisive. Thus, M. Duruy quotes the letter of the Commissioners to the +Convention: "We shall take care not to lay siege to Toulon by ordinary +means, when we have a surer means to reduce it, that is, by burning +the enemy's fleet.... We are only waiting for the siege-guns before +taking up a position whence we may reach the ships with red-hot balls; +and we shall see if we are not masters of Toulon." But this very +letter disproves the Buonapartist claim. It was written on September +13th. Thus, _three days before Buonaparte's arrival_, the +Commissioners had fully decided on attacking the Little Gibraltar; and +the claim that Buonaparte originated the plan can only be sustained by +antedating his arrival at Toulon.[24] In fact, every experienced +officer among besiegers and besieged saw the weak point of the +defence: early in September Hood and Mulgrave began the fortification +of the heights behind L'Eguillette. In face of these facts, the +assertion that Buonaparte was the first to design the movements which +secured the surrender of Toulon must be relegated to the domain of +hero-worship. (See note on p. 56.) + +[Illustration: THE SIEGE OF TOULON, 1793, from "L'Histoire de France +depuis la Revolution de 1789," by Emmanuel Toulougeon. Paris, An. XII. +[1803]. A. Fort Mulgrave. A'. Promontory of L'Eguillette. 1 and 2. +Batteries. 3. Battery "Hommes sans Peur." The black and shaded +rectangles are the Republican and Allied positions respectively.] + +Carteaux having been superseded by Doppet, more energy was thrown +into the operations. Yet for him Buonaparte had scarcely more respect. +On November 15th an affair of outposts near Fort Mulgrave showed his +weakness. The soldiers on both sides eagerly took up the affray; line +after line of the French rushed up towards that frowning redoubt: +O'Hara, the leader of the allied troops, encouraged the British in a +sortie that drove back the blue-coats; whereupon Buonaparte headed the +rallying rush to the gorge of the redoubt, when Doppet sounded the +retreat. Half blinded by rage and by the blood trickling from a slight +wound in his forehead, the young Corsican rushed back to Doppet and +abused him in the language of the camp: "Our blow at Toulon has +missed, because a---- has beaten the retreat." The soldiery applauded +this revolutionary licence, and bespattered their chief with similar +terms. + +A few days later the tall soldierly Dugommier took the command: +reinforcements began to pour in, finally raising the strength of the +besiegers to 37,000 men. Above all, the new commander gave Buonaparte +_carte blanche_ for the direction of the artillery. New batteries +accordingly began to ring the Little Gibraltar on the landward side; +O'Hara, while gallantly heading a sortie, fell into the republicans' +hands, and the defenders began to lose heart. The worst disappointment +was the refusal of the Austrian Court to fulfil its promise, solemnly +given in September, to send 5,000 regular troops for the defence of +Toulon. + +The final conflict took place on the night of December 16-17, when +torrents of rain, a raging wind, and flashes of lightning added new +horrors to the strife. Scarcely had the assailants left the sheltering +walls of La Seyne, than Buonaparte's horse fell under him, shot dead: +whole companies went astray in the darkness: yet the first column of +2,000 men led by Victor rush at the palisades of Fort Mulgrave, tear +them down, and sweep into the redoubt, only to fall in heaps before a +second line of defence: supported by the second column, they rally, +only to yield once more before the murderous fire. In despair, +Dugommier hurries on the column of reserve, with which Buonaparte +awaits the crisis of the night. Led by the gallant young Muiron, the +reserve sweeps into the gorge of death; Muiron, Buonaparte, and +Dugommier hack their way through the same embrasure: their men swarm +in on the overmatched red-coats and Spaniards, cut them down at their +guns, and the redoubt is won. + +This event was decisive. The Neapolitans, who were charged to hold the +neighbouring forts, flung themselves into the sea; and the ships +themselves began to weigh anchor; for Buonaparte's guns soon poured +their shot on the fleet and into the city itself. But even in that +desperate strait the allies turned fiercely to bay. On the evening of +December 17th a young officer, who was destined once more to thwart +Buonaparte's designs, led a small body of picked men into the dockyard +to snatch from the rescuing clutch of the Jacobins the French warships +that could not be carried off. Then was seen a weird sight. The galley +slaves, now freed from their chains and clustering in angry groups, +menaced the intruders. Yet the British seamen spread the combustibles +and let loose the demon of destruction. Forthwith the flames shot up +the masts, and licked up the stores of hemp, tar, and timber: and the +explosion of two powder-ships by the Spaniards shook the earth for +many miles around. Napoleon ever retained a vivid mental picture of +the scene, which amid the hated calm of St. Helena he thus described: +"The whirlwind of flames and smoke from the arsenal resembled the +eruption of a volcano, and the thirteen vessels blazing in the roads +were like so many displays of fireworks: the masts and forms of the +vessels were distinctly traced out by the flames, which lasted many +hours and formed an unparalleled spectacle." [25] The sight struck +horror to the hearts of the royalists of Toulon, who saw in it the +signal of desertion by the allies; and through the lurid night crowds +of panic-stricken wretches thronged the quays crying aloud to be taken +away from the doomed city. The glare of the flames, the crash of the +enemy's bombs, the explosion of the two powder-ships, frenzied many a +soul; and scores of those who could find no place in the boats flung +themselves into the sea rather than face the pikes and guillotines of +the Jacobins. Their fears were only too well founded; for a fortnight +later Freron, the Commissioner of the Convention, boasted that two +hundred royalists perished daily. + +It remains briefly to consider a question of special interest to +English readers. Did the Pitt Ministry intend to betray the confidence +of the French royalists and keep Toulon for England? The charge has +been brought by certain French writers that the British, after +entering Toulon with promise that they would hold it in pledge for +Louis XVII., nevertheless lorded it over the other allies and revealed +their intention of keeping that stronghold. These writers aver that +Hood, after entering Toulon as an equal with the Spanish admiral, +Langara, laid claim to entire command of the land forces; that English +commissioners were sent for the administration of the town; and that +the English Government refused to allow the coming of the Comte de +Provence, who, as the elder of the two surviving brothers of Louis +XVI., was entitled to act on behalf of Louis XVII.[26] The facts in +the main are correct, but the interpretation put upon them may well be +questioned. Hood certainly acted with much arrogance towards the +Spaniards. But when the more courteous O'Hara arrived to take command +of the British, Neapolitan, and Sardinian troop, the new commander +agreed to lay aside the question of supreme command. It was not till +November 30th that the British Government sent off any despatch on the +question, which meanwhile had been settled at Toulon by the exercise +of that tact in which Hood seems signally to have been lacking. The +whole question was personal, not national. + +Still less was the conduct of the British Government towards the Comte +de Provence a proof of its design to keep Toulon. The records of our +Foreign Office show that, before the occupation of that stronghold for +Louis XVII., we had declined to acknowledge the claims of his uncle to +the Regency. He and his brother, the Comte d'Artois, were notoriously +unpopular in France, except with royalists of the old school; and +their presence at Toulon would certainly have raised awkward questions +about the future government. The conduct of Spain had hitherto been +similar.[27] But after the occupation of Toulon, the Court of Madrid +judged the presence of the Comte de Provence in that fortress to be +advisable; whereas the Pitt Ministry adhered to its former belief, +insisted on the difficulty of conducting the defence if the Prince +were present as Regent, instructed Mr. Drake, our Minister at Genoa, +to use every argument to deter him from proceeding to Toulon, and +privately ordered our officers there, in the last resort, to refuse +him permission to land. The instructions of October 18th to the royal +commissioners at Toulon show that George III. and his Ministers +believed they would be compromising the royalist cause by recognizing +a regency; and certainly any effort by the allies to prejudice the +future settlement would at once have shattered any hopes of a general +rally to the royalist side.[28] + +Besides, if England meant to keep Toulon, why did she send only 2,200 +soldiers? Why did she admit, not only 6,900 Spaniards, but also 4,900 +Neapolitans and 1,600 Piedmontese? Why did she accept the armed help +of 1,600 French royalists? Why did she urgently plead with Austria to +send 5,000 white-coats from Milan? Why, finally, is there no word in +the British official despatches as to the eventual keeping of Toulon; +while there are several references to _indemnities_ which George III. +would require for the expenses of the war--such as Corsica or some of +the French West Indies? Those despatches show conclusively that +England did not wish to keep a fortress that required a permanent +garrison equal to half of the British army on its peace footing; but +that she did regard it as a good base of operations for the overthrow +of the Jacobin rule and the restoration of monarchy; whereupon her +services must be requited with some suitable indemnity, either one of +the French West Indies or Corsica. These plans were shattered by +Buonaparte's skill and the valour of Dugommier's soldiery; but no +record has yet leaped to light to convict the Pitt Ministry of the +perfidy which Buonaparte, in common with nearly all Frenchmen, charged +to their account. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +VENDEMIAIRE + + +The next period of Buonaparte's life presents few features of +interest. He was called upon to supervise the guns and stores for the +Army of Italy, and also to inspect the fortifications and artillery of +the coast. At Marseilles his zeal outstripped his discretion. He +ordered the reconstruction of the fortress which had been destroyed +during the Revolution; but when the townsfolk heard the news, they +protested so vehemently that the work was stopped and an order was +issued for Buonaparte's arrest. From this difficulty the friendship of +the younger Robespierre and of Salicetti, the Commissioners of the +Convention, availed to rescue him; but the incident proves that his +services at Toulon were not so brilliant as to have raised him above +the general level of meritorious officers, who were applauded while +they prospered, but might be sent to the guillotine for any serious +offence. + +In February, 1794, he was appointed at Nice general in command of the +artillery of the Army of Italy, which drove the Sardinian troops from +several positions between Ventimiglia and Oneglia. Thence, swinging +round by passes of the Maritime Alps, they outflanked the positions of +the Austro-Sardinian forces at the Col di Tenda, which had defied all +attack in front. Buonaparte's share in this turning operation seems to +have been restricted to the effective handling of artillery, and the +chief credit here rested with Massena, who won the first of his +laurels in the country of his birth. He was of humble parentage; +yet his erect bearing, proud animated glance, curt penetrating speech, +and keen repartees, proclaimed a nature at once active and wary, an +intellect both calculating and confident. Such was the man who was to +immortalize his name in many a contest, until his glory paled before +the greater genius of Wellington. + +Much of the credit of organizing this previously unsuccessful army +belongs to the younger Robespierre, who, as Commissioner of the +Convention, infused his energy into all departments of the service. +For some months his relations to Buonaparte were those of intimacy; +but whether they extended to complete sympathy on political matters +may be doubted. The younger Robespierre held the revolutionary creed +with sufficient ardour, though one of his letters dated from Oneglia +suggests that the fame of the Terror was hurtful to the prospects of +the campaign. It states that the whole of the neighbouring inhabitants +had fled before the French soldiers, in the belief that they were +destroyers of religion and eaters of babies: this was inconvenient, as +it prevented the supply of provisions and the success of forced loans. +The letter suggests that he was a man of action rather than of ideas, +and probably it was this practical quality which bound Buonaparte in +friendship to him. Yet it is difficult to fathom Buonaparte's ideas +about the revolutionary despotism which was then deluging Paris with +blood. Outwardly he appeared to sympathize with it. Such at least is +the testimony of Marie Robespierre, with whom Buonaparte's sisters +were then intimate. "Buonaparte," she said, "was a republican: I will +even say that he took the side of the Mountain: at least, that was the +impression left on my mind by his opinions when I was at Nice.... His +admiration for my elder brother, his friendship for my younger +brother, and perhaps also the interest inspired by my misfortunes, +gained for me, under the Consulate, a pension of 3,600 francs."[29] +Equally noteworthy is the later declaration of Napoleon that +Robespierre was the "scapegoat of the Revolution." [30] It appears +probable, then, that he shared the Jacobinical belief that the Terror +was a necessary though painful stage in the purification of the body +politic. His admiration of the rigour of Lycurgus, and his dislike of +all superfluous luxury, alike favour this supposition; and as he +always had the courage of his convictions, it is impossible to +conceive him clinging to the skirts of the terrorists merely from a +mean hope of prospective favours. That is the alternative explanation +of his intimacy with young Robespierre. Some of his injudicious +admirers, in trying to disprove his complicity with the terrorists, +impale themselves on this horn of the dilemma. In seeking to clear +him from the charge of Terrorism, they stain him with the charge of +truckling to the terrorists. They degrade him from the level of St. +Just to that of Barrere. + +A sentence in one of young Robespierre's letters shows that he never +felt completely sure about the young officer. After enumerating to his +brother Buonaparte's merits, he adds: "He is a Corsican, and offers +only the guarantee of a man of that nation who has resisted the +caresses of Paoli and whose property has been ravaged by that +traitor." Evidently, then, Robespierre regarded Buonaparte with some +suspicion as an insular Proteus, lacking those sureties, mental and +pecuniary, which reduced a man to dog-like fidelity. + +Yet, however warily Buonaparte picked his steps along the slopes of +the revolutionary volcano, he was destined to feel the scorch of the +central fires. He had recently been intrusted with a mission to the +Genoese Republic, which was in a most difficult position. It was +subject to pressure from three sides; from English men-of-war that had +swooped down on a French frigate, the "Modeste," in Genoese waters; +and from actual invasion by the French on the west and by the +Austrians on the north. Despite the great difficulties of his task, the +young envoy bent the distracted Doge and Senate to his will. He +might, therefore, have expected gratitude from his adopted country; +but shortly after he returned to Nice he was placed under arrest, and +was imprisoned in a fort near Antibes. + +The causes of this swift reverse of fortune were curiously complex. +The Robespierres had in the meantime been guillotined at Paris (July +28th, or Thermidor 10th); and this "Thermidorian" reaction alone would +have sufficed to endanger Buonaparte's head. But his position was +further imperilled by his recent strategic suggestions, which had +served to reduce to a secondary _role_ the French Army of the Alps. +The operations of that force had of late been strangely thwarted; and +its leaders, searching for the paralyzing influence, discovered it in +the advice of Buonaparte. Their suspicions against him were formulated +in a secret letter to the Committee of Public Safety, which stated +that the Army of the Alps had been kept inactive by the intrigues of +the younger Robespierre and of Ricord. Many a head had fallen for +reasons less serious than these. But Buonaparte had one infallible +safeguard: he could not well be spared. After a careful examination of +his papers, the Commissioners, Salicetti and Albitte, provisionally +restored him to liberty, but not, for some weeks, to his rank of +general (August 20th, 1794). The chief reason assigned for his +liberation was the service which his knowledge and talents might +render to the Republic, a reference to the knowledge of the Italian +coast-line which he had gained during the mission to Genoa. + +For a space his daring spirit was doomed to chafe in comparative +inactivity, in supervising the coast artillery. But his faults were +forgotten in the need which was soon felt for his warlike prowess. An +expedition was prepared to free Corsica from "the tyranny of the +English"; and in this Buonaparte sailed, as general commanding the +artillery. With him were two friends, Junot and Marmont, who had clung +to him through his recent troubles; the former was to be helped to +wealth and fame by Buonaparte's friendship, the latter by his own +brilliant gifts.[31] In this expedition their talent was of no avail. +The French were worsted in an engagement with the British fleet, and +fell back in confusion to the coast of France. Once again Buonaparte's +Corsican enterprises were frustrated by the ubiquitous lords of the +sea: against them he now stored up a double portion of hate, for in +the meantime his inspectorship of coast artillery had been given to +his fellow-countryman, Casabianca. + +The fortunes of these Corsican exiles drifted hither and thither in +many perplexing currents, as Buonaparte was once more to discover. It +was a prevalent complaint that there were too many of them seeking +employment in the army of the south; and a note respecting the career +of the young officer made by General Scherer, who now commanded the +French Army of Italy, shows that Buonaparte had aroused at least as +much suspicion as admiration. It runs: "This officer is general of +artillery, and in this arm has sound knowledge, but has somewhat too +much ambition and intriguing habits for his advancement." All things +considered, it was deemed advisable to transfer him to the army which +was engaged in crushing the Vendean revolt, a service which he loathed +and was determined, if possible, to evade. Accompanied by his faithful +friends, Marmont and Junot, as also by his young brother Louis, he set +out for Paris (May, 1795). + +In reality Fortune never favoured him more than when she removed him +from the coteries of intriguing Corsicans on the coast of Provence and +brought him to the centre of all influence. An able schemer at Paris +could decide the fate of parties and governments. At the frontiers men +could only accept the decrees of the omnipotent capital. Moreover, the +Revolution, after passing through the molten stage, was now beginning +to solidify, an important opportunity for the political craftsman. The +spring of the year 1795 witnessed a strange blending of the new +fanaticism with the old customs. Society, dammed up for a time by the +Spartan rigour of Robespierre, was now flowing back into its wonted +channels. Gay equipages were seen in the streets; theatres, prosperous +even during the Terror, were now filled to overflowing; gambling, +whether in money or in stocks and _assignats_, was now permeating all +grades of society; and men who had grown rich by amassing the +confiscated State lands now vied with bankers, stock-jobbers, and +forestallers of grain in vulgar ostentation. As for the poor, they +were meeting their match in the gilded youth of Paris, who with +clubbed sticks asserted the right of the rich to be merry. If the +_sansculottes_ attempted to restore the days of the Terror, the +National Guards of Paris were ready to sweep them back into the slums. +Such was their fate on May 20th, shortly after Buonaparte's arrival at +Paris. Any dreams which he may have harboured of restoring the +Jacobins to power were dissipated, for Paris now plunged into the +gaieties of the _ancien regime_. The Terror was remembered only as a +horrible nightmare, which served to add zest to the pleasures of the +present. In some circles no one was received who had not lost a +relative by the guillotine. With a ghastly merriment characteristic of +the time, "victim balls" were given, to which those alone were +admitted who could produce the death warrant of some family +connection: these secured the pleasure of dancing in costumes which +recalled those of the scaffold, and of beckoning ever and anon to +their partners with nods that simulated the fall of the severed head. +It was for this, then, that the amiable Louis, the majestic Marie +Antoinette, the Minerva-like Madame Roland, the Girondins vowed to the +utter quest of liberty, the tyrant-quelling Danton, the incorruptible +Robespierre himself, had felt the fatal axe; in order that the mimicry +of their death agonies might tickle jaded appetites, and help to weave +anew the old Circean spells. So it seemed to the few who cared to +think of the frightful sacrifices of the past, and to measure them +against the seemingly hopeless degradation of the present. + +Some such thoughts seem to have flitted across the mind of Buonaparte +in those months of forced inactivity. It was a time of disillusionment. +Rarely do we find thenceforth in his correspondence any gleams of +faith respecting the higher possibilities of the human race. The +golden visions of youth now vanish along with the _bonnet rouge_ and +the jargon of the Terror. His bent had ever been for the material and +practical: and now that faith in the Jacobinical creed was vanishing, +it was more than ever desirable to grapple that errant balloon to +substantial facts. Evidently, the Revolution must now trust to the +clinging of the peasant proprietors to the recently confiscated lands +of the Church and of the emigrant nobles. If all else was vain and +transitory, here surely was a solid basis of material interests to +which the best part of the manhood of France would tenaciously adhere, +defying alike the plots of reactionaries and the forces of monarchical +Europe. Of these interests Buonaparte was to be the determined +guarantor. Amidst much that was visionary in his later policy he never +wavered in his championship of the new peasant proprietors. He was +ever the peasants' General, the peasants' Consul, the peasants' +Emperor. + +The transition of the Revolution to an ordinary form of polity was +also being furthered by its unparalleled series of military triumphs. +When Buonaparte's name was as yet unknown, except in Corsica and +Provence, France practically gained her "natural boundaries," the +Rhine and the Alps. In the campaigns of 1793-4, the soldiers of +Pichegru, Kleber, Hoche, and Moreau overran the whole of the Low +Countries and chased the Germans beyond the Rhine; the Piedmontese +were thrust behind the Alps; the Spaniards behind the Pyrenees. In +quick succession State after State sued for peace: Tuscany in +February, 1795; Prussia in April; Hanover, Westphalia, and Saxony in +May; Spain and Hesse-Cassel in July; Switzerland and Denmark in +August. + +Such was the state of France when Buonaparte came to seek his +fortunes in the Sphinx-like capital. His artillery command had been +commuted to a corresponding rank in the infantry--a step that deeply +incensed him. He attributed it to malevolent intriguers; but all his +efforts to obtain redress were in vain. Lacking money and patronage, +known only as an able officer and facile intriguer of the bankrupt +Jacobinical party, he might well have despaired. He was now almost +alone. Marmont had gone off to the Army of the Rhine; but Junot was +still with him, allured perhaps by Madame Permon's daughter, whom he +subsequently married. At the house of this amiable hostess, an old +friend of his family, Buonaparte found occasional relief from the +gloom of his existence. The future Madame Junot has described him as +at this time untidy, unkempt, sickly, remarkable for his extreme +thinness and the almost yellow tint of his visage, which was, however, +lit up by "two eyes sparkling with keenness and will-power"--evidently +a Corsican falcon, pining for action, and fretting its soaring spirit +in that vapid town life. Action Buonaparte might have had, but only of +a kind that he loathed. He might have commanded the troops destined to +crush the brave royalist peasants of La Vendee. But, whether from +scorn of such vulture-work, or from an instinct that a nobler quarry +might be started at Paris, he refused to proceed to the Army of the +West, and on the plea of ill-health remained in the capital. There he +spent his time deeply pondering on politics and strategy. He designed +a history of the last two years, and drafted a plan of campaign for +the Army of Italy, which, later on, was to bear him to fortune. +Probably the geographical insight which it displayed may have led to +his appointment (August 20th, 1795) to the topographical bureau of the +Committee of Public Safety. His first thought on hearing of this +important advancement was that it opened up an opportunity for +proceeding to Turkey to organize the artillery of the Sultan; and in a +few days he sent in a formal request to that effect--the first +tangible proof of that yearning after the Orient which haunted him all +through life. But, while straining his gaze eastwards, he experienced +a sharp rebuff. The Committee was on the point of granting his +request, when an examination of his recent conduct proved him guilty +of a breach of discipline in not proceeding to his Vendean command. On +the very day when one department of the Committee empowered him to +proceed to Constantinople, the Central Committee erased his name from +the list of general officers (September 15th). + +This time the blow seemed fatal. But Fortune appeared to compass his +falls only in order that he might the more brilliantly tower aloft. +Within three weeks he was hailed as the saviour of the new republican +constitution. The cause of this almost magical change in his prospects +is to be sought in the political unrest of France, to which we must +now briefly advert. + +All through this summer of 1795 there were conflicts between Jacobins +and royalists. In the south the latter party had signally avenged +itself for the agonies of the preceding years, and the ardour of the +French temperament seemed about to drive that hapless people from the +"Red Terror" to a veritable "White Terror," when two disasters checked +the course of the reaction. An attempt of a large force of emigrant +French nobles, backed up by British money and ships, to rouse Brittany +against the Convention was utterly crushed by the able young Hoche; +and nearly seven hundred prisoners were afterwards shot down in cold +blood (July). Shortly before this blow, the little prince styled Louis +XVII. succumbed to the brutal treatment of his gaolers at the Temple +in Paris; and the hopes of the royalists now rested on the unpopular +Comte de Provence. Nevertheless, the political outlook in the summer +of 1795 was not reassuring to the republicans; and the Commission of +Eleven, empowered by the Convention to draft new organic laws, drew up +an instrument of government, which, though republican in form, seemed +to offer all the stability of the most firmly rooted oligarchy. Some +such compromise was perhaps necessary; for the Commonwealth was +confronted by three dangers, anarchy resulting from the pressure of +the mob, an excessive centralization of power in the hands of two +committees, and the possibility of a _coup d'etat_ by some pretender +or adventurer. Indeed, the student of French history cannot fail to +see that this is the problem which is ever before the people of +France. It has presented itself in acute though diverse phases in +1797,1799,1814, 1830, 1848, 1851, and in 1871. Who can say that the +problem has yet found its complete solution? + +In some respects the constitution which the Convention voted in +August, 1795, was skilfully adapted to meet the needs of the time. +Though democratic in spirit, it granted a vote only to those citizens +who had resided for a year in some dwelling and had paid taxes, thus +excluding the rabble who had proved to be dangerous to any settled +government. It also checked the hasty legislation which had brought +ridicule on successive National Assemblies. In order to moderate the +zeal for the manufacture of decrees, which had often exceeded one +hundred a month, a second or revising chamber was now to be formed on +the basis of age; for it had been found that the younger the deputies +the faster came forth the fluttering flocks of decrees, that often +came home to roost in the guise of curses. A senatorial guillotine, it +was now proposed, should thin out the fledglings before they flew +abroad at all. Of the seven hundred and fifty deputies of France, the +two hundred and fifty oldest men were to form the Council of Ancients, +having powers to amend or reject the proposals emanating from the +Council of Five Hundred. In this Council were the younger deputies, +and with them rested the sole initiation of laws. Thus the young +deputies were to make the laws, but the older deputies were to amend +or reject them; and this nice adjustment of the characteristics of +youth and age, a due blending of enthusiasm with caution, promised to +invigorate the body politic and yet guard its vital interests. +Lastly, in order that the two Councils should continuously represent +the feelings of France, one third of their members must retire for +re-election every year, a device which promised to prevent any violent +change in their composition, such as might occur if, at the end of +their three years' membership, all were called upon to resign at once. + +But the real crux of constitution builders had hitherto been in the +relations of the Legislature to the Executive. How should the brain of +the body politic, that is, the Legislature, be connected with the +hand, that is, the Executive? Obviously, so argued all French +political thinkers, the two functions were distinct and must be kept +separate. The results of this theory of the separation of powers were +clearly traceable in the course of the Revolution. When the hand had +been left almost powerless, as in 1791-2, owing to democratic jealousy +of the royal Ministry, the result had been anarchy. The supreme needs +of the State in the agonies of 1793 had rendered the hand omnipotent: +the Convention, that is, the brain, was for some time powerless before +its own instrument, the two secret committees. Experience now showed +that the brain must exercise a general control over the hand, without +unduly hampering its actions. Evidently, then, the deputies of France +must intrust the details of administration to responsible Ministers, +though some directing agency seemed needed as a spur to energy and a +check against royalist plots. In brief, the Committee of Public +Safety, purged of its more dangerous powers, was to furnish the model +for a new body of five members, termed the Directory. This +organism, which was to give its name to the whole period 1795-1799, +was not the Ministry. There was no Ministry as we now use the term. +There were Ministers who were responsible individually for their +departments of State: but they never met for deliberation, or +communicated with the Legislature; they were only heads of +departments, who were responsible individually to the Directors. These +five men formed a powerful committee, deliberating in private on the +whole policy of the State and on all the work of the Ministers. The +Directory had not, it is true, the right of initiating laws and of +arbitrary arrest which the two committees had freely exercised during +the Terror. Its dependence on the Legislature seemed also to be +guaranteed by the Directors being appointed by the two legislative +Councils; while one of the five was to vacate his office for +re-election every year. But in other respects the directorial powers +were almost as extensive as those wielded by the two secret +committees, or as those which Bonaparte was to inherit from the +Directory in 1799. They comprised the general control of policy in +peace and war, the right to negotiate treaties (subject to +ratification by the legislative councils), to promulgate laws voted by +the Councils and watch over their execution, and to appoint or dismiss +the Ministers of State. + +Such was the constitution which was proclaimed on September 22nd, +1795, or 1st Vendemiaire, Year IV., of the revolutionary calendar. An +important postscript to the original constitution now excited fierce +commotions which enabled the young officer to repair his own shattered +fortunes. The Convention, terrified at the thought of a general +election, which might send up a malcontent or royalist majority, +decided to impose itself on France for at least two years longer. With +an effrontery unparalleled in parliamentary annals, it decreed that +the law of the new constitution, requiring the re-election of +one-third of the deputies every year, should now be applied to itself; +and that the rest of its members should sit in the forthcoming +Councils. At once a cry of disgust and rage arose from all who were +weary of the Convention and all its works. "Down with the +two-thirds!" was the cry that resounded through the streets of Paris. +The movement was not so much definitely royalist as vaguely +malcontent. The many were enraged by the existing dearth and by the +failure of the Revolution to secure even cheap bread. Doubtless the +royalists strove to drive on the discontent to the desired goal, and +in many parts they tinged the movement with an unmistakably Bourbon +tint. But it is fairly certain that in Paris they could not alone have +fomented a discontent so general as that of Vendemiaire. That they +would have profited by the defeat of the Convention is, however, +equally certain. The history of the Revolution proves that those who +at first merely opposed the excesses of the Jacobins gradually drifted +over to the royalists. The Convention now found itself attacked in the +very city which had been the chosen abode of Liberty and Equality. +Some thirty thousand of the Parisian National Guards were determined +to give short shrift to this Assembly that clung so indecently to +life; and as the armies were far away, the Parisian malcontents seemed +masters of the situation. Without doubt they would have been but for +their own precipitation and the energy of Buonaparte. + +But how came he to receive the military authority which was so +potently to influence the course of events? We left him in Fructidor +disgraced: we find him in the middle of Vendemiaire leading part of +the forces of the Convention. This bewildering change was due to the +pressing needs of the Republic, to his own signal abilities, and to +the discerning eye of Barras, whose career claims a brief notice. + +Paul Barras came of a Provencal family, and had an adventurous life +both on land and in maritime expeditions. Gifted with a robust frame, +consummate self-assurance, and a ready tongue, he was well equipped +for intrigues, both amorous and political, when the outbreak of the +Revolution gave his thoughts a more serious turn. Espousing the +ultra-democratic side, he yet contrived to emerge unscathed from the +schisms which were fatal to less dextrous trimmers. He was present at +the siege of Toulon, and has striven in his "Memoires" to disparage +Buonaparte's services and exalt his own. At the crisis of Thermidor +the Convention intrusted him with the command of the "army of the +interior," and the energy which he then displayed gained for him the +same position in the equally critical days of Vendemiaire. Though he +subsequently carped at the conduct of Buonaparte, his action proved +his complete confidence in that young officer's capacity: he at once +sent for him, and intrusted him with most important duties. Herein +lies the chief chance of immortality for the name of Barras; not that, +as a terrorist, he slaughtered royalists at Toulon; not that he was +the military chief of the Thermidorians, who, from fear of their own +necks, ended the supremacy of Robespierre; not even that he degraded +the new _regime_ by a cynical display of all the worst vices of the +old; but rather because he was now privileged to hold the stirrup for +the great captain who vaulted lightly into the saddle. + +The present crisis certainly called for a man of skill and +determination. The malcontents had been emboldened by the timorous +actions of General Menou, who had previously been intrusted with the +task of suppressing the agitation. Owing to a praiseworthy desire to +avoid bloodshed, that general wasted time in parleying with the most +rebellious of the "sections" of Paris. The Convention now appointed +Barras to the command, while Buonaparte, Brune, Carteaux, Dupont, +Loison, Vachot, and Vezu were charged to serve under him.[32] Such was +the decree of the Convention, which therefore refutes Napoleon's later +claim that he was in command, and that of his admirers that he was +second in command. + +Yet, intrusted from the outset by Barras with important duties, he +unquestionably became the animating spirit of the defence. "From the +first," says Thiebault, "his activity was astonishing: he seemed to be +everywhere at once: he surprised people by his laconic, clear, and +prompt orders: everybody was struck by the vigour of his arrangements, +and passed from admiration to confidence, from confidence to +enthusiasm." Everything now depended on skill and enthusiasm. The +defenders of the Convention, comprising some four or five thousand +troops of the line, and between one and two thousand patriots, +gendarmes, and Invalides, were confronted by nearly thirty thousand +National Guards. The odds were therefore wellnigh as heavy as those +which menaced Louis XVI. on the day of his final overthrow. But the +place of the yielding king was now filled by determined men, who saw +the needs of the situation. In the earlier scenes of the Revolution, +Buonaparte had pondered on the efficacy of artillery in +street-fighting--a fit subject for his geometrical genius. With a few +cannon, he knew that he could sweep all the approaches to the palace; +and, on Barras' orders, he despatched a dashing cavalry officer, +Murat--a name destined to become famous from Madrid to Moscow--to +bring the artillery from the neighbouring camp of Sablons. Murat +secured them before the malcontents of Paris could lay hands on them; +and as the "sections" of Paris had yielded up their own cannon after +the affrays of May, they now lacked the most potent force in +street-fighting. Their actions were also paralyzed by divided +counsels: their commander, an old general named Danican, moved his men +hesitatingly; he wasted precious minutes in parleying, and thus gave +time to Barras' small but compact force to fight them in detail. +Buonaparte had skilfully disposed his cannon to bear on the royalist +columns that threatened the streets north of the Tuileries. But for +some time the two parties stood face to face, seeking to cajole or +intimidate one another. As the autumn afternoon waned, shots were +fired from some houses near the church of St. Roch, where the +malcontents had their headquarters.[33] At once the streets became the +scene of a furious fight; furious but unequal; for Buonaparte's cannon +tore away the heads of the malcontent columns. In vain did the +royalists pour in their volleys from behind barricades, or from the +neighbouring houses: finally they retreated on the barricaded church, +or fled down the Rue St. Honore. Meanwhile their bands from across the +river, 5,000 strong, were filing across the bridges, and menaced the +Tuileries from that side, until here also they melted away before the +grapeshot and musketry poured into their front and flank. By six +o'clock the conflict was over. The fight presents few, if any, +incidents which are authentic. The well-known engraving of Helman, +which shows Buonaparte directing the storming of the church of St. +Roch is unfortunately quite incorrect. He was not engaged there, but +in the streets further east: the church was not stormed: the +malcontents held it all through the night, and quietly surrendered it +next morning. + +Such was the great day of Vendemiaire. It cost the lives of about two +hundred on each side; at least, that is the usual estimate, which +seems somewhat incongruous with the stories of fusillading and +cannonading at close quarters, until we remember that it is the custom +of memoir-writers and newspaper editors to trick out the details of a +fight, and in the case of civil warfare to minimise the bloodshed. +Certainly the Convention acted with clemency in the hour of victory: +two only of the rebel leaders were put to death; and it is pleasing to +remember that when Menou was charged with treachery, Buonaparte used +his influence to procure his freedom. + +Bourrienne states that in his later days the victor deeply regretted +his action in this day of Vendemiaire. The assertion seems +incredible. The "whiff of grapeshot" crushed a movement which could +have led only to present anarchy, and probably would have brought +France back to royalism of an odious type. It taught a severe lesson +to a fickle populace which, according to Mme. de Stael, was hungering +for the spoils of place as much as for any political object. Of all +the events of his post-Corsican life, Buonaparte need surely never +have felt compunctions for Vendemiaire.[34] + +After four signal reverses in his career, he now enters on a path +strewn with glories. The first reward for his signal services to the +Republic was his appointment to be second in command of the army of +the interior; and when Barras resigned the first command, he took that +responsible post. But more brilliant honours were soon to follow, the +first of a social character, the second purely military. + +Buonaparte had already appeared timidly and awkwardly at the _salon_ +of the voluptuous Barras, where the fair but frail Madame +Tallien--Notre Dame de Thermidor she was styled--dazzled Parisian +society by her classic features and the uncinctured grace of her +attire. There he reappeared, not in the threadbare uniform that had +attracted the giggling notice of that giddy throng, but as the lion of +the society which his talents had saved. His previous attempts to gain +the hand of a lady had been unsuccessful. He had been refused, first +by Mlle. Clary, sister of his brother Joseph's wife, and quite +recently by Madame Permon. Indeed, the scarecrow young officer had not +been a brilliant match. But now he saw at that _salon_ a charming +widow, Josephine de Beauharnais, whose husband had perished in the +Terror. The ardour of his southern temperament, long repressed by his +privations, speedily rekindles in her presence: his stiff, awkward +manners thaw under her smiles: his silence vanishes when she praises +his military gifts: he admires her tact, her sympathy, her beauty: he +determines to marry her. The lady, on her part, seems to have been +somewhat terrified by her uncanny wooer: she comments questioningly on +his "violent tenderness almost amounting to frenzy": she notes +uneasily his "keen inexplicable gaze which imposes even on our +Directors": How would this eager nature, this masterful energy, +consort with her own "Creole nonchalance"? She did well to ask herself +whether the general's almost volcanic passion would not soon exhaust +itself, and turn from her own fading charms to those of women who +were his equals in age. Besides, when she frankly asked her own heart, +she found that she loved him not: she only admired him. Her chief +consolation was that if she married him, her friend Barras would help +to gain for Buonaparte the command of the Army of Italy. The advice of +Barras undoubtedly helped to still the questioning surmises of +Josephine; and the wedding was celebrated, as a civil contract, on +March 9th, 1796. With a pardonable coquetry, the bride entered her age +on the register as four years less than the thirty-four which had +passed over her: while her husband, desiring still further to lessen +the disparity, entered his date of birth as 1768. + +A fortnight before the wedding, he had been appointed to command the +Army of Italy: and after a honeymoon of two days at Paris, he left his +bride to take up his new military duties. Clearly, then, there was +some connection between this brilliant fortune and his espousal of +Josephine. But the assertion that this command was the "dowry" offered +by Barras to the somewhat reluctant bride is more piquant than +correct. That the brilliance of Buonaparte's prospects finally +dissipated her scruples may be frankly admitted. But the appointment +to a command of a French army did not rest with Barras. He was only +one of the five Directors who now decided the chief details of +administration. His colleagues were Letourneur, Rewbell, La +Reveilliere-Lepeaux, and the great Carnot; and, as a matter of fact, +it was the last-named who chiefly decided the appointment in question. + +He had seen and pondered over the plan of campaign which Buonaparte +had designed for the Army of Italy; and the vigour of the conception, +the masterly appreciation of topographical details which it displayed, +and the trenchant energy of its style had struck conviction to his +strategic genius. Buonaparte owed his command, not to a backstairs +intrigue, as was currently believed in the army, but rather to his own +commanding powers. While serving with the Army of Italy in 1794, he +had carefully studied the coast-line and the passes leading inland; +and, according to the well-known savant, Volney, the young officer, +shortly after his release from imprisonment, sketched out to him and +to a Commissioner of the Convention the details of the very plan of +campaign which was to carry him victoriously from the Genoese Riviera +into the heart of Austria.[35] While describing this masterpiece of +strategy, says Volney, Buonaparte spoke as if inspired. We can fancy +the wasted form dilating with a sense of power, the thin sallow cheeks +aglow with enthusiasm, the hawk-like eyes flashing at the sight of the +helpless Imperial quarry, as he pointed out on the map of Piedmont and +Lombardy the features which would favour a dashing invader and carry +him to the very gates of Vienna. The splendours of the Imperial Court +at the Tuileries seem tawdry and insipid when compared with the +intellectual grandeur which lit up that humble lodging at Nice with +the first rays that heralded the dawn of Italian liberation. + +With the fuller knowledge which he had recently acquired, he now in +January, 1796, elaborated this plan of campaign, so that it at once +gained Carnot's admiration. The Directors forwarded it to General +Scherer, who was in command of the Army of Italy, but promptly +received the "brutal" reply that the man who had drafted the plan +ought to come and carry it out. Long dissatisfied with Scherer's +inactivity and constant complaints, the Directory now took him at his +word, and replaced him by Buonaparte. Such is the truth about +Buonaparte's appointment to the Army of Italy. + +To Nice, then, the young general set out (March 21st) accompanied, or +speedily followed, by his faithful friends, Marmont and Junot, as well +as by other officers of whose energy he was assured, Berthier, Murat, +and Duroc. How much had happened since the early summer of 1795, when +he had barely the means to pay his way to Paris! A sure instinct had +drawn him to that hot-bed of intrigues. He had played a desperate +game, risking his commission in order that he might keep in close +touch with the central authority. His reward for this almost +superhuman confidence in his own powers was correspondingly great; and +now, though he knew nothing of the handling of cavalry and infantry +save from books, he determined to lead the Army of Italy to a series +of conquests that would rival those of Caesar. In presence of a will so +stubborn and genius so fervid, what wonder that a friend prophesied +that his halting-place would be either the throne or the scaffold? + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE ITALIAN CAMPAIGN + +(1796) + + +In the personality of Napoleon nothing is more remarkable than the +combination of gifts which in most natures are mutually exclusive; his +instincts were both political and military; his survey of a land took +in not only the geographical environment but also the material welfare +of the people. Facts, which his foes ignored, offered a firm fulcrum +for the leverage of his will: and their political edifice or their +military policy crumbled to ruin under an assault planned with +consummate skill and pressed home with relentless force. + +For the exercise of all these gifts what land was so fitted as the +mosaic of States which was dignified with the name of Italy? + +That land had long been the battle-ground of the Bourbons and the +Hapsburgs; and their rivalries, aided by civic dissensions, had +reduced the people that once had given laws to Europe into a condition +of miserable weakness. Europe was once the battle-field of the Romans: +Italy was now the battle-field of Europe. The Hapsburgs dominated the +north, where they held the rich Duchy of Milan, along with the great +stronghold of Mantua, and some scattered imperial fiefs. A scion of +the House of Austria reigned at Florence over the prosperous Duchy of +Tuscany. Modena and Lucca were under the general control of the Court +of Vienna. The south of the peninsula, along with Sicily, was swayed +by Ferdinand IV., a descendant of the Spanish Bourbons, who kept his +people in a condition of mediaeval ignorance and servitude; and this +dynasty controlled the Duchy of Parma. The Papal States were also sunk +in the torpor of the Middle Ages; but in the northern districts of +Bologna and Ferrara, known as the "Legations," the inhabitants still +remembered the time of their independence, and chafed under the +irritating restraints of Papal rule. This was seen when the leaven of +French revolutionary thought began to ferment in Italian towns. Two +young men of Bologna were so enamoured of the new ideas, as to raise +an Italian tricolour flag, green, white, and red, and summon their +fellow-citizens to revolt against the rule of the Pope's legate +(November, 1794). The revolt was crushed, and the chief offenders were +hanged; but elsewhere the force of democracy made itself felt, +especially among the more virile peoples of Northern Italy. Lombardy +and Piedmont throbbed with suppressed excitement. Even when the King +of Sardinia, Victor Amadeus III., was waging war against the French +Republic, the men of Turin were with difficulty kept from revolt; and, +as we have seen, the Austro-Sardinian alliance was powerless to +recover Savoy and Nice from the soldiers of liberty or to guard the +Italian Riviera from invasion. + +In fact, Bonaparte--for he henceforth spelt his name thus--detected +the political weakness of the Hapsburgs' position in Italy. Masters of +eleven distinct peoples north of the Alps, how could they hope +permanently to dominate a wholly alien people south of that great +mountain barrier? The many failures of the old Ghibelline or Imperial +party in face of any popular impulse which moved the Italian nature to +its depths revealed the artificiality of their rule. Might not such an +impulse be imparted by the French Revolution? And would not the hopes +of national freedom and of emancipation from feudal imposts fire these +peoples with zeal for the French cause? Evidently there were vast +possibilities in a democratic propaganda. At the outset Bonaparte's +racial sympathies were warmly aroused for the liberation of +Italy; and though his judgment was to be warped by the promptings of +ambition, he never lost sight of the welfare of the people whence he +was descended. In his "Memoirs written at St. Helena" he summed up his +convictions respecting the Peninsula in this statesmanlike utterance: +"Italy, isolated within its natural limits, separated by the sea and +by very high mountains from the rest of Europe, seems called to be a +great and powerful nation.... Unity in manners, language, literature +ought finally, in a future more or less remote, to unite its +inhabitants under a single government.... Rome is beyond doubt the +capital which the Italians will one day choose." A prophetic saying: +it came from a man who, as conqueror and organizer, awakened that +people from the torpor of centuries and breathed into it something of +his own indomitable energy. + +And then again, the Austrian possessions south of the Alps were +difficult to hold for purely military reasons. They were separated +from Vienna by difficult mountain ranges through which armies +struggled with difficulty. True, Mantua was a formidable stronghold, +but no fortress could make the Milanese other than a weak and +straggling territory, the retention of which by the Court of Vienna +was a defiance to the gospel of nature of which Rousseau was the +herald and Bonaparte the militant exponent. + +The Austro-Sardinian forces were now occupying the pass which +separates the Apennines from the Maritime Alps north of the town of +Savona. They were accordingly near the headwaters of the Bormida and +the Tanaro, two of the chief affluents of the River Po: and roads +following those river valleys led, the one north-east, in the +direction of Milan, the other north-west towards Turin, the Sardinian +capital. A wedge of mountainous country separated these roads as they +diverged from the neighbourhood of Montenotte. Here obviously was the +vulnerable point of the Austro-Sardinian position. Here therefore +Bonaparte purposed to deliver his first strokes, foreseeing that, +should he sever the allies, he would have in his favour every +advantage both political and topographical. + +All this was possible to a commander who could overcome the initial +difficulties. But these difficulties were enormous. The position of +the French Army of Italy in March, 1796, was precarious. Its +detachments, echelonned near the coast from Savona to Loano, and +thence to Nice, or inland to the Col di Tende, comprised in all +42,000 men, as against the Austro-Sardinian forces amounting to +52,000 men.[36] Moreover, the allies occupied strong positions on the +northern slopes of the Maritime Alps and Apennines, and, holding the +inner and therefore shorter curve, they could by a dextrous +concentration have pushed their more widely scattered opponents on to +the shore, where the republicans would have been harassed by the guns +of the British cruisers. Finally, Bonaparte's troops were badly +equipped, worse clad, and were not paid at all. On his arrival at Nice +at the close of March, the young commander had to disband one +battalion for mutinous conduct.[37] For a brief space it seemed +doubtful how the army would receive this slim, delicate-looking youth, +known hitherto only as a skilful artillerist at Toulon and in the +streets of Paris. But he speedily gained the respect and confidence of +the rank and file, not only by stern punishment of the mutineers, but +by raising money from a local banker, so as to make good some of the +long arrears of pay. Other grievances he rectified by prompt +reorganization of the commissariat and kindred departments. But, above +all, by his burning words he thrilled them: "Soldiers, you are half +starved and half naked. The Government owes you much, but can do +nothing for you. Your patience and courage are honourable to you, but +they procure you neither advantage nor glory. I am about to lead you +into the most fertile valleys of the world: there you will find +flourishing cities and teeming provinces: there you will reap honour, +glory, and riches. Soldiers of the Army of Italy, will you lack +courage?" Two years previously so open a bid for the soldiers' +allegiance would have conducted any French commander forthwith to the +guillotine. + +[Illustration: MAP TO ILLUSTRATE THE CAMPAIGNS IN NORTH ITALY.] + +But much had changed since the days of Robespierre's supremacy; +Spartan austerity had vanished; and the former insane jealousy of +individual pre-eminence was now favouring a startling reaction which +was soon to install the one supremely able man as absolute master of +France. + +Bonaparte's conduct produced a deep impression alike on troops and +officers. From Massena his energy and his trenchant orders extorted +admiration: and the tall swaggering Augereau shrank beneath the +intellectual superiority of his gaze. Moreover, at the beginning of +April the French received reinforcements which raised their total to +49,300 men, and gave them a superiority of force; for though the +allies had 52,000, yet they were so widely scattered as to be inferior +in any one district. Besides, the Austrian commander, Beaulieu, was +seventy-one years of age, had only just been sent into Italy, with +which land he was ill acquainted, and found one-third of his troops +down with sickness.[38] + +Bonaparte now began to concentrate his forces near Savona. Fortune +favoured him even before the campaign commenced. The snows of winter, +still lying on the mountains, though thawing on the southern slopes, +helped to screen his movements from the enemy's outposts; and the +French vanguard pushed along the coastline even as far as Voltri. This +movement was designed to coerce the Senate of Genoa into payment of a +fine for its acquiescence in the seizure of a French vessel by a +British cruiser within its neutral roadstead; but it served to alarm +Beaulieu, who, breaking up his cantonments, sent a strong column +towards that city. At the time this circumstance greatly annoyed +Bonaparte, who had hoped to catch the Imperialists dozing in their +winter quarters. Yet it is certain that the hasty move of their left +flank towards Voltri largely contributed to that brilliant opening of +Bonaparte's campaign, which his admirers have generally regarded as +due solely to his genius.[39] For, when Beaulieu had thrust his column +into the broken coast district between Genoa and Voltri, he severed it +dangerously far from his centre, which marched up the valley of the +eastern branch of the Bormida to occupy the passes of the Apennines +north of Savona. This, again, was by no means in close touch with the +Sardinian allies encamped further to the west in and beyond Ceva. +Beaulieu, writing at a later date to Colonel Graham, the English +_attache_ at his headquarters, ascribed his first disasters to +Argenteau, his lieutenant at Montenotte, who employed only a third of +the forces placed under his command. But division of forces was +characteristic of the Austrians in all their operations, and they now +gave a fine opportunity to any enterprising opponent who should crush +their weak and unsupported centre. In obedience to orders from Vienna, +Beaulieu assumed the offensive; but he brought his chief force to bear +on the French vanguard at Voltri, which he drove in with some loss. +While he was occupying Voltri, the boom of cannon echoing across the +mountains warned his outposts that the real campaign was opening in +the broken country north of Savona.[40] There the weak Austrian centre +had occupied a ridge or plateau above the village of Montenotte, +through which ran the road leading to Alessandria and Milan. +Argenteau's attack partly succeeded: but the stubborn bravery of a +French detachment checked it before the redoubt which commanded the +southern prolongation of the heights named Monte-Legino.[41] + +Such was the position of affairs when Bonaparte hurried up. On the +following day (April 12th), massing the French columns of attack +under cover of an early morning mist, he moved them to their +positions, so that the first struggling rays of sunlight revealed to +the astonished Austrians the presence of an army ready to crush their +front and turn their flanks. For a time the Imperialists struggled +bravely against the superior forces in their front; but when Massena +pressed round their right wing, they gave way and beat a speedy +retreat to save themselves from entire capture. Bonaparte took no +active share in the battle: he was, very properly, intent on the wider +problem of severing the Austrians from their allies, first by the +turning movement of Massena, and then by pouring other troops into the +gap thus made. In this he entirely succeeded. The radical defects in +the Austrian dispositions left them utterly unable to withstand the +blows which he now showered upon them. The Sardinians were too far +away on the west to help Argenteau in his hour of need: they were in +and beyond Ceva, intent on covering the road to Turin: whereas, as +Napoleon himself subsequently wrote, they should have been near enough +to their allies to form one powerful army, which, at Dego or +Montenotte, would have defended both Turin and Milan. "United, the two +forces would have been superior to the French army: separated, they +were lost." + +The configuration of the ground favoured Bonaparte's plan of driving +the Imperialists down the valley of the Bormida in a north-easterly +direction; and the natural desire of a beaten general to fall back +towards his base of supplies also impelled Beaulieu and Argenteau to +retire towards Milan. But that would sever their connections with the +Sardinians, whose base of supplies, Turin, lay in a north-westerly +direction. + +Bonaparte therefore hurled his forces at once against the Austrians +and a Sardinian contingent at Millesimo, and defeated them, Augereau's +division cutting off the retreat of twelve hundred of their men under +Provera. Weakened by this second blow, the allies fell back on the +intrenched village of Dego. Their position was of a strength +proportionate to its strategic importance; for its loss would +completely sever all connection between their two main armies save by +devious routes many miles in their rear. They therefore clung +desperately to the six mamelons and redoubts which barred the valley +and dominated some of the neighbouring heights. Yet such was the +superiority of the French in numbers that these positions were +speedily turned by Massena, whom Bonaparte again intrusted with the +movement on the enemy's flank and rear. A strange event followed. The +victors, while pillaging the country for the supplies which +Bonaparte's sharpest orders failed to draw from the magazines and +stores on the sea-coast, were attacked in the dead of night by five +Austrian battalions that had been ordered up to support their +countrymen at Dego. These, after straying among the mountains, found +themselves among bands of the marauding French, whom they easily +scattered, seizing Dego itself. Apprised of this mishap, Bonaparte +hurried up more troops from the rear, and on the 15th recovered the +prize which had so nearly been snatched from his grasp. Had Beaulieu +at this time thrown all his forces on the French, he might have +retrieved his first misfortunes: but foresight and energy were not to +be found at the Austrian headquarters: the surprise at Dego was the +work of a colonel; and for many years to come the incompetence of +their aged commanders was to paralyze the fine fighting qualities of +the "white-coats." In three conflicts they had been outmanoeuvred and +outnumbered, and drew in their shattered columns to Acqui. + +The French commander now led his columns westward against the +Sardinians, who had fallen back on their fortified camp at Ceva, in +the upper valley of the Tanaro. There they beat off one attack of the +French. A check in front of a strongly intrenched position was +serious. It might have led to a French disaster, had the Austrians +been able to bring aid to their allies. Bonaparte even summoned a +council of war to deliberate on the situation. As a rule, a council of +war gives timid advice. This one strongly advised a second attack on +the camp--a striking proof of the ardour which then nerved the +republican generals. Not yet were they _condottieri_ carving out +fortunes by their swords: not yet were they the pampered minions of an +autocrat, intent primarily on guarding the estates which his favour +had bestowed. Timidity was rather the mark of their opponents. When +the assault on the intrenchments of Ceva was about to be renewed, the +Sardinian forces were discerned filing away westwards. Their general +indulged the fond hope of holding the French at bay at several +strong natural positions on his march. He was bitterly to rue his +error. The French divisions of Serurier and Dommartin closed in on +him, drove him from Mondovi, and away towards Turin. + +Bonaparte had now completely succeeded. Using to the full the +advantage of his central position between the widely scattered +detachments of his foes, he had struck vigorously at their natural +point of junction, Montenotte, and by three subsequent successes--for +the evacuation of Ceva can scarcely be called a French victory--had +forced them further and further apart until Turin was almost within +his power. + +It now remained to push these military triumphs to their natural +conclusion, and impose terms of peace on the House of Savoy, which was +secretly desirous of peace. The Directors had ordered Bonaparte that +he should seek to detach Sardinia from the Austrian alliance by +holding out the prospect of a valuable compensation for the loss of +Savoy and Nice in the fertile Milanese.[42] The prospect of this rich +prize would, the Directors surmised, dissolve the Austro-Sardinian +alliance, as soon as the allies had felt the full vigour of the French +arms. Not that Bonaparte himself was to conduct these negotiations. He +was to forward to the Directory all offers of submission. Nay, he was +not empowered to grant on his own responsibility even an armistice. He +was merely to push the foe hard, and feed his needy soldiers on the +conquered territory. He was to be solely a general, never a +negotiator. + +The Directors herein showed keen jealousy or striking ignorance of +military affairs. How could he keep the Austrians quiet while envoys +passed between Turin and Paris? All the dictates of common sense +required him to grant an armistice to the Court of Turin before the +Austrians could recover from their recent disasters. But the King of +Sardinia drew him from a perplexing situation by instructing Colli to +make overtures for an armistice as preliminary to a peace. At once the +French commander replied that such powers belonged to the Directory; +but as for an armistice, it would only be possible if the Court of +Turin placed in his hands three fortresses, Coni, Tortona, and +Alessandria, besides guaranteeing the transit of French armies through +Piedmont and the passage of the Po at Valenza. Then, with his +unfailing belief in accomplished facts, Bonaparte pushed on his troops +to Cherasco. + +Near that town he received the Piedmontese envoys; and from the pen of +one of them we have an account of the general's behaviour in his first +essay in diplomacy. His demeanour was marked by that grave and frigid +courtesy which was akin to Piedmontese customs. In reply to the +suggestions of the envoys that some of the conditions were of little +value to the French, he answered: "The Republic, in intrusting to me +the command of an army, has credited me with possessing enough +discernment to judge of what that army requires, without having +recourse to the advice of my enemy." Apart, however, from this +sarcasm, which was uttered in a hard and biting voice, his tone was +coldly polite. He reserved his home thrust for the close of the +conference. When it had dragged on till considerably after noon with +no definite result, he looked at his watch and exclaimed: "Gentlemen, +I warn you that a general attack is ordered for two o'clock, and that +if I am not assured that Coni will be put in my hands before +nightfall, the attack will not be postponed for one moment. It may +happen to me to lose battles, but no one shall ever see me lose +minutes either by over-confidence or by sloth." The terms of the +armistice of Cherasco were forthwith signed (April 28th); they were +substantially the same as those first offered by the victor. During +the luncheon which followed, the envoys were still further impressed +by his imperturbable confidence and trenchant phrases; as when he told +them that the campaign was the exact counterpart of what he had +planned in 1794; or described a council of war as a convenient device +for covering cowardice or irresolution in the commander; or asserted +that nothing could now stop him before the walls of Mantua.[43] + +As a matter of fact, the French army was at that time so disorganized +by rapine as scarcely to have withstood a combined and vigorous attack +by Beaulieu and Colli. The republicans, long exposed to hunger and +privations, were now revelling in the fertile plains of Piedmont. +Large bands of marauders ranged the neighbouring country, and the +regiments were often reduced to mere companies. From the grave risks +of this situation Bonaparte was rescued by the timidity of the Court +of Turin, which signed the armistice at Cherasco eighteen days after +the commencement of the campaign. A fortnight later the preliminaries +of peace were signed between France and the King of Sardinia, by which +the latter yielded up his provinces of Savoy and Nice, and renounced +the alliance with Austria. Great indignation was felt in the +Imperialist camp at this news; and it was freely stated that the +Piedmontese had let themselves be beaten in order to compass a peace +that had been tacitly agreed upon in the month of January.[44] + +Even before this auspicious event, Bonaparte's despatches to the +Directors were couched in almost imperious terms, which showed that he +felt himself the master of the situation. He advised them as to their +policy towards Sardinia, pointing out that, as Victor Amadeus had +yielded up three important fortresses, he was practically in the hands +of the French: "If you do not accept peace with him, if your plan is +to dethrone him, you must amuse him for a few decades[45] and must +warn me: I then seize Valenza and march on Turin." In military +affairs the young general showed that he would brook no interference +from Paris. He requested the Directory to draft 15,000 men from +Kellermann's Army of the Alps to reinforce him: "That will give me an +army of 45,000 men, of which possibly I may send a part to Rome. If +you continue your confidence and approve these plans, I am sure of +success: Italy is yours." Somewhat later, the Directors proposed to +grant the required reinforcements, but stipulated for the retention of +part of the army in the Milanese _under the command of Kellermann_. +Thereupon Bonaparte replied (May 14th) that, as the Austrians had been +reinforced, it was highly impolitic to divide the command. Each +general had his own way of making war. Kellermann, having more +experience, would doubtless do it better: but both together would do +it very badly. + +Again the Directors had blundered. In seeking to subject Bonaparte to +the same rules as had been imposed on all French generals since the +treason of Dumouriez in 1793, they were doubtless consulting the vital +interests of the Commonwealth. But, while striving to avert all +possibilities of Caesarism, they now sinned against that elementary +principle of strategy which requires unity of design in military +operations. Bonaparte's retort was unanswerable, and nothing more was +heard of the luckless proposal. + +Meanwhile the peace with the House of Savoy had thrown open the +Milanese to Bonaparte's attack. Holding three Sardinian fortresses, he +had an excellent base of operations; for the lands restored to the +King of Sardinia were to remain subject to requisitions for the French +army until the general peace. The Austrians, on the other hand, were +weakened by the hostility of their Italian subjects, and, worst of +all, they depended ultimately on reinforcements drawn from beyond the +Alps by way of Mantua. In the rich plains of Lombardy they, however, +had one advantage which was denied to them among the rocks of the +Apennines. Their generals could display the tactical skill on which +they prided themselves, and their splendid cavalry had some chance of +emulating the former exploits of the Hungarian and Croatian horse. +They therefore awaited the onset of the French, little dismayed by +recent disasters, and animated by the belief that their antagonist, +unversed in regular warfare, would at once lose in the plains the +bubble reputation gained in ravines. But the country in the second +part of this campaign was not less favourable to Bonaparte's peculiar +gifts than that in which he had won his first laurels as commander. +Amidst the Apennines, where only small bodies of men could be moved, a +general inexperienced in the handling of cavalry and infantry could +make his first essays in tactics with fair chances of success. Speed, +energy, and the prompt seizure of a commanding central position were +the prime requisites; the handling of vast masses of men was +impossible. The plains of Lombardy facilitated larger movements; but +even here the numerous broad swift streams fed by the Alpine snows, +and the network of irrigating dykes, favoured the designs of a young +and daring leader who saw how to use natural obstacles so as to baffle +and ensnare his foes. Bonaparte was now to show that he excelled his +enemies, not only in quickness of eye and vigour of intellect, but +also in the minutiae of tactics and in those larger strategic +conceptions which decide the fate of nations. In the first place, +having the superiority of force, he was able to attack. This is an +advantage at all times: for the aggressor can generally mislead his +adversary by a series of feints until the real blow can be delivered +with crushing effect. Such has been the aim of all great leaders from +the time of Epaminondas and Alexander, Hannibal and Caesar, down to the +age of Luxembourg, Marlborough, and Frederick the Great. Aggressive +tactics were particularly suited to the French soldiery, always eager, +active, and intelligent, and now endowed with boundless enthusiasm in +their cause and in their leader. + +Then again he was fully aware of the inherent vice of the Austrian +situation. It was as if an unwieldy organism stretched a vulnerable +limb across the huge barrier of the Alps, exposing it to the attack of +a compacter body. It only remained for Bonaparte to turn against his +foes the smaller geographical features on which they too implicitly +relied. Beaulieu had retired beyond the Po and the Ticino, expecting +that the attack on the Milanese would be delivered across the latter +stream by the ordinary route, which crossed it at Pavia. Near that +city the Austrians occupied a strong position with 26,000 men, while +other detachments patrolled the banks of the Ticino further north, and +those of the Po towards Valenza, only 5,000 men being sent towards +Piacenza. Bonaparte, however, was not minded to take the ordinary +route. He determined to march, not as yet on the north of the River +Po, where snow-swollen streams coursed down from the Alps, but rather +on the south side, where the Apennines throw off fewer streams and +also of smaller volume. From the fortress of Tortona he could make a +rush at Piacenza, cross the Po there, and thus gain the Milanese +almost without a blow. To this end he had stipulated in the recent +terms of peace that he might cross the Po at Valenza; and now, amusing +his foes by feints on that side, he vigorously pushed his main columns +along the southern bank of the Po, where they gathered up all the +available boats. The vanguard, led by the impetuous Lannes, seized the +ferry at Piacenza, before the Austrian horse appeared, and scattered a +squadron or two which strove to drive them back into the river (May +7th). + +Time was thus gained for a considerable number of French to cross the +river in boats or by the ferry. Working under the eye of their leader, +the French conquered all obstacles: a bridge of boats soon spanned +the stream, and was defended by a _tete de pont_; and with forces +about equal in number to Liptay's Austrians, the republicans advanced +northwards, and, after a tough struggle, dislodged their foes from the +village of Fombio. This success drove a solid wedge between Liptay and +his commander-in-chief, who afterwards bitterly blamed him, first for +retreating, and secondly for not reporting his retreat to +headquarters. + +It would appear, however, that Liptay had only 5,000 men (not the +8,000 which Napoleon and French historians have credited to him), that +he was sent by Beaulieu to Piacenza too late to prevent the crossing +by the French, and that at the close of the fight on the following day +he was completely cut off from communicating with his superior. +Beaulieu, with his main force, advanced on Fombio, stumbled on the +French, where he looked to find Liptay, and after a confused fight +succeeded in disengaging himself and withdrawing towards Lodi, where +the high-road leading to Mantua crossed the River Adda. To that stream +he directed his remaining forces to retire. He thereby left Milan +uncovered (except for the garrison which held the citadel), and +abandoned more than the half of Lombardy; but, from the military point +of view, his retreat to the Adda was thoroughly sound. Yet here again +a movement strategically correct was marred by tactical blunders. Had +he concentrated all his forces at the nearest point of the Adda which +the French could cross, namely Pizzighetone, he would have rendered +any flank march of theirs to the northward extremely hazardous; but he +had not yet sufficiently learned from his terrible teacher the need of +concentration; and, having at least three passages to guard, he kept +his forces too spread out to oppose a vigorous move against any one of +them. Indeed, he despaired of holding the line of the Adda, and +retired eastwards with a great part of his army. + +Consequently, when Bonaparte, only three days after the seizure of +Piacenza, threw his almost undivided force against the town of Lodi, +his passage was disputed only by the rearguard, whose anxiety to cover +the retreat of a belated detachment far exceeded their determination +to defend the bridge over the Adda. This was a narrow structure, some +eighty fathoms long, standing high above the swift but shallow river. +Resolutely held by well-massed troops and cannon, it might have cost +the French a severe struggle: but the Imperialists were badly +handled: some were posted in and around the town which was between the +river and the advancing French; and the weak walls of Lodi were soon +escaladed by the impetuous republicans. The Austrian commander, +Sebottendorf, now hastily ranged his men along the eastern bank of the +river, so as to defend the bridge and prevent any passage of the river +by boats or by a ford above the town. The Imperialists numbered only +9,627 men; they were discouraged by defeats and by the consciousness +that no serious stand could be attempted before they reached the +neighbourhood of Mantua; and their efforts to break down the bridge +were now frustrated by the French, who, posted behind the walls of +Lodi on the higher bank of the stream, swept their opponents' position +with a searching artillery fire. Having shaken the constancy of his +foes and refreshed his own infantry by a brief rest in Lodi, Bonaparte +at 6 p.m. secretly formed a column of his choicest troops and hurled +it against the bridge. A hot fire of grapeshot and musketry tore its +front, and for a time the column bent before the iron hail. But, +encouraged by the words of their young leader, generals, corporals, +and grenadiers pressed home their charge. This time, aided by +sharp-shooters who waded to islets in the river, the assailants +cleared the bridge, bayoneted the Austrian cannoneers, attacked the +first and second lines of supporting foot, and, when reinforced, +compelled horse and foot to retreat towards Mantua.[46] +Such was the affair of Lodi (May 10th). A legendary +glamour hovers around all the details of this conflict and invests it +with fictitious importance. Beaulieu's main force was far away, and +there was no hope of entrapping anything more than the rear of his +army. Moreover, if this were the object, why was not the flank move of +the French cavalry above Lodi pushed home earlier in the fight? This, +if supported by infantry, could have outflanked the enemy while the +perilous rush was made against the bridge; and such a turning movement +would probably have enveloped the Austrian force while it was being +shattered in front. That is the view in which the strategist, +Clausewitz, regards this encounter. Far different was the impression +which it created among the soldiers and Frenchmen at large. They +valued a commander more for bravery of the bull-dog type than for any +powers of reasoning and subtle combination. These, it is true, +Bonaparte had already shown. He now enchanted the soldiery by dealing +a straight sharp blow. It had a magical effect on their minds. On the +evening of that day the French soldiers, with antique republican +_camaraderie_, saluted their commander as _le petit caporal_ for his +personal bravery in the fray, and this endearing phrase helped to +immortalize the affair of the bridge of Lodi.[47] It shot a thrill of +exultation through France. With pardonable exaggeration, men told how +he charged at the head of the column, and, with Lannes, was the first +to reach the opposite side; and later generations have figured him +charging before his tall grenadiers--a feat that was actually +performed by Lannes, Berthier, Massena, Cervoni, and Dallemagne. It +was all one. Bonaparte alone was the hero of the day. He reigned +supreme in the hearts of the soldiers, and he saw the importance of +this conquest. At St. Helena he confessed to Montholon that it was the +victory of Lodi which fanned his ambition into a steady flame. + +A desire of stimulating popular enthusiasm throughout Italy impelled +the young victor to turn away from his real objective, the fortress of +Mantua, to the political capital of Lombardy. The people of Milan +hailed their French liberators with enthusiasm: they rained flowers on +the bronzed soldiers of liberty, and pointed to their tattered +uniforms and worn-out shoes as proofs of their triumphant energy: +above all, they gazed with admiration, not unmixed with awe, at the +thin pale features of the young commander, whose plain attire bespoke +a Spartan activity, whose ardent gaze and decisive gestures proclaimed +a born leader of men. Forthwith he arranged for the investment of the +citadel where eighteen hundred Austrians held out: he then received +the chief men of the city with easy Italian grace; and in the evening +he gave a sumptuous ball, at which all the dignity, wealth, and beauty +of the old Lombard capital shone resplendent. For a brief space all +went well between the Lombards and their liberators. He received with +flattering distinction the chief artists and men of letters, and also +sought to quicken the activity of the University of Pavia. Political +clubs and newspapers multiplied throughout Lombardy; and actors, +authors, and editors joined in a paean of courtly or fawning praise, to +the new Scipio, Caesar, Hannibal, and Jupiter. + +There were other reasons why the Lombards should worship the young +victor. Apart from the admiration which a gifted race ever feels for +so fascinating a combination of youthful grace with intellectual power +and martial prowess, they believed that this Italian hero would call +the people to political activity, perchance even to national +independence. For this their most ardent spirits had sighed, +conspired, or fought during the eighty-three years of the Austrian +occupation. Ever since the troublous times of Dante there had been +prophetic souls who caught the vision of a new Italy, healed of her +countless schisms, purified from her social degradations, and uniting +the prowess of her ancient life with the gentler arts of the present +for the perfection of her own powers and for the welfare of mankind. +The gleam of this vision had shone forth even amidst the thunder claps +of the French Revolution; and now that the storm had burst over the +plains of Lombardy, ecstatic youths seemed to see the vision embodied +in the person of Bonaparte himself. At the first news of the success +at Lodi the national colours were donned as cockades, or waved +defiance from balconies and steeples to the Austrian garrisons. All +truly Italian hearts believed that the French victories heralded the +dawn of political freedom not only for Lombardy, but for the whole +peninsula. + +Bonaparte's first actions increased these hopes. He abolished the +Austrian machinery of government, excepting the Council of State, and +approved the formation of provisional municipal councils and of a +National Guard. At the same time, he wrote guardedly to the Directors +at Paris, asking whether they proposed to organize Lombardy as a +republic, as it was much more ripe for this form of government than +Piedmont. Further than this he could not go; but at a later date he +did much to redeem his first promises to the people of Northern Italy. + +The fair prospect was soon overclouded by the financial measures urged +on the young commander from Paris, measures which were disastrous to +the Lombards and degrading to the liberators themselves. The Directors +had recently bidden him to press hard on the Milanese, and levy large +contributions in money, provisions, and objects of art, seeing that +they did not intend to keep this country.[48] Bonaparte accordingly +issued a proclamation (May 19th), imposing on Lombardy the sum of +twenty million francs, remarking that it was a very light sum for so +fertile a country. Only two days before he had in a letter to the +Directors described it as exhausted by five years of war. As for the +assertion that the army needed this sum, it may be compared with his +private notification to the Directory, three days after his +proclamation, that they might speedily count on six to eight millions +of the Lombard contribution, as lying ready at their disposal, "it +being over and above what the army requires." This is the first +definite suggestion by Bonaparte of that system of bleeding conquered +lands for the benefit of the French Exchequer, which enabled him +speedily to gain power over the Directors. Thenceforth they began to +connive at his diplomatic irregularities, and even to urge on his +expeditions into wealthy districts, provided that the spoils went to +Paris; while the conqueror, on his part, was able tacitly to assume +that tone of authority with which the briber treats the bribed.[49] + +The exaction of this large sum, and of various requisites for the +army, as well as the "extraction" of works of art for the benefit of +French museums, at once aroused the bitterest feelings. The loss of +priceless treasures, such as the manuscript of Virgil which had +belonged to Petrarch, and the masterpieces of Raphael and Leonardo da +Vinci, might perhaps have been borne: it concerned only the cultured +few, and their effervescence was soon quelled by patrols of French +cavalry. Far different was it with the peasants between Milan and +Pavia. Drained by the white-coats, they now refused to be bled for the +benefit of the blue-coats of France. They rushed to arms. The city of +Pavia defied the attack of a French column until cannon battered in +its gates. Then the republicans rushed in, massacred all the armed men +for some hours, and glutted their lust and rapacity. By order of +Bonaparte, the members of the municipal council were condemned to +execution; but a delay occurred before this ferocious order was +carried out, and it was subsequently mitigated. Two hundred hostages +were, however, sent away into France as a guarantee for the good +behaviour of the unfortunate city: whereupon the chief announced to +the Directory that this would serve as a useful lesson to the peoples +of Italy. + +In one sense this was correct. It gave the Italians a true insight +into French methods; and painful emotions thrilled the peoples of the +peninsula when they realized at what a price their liberation was to +be effected. Yet it is unfair to lay the chief blame on Bonaparte for +the pillage of Lombardy. His actions were only a development of +existing revolutionary customs; but never had these demoralizing +measures been so thoroughly enforced as in the present system of +liberation and blackmail. Lombardy was ransacked with an almost Vandal +rapacity. Bonaparte desired little for himself. His aim ever was power +rather than wealth. Riches he valued only as a means to political +supremacy. But he took care to place the Directors and all his +influential officers deeply in his debt. To the five _soi-disant_ +rulers of France he sent one hundred horses, the finest that could be +found in Lombardy, to replace "the poor creatures which now draw your +carriages";[50] to his officers his indulgence was passive, but +usually effective. Marmont states that Bonaparte once reproached him +for his scrupulousness in returning the whole of a certain sum which +he had been commissioned to recover. "At that time," says Marmont, "we +still retained a flower of delicacy on these subjects." This Alpine +gentian was soon to fade in the heats of the plains. Some generals +made large fortunes, eminently so Massena, first in plunder as in the +fray. And yet the commander, who was so lenient to his generals, +filled his letters to the Directory with complaints about the cloud of +French commissioners, dealers, and other civilian harpies who battened +on the spoil of Lombardy. It seems impossible to avoid the conclusion +that this indulgence towards the soldiers and severity towards +civilians was the result of a fixed determination to link indissolubly +to his fortunes the generals and rank and file. The contrast in his +behaviour was often startling. Some of the civilians he imprisoned: +others he desired to shoot; but as the hardiest robbers had generally +made to themselves friends of the military mammon of unrighteousness, +they escaped with a fine ridiculously out of proportion to their +actual gains.[51] + +The Dukes of Parma and Modena were also mulcted. The former of these, +owing to his relationship with the Spanish Bourbons, with whom the +Directory desired to remain on friendly terms, was subjected to the +fine of merely two million francs and twenty masterpieces of art, +these last to be selected by French commissioners from the galleries +of the duchy; but the Duke of Modena, who had assisted the Austrian +arms, purchased his pardon by an indemnity of ten million francs, and +by the cession of twenty pictures, the chief artistic treasures of his +States.[52] As Bonaparte naively stated to the Directors, the duke had +no fortresses or guns; consequently these could not be demanded from +him. + +From this degrading work Bonaparte strove to wean his soldiers by +recalling them to their nobler work of carrying on the enfranchisement +of Italy. In a proclamation (May 20th) which even now stirs the blood +like a trumpet call, he bade his soldiers remember that, though much +had been done, a far greater task yet awaited them. Posterity must not +reproach them for having found their Capua in Lombardy. Rome was to be +freed: the Eternal City was to renew her youth and show again the +virtues of her ancient worthies, Brutus and Scipio. Then France would +give a glorious peace to Europe; then their fellow-citizens would say +of each champion of liberty as he returned to his hearth: "He was of +the Army of Italy." By such stirring words did he entwine with the +love of liberty that passion for military glory which was destined to +strangle the Republic. + +Meanwhile the Austrians had retired behind the banks of the Mincio and +the walls of its guardian fortress, Mantua. Their position was one of +great strength. The river, which carries off the surplus waters of +Lake Garda, joins the River Po after a course of some thirty miles. +Along with the tongue-like cavity occupied by its parent lake, the +river forms the chief inner barrier to all invaders of Italy. From +the earliest times down to those of the two Napoleons, the banks of +the Mincio have witnessed many of the contests which have decided the +fortunes of the peninsula. On its lower course, where the river widens +out into a semicircular lagoon flanked by marshes and backwaters, is +the historic town of Mantua. For this position, if we may trust the +picturesque lines of Mantua's noblest son,[53] the three earliest +races of Northern Italy had striven; and when the power of imperial +Rome was waning, the fierce Attila pitched his camp on the banks of +the Mincio, and there received the pontiff Leo, whose prayers and +dignity averted the threatening torrent of the Scythian horse. + +It was by this stream, famed in war as in song, that the Imperialists +now halted their shattered forces, awaiting reinforcements from Tyrol. +These would pass down the valley of the Adige, and in the last part of +their march would cross the lands of the Venetian Republic. For this +action there was a long-established right of way, which did not +involve a breach of the neutrality of Venice. But, as some of the +Austrian troops had straggled on to the Venetian territory south of +Brescia, the French commander had no hesitation in openly violating +Venetian neutrality by the occupation of that town (May 26th). +Augereau's division was also ordered to push on towards the west shore +of Lake Garda, and there collect boats as if a crossing were intended. +Seeing this, the Austrians seized the small Venetian fortress of +Peschiera, which commands the exit of the Mincio from the lake, and +Venetian neutrality was thenceforth wholly disregarded. + +By adroit moves on the borders of the lake, Bonaparte now sought to +make Beaulieu nervous about his communications with Tyrol through the +river valley of the Adige; he completely succeeded: seeking to guard +the important positions on that river between Rivoli and Roveredo, +Beaulieu so weakened his forces on the Mincio, that at Borghetto and +Valeggio he had only two battalions and ten squadrons of horse, or +about two thousand men. Lannes' grenadiers, therefore, had little +difficulty in forcing a passage on May 30th, whereupon Beaulieu +withdrew to the upper Adige, highly satisfied with himself for having +victualled the fortress of Mantua so that it could withstand a long +siege. This was, practically, his sole achievement in the campaign. +Outnumbered, outgeneralled, bankrupt in health as in reputation, he +soon resigned his command, but not before he had given signs of +"downright dotage."[54] He had, however, achieved immortality: his +incapacity threw into brilliant relief the genius of his young +antagonist, and therefore appreciably affected the fortunes of Italy +and of Europe. + +Bonaparte now despatched Massena's division northwards, to coop up the +Austrians in the narrow valley of the upper Adige, while other +regiments began to close in on Mantua. The peculiarities of the ground +favoured its investment. The semicircular lagoon which guards Mantua +on the north, and the marshes on the south side, render an assault +very difficult; but they also limit the range of ground over which +sorties can be made, thereby lightening the work of the besiegers; and +during part of the blockade Napoleon left fewer than five thousand men +for this purpose. It was clear, however, that the reduction of Mantua +would be a tedious undertaking, such as Bonaparte's daring and +enterprising genius could ill brook, and that his cherished design of +marching northwards to effect a junction with Moreau on the Danube was +impossible. Having only 40,400 men with him at midsummer, he had +barely enough to hold the line of the Adige, to blockade Mantua, and +to keep open his communications with France. + +At the command of the Directory he turned southward against feebler +foes. The relations between the Papal States and the French Republic +had been hostile since the assassination of the French envoy, +Basseville, at Rome, in the early days of 1793; but the Pope, Pius +VI., had confined himself to anathemas against the revolutionists and +prayers for the success of the First Coalition. + +This conduct now drew upon him a sharp blow. French troops crossed the +Po and seized Bologna, whereupon the terrified cardinals signed an +armistice with the republican commander, agreeing to close all their +States to the English, and to admit a French garrison to the port of +Ancona. The Pope also consented to yield up "one hundred pictures, +busts, vases, or statues, as the French Commissioners shall determine, +among which shall especially be included the bronze bust of Junius +Brutus and the marble bust of Marcus Brutus, together with five +hundred manuscripts." He was also constrained to pay 15,500,000 +francs, besides animals and goods such as the French agents should +requisition for their army, exclusive of the money and materials drawn +from the districts of Bologna and Ferrara. The grand total, in money, +and in kind, raised from the Papal States in this profitable raid, was +reckoned by Bonaparte himself as 34,700,000 francs,[55] or about; +L1,400,000--a liberal assessment for the life of a single envoy and +the _bruta fulmina_ of the Vatican. + +Equally lucrative was a dash into Tuscany. As the Grand Duke of this +fertile land had allowed English cruisers and merchants certain +privileges at Leghorn, this was taken as a departure from the +neutrality which he ostensibly maintained since the signature of a +treaty of peace with France in 1795. A column of the republicans now +swiftly approached Leghorn and seized much valuable property from +British merchants. Yet the invaders failed to secure the richest of +the hoped-for plunder; for about forty English merchantmen sheered off +from shore as the troops neared the seaport, and an English frigate, +swooping down, carried off two French vessels almost under the eyes of +Bonaparte himself. This last outrage gave, it is true, a slight +excuse for the levying of requisitions in Leghorn and its environs; +yet, according to the memoir-writer, Miot de Melito, this unprincipled +action must be attributed not to Bonaparte, but to the urgent needs of +the French treasury and the personal greed of some of the Directors. +Possibly also the French commissioners and agents, who levied +blackmail or selected pictures, may have had some share in the shaping +of the Directorial policy: at least, it is certain that some of them, +notably Salicetti, amassed a large fortune from the plunder of +Leghorn. In order to calm the resentment of the Grand Duke, Bonaparte +paid a brief visit to Florence. He was received in respectful silence +as he rode through the streets where his ancestors had schemed for the +Ghibelline cause. By a deft mingling of courtesy and firmness the new +conqueror imposed his will on the Government of Florence, and then +sped northward to press on the siege of Mantua. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE FIGHTS FOR MANTUA + + +The circumstances which recalled Bonaparte to the banks of the Mincio +were indeed serious. The Emperor Francis was determined at all costs +to retain his hold on Italy by raising the siege of that fortress; and +unless the French commander could speedily compass its fall, he had +the prospect of fighting a greatly superior army while his rear was +threatened by the garrison of Mantua. Austria was making unparalleled +efforts to drive this presumptuous young general from a land which she +regarded as her own political preserve. Military historians have +always been puzzled to account for her persistent efforts in 1796-7 to +re-conquer Lombardy. But, in truth, the reasons are diplomatic, not +military, and need not be detailed here. Suffice it to say that, +though the Hapsburg lands in Swabia were threatened by Moreau's Army +of the Rhine, Francis determined at all costs to recover his Italian +possessions. + +To this end the Emperor now replaced the luckless Beaulieu by General +Wuermser, who had gained some reputation in the Rhenish campaigns; and, +detaching 25,000 men from his northern armies to strengthen his army +on the Adige, he bade him carry the double-headed eagle of Austria +victoriously into the plains of Italy. Though too late to relieve the +citadel of Milan, he was to strain every nerve to relieve Mantua; and, +since the latest reports represented the French as widely dispersed +for the plunder of Central Italy, the Emperor indulged the highest +hopes of Wuermser's success.[56] + +Possibly this might have been attained had the Austrian Emperor and +staff understood the absolute need of concentration in attacking a +commander who had already demonstrated its supreme importance in +warfare. Yet the difficulties of marching an army of 47,000 men +through the narrow defile carved by the Adige through the Tyrolese +Alps, and the wide extent of the French covering lines, led to the +adoption of a plan which favoured rapidity at the expense of security. +Wuermser was to divide his forces for the difficult march southward +from Tyrol into Italy. In defence of this arrangement much could be +urged. To have cumbered the two roads, which run on either side of the +Adige from Trient towards Mantua, with infantry, cavalry, artillery, +and the countless camp-followers, animals, and wagons that follow an +army, would have been fatal alike to speed of marching and to success +in mountain warfare. Even in the campaign of 1866 the greatest +commander of this generation carried out his maxim, "March in separate +columns: unite for fighting." But Wuermser and the Aulic Council[57] at +Vienna neglected to insure that reunion for attack, on which von +Moltke laid such stress in his Bohemian campaign. The Austrian forces +in 1796 were divided by obstacles which could not quickly be crossed, +namely, by Lake Garda and the lofty mountains which tower above the +valley of the Adige. Assuredly the Imperialists were not nearly strong +enough to run any risks. The official Austrian returns show that the +total force assembled in Tyrol for the invasion of Italy amounted to +46,937 men, not to the 60,000 as pictured by the imagination of Thiers +and other French historians. As Bonaparte had in Lombardy-Venetia +fully 45,000 men (including 10,000 now engaged in the siege of +Mantua), scattered along a front of fifty miles from Milan to Brescia +and Legnago, the incursion of Wuermser's force, if the French were held +to their separate positions by diversions against their flanks, must +have proved decisive. But the fault was committed of so far dividing +the Austrians that nowhere could they deal a crushing blow. +Quosdanovich with 17,600 men was to take the western side of Lake +Garda, seize the French magazines at Brescia, and cut their +communications with Milan and France: the main body under Wuermser, +24,300 strong, was meanwhile to march in two columns on either bank of +the Adige, drive the French from Rivoli and push on towards Mantua: +and yet a third division, led by Davidovich from the district of +Friuli on the east, received orders to march on Vicenza and Legnago, +in order to distract the French from that side, and possibly relieve +Mantua if the other two onsets failed. + +Faulty as these dispositions were, they yet seriously disconcerted +Bonaparte. He was at Montechiaro, a village situated on the road +between Brescia and Mantua, when, on July 29th, he heard that the +white-coats had driven in Massena's vanguard above Rivoli on the +Adige, were menacing other positions near Verona and Legnago, and were +advancing on Brescia. As soon as the full extent of the peril was +manifest, he sent off ten despatches to his generals, ordering a +concentration of troops--these, of course, fighting so as to delay the +pursuit--towards the southern end of Lake Garda. This wise step +probably saved his isolated forces from disaster. It was at that point +that the Austrians proposed to unite their two chief columns and crush +the French detachments. But, by drawing in the divisions of Massena +and Augereau towards the Mincio, Bonaparte speedily assembled a +formidable array, and held the central position between the eastern +and western divisions of the Imperialists. He gave up the important +defensive line of the Adige, it is true; but by promptly rallying on +the Mincio, he occupied a base that was defended on the north by the +small fortress of Peschiera and the waters of Lake Garda. Holding the +bridges over the Mincio, he could strike at his assailants wherever +they should attack; above all, he still covered the siege of Mantua. +Such were his dispositions on July 29th and 30th. On the latter day he +heard of the loss of Brescia, and the consequent cutting of his +communications with Milan. Thereupon he promptly ordered Serurier, who +was besieging Mantua, to make a last vigorous effort to take that +fortress, but also to assure his retreat westwards if fortune failed +him. Later in the day he ordered him forthwith to send away his +siege-train, throwing into the lake or burying whatever he could not +save from the advancing Imperialists. + +This apparently desperate step, which seemed to forebode the +abandonment not only of the siege of Mantua, but of the whole of +Lombardy, was in reality a masterstroke. Bonaparte had perceived the +truth, which the campaigns of 1813 and 1870 were abundantly to +illustrate--that the possession of fortresses, and consequently their +siege by an invader, is of secondary importance when compared with a +decisive victory gained in the open. When menaced by superior forces +advancing towards the south of Lake Garda, he saw that he must +sacrifice his siege works, even his siege-train, in order to gain for +a few precious days that superiority in the field which the division +of the Imperialist columns still left to him. + +The dates of these occurrences deserve close scrutiny; for they +suffice to refute some of the exorbitant claims made at a later time +by General Augereau, that only his immovable firmness forced Bonaparte +to fight and to change his dispositions of retreat into an attack +which re-established everything. This extraordinary assertion, +published by Augereau after he had deserted Napoleon in 1814, is +accompanied by a detailed recital of the events of July 30th-August +5th, in which Bonaparte appears as the dazed and discouraged +commander, surrounded by pusillanimous generals, and urged on to fight +solely by the confidence of Augereau. That the forceful energy of this +general had a great influence in restoring the _morale_ of the French +army in the confused and desperate movements which followed may freely +be granted. But his claims to have been the main spring of the French +movements in those anxious days deserve a brief examination. He +asserts that Bonaparte, "devoured by anxieties," met him at Roverbella +late in the evening of July 30th, and spoke of retiring beyond the +River Po. The official correspondence disproves this assertion. +Bonaparte had already given orders to Serurier to retire beyond the Po +with his artillery train; but this was obviously an attempt to save it +from the advancing Austrians; and the commander had ordered the +northern part of the French besieging force to join Augereau between +Roverbella and Goito. Augereau further asserts that, after he had +roused Bonaparte to the need of a dash to recover Brescia, the +commander-in-chief remarked to Berthier, "In that case we must raise +the siege of Mantua," which again he (Augereau) vigorously opposed. +This second statement is creditable neither to Augereau's accuracy nor +to his sagacity. The order for the raising of the siege had been +issued, and it was entirely necessary for the concentration of French +troops, on which Bonaparte now relied as his only hope against +superior force. Had Bonaparte listened to Augereau's advice and +persisted still in besieging Mantua, the scattered French forces must +have been crushed in detail. Augereau's words are those of a mere +fighter, not of a strategist; and the timidity which he ungenerously +attributed to Bonaparte was nothing but the caution which a superior +intellect saw to be a necessary prelude to a victorious move. + +That the fighting honours of the ensuing days rightly belong to +Augereau may be frankly conceded. With forces augmented by the +northern part of the besiegers of Mantua, he moved rapidly westwards +from the Mincio against Brescia, and rescued it from the vanguard of +Quosdanovich (August 1st). On the previous day other Austrian +detachments had also, after obstinate conflicts, been worsted near +Salo and Lonato. Still, the position was one of great perplexity: for +though Massena's division from the Adige was now beginning to come +into touch with Bonaparte's chief force, yet the fronts of Wuermser's +columns were menacing the French from that side, while the troops of +Quosdanovich, hovering about Lonato and Salo, struggled desperately to +stretch a guiding hand to their comrades on the Mincio. + +Wuermser was now discovering his error. Lured towards Mantua by false +reports that the French were still covering the siege, he had marched +due south when he ought to have rushed to the rescue of his +hard-pressed lieutenant at Brescia. Entering Mantua, he enjoyed a +brief spell of triumph, and sent to the Emperor Francis the news of +the capture of 40 French cannon in the trenches, and of 139 more on +the banks of the Po. But, while he was indulging the fond hope that +the French were in full retreat from Italy, came the startling news +that they had checked Quosdanovich at Brescia and Salo. Realizing his +errors, and determining to retrieve them before all was lost, he at +once pushed on his vanguard towards Castiglione, and easily gained +that village and its castle from a French detachment commanded by +General Valette. + +The feeble defence of so important a position threw Bonaparte into one +of those transports of fury which occasionally dethroned his better +judgment. Meeting Valette at Montechiaro, he promptly degraded him to +the ranks, refusing to listen to his plea of having received a written +order to retire. A report of General Landrieux asserts that the rage +of the commander-in-chief was so extreme as for the time even to +impair his determination. The outlook was gloomy. The French seemed +about to be hemmed in amidst the broken country between Castiglione, +Brescia, and Salo. A sudden attack on the Austrians was obviously the +only safe and honourable course. But no one knew precisely their +numbers or their position. Uncertainty ever preyed on Bonaparte's +ardent imagination. His was a mind that quailed not before visible +dangers; but, with all its powers of decisive action, it retained so +much of Corsican eeriness as to chafe at the unknown,[58] and to lose +for the moment the faculty of forming a vigorous resolution. Like the +python, which grips its native rock by the tail in order to gain its +full constricting power, so Bonaparte ever needed a groundwork of fact +for the due exercise of his mental force. + +One of a group of generals, whom he had assembled about him near +Montechiaro, proposed that they should ascend the hill which dominated +the plain. Even from its ridge no Austrians were to be seen. Again the +commander burst forth with petulant reproaches, and even talked of +retiring to the Adda. Whereupon, if we may trust the "Memoirs" of +General Landrieux, Augereau protested against retreat, and promised +success for a vigorous charge. "I wash my hands of it, and I am going +away," replied Bonaparte. "And who will command, if you go?" inquired +Augereau. "You," retorted Bonaparte, as he left the astonished circle. + +However this may be, the first attack on Castiglione was certainly +left to this determined fighter; and the mingling of boldness and +guile which he showed on the following day regained for the French not +only the village, but also the castle, perched on a precipitous rock. +Yet the report of Colonel Graham, who was then at Marshal Wuermser's +headquarters, somewhat dulls the lustre of Augereau's exploit; for the +British officer asserts that the Austrian position had been taken up +quite by haphazard, and that fewer than 15,000 white-coats were +engaged in this first battle of Castiglione. Furthermore, the +narratives of this _melee_ written by Augereau himself and by two +other generals, Landrieux and Verdier, who were disaffected towards +Bonaparte, must naturally be received with much reserve. The effect of +Augereau's indomitable energy in restoring confidence to the soldiers +and victory to the French tricolour was, however, generously admitted +by the Emperor Napoleon; for, at a later time when complaints were +being made about Augereau, he generously exclaimed: "Ah, let us not +forget that he saved us at Castiglione."[59] + +While Augereau was recovering this important position, confused +conflicts were raging a few miles further north at Lonato. Massena at +first was driven back by the onset of the Imperialists; but while they +were endeavouring to envelop the French, Bonaparte arrived, and in +conjunction with Massena pushed on a central attack such as often +wrested victory from the enemy. The white-coats retired in disorder, +some towards Gavardo, others towards the lake, hotly followed by the +French. In the pursuit towards Gavardo, Bonaparte's old friend, +Junot, distinguished himself by his dashing valour. He wounded a +colonel, slew six troopers, and, covered with wounds, was finally +overthrown into a ditch. Such is Bonaparte's own account. It is +gratifying to know that the wounds neither singly nor collectively +were dangerous, and did not long repress Junot's activity. A tinge of +romance seems, indeed, to have gilded many of these narratives; and a +critical examination of the whole story of Lonato seems to suggest +doubts whether the victory was as decisive as historians have often +represented. If the Austrians were "thrown back on Lake Garda and +Desenzano,"[60] it is difficult to see why the pursuers did not drive +them into the lake. As a matter of fact, nearly all the beaten troops +escaped to Gavardo, while others joined their comrades engaged in the +blockade of Peschiera. + +A strange incident serves to illustrate the hazards of war and the +confusion of this part of the campaign. A detachment of the vanquished +Austrian forces some 4,000 strong, unable to join their comrades at +Gavardo or Peschiera, and yet unharmed by the victorious pursuers, +wandered about on the hills, and on the next day chanced near Lonato +to come upon a much smaller detachment of French. Though unaware of +the full extent of their good fortune, the Imperialists boldly sent an +envoy to summon the French commanding officer to surrender. When the +bandage was taken from his eyes, he was abashed to find himself in the +presence of Bonaparte, surrounded by the generals of his staff. The +young commander's eyes flashed fire at the seeming insult, and in +tones vibrating with well-simulated passion he threatened the envoy +with condign punishment for daring to give such a message to the +commander-in-chief at his headquarters in the midst of his army. Let +him and his men forthwith lay down their arms. Dazed by the demand, +and seeing only the victorious chief and not the smallness of his +detachment, 4,000 Austrians surrendered to 1,200 French, or rather to +the address and audacity of one master-mind. + +Elated by this augury of further victory, the republicans prepared for +the decisive blow. Wuermser, though checked on August 3rd, had been so +far reinforced from Mantua as still to indulge hopes of driving the +French from Castiglione and cutting his way through to rescue +Quosdanovich. He was, indeed, in honour bound to make the attempt; for +the engagement had been made, with the usual futility that dogged the +Austrian councils, to reunite their forces and _fight the French on +the 7th of August_. These cast-iron plans were now adhered to in spite +of their dislocation at the hands of Bonaparte and Augereau. Wuermser's +line stretched from near the village of Medole in a north-easterly +direction across the high-road between Brescia and Mantua; while his +right wing was posted in the hilly country around Solferino. In fact, +his extreme right rested on the tower-crowned heights of Solferino, +where the forces of Austria two generations later maintained so +desperate a defence against the onset of Napoleon III. and his +liberating army. + +Owing to the non-arrival of Mezaros' corps marching from Legnago, +Wuermser mustered scarcely twenty-five thousand men on his long line; +while the very opportune approach of part of Serurier's division, +under the lead of Fiorella, from the south, gave the French an +advantage even in numbers. Moreover, Fiorella's advance on the south +of Wuermser's weaker flank, that near Medole, threatened to turn it and +endanger the Austrian communications with Mantua. The Imperialists +seem to have been unaware of this danger; and their bad scouting here +as elsewhere was largely responsible for the issue of the day. +Wuermser's desire to stretch a helping hand to Quosdanovich near Lonato +and his confidence in the strength of his own right wing betrayed him +into a fatal imprudence. Sending out feelers after his hard-pressed +colleague on the north, he dangerously prolonged his line, an error in +which he was deftly encouraged by Bonaparte, who held back his own +left wing. Meanwhile the French were rolling in the other extremity of +the Austrian line. Marmont, dashing forward with the horse artillery, +took the enemy's left wing in flank and silenced many of their pieces. +Under cover of this attack, Fiorella's division was able to creep up +within striking distance; and the French cavalry, swooping round the +rear of this hard-pressed wing, nearly captured Wuermser and his staff. +A vigorous counterattack by the Austrian reserves, or an immediate +wheeling round of the whole line, was needed to repulse this brilliant +flank attack; but the Austrian reserves had been expended in the north +of their line; and an attempt to change front, always a difficult +operation, was crushed by a headlong charge of Massena's and +Augereau's divisions on their centre. Before these attacks the whole +Austrian line gave way; and, according to Colonel Graham, nothing but +this retreat, undertaken "without orders," saved the whole force from +being cut off. The criticisms of our officer sufficiently reveal the +cause of the disaster. The softness and incapacity of Wuermser, the +absence of a responsible second in command, the ignorance of the +number and positions of the French, the determination to advance +towards Castiglione and to wait thereabouts for Quosdanovich until a +battle could be fought with combined forces on the 7th, the taking up +a position almost by haphazard on the Castiglione-Medole line, and the +failure to detect Fiorella's approach, present a series of defects and +blunders which might have given away the victory to a third-rate +opponent.[61] + +The battle was by no means sanguinary: it was a series of manoeuvres +rather than of prolonged conflicts. Hence its interest to all who by +preference dwell on the intellectual problems of warfare rather than +on the details of fighting. Bonaparte had previously shown that he +could deal blows with telling effect. The ease and grace of his moves +at the second battle of Castiglione now redeemed the reputation which +his uncertain behaviour on the four preceding days had somewhat +compromised. + +A complete and authentic account of this week of confused fighting has +never been written. The archives of Vienna have not as yet yielded up +all their secrets; and the reputations of so many French officers were +over-clouded by this prolonged _melee_ as to render even the victors' +accounts vague and inconsistent. The aim of historians everywhere to +give a clear and vivid account, and the desire of Napoleonic +enthusiasts to represent their hero as always thinking clearly and +acting decisively, have fused trusty ores and worthless slag into an +alloy which has passed for true metal. But no student of Napoleon's +"Correspondence," of the "Memoirs" of Marmont, and of the recitals of +Augereau, Dumas, Landrieux, Verdier, Despinois and others, can hope +wholly to unravel the complications arising from the almost continuous +conflicts that extended over a dozen leagues of hilly country. War is +not always dramatic, however much the readers of campaigns may yearn +after thrilling narratives. In regard to this third act of the Italian +campaign, all that can safely be said is that Bonaparte's intuition to +raise the siege of Mantua, in order that he might defeat in detail the +relieving armies, bears the imprint of genius: but the execution of +this difficult movement was unequal, even at times halting; and the +French army was rescued from its difficulties only by the grand +fighting qualities of the rank and file, and by the Austrian blunders, +which outnumbered those of the republican generals. + +Neither were the results of the Castiglione cycle of battles quite so +brilliant as have been represented. Wuermser and Quosdanovich lost in +all 17,000 men, it is true: but the former had re-garrisoned and +re-victualled Mantua, besides capturing all the French siege-train. +Bonaparte's primary aim had been to reduce Mantua, so that he might be +free to sweep through Tyrol, join hands with Moreau, and overpower the +white-coats in Bavaria. The aim of the Aulic Council and Wuermser had +been to relieve Mantua and restore the Hapsburg rule over Lombardy. +Neither side had succeeded. But the Austrians could at least point to +some successes; and, above all, Mantua was in a better state of +defence than when the French first approached its walls: and while +Mantua was intact, Bonaparte was held to the valley of the Mincio, and +could not deal those lightning blows on the Inn and the Danube which +he ever regarded as the climax of the campaign. Viewed on its material +side, his position was no better than it was before Wuermser's +incursion into the plains of Venetia.[62] + +With true Hapsburg tenacity, Francis determined on further efforts for +the relief of Mantua. Apart from the promptings of dynastic pride, his +reasons for thus obstinately struggling against Alpine gorges, Italian +sentiment, and Bonaparte's genius, are wellnigh inscrutable; and +military writers have generally condemned this waste of resources on +the Brenta, which, if hurled against the French on the Rhine, would +have compelled the withdrawal of Bonaparte from Italy for the defence +of Lorraine. But the pride of the Emperor Francis brooked no surrender +of his Italian possessions, and again Wuermser was spurred on from +Vienna to another invasion of Venetia. It would be tedious to give an +account of Wuermser's second attempt, which belongs rather to the +domain of political fatuity than that of military history. Colonel +Graham states that the Austrian rank and file laughed at their +generals, and bitterly complained that they were being led to the +shambles, while the officers almost openly exclaimed: "We must make +peace, for we don't know how to make war." This was again apparent. +Bonaparte forestalled their attack. Their divided forces fell an easy +prey to Massena, who at Bassano cut Wuermser's force to pieces and sent +the _debris_ flying down the valley of the Brenta. Losing most of +their artillery, and separated in two chief bands, the Imperialists +seemed doomed to surrender: but Wuermser, doubling on his pursuers, +made a dash westwards, finally cutting his way to Mantua. There again +he vainly endeavoured to make a stand. He was driven from his +positions in front of St. Georges and La Favorita, and was shut up in +the town itself. This addition to the numbers of the garrison was no +increase to its strength; for the fortress, though well provisioned +for an ordinary garrison, could not support a prolonged blockade, and +the fevers of the early autumn soon began to decimate troops worn out +by forced marches and unable to endure the miasma ascending from the +marshes of the Mincio. + +The French also were wearied by their exertions in the fierce heats of +September. Murmurs were heard in the ranks and at the mess tables that +Bonaparte's reports of these exploits were tinged by favouritism +and by undue severity against those whose fortune had been less +conspicuous than their merits. One of these misunderstandings was of +some importance. Massena, whose services had been brilliant at Bassano +but less felicitous since the crossing of the Adige, reproached +Bonaparte for denying praise to the most deserving and lavishing it on +men who had come in opportunely to reap the labours of others. His +written protest, urged with the old republican frankness, only served +further to cloud over the relations between them, which, since Lonato, +had not been cordial.[63] Even thus early in his career Bonaparte +gained the reputation of desiring brilliant and entire success, and of +visiting with his displeasure men who, from whatever cause, did not +wrest from Fortune her utmost favours. That was his own mental +attitude towards the fickle goddess. After entering Milan he cynically +remarked to Marmont: "Fortune is a woman; and the more she does for +me, the more I will require of her." Suggestive words, which explain +at once the splendour of his rise and the rapidity of his fall. + +During the few weeks of comparative inaction which ensued, the affairs +of Italy claimed his attention. The prospect of an Austrian +re-conquest had caused no less concern to the friends of liberty in +the peninsula than joy to the reactionary coteries of the old +sovereigns. At Rome and Naples threats against the French were +whispered or openly vaunted. The signature of the treaties of peace +was delayed, and the fulminations of the Vatican were prepared against +the sacrilegious spoilers. After the Austrian war-cloud had melted +away, the time had come to punish prophets of evil. The Duke of Modena +was charged with allowing a convoy to pass from his State to the +garrison of Mantua, and with neglecting to pay the utterly impossible +fine to which Bonaparte had condemned him. The men of Reggio and +Modena were also encouraged to throw off his yoke and to confide in +the French. Those of Reggio succeeded; but in the city of Modena +itself the ducal troops repressed the rising. Bonaparte accordingly +asked the advice of the Directory; but his resolution was already +formed. Two days after seeking their counsel, he took the decisive +step of declaring Modena and Reggio to be under the protection of +France. This act formed an exceedingly important departure in the +history of France as well as in that of Italy. Hitherto the Directory +had succeeded in keeping Bonaparte from active intervention in affairs +of high policy. In particular, it had enjoined on him the greatest +prudence with regard to the liberated lands of Italy, so as not to +involve France in prolonged intervention in the peninsula, or commit +her to a war _a outrance_ with the Hapsburgs; and its warnings were +now urged with all the greater emphasis because news had recently +reached Paris of a serious disaster to the French arms in Germany. But +while the Directors counselled prudence, Bonaparte forced their hand +by declaring the Duchy of Modena to be under the protection of France; +and when their discreet missive reached him, he expressed to them his +regret that it had come too late. By that time (October 24th) he had +virtually founded a new State, for whose security French honour was +deeply pledged. This implied the continuance of the French occupation +of Northern Italy and therefore a prolongation of Bonaparte's command. + +It was not the Duchy of Modena alone which felt the invigorating +influence of democracy and nationality. The Papal cities of Bologna +and Ferrara had broken away from the Papal sway, and now sent deputies +to meet the champions of liberty at Modena and found a free +commonwealth. There amidst great enthusiasm was held the first truly +representative Italian assembly that had met for many generations; and +a levy of 2,800 volunteers, styled the Italian legion, was decreed. +Bonaparte visited these towns, stimulated their energy, and bade the +turbulent beware of his vengeance, which would be like that of "the +exterminating angel." In a brief space these districts were formed +into the Cispadane Republic, destined soon to be merged into a yet +larger creation. A new life breathed from Modena and Bologna into +Central Italy. The young republic forthwith abolished all feudal laws, +decreed civic equality, and ordered the convocation at Bologna of a +popularly elected Assembly for the Christmas following. These events +mark the first stage in the beginning of that grand movement, _Il +Risorgimento,_ which after long delays was finally consummated in +1870. + +This period of Bonaparte's career may well be lingered over by those +who value his invigorating influence on Italian life more highly than +his military triumphs. At this epoch he was still the champion of the +best principles of the Revolution; he had overthrown Austrian +domination in the peninsula, and had shaken to their base domestic +tyrannies worse than that of the Hapsburgs. His triumphs were as yet +untarnished. If we except the plundering of the liberated and +conquered lands, an act for which the Directory was primarily +responsible, nothing was at this time lacking to the full orb of his +glory. An envoy bore him the welcome news that the English, wearied by +the intractable Corsicans, had evacuated the island of his birth; and +he forthwith arranged for the return of many of the exiles who had +been faithful to the French Republic. Among these was Salicetti, who +now returned for a time to his old insular sphere; while his former +_protege_ was winning a world-wide fame. Then, turning to the affairs +of Central Italy, the young commander showed his diplomatic talents to +be not a whit inferior to his genius for war. One instance of this +must here suffice. He besought the Pope, who had broken off the +lingering negotiations with France, not to bring on his people the +horrors of war.[64] The beauty of this appeal, as also of a somewhat +earlier appeal to the Emperor Francis at Vienna, is, however, +considerably marred by other items which now stand revealed in +Bonaparte's instructive correspondence. After hearing of the French +defeats in Germany, he knew that the Directors could spare him very +few of the 25,000 troops whom he demanded as reinforcements. + +He was also aware that the Pope, incensed at his recent losses in +money and lands, was seeking to revivify the First Coalition. The +pacific precepts addressed by the young Corsican to the Papacy must +therefore be viewed in the light of merely mundane events and of his +secret advice to the French agent at Rome: "The great thing is to gain +time.... Finally, the game really is for us to throw the ball from one +to the other, so as to deceive this old fox."[65] + +From these diplomatic amenities the general was forced to turn to the +hazards of war. Gauging Bonaparte's missive at its true worth, the +Emperor determined to re-conquer Italy, an enterprise that seemed well +within his powers. In the month of October victory had crowned the +efforts of his troops in Germany. At Wuerzburg the Archduke Charles had +completely beaten Jourdan, and had thrown both his army and that of +Moreau back on the Rhine. Animated by reviving hopes, the Imperialists +now assembled some 60,000 strong. Alvintzy, a veteran of sixty years, +renowned for his bravery, but possessing little strategic ability, was +in command of some 35,000 men in the district of Friuli, north of +Trieste, covering that seaport from a threatened French attack. With +this large force he was to advance due west, towards the River Brenta, +while Davidovich, marching through Tyrol by the valley of the Adige, +was to meet him with the remainder near Verona. As Jomini has +observed, the Austrians gave themselves infinite trouble and +encountered grave risks in order to compass a junction of forces +which they might quietly have effected at the outset. Despite all +Bonaparte's lessons, the Aulic Council still clung to its old plan of +enveloping the foe and seeking to bewilder them by attacks delivered +from different sides. Possibly also they were emboldened by the +comparative smallness of Bonaparte's numbers to repeat this hazardous +manoeuvre. + +The French could muster little more than 40,000 men; and of these at +least 8,000 were needed opposite Mantua. + +At first the Imperialists gained important successes; for though the +French held their own on the Brenta, yet their forces in the Tyrol +were driven down the valley of the Adige with losses so considerable +that Bonaparte was constrained to order a general retreat on Verona. +He discerned that from this central position he could hold in check +Alvintzy's troops marching westwards from Vicenza and prevent their +junction with the Imperialists under Davidovich, who were striving to +thrust Vaubois' division from the plateau of Rivoli. + +But before offering battle to Alvintzy outside Verona, Bonaparte paid +a flying visit to his men posted on that plateau in order to rebuke +the wavering and animate the whole body with his own dauntless spirit. +Forming the troops around him, he addressed two regiments in tones of +grief and anger. He reproached them for abandoning strong positions in +a panic, and ordered his chief staff officer to inscribe on their +colours the ominous words: "They are no longer of the Army of +Italy."[66] Stung by this reproach, the men begged with sobs that the +general would test their valour before disgracing them for ever. The +young commander, who must have counted on such a result to his words, +when uttered to French soldiers, thereupon promised to listen to their +appeals; and their bravery in the ensuing fights wiped every stain of +disgrace from their colours. By such acts as these did he nerve his +men against superior numbers and adverse fortune. + +Their fortitude was to be severely tried at all points. Alvintzy +occupied a strong position on a line of hills at Caldiero, a few miles +to the east of Verona. His right wing was protected by the spurs of +the Tyrolese Alps, while his left was flanked by the marshes which +stretch between the rivers Alpon and Adige; and he protected his front +by cannon skilfully ranged along the hills. All the bravery of +Massena's troops failed to dislodge the right wing of the +Imperialists. The French centre was torn by the Austrian cannon and +musketry. A pitiless storm of rain and sleet hindered the advance of +the French guns and unsteadied the aim of the gunners; and finally +they withdrew into Verona, leaving behind 2,000 killed and wounded, +and 750 prisoners (November 12th). This defeat at Caldiero--for it is +idle to speak of it merely as a check--opened up a gloomy vista of +disasters for the French; and Bonaparte, though he disguised his fears +before his staff and the soldiery, forthwith wrote to the Directors +that the army felt itself abandoned at the further end of Italy, and +that this fair conquest seemed about to be lost. With his usual device +of under-rating his own forces and exaggerating those of his foes, he +stated that the French both at Verona and Rivoli were only 18,000, +while the grand total of the Imperialists was upwards of 50,000. But +he must have known that for the present he had to deal with rather +less than half that number. The greater part of the Tyrolese force +had not as yet descended the Adige below Roveredo; and allowing for +detachments and losses, Alvintzy's array at Caldiero barely exceeded +20,000 effectives. + +Bonaparte now determined to hazard one of the most daring turning +movements which history records. It was necessary at all costs to +drive Alvintzy from the heights of Caldiero before the Tyrolese +columns should overpower Vaubois' detachment at Rivoli and debouch in +the plains west of Verona. But, as Caldiero could not be taken by a +front attack, it must be turned by a flanking movement. To any other +general than Bonaparte this would have appeared hopeless; but where +others saw nothing but difficulties, his eye discerned a means of +safety. South and south-east of those hills lies a vast depression +swamped by the flood waters of the Alpon and the Adige. Morasses +stretch for some miles west of the village of Arcola, through which +runs a road up the eastern bank of the Alpon, crossing that stream at +the aforenamed village and leading to the banks of the Adige opposite +the village of Ronco; another causeway, diverging from the former a +little to the north of Ronco, leads in a north-westerly direction +towards Porcil. By advancing from Ronco along these causeways, and by +seizing Arcola, Bonaparte designed to outflank the Austrians and tempt +them into an arena where the personal prowess of the French veterans +would have ample scope, and where numbers would be of secondary +importance. Only heads of columns could come into direct contact; and +the formidable Austrian cavalry could not display its usual prowess. +On these facts Bonaparte counted as a set-off to his slight +inferiority in numbers. + +In the dead of night the divisions of Augereau and Massena retired +through Verona. Officers and soldiers were alike deeply discouraged by +this movement, which seemed to presage a retreat towards the Mincio +and the abandonment of Lombardy. To their surprise, when outside the +gate they received the order to turn to the left down the western bank +of the Adige. At Ronco the mystery was solved. A bridge of boats had +there been thrown across the Adige; and, crossing this without +opposition, Augereau's troops rapidly advanced along the causeway +leading to Arcola and menaced the Austrian rear, while Massena's +column denied north-west, so as directly to threaten his flank at +Caldiero. The surprise, however, was by no means complete; for +Alvintzy himself purposed to cross the Adige at Zevio, so as to make a +dash on Mantua, and in order to protect his flank he had sent a +detachment of Croats to hold Arcola. These now stoutly disputed +Augereau's progress, pouring in from the loopholed cottages volleys +which tore away the front of every column of attack. In vain did +Augereau, seizing the colours, lead his foremost regiment to the +bridge of Arcola. Riddled by the musketry, his men fell back in +disorder. In vain did Bonaparte himself, dismounting from his charger, +seize a flag, rally these veterans and lead them towards the bridge. +The Croats, constantly reinforced, poured in so deadly a fire as to +check the advance: Muiron, Marmont, and a handful of gallant men still +pressed on, thereby screening the body of their chief; but Muiron fell +dead, and another officer, seizing Bonaparte, sought to drag him back +from certain death. The column wavered under the bullets, fell back to +the further side of the causeway, and in the confusion the commander +fell into the deep dyke at the side. Agonized at the sight, the French +rallied, while Marmont and Louis Bonaparte rescued their beloved chief +from capture or from a miry death, and he retired to Ronco, soon +followed by the wearied troops.[67] + +[Illustration: PLAN TO ILLUSTRATE THE VICTORY OF ARCOLA.] + +This memorable first day of fighting at Arcola (November 15th) closed +on the strange scene of two armies encamped on dykes, exhausted by an +almost amphibious conflict, like that waged by the Dutch "Beggars" in +their war of liberation against Spain. Though at Arcola the +republicans had been severely checked, yet further west Massena had +held his own; and the French movement as a whole had compelled +Alvintzy to suspend any advance on Verona or on Mantua, to come down +from the heights of Caldiero, and to fight on ground where his +superior numbers were of little avail. This was seen on the second day +of fighting on the dykes opposite Arcola, which was, on the whole, +favourable to the smaller veteran force. On the third day Bonaparte +employed a skilful ruse to add to the discouragement of his foes. He +posted a small body of horsemen behind a spinney near the Austrian +flank, with orders to sound their trumpets as if for a great cavalry +charge. Alarmed by the noise and by the appearance of French troops +from the side of Legnago and behind Arcola, the demoralized +white-coats suddenly gave way and retreated for Vicenza. + +Victory again declared for the troops who could dare the longest, and +whose general was never at a loss in face of any definite danger. Both +armies suffered severely in these desperate conflicts;[68] but, while +the Austrians felt that the cup of victory had been snatched from +their very lips, the French soldiery were dazzled by this transcendent +exploit of their chief. They extolled his bravery, which almost vied +with the fabulous achievement of Horatius Cocles, and adored the +genius which saw safety and victory for his discouraged army amidst +swamps and dykes. Bonaparte himself, with that strange mingling of the +practical and the superstitious which forms the charm of his +character, ever afterwards dated the dawn of his fortune in its full +splendour from those hours of supreme crisis among the morasses of +Arcola. But we may doubt whether this posing as the favourite of +fortune was not the result of his profound knowledge of the credulity +of the vulgar herd, which admires genius and worships bravery, but +grovels before persistent good luck. + +Though it is difficult to exaggerate the skill and bravery of the +French leader and his troops, the failure of his opponents is +inexplicable but for the fact that most of their troops were unable to +manoeuvre steadily in the open, that Alvintzy was inexperienced as a +commander-in-chief, and was hampered throughout by a bad plan of +campaign. Meanwhile the other Austrian army, led by Davidovich, had +driven Vaubois from his position at Rivoli; and had the Imperialist +generals kept one another informed of their moves, or had Alvintzy, +disregarding a blare of trumpets and a demonstration on his flank and +rear, clung to Arcola for two days longer--the French would have been +nipped between superior forces. But, as it was, the lack of accord in +the Austrian movements nearly ruined the Tyrolese wing, which pushed +on triumphantly towards Verona, while Alvintzy was retreating +eastwards. Warned just in time, Davidovich hastily retreated to +Roveredo, leaving a whole battalion in the hands of the French. To +crown this chapter of blunders, Wuermser, whose sortie after Caldiero +might have been most effective, tardily essayed to break through the +blockaders, when both his colleagues were in retreat. How different +were these ill-assorted moves from those of Bonaparte. His maxims +throughout this campaign, and his whole military career, were: (1) +divide for foraging, concentrate for fighting; (2) unity of command is +essential for success; (3) time is everything. This firm grasp of the +essentials of modern warfare insured his triumph over enemies who +trusted to obsolete methods for the defence of antiquated +polities.[69] + +The battle of Arcola had an important influence on the fate of Italy +and Europe. In the peninsula all the elements hostile to the +republicans were preparing for an explosion in their rear which should +reaffirm the old saying that Italy was the tomb of the French. Naples +had signed terms of peace with them, it is true; but the natural +animosity of the Vatican against its despoilers could easily have +leagued the south of Italy with the other States that were working +secretly for their expulsion. While the Austrians were victoriously +advancing, these aims were almost openly avowed, and at the close of +the year 1796 Bonaparte moved south to Bologna in order to guide the +Italian patriots in their deliberations and menace the Pope with an +invasion of the Roman States. From this the Pontiff was for the +present saved by new efforts on the part of Austria. But before +describing the final attempt of the Hapsburgs to wrest Italy from +their able adversary, it will be well to notice his growing ascendancy +in diplomatic affairs. + +While Bonaparte was struggling in the marshes of Arcola, the Directory +was on the point of sending to Vienna an envoy, General Clarke, with +proposals for an armistice preliminary to negotiations for peace with +Austria. This step was taken, because France was distracted by open +revolt in the south, by general discontent in the west, and by the +retreat of her Rhenish armies, now flung back on the soil of the +Republic by the Austrian Arch-duke Charles. Unable to support large +forces in the east of France out of its bankrupt exchequer, the +Directory desired to be informed of the state of feeling at Vienna. It +therefore sent Clarke with offers, which might enable him to look into +the political and military situation at the enemy's capital, and see +whether peace could not be gained at the price of some of Bonaparte's +conquests. The envoy was an elegant and ambitious young man, descended +from an Irish family long settled in France, who had recently gained +Carnot's favour, and now desired to show his diplomatic skill by +subjecting Bonaparte to the present aims of the Directory. + +The Directors' secret instructions reveal the plans which they then +harboured for the reconstruction of the Continent. Having arranged an +armistice which should last up to the end of the next spring, Clarke +was to set forth arrangements which might suit the House of Hapsburg. +He might discuss the restitution of all their possessions in Italy, +and the acquisition of the Bishopric of Salzburg and other smaller +German and Swabian territories: or, if she did not recover the +Milanese, Austria might gain the northern parts of the Papal States as +compensation; and the Duke of Tuscany--a Hapsburg--might reign at +Rome, yielding up his duchy to the Duke of Parma; while, as this last +potentate was a Spanish Bourbon, France might for her good offices to +this House gain largely from Spain in America.[70] In these and other +proposals two methods of bargaining are everywhere prominent. The +great States are in every case to gain at the expense of their weaker +neighbours; Austria is to be appeased; and France is to reap enormous +gains ultimately at the expense of smaller Germanic or Italian States. +These facts should clearly be noted. Napoleon was afterwards +deservedly blamed for carrying out these unprincipled methods; but, at +the worst, he only developed them from those of the Directors, who, +with the cant of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity on their lips, +battened on the plunder of the liberated lands, and cynically proposed +to share the spoil of weaker States with the potentates against whom +they publicly declaimed as tyrants. + +The chief aim of these negotiations, so Clarke was assured, was to +convince the Court of Vienna that it would get better terms by +treating with France directly and alone, rather than by joining in the +negotiations which had recently been opened at Paris by England. But +the Viennese Ministers refused to allow Clarke to proceed to their +capital, and appointed Vicenza as the seat of the deliberations. + +They were brief. Through the complex web of civilian intrigue, +Bonaparte forthwith thrust the mailed hand of the warrior. He had +little difficulty in proving to Clarke that the situation was +materially altered by the battle of Arcola. The fall of Mantua was now +only a matter of weeks. To allow its provisions to be replenished for +the term of the armistice was an act that no successful general could +tolerate. For that fortress the whole campaign had been waged, and +three Austrian armies had been hurled back into Tyrol and Friuli. Was +it now to be provisioned, in order that the Directory might barter +away the Cispadane Republic? He speedily convinced Clarke of the +fatuity of the Directors' proposals. He imbued him with his own +contempt for an armistice that would rob the victors of their prize; +and, as the Court of Vienna still indulged hopes of success in Italy, +Clarke's negotiations at Vicenza came to a speedy conclusion. + +In another important matter the Directory also completely failed. +Nervous as to Bonaparte's ambition, it had secretly ordered Clarke to +watch his conduct and report privately to Paris. Whether warned by a +friend at Court, or forearmed by his own sagacity, Bonaparte knew of +this, and in his intercourse with Clarke deftly let the fact be seen. +He quickly gauged Clarke's powers, and the aim of his mission. "He is +a spy," he remarked a little later to Miot, "whom the Directory have +set upon me: he is a man of no talent--only conceited." The splendour +of his achievements and the mingled grace and authority of his +demeanour so imposed on the envoy that he speedily fell under the +influence of the very man whom he was to watch, and became his +enthusiastic adherent. + +Bonaparte was at Bologna, supervising the affairs of the Cispadane +Republic, when he heard that the Austrians were making a last effort +for the relief of Mantua. Another plan had been drawn up by the Aulic +Council at Vienna. Alvintzy, after recruiting his wearied force at +Bassano, was quickly to join the Tyrolese column at Roveredo, thereby +forming an army of 28,000 men wherewith to force the position of +Rivoli and drive the French in on Mantua: 9,000 Imperialists under +Provera were also to advance from the Brenta upon Legnago, in order to +withdraw the attention of the French from the real attempt made by the +valley of the Adige; while 10,000 others at Bassano and elsewhere were +to assail the French front at different points and hinder their +concentration. It will be observed that the errors of July and +November, 1796, were now yet a third time to be committed: the forces +destined merely to make diversions were so strengthened as not to be +merely light bodies distracting the aim of the French, while +Alvintzy's main force was thereby so weakened as to lack the impact +necessary for victory. + +Nevertheless, the Imperialists at first threw back their foes with +some losses; and Bonaparte, hurrying northwards to Verona, was for +some hours in a fever of uncertainty as to the movements and strength +of the assailants. Late at night on January 13th he knew that +Provera's advance was little more than a demonstration, and that the +real blow would fall on the 10,000 men marshalled by Joubert at Monte +Baldo and Rivoli. Forthwith he rode to the latter place, and changed +retreat and discouragement into a vigorous offensive by the news that +13,000 more men were on the march to defend the strong position of +Rivoli. + +The great defensive strength of this plateau had from the first +attracted his attention. There the Adige in a sharp bend westward +approaches within six miles of Lake Garda. There, too, the mountains, +which hem in the gorge of the river on its right bank, bend away +towards the lake and leave a vast natural amphitheatre, near the +centre of which rises the irregular plateau that commands the exit +from Tyrol. Over this plateau towers on the north Monte Baldo, which, +near the river gorge, sends out southward a sloping ridge, known as +San Marco, connecting it with the plateau. At the foot of this spur is +the summit of the road which leads the traveller from Trent to Verona; +and, as he halts at the top of the zigzag, near the village of Rivoli, +his eye sweeps over the winding gorge of the river beneath, the +threatening mass of Monte Baldo on the north, and on the west of the +village he gazes down on a natural depression which has been sharply +furrowed by a torrent. The least experienced eye can see that the +position is one of great strength. It is a veritable parade ground +among the mountains, almost cut off from them by the ceaseless action +of water, and destined for the defence of the plains of Italy. A small +force posted at the head of the winding roadway can hold at bay an +army toiling up from the valley; but, as at Thermopylae, the position +is liable to be outflanked by an enterprising foe, who should scale +the footpath leading over the western offshoots of Monte Baldo, and, +fording the stream at its foot, should then advance eastwards against +the village. This, in part, was Alvintzy's plan, and having nearly +28,000 men,[71] he doubted not that his enveloping tactics must +capture Joubert's division of 10,000 men. So daunted was even this +brave general by the superior force of his foes that he had ordered a +retreat southwards when an aide-de-camp arrived at full gallop and +ordered him to hold Rivoli at all costs. Bonaparte's arrival at 4 a.m. +explained the order, and an attack made during the darkness wrested +from the Austrians the chapel on the San Marco ridge which stands on +the ridge above the zigzag track. The reflection of the Austrian +watch-fires in the wintry sky showed him their general position. To an +unskilled observer the wide sweep of the glare portended ruin for the +French. To the eye of Bonaparte the sight brought hope. It proved that +his foes were still bent on their old plan of enveloping him: and from +information which he treacherously received from Alvintzy's staff he +must have known that that commander had far fewer than the 45,000 men +which he ascribed to him in bulletins. + +[Illustration: NEIGHBOURHOOD OF RIVOLI.] + +Yet the full dawn of that January day saw the Imperialists flushed +with success, as their six separate columns drove in the French +outposts and moved towards Rivoli. Of these, one was on the eastern +side of the Adige and merely cannonaded across the valley: another +column wound painfully with most of the artillery and cavalry along +the western bank, making for the village of Incanale and the foot of +the zigzag leading up to Rivoli: three others denied over Monte Baldo +by difficult paths impassable to cannon: while the sixth and +westernmost column, winding along the ridge near Lake Garda, likewise +lacked the power which field-guns and horsemen would have added to its +important turning movement. Never have natural obstacles told more +potently on the fortunes of war than at Rivoli; for on the side where +the assailants most needed horses and guns they could not be used; +while on the eastern edge of their broken front their cannon and +horse, crowded together in the valley of the Adige, had to climb the +winding road under the plunging fire of the French infantry and +artillery. Nevertheless, such was the ardour of the Austrian attack, +that the tide of battle at first set strongly in their favour. Driving +the French from the San Marco ridge and pressing their centre hard +between Monte Baldo and Rivoli, they made it possible for their troops +in the valley to struggle on towards the foot of the zigzag; and on +the west their distant right wing was already beginning to threaten +the French rear. Despite the arrival of Massena's troops from Verona +about 9 a.m., the republicans showed signs of unsteadiness. Joubert on +the ground above the Adige, Berthier in the centre, and Massena on the +left, were gradually forced back. An Austrian column, advancing from +the side of Monte Baldo by the narrow ravine, stole round the flank of +a French regiment in front of Massena's division, and by a vigorous +charge sent it flying in a panic which promised to spread to another +regiment thus uncovered. This was too much for the veteran, already +dubbed "the spoilt child of victory "; he rushed to its captain, +bitterly upbraided him and the other officers, and finally showered +blows on them with the flat of his sword. Then, riding at full speed +to two tried regiments of his own division, he ordered them to check +the foe; and these invincible heroes promptly drove back the +assailants. Even so, however, the valour of the best French regiments +and the skill of Massena, Berthier, and Joubert barely sufficed to +hold back the onstreaming tide of white-coats opposite Rivoli. + +Yet even at this crisis the commander, confident in his central +position, and knowing his ability to ward off the encircling swoops of +the Austrian eagle, maintained that calm demeanour which moved the +wonder of smaller minds. His confidence in his seasoned troops was not +misplaced. The Imperialists, overburdened by long marches and faint +now for lack of food, could not maintain their first advantage. Some +of their foremost troops, that had won the broken ground in front of +St. Mark's Chapel, were suddenly charged by French horse; they fled in +panic, crying out, "French cavalry!" and the space won was speedily +abandoned to the tricolour. This sudden rebuff was to dash all their +hopes of victory; for at that crisis of the day the chief Austrian +column of nearly 8,000 men was struggling up the zigzag ascent leading +from the valley of the Adige to the plateau, in the fond hope that +their foes were by this time driven from the summit. Despite the +terrible fire that tore their flanks, the Imperialists were clutching +desperately at the plateau, when Bonaparte put forth his full striking +power. He could now assail the crowded ranks of the doomed column in +front and on both flanks. A charge of Leclerc's horse and of Joubert's +infantry crushed its head; volleys of cannon and musketry from the +plateau tore its sides; an ammunition wagon exploded in its midst; and +the great constrictor forthwith writhed its bleeding coils back into +the valley, where it lay crushed and helpless for the rest of the +fight. + +Animated by this lightning stroke of their commander, the French +turned fiercely towards Monte Baldo and drove back their opponents +into the depression at its foot. But already at their rear loud shouts +warned them of a new danger. The western detachment of the +Imperialists had meanwhile worked round their rear, and, ignorant of +the fate of their comrades, believed that Bonaparte's army was caught +in a trap. The eyes of all the French staff officers were now turned +anxiously on their commander, who quietly remarked, "We have them +now." He knew, in fact, that other French troops marching up from +Verona would take these new foes in the rear; and though Junot and his +horsemen failed to cut their way through so as to expedite their +approach, yet speedily a French regiment burst through the encircling +line and joined in the final attack which drove these last assailants +from the heights south of Rivoli, and later on compelled them to +surrender. + +Thus closed the desperate battle of Rivoli (January 14th). Defects in +the Austrian position and the opportune arrival of French +reinforcements served to turn an Austrian success into a complete +rout. Circumstances which to a civilian may seem singly to be of small +account sufficed to tilt the trembling scales of warfare, and +Alvintzy's army now reeled helplessly back into Tyrol with a total +loss of 15,000 men and of nearly all its artillery and stores. Leaving +Joubert to pursue it towards Trent, Bonaparte now flew southwards +towards Mantua, whither Provera had cut his way. Again his untiring +energy, his insatiable care for all probable contingencies, reaped a +success which the ignorant may charge to the account of his fortune. +Strengthening Augereau's division by light troops, he captured the +whole of Provera's army at La Favorita, near the walls of Mantua +(January 16th). The natural result of these two dazzling triumphs was +the fall of the fortress for which the Emperor Francis had risked and +lost five armies. Wuermser surrendered Mantua on February 2nd with +18,000 men and immense supplies of arms and stores. The close of this +wondrous campaign was graced by an act of clemency. Generous terms +were accorded to the veteran marshal, whose fidelity to blundering +councillors at Vienna had thrown up in brilliant relief the prudence, +audacity, and resourcefulness of the young war-god. + +It was now time to chastise the Pope for his support of the enemies of +France. The Papalini proved to be contemptible as soldiers. They fled +before the republicans, and a military promenade brought the invaders +to Ancona, and then inland to Tolentino, where Pius VI. sued for +peace. The resulting treaty signed at that place (February 19th) +condemned the Holy See to close its ports to the allies, especially to +the English; to acknowledge the acquisition of Avignon by France, and +the establishment of the Cispadane Republic at Bologna, Ferrara, and +the surrounding districts; to pay 30,000,000 francs to the French +Government; and to surrender 100 works of art to the victorious +republicans. + +It is needless to describe the remaining stages in Bonaparte's +campaign against Austria. Hitherto he had contended against fairly +good, though discontented and discouraged troops, badly led, and +hampered by the mountain barrier which separated them from their real +base of operations. In the last part of the war he fought against +troops demoralized by an almost unbroken chain of disasters. The +Austrians were now led by a brave and intelligent general, the +Archduke Charles; but he was hampered by rigorous instructions from +Vienna, by senile and indolent generals, by the indignation or despair +of the younger officers at the official favouritism which left them in +obscurity, and by the apathy of soldiers who had lost heart. Neither +his skill nor the natural strength of their positions in Friuli and +Carinthia could avail against veterans flushed with victory and +marshalled with unerring sagacity. The rest of the war only served to +emphasize the truth of Napoleon's later statement, that the moral +element constitutes three-fourths of an army's strength. The barriers +offered by the River Tagliamento and the many commanding heights of +the Carnic and the Noric Alps were as nothing to the triumphant +republicans; and from the heights that guard the province of Styria, +the genius of Napoleon flashed as a terrifying portent to the Court of +Vienna and the potentates of Central Europe. When the tricolour +standards were nearing the town of Leoben, the Emperor Francis sent +envoys to sue for peace;[72] and the preliminaries signed there, +within one hundred miles of the Austrian capital, closed the campaign +which a year previously had opened with so little promise for the +French on the narrow strip of land between the Maritime Alps and the +petty township of Savona. + +These brilliant results were due primarily to the consummate +leadership of Bonaparte. His geographical instincts discerned the +means of profiting by natural obstacles and of turning them when they +seemed to screen his opponents. Prompt to divine their plans, he +bewildered them by the audacity of his combinations, which overbore +their columns with superior force at the very time when he seemed +doomed to succumb. Genius so commanding had not been displayed even by +Frederick or Marlborough. And yet these brilliant results could not +have been achieved by an army which rarely exceeded 45,000 men without +the strenuous bravery and tactical skill of the best generals of +division, Augereau, Massena, and Joubert, as well as of officers who +had shown their worth in many a doubtful fight; Lannes, the hero of +Lodi and Arcola; Marmont, noted for his daring advance of the guns at +Castiglione; Victor, who justified his name by hard fighting at La +Favorita; Murat, the _beau sabreur_, and Junot, both dashing cavalry +generals; and many more whose daring earned them a soldier's death in +order to gain glory for France and liberty for Italy. Still less ought +the soldiery to be forgotten; those troops, whose tattered uniforms +bespoke their ceaseless toils, who grumbled at the frequent lack of +bread, but, as Massena observed, never _before_ a battle, who even in +retreat never doubted the genius of their chief, and fiercely rallied +at the longed-for sign of fighting. The source of this marvellous +energy is not hard to discover. Their bravery was fed by that +wellspring of hope which had made of France a nation of free men +determined to free the millions beyond their frontiers. The French +columns were "equality on the march"; and the soldiery, animated by +this grand enthusiasm, found its militant embodiment in the great +captain who seemed about to liberate Italy and Central Europe. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +LEOBEN TO CAMPO FORMIO + + +In signing the preliminaries of peace at Leoben, which formed in part +the basis for the Treaty of Campo Formio, Bonaparte appears as a +diplomatist of the first rank. He had already signed similar articles +with the Court of Turin and with the Vatican. But such a transaction +with the Emperor was infinitely more important than with the +third-rate powers of the peninsula. He now essays his first flight to +the highest levels of international diplomacy. In truth, his mental +endowments, like those of many of the greatest generals, were no less +adapted to success in the council-chamber than on the field of battle; +for, indeed, the processes of thought and the methods of action are +not dissimilar in the spheres of diplomacy and war. To evade obstacles +on which an opponent relies, to multiply them in his path, to bewilder +him by feints before overwhelming him by a crushing onset, these are +the arts which yield success either to the negotiator or to the +commander. + +In imposing terms of peace on the Emperor at Leoben (April 18th, +1797), Bonaparte reduced the Directory, and its envoy, Clarke, who was +absent in Italy, to a subordinate _role_. As commander-in-chief, he +had power only to conclude a brief armistice, but now he signed the +preliminaries of peace. His excuse to the Directory was ingenious. +While admitting the irregularity of his conduct, he pleaded the +isolated position of his army, and the absence of Clarke, and that, +under the circumstances, his act had been merely "a military +operation." He could also urge that he had in his rear a disaffected +Venetia, and that he believed the French armies on the Rhine to be +stationary and unable to cross that river. But the very tardy advent +of Clarke on the scene strengthens the supposition that Bonaparte was +at the time by no means loth to figure as the pacifier of the +Continent. Had he known the whole truth, namely, that the French were +gaining a battle on the east bank of the Rhine while the terms of +peace were being signed at Leoben, he would most certainly have broken +off the negotiations and have dictated harsher terms at the gates of +Vienna. That was the vision which shone before his eyes three years +previously, when he sketched to his friends at Nice the plan of +campaign, beginning at Savona and ending before the Austrian capital; +and great was his chagrin at hearing the tidings of Moreau's success +on April 20th. The news reached him on his return from Leoben to +Italy, when he was detained for a few hours by a sudden flood of the +River Tagliamento. At once he determined to ride back and make some +excuse for a rupture with Austria; and only the persistent +remonstrances of Berthier turned him from this mad resolve, which +would forthwith have exhibited him to the world as estimating more +highly the youthful promptings of destiny than the honour of a French +negotiator. + +The terms which he had granted to the Emperor were lenient enough. The +only definitive gain to France was the acquisition of the Austrian +Netherlands (Belgium), for which troublesome possession the Emperor +was to have compensation elsewhere. Nothing absolutely binding was +said about the left, or west, bank of the Rhine, except that Austria +recognized the "constitutional limits" of France, but reaffirmed the +integrity of "The Empire."[73] These were contradictory statements; +for France had declared the Rhine to be her natural boundary, and the +old "Empire" included Belgium, Treves, and Luxemburg. But, for the +interpretation of these vague formularies, the following secret and +all-important articles were appended. While the Emperor renounced that +part of his Italian possessions which lay to the west of the Oglio, he +was to receive all the mainland territories of Venice east of that +river, including Dalmatia and Istria, Venice was also to cede her +lands west of the Oglio to the French Government; and in return for +these sacrifices she was to gain the three legations of Romagna, +Ferrara, and Bologna--the very lands which Bonaparte had recently +formed into the Cispadane Republic! For the rest, the Emperor would +have to recognize the proposed Republic at Milan, as also that already +existing at Modena, "compensation" being somewhere found for the +deposed duke. + +From the correspondence of Thugut, the Austrian Minister, it appears +certain that Austria herself had looked forward to the partition of +the Venetian mainland territories, and this was the scheme which +Bonaparte _actually proposed to her at Leoben_. Still more +extraordinary was his proposal to sacrifice, ostensibly to Venice but +ultimately to Austria, the greater part of the Cispadane Republic. It +is, indeed, inexplicable, except on the ground that his military +position at Leoben was more brilliant than secure. His uneasiness +about this article of the preliminaries is seen in his letter of April +22nd to the Directors, which explains that the preliminaries need not +count for much. But most extraordinary of all was his procedure +concerning the young Lombard Republic. He seems quite calmly to have +discussed its retrocession to the Austrians, and that, too, after he +had encouraged the Milanese to found a republic, and had declared that +every French victory was "a line of the constitutional charter."[74] +The most reasonable explanation is that Bonaparte over-estimated the +military strength of Austria, and undervalued the energy of the men of +Milan, Modena, and Bologna, of whose levies he spoke most +contemptuously. Certain it is that he desired to disengage himself +from their affairs so as to be free for the grander visions of +oriental conquest that now haunted his imagination. Whatever were his +motives in signing the preliminaries at Leoben, he speedily found +means for their modification in the ever-enlarging area of negotiable +lands. + +It is now time to return to the affairs of Venice. For seven months +the towns and villages of that republic had been a prey to pitiless +warfare and systematic rapacity, a fate which the weak ruling +oligarchy could neither avert nor avenge. In the western cities, +Bergamo and Brescia, whose interests and feelings linked them with +Milan rather than Venice, the populace desired an alliance with the +nascent republic on the west and a severance from the gloomy +despotism of the Queen of the Adriatic. Though glorious in her prime, +she now governed with obscurantist methods inspired by fear of her +weakness becoming manifest; and Bonaparte, tearing off the mask which +hitherto had screened her dotage, left her despised by the more +progressive of her own subjects. Even before he first entered the +Venetian territory, he set forth to the Directory the facilities for +plunder and partition which it offered. Referring to its reception of +the Comte de Provence (the future Louis XVIII.) and the occupation of +Peschiera by the Austrians, he wrote (June 6th, 1796): + + "If your plan is to extract five or six million francs from Venice, + I have expressly prepared for you this sort of rupture with her.... + If you have intentions more pronounced, I think that you ought to + continue this subject of contention, instruct me as to your + desires, and wait for the favourable opportunity, which I will + seize according to circumstances, for we must not have everybody on + our hands at the same time." + +The events which now transpired in Venetia gave him excuses for the +projected partition. The weariness felt by the Brescians and +Bergamesques for Venetian rule had been artfully played on by the +Jacobins of Milan and by the French Generals Kilmaine and Landrieux; +and an effort made by the Venetian officials to repress the growing +discontent brought about disturbances in which some men of the +"Lombard legion" were killed. The complicity of the French in the +revolt is clearly established by the Milanese journals and by the fact +that Landrieux forthwith accepted the command of the rebels at Bergamo +and Brescia.[75] But while these cities espoused the Jacobin cause, +most of the Venetian towns and all the peasantry remained faithful to +the old Government. It was clear that a conflict must ensue, even if +Bonaparte and some of his generals had not secretly worked to bring it +about. That he and they did so work cannot now be disputed. The circle +of proof is complete. The events at Brescia and Bergamo were part of +a scheme for precipitating a rupture with Venice; and their success +was so far assured that Bonaparte at Leoben secretly bargained away +nearly the whole of the Venetian lands. Furthermore, a fortnight +before the signing of these preliminaries, he had suborned a vile +wretch, Salvatori by name, to issue a proclamation purporting to come +from the Venetian authorities, which urged the people everywhere to +rise and massacre the French. It was issued on April 5th, though it +bore the date of March 20th. At once the Doge warned his people that +it was a base fabrication, But the mischief had been done. On Easter +Monday (April 17th) a chance affray in Verona let loose the passions +which had been rising for months past: the populace rose in fury +against the French detachment quartered on them: and all the soldiers +who could not find shelter in the citadel, even the sick in the +hospitals, fell victims to the craving for revenge for the +humiliations and exactions of the last seven months.[76] Such was +Easter-tide at Verona--_les Paques veronaises_--an event that recalls +the Sicilian Vespers of Palermo in its blind southern fury. + +The finale somewhat exceeded Bonaparte's expectations, but he must +have hailed it with a secret satisfaction. It gave him a good excuse +for wholly extinguishing Venice as an independent power. According to +the secret articles signed at Leoben, the city of Venice was to have +retained her independence and gained the Legations. But her contumacy +could now be chastised by annihilation. Venice could, in fact, +indemnify the Hapsburgs for the further cessions which France exacted +from them elsewhere; and in the process Bonaparte would free himself +from the blame which attached to his hasty signature of the +preliminaries at Leoben.[77] He was now determined to secure the Rhine +frontier for France, to gain independence, under French tutelage, not +only for the Lombard Republic, but also for Modena and the Legations. +These were his aims during the negotiations to which he gave the full +force of his intellect during the spring and summer of 1797. + +The first thing was to pour French troops into Italy so as to extort +better terms: the next was to declare war on Venice. For this there +was now ample justification; for, apart from the massacre at Verona, +another outrage had been perpetrated. A French corsair, which had +persisted in anchoring in a forbidden part of the harbour of Venice, +had been riddled by the batteries and captured. For this act, and for +the outbreak at Verona, the Doge and Senate offered ample reparation: +but Bonaparte refused to listen to these envoys, "dripping with French +blood," and haughtily bade Venice evacuate her mainland +territories.[78] For various reasons he decided to use guile rather +than force. He found in Venice a secretary of the French legation, +Villetard by name, who could be trusted dextrously to undermine the +crumbling fabric of the oligarchy.[79] This man persuaded the +terrified populace that nothing would appease the fury of the +French general but the deposition of the existing oligarchy and the +formation of a democratic municipality. The people and the patricians +alike swallowed the bait; and the once haughty Senate tamely +pronounced its own doom. Disorders naturally occurred on the downfall +of the ancient oligarchy, especially when the new municipality ordered +the removal of Venetian men-of-war into the hands of the French and +the introduction of French troops by help of Venetian vessels. A +mournful silence oppressed even the democrats when 5,000 French troops +entered Venice on board the flotilla. The famous State, which for +centuries had ruled the waters of the Levant, and had held the fierce +Turks at bay, a people numbering 3,000,000 souls and boasting a +revenue of 9,000,000 ducats, now struck not one blow against +conquerors who came in the guise of liberators. + +On the same day Bonaparte signed at Milan a treaty of alliance with +the envoys of the new Venetian Government. His friendship was to be +dearly bought. In secret articles, which were of more import than the +vague professions of amity which filled the public document, it was +stipulated that the French and Venetian Republics should come to an +understanding as to the _exchange_ of certain territories, that Venice +should pay a contribution in money and in materials of war, should aid +the French navy by furnishing three battleships and two frigates, and +should enrich the museums of her benefactress by 20 paintings and 500 +manuscripts. While he was signing these conditions of peace, the +Directors were despatching from Paris a declaration of war against +Venice. Their decision was already obsolete: it was founded on +Bonaparte's despatch of April 30th; but in the interval their +proconsul had wholly changed the situation by overthrowing the rule of +the Doge and Senate, and by setting up a democracy, through which he +could extract the wealth of that land. The Directors' declaration of +war was accordingly stopped at Milan, and no more was heard of it. +They were thus forcibly reminded of the truth of his previous warning +that things would certainly go wrong unless they consulted him on all +important details.[80] + +This treaty of Milan was the fourth important convention concluded by +the general, who, at the beginning of the campaign of 1796, had been +forbidden even to sign an armistice without consulting Salicetti! + +It was speedily followed by another, which in many respects redounds +to the credit of the young conqueror. If his conduct towards Venice +inspires loathing, his treatment of Genoa must excite surprise and +admiration. Apart from one very natural outburst of spleen, it shows +little of that harshness which might have been expected from the man +who had looked on Genoa as the embodiment of mean despotism. Up to the +summer of 1796 Bonaparte seems to have retained something of his old +detestation of that republic; for at midsummer, when he was in the +full career of his Italian conquests, he wrote to Faypoult, the French +envoy at Genoa, urging him to keep open certain cases that were in +dispute, and three weeks later he again wrote that the time for Genoa +had not yet come. Any definite action against this wealthy city was, +indeed, most undesirable during the campaign; for the bankers of +Genoa supplied the French army with the sinews of war by means of +secret loans, and their merchants were equally complaisant in regard +to provisions. These services were appreciated by Bonaparte as much as +they were resented by Nelson; and possibly the succour which Genoese +money and shipping covertly rendered to the French expeditions for +the recovery of Corsica may have helped to efface from Bonaparte's +memory the associations clustering around the once-revered name of +Paoli. From ill-concealed hostility he drifted into a position of +tolerance and finally of friendship towards Genoa, provided that she +became democratic. If her institutions could be assimilated to those +of France, she might prove a valuable intermediary or ally. + +The destruction of the Genoese oligarchy presented no great +difficulties. Both Venice and Genoa had long outlived their power, and +the persistent violation of their neutrality had robbed them of that +last support of the weak, self-respect. The intrigues of Faypoult and +Salicetti were undermining the influence of the Doge and Senate, when +the news of the fall of the Venetian oligarchy spurred on the French +party to action, But the Doge and Senate armed bands of mountaineers +and fishermen who were hostile to change; and in a long and desperate +conflict in the narrow streets of Genoa the democrats were completely +worsted (May 23rd). The victors thereupon ransacked the houses of the +opposing faction and found lists of names of those who were to have +been proscribed, besides documents which revealed the complicity of +the French agents in the rising. Bonaparte was enraged at the folly of +the Genoese democrats, which deranged his plans. As he wrote to the +Directory, if they had only remained quiet for a fortnight, the +oligarchy would have collapsed from sheer weakness. The murder of a +few Frenchmen and Milanese now gave him an excuse for intervention. He +sent an aide-de-camp, Lavalette, charged with a vehement diatribe +against the Doge and Senate, which lost nothing in its recital before +that august body. At the close a few senators called out, "Let us +fight": but the spirit of the Dorias flickered away with these +protests; and the degenerate scions of mighty sires submitted to the +insults of an aide-de-camp and the dictation of his master. + +The fate of this ancient republic was decided by Bonaparte at the +Castle of Montebello, near Milan, where he had already drawn up her +future constitution. After brief conferences with the Genoese envoys, +he signed with them the secret convention which placed their +republic--soon to be renamed the Ligurian Republic--under the +protection of France and substituted for the close patrician rule a +moderate democracy. The fact is significant. His military instincts +had now weaned him from the stiff Jacobinism of his youth; and, in +conjunction with Faypoult and the envoys, he arranged that the +legislative powers should be intrusted to two popularly elected +chambers of 300 and 150 members, while the executive functions were to +be discharged by twelve senators, presided over by a Doge; these +officers were to be appointed by the chambers: for the rest, the +principles of religious liberty and civic equality were recognized, +and local self-government was amply provided for. Cynics may, of +course, object that this excellent constitution was but a means of +insuring French supremacy and of peacefully installing Bonaparte's +regiments in a very important city; but the close of his intervention +may be pronounced as creditable to his judgment as its results were +salutary to Genoa. He even upbraided the demagogic party of that city +for shivering in pieces the statue of Andrea Doria and suspending the +fragments on some of the innumerable trees of liberty recently +planted. + + "Andrea Doria," he wrote, "was a great sailor and a great + statesman. Aristocracy was liberty in his time. The whole of Europe + envies your city the honour of having produced that celebrated man. + You will, I doubt not, take pains to rear his statue again: I pray + you to let me bear a part of the expense which that will entail, + which I desire to share with those who are most zealous for the + glory and welfare of your country." + +In contrasting this wise and dignified conduct with the hatred which +most Corsicans still cherished against Genoa, Bonaparte's greatness of +soul becomes apparent and inspires the wish: _Utinam semper sic +fuisses!_ + +Few periods of his life have been more crowded with momentous events +than his sojourn at the Castle of Montebello in May-July, 1797. +Besides completing the downfall of Venice and reinvigorating the life +of Genoa, he was deeply concerned with the affairs of the Lombard or +Cisalpine Republic, with his family concerns, with the consolidation +of his own power in French politics, and with the Austrian +negotiations. We will consider these affairs in the order here +indicated. + +The future of Lombardy had long been a matter of concern to Bonaparte. +He knew that its people were the _fittest_ in all Italy to benefit by +_constitutional rule_, but it must be dependent on France. He felt +little confidence in the Lombards if left to themselves, as is seen in +his conversation with Melzi and Miot de Melito at the Castle of +Montebello. He was in one of those humours, frequent at this time of +dawning splendour, when confidence in his own genius betrayed him into +quite piquant indiscretions. After referring to the Directory, he +turned abruptly to Melzi, a Lombard nobleman: + + "As for your country, Monsieur de Melzi, it possesses still fewer + elements of republicanism than France, and can be managed more + easily than any other. You know better than anyone that we shall do + what we like with Italy. But the time has not yet come. We must + give way to the fever of the moment. We are going to have one or + two republics here of our own sort. Monge will arrange that for + us." + +He had some reason for distrusting the strength of the democrats in +Italy. At the close of 1796 he had written that there were three +parties in Lombardy, one which accepted French guidance, another which +desired liberty even with some impatience, and a third faction, +friendly to the Austrians: he encouraged the first, checked the +second, and repressed the last. He now complained that the Cispadanes +and Cisalpines had behaved very badly in their first elections, which +had been conducted in his absence; for they had allowed clerical +influence to override all French predilections. And, a little later, +he wrote to Talleyrand that the genuine love of liberty was feeble in +Italy, and that, as soon as French influences were withdrawn, the +Italian Jacobins would be murdered by the populace. The sequel was to +justify his misgivings, and therefore to refute the charges of those +who see in his conduct respecting the Cisalpine Republic nothing but +calculating egotism. The difficulty of freeing a populace that had +learnt to hug its chains was so great that the temporary and partial +success which his new creation achieved may be regarded as a proof of +his political sagacity. + +After long preparations by four committees, which Bonaparte kept at +Milan closely engaged in the drafting of laws, the constitution of the +Cisalpine Republic was completed. It was a miniature of that of +France, and lest there should be any further mistakes in the +elections, Bonaparte himself appointed, not only the five Directors +and the Ministers whom they were to control, but even the 180 +legislators, both Ancients and Juniors. In this strange fashion did +democracy descend on Italy, not mainly as the work of the people, but +at the behest of a great organizing genius. It is only fair to add +that he summoned to the work of civic reconstruction many of the best +intellects of Italy. He appointed a noble, Serbelloni, to be the first +President of the Cisalpine Republic, and a scion of the august House +of the Visconti was sent as its ambassador to Paris. Many able men +that had left Lombardy during the Austrian occupation or the recent +wars were attracted back by Bonaparte's politic clemency; and the +festival of July 9th at Milan, which graced the inauguration of the +new Government, presented a scene of civic joy to which that unhappy +province had long been a stranger. A vast space was thronged with an +enormous crowd which took up the words of the civic oath uttered by +the President. The Archbishop of Milan celebrated Mass and blessed the +banners of the National Guards; and the day closed with games, dances, +and invocations to the memory of the Italians who had fought and died +for their nascent liberties. Amidst all the vivas and the clash of +bells Bonaparte took care to sound a sterner note. On that very day +he ordered the suppression of a Milanese club which had indulged in +Jacobinical extravagances, and he called on the people "to show to the +world by their wisdom, energy, and by the good organization of their +army, that modern Italy has not degenerated and is still worthy of +liberty." + +The contagion of Milanese enthusiasm spread rapidly. Some of the +Venetian towns on the mainland now petitioned for union with the +Cisalpine Republic; and the deputies of the Cispadane, who were +present at the festival, urgently begged that their little State might +enjoy the same privilege. Hitherto Bonaparte had refused these +requests, lest he should hamper the negotiations with Austria, which +were still tardily proceeding; but within a month their wish was +gratified, and the Cispadane State was united to the larger and more +vigorous republic north of the River Po, along with the important +districts of Como, Bergamo, Brescia, Crema, and Peschiera. +Disturbances in the Swiss district of the Valteline soon enabled +Bonaparte to intervene on behalf of the oppressed peasants, and to +merge this territory also in the Cisalpine Republic, which +consequently stretched from the high Alps southward to Rimini, and +from the Ticino on the west to the Mincio on the east.[81] + +Already, during his sojourn at the Castle of Montebello, Bonaparte +figured as the all-powerful proconsul of the French Republic. Indeed, +all his surroundings--his retinue of complaisant generals, and the +numerous envoys and agents who thronged his ante-chambers to beg an +audience--befitted a Sulla or a Wallenstein, rather than a general of +the regicide Republic. Three hundred Polish soldiers guarded the +approaches to the castle; and semi-regal state was also observed in +its spacious corridors and saloons. There were to be seen Italian +nobles, literati, and artists, counting it the highest honour to visit +the liberator of their land; and to them Bonaparte behaved with that +mixture of affability and inner reserve, of seductive charm +alternating with incisive cross-examination which proclaimed at once +the versatility of his gifts, the keenness of his intellect, and his +determination to gain social, as well as military and political, +supremacy. And yet the occasional abruptness of his movements, and the +strident tones of command lurking beneath his silkiest speech, now and +again reminded beholders that he was of the camp rather than of the +court. To his generals he was distant; for any fault even his +favourite officers felt the full force of his anger; and aides-de-camp +were not often invited to dine at his table. Indeed, he frequently +dined before his retinue, almost in the custom of the old Kings of +France. + +With him was his mother, also his brothers, Joseph and Louis, whom he +was rapidly advancing to fortune. There, too, were his sisters; Elise, +proud and self-contained, who at this period married a noble but +somewhat boorish Corsican, Bacciocchi; and Pauline, a charming girl of +sixteen, whose hand the all-powerful brother offered to Marmont, to be +by him unaccountably refused, owing, it would seem, to a prior +attachment. This lively and luxurious young creature was not long to +remain unwedded. The adjutant-general, Leclerc, became her suitor; +and, despite his obscure birth and meagre talents, speedily gained her +as his bride. Bonaparte granted her 40,000 francs as her dowry; +and--significant fact--the nuptials were privately blessed by a priest +in the chapel of the Palace of Montebello. + +There, too, at Montebello was Josephine. + +Certainly the Bonapartes were not happy in their loves: the one dark +side to the young conqueror's life, all through this brilliant +campaign, was the cruelty of his bride. From her side he had in March, +1796, torn himself away, distracted between his almost insane love for +her and his determination to crush the chief enemy of France: to her +he had written long and tender letters even amidst the superhuman +activities of his campaign. Ten long despatches a day had not +prevented him covering as many sheets of paper with protestations of +devotion to her and with entreaties that she would likewise pour out +her heart to him. Then came complaints, some tenderly pleading, others +passionately bitter, of her cruelly rare and meagre replies. The sad +truth, that Josephine cares much for his fame and little for him +himself, that she delays coming to Italy, these and other afflicting +details rend his heart. At last she comes to Milan, after a +passionate outburst of weeping--at leaving her beloved Paris. In Italy +she shows herself scarcely more than affectionate to her doting +spouse. Marlborough's letters to his peevish duchess during the +Blenheim campaign are not more crowded with maudlin curiosities than +those of the fierce scourge of the Austrians to his heartless fair. He +writes to her agonizingly, begging her to be less lovely, less +gracious, less good--apparently in order that he may love her less +madly: but she is never to be jealous, and, above all, never to weep: +for her tears burn his blood: and he concludes by sending millions of +kisses, and also to her dog! And this mad effusion came from the man +whom the outside world took to be of steel-like coldness: yet his +nature had this fevered, passionate side, just as the moon, where she +faces the outer void, is compact of ice, but turns a front of molten +granite to her blinding, all-compelling luminary. + +Undoubtedly this blazing passion helped to spur on the lover to that +terrific energy which makes the Italian campaign unique even amidst +the Napoleonic wars. Beaulieu, Wuermser, and Alvintzy were not rivals +in war; they were tiresome hindrances to his unsated love. On the eve +of one of his greatest triumphs he penned to her the following +rhapsody: + + "I am far from you, I seem to be surrounded by the blackest night: + I need the lurid light of the thunder-bolts which we are about to + hurl on our enemies to dispel the darkness into which your absence + has plunged me. Josephine, you wept when we parted: you wept! At + that thought all my being trembles. But be consoled! Wuermser shall + pay dearly for the tears which I have seen you shed." + +What infatuation! to appease a woman's fancied grief, he will pile +high the plains of Mincio with corpses, recking not of the thousand +homes where bitter tears will flow. It is the apotheosis of +sentimental egotism and social callousness. And yet this brain, with +its moral vision hopelessly blurred, judged unerringly in its own +peculiar plane. What power it must have possessed, that, unexhausted +by the flames of love, it grasped infallibly the myriad problems of +war, scanning them the more clearly, perchance, in the white heat of +its own passion. + +At last there came the time of fruition at Montebello: of fruition, +but not of ease or full contentment; for not only did an average of +eight despatches a day claim several hours, during which he jealously +guarded his solitude; but Josephine's behaviour served to damp his +ardour. As, during the time of absence, she had slighted his urgent +entreaties for a daily letter, so too, during the sojourn at +Montebello, she revealed the shallowness and frivolity of her being. +Fetes, balls, and receptions, provided they were enlivened by a light +crackle of compliments from an admiring circle, pleased her more than +the devotion of a genius. She had admitted, before marriage, that her +"Creole _nonchalance_" shrank wearily away from his keen and ardent +nature; and now, when torn away from the _salons_ of Paris, she seems +to have taken refuge in entertainments and lap-dogs.[82] Doubtless +even at this period Josephine evinced something of that warm feeling +which deepened with ripening years and lit up her later sorrows with a +mild radiance; but her recent association with Madame Tallien and that +giddy _cohue_ had accentuated her habits of feline complaisance to all +and sundry. Her facile fondnesses certainly welled forth far too +widely to carve out a single channel of love and mingle with the deep +torrent of Bonaparte's early passion. In time, therefore, his +affections strayed into many other courses; and it would seen that +even in the later part of this Italian epoch his conduct was +irregular. For this Josephine had herself mainly to thank. At last she +awakened to the real value and greatness of the love which her neglect +had served to dull and tarnish, but then it was too late for complete +reunion of souls: the Corsican eagle had by that time soared far +beyond reach of her highest flutterings.[83] + +At Montebello, as also at Passeriano, whither the Austrian +negotiations were soon transferred, Bonaparte, though strictly +maintaining the ceremonies of his proconsular court, yet showed the +warmth of his social instincts. After the receptions of the day and +the semi-public dinner, he loved to unbend in the evening. Sometimes, +when Josephine formed a party of ladies for _vingt-et-un_, he would +withdraw to a corner and indulge in the game of _goose_; and +bystanders noted with amusement that his love of success led him to +play tricks and cheat in order not to "fall into the pit." At other +times, if the conversation languished, he proposed that each person +should tell a story; and when no Boccaccio-like facility inspired the +company, he sometimes launched out into one of those eerie and +thrilling recitals, such as he must often have heard from the +_improvisatori_ of his native island. Bourrienne states that +Bonaparte's realism required darkness and daggers for the full display +of his gifts, and that the climax of his dramatic monologue was not +seldom enhanced by the screams of the ladies, a consummation which +gratified rather than perturbed the accomplished actor. + +A survey of Bonaparte's multifarious activity in Italy enables the +reader to realize something of the wonder and awe excited by his +achievements. Like an Athena he leaped forth from the Revolution, +fully armed for every kind of contest. His mental superiority +impressed diplomats as his strategy baffled the Imperialist generals; +and now he was to give further proofs of his astuteness by +intervening in the internal affairs of France. + +In order to understand Bonaparte's share in the _coup d'etat_ of +Fructidor, we must briefly review the course of political events at +Paris. At the time of the installation of the Directory the hope was +widely cherished that the Revolution was now entirely a thing of the +past. But the unrest of the time was seen in the renewal of the +royalist revolts in the west, and in the communistic plot of Babeuf +for the overthrow of the whole existing system of private property. +The aims of these desperadoes were revealed by an accomplice; the +ringleaders were arrested, and after a long trial Babeuf was +guillotined and his confederates were transported (May, 1797). The +disclosure of these ultra-revolutionary aims shocked not only the +bourgeois, but even the peasants who were settled on the confiscated +lands of the nobles and clergy. The very class which had given to the +events of 1789 their irresistible momentum was now inclined to rest +and be thankful; and in this swift revulsion of popular feeling the +royalists began to gain ground. The elections for the renewal of a +third part of the Councils resulted in large gains for them, and they +could therefore somewhat influence the composition of the Directory by +electing Barthelemy, a constitutional royalist. Still, he could not +overbear the other four regicide Directors, even though one of these, +Carnot, also favoured moderate opinions more and more. A crisis +therefore rapidly developed between the still Jacobinical Directory +and the two legislative Councils, in each of which the royalists, or +moderates, had the upper hand. The aim of this majority was to +strengthen the royalist elements in France by the repeal of many +revolutionary laws. Their man of action was Pichegru, the conqueror of +Holland, who, abjuring Jacobinism, now schemed with a club of +royalists, which met at Clichy, on the outskirts of Paris. That their +intrigues aimed at the restoration of the Bourbons had recently been +proved. The French agents in Venice seized the Comte d'Entraigues, the +confidante of the _soi-disant_ Louis XVIII.; and his papers, when +opened by Bonaparte, Clarke, and Berthier at Montebello, proved that +there was a conspiracy in France for the recall of the Bourbons. With +characteristic skill, Bonaparte held back these papers from the +Directory until he had mastered the difficulties of the situation. As +for the count, he released him; and in return for this signal act of +clemency, then very unusual towards an _emigre_, he soon became the +object of his misrepresentation and slander. + +The political crisis became acute in July, when the majority +of the Councils sought to force on the Directory Ministers who +would favour moderate or royalist aims. Three Directors, Barras, La +Reveilliere-Lepeaux, and Rewbell, refused to listen to these behests, +and insisted on the appointment of Jacobinical Ministers even in the +teeth of a majority of the Councils. This defiance of the deputies of +France was received with execration by most civilians, but with +jubilant acclaim by the armies; for the soldiery, far removed from the +partisan strifes of the capital, still retained their strongly +republican opinions. The news that their conduct towards Venice was +being sharply criticised by the moderates in Paris aroused their +strongest feelings, military pride and democratic ardour. + +Nevertheless, Bonaparte's conduct was eminently cautious and reserved. +In the month of May he sent to Paris his most trusted aide-de-camp, +Lavalette, instructing him to sound all parties, to hold aloof from +all engagements, and to report to him dispassionately on the state of +public opinion.[84] Lavalette judged the position of the Directory, or +rather of the Triumvirate which swayed it, to be so precarious that he +cautioned his chief against any definite espousal of its cause; and in +June-July, 1797, Bonaparte almost ceased to correspond with the +Directors except on Italian affairs, probably because he looked +forward to their overthrow as an important step towards his own +supremacy. There was, however, the possibility of a royalist reaction +sweeping all before it in France and ranging the armies against the +civil power. He therefore waited and watched, fully aware of the +enhanced importance which an uncertain situation gives to the outsider +who refuses to show his hand. + +Duller eyes than his had discerned that the constitutional conflict +between the Directory and the Councils could not be peaceably +adjusted. The framers of the constitution had designed the slowly +changing Directory as a check on the Councils, which were renewed to +the extent of one-third every year; but, while seeking to put a +regicide drag on the parliamentary coach, they had omitted to provide +against a complete overturn. The Councils could not legally override +the Directory; neither could the Directory veto the decrees of the +Councils, nor, by dissolving them, compel an appeal to the country. +This defect in the constitution had been clearly pointed out by +Necker, and it now drew from Barras the lament: + + "Ah, if the constitution of the Year III., which offers so many + sage precautions, had not neglected one of the most important; if + it had foreseen that the two great powers of the State, engaged in + heated debates, must end with open conflicts, when there is no high + court of appeal to arrange them; if it had sufficiently armed the + Directory with the right of dissolving the Chamber!"[85] + +As it was, the knot had to be severed by the sword: not, as yet, by +Bonaparte's trenchant blade: he carefully drew back; but where as yet +he feared to tread, Hoche rushed in. This ardently republican general +was inspired by a self-denying patriotism, that flinched not before +odious duties. While Bonaparte was culling laurels in Northern Italy, +Hoche was undertaking the most necessary task of quelling the Vendean +risings, and later on braved the fogs and storms of the Atlantic in +the hope of rousing all Ireland in revolt. His expedition to Bantry +Bay in December, 1796, having miscarried, he was sent into the +Rhineland. The conclusion of peace by Bonaparte at Leoben again dashed +his hopes, and he therefore received with joy the orders of the +Directory that he should march a large part of his army to Brest for a +second expedition to Ireland. The Directory, however, intended to use +those troops nearer home, and appointed him Minister of War (July +16th). The choice was a good one; Hoche was active, able, and popular +with the soldiery; but he had not yet reached the thirtieth year of +his age, the limit required by the constitution. On this technical +defect the majority of the Councils at once fastened; and their +complaints were redoubled when a large detachment of his troops came +within the distance of the capital forbidden to the army. The +moderates could therefore accuse the triumvirs and Hoche of conspiracy +against the laws; he speedily resigned the Ministry (July 22nd), and +withdrew his troops into Champagne, and finally to the Rhineland. + +Now was the opportunity for Bonaparte to take up the _role_ of +Cromwell which Hoche had so awkwardly played. And how skilfully the +conqueror of Italy plays it--through subordinates. He was too well +versed in statecraft to let his sword flash before the public gaze. By +this time he had decided to act, and doubtless the fervid Jacobinism +of the soldiery was the chief cause determining his action. At the +national celebration on July 14th he allowed it to have free vent, and +thereupon wrote to the Directory, bitterly reproaching them for their +weakness in face of the royalist plot: "I see that the Clichy Club +means to march over my corpse to the destruction of the Republic." He +ended the diatribe by his usual device, when he desired to remind the +Government of his necessity to them, of offering his resignation, in +case they refused to take vigorous measures against the malcontents. +Yet even now his action was secret and indirect. On July 27th he sent +to the Directors a brief note stating that Augereau had requested +leave to go to Paris, "where his affairs call him"; and that he sent +by this general the originals of the addresses of the army, avowing +its devotion to the constitution. No one would suspect from this that +Augereau was in Bonaparte's confidence and came to carry out the +_coup d'etat_. The secret was well preserved. Lavalette was +Bonaparte's official representative; and his neutrality was now +maintained in accordance with a note received from his chief: +"Augereau is coming to Paris: do not put yourself in his power: he has +sown disorder in the army: he is a factious man." + +But, while Lavalette was left to trim his sails as best he might, +Augereau was certain to act with energy. Bonaparte knew well that his +Jacobinical lieutenant, famed as the first swordsman of the day, and +the leader of the fighting division of the army, would do his work +thoroughly, always vaunting his own prowess and decrying that of his +commander. It was so. Augereau rushed to Paris, breathing threats of +slaughter against the royalists. Checked for a time by the calculating +_finesse_ of the triumvirs, he prepared to end matters by a single +blow; and, when the time had come, he occupied the strategic points of +the capital, drew a cordon of troops round the Tuileries, where the +Councils sat, invaded the chambers of deputies and consigned to the +Temple the royalists and moderates there present, with their leader, +Pichegru. Barthelemy was also seized; but Carnot, warned by a friend, +fled during the early hours of this eventful day--September 4th (or 18 +Fructidor). The mutilated Councils forthwith annulled the late +elections in forty-nine Departments, and passed severe laws against +orthodox priests and the unpardoned _emigres_ who had ventured to +return to France. The Directory was also intrusted with complete power +to suppress newspapers, to close political clubs, and to declare any +commune in a state of siege. Its functions were now wellnigh as +extensive and absolute as those of the Committee of Public Safety, its +powers being limited only by the incompetence of the individual +Directors and by their paralyzing consciousness that they ruled only +by favour of the army. They had taken the sword to solve a political +problem: two years later they were to fall by that sword.[86] + +Augereau fully expected that he would be one of the two Directors who +were elected in place of Carnot and Barthelemy; but the Councils had +no higher opinion of his civic capacity than Bonaparte had formed; +and, to his great disgust, Merlin of Douai and Francois of Neufchatel +were chosen. The last scenes of the _coup d'etat_ centred around the +transportation of the condemned deputies. One of the early memories of +the future Duc de Broglie recalled the sight of the "_deputes +fructidorises_ travelling in closed carriages, railed up like cages," +to the seaport whence they were to sail to the lingering agonies of a +tropical prison in French Guiana. + +It was a painful spectacle: "the indignation was great, but the +consternation was greater still. Everybody foresaw the renewal of the +Reign of Terror and resignedly prepared for it." + +Such were the feelings, even of those who, like Madame de Stael and +her friend Benjamin Constant, had declared before the _coup d'etat_ +that it was necessary to the salvation of the Republic. That +accomplished woman was endowed with nearly every attribute of genius +except political foresight and self-restraint. No sooner had the blow +been dealt than she fell to deploring its results, which any +fourth-rate intelligence might have foreseen. "Liberty was the only +power really conquered"--such was her later judgment on Fructidor. Now +that Liberty fled affrighted, the errant enthusiasms of the gifted +authoress clung for a brief space to Bonaparte. Her eulogies on his +exploits, says Lavalette, who listened to her through a dinner in +Talleyrand's rooms, possessed all the mad disorder and exaggeration of +inspiration; and, after the repast was over, the votaress refused to +pass out before an aide-de-camp of Bonaparte! The incident is +characteristic both of Madame de Stael's moods and of the whims of the +populace. Amidst the disenchantments of that time, when the pursuit of +liberty seemed but an idle quest, when royalists were the champions of +parliamentary rule and republicans relied on military force, all eyes +turned wearily away from the civic broils at Paris to the visions of +splendour revealed by the conqueror of Italy. Few persons knew how +largely their new favourite was responsible for the events of +Fructidor; all of them had by heart the names of his victories; and +his popularity flamed to the skies when he recrossed the Alps, +bringing with him a lucrative peace with Austria. + +The negotiations with that Power had dragged on slowly through the +whole summer and far into the autumn, mainly owing to the hopes of the +Emperor Francis that the disorder in France would filch from her the +meed of victory. Doubtless that would have been the case, had not +Bonaparte, while striking down the royalists at Paris through his +lieutenant, remained at the head of his victorious legions in Venetia +ready again to invade Austria, if occasion should arise. + +In some respects, the _coup d'etat_ of Fructidor helped on the +progress of the negotiations. That event postponed, if it did not +render impossible, the advent of civil war in France; and, like +Pride's Purge in our civil strifes, it installed in power a Government +which represented the feelings of the army and of its chief. Moreover, +it rid him of the presence of Clarke, his former colleague in the +negotiations, whose relations with Carnot aroused the suspicions of +Barras and led to his recall. Bonaparte was now the sole +plenipotentiary of France. The final negotiations with Austria and the +resulting treaty of Campo Formio may therefore be considered as almost +entirely his handiwork. + +And yet, at this very time, the head of the Foreign Office at Paris +was a man destined to achieve the greatest diplomatic reputation of +the age. Charles Maurice de Talleyrand seemed destined for the task of +uniting the society of the old _regime_ with the France of the +Revolution. To review his life would be to review the Revolution. With +a reforming zeal begotten of his own intellectual acuteness and of +resentment against his family, which had disinherited him for the +crime of lameness, he had led the first assaults of 1789 against the +privileges of the nobles and of the clerics among whom his lot had +perforce been cast. He acted as the head of the new "constitutional" +clergy, and bestowed his episcopal blessing at the Feast of Pikes in +1790; but, owing to his moderation, he soon fell into disfavour with +the extreme men who seized on power. After a sojourn in England and +the United States, he came back to France, and on the suggestion of +Madame de Stael was appointed Minister for Foreign Affairs (July, +1797). To this post he brought the highest gifts: his early clerical +training gave a keen edge to an intellect naturally subtle and +penetrating: his intercourse with Mirabeau gave him a grip on the +essentials of sound policy and diplomacy: his sojourn abroad widened +his vision, and imbued him with an admiration for English institutions +and English moderation. Yet he loved France with a deep and fervent +love. For her he schemed; for her he threw over friends or foes with a +Machiavellian facility. Amidst all the glamour of the Napoleonic +Empire he discerned the dangers that threatened France; and he warned +his master--as uselessly as he warned reckless nobles, priestly +bigots, and fanatical Jacobins in the past, or the unteachable zealots +of the restored monarchy. His life, when viewed, not in regard to its +many sordid details, but to its chief guiding principle, was one long +campaign against French _elan_ and partisan obstinacy; and he sealed +it with the quaint declaration in his will that, on reviewing his +career, he found he had never abandoned a party before it had +abandoned itself. Talleyrand was equipped with a diversity of gifts: +his gaze, intellectual yet composed, blenched not when he uttered a +scathing criticism or a diplomatic lie: his deep and penetrating voice +gave force to all his words, and the curl of his lip or the scornful +lifting of his eyebrows sometimes disconcerted an opponent more than +his biting sarcasm. In brief, this disinherited noble, this unfrocked +priest, this disenchanted Liberal, was the complete expression of the +inimitable society of the old _regime_, when quickened intellectually +by Voltaire and dulled by the Terror. After doing much to destroy the +old society, he was now to take a prominent share in its +reconstruction on a modern basis.[87] + +Such was the man who now commenced his chief life-work, the task of +guiding Napoleon. "The mere name of Bonaparte is an aid which ought to +smooth away all my difficulties"--these were the obsequious terms in +which he began his correspondence with the great general. In reality, +he distrusted him; but whether from diffidence, or from the weakness +of his own position, which as yet was little more than that of +the head clerk of his department, he did nothing to assert the +predominance of civil over military influence in the negotiations now +proceeding. + +Two months before Talleyrand accepted office, Bonaparte had enlarged +his original demands on Austria, and claimed for France the whole of +the lands on the left or west bank of the Rhine, and for the Cisalpine +Republic all the territory up to the River Adige. To these demands the +Court of Vienna offered a tenacious resistance which greatly irritated +him. "These people are so slow," he exclaimed, "they think that a +peace like this ought to be meditated upon for three years first." + +Concurrently with the Franco-Austrian negotiations, overtures for a +peace between France and England were being discussed at Lille. Into +these it is impossible to enter farther than to notice that in these +efforts Pitt and the other British Ministers (except Grenville) were +sincerely desirous of peace, and that negotiations broke down owing to +the masterful tone adopted by the Directory. It was perhaps +unfortunate that Lord Malmesbury was selected as the English +negotiator, for his behaviour in the previous year had been construed +by the French as dilatory and insincere. But the Directors may on +better evidence be charged with postponing a settlement until they +had struck down their foes within France. Bonaparte's letters at this +time show that he hoped for the conclusion of a peace with England, +doubtless in order that his own pressure on Austria might be +redoubled. In this he was to be disappointed. After Fructidor the +Directory assumed overweening airs. Talleyrand was bidden to enjoin on +the French plenipotentiaries the adoption of a loftier tone. Maret, +the French envoy at Lille, whose counsels had ever been on the side of +moderation, was abruptly replaced by a "Fructidorian"; and a decisive +refusal was given to the English demand for the retention of Trinidad +and the Cape, at the expense of Spain and the Batavian Republic +respectively. Indeed, the Directory intended to press for the cession +of the Channel Islands to France and of Gibraltar to Spain, and that, +too, at the end of a maritime war fruitful in victories for the Union +Jack.[88] + +Towards the King of Sardinia the new Directory was equally imperious. +The throne of Turin was now occupied by Charles Emmanuel IV. He +succeeded to a troublous heritage. Threatened by democratic republics +at Milan and Genoa, and still more by the effervescence of his own +subjects, he strove to gain an offensive and defensive alliance with +France, as the sole safeguard against revolution. To this end he +offered 10,000 Piedmontese for service with Bonaparte, and even +secretly covenanted to cede the island of Sardinia to France. But +these offers could not divert Barras and his colleagues from their +revolutionary policy. They spurned the alliance with the House of +Savoy, and, despite the remonstrances of Bonaparte, they fomented +civil discords in Piedmont such as endangered his communications with +France. Indeed, the Directory after Fructidor was deeply imbued with +fear of their commander in Italy. To increase his difficulties was +now their paramount desire; and under the pretext of extending liberty +in Italy, they instructed Talleyrand to insist on the inclusion of +Venice and Friuli in the Cisalpine Republic. Austria must be content +with Trieste, Istria, and Dalmatia, must renounce all interest in the +fate of the Ionian Isles, and find in Germany all compensation for her +losses in Italy. Such was the ultimatum of the Directory (September +16th). But a loophole of escape was left to Bonaparte; the conduct of +these negotiations was confided solely to him, and he had already +decided their general tenor by giving his provisional assent to the +acquisition by Austria of the east bank of the Adige and the city of +Venice. From these terms he was disinclined to diverge. He was weary +of "this old Europe": his gaze was directed towards Corfu, Malta, and +Egypt; and when he received the official ultimatum, he saw that the +Directory desired a renewal of the war under conditions highly +embarrassing for him. "Yes: I see clearly that they are preparing +defeats for me," he exclaimed to his aide-de-camp Lavalette. They +angered him still more when, on the death of Hoche, they intrusted +their Rhenish forces, numbering 120,000 men, to the command of +Augereau, and sent to the Army of Italy an officer bearing a manifesto +written by Augereau concerning Fructidor, which set forth the anxiety +felt by the Directors concerning Bonaparte's political views. At this +Bonaparte fired up and again offered his resignation (September 25th): + + "No power on earth shall, after this horrible and most unexpected + act of ingratitude by the Government, make me continue to serve it. + My health imperiously demands calm and repose.... My recompense is + in my conscience and in the opinion of posterity. Believe me, that + at any time of danger, I shall be the first to defend the + Constitution of the Year III." + +The resignation was of course declined, in terms most flattering to +Bonaparte; and the Directors prepared to ratify the treaty with +Sardinia. + +Indeed, the fit of passion once passed, the determination to dominate +events again possessed him, and he decided to make peace, despite the +recent instructions of the Directory that no peace would be honourable +which sacrificed Venice to Austria. There is reason to believe that he +now regretted this sacrifice. His passionate outbursts against Venice +after the _Paques veronaises_, his denunciations of "that fierce and +bloodstained rule," had now given place to some feelings of pity for +the people whose ruin he had so artfully compassed; and the social +intercourse with Venetians which he enjoyed at Passeriano, the castle +of the Doge Manin, may well have inspired some regard for the proud +city which he was now about to barter away to Austria. Only so, +however, could he peacefully terminate the wearisome negotiations with +the Emperor. The Austrian envoy, Count Cobenzl, struggled hard to gain +the whole of Venetia, and the Legations, along with the half of +Lombardy.[89] From these exorbitant demands he was driven by the +persistent vigour of Bonaparte's assaults. The little Corsican proved +himself an expert in diplomatic wiles, now enticing the Imperialist on +to slippery ground, and occasionally shocking him by calculated +outbursts of indignation or bravado. After many days spent in +intellectual fencing, the discussions were narrowed down to Mainz, +Mantua, Venice, and the Ionian Isles. On the fate of these islands a +stormy discussion arose, Cobenzl stipulating for their complete +independence, while Bonaparte passionately claimed them for France. In +one of these sallies his vehement gestures overturned a cabinet with a +costly vase; but the story that he smashed the vase, as a sign of his +power to crush the House of Austria, is a later refinement on the +incident, about which Cobenzl merely reported to Vienna--"He behaved +like a fool." Probably his dextrous disclosure of the severe terms +which the Directory ordered him to extort was far more effective than +this boisterous _gasconnade_. Finally, after threatening an immediate +attack on the Austrian positions, he succeeded on three of the +questions above named, but at the sacrifice of Venice to Austria. + +The treaty was signed on October 17th at the village of Campo Formio. +The published articles may be thus summarized: Austria ceded to the +French Republic her Belgic provinces. Of the once extensive Venetian +possessions France gained the Ionian Isles, while Austria acquired +Istria, Dalmatia, the districts at the mouth of the Cattaro, the city +of Venice, and the mainland of Venetia as far west as Lake Garda, the +Adige, and the lower part of the River Po. The Hapsburgs recognized +the independence of the now enlarged Cisalpine Republic. France and +Austria agreed to frame a treaty of commerce on the basis of "the most +favoured nation." The Emperor ceded to the dispossessed Duke of Modena +the territory of Breisgau on the east of the Rhine. A congress was to +be held at Rastadt, at which the plenipotentiaries of France and of +the Germanic Empire were to regulate affairs between these two Powers. + +Secret articles bound the Emperor to use his influence in the Empire +to secure for France the left bank of the Rhine; while France was to +use her good offices to procure for the Emperor the Archbishopric of +Salzburg and the Bavarian land between that State and the River Inn. +Other secret articles referred to the indemnities which were to be +found in Germany for some of the potentates who suffered by the +changes announced in the public treaty. + +The bartering away of Venice awakened profound indignation. After more +than a thousand years of independence, that city was abandoned to the +Emperor by the very general who had promised to free Italy. It was in +vain that Bonaparte strove to soothe the provisional government of +that city through the influence of a Venetian Jew, who, after his +conversion, had taken the famous name of Dandolo. Summoning him to +Passeriano, he explained to him the hard necessity which now dictated +the transfer of Venice to Austria. France could not now shed any more +of her best blood for what was, after all, only "a moral cause": the +Venetians therefore must cultivate resignation for the present and +hope for the future. + +[Illustration: CENTRAL EUROPE AFTER THE PEACE OF CAMPO FORMIO, 1797 + +The boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire are indicated by thick dots. +The Austrian Dominions are indicated by vertical lines. The Prussian +Dominions are indicated by horizontal lines. The Ecclesiastical +States are indicated by dotted areas.] + +The advice was useless. The Venetian democrats determined on a last +desperate venture. They secretly sent three deputies, among them +Dandolo, with a large sum of money wherewith to bribe the Directors to +reject the treaty of Campo Formio. This would have been quite +practicable, had not their errand become known to Bonaparte. Alarmed +and enraged at this device, which, if successful, would have consigned +him to infamy, he sent Duroc in chase; and the envoys, caught before +they crossed the Maritime Alps, were brought before the general at +Milan. To his vehement reproaches and threats they opposed a dignified +silence, until Dandolo, appealing to his generosity, awakened those +nobler feelings which were never long dormant. Then he quietly +dismissed them--to witness the downfall of their beloved city. + +_Acribus initiis, ut ferme talia, incuriosa fine_; these cynical +words, with which the historian of the Roman Empire blasted the +movements of his age, may almost serve as the epitaph to Bonaparte's +early enthusiasms. Proclaiming at the beginning of his Italian +campaigns that he came to free Italy, he yet finished his course of +almost unbroken triumphs by a surrender which his panegyrists have +scarcely attempted to condone. But the fate of Venice was almost +forgotten amidst the jubilant acclaim which greeted the conqueror of +Italy on his arrival at Paris. All France rang with the praises of the +hero who had spread liberty throughout Northern and Central Italy, +had enriched the museums of Paris with priceless masterpieces of art, +whose army had captured 150,000 prisoners, and had triumphed in 18 +pitched battles--for Caldiero was now reckoned as a French +victory--and 47 smaller engagements. The Directors, shrouding their +hatred and fear of the masterful proconsul under their Roman togas, +greeted him with uneasy effusiveness. The climax of the official +comedy was reached when, at the reception of the conqueror, Barras, +pointing northwards, exclaimed: "Go there and capture the giant +corsair that infests the seas: go punish in London outrages that have +too long been unpunished": whereupon, as if overcome by his emotions, +he embraced the general. Amidst similar attentions bestowed by the +other Directors, the curtain falls on the first, or Italian, act of +the young hero's career, soon to rise on oriental adventures that were +to recall the exploits of Alexander. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +EGYPT + + +Among the many misconceptions of the French revolutionists none was +more insidious than the notion that the wealth and power of the +British people rested on an artificial basis. This mistaken belief in +England's weakness arose out of the doctrine taught by the +_Economistes_ or _Physiocrates_ in the latter half of last century, +that commerce was not of itself productive of wealth, since it only +promoted the distribution of the products of the earth; but that +agriculture was the sole source of true wealth and prosperity. They +therefore exalted agriculture at the expense of commerce and +manufactures, and the course of the Revolution, which turned largely +on agrarian questions, tended in the same direction. Robespierre and +St. Just were never weary of contrasting the virtues of a simple +pastoral life with the corruptions and weakness engendered by foreign +commerce; and when, early in 1793, Jacobinical zeal embroiled the +young Republic with England, the orators of the Convention confidently +prophesied the downfall of the modern Carthage. Kersaint declared that +"the credit of England rests upon fictitious wealth: ... bounded in +territory, the public future of England is found almost wholly in its +bank, and this edifice is entirely supported by naval commerce. It is +easy to cripple this commerce, and especially so for a power like +France, which stands alone on her own riches."[90] + + + +Commercial interests played a foremost part all through the struggle. +The official correspondence of Talleyrand in 1797 proves that the +Directory intended to claim the Channel Islands, the north of +Newfoundland, and all our conquests in the East Indies made since +1754, besides the restitution of Gibraltar to Spain.[91] Nor did these +hopes seem extravagant. The financial crisis in London and the mutiny +at the Nore seemed to betoken the exhaustion of England, while the +victories of Bonaparte raised the power of France to heights never +known before. Before the victory of Duncan over the Dutch at +Camperdown (October 11th, 1797), Britain seemed to have lost her naval +supremacy. + +The recent admission of State bankruptcy at Paris, when two-thirds of +the existing liabilities were practically expunged, sharpened the +desire of the Directory to compass England's ruin, an enterprise which +might serve to restore French credit and would certainly engage those +vehement activities of Bonaparte that could otherwise work mischief in +Paris. On his side he gladly accepted the command of the _Army of +England_. + + "The people of Paris do not remember anything," he said to + Bourrienne. "Were I to remain here long, doing nothing, I should be + lost. In this great Babylon everything wears out: my glory has + already disappeared. This little Europe does not supply enough of + it for me. I must seek it in the East: all great fame comes from + that quarter. However, I wish first to make a tour along the + [northern] coast to see for myself what may be attempted. If the + success of a descent upon England appear doubtful, as I suspect it + will, the Army of England shall become the Army of the East, and I + go to Egypt."[92] + +In February, 1798, he paid a brief visit to Dunkirk and the Flemish +coast, and concluded that the invasion of England was altogether too +complicated to be hazarded except as a last desperate venture. In a +report to the Government (February 23rd) he thus sums up the whole +situation: + + "Whatever efforts we make, we shall not for some years gain the + naval supremacy. To invade England without that supremacy is the + most daring and difficult task ever undertaken.... If, having + regard to the present organization of our navy, it seems impossible + to gain the necessary promptness of execution, then we must really + give up the expedition against England, _be satisfied with keeping + up the pretence of it_, and concentrate all our attention and + resources on the Rhine, in order to try to deprive England of + Hanover and Hamburg:[93] ... or else undertake an eastern + expedition which would menace her trade with the Indies. And if + none of these three operations is practicable, I see nothing else + for it but to conclude peace with England." + +The greater part of his career serves as a commentary on these +designs. To one or other of them he was constantly turning as +alternative schemes for the subjugation of his most redoubtable foe. +The first plan he now judged to be impracticable; the second, which +appears later in its fully matured form as his Continental System, was +not for the present feasible, because France was about to settle +German affairs at the Congress of Rastadt; to the third he therefore +turned the whole force of his genius. + +The conquest of Egypt and the restoration to France of her supremacy +in India appealed to both sides of Bonaparte's nature. The vision of +the tricolour floating above the minarets of Cairo and the palace of +the Great Mogul at Delhi fascinated a mind in which the mysticism of +the south was curiously blent with the practicality and passion for +details that characterize the northern races. To very few men in the +world's history has it been granted to dream grandiose dreams and all +but realize them, to use by turns the telescope and the microscope of +political survey, to plan vast combinations of force, and yet to +supervise with infinite care the adjustment of every adjunct. Caesar, +in the old world, was possibly the mental peer of Bonaparte in this +majestic equipoise of the imaginative and practical qualities; but of +Caesar we know comparatively little; whereas the complex workings of +the greatest mind of the modern world stand revealed in that +storehouse of facts and fancies, the "Correspondance de Napoleon." The +motives which led to the Eastern Expedition are there unfolded. In the +letter which he wrote to Talleyrand shortly before the signature of +the peace of Campo Formio occurs this suggestive passage: + + "The character of our nation is to be far too vivacious amidst + prosperity. If we take for the basis of all our operations true + policy, which is nothing else than the calculation of combinations + and chances, we shall long be _la grande nation_ and the arbiter of + Europe. I say more: we hold the balance of Europe: we will make + that balance incline as we wish; and, if such is the order of fate, + I think it by no means impossible that we may in a few years attain + those grand results of which the heated and enthusiastic + imagination catches a glimpse, and which the extremely cool, + persistent, and calculating man will alone attain." + +This letter was written when Bonaparte was bartering away Venice to +the Emperor in consideration of the acquisition by France of the +Ionian Isles. Its reference to the vivacity of the French was +doubtless evoked by the orders which he then received to +"revolutionize Italy." To do that, while the Directory further +extorted from England Gibraltar, the Channel Islands, and her eastern +conquests, was a programme dictated by excessive vivacity. The +Directory lacked the practical qualities that selected one great +enterprise at a time and brought to bear on it the needful +concentration of effort. In brief, he selected the war against +England's eastern commerce as his next sphere of action; for it +offered "an arena vaster, more necessary and resplendent" than war +with Austria; "if we compel the [British] Government to a peace, the +advantages we shall gain for our commerce in both hemispheres will be +a great step towards the consolidation of liberty and the public +welfare."[94] + +For this eastern expedition he had already prepared. In May, 1797, he +had suggested the seizure of Malta from the Knights of St. John; and +when, on September 27th, the Directory gave its assent, he sent +thither a French commissioner, Poussielgue, on a "commercial mission," +to inspect those ports, and also, doubtless, to undermine the +discipline of the Knights. Now that the British had retired from +Corsica, and France disposed of the maritime resources of Northern +Italy, Spain, and Holland, it seemed quite practicable to close the +Mediterranean to those "intriguing and enterprising islanders," to +hold them at bay in their dull northern seas, to exhaust them by +ruinous preparations against expected descents on their southern +coasts, on Ireland, and even on Scotland, while Bonaparte's eastern +conquests dried up the sources of their wealth in the Orient: "Let us +concentrate all our activity on our navy and destroy England. That +done, Europe is at our feet."[95] + +But he encountered opposition from the Directory. They still clung to +their plan of revolutionizing Italy; and only by playing on their fear +of the army could he bring these civilians to assent to the +expatriation of 35,000 troops and their best generals. On La +Reveilliere-Lepeaux the young commander worked with a skill that +veiled the choicest irony. This Director was the high-priest of a +newly-invented cult, termed _Theo-philanthropie_, into the dull embers +of which he was still earnestly blowing. To this would-be prophet +Bonaparte now suggested that the eastern conquests would furnish a +splendid field for the spread of the new faith; and La Reveilliere was +forthwith converted from his scheme of revolutionizing Europe to the +grander sphere of moral proselytism opened out to him in the East by +the very chief who, on landing in Egypt, forthwith professed the +Moslem creed. + +After gaining the doubtful assent of the Directory, Bonaparte had to +face urgent financial difficulties. The dearth of money was, however, +met by two opportune interventions. The first of these was in the +affairs of Rome. The disorders of the preceding year in that city had +culminated at Christmas in a riot in which General Duphot had been +assassinated; this outrage furnished the pretext desired by the +Directory for revolutionizing Central Italy. Berthier was at once +ordered to lead French troops against the Eternal City. He entered +without resistance (February 15th, 1798), declared the civil authority +of the Pope at an end, and proclaimed the _restoration_ of the Roman +Republic. The practical side of the liberating policy was soon +revealed. A second time the treasures of Rome, both artistic and +financial, were rifled; and, as Lucien Bonaparte caustically remarked +in his "Memoirs," the chief duty of the newly-appointed consuls and +quaestors was to superintend the packing up of pictures and statues +designed for Paris. Berthier not only laid the basis of a large +private fortune, but showed his sense of the object of the expedition +by sending large sums for the equipment of the armada at Toulon. "In +sending me to Rome," wrote Berthier to Bonaparte, "you appoint me +treasurer to the expedition against England. I will try to fill the +exchequer." + +The intervention of the Directory in the affairs of Switzerland was +equally lucrative. The inhabitants of the district of Vaud, in their +struggles against the oppressive rule of the Bernese oligarchy, had +offered to the French Government the excuse for interference: and a +force invading that land, overpowered the levies of the central +cantons.[96] The imposition of a centralized form of government +modelled on that of France, the wresting of Geneva from this ancient +confederation, and its incorporation with France, were not the only +evils suffered by Switzerland. Despite the proclamation of General +Brune that the French came as friends to the descendants of William +Tell, and would respect their independence and their property, French +commissioners proceeded to rifle the treasuries of Berne, Zuerich, +Solothurn, Fribourg, and Lucerne of sums which amounted in all to +eight and a half million francs; fifteen millions were extorted in +forced contributions and plunder, besides 130 cannon and 60,000 +muskets which also became the spoils of the liberators.[97] The +destination of part of the treasure was already fixed; on April 13th +Bonaparte wrote an urgent letter to General Lannes, directing him to +expedite the transit of the booty to Toulon, where three million +francs were forthwith expended on the completion of the armada. + +This letter, and also the testimony of Madame de Stael, Barras, +Bourrienne, and Mallet du Pan, show that he must have been a party to +this interference in Swiss affairs, which marks a debasement, not only +of Bonaparte's character, but of that of the French army and people. +It drew from Coleridge, who previously had seen in the Revolution the +dawn of a nobler era, an indignant protest against the prostitution of +the ideas of 1789: + + "Oh France that mockest Heaven, adulterous, blind, + Are these thy boasts, champion of human kind? + To mix with Kings in the low lust of sway, + Yell in the hunt and join the murderous prey? ... + The sensual and the dark rebel in vain + Slaves by their own compulsion. In mad game + They burst their manacles: but wear the name + Of Freedom, graven on a heavier chain." + +The occupation by French troops of the great central bastion of the +European system seemed a challenge, not only to idealists, but to +German potentates. It nearly precipitated a rupture with Vienna, where +the French tricolour had recently been torn down by an angry crowd. +But Bonaparte did his utmost to prevent a renewal of war that would +blight his eastern prospects; and he succeeded. One last trouble +remained. At his final visit to the Directory, when crossed about some +detail, he passionately threw up his command. Thereupon Rewbell, noted +for his incisive speech, drew up the form of resignation, and +presenting it to Bonaparte, firmly said, "Sign, citizen general." The +general did not sign, but retired from the meeting apparently +crestfallen, but really meditating a _coup d'etat_. This last +statement rests on the evidence of Mathieu Dumas, who heard it +through General Desaix, a close friend of Bonaparte; and it is clear +from the narratives of Bourrienne, Barras, and Madame Junot that, +during his last days in Paris, the general was moody, preoccupied, and +fearful of being poisoned. + +At last the time of preparation and suspense was at an end. The aims +of the expedition as officially defined by a secret decree on April +12th included the capture of Egypt and the exclusion of the English +from "all their possessions in the East to which the general can +come"; Bonaparte was also to have the isthmus of Suez cut through; to +"assure the _free and exclusive_ possession of the Red Sea to the +French Republic"; to improve the condition of the natives of Egypt, +and to cultivate good relations with the Grand Signior. Another secret +decree empowered Bonaparte to seize Malta. To these schemes he added +another of truly colossal dimensions. After conquering the East, he +would rouse the Greeks and other Christians of the East, overthrow the +Turks, seize Constantinople, and "take Europe in the rear." + +Generous support was accorded to the _savants_ who were desirous of +exploring the artistic and literary treasures of Egypt and +Mesopotamia. It has been affirmed by the biographer of Monge that the +enthusiasm of this celebrated physicist first awakened Bonaparte's +desire for the eastern expedition; but this seems to have been +aroused earlier by Volney, who saw a good deal of Bonaparte in 1791. +In truth, the desire to wrest the secrets of learning from the +mysterious East seems always to have spurred on his keenly inquisitive +nature. During the winter months of 1797-8 he attended the chemical +lectures of the renowned Berthollet; and it was no perfunctory choice +which selected him for the place in the famous institute left vacant +by the exile of Carnot. The manner in which he now signed his orders +and proclamations--Member of the Institute, General in Chief of the +Army of the East--showed his determination to banish from the life of +France that affectation of boorish ignorance by which the Terrorists +had rendered themselves uniquely odious. + +After long delays, caused by contrary winds, the armada set sail from +Toulon. Along with the convoys from Marseilles, Genoa, and Civita +Vecchia, it finally reached the grand total of 13 ships of the line, 7 +frigates, several gunboats, and nearly 300 transports of various +sizes, conveying 35,000 troops. Admiral Brueys was the admiral, but +acting under Bonaparte. Of the generals whom the commander-in-chief +took with him, the highest in command were the divisional generals +Kleber, Desaix, Bon, Menou, Reynier, for the infantry: under them +served 14 generals, a few of whom, as Marmont, were to achieve a wider +fame. The cavalry was commanded by the stalwart mulatto, General +Alexandre Dumas, under whom served Leclerc, the husband of Pauline +Bonaparte, along with two men destined to world-wide renown, Murat and +Davoust. The artillery was commanded by Dommartin, the engineers by +Caffarelli: and the heroic Lannes was quarter-master general. + +The armada appeared off Malta without meeting with any incident. This +island was held by the Knights of St. John, the last of those +companies of Christian warriors who had once waged war on the infidels +in Palestine. Their courage had evaporated in luxurious ease, and +their discipline was a prey to intestine schisms and to the intrigues +carried on with the French Knights of the Order. A French fleet had +appeared off Valetta in the month of March in the hope of effecting a +surprise; but the admiral, Brueys, judging the effort too hazardous, +sent an awkward explanation, which only served to throw the knights +into the arms of Russia. One of the chivalrous dreams of the Czar Paul +was that of spreading his influence in the Mediterranean by a treaty +with this Order. It gratified his crusading ardour and promised to +Russia a naval base for the partition of Turkey which was then being +discussed with Austria: to secure the control of the island, Russia +was about to expend 400,000 roubles, when Bonaparte anticipated +Muscovite designs by a prompt seizure.[98] An excuse was easily found +for a rupture with the Order: some companies of troops were +disembarked, and hostilities commenced. + +Secure within their mighty walls, the knights might have held the +intruders at bay, had they not been divided by internal disputes: the +French knights refused to fight against their countrymen; and a revolt +of the native Maltese, long restless under the yoke of the Order, now +helped to bring the Grand Master to a surrender. The evidence of the +English consul, Mr. Williams, seems to show that the discontent of the +natives was even more potent than the influence of French gold in +bringing about this result.[99] At any rate, one of the strongest +places in Europe admitted a French garrison, after so tame a defence +that General Caffarelli, on viewing the fortifications, remarked to +Bonaparte: "Upon my word, general, it is lucky there was some one in +the town to open the gates to us." + +During his stay of seven days at Malta, Bonaparte revealed the vigour +of those organizing powers for which the half of Europe was soon to +present all too small an arena. He abolished the Order, pensioning off +those French knights who had been serviceable: he abolished the +religious houses and confiscated their domains to the service of the +new government: he established a governmental commission acting under +a military governor: he continued provisionally the existing taxes, +and provided for the imposition of customs, excise, and octroi dues: +he prepared the way for the improvement of the streets, the erection +of fountains, the reorganization of the hospitals and the post +office. To the university he gave special attention, rearranging the +curriculum on the model of the more advanced _ecoles centrales_ of +France, but inclining the studies severely to the exact sciences and +the useful arts. On all sides he left the imprint of his practical +mind, that viewed life as a game at chess, whence bishops and knights +were carefully banished, and wherein nothing was left but the heavy +pieces and subservient pawns. + +After dragging Malta out of its mediaeval calm and plunging it into +the full swirl of modern progress, Bonaparte set sail for Egypt. His +exchequer was the richer by all the gold and silver, whether in +bullion or in vessels, discoverable in the treasury of Malta or in the +Church of St. John. Fortunately, the silver gates of this church had +been coloured over, and thus escaped the fate of the other +treasures.[100] On the voyage to Alexandria he studied the library of +books which he had requested Bourrienne to purchase for him. The +composition of this library is of interest as showing the strong trend +of his thoughts towards history, though at a later date he was careful +to limit its study in the university and schools which he founded. He +had with him 125 volumes of historical works, among which the +translations of Thucydides, Plutarch, Tacitus, and Livy represented +the life of the ancient world, while in modern life he concentrated +his attention chiefly on the manners and institutions of peoples and +the memoirs of great generals--as Turenne, Conde, Luxembourg, Saxe, +Marlborough, Eugene, and Charles XII. Of the poets he selected the +so-called Ossian, Tasso, Ariosto, Homer, Virgil, and the masterpieces +of the French theatre; but he especially affected the turgid and +declamatory style of Ossian. In romance, English literature was +strongly represented by forty volumes of novels, of course in +translations. Besides a few works on arts and sciences, he also had +with him twelve volumes of "Barclay's Geography," and three volumes of +"Cook's Voyages," which show that his thoughts extended to the +antipodes; and under the heading of Politics he included the Bible, +the Koran, the Vedas, a Mythology, and Montesquieu's "Esprit des +Lois"! The composition and classification of this library are equally +suggestive. Bonaparte carefully searched out the weak places of the +organism which he was about to attack--in the present campaign, Egypt +and the British Empire. The climate and natural products, the genius +of its writers and the spirit of its religion--nothing came amiss to +his voracious intellect, which assimilated the most diverse materials +and pressed them all into his service. Greek mythology provided +allusions for the adornment of his proclamations, the Koran would +dictate his behaviour towards the Moslems, and the Bible was to be his +guide-book concerning the Druses and Armenians. All three were +therefore grouped together under the head of Politics. + + +And this, on the whole, fairly well represents his mental attitude +towards religion: at least, it was his work-a-day attitude. There were +moments, it is true, when an overpowering sense of the majesty of the +universe lifted his whole being far above this petty opportunism: and +in those moments, which, in regard to the declaration of character, +may surely be held to counterbalance whole months spent in tactical +shifts and diplomatic wiles, he was capable of soaring to heights of +imaginative reverence. Such an episode, lighting up for us the +recesses of his mind, occurred during his voyage to Egypt. The +_savants_ on board his ship, "L'Orient," were discussing one of those +questions which Bonaparte often propounded, in order that, as arbiter +in this contest of wits, he might gauge their mental powers. Mental +dexterity, rather than the Socratic pursuit after truth, was the aim +of their dialectic; but on one occasion, when religion was being +discussed, Bonaparte sounded a deeper note: looking up into the +midnight vault of sky, he said to the philosophizing atheists: "Very +ingenious, sirs, but who made all that?" As a retort to the +tongue-fencers, what could be better? The appeal away from words to +the star-studded canopy was irresistible: it affords a signal proof of +what Carlyle has finely called his "instinct for nature" and his +"ineradicable feeling for reality." This probably was the true man, +lying deep under his Moslem shifts and Concordat bargainings. + +That there was a tinge of superstition in Bonaparte's nature, such as +usually appears in gifted scions of a coast-dwelling family, cannot be +denied;[101] but his usual attitude towards religion was that of the +political mechanician, not of the devotee, and even while professing +the forms of fatalistic belief, he really subordinated them to his own +designs. To this profound calculation of the credulity of mankind we +may probably refer his allusions to his star. The present writer +regards it as almost certain that his star was invoked in order to +dazzle the vulgar herd. Indeed, if we may trust Miot de Melito, the +First Consul once confessed as much to a circle of friends. "Caesar," +he said, "was right to cite his good fortune and to appear to believe +in it. That is a means of acting on the imagination of others without +offending anyone's self-love." A strange admission this; what +boundless self-confidence it implies that he should have admitted the +trickery. The mere acknowledgment of it is a proof that he felt +himself so far above the plane of ordinary mortals that, despite the +disclosure, he himself would continue to be his own star. For the +rest, is it credible that this analyzing genius could ever have +seriously adopted the astrologer's creed? Is there anything in his +early note-books or later correspondence which warrants such a belief? +Do not all his references to his star occur in proclamations and +addresses intended for popular consumption? + +Certainly Bonaparte's good fortune was conspicuous all through these +eastern adventures, and never more so than when he escaped the pursuit +of Nelson. The English admiral had divined his aim. Setting all sail, +he came almost within sight of the French force near Crete, and he +reached Alexandria barely two days before his foes hove in sight. +Finding no hostile force there, he doubled back on his course and +scoured the seas between Crete, Sicily, and the Morca, until news +received from a Turkish official again sent him eastwards. On such +trifles does the fate of empires sometimes depend. + +Meanwhile events were crowding thick and fast upon Bonaparte. To free +himself from the terrible risks which had menaced his force off the +Egyptian coast, he landed his troops, 35,000 strong, with all possible +expedition at Marabout near Alexandria, and, directing his columns of +attack on the walls of that city, captured it by a rush (July 2nd). + +For this seizure of neutral territory he offered no excuse other than +that the Beys, who were the real rulers of Egypt, had favoured English +commerce and were guilty of some outrages on French merchants. He +strove, however, to induce the Sultan of Turkey to believe that the +French invasion of Egypt was a friendly act, as it would overthrow the +power of the Mamelukes, who had reduced Turkish authority to a mere +shadow. This was the argument which he addressed to the Turkish +officials, but it proved to be too subtle even for the oriental mind +fully to appreciate. Bonaparte's chief concern was to win over the +subject population, which consisted of diverse races. At the surface +were the Mamelukes, a powerful military order, possessing a +magnificent cavalry, governed by two Beys, and scarcely recognizing +the vague suzerainty claimed by the Porte. The rivalries of the Beys, +Murad and Ibrahim, produced a fertile crop of discords in this +governing caste, and their feuds exposed the subject races, both Arabs +and Copts, to constant forays and exactions. It seemed possible, +therefore, to arouse them against the dominant caste, provided that +the Mohammedan scruples of the whole population were carefully +respected. To this end, the commander cautioned his troops to act +towards the Moslems as towards "Jews and Italians," and to respect +their muftis and imams as much as "rabbis and bishops." He also +proclaimed to the Egyptians his determination, while overthrowing +Mameluke tyranny, to respect the Moslem faith: "Have we not destroyed +the Pope, who bade men wage war on Moslems? Have we not destroyed the +Knights of Malta, because those fools believed it to be God's will to +war against Moslems?" The French soldiers were vastly amused by the +humour of these proceedings, and the liberated people fully +appreciated the menaces with which Bonaparte's proclamation closed, +backed up as these were by irresistible force.[102] + +After arranging affairs at Alexandria, where the gallant Kleber was +left in command, Bonaparte ordered an advance into the interior. +Never, perhaps, did he show the value of swift offensive action more +decisively than in this prompt march on Damanhour across the desert. +The other route by way of Rosetta would have been easier; but, as it +was longer, he rejected it, and told off General Menou to capture that +city and support a flotilla of boats which was to ascend the Nile and +meet the army on its march to Cairo. On July 4th the first division of +the main force set forth by night into the desert south of Alexandria. +All was new and terrible; and, when the rays of the sun smote on their +weary backs, the murmurings of the troops grew loud. This, then, was +the land "more fertile than Lombardy," which was the goal of their +wanderings. "See, there are the six acres of land which you are +promised," exclaimed a waggish soldier to his comrade as they first +gazed from ship-board on the desert east of Alexandria; and all the +sense of discipline failed to keep this and other gibes from the ears +of staff officers even before they reached that city. Far worse was +their position now in the shifting sand of the desert, beset by +hovering Bedouins, stung by scorpions, and afflicted by intolerable +thirst. The Arabs had filled the scanty wells with stones, and only +after long toil could the sappers reach the precious fluid beneath. +Then the troops rushed and fought for the privilege of drinking a few +drops of muddy liquor. Thus they struggled on, the succeeding +divisions faring worst of all. Berthier, chief of the staff, relates +that a glass of water sold for its weight in gold. Even brave officers +abandoned themselves to transports of rage and despair which left them +completely prostrate.[103] + +But Bonaparte flinched not. His stern composure offered the best +rebuke to such childish sallies; and when out of a murmuring group +there came the bold remark, "Well, General, are you going to take us +to India thus," he abashed the speaker and his comrades by the quick +retort, "No, I would not undertake that with such soldiers as you." +French honour, touched to the quick, reasserted itself even above the +torments of thirst; and the troops themselves, when they tardily +reached the Nile and slaked their thirst in its waters, recognized the +pre-eminence of his will and his profound confidence in their +endurance. French gaiety had not been wholly eclipsed even by the +miseries of the desert march. To cheer their drooping spirits the +commander had sent some of the staunchest generals along the line of +march. Among them was the gifted Caffarelli, who had lost a leg in the +Rhenish campaign: his reassuring words called forth the inimitable +retort from the ranks: "Ah! he don't care, not he: he has one leg in +France." Scarcely less witty was the soldier's description of the +prowling Bedouins, who cut off stragglers and plunderers, as "The +mounted highway police." + +After brushing aside a charge of 800 Mamelukes at Chebreiss, the army +made its way up the banks of the Nile to Embabeh, opposite Cairo. +There the Mamelukes, led by the fighting Bey, Murad, had their +fortified camp; and there that superb cavalry prepared to overwhelm +the invaders in a whirlwind rush of horse (July 21st, 1798). The +occasion and the surroundings were such as to inspire both sides with +desperate resolution. It was the first fierce shock on land of eastern +chivalry and western enterprise since the days of St. Louis; and the +ardour of the republicans was scarcely less than that which had +kindled the soldiers of the cross. Beside the two armies rolled the +mysterious Nile; beyond glittered the slender minarets of Cairo; and +on the south there loomed the massy Pyramids. To the forty centuries +that had rolled over them, Bonaparte now appealed, in one of those +imaginative touches which ever brace the French nature to the utmost +tension of daring and endurance. Thus they advanced in close formation +towards the intrenched camp of the Mamelukes. The divisions on the +left at once rushed at its earthworks, silenced its feeble artillery, +and slaughtered the fellahin inside. + + +But the other divisions, now ranged in squares, while gazing at this +exploit, were assailed by the Mamelukes. From out the haze of the +mirage, or from behind the ridges of sand and the scrub of the +water-melon plants that dotted the plain, some 10,000 of these superb +horsemen suddenly appeared and rushed at the squares commanded by +Desaix and Reynier. Their richly caparisoned chargers, their waving +plumes, their wild battle-cries, and their marvellous skill with +carbine and sword, lent picturesqueness and terror to the charge. +Musketry and grapeshot mowed down their front coursers in ghastly +swathes; but the living mass swept on, wellnigh overwhelming the +fronts of the squares, and then, swerving aside, poured through the +deadly funnel between. Decimated here also by the steady fire of the +French files, and by the discharges of the rear face, they fell away +exhausted, leaving heaps of dead and dying on the fronts of the +squares, and in their very midst a score of their choicest cavaliers, +whose bravery and horsemanship had carried them to certain death +amidst the bayonets. The French now assumed the offensive, and +Desaix's division, threatening to cut off the retreat of Murad's +horsemen, led that wary chief to draw off his shattered squadrons; +others sought, though with terrible losses, to escape across the Nile +to Ibrahim's following. That chief had taken no share in the fight, +and now made off towards Syria. Such was the battle of the Pyramids, +which gained a colony at the cost of some thirty killed and about ten +times as many wounded: of the killed about twenty fell victims to the +cross fire of the two squares.[104] + +After halting for a fortnight at Cairo to recruit his weary troops and +to arrange the affairs of his conquest, Bonaparte marched eastwards in +pursuit of Ibrahim and drove him into Syria, while Desaix waged an +arduous but successful campaign against Murad in Upper Egypt. But the +victors were soon to learn the uselessness of merely military triumphs +in Egypt. As Bonaparte returned to complete the organization of the +new colony, he heard that Nelson had destroyed his fleet. + +On July 3rd, before setting out from Alexandria, the French commander +gave an order to his admiral, though it must be added that its +authenticity is doubtful: + + "The admiral will to-morrow acquaint the commander-in-chief by a + report whether the squadron can enter the port of Alexandria, or + whether, in Aboukir Roads, bringing its broadside to bear, it can + defend itself against the enemy's superior force; and in case both + these plans should be impracticable, he must sail for Corfu ... + leaving the light ships and the flotilla at Alexandria." + +Brueys speedily discovered that the first plan was beset by grave +dangers: the entrance to the harbour of Alexandria, when sounded, +proved to be most difficult for large ships--such was his judgment and +that of Villeneuve and Casabianca--and the exit could be blocked by a +single English battleship. As regards the alternatives of Aboukir or +Corfu, Brueys went on to state: "My firm desire is to be useful to you +in every possible way: and, as I have already said, every post will +suit me well, provided that you placed me there in an active way." By +this rather ambiguous phrase it would seem that he scouted the +alternative of Corfu as consigning him to a degrading inactivity; +while at Aboukir he held that he could be actively useful in +protecting the rear of the army. In that bay he therefore anchored his +largest ships, trusting that the dangers of the approach would screen +him from any sudden attack, but making also special preparations in +case he should be compelled to fight at anchor.[105] His decision was +probably less sound than that of Bonaparte, who, while marching to +Cairo, and again during his sojourn there, ordered him to make for +Corfu or Toulon; for the general saw clearly that the French fleet, +riding in safety in those well-protected roadsteads, would really +dominate the Mediterranean better than in the open expanse of Aboukir. +But these orders did not reach the admiral before the blow fell; and +it is, after all, somewhat ungenerous to censure Brueys for his +decision to remain at Aboukir and risk a fight rather than comply with +the dictates of a prudent but inglorious strategy. + +The British admiral, after sweeping the eastern Mediterranean, at last +found the French fleet in Aboukir Bay, about ten miles from the +Rosetta mouth of the Nile. It was anchored under the lee of a shoal +which would have prevented any ordinary admiral from attacking, +especially at sundown. But Nelson, knowing that the head ship of the +French was free to swing at anchor, rightly concluded that there must +be room for British ships to sail between Brueys' stationary line and +the shallows. The British captains thrust five ships between the +French and the shoal, while the others, passing down the enemy's line +on the seaward side, crushed it in detail; and, after a night of +carnage, the light of August 2nd dawned on a scene of destruction +unsurpassed in naval warfare. Two French ships of the line and two +frigates alone escaped: one, the gigantic "Orient," had blown up with +the spoils of Malta on board: the rest, eleven in number, were +captured or burnt. + +To Bonaparte this disaster came as a bolt from the blue. Only two days +before, he had written from Cairo to Brueys that all the conduct of +the English made him believe them to be inferior in numbers and fully +satisfied with blockading Malta. Yet, in order to restore the _morale_ +of his army, utterly depressed by this disaster, he affected a +confidence which he could no longer feel, and said: "Well! here we +must remain or achieve a grandeur like that of the ancients."[106] He +had recently assured his intimates that after routing the Beys' forces +he would return to France and strike a blow direct at England. +Whatever he may have designed, he was now a prisoner in his conquest. +His men, even some of his highest officers, as Berthier, Bessieres, +Lannes, Murat, Dumas, and others, bitterly complained of their +miserable position. But the commander, whose spirits rose with +adversity, took effective means for repressing such discontent. To the +last-named, a powerful mulatto, he exclaimed: "You have held seditious +parleys: take care that I do not perform my duty: your six feet of +stature shall not save you from being shot": and he offered passports +for France to a few of the most discontented and useless officers, +well knowing that after Nelson's victory they could scarcely be used. +Others, again, out-Heroding Herod, suggested that the frigates and +transports at Alexandria should be taken to pieces and conveyed on +camels' backs to Suez, there to be used for the invasion of +India.[107] + +The versatility of Bonaparte's genius was never more marked than at +this time of discouragement. While his enemies figured him and his +exhausted troops as vainly seeking to escape from those arid wastes; +while Nelson was landing the French prisoners in order to increase his +embarrassment about food, Bonaparte and his _savants_ were developing +constructive powers of the highest order, which made the army +independent of Europe. It was a vast undertaking. Deprived of most of +their treasure and many of their mechanical appliances by the loss of +the fleet, the _savants_ and engineers had, as it were, to start from +the beginning. Some strove to meet the difficulties of food-supply by +extending the cultivation of corn and rice, or by the construction of +large ovens and bakeries, or of windmills for grinding corn. Others +planted vineyards for the future, or sought to appease the ceaseless +thirst of the soldiery by the manufacture of a kind of native beer. +Foundries and workshops began, though slowly, to supply tools and +machines; the earth was rifled of her treasures, natron was wrought, +saltpetre works were established, and gunpowder was thereby procured +for the army with an energy which recalled the prodigies of activity +of 1793. + +With his usual ardour in the cause of learning, Bonaparte several +times a week appeared in the chemical laboratory, or witnessed the +experiments performed by Berthollet and Monge. Desirous of giving +cohesion to the efforts of his _savants_, and of honouring not only +the useful arts but abstruse research, he united these pioneers of +science in a society termed the Institute of Egypt. On August 23rd, +1798, it was installed with much ceremony in the palace of one of the +Beys, Monge being president and Bonaparte vice-president. The general +also enrolled himself in the mathematical section of the institute. +Indeed, he sought by all possible means to aid the labours of the +_savants_, whose dissertations were now heard in the large hall of the +harem that formerly resounded only to the twanging of lutes, weary +jests, and idle laughter. The labours of the _savants_ were not +confined to Cairo and the Delta. As soon as the victories of Desaix +in Upper Egypt opened the middle reaches of the Nile to peaceful +research, the treasures of Memphis were revealed to the astonished +gaze of western learning. Many of the more portable relics were +transferred to Cairo, and thence to Rosetta or Alexandria, in order to +grace the museums of Paris. The _savants_ proposed, but sea-power +disposed, of these treasures. They are now, with few exceptions, in +the British Museum. + +Apart from archaeology, much was done to extend the bounds of learning. +Astronomy gained much by the observations of General Caffarelli. A +series of measurements was begun for an exact survey of Egypt: the +geologists and engineers examined the course of the Nile, recorded the +progress of alluvial deposits at its mouth or on its banks, and +therefrom calculated the antiquity of divers parts of the Delta. No +part of the great conqueror's career so aptly illustrates the truth of +his noble words to the magistrates of the Ligurian Republic: "The true +conquests, the only conquests which cost no regrets, are those +achieved over ignorance." + +Such, in brief outline, is the story of the renascence in Egypt. The +mother-land of science and learning, after a wellnigh barren interval +of 1,100 years since the Arab conquest, was now developed and +illumined by the application of the arts with which in the dim past +she had enriched the life of barbarous Europe. The repayment of this +incalculable debt was due primarily to the enterprise of Bonaparte. It +is one of his many titles to fame and to the homage of posterity. How +poor by the side of this encyclopaedic genius are the gifts even of +his most brilliant foes! At that same time the Archduke Charles of +Austria was vegetating in inglorious ease on his estates. As for +Beaulieu and Wuermser, they had subsided into their native obscurity. +Nelson, after his recent triumph, persuading himself that "Bonaparte +had gone to the devil," was bending before the whims of a professional +beauty and the odious despotism of the worst Court in Europe. While +the admiral tarnished his fame on the Syren coast of Naples, his great +opponent bent all the resources of a fertile intellect to retrieve his +position, and even under the gloom of disaster threw a gleam of light +into the dark continent. While his adversaries were merely generals or +admirals, hampered by a stupid education and a narrow nationality, +Bonaparte had eagerly imbibed the new learning of his age and saw its +possible influence on the reorganization of society. He is not merely +a general. Even when he is scattering to the winds the proud chivalry +of the East, and is prescribing to Brueys his safest course of action, +he finds time vastly to expand the horizon of human knowledge. + + +Nor did he neglect Egyptian politics. He used a native council for +consultation and for the promulgation of his own ideas. Immediately +after his entry into Cairo he appointed nine sheikhs to form a divan, +or council, consulting daily on public order and the food-supplies of +the city. He next assembled a general divan for Egypt, and a smaller +council for each province, and asked their advice concerning the +administration of justice and the collection of taxes.[108] In its use +of oriental terminology, this scheme was undeniably clever; but +neither French, Arabs, nor Turks were deceived as to the real +government, which resided entirely in Bonaparte; and his skill in +reapportioning the imposts had some effect on the prosperity of the +land, enabling it to bear the drain of his constant requisitions. The +welfare of the new colony was also promoted by the foundation of a +mint and of an Egyptian Commercial Company. + +His inventive genius was by no means exhausted by these varied toils. +On his journey to Suez he met a camel caravan in the desert, and +noticing the speed of the animals, he determined to form a camel +corps; and in the first month of 1799 the experiment was made with +such success that admission into the ranks of the camelry came to be +viewed as a favour. Each animal carried two men with their arms and +baggage: the uniform was sky-blue with a white turban; and the speed +and precision of their movements enabled them to deal terrible blows, +even at distant tribes of Bedouins, who bent before a genius that +could outwit them even in their own deserts. + +The pleasures of his officers and men were also met by the opening of +the Tivoli Gardens; and there, in sight of the Pyramids, the life of +the Palais Royal took root: the glasses clinked, the dice rattled, and +heads reeled to the lascivious movements of the eastern dance; and +Bonaparte himself indulged a passing passion for the wife of one of +his officers, with an openness that brought on him a rebuke from his +stepson, Eugene Beauharnais. But already he had been rendered +desperate by reports of the unfaithfulness of Josephine at Paris; the +news wrung from him this pathetic letter to his brother Joseph--the +death-cry of his long drooping idealism: + + "I have much to worry me privately, for the veil is entirely torn + aside. You alone remain to me; your affection is very dear to me: + nothing more remains to make me a misanthrope than to lose her and + see you betray me.... Buy a country seat against my return, either + near Paris or in Burgundy. I need solitude and isolation: grandeur + wearies me: the fount of feeling is dried up: glory itself is + insipid. At twenty-nine years of age I have exhausted everything. + It only remains to me to become a thorough egoist."[109] + +Many rumours were circulated as to Bonaparte's public appearance in +oriental costume and his presence at a religious service in a mosque. +It is even stated by Thiers that at one of the chief festivals he +repaired to the great mosque, repeated the prayers like a true Moslem, +crossing his legs and swaying his body to and fro, so that he "edified +the believers by his orthodox piety." But the whole incident, however +attractive scenically and in point of humour, seems to be no better +authenticated than the religious results about which the historian +cherished so hopeful a belief. The truth seems to be that the general +went to the celebration of the birth of the Prophet as an interested +spectator, at the house of the sheik, El Bekri. Some hundred sheikhs +were there present: they swayed their bodies to and fro while the +story of Mahomet's life was recited; and Bonaparte afterwards partook +of an oriental repast. But he never forgot his dignity so far as +publicly to appear in a turban and loose trousers, which he donned +only once for the amusement of his staff.[110] That he endeavoured to +pose as a Moslem is beyond doubt. Witness his endeavour to convince +the imams at Cairo of his desire to conform to their faith. If we may +believe that dubious compilation, "A Voice from St. Helena," he bade +them consult together as to the possibility of admission of men, who +were not circumcised and did not abstain from wine, into the true +fold. As to the latter disability, he stated that the French were poor +cold people, inhabitants of the north, who could not exist without +wine. For a long time the imams demurred to this plea, which involved +greater difficulties than the question of circumcision: but after long +consultations they decided that both objections might be waived in +consideration of a superabundance of good works. The reply was +prompted by an irony no less subtle than that which accompanied the +claim, and neither side was deceived in this contest of wits. + +A rude awakening soon came. For some few days there had been rumours +that the division under Desaix which was fighting the Mamelukes in +Upper Egypt had been engulfed in those sandy wastes; and this report +fanned to a flame the latent hostility against the unbelievers. From +many minarets of Cairo a summons to arms took the place of the +customary call to prayer: and on October 21st the French garrison was +so fiercely and suddenly attacked as to leave the issue doubtful. +Discipline and grapeshot finally prevailed, whereupon a repression of +oriental ferocity cowed the spirits of the townsfolk and of the +neighbouring country. Forts were constructed in Cairo and at all the +strategic points along the lower Nile, and Egypt seemed to be +conquered. + +Feeling sure now of his hold on the populace, Bonaparte, at the close +of the year, undertook a journey to Suez and the Sinaitic peninsula. +It offered that combination of utility and romance which ever appealed +to him. At Suez he sought to revivify commerce by lightening the +customs' dues, by founding a branch of his Egyptian commercial +company, and by graciously receiving a deputation of the Arabs of Tor +who came to sue for his friendship.[111] Then, journeying on, he +visited the fountains of Moses; but it is not true that (as stated by +Lanfrey) he proceeded to Mount Sinai and signed his name in the +register of the monastery side by side with that of Mahomet. On his +return to the isthmus he is said to have narrowly escaped from the +rising tide of the Red Sea. If we may credit Savary, who was not of +the party, its safety was due to the address of the commander, who, as +darkness fell on the bewildered band, arranged his horsemen in files, +until the higher causeway of the path was again discovered. North of +Suez the traces of the canal dug by Sesostris revealed themselves to +the trained eye of the commander. The observations of his engineers +confirmed his conjecture, but the vast labour of reconstruction +forbade any attempt to construct a maritime canal. On his return to +Cairo he wrote to the Imam of Muscat, assuring him of his friendship +and begging him to forward to Tippoo Sahib a letter offering alliance +and deliverance from "the iron yoke of England," and stating that the +French had arrived on the shores of the Red Sea "with a numerous and +invincible army." The letter was intercepted by a British cruiser; and +the alarm caused by these vast designs only served to spur on our +forces to efforts which cost Tippoo his life and the French most of +their Indian settlements. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +SYRIA + + +Meanwhile Turkey had declared war on France, and was sending an army +through Syria for the recovery of Egypt, while another expedition was +assembling at Rhodes. Like all great captains, Bonaparte was never +content with the defensive: his convictions and his pugnacious +instincts alike urged him to give rather than to receive the blow; and +he argued that he could attack and destroy the Syrian force before the +cessation of the winter's gales would allow the other Turkish +expedition to attempt a disembarkation at Aboukir. If he waited in +Egypt, he might have to meet the two attacks at once, whereas, if he +struck at Jaffa and Acre, he would rid himself of the chief mass of +his foes. Besides, as he explained in his letter of February 10th, +1799, to the Directors, his seizure of those towns would rob the +English fleet of its base of supplies and thereby cripple its +activities off the coast of Egypt. So far, his reasons for the Syrian +campaign are intelligible and sound. But he also gave out that, +leaving Desaix and his Ethiopian supernumeraries to defend Egypt, he +himself would accomplish the conquest of Syria and the East: he would +raise in revolt the Christians of the Lebanon and Armenia, overthrow +the Turkish power in Asia, and then march either on Constantinople or +Delhi. + +It is difficult to take this quite seriously, considering that he had +only 12,000 men available for these adventures; and with anyone but +Bonaparte they might be dismissed as utterly Quixotic. But in his case +we must seek for some practical purpose; for he never divorced fancy +from fact, and in his best days imagination was the hand-maid of +politics and strategy rather than the mistress. Probably these +gorgeous visions were bodied forth so as to inspirit the soldiery and +enthrall the imagination of France. He had already proved the immense +power of imagination over that susceptible people. In one sense, his +whole expedition was but a picturesque drama; and an imposing climax +could now be found in the plan of an Eastern Empire, that opened up +dazzling vistas of glory and veiled his figure in a grandiose mirage, +beside which the civilian Directors were dwarfed into ridiculous +puppets. + +If these vast schemes are to be taken seriously, another explanation +of them is possible, namely, that he relied on the example set by +Alexander the Great, who with a small but highly-trained army had +shattered the stately dominions of the East. If Bonaparte trusted to +this precedent, he erred. True, Alexander began his enterprise with a +comparatively small force: but at least he had a sure base of +operations, and his army in Thessaly was strong enough to prevent +Athens from exchanging her sullen but passive hostility for an +offensive that would endanger his communications by sea. The Athenian +fleet was therefore never the danger to the Macedonians that Nelson +and Sir Sidney Smith were to Bonaparte. Since the French armada +weighed anchor at Toulon, Britain's position had became vastly +stronger. Nelson was lord of the Mediterranean: the revolt in Ireland +had completely failed: a coalition against France was being formed; +and it was therefore certain that the force in Egypt could not be +materially strengthened. Bonaparte did not as yet know the full extent +of his country's danger; but the mere fact that he would have to bear +the pressure of England's naval supremacy along the Syrian coast +should have dispelled any notion that he could rival the exploits of +Alexander and become Emperor of the East.[112] + + +From conjectures about motives we turn to facts. Setting forth early +in February, the French captured most of the Turkish advanced guard at +the fort of El Arisch, but sent their captives away on condition of +not bearing arms against France for at least one year. The victors +then marched on Jaffa, and, in spite of a spirited defence, took it +by storm (March 7th). Flushed with their triumph over a cruel and +detested foe, the soldiers were giving up the city to pillage and +massacre, when two aides-de-camp promised quarter to a large body of +the defenders, who had sought refuge in a large caravanserai; and +their lives were grudgingly spared by the victors. Bonaparte +vehemently reproached his aides-de-camp for their ill-timed clemency. +What could he now do with these 2,500 or 3,000 prisoners? They could +not be trusted to serve with the French; besides, the provisions +scarcely sufficed for Bonaparte's own men, who began to complain +loudly at sharing any with Turks and Albanians. They could not be sent +away to Egypt, there to spread discontent: and only 300 Egyptians were +so sent away.[113] Finally, on the demand of his generals and troops, +the remaining prisoners were shot down on the seashore. There is, +however, no warrant for the malicious assertion that Bonaparte readily +gave the fatal order. On the contrary, he delayed it for three days, +until the growing difficulties and the loud complaints of his soldiers +wrung it from him as a last resort. + +Moreover, several of the victims had already fought against him at El +Arisch, and had violated their promise that they would fight no more +against the French in that campaign. M. Lanfrey's assertion that there +is no evidence for the identification is untenable, in view of a +document which I have discovered in the Records of the British +Admiralty. Inclosed with Sir Sidney Smith's despatches is one from the +secretary of Gezzar, dated Acre, March 1st, 1799, in which the Pacha +urgently entreats the British commodore to come to his help, because +his (Gezzar's) troops had failed to hold El Arisch, and the _same +troops_ had also abandoned Gaza and were in great dread of the French +at Jaffa. Considered from the military point of view, the massacre at +Jaffa is perhaps defensible; and Bonaparte's reluctant assent +contrasts favourably with the conduct of many commanders in similar +cases. Perhaps an episode like that at Jaffa is not without its uses +in opening the eyes of mankind to the ghastly shifts by which military +glory may have to be won. The alternative to the massacre was the +detaching of a French battalion to conduct their prisoners to Egypt. +As that would seriously have weakened the little army, the prisoners +were shot. + +A deadlier foe was now to be faced. Already at El Arisch a few cases +of the plague had appeared in Kleber's division, which had come from +Rosetta and Damietta; and the relics of the retreating Mameluke and +Turkish forces seem also to have bequeathed that disease as a fatal +legacy to their pursuers. After Jaffa the malady attacked most +battalions of the army; and it may have quickened Bonaparte's march +towards Acre. Certain it is that he rejected Kleber's advice to +advance inland towards Nablus, the ancient Shechem, and from that +commanding centre to dominate Palestine and defy the power of +Gezzar.[114] + +[Illustration: PLAN OF THE SIEGE OF ACRE FROM A CONTEMPORARY SKETCH] + +Always prompt to strike at the heart, the commander-in-chief +determined to march straight on Acre, where that notorious Turkish +pacha sat intrenched behind weak walls and the ramparts of terror +which his calculating ferocity had reared around him. Ever since the +age of the Crusades that seaport had been the chief place of arms of +Palestine; but the harbour was now nearly silted up, and even the +neighbouring roadstead of Hayfa was desolate. The fortress was +formidable only to orientals. In his work, "Les Ruines," Volney had +remarked about Acre: "Through all this part of Asia bastions, lines of +defence, covered ways, ramparts, and in short everything relating to +modern fortification are utterly unknown; and a single thirty-gun +frigate would easily bombard and lay in ruins the whole coast." This +judgment of his former friend undoubtedly lulled Bonaparte into +illusory confidence, and the rank and file after their success at +Jaffa expected an easy triumph at Acre. + +This would doubtless have happened but for British help. Captain +Miller, of H.M.S. "Theseus," thus reported on the condition of Acre +before Sir Sidney Smith's arrival: + + "I found almost every embrasure empty except those towards the sea. + Many years' collection of the dirt of the town thrown in such a + situation as completely covered the approach to the gate from the + only guns that could flank it and from the sea ... none of their + batteries have casemates, traverses, or splinter-proofs: they have + many guns, but generally small and defective--the carriages in + general so." [115] + +Captain Miller's energy made good some of these defects; but the place +was still lamentably weak when, on March 15th, Sir Sidney Smith +arrived. The English squadron in the east of the Mediterranean had, +to Nelson's chagrin, been confided to the command of this ardent young +officer, who now had the good fortune to capture off the promontory of +Mount Carmel seven French vessels containing Bonaparte's siege-train. +This event had a decisive influence on the fortunes of the siege and +of the whole campaign. The French cannon were now hastily mounted on +the very walls that they had been intended to breach; while the gun +vessels reinforced the two English frigates, and were ready to pour a +searching fire on the assailants in their trenches or as they rushed +against the walls. These had also been hastily strengthened under the +direction of a French royalist officer named Phelippeaux, an old +schoolfellow of Bonaparte, and later on a comrade of Sidney Smith, +alike in his imprisonment and in his escape from the clutches of the +revolutionists. Sharing the lot of the adventurous young seaman, +Phelippeaux sailed to the Levant, and now brought to the defence of +Acre the science of a skilled engineer. Bravely seconded by British +officers and seamen, he sought to repair the breach effected by the +French field-pieces, and constructed at the most exposed points inner +defences, before which the most obstinate efforts of the storming +parties melted away. Nine times did the assailants advance against the +breaches with the confidence born of unfailing success and redoubled +by the gaze of their great commander; but as often were they beaten +back by the obstinate bravery of the British seamen and Turks. + +The monotony was once relieved by a quaint incident. In the course of +a correspondence with Bonaparte, Sir Sidney Smith is said to have +shown his annoyance by sending him a challenge to a duel. It met with +the very proper reply that he would fight, if the English would send +out _a Marlborough_. + +During these desperate conflicts Bonaparte detached a considerable +number of troops inland to beat off a large Turkish and Mameluke force +destined for the relief of Acre and the invasion of Egypt. The first +encounter was near Nazareth, where Junot displayed the dash and +resource which had brought him fame in Italy; but the decisive battle +was fought in the Plain of Esdraelon, not far from the base of Mount +Tabor. There Kleber's division of 2,000 men was for some hours hard +pressed by a motley array of horse and foot drawn from diverse parts +of the Sultan's dominions. The heroism of the burly Alsacian and the +toughness of his men barely kept off the fierce rushes of the Moslem +horse and foot. At last Bonaparte's cannon were heard. The chief, +marching swiftly on with his troops drawn up in three squares, +speedily brushed aside the enveloping clouds of orientals; finally, by +well-combined efforts the French hurled back the enemy on passes, some +of which had been seized by the commander's prescience. At the close +of this memorable day (April 15th) an army of nearly 30,000 men was +completely routed and dispersed by the valour and skilful dispositions +of two divisions which together amounted to less than a seventh of +that number. No battle of modern times more closely resembles the +exploits of Alexander than this masterly concentration of force; and +possibly some memory of this may have prompted the words of +Kleber--"General, how great you are!"--as he met and embraced his +commander on the field of battle. Bonaparte and his staff spent the +night at the Convent of Nazareth; and when his officers burst out +laughing at the story told by the Prior of the breaking of a pillar by +the angel Gabriel at the time of the Annunciation, their untimely +levity was promptly checked by the frown of the commander. + +The triumph seemed to decide the Christians of the Lebanon to ally +themselves with Bonaparte, and they secretly covenanted to furnish +12,000 troops at his cost; but this question ultimately depended on +the siege of Acre. On rejoining their comrades before Acre, the +victors found that the siege had made little progress: for a time the +besiegers relied on mining operations, but with little success; though +Phelippeaux succumbed to a sunstroke (May 1st), his place was filled +by Colonel Douglas, who foiled the efforts of the French engineers +and enabled the place to hold out till the advent of the long-expected +Turkish succours. On May 7th their sails were visible far out on an +almost windless sea. At once Bonaparte made desperate efforts to carry +the "mud-hole" by storm. Led with reckless gallantry by the heroic +Lannes, his troops gained part of the wall and planted the tricolour +on the north-east tower; but all further progress was checked by +English blue-jackets, whom the commodore poured into the town; and the +Turkish reinforcements, wafted landwards by a favouring breeze, were +landed in time to wrest the ramparts from the assailants' grip. On the +following day an assault was again attempted: from the English ships +Bonaparte could be clearly seen on Richard Coeur de Lion's mound +urging on the French; but though, under Lannes' leadership, they +penetrated to the garden of Gezzar's seraglio, they fell in heaps +under the bullets, pikes, and scimitars of the defenders, and few +returned alive to the camp. Lannes himself was dangerously wounded, +and saved only by the devotion of an officer. + +Both sides were now worn out by this extraordinary siege. "This town +is not, nor ever has been, defensible according to the rules of art; +but according to every other rule it must and shall be defended"--so +wrote Sir Sidney Smith to Nelson on May 9th. But a fell influence was +working against the besiegers; as the season advanced, they succumbed +more and more to the ravages of the plague; and, after failing again +on May 10th, many of their battalions refused to advance to the breach +over the putrid remains of their comrades. Finally, Bonaparte, after +clinging to his enterprise with desperate tenacity, on the night of +May 20th gave orders to retreat. + +This siege of nine weeks' duration had cost him severe losses, among +them being Generals Caffarelli and Bon: but worst of all was the loss +of that reputation for invincibility which he had hitherto enjoyed. +His defeat at Caldiero, near Verona, in 1796 had been officially +converted into a victory: but Acre could not be termed anything but a +reverse. In vain did the commander and his staff proclaim that, after +dispersing the Turks at Mount Tabor, the capture of Acre was +superfluous; his desperate efforts in the early part of May revealed +the hollowness of his words. There were, it is true, solid reasons for +his retreat. He had just heard of the breaking out of the war of the +Second Coalition against France; and revolts in Egypt also demanded +his presence.[116] But these last events furnished a damning +commentary on his whole Syrian enterprise, which had led to a +dangerous diffusion of the French forces. And for what? For the +conquest of Constantinople or of India? That dream seems to have +haunted Bonaparte's brain even down to the close of the siege of Acre. +During the siege, and later, he was heard to inveigh against "the +miserable little hole" which had come between him and his destiny--the +Empire of the East; and it is possible that ideas which he may at +first have set forth in order to dazzle his comrades came finally to +master his whole being. Certainly the words just quoted betoken a +quite abnormal wilfulness as well as a peculiarly subjective notion of +fatalism. His "destiny" was to be mapped out by his own prescience, +decided by his own will, gripped by his own powers. Such fatalism had +nothing in common with the sombre creed of the East: it was merely an +excess of individualism: it was the matured expression of that feature +of his character, curiously dominant even in childhood, that _what he +wanted he must of necessity have_. How strange that this imperious +obstinacy, this sublimation of western willpower, should not have been +tamed even by the overmastering might of Nature in the Orient! + +As for the Empire of the East, the declared hostility of the tribes +around Nablus had shown how futile were Bonaparte's efforts to win +over Moslems: and his earlier Moslem proclamations were skilfully +distributed by Sir Sidney Smith among the Christians of Syria, and +served partly to neutralize the efforts which Bonaparte made to win +them over.[117] Vain indeed was the effort to conciliate the Moslems +in Egypt, and yet in Syria to arouse the Christians against the +Commander of the Faithful. Such religious opportunism smacked of the +Parisian boulevards: it utterly ignored the tenacity of belief of the +East, where the creed is the very life. The outcome of all that +_finesse_ was seen in the closing days of the siege and during the +retreat towards Jaffa, when the tribes of the Lebanon and of the +Nablus district watched like vultures on the hills and swooped down on +the retreating columns. The pain of disillusionment, added to his +sympathy with the sick and wounded, once broke down Bonaparte's +nerves. Having ordered all horsemen to dismount so that there might be +sufficient transport for the sick and maimed, the commander was asked +by an equerry which horse he reserved for his own use. "Did you not +hear the order," he retorted, striking the man with his whip, +"everyone on foot." Rarely did this great man mar a noble action by +harsh treatment: the incident sufficiently reveals the tension of +feelings, always keen, and now overwrought by physical suffering and +mental disappointment. + +There was indeed much to exasperate him. At Acre he had lost nearly +5,000 men in killed, wounded, and plague-stricken, though he falsely +reported to the Directory that his losses during the whole expedition +did not exceed 1,500 men: and during the terrible retreat to Jaffa he +was shocked, not only by occasional suicides of soldiers in his +presence, but by the utter callousness of officers and men to the +claims of the sick and wounded. It was as a rebuke to this inhumanity +that he ordered all to march on foot, and his authority seems even to +have been exerted to prevent some attempts at poisoning the +plague-stricken. The narrative of J. Miot, commissary of the army, +shows that these suggestions originated among the soldiery at Acre +when threatened with the toil of transporting those unfortunates back +to Egypt; and, as his testimony is generally adverse to Bonaparte, and +he mentions the same horrible device, when speaking of the hospitals +at Jaffa, as a camp rumour, it may be regarded as scarcely worthy of +credence.[118] + + + + +Undoubtedly the scenes were heartrending at Jaffa; and it has been +generally believed that the victims of the plague were then and there +put out of their miseries by large doses of opium. Certainly the +hospitals were crowded with wounded and victims of the plague; but +during the seven days' halt at that town adequate measures were taken +by the chief medical officers, Desgenettes and Larrey, for their +transport to Egypt. More than a thousand were sent away on ships, +seven of which were fortunately present; and 800 were conveyed to +Egypt in carts or litters across the desert.[119] Another fact +suffices to refute the slander mentioned above. From the despatch of +Sir Sidney Smith to Nelson of May 30th, 1799, it appears that, when +the English commodore touched at Jaffa, he found some of the abandoned +ones _still alive_: "We have found seven poor fellows in the hospital +and will take care of them." He also supplied the French ships +conveying the wounded with water, provisions, and stores, of which +they were much in need, and allowed them to proceed to their +destination. It is true that the evidence of Las Cases at St. Helena, +eagerly cited by Lanfrey, seems to show that some of the worst cases +in the Jaffa hospitals were got rid of by opium; but the admission by +Napoleon that the administering of opium was justifiable occurred in +one of those casuistical discussions which turn, not on facts, but on +motives. Conclusions drawn from such conversations, sixteen years or +more after the supposed occurrence, must in any case give ground +before the evidence of contemporaries, which proves that every care +was taken of the sick and wounded, that the proposals of poisoning +first came from the soldiery, that Napoleon both before and after +Jaffa set the noble example of marching on foot so that there might be +sufficiency of transport, that nearly all the unfortunates arrived in +Egypt and in fair condition, and that seven survivors were found alive +at Jaffa by English officers.[120] + +The remaining episodes of the Eastern Expedition may be briefly +dismissed. After a painful desert march the army returned to Egypt in +June; and, on July 25th, under the lead of Murat and Lannes, drove +into the sea a large force of Turks which had effected a landing in +Aboukir Bay. Bonaparte was now weary of gaining triumphs over foes +whom he and his soldiers despised. While in this state of mind, he +received from Sir Sidney Smith a packet of English and German +newspapers giving news up to June 6th, which brought him quickly to a +decision. The formation of a powerful coalition, the loss of Italy, +defeats on the Rhine, and the schisms, disgust, and despair prevalent +in France--all drew his imagination westwards away from the illusory +Orient; and he determined to leave his army to the care of Kleber and +sail to France. + +The morality of this step has been keenly discussed. The rank and +file of the army seem to have regarded it as little less than +desertion,[121] and the predominance of personal motives in this +important decision can scarcely be denied. His private aim in +undertaking the Eastern Expedition, that of dazzling the imagination +of the French people and of exhibiting the incapacity of the +Directory, had been abundantly realized. His eastern enterprise had +now shrunk to practical and prosaic dimensions, namely, the +consolidation of French power in Egypt. Yet, as will appear in later +chapters, he did not give up his oriental schemes; though at St. +Helena he once oddly spoke of the Egyptian expedition as an "exhausted +enterprise," it is clear that he worked hard to keep his colony. The +career of Alexander had for him a charm that even the conquests of +Caesar could not rival; and at the height of his European triumphs, the +hero of Austerlitz was heard to murmur: "J'ai manque a ma fortune a +Saint-Jean d'Acre."[122] + +In defence of his sudden return it may be urged that he had more than +once promised the Directory that his stay in Egypt would not exceed +five months; and there can be no doubt that now, as always, he had an +alternative plan before him in case of failure or incomplete success +in the East. To this alternative he now turned with that swiftness and +fertility of resource which astonished both friends and foes in +countless battles and at many political crises. + +It has been stated by Lanfrey that his appointment of Kleber to +succeed him was dictated by political and personal hostility; but it +may more naturally be considered a tribute to his abilities as a +general and to his influence over the soldiery, which was only second +to that of Bonaparte and Desaix. He also promised to send him speedy +succour; and as there seemed to be a probability of France regaining +her naval supremacy in the Mediterranean by the union of the fleet of +Bruix with that of Spain, he might well hope to send ample +reinforcements. He probably did not know the actual facts of the case, +that in July Bruix tamely followed the Spanish squadron to Cadiz, and +that the Directory had ordered Bruix to withdraw the French army from +Egypt. But, arguing from the facts as known to him, Bonaparte might +well believe that the difficulties of France would be fully met by his +own return, and that Egypt could be held with ease. The duty of a +great commander is to be at the post of greatest danger, and that was +now on the banks of the Rhine or Mincio. + +The advent of a south-east wind, a rare event there at that season of +the year, led him hastily to embark at Alexandria in the night of +August 22nd-23rd. His two frigates bore with him some of the greatest +sons of France; his chief of the staff, Berthier, whose ardent love +for Madame Visconti had been repressed by his reluctant determination +to share the fortunes of his chief; Lannes and Murat, both recently +wounded, but covered with glory by their exploits in Syria and at +Aboukir; his friend Marmont, as well as Duroc, Andreossi, Bessieres, +Lavalette, Admiral Gantheaume, Monge, and Berthollet, his secretary +Bourrienne, and the traveller Denon. He also left orders that Desaix, +who had been in charge of Upper Egypt, should soon return to France, +so that the rivalry between him and Kleber might not distract French +councils in Egypt. There seems little ground for the assertion that he +selected for return his favourites and men likely to be politically +serviceable to him. If he left behind the ardently republican Kleber, +he also left his old friend Junot: if he brought back Berthier and +Marmont, he also ordered the return of the almost Jacobinical Desaix. +Sir Sidney Smith having gone to Cyprus for repairs, Bonaparte slipped +out unmolested. By great good fortune his frigates eluded the English +ships cruising between Malta and Cape Bon, and after a brief stay at +Ajaccio, he and his comrades landed at Frejus (October 9th). So great +was the enthusiasm of the people that, despite all the quarantine +regulations, they escorted the party to shore. "We prefer the plague +to the Austrians," they exclaimed; and this feeling but feebly +expressed the emotion of France at the return of the Conqueror of the +East. + +And yet he found no domestic happiness. Josephine's _liaison_ with a +young officer, M. Charles, had become notorious owing to his prolonged +visits to her country house, La Malmaison. Alarmed at her husband's +return, she now hurried to meet him, but missed him on the way; while +he, finding his home at Paris empty, raged at her infidelity, refused +to see her on her return, and declared he would divorce her. From this +he was turned by the prayers of Eugene and Hortense Beauharnais, and +the tears of Josephine herself. A reconciliation took place; but there +was no reunion of hearts, and Mme. Reinhard echoed the feeling of +respectable society when she wrote that he should have divorced her +outright. Thenceforth he lived for Glory alone. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER X + +BRUMAIRE + + +Rarely has France been in a more distracted state than in the summer +of 1799. Royalist revolts in the west and south rent the national +life. The religious schism was unhealed; education was at a +standstill; commerce had been swept from the seas by the British +fleets; and trade with Italy and Germany was cut off by the war of +the Second Coalition. + +The formation of this league between Russia, Austria, England, Naples, +Portugal, and Turkey was in the main the outcome of the alarm and +indignation aroused by the reckless conduct of the Directory, which +overthrew the Bourbons at Naples, erected the Parthenopaean Republic, +and compelled the King of Sardinia to abdicate at Turin and retire to +his island. Russia and Austria took a leading part in forming the +Coalition. Great Britain, ever hampered by her inept army +organization, offered to supply money in place of the troops which she +could not properly equip. + +But under the cloak of legitimacy the monarchical Powers harboured +their own selfish designs. This Nessus' cloak of the First Coalition +soon galled the limbs of the allies and rendered them incapable of +sustained and vigorous action. Yet they gained signal successes over +the raw conscripts of France. In July, 1799, the Austro-Russian army +captured Mantua and Alessandria; and in the following month Suvoroff +gained the decisive victory of Novi and drove the remains of the +French forces towards Genoa. The next months were far more favourable +to the tricolour flag, for, owing to Austro-Russian jealousies, +Massena was able to gain an important victory at Zurich over a Russian +army. In the north the republicans were also in the end successful. +Ten days after Bonaparte's arrival at Frejus, they compelled an +Anglo-Russian force campaigning in Holland to the capitulation of +Alkmaar, whereby the Duke of York agreed to withdraw all his troops +from that coast. Disgusted by the conduct of his allies, the Czar Paul +withdrew his troops from any active share in the operations by land, +thenceforth concentrating his efforts on the acquisition of Corsica, +Malta, and posts of vantage in the Adriatic. These designs, which were +well known to the British Government, served to hamper our naval +strength in those seas, and to fetter the action of the Austrian arms +in Northern Italy.[123] + +Yet, though the schisms of the allies finally yielded a victory to the +French in the campaigns of 1799, the position of the Republic was +precarious. The danger was rather internal than external. It arose +from embarrassed finances, from the civil war that burst out with new +violence in the north-west, and, above all, from a sense of the +supreme difficulty of attaining political stability and of reconciling +liberty with order. The struggle between the executive and legislative +powers which had been rudely settled by the _coup d'etat_ of +Fructidor, had been postponed, not solved. Public opinion was speedily +ruffled by the Jacobinical violence which ensued. The stifling of +liberty of the press and the curtailment of the right of public +meeting served only to instill new energy into the party of resistance +in the elective Councils, and to undermine a republican government +that relied on Venetian methods of rule. Reviewing the events of those +days, Madame de Stael finely remarked that only the free consent of +the people could breathe life into political institutions; and that +the monstrous system of guaranteeing freedom by despotic means served +only to manufacture governments that had to be wound up at intervals +lest they should stop dead.[124] Such a sarcasm, coming from the +gifted lady who had aided and abetted the stroke of Fructidor, shows +how far that event had falsified the hopes of the sincerest friends of +the Revolution. Events were therefore now favourable to a return from +the methods of Rousseau to those of Richelieu; and the genius who was +skilfully to adapt republicanism to autocracy was now at hand. Though +Bonaparte desired at once to attack the Austrians in Northern Italy, +yet a sure instinct impelled him to remain at Paris, for, as he said +to Marmont: "When the house is crumbling, is it the time to busy +oneself with the garden? A change here is indispensable." + +The sudden rise of Bonaparte to supreme power cannot be understood +without some reference to the state of French politics in the months +preceding his return to France. The position of parties had been +strangely complicated by the unpopularity of the Directors. Despite +their illegal devices, the elections of 1798 and 1799 for the renewal +of a third part of the legislative Councils had signally strengthened +the anti-directorial ranks. Among the Opposition were some royalists, +a large number of constitutionals, whether of the Feuillant or +Girondin type, and many deputies, who either vaunted the name of +Jacobins or veiled their advanced opinions under the convenient +appellation of "patriots." Many of the deputies were young, +impressionable, and likely to follow any able leader who promised to +heal the schisms of the country. In fact, the old party lines were +being effaced. The champions of the constitution of 1795 (Year III.) +saw no better means of defending it than by violating electoral +liberties--always in the sacred name of Liberty; and the Directory, +while professing to hold the balance between the extreme parties, +repressed them by turns with a vigour which rendered them popular and +official moderation odious. + + + +In this general confusion and apathy the dearth of statesmen was +painfully conspicuous. Only true grandeur of character can defy the +withering influences of an age of disillusionment; and France had for +a time to rely upon Sieyes. Perhaps no man has built up a reputation +for political capacity on performances so slight as the Abbe Sieyes. +In the States General of 1789 he speedily acquired renown for oracular +wisdom, owing to the brevity and wit of his remarks in an assembly +where such virtues were rare. But the course of the Revolution soon +showed the barrenness of his mind and the timidity of his character. +He therefore failed to exert any lasting influence upon events. In the +time of the Terror his insignificance was his refuge. His witty reply +to an inquiry how he had then fared--"J'ai vecu "--sufficiently +characterizes the man. In the Directorial period he displayed more +activity. He was sent as French ambassador to Berlin, and plumed +himself on having persuaded that Court to a neutrality favourable to +France. But it is clear that the neutrality of Prussia was the outcome +of selfish considerations. While Austria tried the hazards of war, her +northern rival husbanded her resources, strengthened her position as +the protectress of Northern Germany, and dextrously sought to attract +the nebula of middle German States into her own sphere of influence. +From his task of tilting a balance which was already decided, Sieyes +was recalled to Paris in May, 1799, by the news of his election to the +place in the Directory vacated by Rewbell. The other Directors had +striven, but in vain, to prevent his election: they knew well that +this impracticable theorist would speedily paralyze the Government; +for, when previously elected Director in 1795, he had refused to +serve, on the ground that the constitution was thoroughly bad. He now +declared his hostility to the Directory, and looked around for some +complaisant military chief who should act as his tool and then be +cast away. His first choice, Joubert, was killed at the battle of +Novi. Moreau seems then to have been looked on with favour; he was a +republican, able in warfare and singularly devoid of skill or ambition +in political matters. Relying on Moreau, Sieyes continued his +intrigues, and after some preliminary fencing gained over to his side +the Director Barras. But if we may believe the assertions of the +royalist, Hyde de Neuville, Barras was also receiving the advances of +the royalists with a view to a restoration of Louis XVIII., an event +which was then quite within the bounds of probability. For the +present, however, Barras favoured the plans of Sieyes, and helped him +to get rid of the firmly republican Directors, La Reveilliere-Lepeaux +and Merlin, who were deposed (30th Prairial).[125] + +The new Directors were Gohier, Roger Ducos, and Moulin; the first, an +elderly respectable advocate; the second, a Girondin by early +associations, but a trimmer by instinct, and therefore easily gained +over by Sieyes; while the recommendation of the third, Moulin, seem to +have been his political nullity and some third-rate military services +in the Vendean war. Yet the Directory of Prairial was not devoid of a +spasmodic energy, which served to throw back the invaders of France. +Bernadotte, the fiery Gascon, remarkable for his ardent gaze, his +encircling masses of coal-black hair, and the dash of Moorish blood +which ever aroused Bonaparte's respectful apprehensions, was Minister +of War, and speedily formed a new army of 100,000 men: Lindet +undertook to re-establish the finances by means of progressive taxes: +the Chouan movement in the northern and western departments was +repressed by a law legalising the seizure of hostages; and there +seemed some hope that France would roll back the tide of invasion, +keep her "natural frontiers," and return to normal methods of +government. + +Such was the position of affairs when Bonaparte's arrival inspired +France with joy and the Directory with ill-concealed dread. As in +1795, so now in 1799, he appeared at Paris when French political life +was in a stage of transition. If ever the Napoleonic star shone +auspiciously, it was in the months when he threaded his path between +Nelson's cruisers and cut athwart the maze of Sieyes' intrigues. To +the philosopher's "J'ai vecu" he could oppose the crushing retort +"J'ai vaincu." + +The general, on meeting the thinker at Gohier's house, studiously +ignored him. In truth, he was at first disposed to oust both Sieyes +and Barras from the Directory. The latter of these men was odious to +him for reasons both private and public. In time past he had had good +reasons for suspecting Josephine's relations with the voluptuous +Director, and with the men whom she met at his house. During the +Egyptian campaign his jealousy had been fiercely roused in another +quarter, and, as we have seen, led to an almost open breach with his +wife. But against Barras he still harboured strong suspicions; and the +frequency of his visits to the Director's house after returning from +Egypt was doubtless due to his desire to sound the depths of his +private as well as of his public immorality. If we may credit the +_embarras de mensonges_ which has been dignified by the name of +Barras' "Memoirs," Josephine once fled to his house and flung herself +at his knees, begging to be taken away from her husband; but the story +is exploded by the moral which the relator clumsily tacks on, as to +the good advice which he gave her.[126] While Bonaparte seems to have +found no grounds for suspecting Barras on this score, he yet +discovered his intrigues with various malcontents; and he saw that +Barras, holding the balance of power in the Directory between the +opposing pairs of colleagues, was intriguing to get the highest +possible price for the betrayal of the Directory and of the +constitution of 1795. + +For Sieyes the general felt dislike but respect. He soon saw the +advantage of an alliance with so learned a thinker, so skilful an +intriguer, and so weak a man. It was, indeed, necessary; for, after +making vain overtures to Gohier for the alteration of the law which +excluded from the Directory men of less than forty years of age, +the general needed the alliance of Sieyes for the overthrow of the +constitution. In a short space he gathered around him the malcontents +whom the frequent crises had deprived of office, Roederer, Admiral +Bruix, Real, Cambaceres, and, above all, Talleyrand. The last-named; +already known for his skill in diplomacy, had special reasons for +favouring the alliance of Bonaparte and Sieyes: he had been dismissed +from the Foreign Office in the previous month of July because in his +hands it had proved to be too lucrative to the holder and too +expensive for France. It was an open secret that, when American +commissioners arrived in Paris a short time previously, for the +settlement of various disputes between the two countries, they found +that the negotiations would not progress until 250,000 dollars had +changed hands. The result was that hostilities continued, and that +Talleyrand soon found himself deprived of office, until another turn +of the revolutionary kaleidoscope should restore him to his coveted +place.[127] He discerned in the Bonaparte-Sieyes combination the force +that would give the requisite tilt now that Moreau gave up politics. + +The army and most of the generals were also ready for some change, +only Bernadotte and Jourdan refusing to listen to the new proposals; +and the former of these came "with sufficiently bad grace" to join +Bonaparte at the time of action. The police was secured through that +dextrous trimmer, the regicide Fouche, who now turned against the very +men who had recently appointed him to office. Feeling sure of the +soldiery and police, the innovators fixed the 18th of Brumaire as the +date of their enterprise. There were many conferences at the houses of +the conspirators; and one of the few vivid touches which relieve the +dull tones of the Talleyrand "Memoirs" reveals the consciousness of +these men that they were conspirators. Late on a night in the middle +of Brumaire, Bonaparte came to Talleyrand's house to arrange details +of the _coup d'etat,_ when the noise of carriages stopping outside +caused them to pale with fear that their plans were discovered. At +once the diplomatist blew out the lights and hurried to the balcony, +when he found that their fright was due merely to an accident to the +carriages of the revellers and gamesters returning from the Palais +Royal, which were guarded by gendarmes. The incident closed with +laughter and jests; but it illustrates the tension of the nerves of +the political gamesters, as also the mental weakness of Bonaparte when +confronted by some unknown danger. It was perhaps the only weak point +in his intellectual armour; but it was to be found out at certain +crises of his career. + +Meanwhile in the legislative Councils there was a feeling of vague +disquiet. The Ancients were, on the whole, hostile to the Directory, +but in the Council of Five Hundred the democratic ardour of the +younger deputies foreboded a fierce opposition. Yet there also the +plotters found many adherents, who followed the lead now cautiously +given by Lucien Bonaparte. This young man, whose impassioned speeches +had marked him out as an irreproachable patriot, was now President of +that Council. No event could have been more auspicious for the +conspirators. With Sieyes, Barras, and Ducos, as traitors in the +Directory, with the Ancients favourable, and the junior deputies under +the presidency of Lucien, the plot seemed sure of success. + +The first important step was taken by the Council of Ancients, who +decreed the transference of the sessions of the Councils to St. Cloud. +The danger of a Jacobin plot was urged as a plea for this motion, +which was declared carried without the knowledge either of the +Directory as a whole, or of the Five Hundred, whose opposition would +have been vehement. The Ancients then appointed Bonaparte to command +the armed forces in and near Paris. The next step was to insure the +abdication of Gohier and Moulin. Seeking to entrap Gohier, then the +President of the Directory, Josephine invited him to breakfast on the +morning of 18th Brumaire; but Gohier, suspecting a snare, remained at +his official residence, the Luxemburg Palace. None the less the +Directory was doomed; for the two defenders of the institution had not +the necessary quorum for giving effect to their decrees. Moulin +thereupon escaped, and Gohier was kept under guard--by Moreau's +soldiery![128] + +Meanwhile, accompanied by a brilliant group of generals, Bonaparte +proceeded to the Tuileries, where the Ancients were sitting; and by +indulging in a wordy declamation he avoided taking the oath to the +constitution required of a general on entering upon a new command. In +the Council of Five Hundred, Lucien Bonaparte stopped the eager +questions and murmurs, on the pretext that the session was only legal +at St. Cloud. + +There, on the next day (19th Brumaire or 10th November), a far more +serious blow was to be struck. The overthrow of the Directory was a +foregone conclusion. But with the Legislature it was far otherwise, +for its life was still whole and vigorous. Yet, while amputating a +moribund limb, the plotters did not scruple to paralyze the brain of +the body politic. + +Despite the adhesion of most of the Ancients to his plans, Bonaparte, +on appearing before them, could only utter a succession of short, +jerky phrases which smacked of the barracks rather than of the Senate. +Retiring in some confusion, he regains his presence of mind among the +soldiers outside, and enters the hall of the Five Hundred, intending +to intimidate them not only by threats, but by armed force. At the +sight of the uniforms at the door, the republican enthusiasm of the +younger deputies catches fire. They fiercely assail him with cries of +"Down with the tyrant! down with the Dictator! outlaw him!" In vain +Lucien Bonaparte commands order. Several deputies rush at the general, +and fiercely shake him by the collar. He turns faint with excitement +and chagrin; but Lefebvre and a few grenadiers rushing up drag him +from the hall. He comes forth like a somnambulist (says an onlooker), +pursued by the terrible cry, "Hors la loi!" Had the cries at once +taken form in a decree, the history of the world might have been +different. One of the deputies, General Augereau, fiercely demands +that the motion of outlawry be put to the vote. Lucien Bonaparte +refuses, protests, weeps, finally throws off his official robes, and +is rescued from the enraged deputies by grenadiers whom the +conspirators send in for this purpose. Meanwhile Bonaparte and his +friends were hastily deliberating, when one of their number brought +the news that the deputies had declared the general an outlaw. The +news chased the blood from his cheek, until Sieyes, whose _sang froid_ +did not desert him in these civilian broils, exclaims, "Since they +outlaw you, they are outlaws." This revolutionary logic recalls +Bonaparte to himself. He shouts, "To arms!" Lucien, too, mounting a +horse, appeals to the soldiers to free the Council from the menaces +of some deputies armed with daggers, and in the pay of England, who +are terrorising the majority. The shouts of command, clinched by the +adroit reference to daggers and English gold, cause the troops to +waver in their duty; and Lucien, pressing his advantage to the utmost, +draws a sword, and, holding it towards his brother, exclaims that he +will stab him if ever he attempts anything against liberty. Murat, +Leclerc, and other generals enforce this melodramatic appeal by shouts +for Bonaparte, which the troops excitedly take up. The drums sound for +an advance, and the troops forthwith enter the hall. In vain the +deputies raise the shout, "Vive la Republique," and invoke the +constitution. Appeals to the law are overpowered by the drum and by +shouts for Bonaparte; and the legislators of France fly pell-mell from +the hall through doors and windows.[129] + +Thus was fulfilled the prophecy which eight years previously Burke had +made in his immortal work on the French Revolution. That great thinker +had predicted that French liberty would fall a victim to the first +great general who drew the eyes of all men upon himself. "The moment +in which that event shall happen, the person who really commands the +army is your master, the master of your king, the master of your +Assembly, the master of your whole republic." + +Discussions about the _coup d'etat_ of Brumaire generally confuse the +issue at stake by ignoring the difference between the overthrow of the +Directory and that of the Legislature. The collapse of the Directory +was certain to take place; but few expected that the Legislature of +France would likewise vanish. For vanish it did: not for nearly half +a century had France another free and truly democratic representative +assembly. This result of Brumaire was unexpected by several of the men +who plotted the overthrow of unpopular Directors, and hoped for the +nipping of Jacobinical or royalist designs. Indeed, no event in French +history is more astonishing than the dispersal of the republican +deputies, most of whom desired a change of _personnel_ but not a +revolution in methods of government. Until a few days previously the +Councils had the allegiance of the populace and of the soldiers; the +troops at St. Cloud were loyal to the constitution, and respected the +persons of the deputies until they were deluded by Lucien. For a few +minutes the fate of France trembled in the balance; and the +conspirators knew it.[130] Bonaparte confessed it by his incoherent +gaspings; Sieyes had his carriage ready, with six horses, for flight; +the terrible cry, "Hors la loi!" if raised against Bonaparte in the +heart of Paris, would certainly have roused the populace to fury in +the cause of liberty and have swept the conspirators to the +guillotine. But, as it was, the affair was decided in the solitudes of +St. Cloud by Lucien and a battalion of soldiers. + +Efforts have frequently been made to represent the events of Brumaire +as inevitable and to dovetail them in with a pretended philosophy of +history. But it is impossible to study them closely without observing +how narrow was the margin between the success and failure of the plot, +and how jagged was the edge of an affair which philosophizers seek to +fit in with their symmetrical explanations. In truth, no event of +world-wide importance was ever decided by circumstances so trifling. +"There is but one step from triumph to a fall. I have seen that in the +greatest affairs a little thing has always decided important +events"--so wrote Bonaparte three years before his triumph at St. +Cloud: he might have written it of that event. It is equally +questionable whether it can be regarded as saving France from anarchy. +His admirers, it is true, have striven to depict France as trodden +down by invaders, dissolved by anarchy, and saved only by the stroke +of Brumaire. But she was already triumphant: it was quite possible +that she would peacefully adjust her governmental difficulties: they +were certainly no greater than they had been in and since the year +1797: Fouche had closed the club of the Jacobins: the Councils had +recovered their rightful influence, and, but for the plotters of +Brumaire, might have effected a return to ordinary government of the +type of 1795-7. This was the real blow; that the vigorous trunk, the +Legislature, was struck down along with the withering Directorial +branch. + +The friends of liberty might well be dismayed when they saw how tamely +France accepted this astounding stroke. Some allowance was naturally +to be made, at first, for the popular apathy: the Jacobins, already +discouraged by past repression, were partly dazed by the suddenness of +the blow, and were also ignorant of the aims of the men who dealt it; +and while they were waiting to see the import of events, power passed +rapidly into the hands of Bonaparte and his coadjutors. Such is an +explanation, in part at least, of the strange docility now shown by a +populace which still vaunted its loyalty to the democratic republic. +But there is another explanation, which goes far deeper. The +revolutionary strifes had wearied the brain of France and had +predisposed it to accept accomplished facts. Distracted by the talk +about royalist plots and Jacobin plots, cowering away from the white +ogre and the red spectre, the more credulous part of the populace was +fain to take shelter under the cloak of a great soldier, who at least +promised order. Everything favoured the drill-sergeant theory of +government. The instincts developed by a thousand years of monarchy +had not been rooted out in the last decade. They now prompted France +to rally round her able man; and, abandoning political liberty as a +hopeless quest, she obeyed the imperious call which promised to +revivify the order and brilliance of her old existence with the +throbbing blood of her new life. + +The French constitution was now to be reconstructed by a +self-appointed commission which sat with closed doors. This strange +ending to all the constitution-building of a decade was due to the +adroitness of Lucien Bonaparte. At the close of that eventful day, the +19th of Brumaire, he gathered about him in the deserted hall at St. +Cloud some score or so of the dispersed deputies known to be +favourable to his brother, declaimed against the Jacobins, whose +spectral plot had proved so useful to the real plotters, and proposed +to this "Rump" of the Council the formation of a commission who should +report on measures that were deemed necessary for the public safety. +The measures were found to be the deposition of the Directory, the +expulsion of sixty-one members from the Councils, the nomination of +Sieyes, Roger Ducos, and Bonaparte as provisional Consuls and the +adjournment of the Councils for four months. The Consuls accordingly +took up their residence in the Luxemburg Palace, just vacated by the +Directors, and the drafting of a constitution was confided to them and +to an _interim_ commission of fifty members chosen equally from the +two Councils. + +The illegality of these devices was hidden beneath a cloak of politic +clemency. To this commission the Consuls, or rather Bonaparte--for +his will soon dominated that of Sieyes--proposed two most salutary +changes. He desired to put an end to the seizure of hostages from +villages suspected of royalism; and also to the exaction of taxes +levied on a progressive scale, which harassed the wealthy without +proportionately benefiting the exchequer. These two expedients, +adopted by the Directory in the summer of 1799, were temporary +measures adopted to stem the tide of invasion and to crush revolts; +but they were regarded as signs of a permanently terrorist policy, and +their removal greatly strengthened the new consular rule. The blunder +of nearly all the revolutionary governments had been in continuing +severe laws after the need for them had ceased to be pressing. +Bonaparte, with infinite tact, discerned this truth, and, as will +shortly appear, set himself to found his government on the support of +that vast neutral mass which was neither royalist nor Jacobin, which +hated the severities of the reds no less than the abuses of the +_ancien regime_. + +While Bonaparte was conciliating the many, Sieyes was striving to body +forth the constitution which for many years had been nebulously +floating in his brain. The function of the Socratic [Greek: maieutaes] +was discharged by Boulay de la Meurthe, who with difficulty reduced +those ideas to definite shape. The new constitution was based on the +principle: "Confidence comes from below, power from above." This meant +that the people, that is, all adult males, were admitted only to the +preliminary stages of election of deputies, while the final act of +selection was to be made by higher grades or powers. The "confidence" +required of the people was to be shown not only towards their +nominees, but towards those who were charged with the final and most +important act of selection. The winnowing processes in the election of +representatives were to be carried out on a decimal system. The adult +voters meeting in their several districts were to choose one-tenth of +their number, this tenth being named the Notabilities of the Commune. +These, some five or six hundred thousand in number, meeting in their +several Departments, were thereupon to choose one-tenth of their +number; and the resulting fifty or sixty thousand men, termed +Notabilities of the Departments, were again to name one-tenth of their +number, who were styled Notabilities of the Nation. But the most +important act of selection was still to come--from above. From this +last-named list the governing powers were to select the members of the +legislative bodies and the chief officials and servants of the +Government. + +The executive now claims a brief notice. The well-worn theory of the +distinction of powers, that is, the legislative and executive powers, +was maintained in Sieyes' plan. At the head of the Government the +philosopher desired to enthrone an august personage, the Grand +Elector, who was to be selected by the Senate. This Grand Elector was +to nominate two Consuls, one for peace, the other for war; they were +to nominate the Ministers of State, who in their turn selected the +agents of power from the list of Notabilities of the Nation. The two +Consuls and their Ministers administered the executive affairs. The +Senate, sitting in dignified ease, was merely to safeguard the +constitution, to elect the Grand Elector, and to select the members of +the _Corps Legislatif_ (proper) and the Tribunate. + +Distrust of the former almost superhuman activity in law-making now +appeared in divisions, checks, and balances quite ingenious in their +complexity. The Legislature was divided into three councils: the +_Corps Legislatif_, properly so called, which listened in silence to +proposals of laws offered by the Council of State and criticised or +orally approved by the Tribunate.[131] These three bodies were not +only divided, but were placed in opposition, especially the two +talking bodies, which resembled plaintiff and defendant pleading +before a gagged judge. But even so the constitution was not +sufficiently guarded against Jacobins or royalists. If by any chance a +dangerous proposal were forced through these mutually distrustful +bodies, the Senate was charged with the task of vetoing it, and if the +Grand Elector, or any other high official, strove to gain a perpetual +dictatorship, the Senate was at once to _absorb_ him into its ranks. + +Moreover, lest the voters should send up too large a proportion of +Jacobins or royalists, the first selection of members of the great +Councils and the chief functionaries for local affairs was to be made +by the Consuls, who thus primarily exercised not only the "power from +above," but also the "confidence" which ought to have come from below. +Perhaps this device was necessary to set in motion Sieyes' system of +wheels within wheels; for the Senate, which was to elect the Grand +Elector, by whom the executive officers were indirectly to be chosen, +was in part self-sufficient: the Consuls named the first members, who +then co-opted, that is, chose the new members. Some impulse from +without was also needed to give the constitution life; and this +impulse was now to come. Where Sieyes had only contrived wheels, +checks, regulator, break, and safety-valve, there now rushed in an +imperious will which not only simplified the parts but supplied an +irresistible motive power. + +The complexity of much of the mechanism, especially that relating to +popular election and the legislature, entirely suited Bonaparte. But, +while approving the triple winnowing, to which Sieyes subjected the +results of manhood suffrage, and the subordination of the legislative +to the executive authority,[132] the general expressed his entire +disapproval of the limitations of the Grand Elector's powers. The name +was anti-republican: let it be changed to First Consul. And whereas +Sieyes condemned his grand functionary to the repose of a _roi +faineant_, Bonaparte secured to him practically all the powers +assigned by Sieyes to the Consuls for Peace and for War. Lastly, +Bonaparte protested against the right of absorbing him being given to +the Senate. Here also he was successful; and thus a delicately poised +bureaucracy was turned into an almost unlimited dictatorship. + +This metamorphosis may well excite wonder. But, in truth, Sieyes and +his colleagues were too weary and sceptical to oppose the one +"intensely practical man." To Bonaparte's trenchant reasons and +incisive tones the theorist could only reply by a scornful silence +broken by a few bitter retorts. To the irresistible power of the +general he could only oppose the subtlety of a student. And, indeed, +who can picture Bonaparte, the greatest warrior of the age, delegating +the control of all warlike operations to a Consul for War while +Austrian cannon were thundering in the county of Nice and British +cruisers were insulting the French coasts? It was inevitable that the +reposeful Grand Elector should be transformed into the omnipotent +First Consul, and that these powers should be wielded by Bonaparte +himself.[133] + +The extent of the First Consul's powers, as finally settled by the +joint commission, was as follows. He had the direct and sole +nomination of the members of the general administration, of those of +the departmental and municipal councils, and of the administrators, +afterwards called prefects and sub-prefects. He also appointed all +military and naval officers, ambassadors and agents sent to foreign +Powers, and the judges in civil and criminal suits, except the _juges +de paix_ and, later on, the members of the _Cour de Cassation_. He +therefore controlled the army, navy, and diplomatic service, as well +as the general administration. He also signed treaties, though these +might be discussed, and must be ratified, by the legislative bodies. +The three Consuls were to reside in the Tuileries palace; but, apart +from the enjoyment of 150,000 francs a year, and occasional +consultation by the First Consul, the position of these officials was +so awkward that Bonaparte frankly remarked to Roederer that it would +have been better to call them Grand Councillors. They were, in truth, +supernumeraries added to the chief of the State, as a concession to +the spirit of equality and as a blind to hide the reality of the new +despotism. All three were to be chosen for ten years, and were +re-eligible. + +Such is an outline of the constitution of 1799 (Year VIII.). It was +promulgated on December 15th, 1799, and was offered to the people for +acceptance, in a proclamation which closed with the words: "Citizens, +the Revolution is confined to the principles which commenced it. It is +finished." The news of this last fact decided the enthusiastic +acceptance of the constitution. In a _plebiscite_, or mass vote of the +people, held in the early days of 1800, it was accepted by an +overwhelming majority, viz., by 3,011,007 as against only 1,562 +negatives. No fact so forcibly proves the failure of absolute +democracy in France; and, whatever may be said of the methods of +securing this national acclaim, it was, and must ever remain, the +soundest of Bonaparte's titles to power. To a pedant who once +inquired about his genealogy he significantly replied: "It dates from +Brumaire." + +Shortly before the _plebiscite_, Sieyes and Ducos resigned their +temporary commissions as Consuls: they were rewarded with seats in the +Senate; and Sieyes, in consideration of his constitutional work, +received the estate of Crosne from the nation. + + "Sieyes a Bonaparte a fait present du trone, + Sous un pompeux debris croyant l'ensevelir. + Bonaparte a Sieyes a fait present de Crosne + Pour le payer et l'avilir." + +The sting in the tail of Lebrun's epigram struck home. Sieyes' +acceptance of Crosne was, in fact, his acceptance of notice to quit +public affairs, in which he had always moved with philosophic disdain. +He lived on to the year 1836 in dignified ease, surveying with +Olympian calm the storms of French and Continental politics. + +The two new Consuls were Cambaceres and Lebrun. The former was known +as a learned jurist and a tactful man. He had voted for the death of +Louis XVI., but his subsequent action had been that of a moderate, and +his knowledge of legal affairs was likely to be of the highest service +to Bonaparte, who intrusted him with a general oversight of +legislation. His tact was seen in his refusal to take up his abode in +the Tuileries, lest, as he remarked to Lebrun, he might have to move +out again soon. The third Consul, Lebrun, was a moderate with leanings +towards constitutional royalty. He was to prove another useful +satellite to Bonaparte, who intrusted him with the general oversight +of finance and regarded him as a connecting link with the moderate +royalists. The chief secretary to the Consuls was Maret, a trusty +political agent, who had striven for peace with England both in 1793 +and in 1797. + +As for the Ministers, they were now reinforced by Talleyrand, who took +up that of Foreign Affairs, and by Berthier, who brought his powers of +hard work to that of War, until he was succeeded for a time by Carnot. +Lucien Bonaparte, and later Chaptal, became Minister of the Interior, +Gaudin controlled Finance, Forfait the Navy, and Fouche the Police. +The Council of State was organized in the following sections; that of +_War_, which was presided over by General Brune: _Marine_, by Admiral +Gantheaume: _Finance_, by Defermon: _Legislation_, by Boulay de la +Meurthe: the _Interior_, by Roederer. + +The First Consul soon showed that he intended to adopt a non-partisan +and thoroughly national policy. That had been, it is true, the aim of +the Directors in their policy of balance and repression of extreme +parties on both sides. For the reasons above indicated, they had +failed: but now a stronger and more tactful grasp was to succeed in a +feat which naturally became easier every year that removed the +passions of the revolutionary epoch further into the distance. Men +cannot for ever perorate, and agitate and plot. A time infallibly +comes when an able leader can successfully appeal to their saner +instincts: and that hour had now struck. Bonaparte's appeal was made +to the many, who cared not for politics, provided that they themselves +were left in security and comfort: it was urged quietly, persistently, +and with the reserve power of a mighty prestige and of overwhelming +military force. Throughout the whole of the Consulate, a policy of +moderation, which is too often taken for weakness, was strenuously +carried through by the strongest man and the greatest warrior of the +age. + +The truly national character of his rule was seen in many ways. He +excluded from high office men who were notorious regicides, excepting +a few who, like Fouche, were too clever to be dispensed with. The +constitutionals of 1791 and even declared royalists were welcomed back +to France, and many of the Fructidorian exiles also returned.[134] The +list of _emigres_ was closed, so that neither political hatred nor +private greed could misrepresent a journey as an act of political +emigration. Equally generous and prudent was the treatment of Roman +Catholics. Toleration was now extended to orthodox or non-juring +priests, who were required merely to _promise_ allegiance to the new +constitution. By this act of timely clemency, orthodox priests were +allowed to return to France, and they were even suffered to officiate +in places where no opposition was thereby aroused. + +While thus removing one of the chief grievances of the Norman, Breton +and Vendean peasants, who had risen as much for their religion as for +their king, he determined to crush their revolts. The north-west, and +indeed parts of the south of France, were still simmering with +rebellions and brigandage. In Normandy a daring and able leader named +Frotte headed a considerable band of malcontents, and still more +formidable were the Breton "Chouans" that followed the peasant leader +Georges Cadoudal. This man was a born leader. Though but thirty years +of age, his fierce courage had long marked him out as the first +fighter of his race and creed. His features bespoke a bold, hearty +spirit, and his massive frame defied fatigue and hardship. He +struggled on; and in the autumn of 1799 fortune seemed about to favour +the "whites": the revolt was spreading; and had a Bourbon prince +landed in Brittany before Bonaparte returned from Egypt, the royalists +might quite possibly have overthrown the Directory. But Bonaparte's +daring changed the whole aspect of affairs. The news of the stroke of +Brumaire gave the royalists pause. At first they believed that the +First Consul would soon call back the king, and Bonaparte skilfully +favoured this notion: he offered a pacification, of which some of the +harassed peasants availed themselves. Georges himself for a time +advised a reconciliation, and a meeting of the royalist leaders voted +to a man that they desired "to have the king and you" (Bonaparte). One +of them, Hyde de Neuville, had an interview with the First Consul at +Paris, and has left on record his surprise at seeing the slight form +of the man whose name was ringing through France. At the first glance +he took him for a rather poorly dressed lackey; but when the general +raised his eyes and searched him through and through with their eager +fire, the royalist saw his error and fell under the spell of a gaze +which few could endure unmoved. The interview brought no definite +result. + +Other overtures made by Bonaparte were more effective. True to his +plan of dividing his enemies, he appealed to the clergy to end the +civil strife. The appeal struck home to the heart or the ambitions of +a cleric named Bernier. This man was but a village priest of La +Vendee: yet his natural abilities gained him an ascendancy in the +councils of the insurgents, which the First Consul was now +victoriously to exploit. Whatever may have been Bernier's motives, he +certainly acted with some duplicity. Without forewarning Cadoudal, +Bourmont, Frotte, and other royalist leaders, he secretly persuaded +the less combative leaders to accept the First Consul's terms; and a +pacification was arranged (January 18th), In vain did Cadoudal rage +against this treachery: in vain did he strive to break the armistice. +Frotte in Normandy was the last to capitulate and the first to feel +Bonaparte's vengeance: on a trumped-up charge of treachery he was +hurried before a court-martial and shot. An order was sent from Paris +for his pardon; but a letter which Bonaparte wrote to Brune on the day +of the execution contains the ominous phrase: _By this time Frotte +ought to be shot_; and a recently published letter to Hedouville +expresses the belief that _the punishment of that desperate leader +will doubtless contribute to the complete pacification of the +West_.[135] + +In the hope of gaining over the Chouans, Bonaparte required their +chiefs to come to Paris, where they received the greatest +consideration. In Bernier the priest, Bonaparte discerned diplomatic +gifts of a high order, which were soon to be tested in a far more +important negotiation. The nobles, too, received flattering +attentions which touched their pride and assured their future +insignificance. Among them was Count Bourmont, the Judas of the +Waterloo campaign. + +In contrast with the priest and the nobles, Georges Cadoudal stood +firm as a rock. That suave tongue spoke to him of glory, honour, and +the fatherland: he heeded it not, for he knew it had ordered the death +of Frotte. There stood these fighters alone, face to face, types of +the north and south, of past and present, fiercest and toughest of +living men, their stern wills racked in wrestle for two hours. But +southern craft was foiled by Breton steadfastness, and Georges went +his way unshamed. Once outside the palace, his only words to his +friend, Hyde de Neuville, were: "What a mind I had to strangle him in +these arms!" Shadowed by Bonaparte's spies, and hearing that he was +to be arrested, he fled to England; and Normandy and Brittany enjoyed +the semblance of peace.[136] + +Thus ended the civil war which for nearly seven years had rent France +in twain. Whatever may be said about the details of Bonaparte's +action, few will deny its beneficent results on French life. Harsh and +remorseless as Nature herself towards individuals, he certainly, at +this part of his career, promoted the peace and prosperity of the +masses. And what more can be said on behalf of a ruler at the end of a +bloody revolution? + +Meanwhile the First Consul had continued to develop Sieyes' +constitution in the direction of autocracy. The Council of State, +which was little more than an enlarged Ministry, had been charged with +the vague and dangerous function of "developing the sense of laws" on +the demand of the Consuls; and it was soon seen that this Council was +merely a convenient screen to hide the operations of Bonaparte's will. +On the other hand, a blow was struck at the Tribunate, the only public +body which had the right of debate and criticism. It was now proposed +(January, 1800) that the time allowed for debate should be strictly +limited. This restriction to the right of free discussion met with +little opposition. One of the most gifted of the new tribunes, +Benjamin Constant, the friend of Madame de Stael, eloquently pleaded +against this policy of distrust which would reduce the Tribunate to a +silence that would be _heard by Europe_. It was in vain. The rabid +rhetoric of the past had infected France with a foolish fear of all +free debate. The Tribunate signed its own death warrant; and the sole +result of its feeble attempt at opposition was that Madame de Stael's +_salon_ was forthwith deserted by the Liberals who had there found +inspiration; while the gifted authoress herself was officially +requested to retire into the country. + +The next act of the central power struck at freedom of the press. As a +few journals ventured on witticisms at the expense of the new +Government, the Consuls ordered the suppression of all the political +journals of Paris except thirteen; and three even of these favoured +papers were suppressed on April 7th. The reason given for this +despotic action was the need of guiding public opinion wisely during +the war, and of preventing any articles "contrary to the respect due +to the social compact, to the sovereignty of the people, and to the +glory of the armies." By a finely ironical touch Rousseau's doctrine +of the popular sovereignty was thus invoked to sanction its violation. +The incident is characteristic of the whole tendency of events, which +showed that the dawn of personal rule was at hand. In fact, Bonaparte +had already taken the bold step of removing to the Tuileries, and that +too, on the very day when he ordered public mourning for the death of +Washington (February 7th). No one but the great Corsican would have +dared to brave the comments which this coincidence provoked. But he +was necessary to France, and all men knew it. At the first sitting of +the provisional Consuls, Ducos had said to him: "It is useless to vote +about the presidence; it belongs to you of right"; and, despite the +wry face pulled by Sieyes, the general at once took the chair. +Scarcely less remarkable than the lack of energy in statesmen was the +confusion of thought in the populace. Mme. Reinhard tells us that +after the _coup d'etat_ people _believed they had returned to the +first days of liberty_. What wonder, then, that the one able and +strong-willed man led the helpless many and re-moulded Sieyes' +constitution in a fashion that was thus happily parodied: + + "J'ai, pour les fous, d'un Tribunat + Conserve la figure; + Pour les sots je laisse un Senat, + Mais ce n'est qu'en peinture; + A ce stupide magistrat + Ma volonte preside; + Et tout le Conseil d'Etat + Dans mon sabre reside." + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +MARENGO: LUNEVILLE + + +Reserving for the next chapter a description of the new civil +institutions of France, it will be convenient now to turn to foreign +affairs. Having arranged the most urgent of domestic questions, the +First Consul was ready to encounter the forces of the Second +Coalition. He had already won golden opinions in France by +endeavouring peacefully to dissolve it. On the 25th of December, 1799, +he sent two courteous letters, one to George III., the other to the +Emperor Francis, proposing an immediate end to the war. The close of +the letter to George III. has been deservedly admired: "France and +England by the abuse of their strength may, for the misfortune of all +nations, be long in exhausting it: but I venture to declare that the +fate of all civilized nations is concerned in the termination of a war +which kindles a conflagration over the whole world." This noble +sentiment touched the imagination of France and of friends of peace +everywhere. + +And yet, if the circumstances of the time be considered, the first +agreeable impressions aroused by the perusal of this letter must be +clouded over by doubts. The First Consul had just seized on power by +illegal and forcible means, and there was as yet little to convince +foreign States that he would hold it longer than the men whom he had +displaced. Moreover, France was in a difficult position. Her treasury +was empty; her army in Italy was being edged into the narrow +coast-line near Genoa; and her oriental forces were shut up in their +new conquest. Were not the appeals to Austria and England merely a +skillful device to gain time? Did his past power in Italy and Egypt +warrant the belief that he would abandon the peninsula and the new +colony? Could the man who had bartered away Venetia and seized Malta +and Egypt be fitly looked upon as the sacred'r peacemaker? In +diplomacy men's words are interpreted by their past conduct and +present circumstances, neither of which tended to produce confidence +in Bonaparte's pacific overtures; and neither Francis nor George III. +looked on the present attempt as anything but a skilful means of +weakening the Coalition. + +Indeed, that league was, for various reasons, all but dissolved by +internal dissensions. Austria was resolved to keep all the eastern +part of Piedmont and the greater part of the Genoese Republic. While +welcoming the latter half of this demand, George III.'s Ministers +protested against the absorption of so great a part of Piedmont as an +act of cruel injustice to the King of Sardinia. Austria was annoyed at +the British remonstrances and was indignant at the designs of the Czar +on Corsica. Accordingly no time could have been better chosen by +Bonaparte for seeking to dissolve the Coalition, as he certainly hoped +to do by these two letters. Only the staunch support of legitimist +claims by England then prevented the Coalition from degenerating into +a scramble for Italian territories.[137] And, if we may trust the +verdict of contemporaries and his own confession at St. Helena, +Bonaparte never expected any other result from these letters than an +increase of his popularity in France. This was enhanced by the British +reply, which declared that His Majesty could not place his reliance on +"general professions of pacific dispositions": France had waged +aggressive war, levied exactions, and overthrown institutions in +neighbouring States; and the British Government could not as yet +discern any abandonment of this system: something more was required +for a durable peace: "The best and most natural pledge of its reality +and permanence would be the restoration of that line of princes which +for so many centuries maintained the French nation in prosperity at +home and in consideration and respect abroad." This answer has been +sharply criticised, and justly so, if its influence on public opinion +be alone considered. But a perusal of the British Foreign Office +Records reveals the reason for the use of these stiffly legitimist +claims. Legitimacy alone promised to stop the endless shiftings of the +political kaleidoscope, whether by France, Austria, or Russia. Our +ambassador at Vienna was requested to inform the Government of Vienna +of the exact wording of the British reply: + + "As a proof of the zeal and steadiness with which His Majesty + adheres to the principles of the Confederacy, and as a testimony of + the confidence with which he anticipates a similar answer from His + Imperial Majesty, to whom an overture of a similar nature has + without doubt been made." + +But this correct conduct, while admirably adapted to prop up the +tottering Coalition, was equally favourable to the consolidation of +Bonaparte's power. It helped to band together the French people to +resist the imposition of their exiled royal house by external force. +Even George III. thought it "much too strong," though he suggested no +alteration. At once Bonaparte retorted in a masterly note; he +ironically presumed that His Britannic Majesty admitted the right of +nations to choose their form of government, since only by that right +did he wear the British crown; and he invited him not to apply to +other peoples a principle which would recall the Stuarts to the throne +of Great Britain. + +Bonaparte's diplomatic game was completely won during the debates on +the King's speech at Westminster at the close of January, 1800. Lord +Grenville laboriously proved that peace was impossible with a nation +whose war was against all order, religion, and morality; and he cited +examples of French lawlessness from Holland and Switzerland to Malta +and Egypt. Pitt declared that the French Revolution was the severest +trial which Providence had ever yet inflicted on the nations of the +earth; and, claiming that there was no security in negotiating with +France, owing to her instability, he summed up his case in the +Ciceronian phrase: _Pacem nolo quia infida_. Ministers carried the day +by 260 votes to 64; but they ranged nearly the whole of France on the +side of the First Consul. No triumph in the field was worth more to +him than these Philippics, which seemed to challenge France to build +up a strong Government in order that the Court of St. James might find +some firm foundation for future negotiations. + +Far more dextrous was the conduct of the Austrian diplomatists. +Affecting to believe in the sincerity of the First Consul's proposal +for peace, they so worded their note as to draw from him a reply that +he was prepared to discuss terms of peace on the basis of the Treaty +of Campo Formio.[138] As Austria had since then conquered the greater +part of Italy, Bonaparte's reply immediately revealed his +determination to reassert French supremacy in Italy and the Rhineland. +The action of the Courts of Vienna and London was not unlike that of +the sun and the wind in the proverbial saw. Viennese suavity induced +Bonaparte to take off his coat and show himself as he really was: +while the conscientious bluster of Grenville and Pitt made the First +Consul button up his coat, and pose as the buffeted peacemaker. + +The allies had good grounds for confidence. Though Russia had +withdrawn from the Second Coalition yet the Austrians continued their +victorious advance in Italy. In April, 1800, they severed the French +forces near Savona, driving back Suchet's corps towards Nice, while +the other was gradually hemmed in behind the redoubts of Genoa. There +the Imperialist advance was stoutly stayed. Massena, ably seconded by +Oudinot and Soult, who now gained their first laurels as generals, +maintained a most obstinate resistance, defying alike the assaults of +the white-coats, the bombs hurled by the English squadron, and the +deadlier inroads of famine and sickness. The garrison dwindled by +degrees to less than 10,000 effectives, but they kept double the +number of Austrians there, while Bonaparte was about to strike a +terrible blow against their rear and that of Melas further west. It +was for this that the First Consul urged Massena to hold out at Genoa +to the last extremity, and nobly was the order obeyed. + +Suchet meanwhile defended the line of the River Var against Melas. In +Germany, Moreau with his larger forces slowly edged back the chief +Austrian army, that of General Kray, from the defiles of the Black +Forest, compelling it to fall back on the intrenched camp at Ulm. + +On their side, the Austrians strove to compel Massena to a speedy +surrender, and then with a large force to press on into Nice, +Provence, and possibly Savoy, surrounding Suchet's force, and rousing +the French royalists of the south to a general insurrection. They also +had the promise of the help of a British force, which was to be landed +at some point on the coast and take Suchet in the flank or rear.[139] +Such was the plan, daring in outline and promising great things, +provided that everything went well. If Massena surrendered, if the +British War Office and Admiralty worked up to time, if the winds were +favourable, and if the French royalists again ventured on a revolt, +then France would be crippled, perhaps conquered. As for the French +occupation of Switzerland and Moreau's advance into Swabia, that was +not to prevent the prosecution of the original Austrian plan of +advancing against Provence and wresting Nice and Savoy from the French +grasp. This scheme has been criticised as if it were based solely on +military considerations; but it was rather dictated by schemes of +political aggrandizement. The conquest of Nice and Savoy was necessary +to complete the ambitious schemes of the Hapsburgs, who sought to gain +a large part of Piedmont at the expense of the King of Sardinia, and +after conquering Savoy and Nice, to thrust that unfortunate king to +the utmost verge of the peninsula, which the prowess of his +descendants has ultimately united under the Italian tricolour. + +The allied plan sinned against one of the elementary rules of +strategy; it exposed a large force to a blow from the rear, namely, +from Switzerland. The importance of this immensely strong central +position early attracted Bonaparte's attention. On the 17th of March +he called his secretary, Bourrienne (so the latter states), and lay +down with him on a map of Piedmont: then, placing pins tipped, some +with red, others with black wax, so as to denote the positions of the +troops, he asked him to guess where the French would beat their foes: + + "How the devil should I know?" said Bourrienne. "Why, look here, + you fool," said the First Consul: "Melas is at Alessandria with his + headquarters. There he will remain until Genoa surrenders. He has + at Alessandria his magazines, his hospitals, his artillery, his + reserves. Crossing the Alps here (at the Great St. Bernard), I + shall fall upon Melas, cut off his communications with Austria, and + meet him here in the plains of the River Scrivia at San Giuliano." + +I quote this passage as showing how readily such stories of ready-made +plans gain credence, until they come to be tested by Napoleon's +correspondence. There we find no strategic soothsaying, but only a +close watching of events as they develop day by day. In March and +April he kept urging on Moreau the need of an early advance, while he +considered the advantages offered by the St. Gotthard, Simplon, and +Great St. Bernard passes for his own army. On April 27th he decided +against the first (except for a detachment), because Moreau's advance +was too slow to safeguard his rear on that route. He now preferred the +Great St. Bernard, but still doubted whether, after crossing, he +should make for Milan, or strike at Massena's besiegers, in case that +general should be very hard pressed. Like all great commanders, he +started with a general plan, but he arranged the details as the +situation required. In his letter of May 19th, he poured scorn on +Parisian editors who said he prophesied that in a month he would be at +Milan. "That is not in my character. Very often I do _not_ say what I +know: but never do I say what will be." + +The better to hide his purpose, he chose as his first base of +operations the city of Dijon, whence he seemed to threaten either the +Swabian or the Italian army of his foes. But this was not enough. At +the old Burgundian capital he assembled his staff and a few regiments +of conscripts in order to mislead the English and Austrian spies; +while the fighting battalions were drafted by diverse routes to Geneva +or Lausanne. So skilful were these preparations that, in the early +days of May, the greater part of his men and stores were near the lake +of Geneva, whence they were easily transferred to the upper valley of +the Rhone. In order that he might have a methodical, hard-working +coadjutor he sent Berthier from the office of the Ministry of War, +where he had displayed less ability than Bernadotte, to be +commander-in-chief of the "army of reserve." In reality Berthier was, +as before in Italy and Egypt, chief of the staff; but he had the +titular dignity of commander which the constitution of 1800 forbade +the First Consul to assume. + +On May 6th Bonaparte left Paris for Geneva, where he felt the pulse of +every movement in both campaigns. At that city, on hearing the report +of his general of engineers, he decided to take the Great St. Bernard +route into Italy, as against the Simplon. With redoubled energy, he +now supervised the thousands of details that were needed to insure +success: for, while prone to indulging in grandiose schemes, he +revelled in the work which alone could bring them within his grasp: +or, as Wellington once remarked, "Nothing was too great or too small +for his proboscis." The difficulties of sending a large army over the +Great St. Bernard were indeed immense. That pass was chosen because it +presented only five leagues of ground impracticable for carriages. But +those five leagues tested the utmost powers of the army and of its +chiefs. Marmont, who commanded the artillery, had devised the +ingenious plan of taking the cannon from their carriages and placing +them in the hollowed-out trunks of pine, so that the trunnions fitting +into large notches kept them steady during the ascent over the snow +and the still more difficult descent.[140] The labour of dragging the +guns wore out the peasants; then the troops were invited--a hundred at +a time--to take a turn at the ropes, and were exhilarated by martial +airs played by the bands, or by bugles and drums sounding the charge +at the worst places of the ascent. + +The track sometimes ran along narrow ledges where a false step meant +death, or where avalanches were to be feared. The elements, however, +were propitious, and the losses insignificant. This was due to many +causes: the ardour of the troops in an enterprise which appealed to +French imagination and roused all their activities; the friendliness +of the mountaineers; and the organizing powers of Bonaparte and of his +staff; all these may be cited as elements of success. They present a +striking contrast to the march of Hannibal's army over one of the +western passes of the Alps. His motley host struggled over a long +stretch of mountains in the short days of October over unknown paths, +in one part swept away by a fall of the cliff, and ever and anon beset +by clouds of treacherous Gauls. Seeing that the great Carthaginian's +difficulties began long before he reached the Alps, that he was +encumbered by elephants, and that his army was composed of diverse +races held together only by trust in the prowess of their chief, his +exploit was far more wonderful than that of Bonaparte, which, indeed, +more nearly resembles the crossing of the St. Bernard by Francis I. in +1515. The difference between the conditions of Hannibal's and +Bonaparte's enterprises may partly be measured by the time which they +occupied. Whereas Hannibal's march across the Alps lasted fifteen +days, three of which were spent in the miseries of a forced halt +amidst the snow, the First Consul's forces took but seven days. +Whereas the Carthaginian army was weakened by hunger, the French +carried their full rations of biscuit; and at the head of the pass the +monks of the Hospice of St. Bernard served out the rations of bread, +cheese, and wine which the First Consul had forwarded, and which their +own generosity now doubled. The hospitable fathers themselves served +at the tables set up in front of the Hospice. + +After insuring the regular succession of troops and stores, Bonaparte +himself began the ascent on May 20th. He wore the gray overcoat which +had already become famous; and his features were fixed in that +expression of calm self-possession which he ever maintained in face of +difficulty. The melodramatic attitudes of horse and rider, which David +has immortalized in his great painting, are, of course, merely +symbolical of the genius of militant democracy prancing over natural +obstacles and wafted onwards and upwards by the breath of victory. The +living figure was remarkable only for stern self-restraint and +suppressed excitement; instead of the prancing war-horse limned by +David, his beast of burden was a mule, led by a peasant; and, in place +of victory, he had heard that Lannes with the vanguard had found an +unexpected obstacle to his descent into Italy. The narrow valley of +the Dora Baltea, by which alone they could advance, was wellnigh +blocked by the fort of Bard, which was firmly held by a small Austrian +garrison and defied all the efforts of Lannes and Berthier. This was +the news that met the First Consul during his ascent, and again at the +Hospice. After accepting the hospitality of the monks, and spending a +short time in the library and chapel, he resumed his journey; and on +the southern slopes he and his staff now and again amused themselves +by sliding down the tracks which the passage of thousands of men had +rendered slippery. After halting at Aosta, he proceeded down the +valley to the fort of Bard. + +Meanwhile some of his foot-soldiers had worked their way round this +obstacle by a goat-track among the hills and had already reached Ivrea +lower down the valley. Still the fort held out against the cannonade +of the French. Its commanding position seemed to preclude all hope of +getting the artillery past it; and without artillery the First Consul +could not hope for success in the plains of Piedmont. Unable to +capture the fort, he bethought him of hurrying by night the now +remounted guns under the cover of the houses of the village. For this +purpose he caused the main street to be strewn with straw and dung, +while the wheels of the cannon were covered over so as to make little +noise. They were then dragged quietly through the village almost +within pistol shot of the garrison: nevertheless, the defenders took +alarm, and, firing with musketry and grenades, exploded some +ammunition wagons and inflicted other losses; yet 40 guns and 100 +wagons were got past the fort. + +How this unfailing resource contrasts with the heedless behaviour of +the enemy! Had they speedily reinforced their detachment at Bard, +there can be little doubt that Bonaparte's movements could have been +seriously hampered. But, up to May 21st, Melas was ignorant that his +distant rear was being assailed, and the 3,000 Austrians who guarded +the vale of the Dora Baltea were divided, part being at Bard and +others at Ivrea. The latter place was taken by a rush of Lannes' +troops on May 22nd, and Bard was blockaded by part of the French +rearguard. + +Bonaparte's army, if the rearguard be included, numbered 41,000 men. +Meanwhile, farther east, a French force of 15,000 men, drawn partly +from Moreau's army and led by Moncey, was crossing the St. Gotthard +pass and began to drive back the Austrian outposts in the upper valley +of the Ticino; and 5,000 men, marching over the Mont Cenis pass, +threatened Turin from the west. The First Consul's aim now was to +unite the two chief forces, seize the enemy's magazines, and compel +him to a complete surrender. This daring resolve took shape at Aosta +on the 24th, when he heard that Melas was, on the 19th, still at Nice, +unconscious of his doom. The chance of ending the war at one blow was +not to be missed, even if Massena had to shift for himself. + +But already Melas' dream of triumph had vanished. On the 21st, hearing +the astonishing news that a large force had crossed the St. Bernard, +he left 18,000 men to oppose Suchet on the Var, and hurried back with +the remainder to Turin. At the Piedmontese capital he heard that he +had to deal with the First Consul; but not until the last day of May +did he know that Moncey was forcing the St. Gotthard and threatening +Milan. Then, realizing the full extent of his danger, he hastily +called in all the available troops in order to fight his way through +to Mantua. He even sent an express to the besiegers of Genoa to retire +on Alessandria; but negotiations had been opened with Massena for the +surrender of that stronghold, and the opinion of Lord Keith, the +English admiral, decided the Austrian commander there to press the +siege to the very end. The city was in the direst straits. Horses, +dogs, cats, and rats were at last eagerly sought as food: and at +every sortie crowds of the starving inhabitants followed the French in +order to cut down grass, nettles, and leaves, which they then boiled +with salt.[141] A revolt threatened by the wretched townsfolk was +averted by Massena ordering his troops to fire on every gathering of +more than four men. At last, on June 4th, with 8,000 half-starved +soldiers he marched through the Austrian posts with the honours of +war. The stern warrior would not hear of the word surrender or +capitulation. He merely stated to the allied commanders that on June +4th his troops would evacuate Genoa or clear their path by the +bayonet. + +Bonaparte has been reproached for not marching at once to succour +Massena: the charge of desertion was brought by Massena and Thiebault, +and has been driven home by Lanfrey with his usual skill. It will, +however, scarcely bear a close examination. The Austrians, at the +first trustworthy news of the French inroads into Piedmont and +Lombardy, were certain to concentrate either at Turin or Alessandria. +Indeed, Melas was already near Turin, and would have fallen on the +First Consul's flank had the latter marched due south towards +Genoa.[142] Such a march, with only 40,000 men, would have been +perilous: and it could at most only have rescued a now reduced and +almost famishing garrison. Besides, he very naturally expected the +besiegers of Genoa to retreat now that their rear was threatened. + +Sound policy and a desire to deal a dramatic stroke spurred on the +First Consul to a more daring and effective plan; to clear Lombardy of +the Imperialists and seize their stores; then, after uniting with +Moncey's 15,000 troops, to cut off the retreat of all the Austrian +forces west of Milan. + +On entering Milan he was greeted with wild acclaim by the partisans of +France (June 2nd); they extolled the energy and foresight that brought +two armies, as it were down from the clouds, to confound their +oppressors. Numbers of men connected with the Cisalpine Republic had +been proscribed, banished, or imprisoned by the Austrians; and their +friends now hailed him as the restorer of their republic. The First +Consul spent seven days in selecting the men who were to rebuild the +Cisalpine State, in beating back the eastern forces of Austria beyond +the River Adda, and in organizing his troops and those of Moncey for +the final blow. The military problems, indeed, demanded great care and +judgment. His position was curiously the reverse of that which he had +occupied in 1796. Then the French held Tortona, Alessandria, and +Valenza, and sought to drive back the Austrians to the walls of +Mantua. Now the Imperialists, holding nearly the same positions, were +striving to break through the French lines which cut them off from +that city of refuge; and Bonaparte, having forces slightly inferior to +his opponents, felt the difficulty of frustrating their escape. + +Three routes were open to Melas. The most direct was by way of Tortona +and Piacenza along the southern bank of the Po, through the difficult +defile of Stradella: or he might retire towards Genoa, across the +Apennines, and regain Mantua by a dash across the Modenese: or he +might cross the Po at Valenza and the Ticino near Pavia. All these +roads had to be watched by the French as they cautiously drew towards +their quarry. Bonaparte's first move was to send Murat with a +considerable body of troops to seize Piacenza and to occupy the defile +of Stradella. These important posts were wrested from the Austrian +vanguard; and this success was crowned on June 9th by General Lannes' +brilliant victory at Montebello over a superior Austrian force +marching from Genoa towards Piacenza, which he drove back towards +Alessandria. Smaller bodies of French were meanwhile watching the +course of the Ticino, and others seized the magazines of the enemy at +Cremona. + +After gaining precious news as to Melas' movements from an intercepted +despatch, Bonaparte left Milan on June 9th, and proceeded to +Stradella. There he waited for news of Suchet and Massena from the +side of Savona and Ceva; for their forces, if united, might +complete the circle which he was drawing around the Imperialists.[143] +He hoped that Massena would have joined Suchet near Savona; but owing +to various circumstances, for which Massena was in no wise to blame, +their junction was delayed; and Suchet, though pressing on towards +Acqui, was unable to cut off the Austrian retreat on Genoa. Yet he so +harassed the corps opposed to him in its retreat from Nice that only +about 8,000 Austrians joined Melas from that quarter.[144] + +Doubtless, Melas' best course would still have been to make a dash for +Genoa and trust to the English ships. But this plan galled the pride +of the general, who had culled plenteous laurels in Italy until the +approach of Bonaparte threatened to snatch the whole chaplet from his +brow. He and his staff sought to restore their drooping fortunes by a +bold rush against the ring of foes that were closing around. Never has +an effort of this kind so nearly succeeded and yet so wholly failed. + +The First Consul, believing that the Austrians were bent solely on +flight, advanced from Stradella, where success would have been +certain, into the plains of Tortona, whence he could check any move of +theirs southwards on Genoa. But now the space which he occupied was so +great as to weaken his line at any one point; while his foes had the +advantage of the central position. + + +Bonaparte was also forced to those enveloping tactics which had so +often proved fatal to the Austrians four years previously; and this +curious reversal of his usual tactics may account for the anxiety +which he betrayed as he moved towards Marengo. He had, however, +recently been encouraged by the arrival of Desaix from Paris after his +return from Egypt. This dashing officer and noble man inspired him +with a sincere affection, as was seen by the three hours of eager +converse which he held with him on his arrival, as also by his words +to Bourrienne: "He is quite an antique character." Desaix with 5,300 +troops was now despatched on the night of June 13th towards Genoa to +stop the escape of the Austrians in that direction. This eccentric +move has been severely criticised: but the facts, as then known by +Bonaparte, seemed to show that Melas was about to march on Genoa. The +French vanguard under Gardane had in the afternoon easily driven the +enemy's front from the village of Marengo; and Gardane had even +reported that there was no bridge over the River Bormida by which the +enemy could debouch into the plain of Marengo. Marmont, pushing on +later in the evening, had discovered that there was at least one +well-defended bridge; and when early next morning Gardane's error was +known, the First Consul, with a blaze of passion against the offender, +sent a courier in hot haste to recall Desaix. Long before he could +arrive, the battle of Marengo had begun: and for the greater part of +that eventful day, June the 14th, the French had only 18000 men +wherewith to oppose the onset of 31,000 Austrians.[145] + +As will be seen by the accompanying map, the village of Marengo lies +in the plain that stretches eastwards from the banks of the River +Bormida towards the hilly country of Stradella. The village lies on +the high-road leading eastwards from the fortress of Alessandria, the +chief stronghold of north-western Italy. + +[Illustration: BATTLE OF MARENGO TO ILLUSTRATE KELLERMANN'S CHARGE] + +The plain is cut up by numerous obstacles. Through Marengo runs a +stream called the Fontanone. The deep curves of the Bormida, the steep +banks of the Fontanone, along with the villages, farmsteads, and +vineyards scattered over the plain, all helped to render an advance +exceedingly difficult in face of a determined enemy; and these natural +features had no small share in deciding the fortunes of the day. + +Shortly after dawn Melas began to pour his troops across the Bormida, +and drove in the French outposts on Marengo: but there they met with a +tough resistance from the soldiers of Victor's division, while +Kellermann, the son of the hero of Valmy, performed his first great +exploit by hurling back some venturesome Austrian horsemen into the +deep bed of the Fontanone. This gave time to Lannes to bring up his +division, 5,000 strong, into line between Marengo and Castel Ceriolo. +But when the full force of the Austrian attack was developed about 10 +a.m., the Imperialists not only gained Marengo, but threw a heavy +column, led by General Ott, against Lannes, who was constrained to +retire, contesting every inch of the ground. Thus, when, an hour +later, Bonaparte rode up from the distant rear, hurrying along his +Consular Guard, his eye fell upon his battalions overpowered in front +and outflanked on both wings. At once he launched his Consular Guard, +1,000 strong, against Ott's triumphant ranks. Drawn up in square near +Castel Ceriolo, it checked them for a brief space, until, plied by +cannon and charged by the enemy's horse, these chosen troops also +began to give ground. But at this crisis Monnier's division of 3,600 +men arrived, threw itself into the fight, held up the flood of +white-coats around the hamlet of Li Poggi, while Carra St. Cyr +fastened his grip on Castel Ceriolo. Under cover of this welcome +screen, Victor and Lannes restored some order to their divisions and +checked for a time the onsets of the enemy. Slowly but surely, +however, the impact of the Austrian main column, advancing along the +highroad, made them draw back on San Giuliano. + +By 2 p.m. the battle seemed to be lost for the French; except on the +north of their line they were in full retreat, and all but five of +their cannon were silenced. Melas, oppressed by his weight of years, +by the terrific heat, and by two slight wounds, retired to +Alessandria, leaving his chief of the staff, Zach, to direct the +pursuit. But, unfortunately, Melas had sent back 2,200 horsemen to +watch the district between Alessandria and Acqui, to which latter +place Suchet's force was advancing. To guard against this remoter +danger, he weakened his attacking force at the critical time and +place; and now, when the Austrians approached the hill of San Giuliano +with bands playing and colours flying, their horse was not strong +enough to complete the French defeat. Still, such was the strength of +their onset that all resistance seemed unavailing, until about 5 p.m. +the approach of Desaix breathed new life and hope into the defence. At +once he rode up to the First Consul; and if vague rumours may be +credited, he was met by the eager question: "Well, what do you think +of it?" To which he replied: "The battle is lost, but there is time to +gain another." Marmont, who heard the conversation, denies that these +words were uttered; and they presume a boldness of which even Desaix +would scarcely have been guilty to his chief. What he unquestionably +did urge was the immediate use of artillery to check the Austrian +advance: and Marmont, hastily reinforcing his own five guns with +thirteen others, took a strong position and riddled the serried ranks +of the enemy as, swathed in clouds of smoke and dust, they pressed +blindly forward. The First Consul disposed the troops of Desaix behind +the village and a neighbouring hill; while at a little distance on the +French left, Kellermann was ready to charge with his heavy cavalry as +opportunity offered. + +It came quickly. Marmont's guns unsteadied Zach's grenadiers: Desaix's +men plied them with musketry; and while they were preparing for a last +effort, Kellermann's heavy cavalry charged full on their flank. Never +was surprise more complete. The column was cut in twain by this onset; +and veterans, who but now seemed about to overbear all obstacles, were +lying mangled by grapeshot, hacked by sabres, flying helplessly amidst +the vineyards, or surrendering by hundreds. A panic spread to their +comrades; and they gave way on all sides before the fiercely rallying +French. The retreat became a rout as the recoiling columns neared the +bridges of the Bormida: and night closed over a scene of wild +confusion, as the defeated army, thrust out from the shelter of +Marengo, flung itself over the river into the stronghold of +Alessandria. + +Such was the victory of Marengo. It was dearly bought; for, apart from +the heavy losses, amounting on either side to about one-third of the +number engaged, the victors sustained an irreparable loss in the death +of Desaix, who fell in the moment when his skill and vigour snatched +victory from defeat. The victory was immediately due to Kellermann's +brilliant charge; and there can be no doubt, in spite of Savary's +statements, that this young officer made the charge on his own +initiative. Yet his onset could have had little effect, had not Desaix +shaken the enemy and left him liable to a panic like that which +brought disaster to the Imperialists at Rivoli. Bonaparte's +dispositions at the crisis were undoubtedly skilful; but in the first +part of the fight his conduct was below his reputation. We do not hear +of him electrifying his disordered troops by any deed comparable with +that of Caesar, when, shield in hand, he flung himself among the +legionaries to stem the torrent of the Nervii. At the climax of the +fight he uttered the words "Soldiers, remember it is my custom to +bivouac on the field of battle"--tame and egotistical words +considering the gravity of the crisis. + +On the evening of the great day, while paying an exaggerated +compliment to Bessieres and the cavalry of the Consular Guard, he +merely remarked to Kellermann: "You made a very good charge"; to which +that officer is said to have replied: "I am glad you are satisfied, +general: for it has placed the crown on your head." Such pettiness was +unworthy of the great captain who could design and carry through the +memorable campaign of Marengo. If the climax was not worthy of the +inception, yet the campaign as a whole must be pronounced a +masterpiece. Since the days of Hannibal no design so daring and +original had startled the world. A great Austrian army was stopped in +its victorious career, was compelled to turn on its shattered +communications, and to fight for its existence some 120 miles to the +rear of the territory which it seemed to have conquered. In fact, the +allied victories of the past year were effaced by this march of +Bonaparte's army, which, in less than a month after the ascent of the +Alps, regained Nice, Piedmont, and Lombardy, and reduced the +Imperialists to the direst straits. + +Staggered by this terrific blow, Melas and his staff were ready to +accept any terms that were not deeply humiliating; and Bonaparte on +his side was not loth to end the campaign in a blaze of glory. He +consented that the Imperial troops should retire to the east of the +Mincio, except at Peschiera and Mantua, which they were still to +occupy. These terms have been variously criticised: Melas has been +blamed for cowardice in surrendering the many strongholds, including +Genoa, which his men firmly held. Yet it must be remembered that he +now had at Alessandria less than 20,000 effectives, and that 30,000 +Austrians in isolated bodies were practically at the mercy of the +French between Savona and Brescia. One and all they could now retire +to the Mincio and there resume the defence of the Imperial +territories. The political designs of the Court of Vienna on Piedmont +were of course shattered; but it now recovered the army which it had +heedlessly sacrificed to territorial greed. Bonaparte has also been +blamed for the lenience of his terms. Severer conditions could +doubtless have been extorted; but he now merged the soldier in the +statesman. He desired peace for the sake of France and for his own +sake. After this brilliant stroke peace would be doubly grateful to a +people that longed for glory but also yearned to heal the wounds of +eight years' warfare. His own position as First Consul was as yet +ill-established; and he desired to be back at Paris so as to curb the +restive Tribunate, overawe Jacobins and royalists, and rebuild the +institutions of France. + +Impelled by these motives, he penned to the Emperor Francis an +eloquent appeal for peace, renewing his offer of treating with Austria +on the basis of the treaty of Campo Formio.[146] But Austria was not +as yet so far humbled as to accept such terms; and it needed the +master-stroke of Moreau at the great battle of Hohenlinden (December +2nd, 1800), and the turning of her fortresses on the Mincio by the +brilliant passage of the Spluegen in the depths of winter by +Macdonald--a feat far transcending that of Bonaparte at the St. +Bernard--to compel her to a peace. A description of these events would +be beyond the scope of this work; and we now return to consider the +career of Bonaparte as a statesman. + +After a brief stay at Milan and Turin, where he was received as the +liberator of Italy, the First Consul crossed the Alps by the Mont +Cenis pass and was received with rapturous acclaim at Lyons and Paris. +He had been absent from the capital less than two calendar months. + +He now sent a letter to the Czar Paul, offering that, if the French +garrison of Malta were compelled by famine to evacuate that island, he +would place it in the hands of the Czar, as Grand Master of the +Knights of St. John. Rarely has a "Greek gift" been more skilfully +tendered. In the first place, Valetta was so closely blockaded by +Nelson's cruisers and invested by the native Maltese that its +surrender might be expected in a few weeks; and the First Consul was +well aware how anxiously the Czar had been seeking to gain a foothold +at Malta, whence he could menace Turkey from the south-east. In his +wish completely to gain over Russia, Bonaparte also sent back, +well-clad and well-armed, the prisoners taken from the Russian armies +in 1799, a step which was doubly appreciated at Petersburg because the +Russian troops which had campaigned with the Duke of York in Holland +were somewhat shabbily treated by the British Government in the +Channel Islands, where they took up their winter quarters. Accordingly +the Czar now sent Kalicheff to Paris, for the formation of a +Franco-Russian alliance. He was warmly received. Bonaparte promised in +general terms to restore the King of Sardinia to his former realm and +the Pope to his States. On his side, the Czar sent the alluring advice +to Bonaparte to found a dynasty and thereby put an end to the +revolutionary principles which had armed Europe against France. He +also offered to recognize the natural frontiers of France, the Rhine +and the Maritime Alps, and claimed that German affairs should be +regulated under his own mediation. When both parties were so +complaisant, a bargain was easily arranged. France and Russia +accordingly joined hands in order to secure predominance in the +affairs of Central and Southern Europe, and to counterbalance +England's supremacy at sea. + +For it was not enough to break up the Second Coalition and recover +Northern Italy. Bonaparte's policy was more than European; it was +oceanic. England must be beaten on her own element: then and then only +could the young warrior secure his grasp on Egypt and return to his +oriental schemes. His correspondence before and after the Marengo +campaign reveals his eagerness for a peace with Austria and an +alliance with Russia. His thoughts constantly turn to Egypt. He +bargains with Britain that his army there may be revictualled, and so +words his claim that troops can easily be sent also. Lord Grenville +refuses (September 10th); whereupon Bonaparte throws himself eagerly +into further plans for the destruction of the islanders. He seeks to +inflame the Czar's wrath against the English maritime code. His +success for the time is complete. At the close of 1800 the Russian +Emperor marshals the Baltic Powers for the overthrow of England's +navy, and outstrips Bonaparte's wildest hopes by proposing a +Franco-Russian invasion of India with a view to "dealing his enemy a +mortal blow." This plan, as drawn up at the close of 1800, arranged +for the mustering of 35,000 Russians at Astrakan; while as many French +were to fight their way to the mouth of the Danube, set sail on +Russian ships for the Sea of Azov, join their allies on the Caspian +Sea, sail to its southern extremity, and, rousing the Persians and +Afghans by the hope of plunder, sweep the British from India. The +scheme received from Bonaparte a courteous perusal; but he subjected +it to several criticisms, which led to less patient rejoinders from +the irascible potentate. Nevertheless, Paul began to march his troops +towards the lower Volga, and several polks of Cossacks had crossed +that river on the ice, when the news of his assassination cut short +the scheme.[147] + +The grandiose schemes of Paul vanished with their fantastic contriver; +but the _rapprochement_ of Russia to revolutionary France was +ultimately to prove an event of far-reaching importance; for the +eastern power thereby began to exert on the democracy of western +Europe that subtle, semi-Asiatic influence which has so powerfully +warped its original character. + +The dawn of the nineteenth century witnessed some startling +rearrangements on the political chess-board. + + +While Bonaparte brought Russia and France to sudden amity, the +unbending maritime policy of Great Britain leagued the Baltic Powers +against the mistress of the seas. In the autumn of 1800 the Czar Paul, +after hearing of our capture of Malta, forthwith revived the Armed +Neutrality League of 1780 and opposed the forces of Russia, Prussia, +Sweden, and Denmark to the might of England's navy. But Nelson's +brilliant success at Copenhagen and the murder of the Czar by a palace +conspiracy shattered this league only four months after its formation, +and the new Czar, Alexander, reverted for a time to friendship with +England.[148] This sudden ending to the first Franco-Russia alliance +so enraged Bonaparte that he caused a paragraph to be inserted in the +official "Moniteur," charging the British Government with procuring +the assassination of Paul, an insinuation that only proclaimed his +rage at this sudden rebuff to his hitherto successful diplomacy. +Though foiled for a time, he never lost sight of the hoped-for +alliance, which, with a deft commixture of force and persuasion, he +gained seven years later after the crushing blow of Friedland. + +Dread of a Franco-Russian alliance undoubtedly helped to compel +Austria to a peace. Humbled by Moreau at the great battle of +Hohenlinden, the Emperor Francis opened negotiations at Luneville in +Lorraine. The subtle obstinacy of Cobenzl there found its match in the +firm yet suave diplomacy of Joseph Bonaparte, who wearied out Cobenzl +himself, until the march of Moreau towards Vienna compelled Francis to +accept the River Adige as his boundary in Italy. The other terms of +the treaty (February 9th, 1801) were practically the same as those of +the treaty of Campo Formio, save that the Hapsburg Grand Duke of +Tuscany was compelled to surrender his State to a son of the Bourbon +Duke of Parma. He himself was to receive "compensation" in Germany, +where also the unfortunate Duke of Modena was to find consolation in +the district of the Breisgau on the Upper Rhine. The helplessness of +the old Holy Roman Empire was, indeed, glaringly displayed; for +Francis now admitted the right of the French to interfere in the +rearrangement of that medley of States. He also recognized the +Cisalpine, Ligurian, Helvetic, and Batavian Republics, as at present +constituted; but their independence, and the liberty of their peoples +to choose what form of government they thought fit, were expressly +stipulated. + +The Court of Naples also made peace with France by the treaty of +Florence (March, 1801), whereby it withdrew its troops from the States +of the Church, and closed its ports to British and Turkish ships; it +also renounced in favour of the French Republic all its claims over a +maritime district of Tuscany known as the Presidii, the little +principality of Piombino, and a port in the Isle of Elba. These +cessions fitted in well with Napoleon's schemes for the proposed +elevation of the heir of the Duchy of Parma to the rank of King of +Tuscany or Etruria. The King of Naples also pledged himself to admit +and support a French corps in his dominions. Soult with 10,000 troops +thereupon occupied Otranto, Taranto, and Brindisi, in order to hold +the Neapolitan Government to its engagements, and to facilitate French +intercourse with Egypt. + +In his relations with the New World Bonaparte had also prospered. +Certain disputes between France and the United States had led to +hostilities in the year 1798. Negotiations for peace were opened in +March, 1800, and led to the treaty of Morfontaine, which enabled +Bonaparte to press on the Court of Madrid the scheme of the +Parma-Louisiana exchange, that promised him a magnificent empire on +the banks of the Mississippi. + +These and other grandiose designs were confided only to Talleyrand and +other intimate counsellors. But, even to the mass of mankind, the +transformation scene ushered in by the nineteenth century was one of +bewildering brilliance. Italy from the Alps to her heel controlled by +the French; Austria compelled to forego all her Italian plans; +Switzerland and Holland dominated by the First Consul's influence; +Spain following submissively his imperious lead; England, despite all +her naval triumphs, helpless on land; and France rapidly regaining +more than all her old prestige and stability under the new +institutions which form the most enduring tribute to the First +Consul's glory. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +THE NEW INSTITUTIONS OF FRANCE + + +"We have done with the romance of the Revolution: we must now commence +its history. We must have eyes only for what is real and practicable +in the application of principles, and not for the speculative and +hypothetical." Such were the memorable words of Bonaparte to his +Council of State at one of its early meetings. They strike the keynote +of the era of the Consulate. It was a period of intensely practical +activity that absorbed all the energies of France and caused the +earlier events of the Revolution to fade away into a seemingly remote +past. The failures of the civilian rulers and the military triumphs of +Bonaparte had exerted a curious influence on the French character, +which was in a mood of expectant receptivity. In 1800 everything was +in the transitional state that favours the efforts of a master +builder; and one was now at hand whose constructive ability in civil +affairs equalled his transcendent genius for war. + +I propose here briefly to review the most important works of +reconstruction which render the Consulate and the early part of the +Empire for ever famous. So vast and complex were Bonaparte's efforts +in this field that they will be described, not chronologically, but +subject by subject. The reader will, however, remember that for the +most part they went on side by side, even amidst the distractions +caused by war, diplomacy, colonial enterprises, and the myriad details +of a vast administration. What here appears as a series of canals was +in reality a mighty river of enterprise rolling in undivided volume +and fed by the superhuman vitality of the First Consul. It was his +inexhaustible curiosity which compelled functionaries to reveal the +secrets of their office: it was his intelligence that seized on the +salient points of every problem and saw the solution: it was his +ardour and mental tenacity which kept his Ministers and committees +hard at work, and by toil of sometimes twenty hours a day supervised +the results: it was, in fine, his passion for thoroughness, his +ambition for France, that nerved every official with something of his +own contempt of difficulties, until, as one of them said, "the +gigantic entered into our very habits of thought."[149] + +The first question of political reconstruction which urgently claimed +attention was that of local government. On the very day when it was +certain that the nation had accepted the new constitution, the First +Consul presented to the Legislature a draft of a law for regulating +the affairs of the Departments. It must be admitted that local +self-government, as instituted by the men of 1789 in their +Departmental System, had proved a failure. In that time of buoyant +hope, when every difficulty and abuse seemed about to be charmed away +by the magic of universal suffrage, local self-government of a most +advanced type had been intrusted to an inexperienced populace. There +were elections for the commune or parish, elections for the canton, +elections for the district, elections for the Department, and +elections for the National Assembly, until the rustic brain, after +reeling with excitement, speedily fell back into muddled apathy and +left affairs generally to the wire-pullers of the nearest Jacobin +club. A time of great confusion ensued. Law went according to local +opinion, and the national taxes were often left unpaid. In the Reign +of Terror this lax system was replaced by the despotism of the secret +committees, and the way was thus paved for a return to organized +central control, such as was exercised by the Directory. + +The First Consul, as successor to the Directory, therefore found +matters ready to his hand for a drastic measure of centralization, and +it is curious to notice that the men of 1789 had unwittingly cleared +the ground for him. To make way for the "supremacy of the general +will," they abolished the _Parlements_, which had maintained the old +laws, customs, and privileges of their several provinces, and had +frequently interfered in purely political matters. The abolition of +these and other privileged corporations in 1789 unified France and +left not a single barrier to withstand either the flood of democracy +or the backwash of reaction. Everything therefore favoured the action +of the First Consul in drawing all local powers under his own control. +France was for the moment weary of elective bodies, that did little +except waste the nation's taxes; and though there was some opposition +to the new proposal, it passed on February 16th, 1800 (28 Pluviose, +an, viii). + +It substituted local government by the central power for local +self-government. The local divisions remained the same, except that +the "districts," abolished by the Convention, were now reconstituted +on a somewhat larger scale, and were termed _arrondissements_, while +the smaller communes, which had been merged in the cantons since 1795, +were also revived. It is noteworthy that, of all the areas mapped out +by the Constituent Assembly in 1789-90, only the Department and canton +have had a continuous existence--a fact which seems to show the peril +of tampering with well-established boundaries, and of carving out a +large number of artificial districts, which speedily become the +_corpus vile_ of other experimenters. Indeed, so little was there of +effective self-government that France seems to have sighed with relief +when order was imposed by Bonaparte in the person of a Prefect. This +important official, a miniature First Consul, was to administer the +affairs of the Department, while sub-prefects were similarly placed +over the new _arrondissements_, and mayors over the communes. The +mayors were appointed by the First Consul in communes of more than +5,000 souls: by the prefects in the smaller communes: all were alike +responsible to the central power. + +The rebound from the former electoral system, which placed all local +authority ultimately in the hands of the voters, was emphasized by +Article 75 of the constitution, which virtually raised officials +beyond reach of prosecution. It ran thus: "The agents of the +Government, other than the Ministers, cannot be prosecuted for facts +relating to their duties except by a decision of the Council of State: +in that case the prosecution takes place before the ordinary +tribunals." Now, as this decision rested with a body composed almost +entirely of the higher officials, it will be seen that the chance of +a public prosecution of an official became extremely small. France was +therefore in the first months of 1800 handed over to a hierarchy of +officials closely bound together by interest and _esprit de corps_; +and local administration, after ten years of democratic experiments, +practically reverted to what it had been under the old monarchy. In +fact, the powers of the Prefects were, on the whole, much greater than +those of the royal Intendants: for while the latter were hampered by +the provincial _Parlements_, the nominees of the First Consul had to +deal with councils that retained scarce the shadow of power. The real +authority in local matters rested with the Prefects. The old elective +bodies survived, it is true, but their functions were now mainly +advisory; and, lest their advice should be too copious, the sessions +of the first two bodies were limited to a fortnight a year. Except for +a share in the assessment of taxation, their existence was merely a +screen to hide the reality of the new central despotism.[150] +Beneficent it may have been; and the choice of Prefects was certainly +a proof of Bonaparte's discernment of real merit among men of all +shades of opinion; but for all that, it was a despotism, and one that +has inextricably entwined itself with the whole life of France.[151] + +It seems strange that this law should not have aroused fierce +opposition; for it practically gagged democracy in its most +appropriate and successful sphere of action, local self-government, +and made popular election a mere shadow, except in the single act of +the choice of the local _juges de paix_. This was foreseen by the +Liberals in the Tribunate: but their power was small since the +regulations passed in January: and though Daunou, as "reporter," +sharply criticised this measure, yet he lamely concluded with the +advice that it would be dangerous to reject it. The Tribunes therefore +passed the proposal by 71 votes to 25: and the Corps Legislatif by 217 +to 68. + +The results of this new local government have often been considered so +favourable as to prove that the genius of the French people requires +central control rather than self-government. But it should be noted +that the conditions of France from 1790 to 1800 were altogether +hostile to the development of free institutions. The fierce feuds at +home, the greed and the class jealousies awakened by confiscation, the +blasts of war and the blight of bankruptcy, would have severely tested +the firmest of local institutions; they were certain to wither so +delicate an organism as an absolute democracy, which requires peace, +prosperity, and infinite patience for its development. Because France +then came to despair of her local self-government, it did not follow +that she would fail after Bonaparte's return had restored her prestige +and prosperity. But the national _elan_ forbade any postponement or +compromise; and France forthwith accepted the rule of an able official +hierarchy as a welcome alternative to the haphazard acts of local +busybodies. By many able men the change has been hailed as a proof of +Bonaparte's marvellous discernment of the national character, which, +as they aver, longs for brilliance, order, and strong government, +rather than for the steep and thorny paths of liberty. Certainly there +is much in the modern history of France which supports this opinion. +Yet perhaps these characteristics are due very largely to the master +craftsman, who fashioned France anew when in a state of receptivity, +and thus was able to subject democracy to that force which alone has +been able to tame it--the mighty force of militarism. + + * * * * * + +The return to a monarchical policy was nowhere more evident than in +the very important negotiations which regulated the relations of +Church and State and produced the _Concordat_ or treaty of peace with +the Roman Catholic Church. But we must first look back at the events +which had reduced the Roman Catholic Church in France to its pitiable +condition. + +The conduct of the revolutionists towards the Church of France was +actuated partly by the urgent needs of the national exchequer, partly +by hatred and fear of so powerful a religious corporation. Idealists +of the new school of thought, and practical men who dreaded +bankruptcy, accordingly joined in the assault on its property and +privileges: its tithes were confiscated, the religious houses and +their property were likewise absorbed, and its lands were declared to +be the lands of the nation. A budget of public worship was, it is +true, designed to support the bishops and priests; but this solemn +obligation was soon renounced by the fiercer revolutionists. Yet +robbery was not their worst offence. In July, 1790, they passed a law +called the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, which aimed at subjecting +the Church to the State. It compelled bishops and priests to seek +election by the adult males of their several Departments and parishes, +and forced them to take a stringent oath of obedience to the new order +of things. All the bishops but four refused to take an oath which set +at naught the authority of the Pope: more than 50,000 priests likewise +refused, and were ejected from their livings: the recusants were +termed _orthodox_ or _non-juring_ priests, and by the law of August, +1792, they were exiled from France, while their more pliable or +time-serving brethren who accepted the new decree were known as +_constitutionals_. About 12,000 of the constitutionals married, while +some of them applauded the extreme Jacobinical measures of the Terror. +One of them shocked the faithful by celebrating the mysteries, having +a _bonnet rouge_ on his head, holding a pike in his hand, while his +wife was installed near the altar.[152] Outrages like these were rare: +but they served to discredit the constitutional Church and to throw up +in sharper relief the courage with which the orthodox clergy met exile +and death for conscience' sake. Moreover, the time-serving of the +constitutionals was to avail them little: during the Terror their +stipends were unpaid, and the churches were for the most part closed. +After a partial respite in 1795-6, the _coup d'etat_ of Fructidor +(1797) again ushered in two years of petty persecutions; but in the +early summer of 1799 constitutionals were once more allowed to observe +the Christian Sunday, and at the time of Bonaparte's return from +Egypt their services were more frequented than those of the +Theophilanthropists on the _decadis_. It was evident, then, that the +anti-religious _furor_ had burnt itself out, and that France was +turning back to her old faith. Indeed, outside Paris and a few other +large towns, public opinion mocked at the new cults, and in the +country districts the peasantry clung with deep affection to their old +orthodox priests, often following them into the forests to receive +their services and forsaking those of their supplanters. + +Such, then, was the religious state of France in 1799: her clergy were +rent by a formidable schism; the orthodox priests clung where possible +to their parishioners, or lived in destitution abroad; the +constitutional priests, though still frowned on by the Directory, were +gaining ground at the expense of the Theophilanthropists, whose +expiring efforts excited ridicule. In fine, a nation weary of +religious experiments and groping about for some firm anchorage in the +midst of the turbid ebb-tide and its numerous backwaters.[153] + +Despite the absence of any deep religious belief, Bonaparte felt the +need of religion as the bulwark of morality and the cement of society. +During his youth he had experienced the strength of Romanism in +Corsica, and during his campaigns in Italy he saw with admiration the +zeal of the French orthodox priests who had accepted exile and poverty +for conscience' sake. To these outcasts he extended more protection +than was deemed compatible with correct republicanism; and he received +their grateful thanks. After Brumaire he suppressed the oath +previously exacted from the clergy, and replaced it by a _promise_ of +fidelity to the constitution. Many reasons have been assigned for this +conduct, but doubtless his imagination was touched by the sight of the +majestic hierarchy of Rome, whose spiritual powers still prevailed, +even amidst the ruin of its temporal authority, and were slowly but +surely winning back the ground lost in the Revolution. An influence so +impalpable yet irresistible, that inherited from the Rome of the +Caesars the gift of organization and the power of maintaining +discipline, in which the Revolution was so signally lacking, might +well be the ally of the man who now dominated the Latin peoples. The +pupil of Caesar could certainly not neglect the aid of the spiritual +hierarchy, which was all that remained of the old Roman grandeur. + + + + +Added to this was his keen instinct for reality, which led him to +scorn such whipped-up creeds as Robespierre's Supreme Being and that +amazing hybrid, Theophilanthropy, offspring of the Goddess of Reason +and La Reveilliere-Lepeaux. Having watched their manufacture, rise and +fall, he felt the more regard for the faith of his youth, which +satisfied one of the most imperious needs of his nature, a craving for +certainty. Witness this crushing retort to M. Mathieu: "What is your +Theophilanthropy? Oh, don't talk to me of a religion which only takes +me for this life, without telling me whence I come or whither I go." +Of course, this does not prove the reality of Napoleon's religion; but +it shows that he was not devoid of the religious instinct. + +The victory of Marengo enabled Bonaparte to proceed with his plans for +an accommodation with the Vatican; and he informed one of the Lombard +bishops that he desired to open friendly relations with Pope Pius +VII., who was then about to make his entry into Rome. There he +received the protection of the First Consul, and soon recovered his +sovereignty over his States, excepting the Legations. + +The negotiations between Paris and the Vatican were transacted chiefly +by a very able priest, Bernier by name, who had gained the First +Consul's confidence during the pacification of Brittany, and now urged +on the envoys of Rome the need of deferring to all that was reasonable +in the French demands. The negotiators for the Vatican were Cardinals +Consalvi and Caprara, and Monseigneur Spina--able ecclesiastics, who +were fitted to maintain clerical claims with that mixture of +suppleness and firmness which had so often baffled the force and craft +of mighty potentates. The first difficulty arose on the question of +the resignation of bishops of the Gallican Church: Bonaparte demanded +that, whether orthodox or constitutionals, they must resign their sees +into the Pope's hands; failing that, they must be deposed by the papal +authority. Sweeping as this proposal seemed, Bonaparte claimed that +bishops of both sides must resign, in order that a satisfactory +selection might be made. Still more imperious was the need that the +Church should renounce all claim to her confiscated domains. All +classes of the community, so urged Bonaparte, had made immense +sacrifices during the Revolution; and now that peasants were settled +on these once clerical lands, the foundations of society would be +broken up by any attempt to dispossess them. + +To both of these proposals the Court of Rome offered a tenacious +resistance. The idea of compelling long-persecuted bishops to resign +their sees was no less distasteful than the latter proposal, which +involved acquiescence in sacrilegious robbery. At least, pleaded Mgr. +Spina, let tithes be re-established. To this request the First Consul +deigned no reply. None, indeed, was possible except a curt refusal. +Few imposts had been so detested as the tithe; and its reimposition +would have wounded the peasant class, on which the First Consul based +his authority. So long as he had their support he could treat with +disdain the scoffs of the philosophers and even the opposition of his +officers; but to have wavered on the subject of tithe and of the +Church lands might have been fatal even to the victor of Marengo.[154] + +In fact, the difficulty of effecting any compromise was enormous. In +seeking to reconcile the France of Rousseau and Robespierre to the +unchanging policy of the Vatican, the "heir to the Revolution" was +essaying a harder task than any military enterprise. To slay men has +ever been easier than to mould their thoughts anew; and Bonaparte was +now striving not only to remould French thought but also to fashion +anew the ideas of the Eternal City. He soon perceived that this latter +enterprise was more difficult than the former. The Pope and his +councillors rejoiced at the signs of his repentance, but required to +see the fruits thereof. Instead of first-fruits they received +unheard-of demands--the surrender of the three Legations of Bologna, +Ferrara, and Romagna, the renunciation of all tithes and Church lands +in France, and the acceptance of a compromise with schismatics. What +wonder that the replies from Rome were couched in the _non possumus_ +terms which form the last refuge of the Vatican. Finding that +negotiations made no progress, Bonaparte intrusted Berthier and Murat +to pay a visit to Rome and exercise a discreet but burdensome pressure +in the form of requisitions for the French troops in the Papal States. + +The ratification of peace with Austria gave greater weight to his +representations at Rome, and he endeavoured to press on the signature +of the Concordat, so as to startle the world by the simultaneous +announcement of the pacification of the Continent and of the healing +of the great religious schism in France. But the clerical machinery +worked too slowly to admit of this projected _coup de theatre_. In +Bonaparte's proposals of February 25th, 1801, there were several +demands already found to be inadmissible at the Vatican;[155] and +matters came to a deadlock until the Pope invested Spina with larger +powers for negotiating at Paris. Consalvi also proceeded to Paris, +where he was received in state with other ambassadors at the +Tuileries, the sight of a cardinal's robe causing no little sensation. +The First Consul granted him a long interview, speaking at first +somewhat seriously, but gradually becoming more affable and gracious. +Yet as his behaviour softened his demands stiffened; and at the close +of the audience he pressed Consalvi to sign a somewhat unfavourable +version of the compact within five days, otherwise the negotiations +would be at an end and a _national religion would be adopted_--an +enterprise for which the auguries promised complete success. At a +later interview he expressed the same resolution in homely phrase: +when Consalvi pressed him to take a firm stand against the +"constitutional" intruders, he laughingly remarked that he could do no +more until he knew how he stood with Rome; for "you know that when +one cannot arrange matters with God, one comes to terms with the +devil."[156] + +This dalliance with the "constitutionals" might have been more than an +astute ruse, and Consalvi knew it. In framing a national Church the +First Consul would have appealed not only to the old Gallican feeling, +still strong among the clerics and laity, but also to the potent force +of French nationality. The experiment might have been managed so as to +offend none but the strictest Catholics, who were less to be feared +than the free-thinkers. Consalvi was not far wrong when, writing of +the official world at Paris, he said that only Bonaparte really +desired a Concordat. + +The First Consul's motives in seeking the alliance of Rome have, very +naturally, been subjected to searching criticism; and in forcing the +Concordat on France, and also on Rome, he was certainly undertaking +the most difficult negotiation of his life.[157] But his preference +for the Roman connection was an act of far-reaching statecraft. He saw +that a national Church, unrecognized by Rome, was a mere half-way +house between Romanism and Protestantism; and he disliked the latter +creed because of its tendency to beget sects and to impair the +validity of the general will. He still retained enough of Rousseau's +doctrine to desire that the general will should be uniform, provided +that it could be controlled by his own will. Such uniformity in the +sphere of religion was impossible unless he had the support of the +Papacy. Only by a bargain with Rome could he gain the support of a +solid ecclesiastical phalanx. Finally, by erecting a French national +Church, he would not only have perpetuated schism at home, but would +have disqualified himself for acting the part of Charlemagne over +central and southern Europe. To re-fashion Europe in a cosmopolitan +mould he needed a clerical police that was more than merely French. To +achieve those grander designs the successor of Caesar would need the +aid of the successor of Peter; and this aid would be granted only to +the restorer of Roman Catholicism in France, never to the perpetuator +of schism. + +These would seem to be the chief reasons why he braved public opinion +in Paris and clung to the Roman connection, bringing forward his plan +of a Gallican Church only as a threatening move against the clerical +flank. When the Vatican was obdurate he coquetted with the +"constitutional" bishops, allowing them every facility for free speech +in a council which they held at Paris at the close of June, 1801. He +summoned to the Tuileries their president, the famous Gregoire, and +showed him signal marks of esteem. "Put not your trust in princes" +must soon have been the thought of Gregoire and his colleagues: for a +fortnight later Bonaparte carried through his treaty with Rome and +shelved alike the congress and the church of the "constitutionals." + +It would be tedious to detail all the steps in this complex +negotiation, but the final proceedings call for some notice. When the +treaty was assuming its final form, Talleyrand, the polite scoffer, +the bitter foe of all clerical claims, found it desirable to take the +baths at a distant place, and left the threads of the negotiation in +the hands of two men who were equally determined to prevent its +signature, Maret, Secretary of State, and Hauterive, who afterwards +become the official archivist of France. These men determined to +submit to Consalvi a draft of the treaty differing widely from that +which had been agreed upon; and that, too, when the official +announcement had been made that the treaty was to be signed +immediately. In the last hours the cardinal found himself confronted +with unexpected conditions, many of which he had successfully +repelled. Though staggered by this trickery, which compelled him to +sign a surrender or to accept an open rupture, Consalvi fought the +question over again in a conference that lasted twenty-four hours; he +even appeared at the State dinner given on July 14th by the First +Consul, who informed him before the other guests that it was a +question of "my draft of the treaty or none at all." Nothing baffled +the patience and tenacity of the Cardinal; and finally, by the good +offices of Joseph Bonaparte, the objectionable demands thrust forward +at the eleventh hour were removed or altered. + +The question has been discussed whether the First Consul was a party +to this device. Theiner asserts that he knew nothing of it: that it +was an official intrigue got up at the last moment by the +anti-clericals so as to precipitate a rupture. In support of this +view, he cites letters of Maret and Hauterive as inculpating these men +and tending to free Bonaparte from suspicion of complicity. But the +letters cannot be said to dissipate all suspicion. The First Consul +had made this negotiation peculiarly his own: no officials assuredly +would have dared secretly to foist their own version of an important +treaty; or, if they did, this act would have been the last of their +career. But Bonaparte did not disgrace them; on the contrary, he +continued to honour them with his confidence. Moreover, the First +Consul flew into a passion with his brother Joseph when he reported +that Consalvi could not sign the document now offered to him, and tore +in pieces the articles finally arranged with the Cardinal. On the +return of his usually calm intelligence, he at last allowed the +concessions to stand, with the exception of two; but in a scrutiny of +motives we must assign most importance, not to second and more prudent +thoughts, but to the first ebullition of feelings, which seem +unmistakably to prove his knowledge and approval of Hauterive's +device. We must therefore conclude that he allowed the antagonists of +the Concordat to make this treacherous onset, with the intention of +extorting every possible demand from the dazed and bewildered +Cardinal.[158] + + + +After further delays the Concordat was ratified at Eastertide, 1802. +It may be briefly described as follows: The French Government +recognized that the Catholic apostolic and Roman religion was the +religion of the great majority of the French people, "especially of +the Consuls"; but it refused to declare it to be the religion of +France, as was the case under the _ancien regime_. It was to be freely +and publicly practised in France, subject to the police regulations +that the Government judged necessary for the public tranquillity. In +return for these great advantages, many concessions were expected from +the Church. The present bishops, both orthodox and constitutional, +were, at the Pope's invitation, to resign their sees; or, failing +that, new appointments were to be made, as if the sees were vacant. +The last proviso was necessary; for of the eighty-one surviving +bishops affected by this decision as many as thirteen orthodox and two +"constitutionals" offered persistent but unavailing protests against +the action of the Pope and First Consul. + +A new division of archbishoprics and bishoprics was now made, which +gave in all sixty sees to France. The First Consul enjoyed the right +of nomination to them, whereupon the Pope bestowed canonical +investiture. The archbishops and bishops were all to take an oath of +fidelity to the constitution. The bishops nominated the lower clerics +provided that they were acceptable to the Government: all alike bound +themselves to watch over governmental interests. The stability of +France was further assured by a clause granting complete and permanent +security to the holders of the confiscated Church lands--a healing and +salutary compromise which restored peace to every village and soothed +the qualms of many a troubled conscience. On its side, the State +undertook to furnish suitable stipends to the clergy, a promise which +was fulfilled in a rather niggardly spirit. For the rest, the First +Consul enjoyed the same consideration as the Kings of France in all +matters ecclesiastical; and a clause was added, though Bonaparte +declared it needless, that if any succeeding First Consul were not a +Roman Catholic, his prerogatives in religious matters should be +revised by a Convention. A similar Concordat was passed a little later +for the pacification of the Cisalpine Republic. + +The Concordat was bitterly assailed by the Jacobins, especially by the +military chiefs, and had not the infidel generals been for the most +part sundered by mutual jealousies they might perhaps have overthrown +Bonaparte. But their obvious incapacity for civil affairs enabled them +to venture on nothing more than a few coarse jests and clumsy +demonstrations. At the Easter celebration at Notre Dame in honour of +the ratification of the Concordat, one of them, Delmas by name, +ventured on the only protest barbed with telling satire: "Yes, a fine +piece of monkery this, indeed. It only lacked the million men who got +killed to destroy what you are striving to bring back." But to all +protests Bonaparte opposed a calm behaviour that veiled a rigid +determination, before which priests and soldiers were alike helpless. + +In subsequent articles styled "organic," Bonaparte, without consulting +the Pope, made several laws that galled the orthodox clergy. Under the +plea of legislating for the police of public worship, he reaffirmed +some of the principles which he had been unable to incorporate in the +Concordat itself. The organic articles asserted the old claims of the +Gallican Church, which forbade the application of Papal Bulls, or of +the decrees of "foreign" synods, to France: they further forbade the +French bishops to assemble in council or synod without the permission +of the Government; and this was also required for a bishop to leave +his diocese, even if he were summoned to Rome. Such were the chief of +the organic articles. Passed under the plea of securing public +tranquillity, they proved a fruitful source of discord, which during +the Empire became so acute as to weaken Napoleon's authority. In +matters religious as well as political, he early revealed his chief +moral and mental defect, a determination to carry his point by +whatever means and to require the utmost in every bargain. While +refusing fully to establish Roman Catholicism as the religion of the +State, he compelled the Church to surrender its temporalities, to +accept the regulations of the State, and to protect its interests. +Truly if, in Chateaubriand's famous phrase, he was the "restorer of +the altars," he exacted the uttermost farthing for that restoration. + +In one matter his clear intelligence stands forth in marked contrast +to the narrow pedantry of the Roman Cardinals. At a time of +reconciliation between orthodox and "constitutionals," they required +from the latter a complete and public retractation of their recent +errors. At once Bonaparte intervened with telling effect. So condign a +humiliation, he argued, would altogether mar the harmony newly +re-established. "The past is past: and the bishops and prefects ought +to require from the priests only the declaration of adhesion to the +Concordat, and of obedience to the bishop nominated by the First +Consul and instituted by the Pope." This enlightened advice, backed up +by irresistible power, carried the day, and some ten thousand +constitutional priests were quietly received back into the Roman +communion, those who had contracted marriages being compelled to put +away their wives. Bonaparte took a deep interest in the reconstruction +of dioceses, in the naming of churches, and similar details, doubtless +with the full consciousness that the revival of the Roman religious +discipline in France was a more important service than any feat of +arms. + +He was right: in healing a great schism in France he was dealing a +deadly blow at the revolutionary feeling of which it was a prominent +manifestation. In the words of one of his Ministers, "The Concordat +was the most brilliant triumph over the genius of Revolution, and all +the following successes have without exception resulted from it."[159] + +After this testimony it is needless to ask why Bonaparte did not take +up with Protestantism. At St. Helena, it is true, he asserted that the +choice of Catholicism or Protestantism was entirely open to him in +1801, and that the nation would have followed him in either direction: +but his religious policy, if carefully examined, shows no sign of +wavering on this subject, though he once or twice made a strategic +diversion towards Geneva, when Rome showed too firm a front. Is it +conceivable that a man who, as he informed Joseph, was systematically +working to found a dynasty, should hesitate in the choice of a +governmental creed? Is it possible to think of the great champion of +external control and State discipline as a defender of liberty of +conscience and the right of private judgment? + +The regulation of the Protestant cult in France was a far less arduous +task. But as Bonaparte's aim was to attach all cults to the State, he +decided to recognize the two chief Protestant bodies in France, +Calvinists and Lutherans, allowing them to choose their own pastors +and to regulate their affairs in consistories. The pastors were to be +salaried by the State, but in return the Government not only reserved +its approval of every appointment, but required the Protestant bodies +to have no relations whatever with any foreign Power or authority. The +organic articles of 1802, which defined the position of the Protestant +bodies, form a very important landmark in the history of the followers +of Luther and Calvin. Persecuted by Louis XIV. and XV., they were +tolerated by Louis XVI.; they gained complete religious equality +in 1789, and after a few years of anarchy in matters of faith, they +found themselves suddenly and stringently bound to the State by the +organizing genius of Bonaparte. + +In the years 1806-1808 the position of the Jews was likewise defined, +at least for all those who recognized France as their country, +performed all civic duties, and recognized all the laws of the State. +In consideration of their paying full taxes and performing military +service, they received official protection and their rabbis +governmental support. + +Such was Bonaparte's policy on religious subjects. There can be little +doubt that its motive was, in the main, political. This methodizing +genius, who looked on the beliefs and passions, the desires and +ambitions of mankind, as so many forces which were to aid him in his +ascent, had already satisfied the desires for military glory and +material prosperity; and in his bargain with Rome he now won the +support of an organized priesthood, besides that of the smaller +Protestant and Jewish communions. That he gained also peace and +quietness for France may be granted, though it was at the expense +of that mental alertness and independence which had been her chief +intellectual glory; but none of his intimate acquaintances ever +doubted that his religion was only a vague sentiment, and his +attendance at mass merely a compliment to his "sacred +gendarmerie."[l60] + +Having dared and achieved the exploit of organizing religion in a +half-infidel society, the First Consul was ready to undertake the +almost equally hazardous task of establishing an order of social +distinction, and that too in the very land where less than eight years +previously every title qualified its holder for the guillotine. For +his new experiment, the Legion of Honour, he could adduce only one +precedent in the acts of the last twelve years. + + +The whole tendency had been towards levelling all inequalities. In +1790 all titles of nobility were swept away; and though the Convention +decreed "arms of honour" to brave soldiers, yet its generosity to the +deserving proved to be less remarkable than its activity in +guillotining the unsuccessful. Bonaparte, however, adduced its custom +of granting occasional modest rewards as a precedent for his own +design, which was to be far more extended and ambitious. + +In May, 1802, he proposed the formation of a Legion of Honour, +organized in fifteen cohorts, with grand officers, commanders, +officers, and legionaries. Its affairs were to be regulated by a +council presided over by Bonaparte himself. Each cohort received +"national domains" with 200,000 francs annual rental, and these funds +were disbursed to the members on a scale proportionate to their rank. +The men who had received "arms of honour" were, _ipso facto_ to be +legionaries; soldiers "who had rendered considerable services to the +State in the war of liberty," and civilians "who by their learning, +talents, and virtues contributed to establish or to defend the +principles of the Republic," might hope for the honour and reward now +held out. The idea of rewarding merit in a civilian, as well as among +the military caste which had hitherto almost entirely absorbed such +honours, was certainly enlightened; and the names of the famous +_savants_ Laplace, Monge, Berthollet, Lagrange, Chaptal, and of +jurists such as Treilhard and Tronchet, imparted lustre to what would +otherwise have been a very commonplace institution. Bonaparte desired +to call out all the faculties of the nation; and when Dumas proposed +that the order should be limited to soldiers, the First Consul +replied in a brilliant and convincing harangue: + + "To do great things nowadays it is not enough to be a man of five + feet ten inches. If strength and bravery made the general, every + soldier might claim the command. The general who does great things + is he who also possesses civil qualities. The soldier knows no law + but force, sees nothing but it, and measures everything by it. The + civilian, on the other hand, only looks to the general welfare. The + characteristic of the soldier is to wish to do everything + despotically: that of the civilian is to submit everything to + discussion, truth, and reason. The superiority thus unquestionably + belongs to the civilian." + +In these noble words we can discern the secret of Bonaparte's +supremacy both in politics and in warfare. Uniting in his own person +the ablest qualities of the statesman and the warrior, he naturally +desired that his new order of merit should quicken the vitality of +France in every direction, knowing full well that the results would +speedily be felt in the army itself. When admitted to its ranks, the +new member swore: + + "To devote himself to the service of the Republic, to the + maintenance of the integrity of its territory, the defence of its + government, laws, and of the property which they have consecrated; + to fight by all methods authorized by justice, reason, and law, + against every attempt to re-establish the feudal _regime_ or to + reproduce the titles and qualities thereto belonging; and finally + to strive to the uttermost to maintain liberty and equality." + +It is not surprising that the Tribunate, despite the recent purging of +its most independent members, judged liberty and equality to be +endangered by the method of defence now proposed. The members bitterly +criticised the scheme as a device of the counter-revolution; but, with +the timid inconsequence which was already sapping their virility, they +proceeded to pass by fifty-six votes to thirty-eight a measure of +which they had so accurately gauged the results. The new institution +was, indeed, admirably suited to consolidate Bonaparte's power. +Resting on the financial basis of the confiscated lands, it offered +some guarantee against the restoration of the old monarchy and feudal +nobility; while, by stimulating that love of distinction and +brilliance which is inherent in every gifted people, it quietly began +to graduate society and to group it around the Paladins of a new +Gaulish chivalry. The people had recently cast off the overlordship of +the old Frankish nobles, but admiration of merit (the ultimate source +of all titles of distinction) was only dormant even in the days of +Robespierre; and its insane repression during the Terror now begat a +corresponding enthusiasm for all commanding gifts. Of this inevitable +reaction Bonaparte now made skillful use. When Berlier, one of the +leading jurists of France, objected to the new order as leading France +back to aristocracy, and contemptuously said that crosses and ribbons +were the toys of monarchy, Bonaparte replied: + + "Well: men are led by toys. I would not say that in a rostrum, but + in a council of wise men and statesmen one ought to speak one's + mind. I don't think that the French love liberty and equality: the + French are not at all changed by ten years of revolution: they are + what the Gauls were, fierce and fickle. They have one + feeling--honour. We must nourish that feeling: they must have + distinctions. See how they bow down before the stars of + strangers."[161] + +After so frank an exposition of motives to his own Council of State, +little more need be said. We need not credit Bonaparte or the orators +of the Tribunate with any superhuman sagacity when he and they foresaw +that such an order would prepare the way for more resplendent titles. +The Legion of Honour, at least in its highest grades, was the +chrysalis stage of the Imperial _noblesse_. After all, the new +Charlemagne might plead that his new creation satisfied an innate +craving of the race, and that its durability was the best answer to +hostile critics. Even when, in 1814, his Senators were offering the +crown of France to the heir of the Bourbons, they expressly stipulated +that the Legion of Honour should not be abolished: it has survived all +the shocks of French history, even the vulgarizing associations of +the Second Empire. + + * * * * * + +The same quality of almost pyramidal solidity characterizes another +great enterprise of the Napoleonic period, the codification of French +law. + +The difficulties of this undertaking consisted mainly in the enormous +mass of decrees emanating from the National Assemblies, relative to +political, civil, and criminal affairs. Many of those decrees, the +offspring of a momentary enthusiasm, had found a place in the codes of +laws which were then compiled; and yet sagacious observers knew that +several of them warred against the instincts of the Gallic race. This +conviction was summed up in the trenchant statement of the compilers +of the new code, in which they appealed from the ideas of Rousseau to +the customs of the past: "New theories are but the maxims of certain +individuals: the old maxims represent the sense of centuries." There +was much force in this dictum. The overthrow of Feudalism and the old +monarchy had not permanently altered the French nature. They were +still the same joyous, artistic, clan-loving people whom the Latin +historians described: and pride in the nation or the family was as +closely linked with respect for a doughty champion of national and +family interests as in the days of Caesar. Of this Roman or +quasi-Gallic reaction Napoleon was to be the regulator; and no sphere +of his activities bespeaks his unerring political sagacity more than +his sifting of the old and the new in the great code which was +afterwards to bear his name. + +Old French law had been an inextricable labyrinth of laws and customs, +mainly Roman and Frankish in origin, hopelessly tangled by feudal +customs, provincial privileges, ecclesiastical rights, and the later +undergrowth of royal decrees; and no part of the legislation of the +revolutionists met with so little resistance as their root and branch +destruction of this exasperating jungle. Their difficulties only began +when they endeavoured to apply the principles of the Rights of Man to +political, civil, and criminal affairs. The chief of these principles +relating to criminal law were that law can only forbid actions that +are harmful to society, and must only impose penalties that are +strictly necessary. To these epoch-making pronouncements the Assembly +added, in 1790, that crimes should be visited only on the guilty +individual, not on the family; and that penalties must be proportioned +to the offences. The last two of these principles had of late been +flagrantly violated; but the general pacification of France now +permitted a calm consideration of the whole question of criminal law, +and of its application to normal conditions. + +Civil law was to be greatly influenced by the Rights of Man; but those +famous declarations were to a large extent contravened in the ensuing +civil strifes, and their application to real life was rendered +infinitely more difficult by that predominance of the critical over +the constructive faculties which marred the efforts of the +revolutionary Babel-builders. Indeed, such was the ardour of those +enthusiasts that they could scarcely see any difficulties. Thus, the +Convention in 1793 allowed its legislative committee just one month +for the preparation of a code of civil law. At the close of six weeks +Cambaceres, the reporter of the committee, was actually able to +announce that it was ready. It was found to be too complex. Another +commission was ordered to reconstruct it: this time the Convention +discovered that the revised edition was too concise. Two other drafts +were drawn up at the orders of the Directory, but neither gave +satisfaction. And thus it was reserved for the First Consul to achieve +what the revolutionists had only begun, building on the foundations +and with the very materials which their ten years' toil had prepared. + +He had many other advantages. The Second Consul, Cambaceres, was at +his side, with stores of legal experience and habits of complaisance +that were of the highest value. Then, too, the principles of personal +liberty and social equality were yielding ground before the more +autocratic maxims of Roman law. The view of life now dominant was that +of the warrior not of the philosopher. Bonaparte named Tronchet, Bigot +de Preameneu, and the eloquent and learned Portalis for the redaction +of the code. By ceaseless toil they completed their first draft in +four months. Then, after receiving the criticisms of the Court of +Cassation and the Tribunals of Appeal, it came before the Council of +State for the decision of its special committee on legislation. There +it was subjected to the scrutiny of several experts, but, above all, +to Bonaparte himself. He presided at more than half of the 102 +sittings devoted to this criticism; and sittings of eight or nine +hours were scarcely long enough to satisfy his eager curiosity, his +relentless activity, and his determined practicality. + +From the notes of Thibaudeau one of the members of this revising +committee, we catch a glimpse of the part there played by the First +Consul. We see him listening intently to the discussions of the +jurists, taking up and sorting the threads of thought when a tangle +seemed imminent, and presenting the result in some striking pattern. +We watch his methodizing spirit at work on the cumbrous legal +phraseology, hammering it out into clear, ductile French. We feel the +unerring sagacity, which acted as a political and social touchstone, +testing, approving, or rejecting multifarious details drawn from old +French law or from the customs of the Revolution; and finally we +wonder at the architectural skill which worked the 2,281 articles of +the Code into an almost unassailable pile. To the skill and patience +of the three chief redactors that result is, of course, very largely +due: yet, in its mingling of strength, simplicity, and symmetry, we +may discern the projection of Napoleon's genius over what had hitherto +been a legal chaos. + +Some blocks of the pyramid were almost entirely his own. He widened +the area of French citizenship; above all, he strengthened the +structure of the family by enhancing the father's authority. Herein +his Corsican instincts and the requirements of statecraft led him to +undo much of the legislation of the revolutionists. Their ideal was +individual liberty: his aim was to establish public order by +autocratic methods. They had sought to make of the family a little +republic, founded on the principles of liberty and equality; but in +the new code the paternal authority reappeared no less strict, albeit +less severe in some details than that of the _ancien regime._ The +family was thenceforth modelled on the idea dominant in the State, +that authority and responsible action pertained to a single +individual. The father controlled the conduct of his children: his +consent was necessary for the marriage of sons up to their +twenty-fifth year, for that of daughters up to their twenty-first +year; and other regulations were framed in the same spirit.[162] Thus +there was rebuilt in France the institution of the family on an almost +Roman basis; and these customs, contrasting sharply with the domestic +anarchy of the Anglo-Saxon race, have had a mighty influence in +fashioning the character of the French, as of the other Latin peoples, +to a ductility that yields a ready obedience to local officials, +drill-sergeants, and the central Government. + +In other respects Bonaparte's influence on the code was equally +potent. He raised the age at which marriage could be legally +contracted to that of eighteen for men, and fifteen for women, and he +prescribed a formula of obedience to be repeated by the bride to her +husband; while the latter was bound to protect and support the +wife.[163] + +And yet, on the question of divorce, Bonaparte's action was +sufficiently ambiguous to reawaken Josephine's fears; and the +detractors of the great man have some ground for declaring that his +action herein was dictated by personal considerations. Others again +may point to the declarations of the French National Assemblies that +the law regarded marriage merely as a civil contract, and that divorce +was to be a logical sequel of individual liberty, "which an +indissoluble tie would annul." It is indisputable that extremely lax +customs had been the result of the law of 1792, divorce being allowed +on a mere declaration of incompatibility of temper.[164] Against these +scandals Bonaparte firmly set his face. But he disagreed with the +framers of the new Code when they proposed altogether to prohibit +divorce, though such a proposition might well have seemed consonant +with his zeal for Roman Catholicism. After long debates it was decided +to reduce the causes which could render divorce possible from nine to +four--adultery, cruelty, condemnation to a degrading penalty, and +mutual consent--provided that this last demand should be persistently +urged after not less than two years of marriage, and in no case was it +to be valid after twenty years of marriage.[165] + +We may also notice here that Bonaparte sought to surround the act of +adoption with much solemnity, declaring it to be one of the grandest +acts imaginable. Yet, lest marriage should thereby be discouraged, +celibates were expressly debarred from the privileges of adopting +heirs. The precaution shows how keenly this able ruler peered into +the future. Doubtless, he surmised that in the future the population +of France would cease to expand at the normal rate, owing to the +working of the law compelling the equal division of property among all +the children of a family. To this law he was certainly opposed. +Equality in regard to the bequest of property was one of the sacred +maxims of revolutionary jurists, who had limited the right of free +disposal by bequest to one-tenth of each estate: nine-tenths being of +necessity divided equally among the direct heirs. Yet so strong was +the reaction in favour of the Roman principle of paternal authority, +that Bonaparte and a majority of the drafters of the new Code scrupled +not to assail that maxim, and to claim for the father larger +discretionary powers over the disposal of his property. They demanded +that the disposable share should vary according to the wealth of the +testator--a remarkable proposal, which proves him to be anything but +the unflinching champion of revolutionary legal ideas which popular +French histories have generally depicted him. + +This proposal would have re-established liberty of bequest in its most +pernicious form, granting almost limitless discretionary power to the +wealthy, while restricting or denying it to the poor.[166] Fortunately +for his reputation in France, the suggestion was rejected; and the +law, as finally adopted, fixed the disposable share as one-half of the +property, if there was but one heir; one-third, if there were two +heirs; one-fourth, if there were three; and so on, diminishing as the +size of the family increased. This sliding scale, varying inversely +with the size of the family, is open to an obvious objection: it +granted liberty of bequest only in cases where the family was small, +but practically lapsed when the family attained to patriarchal +dimensions. The natural result has been that the birth-rate has +suffered a serious and prolonged check in France. It seems certain +that the First Consul foresaw this result. His experience of peasant +life must have warned him that the law, even as now amended, would +stunt the population of France and ultimately bring about that [Greek: +oliganthropia] which saps all great military enterprises. The great +captain did all in his power to prevent the French settling down in a +self-contained national life; he strove to stir them up to world-wide +undertakings, and for the success of his future imperial schemes a +redundant population was an absolute necessity. + +The Civil Code became law in 1804: after undergoing some slight +modifications and additions, it was, in 1807 renamed the Code +Napoleon. Its provisions had already, in 1806, been adopted in Italy. +In 1810 Holland, and the newly-annexed coast-line of the North Sea as +far as Hamburg, and even Luebeck on the Baltic, received it as the +basis of their laws, as did the Grand Duchy of Berg in 1811. +Indirectly it has also exerted an immense influence on the legislation +of Central and Southern Germany, Prussia, Switzerland, and Spain: +while many of the Central and South American States have also +borrowed its salient features. + +A Code of Civil Procedure was promulgated in France in 1806, one of +Commerce in 1807, of "Criminal Instruction" in 1808, and a Penal Code +in 1810. Except that they were more reactionary in spirit than the +Civil Code, there is little that calls for notice here, the Penal Code +especially showing little advance in intelligence or clemency on the +older laws of France. Even in 1802, officials favoured severity after +the disorders of the preceding years. When Fox and Romilly paid a +visit to Talleyrand at Paris, they were informed by his secretary +that: + + "In his opinion nothing could restore good morals and order in the + country but 'la roue et la religion de nos ancetres.' He knew, he + said, that the English did not think so, but we knew nothing of the + people. Fox was deeply shocked at the idea of restoring the wheel + as a punishment in France."[167] + +This horrible punishment was not actually restored: but this extract +from Romilly's diary shows what was the state of feeling in official +circles at Paris, and how strong was the reaction towards older ideas. +The reaction was unquestionably emphasized by Bonaparte's influence, +and it is noteworthy that the Penal and other Codes, passed during the +Empire, were more reactionary than the laws of the Consulate. Yet, +even as First Consul, he exerted an influence that began to banish the +customs and traditions of the Revolution, except in the single sphere +of material interests; and he satisfied the peasants' love of land and +money in order that he might the more securely triumph over +revolutionary ideals and draw France insensibly back to the age of +Louis XIV. + + +While the legislator must always keep in reserve punishment as the +_ultima ratio_ for the lawless, he will turn by preference to +education as a more potent moralizing agency; and certainly education +urgently needed Bonaparte's attention. The work of carrying into +practice the grand educational aims of Condorcet and his coadjutors in +the French Convention was enough to tax the energies of a Hercules. +Those ardent reformers did little more than clear the ground for +future action: they abolished the old monastic and clerical training, +and declared for a generous system of national education in primary, +secondary, and advanced schools. But amid strifes and bankruptcy their +aims remained unfulfilled. In 1799 there were only twenty-four +elementary schools open in Paris, with a total attendance of less than +1,000 pupils; and in rural districts matters were equally bad. Indeed, +Lucien Bonaparte asserted that scarcely any education was to be found +in France. Exaggerated though this statement was, in relation to +secondary and advanced education, it was proximately true of the +elementary schools. The revolutionists had merely traced the outlines +of a scheme: it remained for the First Consul to fill in the details, +or to leave it blank. + +The result can scarcely be cited as a proof of his educational zeal. +Elementary schools were left to the control and supervision of the +communes and of the _sous-prefets_, and naturally made little advance +amidst an apathetic population and under officials who cared not to +press on an expensive enterprise. The law of April 30th, 1802, +however, aimed at improving the secondary education, which the +Convention had attempted to give in its _ecoles centrales_. These were +now reconstituted either as _ecoles secondaires_ or as _lycees_. The +former were local or even private institutions intended for the most +promising pupils of the commune or group of communes; while the +_lycees_, far fewer in number, were controlled directly by the +Government. In both of these schools great prominence was given to the +exact and applied sciences. The aim of the instruction was not to +awaken thought and develop the faculties, but rather to fashion able +breadwinners, obedient citizens, and enthusiastic soldiers. The +training was of an almost military type, the pupils being regularly +drilled, while the lessons began and ended with the roll of drums. The +numbers of the _lycees_ and of their pupils rapidly increased; but the +progress of the secondary and primary schools, which could boast no +such attractions, was very slow. In 1806 only 25,000 children were +attending the public primary schools. But two years later elementary +and advanced instruction received a notable impetus from the +establishment of the University of France. + +There is no institution which better reveals the character of the +French Emperor, with its singular combination of greatness and +littleness, of wide-sweeping aims with official pedantry. The +University, as it existed during the First Empire, offers a striking +example of that mania for the control of the general will which +philosophers had so attractively taught and Napoleon so profitably +practised. It is the first definite outcome of a desire to subject +education and learning to wholesale regimental methods, and to break +up the old-world bowers of culture by State-worked steam-ploughs. His +aims were thus set forth: + + "I want a teaching body, because such a body never dies, but + transmits its organization and spirit. I want a body whose teaching + is far above the fads of the moment, goes straight on even when the + government is asleep, and whose administration and statutes become + so national that one can never lightly resolve to meddle with + them.... There will never be fixity in politics if there is not a + teaching body with fixed principles. As long as people do not from + their infancy learn whether they ought to be republicans or + monarchists, Catholics or sceptics, the State will never form a + nation: it will rest on unsafe and shifting foundations, always + exposed to changes and disorders." + +Such being Napoleon's designs, the new University of France was +admirably suited to his purpose. It was not a local university: it was +the sum total of all the public teaching bodies of the French Empire, +arranged and drilled in one vast instructional array. Elementary +schools, secondary schools, _lycees_, as well as the more advanced +colleges, all were absorbed in and controlled by this great teaching +corporation, which was to inculcate the precepts of the Catholic +religion, fidelity to the Emperor and to his Government, as guarantees +for the welfare of the people and the unity of France. For educational +purposes, France was now divided into seventeen Academies, which +formed the local centres of the new institution. Thus, from Paris and +sixteen provincial Academies, instruction was strictly organized and +controlled; and within a short time of its institution (March, 1808), +instruction of all kinds, including that of the elementary schools, +showed some advance. But to all those who look on the unfolding of the +mental and moral faculties as the chief aim of true _education_, the +homely experiments of Pestalozzi offer a far more suggestive and +important field for observation than the barrack-like methods of the +French Emperor. The Swiss reformer sought to train the mind to +observe, reflect, and think; to assist the faculties in attaining +their fullest and freest expression; and thus to add to the richness +and variety of human thought. The French imperial system sought to +prune away all mental independence, and to train the young generation +in neat and serviceable _espalier_ methods: all aspiring shoots, +especially in the sphere of moral and political science, were sharply +cut down. Consequently French thought, which had been the most +ardently speculative in Europe, speedily became vapid and mechanical. + +The same remark is proximately true of the literary life of the First +Empire. It soon began to feel the rigorous methods of the Emperor. +Poetry and all other modes of expression of lofty thought and rapt +feeling require not only a free outlet but natural and unrestrained +surroundings. The true poet is at home in the forest or on the +mountain rather than in prim _parterres_. The philosopher sees most +clearly and reasons most suggestively, when his faculties are not +cramped by the need of observing political rules and police +regulations. And the historian, when he is tied down to a mere +investigation and recital of facts, without reference to their +meaning, is but a sorry fowl flapping helplessly with unequal wings. + +Yet such were the conditions under which the literature of France +struggled and pined. Her poets, a band sadly thinned already by the +guillotine, sang in forced and hollow strains until the return of +royalism begat an imperialist fervour in the soul-stirring lyrics of +Beranger: her philosophy was dumb; and Napoleonic history limped along +on official crutches, until Thiers, a generation later, essayed his +monumental work. In the realm of exact and applied science, as might +be expected, splendid discoveries adorned the Emperor's reign; but if +we are to find any vitality in the literature of that period, we must +go to the ranks, not of the panegyrists, but of the opposition. There, +in the pages of Madame de Stael and Chateaubriand, we feel the throb +of life. Genius will out, of its own native force: but it cannot be +pressed out, even at a Napoleon's bidding. In vain did he endeavour to +stimulate literature by the reorganization of the Institute, and by +granting decennial prizes for the chief works and discoveries of the +decade. While science prospered, literature languished: and one of his +own remarks, as to the desirability of a public and semi-official +criticism of some great literary work, seems to suggest a reason for +this intellectual malaise: + + "The public will take interest in this criticism; perhaps it will + even take sides: it matters not, as its attention will be fixed on + these interesting debates: it will talk about grammar and poetry: + taste will be improved, and our aim will be fulfilled: _out of that + will come poets and grammarians_." + +And so it came to pass that, while he was rescuing a nation from chaos +and his eagles winged their flight to Naples, Lisbon, and Moscow, he +found no original thinker worthily to hymn his praises; and the chief +literary triumphs of his reign came from Chateaubriand, whom he +impoverished, and Madame de Stael, whom he drove into exile. + + * * * * * + +Such are the chief laws and customs which are imperishably associated +with the name of Napoleon Bonaparte. In some respects they may be +described as making for progress. Their establishment gave to the +Revolution that solidity which it had previously lacked. Among so +"inflammable" a people as the French--the epithet is Ste. Beuve's--it +was quite possible that some of the chief civil conquests of the last +decade might have been lost, had not the First Consul, to use his own +expressive phrase, "thrown in some blocks of granite." We may +intensify his metaphor and assert that out of the shifting shingle of +French life he constructed a concrete breakwater, in which his own +will acted as the binding cement, defying the storms of revolutionary +or royalist passion which had swept the incoherent atoms to and fro, +and had carried desolation far inland. Thenceforth France was able to +work out her future under the shelter of institutions which +unquestionably possess one supreme merit, that of durability. But +while the chief civic and material gains of the Revolution were thus +perpetuated, the very spirit and life of that great movement were +benumbed by the personality and action of Napoleon. The burning +enthusiasm for the Rights of Man was quenched, the passion for civic +equality survived only as the gibbering ghost of what it had been in +1790, and the consolidation of revolutionary France was effected by a +process nearly akin to petrifaction. + +And yet this time of political and intellectual reaction in France was +marked by the rise of the greatest of her modern institutions. There +is the chief paradox of that age. While barren of literary activity +and of truly civic developments, yet it was unequalled in the growth +of institutions. This is generally the characteristic of epochs when +the human faculties, long congealed by untoward restraints, suddenly +burst their barriers and run riot in a spring-tide of hope. The time +of disillusionment or despair which usually supervenes may, as a rule, +be compared with the numbing torpor of winter, necessary doubtless in +our human economy, but lacking the charm and vitality of the expansive +phase. Often, indeed, it is disgraced by the characteristics of a +slavish populace, a mean selfishness, a mad frivolity, and fawning +adulation on the ruler who dispenses _panem et circenses_. Such has +been the course of many a political reaction, from the time of +degenerate Athens and imperial Rome down to the decay of Medicean +Florence and the orgies of the restored Stuarts. + +The fruitfulness of the time of monarchical reaction in France may be +chiefly attributed to two causes, the one general, the other personal; +the one connected with the French Revolution, the other with the +exceptional gifts of Bonaparte. In their efforts to create durable +institutions the revolutionists had failed: they had attempted too +much: they had overthrown the old order, had undertaken crusades +against monarchical Europe, and striven to manufacture constitutions +and remodel a deeply agitated society. They did scarcely more than +trace the outlines of the future social structure. The edifice, which +should have been reared by the Directory, was scarcely advanced at +all, owing to the singular dullness of the new rulers of France. But +the genius was at hand. He restored order, he rallied various classes +to his side, he methodized local government, he restored finance and +credit, he restored religious peace and yet secured the peasants in +their tenure of the confiscated lands, he rewarded merit with social +honours, and finally he solidified his polity by a comprehensive code +of laws which made him the keystone of the now rounded arch of French +life. + +His methods in this immense work deserve attention: they were very +different from those of the revolutionary parties after the best days +of 1789 were past. The followers of Rousseau worked on rigorous _a +priori_ methods. If institutions and sentiments did not square with +the principles of their master, they were swept away or were forced +into conformity with the new evangel. A correct knowledge of the +"Contrat Social" and keen critical powers were the prime requisites of +Jacobinical statesmanship. Knowledge of the history of France, the +faculty of gauging the real strength of popular feelings, tact in +conciliating important interests, all were alike despised. +Institutions and class interests were as nothing in comparison with +that imposing abstraction, the general will. For this alone could +philosophers legislate and factions conspire. + +From these lofty aims and exasperating methods Bonaparte was speedily +weaned. If victorious analysis led to this; if it could only pull +down, not reconstruct; if, while legislating for the general will, +Jacobins harassed one class after another and produced civil war, then +away with their pedantries in favour of the practical statecraft which +attempted one task at a time and aimed at winning back in turn the +alienated classes. Then, and then alone, after civic peace had been +re-established, would he attempt the reconstruction of the civil order +in the same tentative manner, taking up only this or that frayed end +at once, trusting to time, skill, and patience to transform the tangle +into a symmetrical pattern. And thus, where Feuillants, Girondins, and +Jacobins had produced chaos, the practical man and his able helpers +succeeded in weaving ineffaceable outlines. As to the time when the +change took place in Bonaparte's brain from Jacobinism to aims and +methods that may be called conservative, we are strangely ignorant. +But the results of this mental change will stand forth clear and +solid for many a generation in the customs, laws, and institutions of +his adopted country. If the Revolution, intellectually considered, +began and ended with analysis, Napoleon's faculties supplied the +needed synthesis. Together they made modern France. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +THE CONSULATE FOR LIFE + + +With the view of presenting in clear outlines the chief institutions +of Napoleonic France, they have been described in the preceding +chapter, detached from their political setting. We now return to +consider the events which favoured the consolidation of Bonaparte's +power. + +No politician inured to the tricks of statecraft could more firmly +have handled public affairs than the man who practically began his +political apprenticeship at Brumaire. Without apparent effort he rose +to the height whence the five Directors had so ignominiously fallen; +and instinctively he chose at once the policy which alone could have +insured rest for France, that of balancing interests and parties. His +own political views being as yet unknown, dark with the excessive +brightness of his encircling glory, he could pose as the conciliator +of contending factions. The Jacobins were content when they saw the +regicide Cambaceres become Second Consul; and friends of +constitutional monarchy remembered that the Third Consul, Lebrun, had +leanings towards the Feuillants of 1791. Fouche at the inquisitorial +Ministry of Police, and Merlin, Berlier, Real, and Boulay de la +Meurthe in the Council of State seemed a barrier to all monarchical +schemes; and the Jacobins therefore remained quiet, even while +Catholic worship was again publicly celebrated, while Vendean rebels +were pardoned, and plotting _emigres_ were entering the public +service. + +Many, indeed, of the prominent terrorists had settled profitably on +the offices which Bonaparte had multiplied throughout France, and were +therefore dumb: but some of the less favoured ones, angered by the +stealthy advance of autocracy, wove a plot for the overthrow of the +First Consul. Chief among them were a braggart named Demerville, a +painter, Topino Lebrun, a sculptor, Ceracchi, and Arena, brother of +the Corsican deputy who had shaken Bonaparte by the collar at the +crisis of Brumaire. These men hit upon the notion that, with the aid +of one man of action, they could make away with the new despot. They +opened their hearts to a penniless officer named Harel, who had been +dismissed from the army; and he straightway took the news to +Bonaparte's private secretary, Bourrienne. The First Consul, on +hearing of the matter, at once charged Bourrienne to supply Harel with +money to buy firearms, but not to tell the secret to Fouche, of whose +double dealings with the Jacobins he was already aware. It became +needful, however, to inform him of the plot, which was now carefully +nursed by the authorities. The arrests were planned to take place at +the opera on October 10th. About half an hour after the play had +begun, Bonaparte bade his secretary go into the lobby to hear the +news. Bourrienne at once heard the noise caused by a number of +arrests: he came back, reported the matter to his master, who +forthwith returned to the Tuileries. The plot was over.[168] + +A more serious attempt was to follow. On the 3rd day of Nivose +(December 24th, 1800), as the First Consul was driving to the opera to +hear Haydn's oratorio, "The Creation," his carriage was shaken by a +terrific explosion. A bomb had burst between his carriage and that of +Josephine, which was following. Neither was injured, though many +spectators were killed or wounded. "Josephine," he calmly said, as she +entered the box, "those rascals wanted to blow me up: send for a copy +of the music." But under this cool demeanour he nursed a determination +of vengeance against his political foes, the Jacobins. On the next day +he appeared at a session of the Council of State along with the +Ministers of Police and of the Interior, Fouche and Chaptal. The Arena +plot and other recent events seemed to point to wild Jacobins and +anarchists as the authors of this outrage: but Fouche ventured to +impute it to the royalists and to England. + + "There are in it," Bonaparte at once remarked, "neither nobles, nor + Chouans, nor priests. They are men of September (_Septembriseurs_), + wretches stained with blood, ever conspiring in solid phalanx + against every successive government. We must find a means of prompt + redress." + +The Councillors at once adopted this opinion, Roederer hotly declaring +his open hostility to Fouche for his reputed complicity with the +terrorists; and, if we may credit the _on dit_ of Pasquier, Talleyrand +urged the execution of Fouche within twenty-four hours. Bonaparte, +however, preferred to keep the two cleverest and most questionable +schemers of the age, so as mutually to check each other's movements. A +day later, when the Council was about to institute special +proceedings, Bonaparte again intervened with the remark that the +action of the tribunal would be too slow, too restricted: a signal +revenge was needed for so foul a crime, rapid as lightning: + + "Blood must be shed: as many guilty must be shot as the innocent + who had perished--some fifteen or twenty--and two hundred banished, + so that the Republic might profit by that event to purge itself." + +This was the policy now openly followed. In vain did some members of +the usually obsequious Council object to this summary procedure. +Roederer, Boulay, even the Second Consul himself, now perceived how +trifling was their influence when they attempted to modify Bonaparte's +plans, and two sections of the Council speedily decided that there +should be a military commission to judge suspects and "deport" +dangerous persons, and that the Government should announce this to +the Senate, Corps Legislatif, and Tribunate. Public opinion, +meanwhile, was carefully trained by the official "Moniteur," which +described in detail various so-called anarchist attempts; but an +increasing number in official circles veered round to Fouche's belief +that the outrage was the work of the royalists abetted by England. The +First Consul himself, six days after the event, inclined to this +version. Nevertheless, at a full meeting of the Council of State, on +the first day of the year 1801, he brought up a list of "130 villains +who were troubling the public peace," with a view to inflicting +summary punishment on them. Thibaudeau, Boulay, and Roederer haltingly +expressed their fears that all the 130 might not be guilty of the +recent outrage, and that the Council had no powers to decide on the +proscription of individuals. Bonaparte at once assured them that he +was not consulting them about the fate of individuals, but merely to +know whether they thought an exceptional measure necessary. The +Government had only + + "Strong presumptions, not proofs, that the terrorists were the + authors of this attempt. _Chouannerie_ and emigration are surface + ills, terrorism is an internal disease. The measure ought to be + taken independently of the event. It is only the occasion of it. We + banish them (the terrorists) for the massacres of September 2nd, + May 31st, the Babeuf plot, and every subsequent attempt."[169] + +The Council thereupon unanimously affirmed the need of an exceptional +measure, and adopted a suggestion of Talleyrand (probably emanating +from Bonaparte) that the Senate should be invited to declare by a +special decision, called a _senatus consultum_, whether such an act +were "preservative of the constitution." This device, which avoided +the necessity of passing a law through two less subservient bodies, +the Tribunate and Corps Legislatif, was forthwith approved by the +guardians of the constitution. It had far-reaching results. The +complaisant Senate was brought down from its constitutional watchtower +to become the tool of the Consuls; and an easy way for further +innovations was thus dextrously opened up through the very portals +which were designed to bar them out. + +The immediate results of the device were startling. By an act of +January 4th, 1801, as many as 130 prominent Jacobins were "placed +under special surveillance outside the European territory of the +Republic"--a specious phrase for denoting a living death amidst the +wastes of French Guiana or the Seychelles. Some of the threatened +persons escaped, perhaps owing to the connivance of Fouche; some were +sent to the Isle of Oleron; but the others were forthwith despatched +to the miseries of captivity in the tropics. Among these were +personages so diverse as Rossignol, once the scourge of France with +his force of Parisian cut-throats, and Destrem, whose crime was his +vehement upbraiding of Bonaparte at St. Cloud. After this measure had +taken effect, it was discovered by judicial inquiry that the Jacobins +had no connection with the outrage, which was the work of royalists +named Saint-Rejant and Carbon. These were captured, and on January +31st, 1801, were executed; but their fate had no influence whatever on +the sentence of the transported Jacobins. Of those who were sent to +Guiana and the Seychelles, scarce twenty saw France again.[170] + + + +Bonaparte's conduct with respect to plots deserves close attention. +Never since the age of the Borgias have conspiracies been so skilfully +exploited, so cunningly countermined. Moreover, his conduct with +respect to the Arena and Nivose affairs had a wider significance; for +he now quietly but firmly exchanged the policy of balancing parties +for one which crushed the extreme republicans, and enhanced the +importance of all who were likely to approve or condone the +establishment of personal rule. + +It is now time to consider the effect which Bonaparte's foreign policy +had on his position in France. Reserving for a later chapter an +examination of the Treaty of Amiens, we may here notice the close +connection between Bonaparte's diplomatic successes and the +perpetuation of his Consulate. All thoughtful students of history must +have observed the warping influence which war and diplomacy have +exerted on democratic institutions. The age of Alcibiades, the doom of +the Roman Republic, and many other examples might be cited to show +that free institutions can with difficulty survive the strain of a +vast military organization or the insidious results of an exacting +diplomacy. But never has the gulf between democracy and personal rule +been so quickly spanned as by the commanding genius of Bonaparte. + +The events which disgusted both England and France with war have been +described above. Each antagonist had parried the attacks of the other. +The blow which Bonaparte had aimed at Britain's commerce by his +eastern expedition had been foiled; and a considerable French force +was shut up in Egypt. His plan of relieving his starving garrison in +Malta, by concluding a maritime truce, had been seen through by us; +and after a blockade of two years, Valetta fell (September, 1800). But +while Great Britain regained more than all her old power in the +Mediterranean, she failed to make any impression on the land-power of +France. The First Consul in the year 1801 compelled Naples and +Portugal to give up the English alliance and to exclude our vessels +and goods. In the north the results of the war had been in favour of +the islanders. The Union Jack again waved triumphant on the Baltic, +and all attempts of the French to rouse and support an Irish revolt +had signally failed. Yet the French preparations for an invasion of +England strained the resources of our exchequer and the patience of +our people. The weary struggle was evidently about to close in a +stalemate. + +For political and financial reasons the two Powers needed repose. +Bonaparte's authority was not as yet so firmly founded that he could +afford to neglect the silent longings of France for peace; his +institutions had not as yet taken root; and he needed money for public +works and colonial enterprises. That he looked on peace as far more +desirable for France than for England at the present time is clear +from a confidential talk which he had with Roederer at the close of +1800. This bright thinker, to whom he often unbosomed himself, took +exception to his remark that England could not wish for peace; +whereupon the First Consul uttered these memorable words: + + "My dear fellow, England ought not to wish for peace, because we + are masters of the world. Spain is ours. We have a foothold in + Italy. In Egypt we have the reversion to their tenure. Switzerland, + Holland, Belgium--that is a matter irrevocably settled, on which we + have declared to Prussia, Russia, and the Emperor that _we alone_, + if it were necessary, would make war on all, namely, that there + shall be no Stadholder in Holland, and that we will keep Belgium + and the left bank of the Rhine. A stadholder in Holland would be as + bad as a Bourbon in the St. Antoine suburb."[171] + + +The passage is remarkable, not only for its frank statement of the +terms on which England and the Continent might have peace, but also +because it discloses the rank undergrowth of pride and ambition that +is beginning to overtop his reasoning faculties. Even before he has +heard the news of Moreau's great victory of Hohenlinden, he equates +the military strength of France with that of the rest of Europe: nay, +he claims without a shadow of doubt the mastery of the world: he will +wage, if necessary, a double war, against England for a colonial +empire, and against Europe for domination in Holland and the +Rhineland. It is naught to him that that double effort has exhausted +France in the reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV. Holland, Switzerland, +Italy, shall be French provinces, Egypt and the Indies shall be her +satrapies, and _la grande nation_ may then rest on her glories. + +Had these aims been known at Westminster, Ministers would have counted +peace far more harmful than war. But, while ambition reigned at Paris, +dull common sense dictated the policy of Britain. In truth, our people +needed rest: we were in the first stages of an industrial revolution: +our cotton and woollen industries were passing from the cottage to the +factory; and a large part of our folk were beginning to cluster in +grimy, ill-organized townships. Population and wealth advanced by +leaps and bounds; but with them came the nineteenth-century problems +of widening class distinctions and uncertainty of employment. The +food-supply was often inadequate, and in 1801 the price of wheat in +the London market ranged from L6 to L8 the quarter; the quartern loaf +selling at times for as much as 1s. 10-1/2d.[172] + +The state of the sister island was even worse. The discontent of +Ireland had been crushed by the severe repression which followed the +rising of 1798; and the bonds connecting the two countries were +forcibly tightened by the Act of Union of 1800. But rest and reform +were urgently needed if this political welding was to acquire solid +strength, and rest and reform were alike denied. The position of the +Ministry at Westminster was also precarious. The opposition of George +III. to the proposals for Catholic Emancipation, to which Pitt +believed himself in honour bound, led to the resignation in February, +1801, of that able Minister. In the following month Addington, the +Speaker of the House of Commons, with the complacence born of bland +obtuseness, undertook to fill his place. At first, the Ministry was +treated with the tolerance due to the new Premier's urbanity, but it +gradually faded away into contempt for his pitiful weakness in face of +the dangers that threatened the realm. + +Certain unofficial efforts in the cause of peace had been made during +the year 1800, by a Frenchman, M. Otto, who had been charged to +proceed to London to treat with the British Government for the +exchange of prisoners. For various reasons his tentative proposals as +to an accommodation between the belligerents had had no issue: but he +continued to reside in London, and quietly sought to bring about a +good understanding. The accession of the Addington Ministry favoured +the opening of negotiations, the new Secretary for Foreign Affairs, +Lord Hawkesbury, announcing His Majesty's desire for peace. Indeed, +the one hope of the new Ministry, and of the king who supported it as +the only alternative to Catholic Emancipation, was bound up with the +cause of peace. In the next chapter it will appear how disastrous were +the results of that strange political situation, when a morbidly +conscientious king clung to the weak Addington, and jeopardised the +interests of Britain, rather than accept a strong Minister and a +measure of religious equality. + +Napoleon received Hawkesbury's first overtures, those of March 21st, +1801, with thinly veiled scorn; but the news of Nelson's victory at +Copenhagen and of the assassination of the Czar Paul, the latter of +which wrung from him a cry of rage, ended his hopes of crushing us; +and negotiations were now formally begun. On the 14th of April, Great +Britain demanded that the French should evacuate Egypt, while she +herself would give up Minorca, but retain the following conquests: +Malta, Tobago, Martinique, Trinidad, Essequibo, Demerara, Berbice, +Ceylon, and (a little later) Curacoa; while, if the Cape of Good Hope +were restored to the Dutch, it was to be a free port: an indemnity was +also to be found for the Prince of Orange for the loss of his +Netherlands. These claims were declared by Bonaparte to be +inadmissible. He on his side urged the far more impracticable demand +of the _status quo ante bellum_ in the East and West Indies and in the +Mediterranean; which would imply the surrender, not only of our many +naval conquests, but also of our gains in Hindostan at the expense of +the late Tippoo Sahib's dominions. In the ensuing five months the +British Government gained some noteworthy successes in diplomacy and +war. It settled the disputes arising out of the Armed Neutrality +League; there was every prospect of our troops defeating those of +France in Egypt; and our navy captured St. Eustace and Saba in the +West Indies. + +As a set-off to our efforts by sea, Bonaparte instigated a war between +Spain and Portugal, in order that the latter Power might be held as a +"guarantee for the general peace." Spain, however, merely waged a "war +of oranges," and came to terms with her neighbour in the Treaty of +Badajoz, June 6th, 1801, whereby she gained the small frontier +district of Olivenza. This fell far short of the First Consul's +intentions. Indeed, such was his annoyance at the conduct of the Court +of Madrid and the complaisance of his brother Lucien Bonaparte, who +was ambassador there, that he determined to make Spain bear a heavy +share of the English demands. On June 22nd, 1801, he wrote to his +brother at Madrid: + + "I have already caused the English to be informed that I will never + depart, as regards Portugal, from the _ultimatum_ addressed to M. + d'Araujo, and that the _status quo ante bellum_ for Portugal must + amount, for Spain, to the restitution of Trinidad; for France, to + the restitution of Martinique and Tobago; and for Batavia [Holland], + to that of Curacoa and some other small American isles."[173] + +In other words, if Portugal at the close of this whipped-up war +retained her present possessions, then England must renounce her +claims to Trinidad, Martinique, Tobago, Curacoa, etc.: and he summed +up his contention in the statement that "in signing this treaty +Charles IV. has consented to the loss of Trinidad." Further pressure +on Portugal compelled her to cede part of Northern Brazil to France +and to pay her 20,000,000 francs. + +A still more striking light is thrown on Bonaparte's diplomatic +methods by the following question, addressed to Lord Hawkesbury on +June 15th: + + "If, supposing that the French Government should accede to the + arrangements proposed for the East Indies by England, and should + adopt the _status quo ante bellum_ for Portugal, the King of + England would consent to the re-establishment of the _status quo_ + in the Mediterranean and in America." + +The British Minister in his reply of June 25th explained what the +phrase _status quo ante bellum_ in regard to the Mediterranean would +really imply. It would necessitate, not merely the evacuation of Egypt +by the French, but also that of the Kingdom of Sardinia (including +Nice), the Duchy of Tuscany, and the independence of the rest of the +peninsula. He had already offered that we should evacuate Minorca; but +he now stated that, if France retained her influence over Italy, +England would claim Malta as a set-off to the vast extension of French +territorial influence, and in order to protect English commerce in +those seas: for the rest, the British Government could not regard the +maintenance of the integrity of Portugal as an equivalent to the +surrender by Great Britain of her West Indian conquests, especially as +France had acquired further portions of Saint Domingo. Nevertheless he +offered to restore Trinidad to Spain, if she would reinstate Portugal +in the frontier strip of Olivenza; and, on August 5th, he told Otto +that we would give up Malta if it became independent. + +Meanwhile events were, on the whole, favourable to Great Britain. She +made peace with Russia on favourable terms; and in the Mediterranean, +despite a first success gained by the French Admiral Linois at +Algesiras, a second battle brought back victory to the Union Jack. An +attack made by Nelson on the flotilla at Boulogne was a failure +(August 15th). But at the close of August the French commander in +Egypt, General Menou, was constrained to agree to the evacuation of +Egypt by his troops, which were to be sent back to France on English +vessels. This event had been expected by Bonaparte, and the secret +instruction which he forwarded to Otto at London shows the nicety of +his calculation as to the advantages to be reaped by France owing to +her receiving the news while it was still unknown in England. He +ordered Otto to fix October the 2nd for the close of the negotiations: + + "You will understand the importance of this when you reflect that + Menou may possibly not be able to hold out in Alexandria beyond the + first of Vendemiaire (September 22nd); that, at this season, the + winds are fair to come from Egypt, and ships reach Italy and + Trieste in very few days. Thus it is necessary to push them [the + negotiations] to a conclusion before Vendemiaire 10." + +The advantages of an irresponsible autocrat in negotiating with a +Ministry dependent on Parliament have rarely been more signally shown. +Anxious to gain popularity, and unable to stem the popular movement +for peace, Addington and Hawkesbury yielded to this request for a +fixed limit of time; and the preliminaries of peace were signed at +London on October 1st, 1801, the very day before the news arrived +there that one of our demands was rendered useless by the actual +surrender of the French in Egypt.[174] + + + +The chief conditions of the preliminaries were as follows: Great +Britain restored to France, Spain, and the Batavian Republic all their +possessions and colonies recently conquered by her except Trinidad and +Ceylon. The Cape of Good Hope was given back to the Dutch, but +remained open to British and French commerce. Malta was to be restored +to the Order of St. John, and placed under the guarantee and +protection of a third Power to be agreed on in the definitive treaty. +Egypt returned to the control of the Sublime Porte. The existing +possessions of Portugal (that is, exclusive of Olivenza) were +preserved intact. The French agreed to loose their hold on the Kingdom +of Naples and the Roman territory; while the British were also to +evacuate Porto Ferrajo (Elba) and the other ports and islands which +they held in the Mediterranean and Adriatic. The young Republic of the +Seven Islands (Ionian Islands) was recognized by France: and the +fisheries on the coasts of Newfoundland and the adjacent isles were +placed on their former footing, subject to "such arrangements as shall +appear just and reciprocally useful." + +It was remarked as significant of the new docility of George III., +that the empty title of "King of France," which he and his +predecessors had affected, was now formally resigned, and the _fleurs +de lys_ ceased to appear on the royal arms. + +Thus, with three exceptions, Great Britain had given way on every +point of importance since the first declaration of her claims; the +three exceptions were Trinidad and Ceylon, which she gained from the +allies of France; and Egypt, the recovery of which from the French was +already achieved, though it was unknown at London. On every detail but +these Bonaparte had gained a signal diplomatic success. His skill and +tenacity bade fair to recover for France, Martinique, Tobago, and +Santa Lucia, then in British hands, as well as the French stations in +India. The only British gains, after nine years of warfare, fruitful +in naval triumphs, but entailing an addition of L290,000,000 to the +National Debt, were the islands of Trinidad and the Dutch possessions +in Ceylon. And yet in the six months spent in negotiations the general +course of events had been favourable to the northern Power. What then +had been lacking? Certainly not valour to her warriors, nor good +fortune to her flag; but merely brain power to her rulers. They had +little of that foresight, skill, and intellectual courage, without +which even the exploits of a Nelson are of little permanent effect. + +Reserving for treatment in the next chapter the questions arising from +these preliminaries and the resulting Peace of Amiens, we turn now to +consider their bearing on Bonaparte's position as First Consul. The +return of peace after an exhausting war is always welcome; yet the +patriotic Briton who saw the National Debt more than doubled, with no +adequate gain in land or influence, could not but contrast the +difference in the fortunes of France. That Power had now gained the +Rhine boundary; her troops garrisoned the fortresses of Holland and +Northern Italy; her chief dictated his will to German princelings and +to the once free Switzers; while the Court of Madrid, nay, the +Eternal City herself, obeyed his behests. And all this prodigious +expansion had been accomplished at little apparent cost to France +herself; for the victors' bill had been very largely met out of the +resources of the conquered territories. It is true that her nobles and +clergy had suffered fearful losses in lands and treasure, while her +trading classes had cruelly felt the headlong fall in value of her +paper notes: but in a land endowed with a bounteous soil and climate +such losses are soon repaired, and the signature of the peace with +England left France comparatively prosperous. In October the First +Consul also concluded peace with Russia, and came to a friendly +understanding with the Czar on Italian affairs and the question of +indemnities for the dispossessed German Princes.[175] + + +Bonaparte now strove to extend the colonies and commerce of France, a +topic to which we shall return later on, and to develop her internal +resources. The chief roads were repaired, and ceased to be in the +miserable condition in which the abolition of the _corvees_ in 1789 +had left them: canals were dug to connect the chief river systems of +France, or were greatly improved; and Paris soon benefited from the +construction of the Scheldt and Oise canal, which brought the +resources of Belgium within easy reach of the centre of France. Ports +were deepened and extended; and Marseilles entered on golden vistas of +prosperity soon to be closed by the renewal of war with England. +Communications with Italy were facilitated by the improvement of the +road between Marseilles and Genoa, as also of the tracks leading over +the Simplon, Mont Cenis, and Mont Genevre passes: the roads leading to +the Rhine and along its left bank also attested the First Consul's +desire, not only to extend commerce, but to protect his natural +boundary on the east. The results of this road-making were to be seen +in the campaign of Ulm, when the French forces marched from Boulogne +to the Black Forest at an unparalleled speed. + +Paris in particular felt his renovating hand. With the abrupt, +determined tones which he assumed more and more on reaching absolute +power, he one day said to Chaptal at Malmaison: + + "I intend to make Paris the most beautiful capital of the world: I + wish that in ten years it should number two millions of + inhabitants." "But," replied his Minister of the Interior, "one + cannot improvise population; ... as it is, Paris would scarcely + support one million"; and he instanced the want of good drinking + water. "What are your plans for giving water to Paris?" Chaptal + gave two alternatives--artesian wells or the bringing of water from + the River Ourcq to Paris. "I adopt the latter plan: go home and + order five hundred men to set to work to-morrow at La Villette to + dig the canal." + +Such was the inception of a great public work which cost more than +half a million sterling. The provisioning of Paris also received +careful attention, a large reserve of wheat being always kept on hand +for the satisfaction of "a populace which is only dangerous when it is +hungry." Bonaparte therefore insisted on corn being stored and sold in +large quantities and at a very low price, even when considerable loss +was thereby entailed.[176] But besides supplying _panem_ he also +provided _circenses_ to an extent never known even in the days of +Louis XV. State aid was largely granted to the chief theatres, where +Bonaparte himself was a frequent attendant, and a willing captive to +the charms of the actress Mlle. Georges. + +The beautifying of Paris was, however, the chief means employed by +Bonaparte for weaning its populace from politics; and his efforts to +this end were soon crowned with complete success. Here again the +events of the Revolution had left the field clear for vast works of +reconstruction such as would have been impossible but for the +abolition of the many monastic institutions of old Paris. On or near +the sites of the famous Feuillants and Jacobins he now laid down +splendid thoroughfares; and where the constitutionals or reds a decade +previously had perorated and fought, the fashionable world of Paris +now rolled in gilded cabriolets along streets whose names recalled the +Italian and Egyptian triumphs of the First Consul. Art and culture +bowed down to the ruler who ordered the renovation of the Louvre, +which now became the treasure-house of painting and sculpture, +enriched by masterpieces taken from many an Italian gallery. No +enterprise has more conspicuously helped to assure the position of +Paris as the capital of the world's culture than Bonaparte's grouping +of the nation's art treasures in a central and magnificent building. +In the first year of his Empire Napoleon gave orders for the +construction of vast galleries which were to connect the northern +pavilion of the Tuileries with the Louvre and form a splendid facade +to the new Rue de Rivoli. Despite the expense, the work was pushed +on until it was suddenly arrested by the downfall of the Empire, +and was left to the great man's nephew to complete. Though it is +possible, as Chaptal avers, that the original design aimed at the +formation of a central fortress, yet to all lovers of art, above +all to the hero-worshipping Heine, the new Louvre was a sure pledge +of Napoleon's immortality. + +Other works which combined beauty with utility were the prolongation +of the quays along the left bank of the Seine, the building of three +bridges over that river, the improvement of the Jardin des Plantes, +together with that of other parks and open spaces, and the completion +of the Conservatoire of Arts and Trades. At a later date, the military +spirit of the Empire received signal illustration in the erection of +the Vendome column, the Arc de Triomphe, and the consecration, or +desecration, of the Madeleine as a temple of glory. + +Many of these works were subsequent to the period which we are +considering; but the enterprises of the Emperor represent the designs +of the First Consul; and the plans for the improvement of Paris formed +during the Consulate were sufficient to inspire the Parisians with +lively gratitude and to turn them from political speculations to +scenes of splendour and gaiety that recalled the days of Louis XIV. If +we may believe the testimony of Romilly, who visited Paris in 1802, +the new policy had even then attained its end. + + "The quiet despotism, which leaves everybody who does not wish to + meddle with politics (and few at present have any such wish) in the + full and secure enjoyment of their property and of their pleasures, + is a sort of paradise, compared with the agitation, the perpetual + alarms, the scenes of infamy, of bloodshed, which accompanied the + pretended liberties of France." + +But while acknowledging the material benefits of Bonaparte's rule, the +same friend of liberty notes with concern: + + "That he [Bonaparte] meditates the gaining fresh laurels in war can + hardly be doubted, if the accounts which one hears of his restless + and impatient disposition be true." + +However much the populace delighted in this new _regime_, the many +ardent souls who had dared and achieved so much in the sacred quest of +liberty could not refrain from protesting against the innovations +which were restoring personal rule. Though the Press was gagged, +though as many as thirty-two Departments were subjected to the +scrutiny of special tribunals, which, under the guise of stamping out +brigandage, frequently punished opponents of the Government, yet the +voice of criticism was not wholly silenced. The project of the +Concordat was sharply opposed in the Tribunate, which also ventured to +declare that the first sections of the Civil Codes were not +conformable to the principles of 1789 and to the first draft of a code +presented to the Convention. The Government thereupon refused to send +to the Tribunate any important measures, but merely flung them a mass +of petty details to discuss, as "_bones to gnaw_" until the time for +the renewal by lot of a fifth of its members should come round. During +a discussion at the Council of State, the First Consul hinted with +much frankness at the methods which ought to be adopted to quell the +factious opposition of the Tribunate: + + "One cannot work with an institution so productive of disorder. The + constitution has created a legislative power composed of three + bodies. None of these branches has any right to organize itself: + that must be done by the law. Therefore we must make a body which + shall organize the manner of deliberations of these three branches. + The Tribunate ought to be divided into five sections. The + discussion of laws will take place secretly in each section: one + might even introduce a discussion between these sections and those + of the Council of State. Only the reporter will speak publicly. + Then things will go on reasonably." + +Having delivered this opinion, _ex cathedra_, he departed (January +7th, 1802) for Lyons, there to be invested with supreme authority in +the reconstituted Cisalpine, or as it was now termed, Italian +Republic[177] + + +Returning at the close of the month, radiant with the lustre of this +new dignity, he was able to bend the Tribunate and the _Corps +Legislatif_ to his will. The renewal of their membership by one-fifth +served as the opportunity for subjecting them to the more pliable +Senate. This august body of highly-paid members holding office for +life had the right of nominating the new members; but hitherto the +retiring members had been singled out by lot. Roederer, acting on a +hint of the time-serving Second Consul, now proposed in the Council +of State that the retiring members of those Chambers should +thenceforth be appointed by the Senate, and not by lot; for the +principle of the lot, he quaintly urged, was hostile to the right of +election which belonged to the Senate. Against such conscious +sophistry all the bolts of logic were harmless. The question was left +undecided, in order that the Senate might forthwith declare in favour +of its own right to determine every year not only the elections to, +but the exclusions from, the Tribunate and the _Corps Legislatif_. A +_senatus consultant_ of March legalized this monstrous innovation, +which led to the exclusion from the Tribunate of zealous republicans +like Benjamin Constant, Isnard, Ganilh, Daunou, and Chenier. The +infusion of the senatorial nominees served to complete the nullity of +these bodies; and the Tribunate, the lineal descendant of the terrible +Convention, was gagged and bound within eight years of the stilling of +Danton's mighty voice. + +In days when civic zeal was the strength of the French Republic, the +mere suggestion of such a violation of liberty would have cost the +speaker his life. But since the rise of Bonaparte, civic sentiments +had yielded place to the military spirit and to boundless pride in the +nation's glory. Whenever republican feelings were outraged, there were +sufficient distractions to dissipate any of the sombre broodings which +Bonaparte so heartily disliked; and an event of international +importance now came to still the voice of political criticism. + +The signature of the definitive treaty of peace with Great Britain +(March 25th, 1802) sufficed to drown the muttered discontent of the +old republican party under the paeans of a nation's joy. The +jubilation was natural. While Londoners were grumbling at the +sacrifices which Addington's timidity had entailed, all France rang +with praises of the diplomatic skill which could rescue several +islands from England's grip and yet assure French supremacy on the +Continent. The event seemed to call for some sign of the nation's +thankfulness to the restorer of peace and prosperity. The hint having +been given by the tactful Cambaceres to some of the members of the +Tribunate, this now docile body expressed a wish that there should be +a striking token of the national gratitude; and a motion to that +effect was made by the Senate to the _Corps Legislatif and_ to the +Government itself. + +The form which the national memorial should take was left entirely +vague. Under ordinary circumstances the outcome would have been a +column or a statue: to a Napoleon it was monarchy. + +The Senate was in much doubt as to the fit course of action. The +majority desired to extend the Consulate for a second term of ten +years, and a formal motion to that effect was made on May 7th. It was +opposed by a few, some of whom demanded the prolongation for life. The +president, Tronchet, prompted by Fouche and other republicans, held +that only the question of prolonging the Consulate for another term of +ten years was before the Senate: and the motion was carried by sixty +votes against one: the dissentient voice was that of the Girondin +Lanjuinais. The report of this vote disconcerted the First Consul, but +he replied with some constraint that as the people had invested him +with the supreme magistrature, he would not feel assured of its +confidence unless the present proposal were also sanctioned by its +vote: "You judge that I owe the people another sacrifice: I will give +it if the people's voice orders what your vote now authorizes." But +before the mass vote of the people was taken, an important change had +been made in the proposal itself. It was well known that Bonaparte was +dissatisfied with the senatorial offer: and at a special session of +the Council of State, at which Ministers were present, the Second +Consul urged that they must now decide how, when, and _on what +question_ the people were to be consulted. The whole question recently +settled by the Senate was thus reopened in a way that illustrated the +advantage of multiplying councils and of keeping them under official +tutelage. The Ministers present asserted that the people disapproved +of the limitations of time imposed by the Senate; and after some +discussion Cambaceres procured the decision that the consultation of +the people should be on the questions whether the First Consul should +hold his power for life, and whether he should nominate his successor. + +To the latter part of this proposal the First Consul offered a +well-judged refusal. To consult the people on the restoration of +monarchy would, as yet, have been as inopportune as it was +superfluous. After gaining complete power, Bonaparte could be well +assured as to the establishment of an hereditary claim. The former and +less offensive part of the proposal was therefore submitted to the +people; and to it there could be only one issue amidst the prosperity +brought by the peace, and the surveillance exercised by the prefects +and the grateful clergy now brought back by the Concordat. The +Consulate for Life was voted by the enormous majority of more than +3,500,000 affirmative votes against 8,374 negatives. But among these +dissentients were many honoured names: among military men Carnot, +Drouot, Mouton, and Bernard opposed the innovation; and Lafayette made +the public statement that he could not vote for such a magistracy +unless political liberty were guaranteed. A _senatus consultum_ of +August 1st forthwith proclaimed Napoleon Bonaparte Consul for Life and +ordered the erection of a Statue of Peace, holding in one hand the +victor's laurel and in the other the senatorial decree. + +On the following day Napoleon--for henceforth he generally used his +Christian name like other monarchs--presented to the Council of State +a project of an organic law, which virtually amounted to a new +constitution. The mere fact of its presentation at so early a date +suffices to prove how completely he had prepared for the recent change +and how thoroughly assured he was of success. This important measure +was hurried through the Senate, and, without being submitted to the +Tribunate or _Corps Legislatif_, still less to the people, for whose +sanction he had recently affected so much concern--was declared to be +the fundamental law of the State. + +The fifth constitution of revolutionary France may be thus described. +It began by altering the methods of election. In place of Sieyes' +lists of notabilities, Bonaparte proposed a simpler plan. The +adult citizens of each canton were thenceforth to meet, for +electoral purposes, in primary assemblies, to name two candidates +for the office of _juge de paix_ (i.e., magistrate) and town +councillor, and to choose the members of the "electoral colleges" +for the _arrondissement_ and for the Department. In the latter case +only the 600 most wealthy men of the Department were eligible. An +official or aristocratic tinge was to be imparted to these electoral +colleges by the infusion of members selected by the First Consul from +the members of the Legion of Honour. Fixity of opinion was also +assured by members holding office for life; and, as they were elected +in the midst of the enthusiasm aroused by the Peace of Amiens, they +were decidedly Bonapartist. + +The electoral colleges had the following powers: they nominated two +candidates for each place vacant in the merely consultative councils +of their respective areas, and had the equally barren honour of +presenting two candidates for the Tribunate--the final act of +_selection_ being decided by the executive, that is, by the First +Consul. Corresponding privileges were accorded to the electoral +colleges of the Department, save that these plutocratic bodies had the +right of presenting candidates for admission to the Senate. The lists +of candidates for the _Corps_ _Legislatif_ were to be formed by the +joint action of the electoral colleges, namely, those of the +Departments and those of the _arrondissements_. But as the resulting +councils and parliamentary bodies had only the shadow of power, the +whole apparatus was but an imposing machine for winnowing the air and +threshing chaff. + +The First Consul secured few additional rights or attributes, except +the exercise of the royal prerogative of granting pardon. But, in +truth, his own powers were already so large that they were scarcely +susceptible of extension. The three Consuls held office for life, and +were _ex officio_ members of the Senate. The second and third Consuls +were nominated by the Senate on the presentation of the First Consul: +the Senate might reject two names proposed by him for either office, +but they must accept his third nominee. The First Consul might deposit +in the State archives his proposal as to his successor: if the Senate +rejected this proposal, the second and third Consuls made a +suggestion; and if it were rejected, one of the two whom they +thereupon named must be elected by the Senate. The three legislative +bodies lost practically all their powers, those of the _Corps +Legislatif_ going to the Senate, those of the Council of State to an +official Cabal formed out of it; while the Tribunate was forced to +_debate secretly in five sections_, where, as Bonaparte observed, +_they might jabber as they liked_. + +On the other hand, the attributes of the Senate were signally +enhanced. It was thenceforth charged, not only with the preservation +of the republican constitution, but with its interpretation in +disputed points, and its completion wherever it should be found +wanting. Furthermore, by means of organic _senatus consulta_ it was +empowered to make constitutions for the French colonies, or to suspend +trial by jury for five years in any Department, or even to declare it +outside the limits of the constitution. It now gained the right of +being consulted in regard to the ratification of treaties, previously +enjoyed by the _Corps Legislatif._ Finally, it could dissolve the +_Corps Legislatif_ and the Tribunate. But this formidable machinery +was kept under the strict control of the chief engineer: all these +powers were set in motion on the initiative of the Government; and the +proposals for its laws, or _senatus consulta,_ were discussed in the +Cabal of the Council of State named by the First Consul. This +precaution might have been deemed superfluous by a ruler less careful +about details than Napoleon; the composition of the Senate was such as +to assure its pliability; for though it continued to renew its ranks +by co-optation, yet that privilege was restricted in the following +way: from the lists of candidates for the Senate sent up by the +electoral colleges of the Departments, Napoleon selected three for +each seat vacant; one of those three must be chosen by the Senate. +Moreover, the First Consul was to be allowed directly to nominate +forty members in addition to the eighty prescribed by the constitution +of 1799. Thus, by direct or indirect means, the Senate soon became a +strict Napoleonic preserve, to which only the most devoted adherents +could aspire. And yet, such is the vanity of human efforts, it was +this very body which twelve years later was to vote his +deposition.[178] + +The victory of action over talk, of the executive over the +legislature, of the one supremely able man over the discordant and +helpless many, was now complete. The process was startlingly swift; +yet its chief stages are not difficult to trace. The orators of the +first two National Assemblies of France, after wrecking the old royal +authority, were constrained by the pressure of events to intrust the +supervision of the executive powers to important committees, whose +functions grew with the intensity of the national danger. Amidst the +agonies of 1793, when France was menaced by the First Coalition, the +Committee of Public Safety leaped forth as the ensanguined champion of +democracy; and, as the crisis, developed in intensity, this terrible +body and the Committee of General Security virtually governed France. + +After the repulse of the invaders and the fall of Robespierre, the +return to ordinary methods was marked by the institution of the +Directory, when five men, chosen by the legislature, controlled the +executive powers and the general policy of the Republic: that +compromise was forcibly ended by the stroke of Brumaire. Three Consuls +then seized the reins, and two years later a single charioteer gripped +the destinies of France. His powers were, in fact, ultimately derived +from those of the secret committees of the terrorists. But, unlike the +supremacy of Robespierre, that of Napoleon could not be disputed; for +the general, while guarding all the material boons which the +Revolution had conferred, conciliated the interests and classes +whereon the civilian had so brutally trampled. The new autocracy +therefore possessed a solid strength which that of the terrorists +could never possess. Indeed, it was more absolute than the dictatorial +power that Rousseau had outlined. The philosopher had asserted that, +while silencing the legislative power, the dictator really made it +vocal, and that he could do everything but make laws. But Napoleon, +after 1802, did far more: he suppressed debates and yet drew laws from +his subservient legislature. Whether, then, we regard its practical +importance for France and Europe, or limit our view to the mental +sagacity and indomitable will-power required for its accomplishment, +the triumph of Napoleon in the three years subsequent to his return +from Egypt is the most stupendous recorded in the history of civilized +peoples. + +The populace consoled itself for the loss of political liberty by the +splendour of the fete which heralded the title of First Consul for +Life, proclaimed on August 15th: that day was also memorable as being +the First Consul's thirty-third birthday, the festival of the +Assumption, and the anniversary of the ratification of the Concordat. +The decorations and fireworks were worthy of so remarkable a +confluence of solemnities. High on one of the towers of Notre Dame +glittered an enormous star, and at its centre there shone the sign of +the Zodiac which had shed its influence over his first hours of life. +The myriads of spectators who gazed at that natal emblem might well +have thought that his life's star was now at its zenith. Few could +have dared to think that it was to mount far higher into unknown +depths of space, blazing as a baleful portent to kings and peoples; +still less was there any Cassandra shriek of doom as to its final +headlong fall into the wastes of ocean. All was joy and jubilation +over a career that had even now surpassed the records of antique +heroism, that blended the romance of oriental prowess with the +beneficent toils of the legislator, and prospered alike in war and +peace. + +And yet black care cast one shadow over that jubilant festival. There +was a void in the First Consul's life such as saddened but few of the +millions of peasants who looked up to him as their saviour. His wife +had borne him no heir: and there seemed no prospect that a child of +his own would ever succeed to his glorious heritage. Family joys, it +seemed, were not for him. Suspicions and bickerings were his lot. His +brothers, in their feverish desire for the establishment of a +Bonapartist dynasty, ceaselessly urged that he should take means to +provide himself with a legitimate heir, in the last resort by +divorcing Josephine. With a consideration for her feelings which does +him credit, Napoleon refused to countenance such proceedings. Yet it +is certain that from this time onwards he kept in view the +desirability, on political grounds, of divorcing her, and made this +the excuse for indulgence in amours against which Josephine's tears +and reproaches were all in vain. + +The consolidation of personal rule, the institution of the Legion of +Honour, and the return of very many of the emigrant nobles under the +terms of the recent amnesty, favoured the growth of luxury in the +capital and of Court etiquette at the Tuileries and St. Cloud. At +these palaces the pomp of the _ancien regime_ was laboriously copied. +General Duroc, stiff republican though he was, received the +appointment of Governor of the Palace; under him were chamberlains and +prefects of the palace, who enforced a ceremonial that struggled to be +monarchical. The gorgeous liveries and sumptuous garments of the reign +of Louis XV. speedily replaced the military dress which even civilians +had worn under the warlike Republic. High boots, sabres, and +regimental headgear gave way to buckled shoes, silk stockings, Court +rapiers, and light hats, the last generally held under the arm. +Tricolour cockades were discarded, along with the revolutionary jargon +which _thou'd_ and _citizen'd_ everyone; and men began to purge their +speech of some of the obscene terms which had haunted clubs and camps. + +It was remarked, however, that the First Consul still clung to the use +of the term _citizen_, and that amidst the surprising combinations of +colours that flecked his Court, he generally wore only the uniform of +a colonel of grenadiers or of the light infantry of the consular +guard. This conduct resulted partly from his early dislike of luxury, +but partly, doubtless, from a conviction that republicans will forgive +much in a man who, like Vespasian, discards the grandeur which his +prowess has won, and shines by his very plainness. To trifling matters +such as these Napoleon always attached great importance; for, as he +said to Admiral Malcolm at St. Helena: "In France trifles are great +things: reason is nothing."[179] Besides, genius so commanding as his +little needed the external trappings wherewith ordinary mortals hide +their nullity. If his attire was simple, it but set off the better the +play of his mobile features, and the rich, unfailing flow of his +conversation. Perhaps no clearer and more pleasing account of his +appearance and his conduct at a reception has ever been given to the +world than this sketch of the great man in one of his gentler moods by +John Leslie Foster, who visited Paris shortly after the Peace of +Amiens: + + "He is about five feet seven inches high, delicately and gracefully + made; his hair a dark brown crop, thin and lank; his complexion + smooth, pale, and sallow; his eyes gray, but very animated; his + eye-brows light brown, thin and projecting. All his features, + particularly his mouth and nose, fine, sharp, defined, and + expressive beyond description; expressive of what? Not of + anything _perce_ as the prints expressed him, still less of anything + _mechant_; nor has he anything of that eye whose bend doth awe the + world. The true expression of his countenance is a pleasing + melancholy, which, whenever he speaks, relaxes into the most + agreeable and gracious smile you can conceive. To this you must add + the appearance of deep and intense thought, but above all the + predominating expression a look of calm and tranquil resolution and + intrepidity which nothing human could discompose. His address is + the finest I have ever seen, and said by those who have travelled + to exceed not only every Prince and Potentate now in being, but + even all those whose memory has come down to us. He has more + unaffected dignity than I could conceive in man. His address is the + gentlest and most prepossessing you can conceive, which is seconded + by the greatest fund of levee conversation that I suppose any + person ever possessed. He speaks deliberately, but very fluently, + with particular emphasis, and in a rather low tone of voice. While + he speaks, his features are still more expressive than his + words."[180] + +In contrast with this intellectual power and becoming simplicity of +attire, how stupid and tawdry were the bevies of soulless women and +the dumb groups of half-tamed soldiers! How vapid also the rules of +etiquette and precedence which starched the men and agitated the minds +of their consorts! Yet, while soaring above these rules with easy +grace, the First Consul imposed them rigidly on the crowd of eager +courtiers. On these burning questions he generally took the advice of +M. de Remusat, whose tact and acquaintance with Court customs were now +of much service; while the sprightly wit of his young wife attracted +Josephine, as it has all readers of her piquant but rather spiteful +memoirs. In her pages we catch a glimpse of the life of that singular +Court; the attempts at aping the inimitable manners of the _ancien +regime_; the pompous nullity of the second and third Consuls; the +tawdry magnificence of the costumes; the studied avoidance of any word +that implied even a modicum of learning or a distant acquaintance with +politics; the nervous preoccupation about Napoleon's moods and whims; +the graceful manners of Josephine that rarely failed to charm away his +humours, except when she herself had been outrageously slighted for +some passing favourite; above all, the leaden dullness of +conversation, which drew from Chaptal the confession that life there +was the life of a galley slave. And if we seek for the hidden reason +why a ruler eminently endowed with mental force and freshness should +have endured so laboured a masquerade, we find it in his strikingly +frank confession to Madame de Remusat: _It is fortunate that the +French are to be ruled through their vanity._ < + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +THE PEACE OF AMIENS + + +The previous chapter dealt in the main with the internal affairs of +France and the completion of Napoleon's power: it touched on foreign +affairs only so far as to exhibit the close connection between the +First Consul's diplomatic victory over England and his triumph over +the republican constitution in his adopted country. But it is time now +to review the course of the negotiations which led up to the Treaty of +Amiens. + +In order to realize the advantages which France then had over England, +it will be well briefly to review the condition of our land at that +time. Our population was far smaller than that of the French Republic. +France, with her recent acquisitions in Belgium, the Rhineland, Savoy, +Nice, and Piedmont, numbered nearly 40,000,000 inhabitants: but the +census returns of Great Britain for 1801 showed only a total of +10,942,000 souls, while the numbers for Ireland, arguing from the +rather untrustworthy return of 1813, may be reckoned at about six and +a half millions. The prodigious growth of the English-speaking people +had not as yet fully commenced either in the motherland, the United +States, or in the small and struggling settlements of Canada and +Australia. Its future expansion was to be assured by industrial and +social causes, and by the events considered in this and in subsequent +chapters. It was a small people that had for several months faced with +undaunted front the gigantic power of Bonaparte and that of the Armed +Neutrals. + +This population of less than 18,000,000 souls, of which nearly +one-third openly resented the Act of Union recently imposed on +Ireland, was burdened by a National Debt which amounted to +L537,000,000, and entailed a yearly charge of more than L20,000,000 +sterling. In the years of war with revolutionary France the annual +expenditure had risen from L19,859,000 (for 1792) to the total of +L61,329,000, which necessitated an income tax of 10 per cent. on all +incomes of L200 and upwards. Yet, despite party feuds, the nation was +never stronger, and its fleets had never won more brilliant and solid +triumphs. The chief naval historian of France admits that we had +captured no fewer than 50 ships of the line, and had lost to our +enemies only five, thereby raising the strength of our fighting line +to 189, while that of France had sunk to 47.[181] The prowess of Sir +Arthur Wellesley was also beginning to revive in India the ancient +lustre of the British arms; but the events of 1802-3 were to show that +our industrial enterprise, and the exploits of our sailors and +soldiers, were by themselves of little avail when matched in a +diplomatic contest against the vast resources of France and the +embodied might of a Napoleon. + +Men and institutions were everywhere receiving the imprint of his +will. France was as wax under his genius. The sovereigns of Spain, +Italy, and Germany obeyed his _fiat_. Even the stubborn Dutch bent +before him. On the plea of defeating Orange intrigues, he imposed a +new constitution on the Batavian Republic whose independence he had +agreed to respect. Its Directory was now replaced by a Regency which +relieved the deputies of the people of all responsibility. A +_plebiscite_ showed 52,000 votes against, and 16,000 for, the new +_regime_; but, as 350,000 had not voted, their silence was taken for +consent, and Bonaparte's will became law (September, 1801). + +We are now in a position to appreciate the position of France and +Great Britain. Before the signature of the preliminaries of peace at +London on October 1st, 1801, our Government had given up its claims to +the Cape, Malta, Tobago, Martinique, Essequibo, Demerara, Berbice, and +Curacoa, retaining of its conquests only Trinidad and Ceylon. + +A belated attempt had, indeed, been made to retain Tobago. The Premier +and the Foreign Secretary, Lord Hawkesbury, were led by the French +political agent in London, M. Otto, to believe that, in the ensuing +negotiations at Amiens, every facility would be given by the French +Government towards its retrocession to us, and that this act would be +regarded as the means of indemnifying Great Britain for the heavy +expense of supporting many thousands of French and Dutch prisoners. +The Cabinet, relying on this promise as binding between honourable +men, thereupon endeavoured to obtain the assent of George III. to the +preliminaries in their ultimate form, and only the prospect of +regaining Tobago by this compromise induced the King to give it. When +it was too late, King and Ministers realized their mistake in relying +on verbal promises and in failing to procure a written statement.[182] + +The abandonment by Ministers of their former claim to Malta is equally +strange. Nelson, though he held Malta to be useless as a base for the +British fleet watching Toulon, made the memorable statement: "I +consider Malta as a most important outwork to India." But a despatch +from St. Petersburg, stating that the new Czar had concluded a formal +treaty of alliance with the Order of St. John settled in Russia, may +have convinced Addington and his colleagues that it would be better to +forego all claim to Malta in order to cement the newly won friendship +of Russia. Whatever may have been their motive, British Ministers +consented to cede the island to the Knights of St. John under the +protection of some third Power. + +The preliminaries of peace were further remarkable for three strange +omissions. They did not provide for the renewal of previous treaties +of peace between the late combatants. War is held to break all +previous treaties; and by failing to require the renewal of the +treaties of 1713, 1763, and 1783, it was now open to Spain and France +to cement, albeit in a new form, that Family Compact which it had long +been the aim of British diplomacy to dissolve: the failure to renew +those earlier treaties rendered it possible for the Court of Madrid to +alienate any of its colonies to France, as at that very time was being +arranged with respect to Louisiana. + +The second omission was equally remarkable. No mention was made of any +renewal of commercial intercourse between England and France. +Doubtless a complete settlement of this question would have been +difficult. British merchants would have looked for a renewal of that +enlightened treaty of commerce of 1786-7, which had aroused the bitter +opposition of French manufacturers. But the question might have been +broached at London, and its omission from the preliminaries served as +a reason for shelving it in the definitive treaty--a piece of folly +which at once provoked the severest censure from British +manufacturers, who thereby lost the markets of France, and her subject +States, Holland, Spain, Switzerland, Genoa, and Etruria. + +And, finally, the terms of peace provided no compensation either for +the French royal House or for the dispossessed House of Orange. Here +again, it would have been very difficult to find a recompense such as +the Bourbons could with dignity have accepted; and the suggestion made +by one of the royalist exiles to Lord Hawkesbury, that Great Britain +should seize Crete and hand it over to them, will show how desperate +was their case.[183] Nevertheless, some effort should have been made +by a Government which had so often proclaimed its championship of the +legitimist cause. Still more glaring was the omission of any +stipulation for an indemnity for the House of Orange, now exiled from +the Batavian Republic. That claim, though urged at the outset, found +no place in the preliminaries; and the mingled surprise and contempt +felt in the _salons_ of Paris at the conduct of the British Government +is shown in a semi-official report sent thence by one of its secret +agents: + + "I cannot get it into my head that the British Ministry has acted + in good faith in subscribing to preliminaries of peace, which, + considering the respective position of the parties, would be + harmful to the English people.... People are persuaded in France + that the moderation of England is only a snare put in Bonaparte's + way, and it is mainly in order to dispel it that our journals have + received the order to make much of the advantages which must accrue + to England from the conquests retained by her; but the journalists + have convinced nobody, and it is said openly that if our European + conquests are consolidated by a general peace, France will, within + ten years, subjugate all Europe, Great Britain included, despite + all her vast dominions in India. Only within the last few days have + people here believed in the sincerity of the English preliminaries + of peace, and they say everywhere that, after having gloriously + sailed past the rocks that Bonaparte's cunning had placed in its + track, the British Ministry has completely foundered at the mouth + of the harbour. People blame the whole structure of the peace as + betraying marks of feebleness in all that concerns the dignity and + the interests of the King; ... and we cannot excuse its neglect of + the royalists, whose interests are entirely set aside in the + preliminaries. Men are especially astonished at England's + retrocession of Martinique without a single stipulation for the + colonists there, who are at the mercy of a government as rapacious + as it is fickle. All the owners of colonial property are very + uneasy, and do not hide their annoyance against England on this + score."[184] + +This interesting report gives a glimpse into the real thought of Paris +such as is rarely afforded by the tamed or venal Press. As Bonaparte's +spies enabled him to feel every throb of the French pulse, he must at +once have seen how great was the prestige which he gained by these +first diplomatic successes, and how precarious was the foothold of the +English Ministers on the slippery grade of concession to which they +had been lured. Addington surely should have remembered that only the +strong man can with safety recede at the outset, and that an act of +concession which, coming from a master mind, is interpreted as one of +noble magnanimity, will be scornfully snatched from a nerveless hand +as a sign of timorous complaisance. But the public statements and the +secret avowals of our leaders show that they wished "to try the +experiment of peace," now that France had returned to ordinary +political conditions and Jacobinism was curbed by Bonaparte. +"Perhaps," wrote Castlereagh, "France, satisfied with her recent +acquisitions, will find her interest in that system of internal +improvement which is necessarily connected with peace."[185] There is +no reason for doubting the sincerity of this statement. Our policy was +distinctly and continuously complaisant: France regained her colonies: +she was not required to withdraw from Switzerland and Holland. Who +could expect, from what was then known of Bonaparte's character, that +a peace so fraught with glory and profit would not satisfy French +honour and his own ambition? + +Peace, then, was an "experiment." The British Government wished to see +whether France would turn from revolution and war to agriculture and +commerce, whether her young ruler be satisfied with a position of +grandeur and solid power such as Louis XIV. had rarely enjoyed. Alas! +the failure of the experiment was patent to all save the blandest +optimists long before the Preliminaries of London took form in the +definitive Treaty of Amiens. Bonaparte's aim now was to keep our +Government strictly to the provisional terms of peace which it had +imprudently signed. Even before the negotiations were opened at +Amiens, he ordered Joseph Bonaparte to listen to no proposal +concerning the King of Sardinia and the ex-Stadholder of Holland, +and asserted that the "internal affairs of the Batavian Republic, of +Germany, of Helvetia, and of the Italian Republics" were "absolutely +alien to the discussions with England." This implied that England was +to be shut out from Continental politics, and that France was to +regulate the affairs of central and southern Europe. This observance +of the letter was, however, less rigid where French colonial and +maritime interests were at stake. Dextrous feelers were put forth +seawards, and it was only when these were repulsed that the French +negotiators encased themselves in their preliminaries. + +The task of reducing those articles to a definitive treaty devolved, +on the British side, on the Marquis Cornwallis, a gouty, world-weary +old soldier, chiefly remembered for the surrender which ended the +American War. Nevertheless, he had everywhere won respect for his +personal probity in the administration of Indian affairs, and there +must also have been some convincing qualities in a personality which +drew from Napoleon at St. Helena the remark: "I do not believe that +Cornwallis was a man of first-rate abilities: but he had talent, great +probity, sincerity, and never broke his word.... He was a man of +honour--a true Englishman." + +Against Lord Cornwallis, and his far abler secretary, Mr. Merry, were +pitted Joseph Bonaparte and his secretaries. The abilities of the +eldest of the Bonapartes have been much underrated. Though he lacked +the masterful force and wide powers of his second brother, yet at +Luneville Joseph proved himself to be an able diplomatist, and later +on in his tenure of power at Naples and Madrid he displayed no small +administrative gifts. Moreover, his tact and kindliness kindled in all +who knew him a warmth of friendship such as Napoleon's sterner +qualities rarely inspired. The one was loved as a man: for the other, +even his earlier acquaintances felt admiration and devotion, but +always mingled with a certain fear of the demi-god that would at times +blaze forth. This was the dread personality that urged Talleyrand and +Joseph Bonaparte to their utmost endeavours and steeled them against +any untoward complaisance at Amiens. + +The selection of so honourable a man as Cornwallis afforded no slight +guarantee for the sincerity of our Government, and its sincerity will +stand the test of a perusal of its despatches. Having examined all +those that deal with these negotiations, the present writer can affirm +that the official instructions were in no respect modified by the +secret injunctions: these referred merely to such delicate and +personal topics as the evacuation of Hanover by Prussian troops and +the indemnities to be sought for the House of Orange and the House of +Savoy. The circumstances of these two dispossessed dynasties were +explained so as to show that the former Dutch Stadholder had a very +strong claim on us, as well as on France and the Batavian Republic; +while the championship of the House of Savoy by the Czar rendered the +claims of that ancient family on the intervention of George III. less +direct and personal than those of the Prince of Orange. Indeed, +England would have insisted on the insertion of a clause to this +effect in the preliminaries had not other arrangements been on foot at +Berlin which promised to yield due compensation to this unfortunate +prince. Doubtless the motives of the British Ministers were good, but +their failure to insert such a clause fatally prejudiced their case +all through the negotiations at Amiens. + +The British official declaration respecting Malta was clear and +practical. The island was to be restored to the Knights of the Order +of St. John and placed under the protection of a third Power other +than France and England. But the reconstitution of the Order was no +less difficult than the choice of a strong and disinterested +protecting Power. Lord Hawkesbury proposed that Russia be the +guaranteeing Power. No proposal could have been more reasonable. The +claims of the Czar to the protectorate of the Order had been so +recently asserted by a treaty with the knights that no other +conclusion seemed feasible. And, in order to assuage the grievances of +the islanders and strengthen the rule of the knights, the British +Ministry desired that the natives of Malta should gain a foothold in +the new constitution. The lack of civil and political rights had +contributed so materially to the overthrow of the Order that no +reconstruction of that shattered body could be deemed intelligent, or +even honest, which did not cement its interests with those of the +native Maltese. The First Consul, however, at once demurred to both +these proposals. In the course of a long interview with Cornwallis at +Paris,[186] he adverted to the danger of bringing Russia's maritime +pressure to bear on Mediterranean questions, especially as her +sovereigns "had of late shown themselves to be such unsteady +politicians." This of course referred to the English proclivities of +Alexander I., and it is clear that Bonaparte's annoyance with +Alexander was the first unsettling influence which prevented the +solution of the Maltese question. The First Consul also admitted to +Cornwallis that the King of Naples, despite his ancient claims of +suzerainty over Malta, could not be considered a satisfactory +guarantor, as between two Great Powers; and he then proposed that the +tangle should be cut by blowing up the fortifications of Valetta. + +The mere suggestion of such an act affords eloquent proof of the +difficulties besetting the whole question. To destroy works of vast +extent, which were the bulwark of Christendom against the Barbary +pirates, would practically have involved the handing over of Valetta +to those pests of the Mediterranean; and from Malta as a new base of +operations they could have spread devastation along the coasts of +Sicily and Italy. This was the objection which Cornwallis at once +offered to an other-wise specious proposal: he had recently received +papers from Major-General Pigot at Malta, in which the same solution +of the question was examined in detail. The British officer pointed +out that the complete dismantling of the fortifications would expose +the island, and therefore the coasts of Italy, to the rovers; yet he +suggested a partial demolition, which seems to prove that the British +officers in command at Malta did not contemplate the retention of the +island and the infraction of the peace. + +Our Government, however, disapproved of the destruction of the +fortifications of Valetta as wounding the susceptibilities of the +Czar, and as in no wise rendering impossible the seizure of the island +and the reconstruction of those works by some future invader. In fact, +as the British Ministry now aimed above all at maintaining good +relations with the Czar, Bonaparte's proposal could only be regarded +as an ingenious device for sundering the Anglo-Russian understanding. +The French Minister at St. Petersburg was doing his utmost to prevent +the _rapprochement_ of the Czar to the Court of St James, and was +striving to revive the moribund league of the Armed Neutrals. That +last offer had "been rejected in the most peremptory manner and in +terms almost bordering upon derision." Still there was reason to +believe that the former Anglo-Russian disputes about Malta might be so +far renewed as to bring Bonaparte and Alexander to an understanding. +The sentimental Liberalism of the young Czar predisposed him towards a +French alliance, and his whole disposition inclined him towards the +brilliant opportunism of Paris rather than the frigid legitimacy of +the Court of St. James. The Maltese affair and the possibility of +reopening the Eastern Question were the two sources of hope to the +promoters of a Franco-Russian alliance; for both these questions +appealed to the chivalrous love of adventure and to the calculating +ambition so curiously blent in Alexander's nature. Such, then, was the +motive which doubtless prompted Bonaparte's proposal concerning +Valetta; such also were the reasons which certainly dictated its +rejection by Great Britain. + +In his interview with the First Consul at Paris, and in the subsequent +negotiations at Amiens with Joseph Bonaparte, the question of Tobago +and England's money claim for the support of French prisoners was +found to be no less thorny than that of Malta. The Bonapartes firmly +rejected the proposal for the retention of Tobago by England in lieu +of her pecuniary demand. A Government which neglected to procure the +insertion of its claim to Tobago among the Preliminaries of London +could certainly not hope to regain that island in exchange for a +concession to France that was in any degree disputable. But the two +Bonapartes and Talleyrand now took their stand solely on the +preliminaries, and politely waved on one side the earlier promises of +M. Otto as unauthorized and invalid, They also closely scrutinized the +British claim to an indemnity for the support of French prisoners. +Though theoretically correct, it was open to an objection, which was +urged by Bonaparte and Talleyrand with suave yet incisive irony. +They suggested that the claim must be considered in relation to a +counter-claim, soon to be sent from Paris, for the maintenance of all +prisoners taken by the French from the various forces subsidized by +Great Britain, a charge which "would probably not leave a balance so +much in favour of His [Britannic] Majesty as His Government may have +looked forward to." This retort was not so terrible as it appeared; +for most of the papers necessary for the making up of the French +counterclaim had been lost or destroyed during the Revolution. Yet the +threat told with full effect on Cornwallis, who thereafter referred to +the British claim as a "hopeless debt."[187] The officials of Downing +Street drew a distinction between prisoners from armies merely +subsidized by us and those taken from foreign forces actually under +our control; but it is clear that Cornwallis ceased to press the +claim. In fact, the British case was mismanaged from beginning to end: +the accounts for the maintenance of French and Dutch prisoners were, +in the first instance, wrongly drawn up; and there seems to have been +little or no notion of the seriousness of the counter-claim, which +came with all the effect of a volley from a masked battery, +destructive alike to our diplomatic reputation and to our hope of +retaining Tobago. + +It is impossible to refer here to all the topics discussed at Amiens. +The determination of the French Government to adopt a forward colonial +and oceanic policy is clearly seen in its proposals made at the close +of the year 1801. They were: (1) the abolition of salutes to the +British flag on the high seas; (2) an _absolute_ ownership of the +eastern and western coasts of Newfoundland in return for a proposed +cession of the isles of St. Pierre and Miquelon to us--which would +have practically ceded to France _in full sovereignty_ all the best +fishing coasts of that land, with every prospect of settling the +interior, in exchange for two islets devastated by war and then in +British hands; (3) the right of the French to a share in the whale +fishery in those seas; (4) the establishment of a French fishing +station in the Falkland Isles; and (5) the extension of the French +districts around the towns of Yanaon and Mahe in India.[188] To all +these demands Lord Cornwallis opposed an unbending opposition. Weak as +our policy had been on other affairs, it was firm as a rock on all +maritime and Indian questions. In fact, the events to be described in +the next chapter, which led to the consolidation of British power in +Hindostan, would in all probability never have occurred but for the +apprehensions excited by these French demands; and our masterful +proconsul in Bengal, the Marquis Wellesley, could not have pursued his +daring and expensive schemes of conquest, annexation, and forced +alliances, had not the schemes of the First Consul played into the +hands of the soldiers at Calcutta and weakened the protests of the +dividend-hunters of Leadenhall Street. + +The persistence of French demands for an increase of influence in +Newfoundland and the West and East Indies, the vastness of her +expedition to Saint Domingo and the thinly-veiled designs of her +Australian expedition (which we shall notice in the next chapter), all +served to awaken the suspicions of the British Government. The +negotiations consequently progressed but slowly. From the outset they +were clogged by the suspicion of bad faith. Spain and Holland, smarting +under the conditions of a peace which gave to France all the glory and +to her allies all the loss, delayed sending their respective envoys to +the conferences at Amiens, and finally avowed their determination to +resist the surrender of Trinidad and Ceylon. In fact, pressure had to +be exerted from Paris and London before they yielded to the inevitable. +This difficulty was only one of several: there then remained the +questions whether Portugal and Turkey should be admitted to share in the +treaty, as England demanded; or whether they should sign a separate +peace with France. The First Consul strenuously insisted on the +exclusion of those States, though their interests were vitally affected +by the present negotiations, He saw that a separate treaty with the +Sublime Porte would enable him, not only to extract valuable trading +concessions in the Black Sea trade, but also to cement a good +understanding with Russia on the Eastern Question, which was now being +adroitly reopened by French diplomacy. Against the exclusion of Turkey +from the negotiations at Amiens, Great Britain firmly but vainly +protested. In fact, Talleyrand had bound the Porte to a separate +agreement which promised everything for France and nothing for Turkey, +and seemed to doom the Sublime Porte to certain humiliation and probable +partition.[189] + +Then there were the vexed questions of the indemnities claimed by +George III. for the Houses of Orange and of Savoy. In his interview +with Cornwallis, Bonaparte had effusively promised to do his utmost +for the ex-Stadholder, though he refused to consider the case of the +King of Sardinia, who, he averred, had offended him by appealing to +the Czar. The territorial interests of France in Italy doubtless +offered a more potent argument to the First Consul: after practically +annexing Piedmont and dominating the peninsula, he could ill brook +the presence on the mainland of a king whom he had already sacrificed +to his astute and masterful policy. The case of the Prince of Orange +was different. He was a victim to the triumph of French and democratic +influence in the Dutch Netherlands. George III. felt a deep interest +in this unfortunate prince and made a strong appeal to the better +instincts of Bonaparte on his behalf. Indeed, it is probable that +England had acquiesced in the consolidation of French influence at the +Hague, in the hope that her complaisance would lead the First Consul +to assure him some position worthy of so ancient a House. But though +Cornwallis pressed the Batavian Republic on behalf of its exiled +chief, yet the question was finally adjourned by the XVIIIth clause of +the definitive Treaty of Amiens; and the scion of that famous House +had to take his share in the forthcoming scramble for the clerical +domains of Germany.[190] + +For the still more difficult cause of the House of Savoy the British +Government made honest but unavailing efforts, firmly refusing to +recognize the newest creations of Bonaparte in Italy, namely, the +Kingdom of Etruria and the Ligurian Republic, until he indemnified the +House of Savoy. Our recognition was withheld for the reasons that +prompt every bargainer to refuse satisfaction to his antagonist until +an equal concession is accorded. This game was played by both Powers +at Amiens, and with little other result than mutual exasperation. Yet +here, too, the balance of gain naturally accrued to Bonaparte; for he +required the British Ministry to recognize existing facts in Etruria +and Liguria, while Cornwallis had to champion the cause of exiles and +of an order that seemed for ever to have vanished. To pit the +non-existent against the actual was a task far above the powers of +British statesmanship; yet that was to be its task for the next +decade, while the forces of the living present were to be wielded by +its mighty antagonist. Herein lay the secret of British failures and +of Napoleon's extraordinary triumphs. + +Leaving, for a space, the negotiations at Amiens, we turn to consider +the events which transpired at Lyons in the early weeks of 1802, +events which influenced not only the future of Italy, but the fortunes +of Bonaparte. + +It will be remembered that, after the French victories of Marengo and +Hohenlinden, Austria agreed to terms of peace whereby the Cisalpine, +Ligurian, Helvetic, and Batavian Republics were formally recognized by +her, though a clause expressly stipulated that they were to be +independent of France. A vain hope! They continued to be under French +tutelage, and their strongholds in the possession of French troops. + +It now remained to legalize French supremacy in the Cisalpine +Republic, which comprised the land between the Ticino and the Adige, +and the Alps and the Rubicon. The new State received a provisional +form of government after Marengo, a small council being appointed to +supervise civil affairs at the capital, Milan. With it and with +Marescalchi, the Cisalpine envoy at Paris, Bonaparte had concerted a +constitution, or rather he had used these men as a convenient screen +to hide its purely personal origin. Having, for form's sake, consulted +the men whom he had himself appointed, he now suggested that the chief +citizens of that republic should confer with him respecting their new +institutions. His Minister at Milan thereupon proposed that they +should cross the Alps for that purpose, assembling, not at Paris, +where their dependence on the First Consul's will might provoke too +much comment, but at Lyons. To that city, accordingly, there repaired +some 450 of the chief men of Northern Italy, who braved the snows of a +most rigorous December, in the hope of consolidating the liberties of +their long-distracted country. And thus was seen the strange spectacle +of the organization of Lombardy, Modena, and the Legations being +effected in one provincial centre of France, while at another of her +cities the peace of Europe and the fortunes of two colonial empires +were likewise at stake. Such a conjunction of events might well +impress the imagination of men, bending the stubborn will of the +northern islanders, and moulding the Italian notables to complete +complaisance. And yet, such power was there in the nascent idea of +Italian nationality, that Bonaparte's proposals, which, in his +absence, were skilfully set forth by Talleyrand, met with more than +one rebuff from the Consulta at Lyons. + +Bitterly it opposed the declaration that the Roman Catholic religion +was the religion of the Cisalpine Republic and must be maintained by a +State budget. Only the first part of this proposal could be carried: +so keen was the opposition to the second part that, as a preferable +plan, property was set apart for the support of the clergy; and +clerical discipline was subjected to the State, on terms somewhat +similar to those of the French Concordat.[191] + +Secular affairs gave less trouble. The apparent success of the French +constitution furnished a strong motive for adopting one of a similar +character for the Italian State; and as the proposed institutions had +been approved at Milan, their acceptance by a large and miscellaneous +body was a foregone conclusion. Talleyrand also took the most +unscrupulous care that the affair of the Presidency should be +judiciously settled. On December 31st, 1801, he writes to Bonaparte +from Lyons: + + "The opinion of the Cisalpines seems not at all decided as to the + choice to be made: they will gladly receive the man whom you + nominate: a President in France and a Vice-President at Milan would + suit a large number of them." + +Four days later he confidently assures the First Consul: + + "They will do what you want without your needing even to show your + desire. What they think you desire will immediately become + law."[192] + +The ground having been thus thoroughly worked, Bonaparte and +Josephine, accompanied by a brilliant suite, arrived at Lyons on +January 11th, and met with an enthusiastic reception. Despite the +intense cold, followed by a sudden thaw, a brilliant series of fetes, +parades, and receptions took place; and several battalions of the +French Army of Egypt, which had recently been conveyed home on English +ships, now passed in review before their chief. The impressionable +Italians could not mistake the aim of these demonstrations; and, after +general matters had been arranged by the notables, the final measures +were relegated to a committee of thirty. The desirability of this step +was obvious, for urgent protests had already been raised in the +Consulta against the appointment of a foreigner as President of the +new State. When a hubbub arose on this burning topic: + + "Some officers of the regiments in garrison at Lyons appeared in + the hall and imposed silence upon all parties. Notwithstanding + this, Count Melzi was actually chosen President by the majority of + the Committee of Thirty; but he declined the honour, and suggested + in significant terms that, to enable him to render any service to + the country, the committee had better fix upon General Bonaparte as + their Chief Magistrate. This being done, Bonaparte immediately + appointed Count Melzi Vice-President."[193] + +Bonaparte's determination to fill this important position is clearly +seen in his correspondence. On the 2nd and 4th of Pluviose (January +22nd and 24th), he writes from Lyons: + + "All the principal affairs of the Consulta are settled. I count on + being back at Paris in the course of the decade." + + "To-morrow I shall review the troops from Egypt. On the 6th [of + Pluviose] all the business of the Consulta will be finished, and I + shall probably set out on my journey on the 7th." + +The next day, 5th Pluviose, sees the accomplishment of his desires: + + "To-day I have reviewed the troops on the Place Bellecour; the sun + shone as it does in Floreal. The Consulta has named a committee of + thirty individuals, which has reported to it that, considering the + domestic and foreign affairs of the Cisalpine, it was indispensable + to let me discharge the first magistracy, until circumstances + permit and I judge it suitable to appoint a successor." + +These extracts prove that the acts of the Consulta could be planned +beforehand no less precisely than the movements of the soldiery, and +that even so complex a matter as the voting of a constitution and the +choice of its chief had to fall in with the arrangements of this +methodizing genius. Certainly civilization had progressed since the +weary years when the French people groped through mists and waded in +blood in order to gain a perfect polity: that precious boon was now +conferred on a neighbouring people in so sure a way that the plans of +their benefactor could be infallibly fixed and his return to Paris +calculated to the hour. + +The final address uttered by Bonaparte to the Italian notables is +remarkable for the short, sharp sentences, which recall the tones of +the parade ground. Passing recent events in rapid review, he said, +speaking in his mother tongue: + + "...Every effort had been made to dismember you: the protection of + France won the day: you have been recognized at Luneville. + One-fifth larger than before, you are now more powerful, more + consolidated, and have wider hopes. Composed of six different + nations, you will be now united under a constitution the best + possible for your social and material condition. ... The selections + I have made for your chief offices have been made independently of + all idea of party or feeling of locality. As for that of President, + I have found no one among you with sufficient claims on public + opinion, sufficiently free from local feelings, and who had + rendered great enough services to his country, to intrust it to + him.... Your people has only local feelings: it must now rise to + national feelings." + +In accordance with this last grand and prophetic remark, the name +Italian was substituted for that of Cisalpine: and thus, for the first +time since the Middle Ages, there reappeared on the map of Europe that +name, which was to evoke the sneers of diplomatists and the most +exalted patriotism of the century. If Bonaparte had done naught else, +he would deserve immortal glory for training the divided peoples of +the peninsula for a life of united activity. + +The new constitution was modelled on that of France; but the pretence +of a democratic suffrage was abandoned. The right of voting was +accorded to three classes, the great proprietors, the clerics and +learned men, and the merchants. These, meeting in their several +"Electoral Colleges," voted for the members of the legislative bodies; +a Tribunal was also charged with the maintenance of the constitution. +By these means Bonaparte endeavoured to fetter the power of the +reactionaries no less than the anti-clerical fervour of the Italian +Jacobins. The blending of the new and the old which then began shows +the hand of the master builder, who neither sweeps away materials +merely because they are old, nor rejects the strength that comes from +improved methods of construction: and, however much we may question +the disinterestedness of his motives in this great enterprise, there +can be but one opinion as to the skill of the methods and the +beneficence of the results in Italy.[194] + + + +The first step in the process of Italian unification had now been +taken at Lyons. A second soon followed. The affairs of the Ligurian +Republic were in some confusion; and an address came from Genoa +begging that their differences might be composed by the First Consul. +The spontaneity of this offer may well be questioned, seeing that +Bonaparte found it desirable, in his letter of February 18th, 1802, to +assure the Ligurian authorities that they need feel no disquietude as +to the independence of their republic. Bonaparte undertook to alter +their constitution and nominate their Doge. + +That the news of the events at Lyons excited the liveliest indignation +in London is evident from Hawkesbury's despatch of February 12th, +1802, to Cornwallis: + + "The proceedings at Lyons have created the greatest alarm in this + country, and there are many persons who were pacifically disposed, + who since this event are desirous of renewing the war. It is + impossible to be surprised at this feeling when we consider the + inordinate ambition, the gross breach of faith, and the inclination + to insult Europe manifested by the First Consul on this occasion. + The Government here are desirous of avoiding to take notice of + these proceedings, and are sincerely desirous to conclude the + peace, if it can be obtained on terms consistent with our honour." + +Why the Government should have lagged behind the far surer instincts +of English public opinion it is difficult to say. Hawkesbury's +despatch of four days later supplies an excuse for his contemptible +device of pretending not to see this glaring violation of the Treaty +of Luneville. Referring to the events at Lyons, he writes: + + "Extravagant and unjustifiable as they are in themselves, [they] + must have led us to believe that the First Consul would have been + more anxious than ever to have closed his account with this + country." + +Doubtless that was the case, but only on condition that England +remained passive while French domination was extended over all +neighbouring lands. If our Ministers believed that Bonaparte feared +the displeasure of Austria, they were completely in error. Thanks to +the utter weakness of the European system, and the rivalry of Austria +and Prussia, he was now able to concentrate his ever-increasing power +and prestige on the negotiations at Amiens, which once more claim our +attention. + +Far from being sated by the prestige gained at Lyons, he seemed to +grow more exacting with victory. Moreover, he had been cut to the +quick by some foolish articles of a French _emigre_ named Peltier, in +a paper published at London: instead of treating them with the +contempt they deserved, he magnified these ravings of a disappointed +exile into an event of high policy, and fulminated against the +Government which allowed them. In vain did Cornwallis object that the +Addington Cabinet could not venture on the unpopular act of curbing +freedom of the Press in Great Britain. The First Consul, who had +experienced no such difficulty in France, persisted now, as a year +later, in considering every uncomplimentary reference to himself as an +indirect and semiofficial attack. + +To these causes we may attribute the French demands of February 4th: +contradicting his earlier proposal for a temporary Neapolitan garrison +of Malta, Bonaparte now absolutely refused either to grant that +necessary protection to the weak Order of St. John, or to join Great +Britain in an equal share of the expenses--L20,000 a year--which such +a garrison would entail. The astonishment and indignation aroused at +Downing Street nearly led to an immediate rupture of the negotiations; +and it needed all the patience of Cornwallis and the suavity of Joseph +Bonaparte to smooth away the asperities caused by Napoleon's direct +intervention. It needs only a slight acquaintance with the First +Consul's methods of thought and expression to recognize in the +Protocol of February 4th the incisive speech of an autocrat confident +in his newly-consolidated powers and irritated by the gibes of +Peltier.[195] + +The good sense of the two plenipotentiaries at Amiens before long +effected a reconciliation. Hawkesbury, writing from Downing Street, +warned Cornwallis that if a rupture were to take place it must not be +owing to "any impatience on our part": and he, in his turn, affably +inquired from Joseph Bonaparte whether he had any more practicable +plan than that of a Neapolitan garrison, which he had himself +proposed. No plan was forthcoming other than that of a garrison of +1,000 Swiss mercenaries; and as this was open to grave objections, the +original proposal was finally restored. On its side, the Court of St. +James still refused to blow up the fortifications at Valetta; and +rather than destroy those works, England had already offered that the +independence of Malta should be guaranteed by the Great Powers--Great +Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Spain, and Prussia: to this +arrangement France soon assented. Later on we demanded that the +Neapolitan garrison should remain in Malta for three years after the +evacuation of the island by the British troops; whereas France desired +to limit the period to one year. To this Cornwallis finally assented, +with the proviso that, "if the Order of St. John shall not have raised +a sufficient number of men, the Neapolitan troops shall remain until +they shall be relieved by an adequate force, to be agreed upon by the +guaranteeing Powers." The question of the garrison having been +arranged, other details gave less trouble, and the Maltese question +was settled in the thirteen conditions added to Clause X. of the +definitive treaty. + +Though this complex question was thus adjusted by March 17th, other +matters delayed a settlement. + + + +Hawkesbury still demanded a definite indemnity for the Prince of +Orange, but Cornwallis finally assented to Article XVIII. of the +treaty, which vaguely promised "an adequate compensation." Cornwallis +also persuaded his chief to waive his claims for the direct +participation of Turkey in the treaty. The British demand for an +indemnity for the expense of supporting French prisoners was to be +relegated to commissioners--who never met. Indeed, this was the only +polite way of escaping from the untenable position which our +Government had heedlessly taken upon this topic. + +It is clear from the concluding despatches of Cornwallis that he was +wheedled by Joseph Bonaparte into conceding more than the British +Government had empowered him to do; and, though the "secret and most +confidential" despatch of March 22nd cautioned him against narrowing +too much the ground of a rupture, if a rupture should still occur, yet +three days later, and _after the receipt of this despatch_, he signed +the terms of peace with Joseph Bonaparte, and two days later with the +other signatory Powers.[196] It may well be doubted whether peace +would ever have been signed but for the skill of Joseph Bonaparte in +polite cajolery and the determination of Cornwallis to arrive at an +understanding. In any case the final act of signature was distinctly +the act, not of the British Government, but of its plenipotentiary. + + +That fact is confirmed by his admission, on March 28th, that he had +yielded where he was ordered to remain inflexible. At St. Helena, +Napoleon also averred that after Cornwallis had definitely pledged +himself to sign the treaty as it stood on the night of March 24th, he +received instructions in a contrary sense from Downing Street; that +nevertheless he held himself bound by his promise and signed the +treaty on the following day, observing that his Government, if +dissatisfied, might refuse to ratify it, but that, having pledged his +word, he felt bound to abide by it. This story seems consonant with +the whole behaviour of Cornwallis, so creditable to him as a man, so +damaging to him as a diplomatist. The later events of the negotiation +aroused much annoyance at Downing Street, and the conduct of +Cornwallis met with chilling disapproval. + +The First Consul, on the other hand, showed his appreciation of his +brother's skill with unusual warmth; for when they appeared together +at the opera in Paris, he affectionately thrust his elder brother to +the front of the State box to receive the plaudits of the audience at +the advent of a definite peace. That was surely the purest and noblest +joy which the brothers ever tasted. + +With what feelings of pride, not unmixed with awe, must the brothers +have surveyed their career. Less than nine years had elapsed since +their family fled from Corsica, and landed on the coast of Provence, +apparently as bankrupt in their political hopes as in their material +fortunes. Thrice did the fickle goddess cast Napoleon to the ground in +the first two years of his new life, only that his wondrous gifts and +sublime self-confidence might tower aloft the more conspicuously, +bewildering alike the malcontents of Paris, the generals of the old +Empire, the peoples of the Levant, and the statesmen of Britain. Of +all these triumphs assuredly the last was not the least. The Peace of +Amiens left France the arbitress of Europe, and, by restoring to her +all her lost colonies, it promised to place her in the van of the +oceanic and colonizing peoples. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +A FRENCH COLONIAL EMPIRE + +ST. DOMINGO--LOUISIANA--INDIA--AUSTRALIA + + "Il n'y a rien dans l'histoire du monde de comparable aux forces + navales de l'Angleterre, a l'etendue et a la richesse de son + commerce, a la masse de ses dettes, de ses defenses, de ses moyens, + et a la fragilite des bases sur lesquelles repose l'edifice immense + de sa fortune."--BARON MALOUET, _Considerations historiques sur + l'Empire de la Mer_. + + +There are abundant reasons for thinking that Napoleon valued the Peace +of Amiens as a necessary preliminary to the restoration of the French +Colonial Empire. A comparison of the dates at which he set on foot his +oceanic schemes will show that they nearly all had their inception in +the closing months of 1801 and in the course of the following year. +The sole important exceptions were the politico-scientific expedition +to Australia, the ostensible purpose of which insured immunity from +the attacks of English cruisers even in the year 1800, and the plans +for securing French supremacy in Egypt, which had been frustrated in +1801 and were, to all appearance, abandoned by the First Consul +according to the provisions of the Treaty of Amiens. The question +whether he really relinquished his designs on Egypt is so intimately +connected with the rupture of the Peace of Amiens that it will be more +fitly considered in the following chapter. It may not, however, be out +of place to offer some proofs as to the value which Bonaparte set on +the valley of the Nile and the Isthmus of Suez. A letter from a spy at +Paris, preserved in the archives of our Foreign Office, and dated +July 10th, 1801, contains the following significant statement with +reference to Bonaparte: "Egypt, which is considered here as lost to +France, is the only object which interests his personal ambition and +excites his revenge." Even at the end of his days, he thought +longingly of the land of the Pharaohs. In his first interview with the +governor of St. Helena, the illustrious exile said emphatically: +"Egypt is the most important country in the world." The words reveal a +keen perception of all the influences conducive to commercial +prosperity and imperial greatness. Egypt, in fact, with the Suez +Canal, which his imagination always pictured as a necessary adjunct, +was to be the keystone of that arch of empire which was to span the +oceans and link the prairies of the far west to the teeming plains of +India and the far Austral Isles. + +The motives which impelled Napoleon to the enterprises now to be +considered were as many-sided as the maritime ventures themselves. +Ultimately, doubtless, they arose out of a love of vast undertakings +that ministered at once to an expanding ambition and to that need of +arduous administrative toils for which his mind ever craved in the +heyday of its activity. And, while satiating the grinding powers of +his otherwise morbidly restless spirit, these enterprises also fed and +soothed those imperious, if unconscious, instincts which prompt every +able man of inquiring mind to reclaim all possible domains from the +unknown or the chaotic. As Egypt had, for the present at least, been +reft from his grasp, he turned naturally to all other lands that could +be forced to yield their secrets to the inquirer, or their comforts to +the benefactors of mankind. Only a dull cynicism can deny this motive +to the man who first unlocked the doors of Egyptian civilization; and +it would be equally futile to deny to him the same beneficent aims +with regard to the settlement of the plains of the Mississippi, and +the coasts of New Holland. + +The peculiarities of the condition of France furnished another +powerful impulse towards colonization. In the last decade her people +had suffered from an excess of mental activity and nervous excitement. +From philosophical and political speculation they must be brought back +to the practical and prosaic; and what influence could be so healthy +as the turning up of new soil and other processes that satisfy the +primitive instincts? Some of these, it was true, were being met by the +increasing peasant proprietary in France herself. But this internal +development, salutary as it was, could not appease the restless +spirits of the towns or the ambition of the soldiery. Foreign +adventures and oceanic commerce alone could satisfy the Parisians and +open up new careers for the Praetorian chiefs, whom the First Consul +alone really feared. + +Nor were these sentiments felt by him alone. In a paper which +Talleyrand read to the Institute of France in July, 1797, that +far-seeing statesman had dwelt upon the pacifying influences exerted +by foreign commerce and colonial settlements on a too introspective +nation. His words bear witness to the keenness of his insight into the +maladies of his own people and the sources of social and political +strength enjoyed by the United States, where he had recently +sojourned. Referring to their speedy recovery from the tumults of +their revolution, he said: "The true Lethe after passing through a +revolution is to be found in the opening out to men of every avenue of +hope.--Revolutions leave behind them a general restlessness of mind, a +need of movement." That need was met in America by man's warfare +against the forest, the flood, and the prairie. France must therefore +possess colonies as intellectual and political safety-valves; and in +his graceful, airy style he touched on the advantages offered by +Egypt, Louisiana, and West Africa, both for their intrinsic value and +as opening the door of work and of hope to a brain-sick generation. + +Following up this clue, Bonaparte, at a somewhat later date, remarked +the tendency of the French people, now that the revolutionary strifes +were past, to settle down contentedly on their own little plots; and +he emphasized the need of a colonial policy such as would widen the +national life. The remark has been largely justified by events; and +doubtless he discerned in the agrarian reforms of the Revolution an +influence unfavourable to that racial dispersion which, under wise +guidance, builds up an oceanic empire. The grievances of the _ancien +regime_ had helped to scatter on the shores of the St. Lawrence the +seeds of a possible New France. Primogeniture was ever driving from +England her younger sons to found New Englands and expand the commerce +of the motherland. Let not France now rest at home, content with her +perfect laws and with the conquest of her "natural frontiers." Let her +rather strive to regain the first place in colonial activity which the +follies of Louis XV. and the secular jealousy of Albion had filched +from her. In the effort she would extend the bounds of civilization, +lay the ghost of Jacobinism, satisfy military and naval adventures, +and unconsciously revert to the ideas and governmental methods of the +age of _le grand monarque_. + +The French possessions beyond the seas had never shrunk to a smaller +area than in the closing years of the late war with England. The fact +was confessed by the First Consul in his letter of October 7th, 1801, +to Decres, the Minister for the Navy and the Colonies: "Our +possessions beyond the sea, which are now in our power, are limited to +Saint Domingo, Guadeloupe, the Isle of France (Mauritius), the Isle of +Bourbon, Senegal, and Guiana." After rendering this involuntary homage +to the prowess of the British navy, Bonaparte proceeded to describe +the first measures for the organization of these colonies: for not +until March 25th, 1802, when the definitive treaty of peace was +signed, could the others be regained by France. + + * * * * * + +First in importance came the re-establishment of French authority in +the large and fertile island of Hayti, or St. Domingo. It needs an +effort of the imagination for the modern reader to realize the immense +importance of the West Indian islands at the beginning of the +century, whose close found them depressed and half bankrupt. At the +earlier date, when the name Australia was unknown, and the +half-starved settlement in and around Sydney represented the sole +wealth of that isle of continent; when the Cape of Good Hope was +looked on only as a port of call; when the United States numbered less +than five and a half million souls, and the waters of the Mississippi +rolled in unsullied majesty past a few petty Spanish stations--the +plantations of the West Indies seemed the unfailing mine of colonial +industry and commerce. Under the _ancien regime_, the trade of the +French portion of San Domingo is reported to have represented more +than half of her oceanic commerce. But during the Revolution the +prosperity of that colony reeled under a terrible blow. + +The hasty proclamation of equality between whites and blacks by the +French revolutionists, and the refusal of the planters to recognize +that decree as binding, led to a terrible servile revolt, which +desolated the whole of the colony. Those merciless strifes had, +however, somewhat abated under the organizing power of a man, in whom +the black race seemed to have vindicated its claims to political +capacity. Toussaint l'Ouverture had come to the front by sheer +sagacity and force of character. By a deft mixture of force and +clemency, he imposed order on the vapouring crowds of negroes: he +restored the French part of the island to comparative order and +prosperity; and with an army of 20,000 men he occupied the Spanish +portion. In this, as in other matters, he appeared to act as the +mandatory of France; but he looked to the time when France, beset by +European wars, would tacitly acknowledge his independence. In May, +1801, he made a constitution for the island, and declared himself +governor for life, with power to appoint his successor. This mimicry +of the consular office, and the open vaunt that he was the "Bonaparte +of the Antilles," incensed Bonaparte; and the haste with which, on +the day after the Preliminaries of London, he prepared to overthrow +this contemptible rival, tells its own tale. + +Yet Corsican hatred was tempered with Corsican guile. Toussaint had +requested that the Haytians should be under the protection of their +former mistress. Protection was the last thing that Bonaparte desired; +but he deemed it politic to flatter the black chieftain with +assurances of his personal esteem and gratitude for the "great +services which you have rendered to the French people. If its flag +floats over St. Domingo it is due to you and your brave blacks"--a +reference to Toussaint's successful resistance to English attempts at +landing. There were, it is true, some points in the new Haytian +constitution which contravened the sovereign rights of France, but +these were pardonable in the difficult circumstances which had pressed +on Toussaint: he was now, however, invited to amend them so as to +recognize the complete sovereignty of the motherland and the authority +of General Leclerc, whom Bonaparte sent out as captain-general of the +island. To this officer, the husband of Pauline Bonaparte, the First +Consul wrote on the same day that there was reported to be much +ferment in the island against Toussaint, that the obstacles to be +overcome would therefore be much less formidable than had been feared, +provided that activity and firmness were used. In his references to +the burning topic of slavery, the First Consul showed a similar +reserve. The French Republic having abolished it, he could not, as +yet, openly restore an institution flagrantly opposed to the Rights of +Man. Ostensibly therefore he figured as the champion of emancipation, +assuring the Haytians in his proclamation of November 8th, 1801, that +they were all free and all equal in the sight of God and of the +French Republic: "If you are told, 'These forces are destined to +snatch your liberty from you,' reply, 'The Republic has given us our +liberty: it will not allow it to be taken from us.'" Of a similar +tenor was his public declaration a fortnight later, that at St. +Domingo and Guadeloupe everybody was free and would remain free. Very +different were his private instructions. On the last day of October he +ordered Talleyrand to write to the British Government, asking for +their help in supplying provisions from Jamaica to this expedition +destined to "destroy the new Algiers being organized in American +waters"; and a fortnight later he charged him to state his resolve to +destroy the government of the blacks at St. Domingo; that if he had to +postpone the expedition for a year, he would be "obliged to constitute +the blacks as French"; and that "the liberty of the blacks, if +recognized by the Government, would always be a support for the +Republic in the New World." As he was striving to cajole our +Government into supporting his expedition, it is clear that in the +last enigmatic phrase he was bidding for that support by the hint of a +prospective restoration of slavery at St. Domingo. A comparison of his +public and private statements must have produced a curious effect on +the British Ministers, and many of the difficulties during the +negotiations at Amiens doubtless sprang out of their knowledge of his +double-dealing in the West Indies. + +The means at the First Consul's disposal might have been considered +sufficient to dispense with these paltry devices; for when the +squadrons of Brest, Lorient, Rochefort, and Toulon had joined their +forces, they mustered thirty-two ships of the line and thirty-one +frigates, with more than 20,000 troops on board. So great, indeed, was +the force as to occasion strong remonstrances from the British +Government, and a warning that a proportionately strong fleet would be +sent to watch over the safety of our West Indies.[197] The size of the +French armada and the warnings which Toussaint received from Europe +induced that wily dictator to adopt stringent precautionary measures. +He persuaded the blacks that the French were about to enslave them +once more, and, raising the spectre of bondage, he quelled sedition, +ravaged the maritime towns, and awaited the French in the interior, in +confident expectation that yellow fever would winnow their ranks and +reduce them to a level with his own strength. + +His hopes were ultimately realized, but not until he himself succumbed +to the hardihood of the French attack. Leclerc's army swept across the +desolated belt with an ardour that was redoubled by the sight of the +mangled remains of white people strewn amidst the negro encampments, +and stormed Toussaint's chief stronghold at Crete-a-Pierrot. The +dictator and his factious lieutenants thereupon surrendered (May 8th, +1802), on condition of their official rank being respected--a +stipulation which both sides must have regarded as unreal and +impossible. The French then pressed on to secure the subjection of the +whole island before the advent of the unhealthy season, which +Toussaint eagerly awaited. It now set in with unusual virulence; and +in a few days the conquerors found their force reduced to 12,000 +effectives. Suspecting Toussaint's designs, Leclerc seized him. He was +empowered to do so by Bonaparte's orders of March 16th, 1802: + + "Follow your instructions exactly, and as soon as you have done + with Toussaint, Christopher, Dessalines, and the chief brigands, + and the masses of the blacks are disarmed, send to the continent + all the blacks and the half-castes who have taken part in the civil + troubles." + +Toussaint was hurried off to France, where he died a year later from +the hardships to which he was exposed at the fort of Joux among the +Juras. + +Long before the cold of a French winter claimed the life of Toussaint, +his antagonist fell a victim to the sweltering heats of the tropics. +On November 2nd, 1802, Leclerc succumbed to the unhealthy climate and +to his ceaseless anxieties. In the Notes dictated at St. Helena, +Napoleon submitted Leclerc's memory to some strictures for his +indiscretion in regard to the proposed restoration of slavery. The +official letters of that officer expose the injustice of the charge. +The facts are these. After the seeming submission of St. Domingo, the +First Consul caused a decree to be secretly passed at Paris (May 20th, +1802), which prepared to re-establish slavery in the West Indies; but +Decres warned Leclerc that it was not for the present to be applied to +St. Domingo unless it seemed to be opportune. Knowing how fatal any +such proclamation would be, Leclerc suppressed the decree; but General +Richepanse, who was now governor of the island of Guadeloupe, not only +issued the decree, but proceeded to enforce it with rigour. It was +this which caused the last and most desperate revolts of the blacks, +fatal alike to French domination and to Leclerc's life. His successor, +Rochambeau, in spite of strong reinforcements of troops from France +and a policy of the utmost rigour, succeeded no better. In the island +of Guadeloupe the rebels openly defied the authority of France; and, +on the renewal of war between England and France, the remains of the +expedition were for the most part constrained to surrender to the +British flag or to the insurgent blacks. The island recovered its +so-called independence; and the sole result of Napoleon's efforts in +this sphere was the loss of more than twenty generals and some 30,000 +troops. + +The assertion has been repeatedly made that the First Consul told off +for this service the troops of the Army of the Rhine, with the aim of +exposing to the risks of tropical life the most republican part of the +French forces. That these furnished a large part of the expeditionary +force cannot be denied; but if his design was to rid himself of +political foes, it is difficult to see why he should not have selected +Moreau, Massena, or Augereau, rather than Leclerc. The fact that his +brother-in-law was accompanied by his wife, Pauline Bonaparte, for +whom venomous tongues asserted that Napoleon cherished a more than +brotherly affection, will suffice to refute the slander. Finally, it +may be remarked that Bonaparte had not hesitated to subject the +choicest part of his Army of Italy and his own special friends to +similiar risks in Egypt and Syria. He never hesitated to sacrifice +thousands of lives when a great object was at stake; and the +restoration of the French West Indian Colonies might well seem worth +an army, especially as St. Domingo was not only of immense instrinsic +value to France in days when beetroot sugar was unknown, but was of +strategic importance as a base of operations for the vast colonial +empire which the First Consul proposed to rebuild in the basin of the +Mississippi. + + * * * * * + +The history of the French possessions on the North American continent +could scarcely be recalled by ardent patriots without pangs of +remorse. The name Louisiana, applied to a vast territory stretching up +the banks of the Mississippi and the Missouri, recalled the glorious +days of Louis XIV., when the French flag was borne by stout +_voyageurs_ up the foaming rivers of Canada and the placid reaches of +the father of rivers. It had been the ambition of Montcalm to connect +the French stations on Lake Erie with the forts of Louisiana; but that +warrior-statesman in the West, as his kindred spirit, Dupleix, in the +East, had fallen on the evil days of Louis XV., when valour and merit +in the French colonies were sacrificed to the pleasures and parasites +of Versailles. The natural result followed. Louisiana was yielded up +to Spain in 1763, in order to reconcile the Court of Madrid to +cessions required by that same Peace of Paris. Twenty years later +Spain recovered from England the provinces of eastern and western +Florida; and thus, at the dawn of the nineteenth century, the red and +yellow flag waved over all the lands between California, New Orleans, +and the southern tip of Florida.[198] + +Many efforts were made by France to regain her old Mississippi +province; and in 1795, at the break up of the First Coalition, the +victorious Republic pressed Spain to yield up this territory, where +the settlers were still French at heart. Doubtless the weak King of +Spain would have yielded; but his chief Minister, Godoy, clung +tenaciously to Louisiana, and consented to cede only the Spanish part +of St. Domingo--a diplomatic success which helped to earn him the +title of the Prince of the Peace. So matters remained until +Talleyrand, as Foreign Minister, sought to gain Louisiana from Spain +before it slipped into the horny fists of the Anglo-Saxons. + +That there was every prospect of this last event was the conviction +not only of the politicians at Washington, but also of every +iron-worker on the Ohio and of every planter on the Tennessee. Those +young but growing settlements chafed against the restraints imposed by +Spain on the river trade of the lower Mississippi--the sole means +available for their exports in times when the Alleghanies were crossed +by only two tracks worthy the name of roads. In 1795 they gained free +egress to the Gulf of Mexico and the right of bonding their +merchandise in a special warehouse at New Orleans. Thereafter the +United States calmly awaited the time when racial vigour and the +exigencies of commerce should yield to them the possession of the +western prairies and the little townships of Arkansas and New Orleans. +They reckoned without taking count of the eager longing of the French +for their former colony and the determination of Napoleon to give +effect to this honourable sentiment. + +In July, 1800, when his negotiations with the United + + + +States were in good train, the First Consul sent to Madrid +instructions empowering the French Minister there to arrange a treaty +whereby France should receive Louisiana in return for the cession of +Tuscany to the heir of the Duke of Parma. This young man had married +the daughter of Charles IV. of Spain; and, for the aggrandizement of +his son-in-law, that _roi faineant_, was ready, nay eager, to bargain +away a quarter of a continent; and he did so by a secret convention +signed at St. Ildefonso on October 7th, 1800. + +But though Charles rejoiced over this exchange, Godoy, who was gifted +with some insight into the future, was determined to frustrate it. +Various events occurred which enabled this wily Minister, first to +delay, and then almost to prevent, the odious surrender. Chief among +these was the certainty that the transfer from weak hands to strong +hands would be passionately resented by the United States; and until +peace with England was fully assured, and the power of Toussaint +broken, it would be folly for the First Consul to risk a conflict with +the United States. That they would fight rather than see the western +prairies pass into the First Consul's hands was abundantly manifest. +It is proved by many patriotic pamphlets. The most important of +these--"An Address to the Government of the United States on the +Cession of Louisiana to the French," published at Philadelphia in +1802--quoted largely from a French _brochure_ by a French Councillor +of State. The French writer had stated that along the Mississippi his +countrymen would find boundless fertile prairies, and as for the +opposition of the United States--"a nation of pedlars and +shopkeepers"--that could be crushed by a French alliance with the +Indian tribes. The American writer thereupon passionately called on +his fellow-citizens to prevent this transfer: "France is to be dreaded +only, or chiefly, on the Mississippi. The Government must take +Louisiana before it passes into her hands. The iron is now hot: +command us to rise as one man and strike." These and other like +protests at last stirred the placid Government at Washington; and it +bade the American Minister at Paris to make urgent remonstrances, the +sole effect of which was to draw from Talleyrand the bland assurance +that the transfer had not been seriously contemplated.[199] + +By the month of June, 1802, all circumstances seemed to smile on +Napoleon's enterprise: England had ratified the Peace of Amiens, +Toussaint had delivered himself up to Leclerc: France had her troops +strongly posted in Tuscany and Parma, and could, if necessary, +forcibly end the remaining scruples felt at Madrid; while the United +States, with a feeble army and a rotting navy, were controlled by the +most peaceable and Franco-phil of their presidents, Thomas Jefferson. +The First Consul accordingly ordered an expedition to be prepared, as +if for the reinforcement of Leclerc in St. Domingo, though it was +really destined for New Orleans; and he instructed Talleyrand to +soothe or coerce the Court of Madrid into the final act of transfer. +The offer was therefore made by the latter (June 19th) in the name of +the First Consul that _in no case would Louisiana ever be alienated to +a Third Power_. When further delays supervened, Bonaparte, true to his +policy of continually raising his demands, required that Eastern and +Western Florida should also be ceded to him by Spain, on condition +that the young King of Etruria (for so Tuscany was now to be styled) +should regain his father's duchy of Parma.[200] + +A word of explanation must here find place as to this singular +proposal. Parma had long been under French control; and, in March, +1801, by the secret Treaty of Madrid, the ruler of that duchy, whose +death seemed imminent, was to resign his claims thereto, provided that +his son should gain Etruria--as had been already provided for at St. +Ildefonso and Luneville. The duke was, however, allowed to keep his +duchy until his death, which occurred on October 9th, 1802; and it is +stated by our envoy in Paris to have been hastened by news of that +odious bargain.[201] His death now furnished Bonaparte with a good +occasion for seeking to win an immense area in the New World at the +expense of a small Italian duchy, which his troops could at any time +easily overrun. This consideration seems to have occurred even to +Charles IV.; he refused to barter the Floridas against Parma. The +re-establishment of his son-in-law in his paternal domains was +doubtless desirable, but not at the cost of so exacting a heriot as +East and West Florida. + +From out this maze of sordid intrigues two or three facts challenge +our attention. Both Bonaparte and Charles IV. regarded the most +fertile waste lands then calling for the plough as fairly exchanged +against half a million of Tuscans; but the former feared the +resentment of the United States, and sought to postpone a rupture +until he could coerce them by overwhelming force. It is equally clear +that, had he succeeded in this enterprise, France might have gained a +great colonial empire in North America protected from St. Domingo as a +naval and military base, while that island would have doubly prospered +from the vast supplies poured down the Mississippi; but this success +he would have bought at the expense of a _rapprochement_ between the +United States and their motherland, such as a bitter destiny was to +postpone to the end of the century. + +The prospect of an Anglo-American alliance might well give pause even +to Napoleon. Nevertheless, he resolved to complete this vast +enterprise, which, if successful, would have profoundly affected the +New World and the relative importance of the French and English +peoples. The Spanish officials at New Orleans, in pursuance of orders +from Madrid, now closed the lower Mississippi to vessels of the United +States (October, 1802). At once a furious outcry arose in the States +against an act which not only violated their treaty rights, but +foreshadowed the coming grip of the First Consul. For this outburst he +was prepared: General Victor was at Dunkirk, with five battalions and +sixteen field-pieces, ready to cross the Atlantic, ostensibly for the +relief of Leclerc, but really in order to take possession of New +Orleans.[202] But his plan was foiled by the sure instincts of the +American people, by the disasters of the St. Domingo expedition, and +by the restlessness of England under his various provocations. +Jefferson, despite his predilections for France, was compelled to +forbid the occupation of Louisiana: he accordingly sent Monroe to +Paris with instructions to effect a compromise, or even to buy +outright the French claims on that land. Various circumstances +favoured this mission. In the first week of the year 1803 Napoleon +received the news of Leclerc's death and the miserable state of the +French in St. Domingo; and as the tidings that he now received from +Egypt, Syria, Corfu, and the East generally, were of the most alluring +kind, he tacitly abandoned his Mississippi enterprise in favour of the +oriental schemes which were closer to his heart. In that month of +January he seems to have turned his gaze from the western hemisphere +towards Turkey, Egypt, and India. True, he still seemed to be doing +his utmost for the occupation of Louisiana, but only as a device for +sustaining the selling price of the western prairies. + +When the news of this change of policy reached the ears of Joseph and +Lucien Bonaparte, it aroused their bitterest opposition. Lucien plumed +himself on having struck the bargain with Spain which had secured that +vast province at the expense of an Austrian archduke's crown; and +Joseph knew only too well that Napoleon was freeing himself in the +West in order to be free to strike hard in Europe and the East. The +imminent rupture of the Peace of Amiens touched him keenly: for that +peace was his proudest achievement. If colonial adventures must be +sought, let them be sought in the New World, where Spain and the +United States could offer only a feeble resistance, rather than in +Europe and Asia, where unending war must be the result of an +aggressive policy. + +At once the brothers sought an interview with Napoleon. He chanced to +be in his bath, a warm bath perfumed with scents, where he believed +that tired nature most readily found recovery. He ordered them to be +admitted, and an interesting family discussion was the result. On his +mentioning the proposed sale, Lucien at once retorted that the +Legislature would never consent to this sacrifice. He there touched +the wrong chord in Napoleon's nature: had he appealed to the memories +of _le grand monarque_ and of Montcalm, possibly he might have bent +that iron will; but the mention of the consent of the French deputies +roused the spleen of the autocrat, who, from amidst the scented water, +mockingly bade his brother go into mourning for the affair, which he, +and he alone, intended to carry out. This gibe led Joseph to threaten +that he would mount the tribune in the Chambers and head the +opposition to this unpatriotic surrender. Defiance flashed forth once +more from the bath; and the First Consul finally ended their bitter +retorts by spasmodically rising as suddenly falling backwards, and +drenching Joseph to the skin. His peals of scornful laughter, and the +swooning of the valet, who was not yet fully inured to these family +scenes, interrupted the argument of the piece; but, when resumed a +little later, _a sec_, Lucien wound up by declaring that, if he were +not his brother, he would be his enemy. "My enemy! That is rather +strong," exclaimed Napoleon. "You my enemy! I would break you, see, +like this box"--and he dashed his snuff-box on the carpet. It did not +break: but the portrait of Josephine was detached and broken. +Whereupon Lucien picked up the pieces and handed them to his brother, +remarking: "It is a pity: meanwhile, until you can break me, it is +your wife's portrait that you have broken."[203] + +To Talleyrand, Napoleon was equally unbending: summoning him on April +11th, he said: + + "Irresolution and deliberation are no longer in season. I renounce + Louisiana. It is not only New Orleans that I cede: it is the whole + colony, without reserve; I know the price of what I abandon. I have + proved the importance I attach to this province, since my first + diplomatic act with Spain had the object of recovering it. I + renounce it with the greatest regret: to attempt obstinately to + retain it would be folly. I direct you to negotiate the + affair."[204] + +After some haggling with Monroe, the price agreed on for this +territory was 60,000,000 francs, the United States also covenanting to +satisfy the claims which many of their citizens had on the French +treasury. For this paltry sum the United States gained a peaceful +title to the debatable lands west of Lake Erie and to the vast tracts +west of the Mississippi. The First Consul carried out his threat of +denying to the deputies of France any voice in this barter. The war +with England sufficed to distract their attention; and France turned +sadly away from the western prairies, which her hardy sons had first +opened up, to fix her gaze, first on the Orient, and thereafter on +European conquests. No more was heard of Louisiana, and few references +were permitted to the disasters in St. Domingo; for Napoleon abhorred +any mention of a _coup manque_, and strove to banish from the +imagination of France those dreams of a trans-Atlantic Empire which +had drawn him, as they were destined sixty years later to draw his +nephew, to the verge of war with the rising republic of the New World. +In one respect, the uncle was more fortunate than the nephew. In +signing the treaty with the United States, the First Consul could +represent his conduct, not as a dexterous retreat from an impossible +situation, but as an act of grace to the Americans and a blow to +England. "This accession of territory," he said, "strengthens for ever +the power of the United States, and I have just given to England a +maritime rival that sooner or later will humble her pride."[205] + + * * * * * + +In the East there seemed to be scarcely the same field for expansion +as in the western hemisphere. Yet, as the Orient had ever fired the +imagination of Napoleon, he was eager to expand the possessions of +France in the Indian Ocean. In October, 1801, these amounted to the +Isle of Bourbon and the Isle of France; for the former French +possessions in India, namely, Pondicherry, Mahe, Karikal, +Chandernagore, along with their factories at Yanaon, Surat, and two +smaller places, had been seized by the British, and were not to be +given back to France until six months after the definitive treaty of +peace was signed. From these scanty relics it seemed impossible to +rear a stable fabric: yet the First Consul grappled with the task. +After the cessation of hostilities, he ordered Admiral Gantheaume with +four ships of war to show the French flag in those seas, and to be +ready in due course to take over the French settlements in India. +Meanwhile he used his utmost endeavours in the negotiations at Amiens +to gain an accession of land for Pondicherry, such as would make it a +possible base for military enterprise. Even before those negotiations +began he expressed to Lord Cornwallis his desire for such an +extension; and when the British plenipotentiary urged the cession of +Tobago to Great Britain, he offered to exchange it for an +establishment or territory in India.[206] Herein the First Consul +committed a serious tactical blunder; for his insistence on this topic +and his avowed desire to negotiate direct with the Nabob undoubtedly +aroused the suspicions of our Government. + +Still greater must have been their concern when they learnt that +General Decaen was commissioned to receive back the French possessions +in India; for that general in 1800 had expressed to Bonaparte his +hatred of the English, and had begged, even if he had to wait ten +years, that he might be sent where he could fight them, especially in +India. As was his wont, Bonaparte said little at the time; but after +testing Decaen's military capacity, he called him to his side at +midsummer, 1802, and suddenly asked him if he still thought about +India. On receiving an eager affirmative, he said, "Well, you will +go." "In what capacity?" "As captain-general: go to the Minister of +Marine and of the Colonies and ask him to communicate to you the +documents relating to this expedition." By such means did Bonaparte +secure devoted servants. It is scarcely needful to add that the choice +of such a man only three months after the signature of the Treaty of +Amiens proves that the First Consul only intended to keep that peace +as long as his forward colonial policy rendered it desirable.[207] + +Meanwhile our Governor-General, Marquis Wellesley, was displaying an +activity which might seem to be dictated by knowledge of Bonaparte's +designs. There was, indeed, every need of vigour. Nowhere had French +and British interests been so constantly in collision as in India. In +1798 France had intrigued with Tippoo Sahib at Seringapatam, and +arranged a treaty for the purpose of expelling the British nation from +India. When in 1799 French hopes were dashed by Arthur Wellesley's +capture of that city and the death of Tippoo, there still remained +some prospect of overthrowing British supremacy by uniting the +restless Mahratta rulers of the north and centre, especially Scindiah +and Holkar, in a powerful confederacy. For some years their armies, +numbering some 60,000 men, had been drilled and equipped by French +adventurers, the ablest and most powerful of whom was M. Perron. +Doubtless it was with the hope of gaining their support that the Czar +Paul and Bonaparte had in 1800 formed the project of invading India by +way of Persia. And after the dissipation of that dream, there still +remained the chance of strengthening the Mahratta princes so as to +contest British claims with every hope of success. Forewarned by the +home Government of Bonaparte's eastern designs, our able and ambitious +Governor-General now prepared to isolate the Mahratta chieftains, to +cut them off from all contact with France, and, if necessary, to +shatter Scindiah's army, the only formidable native force drilled by +European methods. + +Such was the position of affairs when General Decaen undertook the +enterprise of revivifying French influences in India. + +The secret instructions which he received from the First Consul, dated +January 15th, 1803, were the following: + + "To communicate with the peoples or princes who are most impatient + under the yoke of the English Company.... To send home a report six + months after his arrival in India, concerning all information that + he shall have collected, on the strength, the position, and the + feeling of the different peoples of India, as well as on the + strength and position of the different English establishments; ... + his views, and hopes that he might have of finding support, in case + of war, so as to be able to maintain himself in the Peninsula.... + Finally, as one must reason on the hypothesis that we should not be + masters of the sea and could hope for slight succour," + +Decaen is to seek among the French possessions or elsewhere a place +serving as a _point d'appui_, where in the last resort he could +capitulate and thus gain the means of being transported to France with +arms and baggage. Of this _point d'appui_ he will + + "strive to take possession after the first months ... whatever be + the nation to which it belongs, Portuguese, Dutch, or English.... + If war should break out between England and France before the 1st + of Vendemiaire, Year XIII. (September 22nd, 1804), and the captain + general is warned of it before receiving the orders of the + Government, he has _carte blanche_ to fall back on the Ile de + France and the Cape, or to remain in India.... It is now considered + impossible that we should have war with England without dragging in + Holland. One of the first cares of the captain-general will be to + gain control over the Dutch, Portuguese, and Spanish + establishments, and of their resources. The captain-general's + mission is at first one of observation, on political and military + topics, with the small forces that he takes out, and an occupation + of _comptoirs_ for our commerce: but the First Consul, if well + informed by him, will perhaps be able some day to put him in a + position to acquire that great glory which hands down the memory of + men beyond the lapse of centuries."[208] + +Had these instructions been known to English statesmen, they would +certainly have ended the peace which was being thus perfidiously used +by the First Consul for the destruction of our Indian Empire. But +though their suspicions were aroused by the departure of Decaen's +expedition and by the activity of French agents in India, yet the +truth remained half hidden, until, at a later date, the publication of +General Decaen's papers shed a flood of light on Napoleon's policy. + +Owing to various causes, the expedition did not set sail from Brest +until the beginning of March, 1803. The date should be noticed. It +proves that at this time Napoleon judged that a rupture of peace was +not imminent; and when he saw his miscalculation, he sought to delay +the war with England as long as possible in order to allow time for +Decaen's force at least to reach the Cape, then in the hands of the +Dutch. The French squadron was too weak to risk a fight with an +English fleet; it comprised only four ships of war, two transports, +and a few smaller vessels, carrying about 1,800 troops.[209] The ships +were under the command of Admiral Linois, who was destined to be the +terror of our merchantmen in eastern seas. Decaen's first halt was at +the Cape, which had been given back by us to the Dutch East India +Company on February 21st, 1803. The French general found the Dutch +officials in their usual state of lethargy: the fortifications had not +been repaired, and many of the inhabitants, and even of the officials +themselves, says Decaen, were devoted to the English. After surveying +the place, doubtless with a view to its occupation as the _point +d'appui_ hinted at in his instructions, he set sail on the 27th of +May, and arrived before Pondicherry on the 11th of July.[210] + +In the meantime important events had transpired which served to wreck +not only Decaen's enterprise, but the French influence in India. In +Europe the flames of war had burst forth, a fact of which both Decaen +and the British officials were ignorant; but the Governor of Fort St. +George (Madras), having, before the 15th of June, "received +intelligence which appeared to indicate the certainty of an early +renewal of hostilities between His Majesty and France," announced that +he must postpone the restitution of Pondicherry to the French, until +he should have the authority of the Governor-General for such +action.[211] + + + +The Marquis Wellesley was still less disposed to any such restitution. +French intervention in the affairs of Switzerland, which will be +described later on, had so embittered Anglo-French relations that on +October the 17th, 1802, Lord Hobart, our Minister of War and for the +Colonies, despatched a "most secret" despatch, stating that recent +events rendered it necessary to postpone this retrocession. At a later +period Wellesley received contrary orders, instructing him to restore +French and Dutch territories; but he judged that step to be +inopportune considering the gravity of events in the north of India. +So active was the French propaganda at the Mahratta Courts, and so +threatening were their armed preparations, that he redoubled his +efforts for the consolidation of British supremacy. He resolved to +strike at Scindiah, unless he withdrew his southern army into his own +territories; and, on receiving an evasive answer from that prince, who +hoped by temporizing to gain armed succours from France, he launched +the British forces against him. Now was the opportunity for Arthur +Wellesley to display his prowess against the finest forces of the +East; and brilliantly did the young warrior display it. The victories +of Assaye in September, and of Argaum in November, scattered the +southern Mahratta force, but only after desperate conflicts that +suggested how easily a couple of Decaen's battalions might have turned +the scales of war. + +Meanwhile, in the north, General Lake stormed Aligarh, and drove +Scindiah's troops back to Delhi. Disgusted at the incapacity and +perfidy that surrounded him, Perron threw up his command; and another +conflict near Delhi yielded that ancient seat of Empire to our trading +Company. In three months the results of the toil of Scindiah, the +restless ambition of Holkar, the training of European officers, and the +secret intrigues of Napoleon, were all swept to the winds. Wellesley now +annexed the land around Delhi and Agra, besides certain coast districts +which cut off the Mahrattas from the sea, also stipulating for the +complete exclusion of French agents from their States. Perron was +allowed to return to France; and the brusque reception accorded him from +Bonaparte may serve to measure the height of the First Consul's hopes, +the depth of his disappointment, and his resentment against a man who +was daunted by a single disaster.[212] + +Meanwhile it was the lot of Decaen to witness, in inglorious +inactivity, the overthrow of all his hopes. Indeed, he barely escaped +the capture which Wellesley designed for his whole force, as soon as +he should hear of the outbreak of war in Europe; but by secret and +skilful measures all the French ships, except one transport, escaped +to their appointed rendezvous, the Ile de France. Enraged by these +events, Decaen and Linois determined to inflict every possible injury +on their foes. The latter soon swept from the eastern seas British +merchantmen valued at a million sterling, while the general ceased not +to send emissaries into India to encourage the millions of natives to +shake off the yoke of "a few thousand English." + +These officers effected little, and some of them were handed over to +the English authorities by the now obsequious potentates. Decaen also +endeavoured to carry out the First Consul's design of occupying +strategic points in the Indian Ocean. In the autumn of 1803 he sent a +fine cruiser to the Imaum of Muscat, to induce him to cede a station +for commercial purposes at that port. But Wellesley, forewarned by our +agent at Bagdad, had made a firm alliance with the Imaum, who +accordingly refused the request of the French captain. The incident, +however, supplies another link in the chain of evidence as to the +completeness of Napoleon's oriental policy, and yields another proof +of the vigour of our great proconsul at Calcutta, by whose foresight +our Indian Empire was preserved and strengthened.[213] + +Bonaparte's enterprises were by no means limited to well-known lands. +The unknown continent of the Southern Seas appealed to his +imagination, which pictured its solitudes transformed by French energy +into a second fatherland. Australia, or New Holland, as it was then +called, had long attracted the notice of French explorers, but the +English penal settlements at and near Sydney formed the only European +establishment on the great southern island at the dawn of the +nineteenth century. + +Bonaparte early turned his eyes towards that land. On his voyage to +Egypt he took with him the volumes in which Captain Cook described his +famous discoveries; and no sooner was he firmly installed as First +Consul than he planned with the Institute of France a great French +expedition to New Holland. The full text of the plan has never been +published: probably it was suppressed or destroyed; and the sole +public record relating to it is contained in the official account of +the expedition published at the French Imperial Press in 1807.[214] +According to this description, the aim was solely geographical and +scientific. The First Consul and the Institute of France desired that +the ships should proceed to Van Diemen's Land, explore its rivers, and +then complete the survey of the south coast of the continent, so as to +see whether behind the islands of the Nuyts Archipelago there might be +a channel connecting with the Gulf of Carpentaria, and so cutting New +Holland in half. They were then to sail west to "Terre Leeuwin," +ascend the Swan River, complete the exploration of Shark's Bay and the +north-western coasts, and winter in Timor or Amboyne. Finally, they +were to coast along New Guinea and the Gulf of Carpentaria, and return +to France in 1803. + +In September, 1800, the ships, having on board twenty-three scientific +men, set sail from Havre under the command of Commodore Baudin. They +received no molestation from English cruisers, it being a rule of +honour to give Admiralty permits to all members of genuinely +scientific and geographical parties. Nevertheless, even on its +scientific side, this splendidly-equipped expedition produced no +results comparable with those achieved by Lieutenant Bass or by +Captain Flinders. The French ships touched at the Ile de France, and +sailed thence for Van Diemen's Land. After spending a long time in the +exploration of its coasts and in collecting scientific information, +they made for Sydney in order to repair their ships and gain relief +for their many invalids. Thence, after incidents which will be noticed +presently, they set sail in November, 1802, for Bass Strait and the +coast beyond. They seem to have overlooked the entrance to Port +Phillip--a discovery effected by Murray in 1801, but not made public +till three years later--and failed to notice the outlet of the chief +Australian river, which is obscured by a shallow lake. + +There they were met by Captain Flinders, who, on H.M.S. +"Investigator," had been exploring the coast between Cape Leeuwin and +the great gulfs which he named after Lords St. Vincent and Spencer. +Flinders was returning towards Sydney, when, in the long desolate +curve of the bay which he named from the incident Encounter Bay, he +saw the French ships. After brief and guarded intercourse the +explorers separated, the French proceeding to survey the gulfs whence +the "Investigator" had just sailed; while Flinders, after a short stay +at Sydney and the exploration of the northern coast and Torres Strait, +set out for Europe.[215] + +Apart from the compilation of the most accurate map of Australia which +had then appeared, and the naming of several features on its +coasts--_e.g._, Capes Berrouilli and Gantheaume, the Bays of Rivoli +and of Lacepede, and the Freycinet Peninsula, which are still +retained--the French expedition achieved no geographical results of +the first importance. + +Its political aims now claim attention. A glance at the accompanying +map will show that, under the guise of being an emissary of +civilization, Commodore Baudin was prepared to claim half the +continent for France. Indeed, his final inquiry at Sydney about the +extent of the British claims on the Pacific coast was so significant +as to elicit from Governor King the reply that the whole of Van +Diemen's Land and of the coast from Cape Howe on the south of the +mainland to Cape York on the north was British territory. King also +notified the suspicious action of the French Commander to the Home +Government; and when the French sailed away to explore the coast of +southern and central Australia he sent a ship to watch their +proceedings. When, therefore, Commodore Baudin effected a landing on +King Island, the Union Jack was speedily hoisted and saluted by the +blue-jackets of the British vessel; for it was rumoured that French +officers had said that King Island would afford a good station for the +command of Bass Strait and the seizure of British ships. This was +probably mere gossip. Baudin in his interviews with Governor King at +Sydney disclaimed any intention of seizing Van Diemen's Land; but he +afterwards stated that _he did not know what were the plans of the +French Government with regard to that island_.[216] + +Long before this dark saying could be known at Westminster, the +suspicions of our Government had been aroused; and, on February 13th, +1803, Lord Hobart penned a despatch to Governor King bidding him to +take every precaution against French annexations, and to form +settlements in Van Diemen's Land and at Port Phillip. The station of +Risden was accordingly planted on the estuary of the Derwent, a little +above the present town of Hobart; while on the shores of Port Phillip +another expedition sent out from the mother country sought, but for +the present in vain, to find a suitable site. The French cruise +therefore exerted on the fortunes of the English and French peoples an +influence such as has frequently accrued from their colonial rivalry: +it spurred on the island Power to more vigorous efforts than she would +otherwise have put forth, and led to the discomfiture of her +continental rival. The plans of Napoleon for the acquisition of Van +Diemen's Land and the middle of Australia had an effect like that +which the ambition of Montcalm, Dupleix, Lally, and Perron has exerted +on the ultimate destiny of many a vast and fertile territory. + + + +Still, in spite of the destruction of his fleet at Trafalgar, Napoleon +held to his Australian plans. No fact, perhaps, is more suggestive of +the dogged tenacity of his will than his order to Peron and Freycinet +to publish through the Imperial Press at Paris an exhaustive account +of their Australian voyage, accompanied by maps which claimed half of +that continent for the tricolour flag. It appeared in 1807, the year +of Tilsit and of the plans for the partition of Portugal and her +colonies between France and Spain. The hour seemed at last to have +struck for the assertion of French supremacy in other continents, now +that the Franco-Russian alliance had durably consolidated it in +Europe. And who shall say that, but for the Spanish Rising and the +genius of Wellington, a vast colonial empire might not have been won +for France, had Napoleon been free to divert his energies away from +this "old Europe" of which he professed to be utterly weary? + +His whole attitude towards European and colonial politics revealed a +statesmanlike appreciation of the forces that were to mould the +fortunes of nations in the nineteenth century. He saw that no +rearrangement of the European peoples could be permanent. They were +too stubborn, too solidly nationalized, to bear the yoke of the new +Charlemagne. "I am come too late," he once exclaimed to Marmont; "men +are too enlightened, there is nothing great left to be done." These +words reveal his sense of the artificiality of his European conquests. +His imperial instincts could find complete satisfaction only among the +docile fate-ridden peoples of Asia, where he might unite the functions +of an Alexander and a Mahomet: or, failing that, he would carve out an +empire from the vast southern lands, organizing them by his unresting +powers and ruling them as oekist and as despot. This task would possess +a permanence such as man's conquests over Nature may always enjoy, and +his triumphs over his fellows seldom or never. The political +reconstruction of Europe was at best one of an infinite number of such +changes, always progressing and never completed; while the peopling of +new lands and the founding of States belonged to that highest plane of +political achievement wherein schemes of social beneficence and the +dictates of a boundless ambition could maintain an eager and unending +rivalry. While a strictly European policy could effect little more +than a raking over of long-cultivated parterres, the foundation of a +new colonial empire would be the turning up of the virgin soil of the +limitless prairie. + +If we inquire by the light of history why these grand designs failed, +the answer must be that they were too vast fitly to consort with an +ambitious European policy. His ablest adviser noted this fundamental +defect as rapidly developing after the Peace of Amiens, when "he began +to sow the seeds of new wars which, after overwhelming Europe and +France, were to lead him to his ruin." This criticism of Talleyrand on +a man far greater than himself, but who lacked that saving grace of +moderation in which the diplomatist excelled, is consonant with all +the teachings of history. The fortunes of the colonial empires of +Athens and Carthage in the ancient world, of the Italian maritime +republics, of Portugal and Spain, and, above all, the failure of the +projects of Louis XIV. and Louis XV. serve to prove that only as the +motherland enjoys a sufficiency of peace at home and on her borders +can she send forth in ceaseless flow those supplies of men and +treasure which are the very life-blood of a new organism. That +beneficent stream might have poured into Napoleon's Colonial Empire, +had not other claims diverted it into the barren channels of European +warfare. The same result followed as at the time of the Seven Years' +War, when the double effort to wage great campaigns in Germany and +across the oceans sapped the strength of France, and the additions won +by Dupleix and Montcalm fell away from her flaccid frame. + +Did Napoleon foresee a similar result? His conduct in regard to +Louisiana and in reference to Decaen's expedition proves that he did, +but only when it was too late. As soon as he saw that his policy was +about to provoke another war with Britain long before he was ready for +it, he decided to forego his oceanic schemes and to concentrate his +forces on his European frontiers. The decision was dictated by a true +sense of imperial strategy. But what shall we say of his sense of +imperial diplomacy? The foregoing narrative and the events to be +described in the next chapters prove that his mistake lay in that +overweening belief in his own powers and in the pliability of his +enemies which was the cause of his grandest triumphs and of his +unexampled overthrow. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +NAPOLEON'S INTERVENTIONS + + +War, said St. Augustine, is but the transition from a lower to a +higher state of peace. The saying is certainly true for those wars +that are waged in defence of some great principle or righteous cause. +It may perhaps be applied with justice to the early struggles of the +French revolutionists to secure their democratic Government against +the threatened intervention of monarchical States. But the danger of +vindicating the cause of freedom by armed force has never been more +glaringly shown than in the struggles of that volcanic age. When +democracy had gained a sure foothold in the European system, the war +was still pushed on by the triumphant republicans at the expense of +neighbouring States, so that, even before the advent of Bonaparte, +their polity was being strangely warped by the influence of military +methods of rule. The brilliance of the triumphs won by that young +warrior speedily became the greatest danger of republican France; and +as the extraordinary energy developed in her people by recent events +cast her feeble neighbours to the ground, Europe cowered away before +the ever-increasing bulk of France. In their struggles after democracy +the French finally reverted to the military type of Government, which +accords with many of the cherished instincts of their race: and the +military-democratic compromise embodied in Napoleon endowed that +people with the twofold force of national pride and of conscious +strength springing from their new institutions. + +With this was mingled contempt for neighbouring peoples who either +could not or would not gain a similar independence and prestige. +Everything helped to feed this self-confidence and contempt for +others. The venerable fabric of the Holy Roman Empire was rocking to +and fro amidst the spoliations of its ecclesiastical lands by lay +princes, in which its former champions, the Houses of Hapsburg and +Hohenzollern, were the most exacting of the claimants. The Czar, in +October, 1801, had come to a profitable understanding with France +concerning these "secularizations." A little later France and Russia +began to draw together on the Eastern Question in a way threatening to +Turkey and to British influence in the Levant.[217] In fact, French +diplomacy used the partition of the German ecclesiastical lands and +the threatened collapse of the Ottoman power as a potent means of +busying the Continental States and leaving Great Britain isolated. +Moreover, the great island State was passing through ministerial and +financial difficulties which robbed her of all the fruits of her naval +triumphs and made her diplomacy at Amiens the laughing-stock of the +world. When monarchical ideas were thus discredited, it was idle to +expect peace. The struggling upwards towards a higher plane had indeed +begun; democracy had effected a lodgment in Western Europe; but the +old order in its bewildered gropings after some sure basis had not yet +touched bottom on that rock of nationality which was to yield a new +foundation for monarchy amidst the strifes of the nineteenth century. +Only when the monarchs received the support of their French-hating +subjects could an equilibrium of force and of enthusiasms yield the +long-sought opportunity for a durable peace.[218] + + + +The negotiations at Amiens had amply shown the great difficulty of the +readjustment of European affairs. If our Ministers had manifested +their real feelings about Napoleon's presidency of the Italian +Republic, war would certainly have broken forth. But, as has been +seen, they preferred to assume the attitude of the ostrich, the worst +possible device both for the welfare of Europe and the interests of +Great Britain; for it convinced Napoleon that he could safely venture +on other interventions; and this he proceeded to do in the affairs of +Italy, Holland, and Switzerland. + +On September 21st, 1802, appeared a _senatus consultum_ ordering the +incorporation of Piedmont in France. This important territory, +lessened by the annexation of its eastern parts to the Italian +Republic, had for five months been provisionally administered by a +French general as a military district of France. Its definite +incorporation in the great Republic now put an end to all hopes of +restoration of the House of Savoy. For the King of Sardinia, now an +exile in his island, the British Ministry had made some efforts at +Amiens; but, as it knew that the Czar and the First Consul had agreed +on offering him some suitable indemnity, the hope was cherished that +the new sovereign, Victor Emmanuel I., would be restored to his +mainland possessions. That hope was now at an end. In vain did Lord +Whitworth, our ambassador at Paris, seek to help the Russian envoy to +gain a fit indemnity. Sienna and its lands were named, as if in +derision; and though George III. and the Czar ceased not to press the +claims of the House of Savoy, yet no more tempting offer came from +Paris, except a hint that some part of European Turkey might be found +for him; and the young ruler nobly refused to barter for the petty +Siennese, or for some Turkish pachalic, his birthright to the lands +which, under a happier Victor Emmanuel, were to form the nucleus of a +United Italy.[219] A month after the absorption of Piedmont came the +annexation of Parma. The heir to that duchy, who was son-in-law to the +King of Spain, had been raised to the dignity of King of Etruria; and +in return for this aggrandizement in Europe, Charles IV. bartered away +to France the whole of Louisiana. Nevertheless, the First Consul kept +his troops in Parma, and on the death of the old duke in October, +1802, Parma and its dependencies were incorporated in the French +Republic. + +The naval supremacy of France in the Mediterranean was also secured by +the annexation of the Isle of Elba with its excellent harbour of Porto +Ferrajo. Three deputies from Elba came to Paris to pay their respects +to their new ruler. The Minister of War was thereupon charged to treat +them with every courtesy, to entertain them at dinner, to give them +3,000 francs apiece, and to hint that on their presentation to +Bonaparte they might make a short speech expressing the pleasure of +their people at being united with France. By such deft rehearsals did +this master in the art of scenic displays weld Elba on to France and +France to himself. + +Even more important was Bonaparte's intervention in Switzerland. The +condition of that land calls for some explanation. For wellnigh three +centuries the Switzers had been grouped in thirteen cantons, which +differed widely in character and constitution. The Central or Forest +Cantons still retained the old Teutonic custom of regulating their +affairs in their several folk-moots, at which every householder +appeared fully armed. Elsewhere the confederation had developed less +admirable customs, and the richer lowlands especially were under the +hereditary control of rich burgher families. There was no constitution +binding these States in any effective union. Each of the cantons +claimed a governmental sovereignty that was scarcely impaired by the +deliberations of the Federal Diet. Besides these sovereign States were +others that held an ill-defined position as allies; among these were +Geneva, Basel, Bienne, Saint Gall, the old imperial city of Muehlhausen +in Alsace, the three Grisons, the principality of Neufchatel, and +Valais on the Upper Rhone. Last came the subject-lands, Aargau, +Thurgau, Ticino, Vaud, and others, which were governed in various +degrees of strictness by their cantonal overlords. Such was the old +Swiss Confederacy: it somewhat resembled that chaotic Macedonian +league of mountain clans, plain-dwellers, and cities, which was so +profoundly influenced by the infiltration of Greek ideas and by the +masterful genius of Philip. Switzerland was likewise to be shaken by a +new political influence, and thereafter to be controlled by the +greatest statesman of the age. + +On this motley group of cantons and districts the French Revolution +exerted a powerful influence; and when, in 1798, the people of Vaud +strove to throw off the yoke of Berne, French troops, on the +invitation of the insurgents, invaded Switzerland, quelled the brave +resistance of the central cantons, and ransacked the chief of the +Swiss treasuries. After the plunderers came the constitution-mongers, +who forthwith forced on Switzerland democracy of the most French and +geometrical type: all differences between the sovereign cantons, +allies, and subject-lands were swept away, and Helvetia was +constituted as an indivisible republic--except Valais, which was to be +independent, and Geneva and Muehlhausen, which were absorbed by France. +The subject districts and non-privileged classes benefited +considerably by the social reforms introduced under French influence; +but a constitution recklessly transferred from Paris to Berne could +only provoke loathing among a people that never before had submitted +to foreign dictation. Moreover, the new order of things violated the +most elementary needs of the Swiss, whose racial and religious +instincts claimed freedom of action for each district or canton. + +Of these deep-seated feelings the oligarchs of the plains, no less +than the democrats of the Forest Cantons, were now the champions; +while the partisans of the new-fangled democracy were held up to scorn +as the supporters of a cast-iron centralization. It soon became clear +that the constitution of 1798 could be perpetuated only by the support +of the French troops quartered on that unhappy land; for throughout +the years 1800 and 1801 the political see-saw tilted every few months, +first in favour of the oligarchic or federal party, then again towards +their unionist opponents. After the Peace of Luneville, which +recognized the right of the Swiss to adopt what form of government +they thought fit, some of their deputies travelled to Paris with the +draft of a constitution lately drawn up by the Chamber at Berne, in +the hope of gaining the assent of the First Consul to its provisions +and the withdrawal of French troops. They had every reason for hope: +the party then in power at Berne was that which favoured a centralized +democracy, and their plenipotentiary in Paris, a thorough republican +named Stapfer, had been led to hope that Switzerland would now be +allowed to carve out its own destiny. What, then, was his surprise to +find the First Consul increasingly enamoured of federalism. The +letters written by Stapfer to the Swiss Government at this time are +highly instructive.[220] + +On March 10th, 1801, he wrote: + + "What torments us most is the cruel uncertainty as to the real aims + of the French Government. Does it want to federalize us in order to + weaken us and to rule more surely by our divisions: or does it + really desire our independence and welfare, and is its delay only + the result of its doubts as to the true wishes of the Helvetic + nation?" + +Stapfer soon found that the real cause of delay was the non-completion +of the cession of Valais, which Bonaparte urgently desired for the +construction of a military road across the Simplon Pass; and as the +Swiss refused this demand, matters remained at a standstill. "The +whole of Europe would not make him give up a favourite scheme," wrote +Stapfer on April 10th; "the possession of Valais is one of the matters +closest to his heart." + +The protracted pressure of a French army of occupation on that already +impoverished land proved irresistible; and some important +modifications of the Swiss project of a constitution, on which the +First Consul insisted, were inserted in the new federal compact of +May, 1801. Switzerland was now divided into seventeen cantons; and +despite the wish of the official Swiss envoys for a strongly +centralized government, Bonaparte gave large powers to the cantonal +authorities. His motives in this course of action have been variously +judged. In giving greater freedom of movement to the several cantons, +he certainly adopted the only statesmanlike course: but his conduct +during the negotiation, his retention of Valais, and the continued +occupation of Switzerland by his troops, albeit in reduced numbers, +caused many doubts as to the sincerity of his desire for a final +settlement. + +The unionist majority at Berne soon proceeded to modify his proposals, +which they condemned as full of defects and contradictions; while the +federals strove to keep matters as they were. In the month of October +their efforts succeeded, thanks to the support of the French +ambassador and soldiery; they dissolved the Assembly, annulled its +recent amendments; and their influence procured for Reding, the head +of the oligarchic party, the office of Landamman, or supreme +magistrate. So reactionary, however, were their proceedings, that the +First Consul recalled the French general as a sign of his displeasure +at his help recently offered to the federals. Their triumph was brief: +while their chiefs were away at Easter, 1802, the democratic unionists +effected another _coup d'etat_--it was the fourth--and promulgated one +more constitution. This change seems also to have been brought about +with the connivance of the French authorities:[221] their refusal to +listen to Stapfer's claims for a definite settlement, as well as their +persistent hints that the Swiss could not by themselves arrange their +own affairs, argued a desire to continue the epoch of quarterly _coups +d'etat_. + +The victory of the so-called democrats at Berne now brought the whole +matter to the touch. They appealed to the people in the first Swiss +_plebiscite_, the precursor of the famous _referendum_. It could now +be decided without the interference of French troops; for the First +Consul had privately declared to the new Landamman, Dolder, that he +left it to his Government to decide whether the foreign soldiery +should remain as a support or should evacuate Switzerland.[222] After +many searchings of heart, the new authorities decided to try their +fortunes alone--a response which must have been expected at Paris, +where Stapfer had for months been urging the removal of the French +forces. For the first time since the year 1798 Switzerland was +therefore free to declare her will. The result of the _plebiscite_ was +decisive enough, 72,453 votes being cast in favour of the latest +constitution, and 92,423 against it. Nothing daunted by this rebuff, +and, adopting a device which the First Consul had invented for the +benefit of Dutch liberty, the Bernese leaders declared that the +167,172 adult voters who had not voted at all must reckon as approving +the new order of things. The flimsiness of this pretext was soon +disclosed. The Swiss had had enough of electioneering tricks, +hole-and-corner revolutions, and paper compacts. They rushed to arms; +and if ever Carlyle's appeal away from ballot-boxes and parliamentary +tongue-fencers to the primaeval _mights of man_ can be justified, it +was in the sharp and decisive conflicts of the early autumn of 1802 in +Switzerland. The troops of the central authorities, marching forth +from Berne to quell the rising ferment, sustained a repulse at the +foot of Mont Pilatus, as also before the walls of Zuerich; and, the +revolt of the federals ever gathering force, the Helvetic authorities +were driven from Berne to Lausanne. There they were planning flight +across the Lake of Geneva to Savoy, when, on October 15th, the arrival +of Napoleon's aide-de-camp, General Rapp, with an imperious +proclamation dismayed the federals and promised to the discomfited +unionists the mediation of the First Consul for which they had humbly +pleaded.[223] + +Napoleon had apparently viewed the late proceedings in Switzerland +with mingled feelings of irritation and amused contempt. "Well, there +you are once more in a Revolution" was his hasty comment to Stapfer at +a diplomatic reception shortly after Easter; "try and get tired of all +that." It is difficult, however, to believe that so keen-sighted a +statesman could look forward to anything but commotions for a land +that was being saddled with an impracticable constitution, and whence +the controlling French forces were withdrawn at that very crisis. He +was certainly prepared for the events of September: many times he had +quizzingly asked Stapfer how the constitution was faring, and he must +have received with quiet amusement the solemn reply that there could +be no doubt as to its brilliant success. When the truth flashed +on Stapfer he was dumbfoundered, especially as Talleyrand at first +mockingly repulsed any suggestion of the need of French mediation, and +went on to assure him that his master had neither counselled nor +approved the last constitution, the unfitness of which was now shown +by the widespread insurrection. Two days later, however, Napoleon +altered his tone and directed Talleyrand vigorously to protest against +the acts and proclamations of the victorious federals as "the most +violent outrage to French honour." On the last day of September he +issued a proclamation to the Swiss declaring that he now revoked his +decision not to mingle in Swiss politics, and ordered the federal +authorities and troops to disperse, and the cantons to send deputies +to Paris for the regulation of their affairs under his mediation. +Meanwhile he bade the Swiss live once more in hope: their land was on +the brink of a precipice, but it would soon be saved! Rapp carried +analogous orders to Lausanne and Berne, while Ney marched in with a +large force of French troops that had been assembled near the Swiss +frontiers. + +So glaring a violation of Swiss independence and of the guaranteeing +Treaty of Luneville aroused indignation throughout Europe. But Austria +was too alarmed at Prussian aggrandizement in Germany to offer any +protest; and, indeed, procured some trifling gains by giving France a +free hand in Switzerland.[224] The Court of Berlin, then content to +play the jackal to the French lion, revealed to the First Consul the +appeals for help privately made to Prussia by the Swiss federals:[225] +the Czar, influenced doubtless by his compact with France concerning +German affairs, and by the advice of his former tutor, the Swiss +Laharpe, offered no encouragement; and it was left to Great Britain to +make the sole effort then attempted for the cause of Swiss +independence. For some time past the cantons had made appeals to +the British Government, which now, in response, sent an English agent, +Moore, to confer with their chiefs, and to advance money and promise +active support if he judged that a successful resistance could be +attempted.[226] The British Ministry undoubtedly prepared for an open +rupture with France on this question. Orders were immediately sent +from London that no more French or Dutch colonies were to be handed +back; and, as we have seen, the Cape of Good Hope and the French +settlements in India were refused to the Dutch and French officers who +claimed their surrender. + +Hostilities, however, were for the present avoided. In face of the +overwhelming force which Ney had close at hand, the chiefs of the +central cantons shrank from any active opposition; and Moore, finding +on his arrival at Constance that they had decided to submit, speedily +returned to England. Ministers beheld with anger and dismay the +perpetuation of French supremacy in that land; but they lacked the +courage openly to oppose the First Consul's action, and gave orders +that the stipulated cessions of French and Dutch colonies should take +effect. + +The submission of the Swiss and the weakness of all the Powers +encouraged the First Consul to impose his will on the deputies from +the cantons, who assembled at Paris at the close of the year 1802. He +first caused their aims and the capacity of their leaders to be +sounded in a Franco-Swiss Commission, and thereafter assembled them at +St. Cloud on Sunday, December 12th. He harangued them at great length, +hinting very clearly that the Swiss must now take a far lower place in +the scale of peoples than in the days when France was divided into +sixty fiefs, and that union with her could alone enable them to play a +great part in the world's affairs: nevertheless, as they clung to +independence he would undertake in his quality of mediator to end +their troubles, and yet leave them free. That they could attain unity +was a mere dream of their metaphysicians: they must rely on the +cantonal organization, always provided that the French and Italian +districts of Vaud and the upper Ticino were not subject to the central +or German cantons: to prevent such a dishonour he would shed the blood +of 50,000 Frenchmen: Berne must also open its golden book of the +privileged families to include four times their number. For the rest, +the Continental Powers could not help them, and England had "no right +to meddle in Swiss affairs." The same menace was repeated in more +strident tones on January 29th: + + "I tell you that I would sacrifice 100,000 men rather than allow + England to meddle in your affairs: if the Cabinet of St. James + uttered a single word for you, it would be all up with you, I would + unite you to France: if that Court made the least insinuation of + its fears that I would be your Landamman, I would make myself your + Landamman." + +There spake forth the inner mind of the man who, whether as child, +youth, lieutenant, general, Consul, or Emperor, loved to bear down +opposition.[227] + +In those days of superhuman activity, when he was carving out one +colonial Empire in the New World and preparing to found another in +India, when he was outwitting the Cardinals, rearranging the map of +Germany, breathing new life into French commerce and striving to +shackle that of Britain, he yet found time to utter some of the sagest +maxims as to the widely different needs of the Swiss cantons. He +assured the deputies that he spoke as a Corsican and a mountaineer, +who knew and loved the clan system. His words proved it. With sure +touch he sketched the characteristics of the French and Swiss people. +Switzerland needed the local freedom imparted by her cantons: while +France required unity, Switzerland needed federalism: the French +rejected this last as damaging their power and glory; but the Swiss +did not ask for glory; they needed "political tranquillity and +obscurity": moreover, a simple pastoral people must have extensive +local rights, which formed their chief distraction from the monotony +of life: democracy was a necessity for the forest cantons; but let not +the aristocrats of the towns fear that a wider franchise would end +their influence, for a people dependent on pastoral pursuits would +always cling to great families rather than to electoral assemblies: +let these be elected on a fairly wide basis. Then again, what ready +wit flashed forth in his retort to a deputy who objected to the +Bernese Oberland forming part of the Canton of Berne: "Where do you +take your cattle and your cheese?"--"To Berne."--"Whence do you get +your grain, cloth, and iron?"--"From Berne."--"Very well: 'To Berne, +from Berne'--you consequently belong to Berne." The reply is a good +instance of that canny materialism which he so victoriously opposed to +feudal chaos and monarchical ineptitude. + +Indeed, in matters great as well as small his genius pierced to the +heart of a problem: he saw that the democratic unionists had failed +from the rigidity of their centralization, while the federals had +given offence by insufficiently recognizing the new passion for social +equality.[228] He now prepared to federalize Switzerland on a +moderately democratic basis; for a policy of balance, he himself being +at the middle of the see-saw, was obviously required by good sense as +well as by self-interest. Witness his words to Roederer on this +subject: + +"While satisfying the generality, I cause the patricians to tremble. +In giving to these last the appearance of power, I oblige them to take +refuge at my side in order to find protection. I let the people +threaten the aristocrats, so that these may have need of me. I will +give them places and distinctions, but they will hold them from me. +This system of mine has succeeded in France. See the clergy. Every day +they will become, in spite of themselves, more devoted to my +government than they had foreseen." + +How simple and yet how subtle is this statecraft; simplicity of aim, +with subtlety in the choice of means: this is the secret of his +success. + +After much preliminary work done by French commissioners and the Swiss +deputies in committee, the First Consul summed up the results of their +labours in the Act of Mediation of February 19th, 1803, which +constituted the Confederation in nineteen cantons, the formerly +subject districts now attaining cantonal dignity and privileges. The +forest cantons kept their ancient folk-moots, while the town cantons +such as Berne, Zuerich, and Basel were suffered to blend their old +institutions with democratic customs, greatly to the chagrin of the +unionists, at whose invitation Bonaparte had taken up the work of +mediation. + +The federal compact was also a compromise between the old and the new. +The nineteen cantons were to enjoy sovereign powers under the shelter +of the old federal pact. Bonaparte saw that the fussy imposition of +French governmental forms in 1798 had wrought infinite harm, and he +now granted to the federal authorities merely the powers necessary for +self-defence: the federal forces were to consist of 15,200 men--a +number less than that which by old treaty Switzerland had to furnish +to France. The central power was vested in a Landamman and other +officers appointed yearly by one of the six chief cantons taken in +rotation; and a Federal Diet, consisting of twenty-five deputies--one +from each of the small cantons, and two from each of the six larger +cantons--met to discuss matters of general import, but the balance of +power rested with the cantons: further articles regulated the Helvetic +debt and declared the independence of Switzerland--as if a land could +be independent which furnished more troops to the foreigner than it +was allowed to maintain for its own defence. Furthermore, the Act +breathed not a word about religious liberty, freedom of the Press, or +the right of petition: and, viewing it as a whole, the friends of +freedom had cause to echo the complaint of Stapfer that "the First +Consul's aim was to annul Switzerland politically, but to assure to +the Swiss the greatest possible domestic happiness." + +I have judged it advisable to give an account of Franco-Swiss +relations on a scale proportionate to their interest and importance; +they exhibit, not only the meanness and folly of the French Directory, +but the genius of the great Corsican in skilfully blending the new and +the old, and in his rejection of the fussy pedantry of French +theorists and the worst prejudices of the Swiss oligarchs. Had not his +sage designs been intertwined with subtle intrigues which assured his +own unquestioned supremacy in that land, the Act of Mediation might be +reckoned among the grandest and most beneficent achievements. As it +is, it must be regarded as a masterpiece of able but selfish +statecraft, which contrasts unfavourably with the disinterested +arrangements sanctioned by the allies for Switzerland in 1815. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +THE RENEWAL OF WAR + + +The re-occupation of Switzerland by the French in October, 1802, was +soon followed by other serious events, which convinced the British +Ministry that war was hardly to be avoided. Indeed, before the treaty +was ratified, ominous complaints had begun to pass between Paris and +London. + +Some of these were trivial, others were highly important. Among the +latter was the question of commercial intercourse. The British +Ministry had neglected to obtain any written assurance that trade +relations should be resumed between the two countries; and the First +Consul, either prompted by the protectionist theories of the Jacobins, +or because he wished to exert pressure upon England in order to extort +further concessions, determined to restrict trade with us to the +smallest possible dimensions. This treatment of England was wholly +exceptional, for in his treaties concluded with Russia, Portugal, and +the Porte, Napoleon had procured the insertion of clauses which +directly fostered French trade with those lands. Remonstrances soon +came from the British Government that "strict prohibitions were being +enforced to the admission of British commodities and manufactures into +France, and very vigorous restrictions were imposed on British vessels +entering French ports"; but, in spite of all representations, we had +the mortification of seeing the hardware of Birmingham, and the +ever-increasing stores of cotton and woollen goods, shut out from +France and her subject-lands, as well as from the French colonies +which we had just handed back. + +In this policy of commercial prohibition Napoleon was confirmed by our +refusal to expel the Bourbon princes. He declined to accept our +explanation that they were not officially recognized, and could not be +expelled from England without a violation of the rights of +hospitality; and he bitterly complained of the personal attacks made +upon him in journals published in London by the French _emigres_. Of +these the most acrid, namely, those of Peltier's paper, "L'Ambigu," +had already received the reprobation of the British Ministry; but, as +had been previously explained at Amiens, the Addington Cabinet decided +that it could not venture to curtail the liberty of the Press, least +of all at the dictation of the very man who was answering the pop-guns +of our unofficial journals by double-shotted retorts in the official +"Moniteur." Of these last His Majesty did not deign to make any +formal complaint; but he suggested that their insertion in the organ +of the French Government should have prevented Napoleon from +preferring the present protests. + +This wordy war proceeded with unabated vigour on both sides of the +Channel, the British journals complaining of the Napoleonic +dictatorship in Continental affairs, while the "Moniteur" bristled +with articles whose short, sharp sentences could come only from the +First Consul. The official Press hitherto had been characterized by +dull decorum, and great was the surprise of the older Courts when the +French official journals compared the policy of the Court of St. James +with the methods of the Barbary rovers and the designs of the Miltonic +Satan.[229] Nevertheless, our Ministry prosecuted and convicted +Peltier for libel, an act which, at the time, produced an excellent +impression at Paris.[230] + + + +But more serious matters were now at hand. Newspaper articles and +commercial restrictions were not the cause of war, however much they +irritated the two peoples. + +The general position of Anglo-French affairs in the autumn of 1802 is +well described in the official instructions given to Lord Whitworth +when he was about to proceed as ambassador to Paris. For this +difficult duty he had several good qualifications. During his embassy +at St. Petersburg he had shown a combination of tact and firmness +which imposed respect, and doubtless his composure under the violent +outbreaks of the Czar Paul furnished a recommendation for the equally +trying post at Paris, which he filled with a _sang froid_ that has +become historic. Possibly a more genial personality might have +smoothed over some difficulties at the Tuileries: but the Addington +Ministry, having tried geniality in the person of Cornwallis, +naturally selected a man who was remarkable for his powers of quiet +yet firm resistance. + +His first instructions of September 10th, 1802, are such as might be +drawn up between any two Powers entering on a long term of peace. But +the series of untoward events noticed above overclouded the political +horizon; and the change finds significant expression in the secret +instructions of November 14th. He is now charged to state George +III.'s determination "never to forego his right of interfering in the +affairs of the Continent on any occasion in which the interests of his +own dominions or those of Europe in general may appear to him to +require it." A French despatch is then quoted, as admitting that, for +every considerable gain of France on the Continent, Great Britain had +some claim to compensation: and such a claim, it was hinted, might now +be proffered after the annexation of Piedmont and Parma. Against the +continued occupation of Holland by French troops and their invasion of +Switzerland, Whitworth was to make moderate but firm remonstrances, +but in such a way as not to commit us finally. He was to employ an +equal discretion with regard to Malta. As Russia and Prussia had as +yet declined to guarantee the arrangements for that island's +independence, it was evident that the British troops could not yet be +withdrawn. + + "His Majesty would certainly be justified in claiming the + possession of Malta, as some counterpoise to the acquisitions of + France, since the conclusion of the definitive treaty: but it is + not necessary to decide now whether His Majesty will be disposed to + avail himself of his pretensions in this respect." + +Thus between September 10th and November 14th we passed from a +distinctly pacific to a bellicose attitude, and all but formed the +decision to demand Malta as a compensation for the recent +aggrandizements of France. To have declared war at once on these +grounds would certainly have been more dignified. But, as our Ministry +had already given way on many topics, a sudden declaration of war on +Swiss and Italian affairs would have stultified its complaisant +conduct on weightier subjects. Moreover, the whole drift of +eighteenth-century diplomacy, no less than Bonaparte's own admission, +warranted the hope of securing Malta by way of "compensation." The +adroit bargainer, who was putting up German Church lands for sale, who +had gained Louisiana by the Parma-Tuscany exchange, and still +professed to the Czar his good intentions as to an "indemnity" for the +King of Sardinia, might well be expected to admit the principle of +compensation in Anglo-French relations when these were being +jeopardized by French aggrandizement; and, as will shortly appear, the +First Consul, while professing to champion international law against +perfidious Albion, privately admitted her right to compensation, and +only demurred to its practical application when his oriental designs +were thereby compromised. + +Before Whitworth proceeded to Paris, sharp remonstrances had been +exchanged between the French and British Governments. To our protests +against Napoleon's interventions in neighbouring States, he retorted +by demanding "the whole Treaty of Amiens and nothing but that treaty." +Whereupon Hawkesbury answered: "The state of the Continent at the +period of the Treaty of Amiens, and nothing but that state." In reply +Napoleon sent off a counterblast, alleging that French troops had +evacuated Taranto, that Switzerland had requested his mediation, that +German affairs possessed no novelty, and that England, having six +months previously waived her interest in continental affairs, could +not resume it at will. The retort, which has called forth the +admiration of M. Thiers, is more specious than convincing. +Hawkesbury's appeal was, not to the sword, but to law; not to French +influence gained by military occupations that contravened the Treaty +of Luneville, but to international equity. + +Certainly, the Addington Cabinet committed a grievous blunder in not +inserting in the Treaty of Amiens a clause stipulating the +independence of the Batavian and Helvetic Republics. Doubtless it +relied on the Treaty of Luneville, and on a Franco-Dutch convention of +August, 1801, which specified that French troops were to remain in the +Batavian Republic only up to the time of the general peace. But it is +one thing to rely on international law, and quite another thing, in an +age of violence and chicanery, to hazard the gravest material +interests on its observance. Yet this was what the Addington Ministry +had done: "His Majesty consented to make numerous and most important +restitutions to the Batavian Government on the consideration of that +Government being independent and not being subject to any foreign +control."[231] Truly, the restoration of the Cape of Good Hope and of +other colonies to the Dutch, solely in reliance on the observance of +international law by Napoleon and Talleyrand, was, as the event +proved, an act of singular credulity. But, looking at this matter +fairly and squarely, it must be allowed that Napoleon's reply evaded +the essence of the British complaint; it was merely an _argumentum ad +hominem_; it convicted the Addington Cabinet of weakness and +improvidence; but in equity it was null and void, and in practical +politics it betokened war. + +As Napoleon refused to withdraw his troops from Holland, and continued +to dominate that unhappy realm, it was clear that the Cape of Good +Hope would speedily be closed to our ships--a prospect which immensely +enhanced the value of the overland route to India, and of those +portals of the Orient, Malta and Egypt. To the Maltese Question we now +turn, as also, later on, to the Eastern Question, with which it was +then closely connected. + +Many causes excited the uneasiness of the British Government +about the fate of Malta. In spite of our effort not to wound the +susceptibilities of the Czar, who was protector of the Order of St. +John, that sensitive young ruler had taken umbrage at the article +relating to that island. He now appeared merely as one of the six +Powers guaranteeing its independence, not as the sole patron and +guarantor, and he was piqued at his name appearing after that of the +Emperor Francis![232] For the present arrangement the First Consul was +chiefly to blame; but the Czar vented his displeasure on England. On +April 28th, 1802, our envoy at Paris, Mr. Merry, reported as follows: + + "Either the Russian Government itself, or Count Markoff alone + personally, is so completely out of humour with us for not having + acted in strict concert with them, or him, or in conformity to + their ideas in negotiating the definitive treaty [of Amiens], that + I find he takes pains to turn it into ridicule, and particularly to + represent the arrangement we have made for Malta as impracticable + and consequently as completely null." + +The despatches of our ambassador at St. Petersburg, Lord St. Helens, +and of his successor, Admiral Warren, are of the same tenor. They +report the Czar's annoyance with England over the Maltese affair, and +his refusal to listen even to the joint Anglo-French request, +of November 18th, 1802, for his guarantee of the Amiens +arrangements.[233] A week later Alexander announced that he would +guarantee the independence of Malta, provided that the complete +sovereignty of the Knights of St. John was recognized--that is, +without any participation of the native Maltese in the affairs of that +Order--and that the island should be garrisoned by Neapolitan troops, +paid by France and England, until the Knights should be able to +maintain their independence. This reopening of the question discussed, +_ad nauseam_, at Amiens proved that the Maltese Question would long +continue to perplex the world. The matter was still further +complicated by the abolition of the Priories, Commanderies, and +property of the Order of St. John by the French Government in the +spring of 1802--an example which was imitated by the Court of Madrid +in the following autumn; and as the property of the Knights in the +French part of Italy had also lapsed, it was difficult to see how the +scattered and impoverished Knights could form a stable government, +especially if the native Maltese were not to be admitted to a share in +public affairs. This action of France, Spain, and Russia fully +warranted the British Government in not admitting into the fortress +the 2,000 Neapolitan troops that arrived in the autumn of 1802. Our +evacuation of Malta was conditioned by several stipulations, five of +which had not been fulfilled.[234] But the difficulties arising out of +the reconstruction of this moribund Order were as nothing when +compared with those resulting from the reopening of a far vaster and +more complex question--the "eternal" Eastern Question. + +Rarely has the mouldering away of the Turkish Empire gone on so +rapidly as at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Corruption and +favouritism paralyzed the Government at Constantinople; masterful +pachas, aping the tactics of Ali Pacha, the virtual ruler of Albania, +were beginning to carve out satrapies in Syria, Asia Minor, Wallachia, +and even in Roumelia itself. Such was the state of Turkey when the +Sultan and his advisers heard with deep concern, in October, 1801, +that the only Power on whose friendship they could firmly rely was +about to relinquish Malta. At once he sent an earnest appeal to George +III. begging him not to evacuate the island. This despatch is not in +the archives of our Foreign Office; but the letter written from Malta +by Lord Elgin, our ambassador at Constantinople, on his return home, +sufficiently shows that the Sultan was conscious of his own weakness +and of the schemes of partition which were being concocted at Paris. +Bonaparte had already begun to sound both Austria and Russia on this +subject, deftly hinting that the Power which did not early join in the +enterprise would come poorly off. For the present both the rulers +rejected his overtures; but he ceased not to hope that the anarchy in +Turkey, and the jealousy which partition schemes always arouse among +neighbours, would draw first one and then the other into his +enterprise.[235] + +The young Czar's disposition was at that period restless and unstable, +free from the passionate caprices of his ill-fated father, and attuned +by the fond efforts of the Swiss democrat Laharpe, to the loftiest +aspirations of the France of 1789. Yet the son of Paul I. could hardly +free himself from the instincts of a line of conquering Czars; his +frank blue eyes, his graceful yet commanding figure, his high broad +forehead and close shut mouth gave promise of mental energy; and his +splendid physique and love of martial display seemed to invite him to +complete the campaigns of Catherine II. against the Turks, and to wash +out in the waves of the Danube the remorse which he still felt at his +unwitting complicity in a parricidal plot. Between his love of liberty +and of foreign conquest he for the present wavered, with a strange +constitutional indecision that marred a noble character and that +yielded him a prey more than once to a masterful will or to seductive +projects. He is the Janus of Russian history. On the one side he faces +the enormous problems of social and political reform, and yet he +steals many a longing glance towards the dome of St. Sofia. This +instability in his nature has been thus pointedly criticised by his +friend Prince Czartoryski:[236] + + "Grand ideas of the general good, generous sentiments, and the + desire to sacrifice to them a part of the imperial authority, had + really occupied the Emperor's mind, but they were rather a young + man's fancies than a grown man's decided will. The Emperor liked + forms of liberty, as he liked the theatre: it gave him pleasure and + flattered his vanity to see the appearances of free government in + his Empire: but all he wanted in this respect was forms and + appearances: he did not expect them to become realities. He would + willingly have agreed that every man should be free, on the + condition that he should voluntarily do only what the Emperor + wished." + +This later judgment of the well-known Polish nationalist is probably +embittered by the disappointments which he experienced at the Czar's +hands; but it expresses the feeling of most observers of Alexander's +early career, and it corresponds with the conclusion arrived at by +Napoleon's favourite aide-de-camp, Duroc, who went to congratulate the +young Czar on his accession and to entice him into oriental +schemes--that there was nothing to hope and nothing to fear from the +Czar. The _mot_ was deeply true.[237] + + +From these oriental schemes the young Czar was, for the time, drawn +aside towards the nobler path of social reform. The saving influence +on this occasion was exerted by his old tutor, Laharpe. The +ex-Director of Switzerland readily persuaded the Czar that Russia +sorely needed political and social reform. His influence was +powerfully aided by a brilliant group of young men, the Vorontzoffs, +the Strogonoffs, Novossiltzoff, and Czartoryski, whose admiration for +western ideas and institutions, especially those of Britain, helped to +impel Alexander on the path of progress. Thus, when Napoleon was +plying the Czar with notes respecting Turkey, that young ruler was +commencing to bestow system on his administration, privileges on the +serfs, and the feeble beginnings of education on the people. + +While immersed in these beneficent designs, Alexander heard with deep +chagrin of the annexation of Piedmont and Parma, and that Napoleon +refused to the King of Sardinia any larger territory than the +Siennese. This breach of good faith cut the Czar to the quick. It was +in vain that Napoleon now sought to lure him into Turkish adventures +by representing that France should secure the Morea for herself, that +other parts of European Turkey might be apportioned to Victor Emmanuel +I. and the French Bourbons. This cold-blooded proposal, that ancient +dynasties should be thrust from the homes of their birth into alien +Greek or Moslem lands, wounded the Czar's monarchical sentiments. He +would none of it; nor did he relish the prospect of seeing the French +in the Morea, whence they could complete the disorder of Turkey and +seize on Constantinople. He saw whither Napoleon was leading him. He +drew back abruptly, and even notified to our ambassador, Admiral +Warren, that _England had better keep Malta._[238] + + +Alexander also, on January 19th, 1803 (O.S.), charged his ambassador +at Paris to declare that the existing system of Europe must not be +further disturbed, that each Government should strive for peace and +the welfare of its own people; that the frequent references of +Napoleon to the approaching dissolution of Turkey were ill-received at +St. Petersburg, where they were considered the chief cause of +England's anxiety and refusal to disarm. He also suggested that the +First Consul by some public utterance should dispel the fears of +England as to a partition of the Ottoman Empire, and thus assure the +peace of the world.[239] + +Before this excellent advice was received, Napoleon astonished the +world by a daring stroke. On the 30th of January the "Moniteur" +printed in full the bellicose report of Colonel Sebastiani on his +mission to Algiers, Egypt, Syria, and the Ionian Isles. As that +mission was afterwards to be passed off as merely of a commercial +character, it will be well to quote typical passages from the secret +instructions which the First Consul gave to his envoy on September +5th, 1802: + + "He will proceed to Alexandria: he will take note of what is in the + harbour, the ships, the forces which the British as well as the + Turks have there, the state of the fortifications, the state of the + towers, the account of all that has passed since our departure both + at Alexandria and in the whole of Egypt: finally, the present state + of the Egyptians.... He will proceed to St. Jean d'Acre, will + recommend the convent of Nazareth to Djezzar: will inform him that + the agent of the [French] Republic is to appear at Acre: will find + out about the fortifications he has had made: will walk along them + himself, if there be no danger." + +Fortifications, troops, ships of war, the feelings of the natives, and +the protection of the Christians--these subjects were to be +Sebastiani's sole care. Commerce was not once named. The departure of +this officer had already alarmed our Government. Mr. Merry, our +_charge d'affaires_ in Paris, had warned it as to the real aims in +view, in the following "secret despatch: + + "PARIS, _September 25th,_ 1802. + + "... I have learnt from good authority that he [Sebastiani] was + accompanied by a person of the name of Jaubert (who was General + Bonaparte's interpreter and confidential agent with the natives + during the time he commanded in Egypt), who has carried with him + regular powers and instructions, prepared by M. Talleyrand, to + treat with Ibrahim-Bey for the purpose of creating a fresh and + successful revolt in Egypt against the power of the Porte, and of + placing that country again under the direct or indirect dependence + of France, to which end he has been authorized to offer assistance + from hence in men and money. The person who has confided to me this + information understands that the mission to Ibrahim-Bey is confided + solely to M. Jaubert, and that his being sent with Colonel + Sebastiani has been in order to conceal the real object of it, and + to afford him a safe conveyance to Egypt, as well as for the + purpose of assisting the Colonel in his transactions with the + Regencies of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli."[240] + +Merry's information was correct: it tallied with the secret +instructions given by Napoleon to Sebastiani: and our Government, thus +forewarned, at once adopted a stiffer tone on all Mediterranean and +oriental questions. Sebastiani was very coldly received by our officer +commanding in Egypt, General Stuart, who informed him that no orders +had as yet come from London for our evacuation of that land. +Proceeding to Cairo, the commercial emissary proposed to mediate +between the Turkish Pacha and the rebellious Mamelukes, an offer which +was firmly declined.[241] In vain did Sebastiani bluster and cajole by +turns. The Pacha refused to allow him to go on to Assouan, the +headquarters of the insurgent Bey, and the discomfited envoy made his +way back to the coast and took ship for Acre. Thence he set sail for +Corfu, where he assured the people of Napoleon's wish that there +should be an end to their civil discords. Returning to Genoa, and +posting with all speed to Paris, he arrived there on January 25th, +1803. Five days later that gay capital was startled by the report of +his mission, which was printed in full in the "Moniteur." It described +the wretched state of the Turks in Egypt--the Pacha of Cairo +practically powerless, and on bad terms with General Stuart, the +fortifications everywhere in a ruinous state, the 4,430 British troops +cantoned in and near Alexandria, the Turkish forces beneath contempt. +"Six thousand French would at present be enough to conquer Egypt." And +as to the Ionian islands, "I do not stray from the truth in assuring +you that these islands will declare themselves French as soon as an +opportunity shall offer itself."[242] + +Such were the chief items of this report. Various motives have been +assigned for its publication. Some writers have seen in it a crushing +retort to English newspaper articles. Others there are, as M. Thiers, +who waver between the opinion that the publication of this report was +either a "sudden unfortunate incident," or a protest against the +"latitude" which England allowed herself in the execution of the +Treaty of Amiens. + + +A consideration of the actual state of affairs at the end of January, +1803, will perhaps guide us to an explanation which is more consonant +with the grandeur of Napoleon's designs. At that time he was +all-powerful in the Old World. As First Consul for Life he was master +of forty millions of men: he was President of the Italian Republic: to +the Switzers, as to the Dutch, his word was law. Against the +infractions of the Treaty of Luneville, Austria dared make no protest. +The Czar was occupied with domestic affairs, and his rebuff to +Napoleon's oriental schemes had not yet reached Paris. As for the +British Ministry, it was trembling from the attacks of the Grenvilles +and Windhams on the one side, and from the equally vigorous onslaughts +of Fox, who, when the Government proposed an addition to the armed +forces, brought forward the stale platitude that a large standing army +"was a dangerous instrument of influence in the hands of the Crown." +When England's greatest orator thus impaired the unity of national +feeling, and her only statesman, Pitt, remained in studied seclusion, +the First Consul might well feel assured of the impotence of the +Island Power, and view the bickering of her politicians with the same +quiet contempt that Philip felt for the Athens of Demosthenes. + +But while his prospects in Europe and the East were roseate, the +western horizon bulked threateningly with clouds. The news of the +disasters in St. Domingo reached Paris in the first week of the year +1803, and shortly afterwards came tidings of the ferment in the United +States and the determination of their people to resist the acquisition +of Louisiana by France. If he persevered with this last scheme, he +would provoke war with that republic and drive it into the arms of +England. From that blunder his statecraft instinctively saved him, and +he determined to sell Louisiana to the United States. + +So unheroic a retreat from the prairies of the New World must be +covered by a demonstration towards the banks of the Nile and of the +Indus. It was ever his plan to cover retreat in one direction by +brilliant diversions in another: only so could he enthrall the +imagination of France, and keep his hold on her restless capital. And +the publication of Sebastiani's report, with its glowing description +of the fondness cherished for France alike by Moslems, Syrian +Christians, and the Greeks of Corfu; its declamation against the +perfidy of General Stuart; and its incitation to the conquest of the +Levant, furnished him with the motive power for effecting a telling +transformation scene and banishing all thoughts of losses in the +West.[243] + +The official publication of this report created a sensation even in +France, and was not the _bagatelle_ which M. Thiers has endeavoured to +represent it.[244] But far greater was the astonishment at Downing +Street, not at the facts disclosed by the report--for Merry's note +had prepared our Ministers for them--but rather at the official avowal +of hostile designs. At once our Government warned Whitworth that he +must insist on our retaining Malta. He was also to protest against the +publication of such a document, and to declare that George III. could +not "enter into any further discussion relative to Malta until he +received a satisfactory explanation." Far from offering it, Napoleon +at once complained of our non-evacuation of Alexandria and Malta. + + "Instead of that garrison [of Alexandria] being a means of + protecting Egypt, it was only furnishing him with a pretence + for invading it. This he should not do, whatever might be his + desire to have it as a colony, because he did not think it worth + the risk of a war, in which he might perhaps be considered the + aggressor, and by which he should lose more than he could gain, + since sooner or later Egypt would belong to France, either by the + falling to pieces of the Turkish Empire, or by some arrangement + with the Porte.... Finally," he asked, "why should not the mistress + of the seas and the mistress of the land come to an arrangement and + govern the world?" + +A subtler diplomatist than Whitworth would probably have taken the +hint for a Franco-British partition of the world: but the Englishman, +unable at that moment to utter a word amidst the torrent of argument +and invective, used the first opportunity merely to assure Napoleon of +the alarm caused in England by Sebastiani's utterance concerning +Egypt. This touched the First Consul at the wrong point, and he +insisted that on the evacuation of Malta the question of peace or war +must depend. In vain did the English ambassador refer to the extension +of French power on the Continent. Napoleon cut him short: "I suppose +you mean Piedmont and Switzerland: ce sont des----: vous n'avez pas le +droit d'en parler a cette heure." Seeing that he was losing his +temper, Lord Whitworth then diverted the conversation.[245] + +This long tirade shows clearly what were the aims of the First Consul. +He desired peace until his eastern plans were fully matured. And what +ruler would not desire to maintain a peace so fruitful in +conquests--that perpetuated French influence in Italy, Switzerland, +and Holland, that enabled France to prepare for the dissolution of the +Turkish Empire and to intrigue with the Mahrattas? Those were the +conditions on which England could enjoy peace: she must recognize the +arbitrament of France in the affairs of all neighbouring States, she +must make no claim for compensation in the Mediterranean, and she must +endure to be officially informed that she alone could not maintain a +struggle against France.[246] + +But George III. was not minded to sink to the level of a Charles II. +Whatever were the failings of our "farmer king," he was keenly alive +to national honour and interests. These had been deeply wounded, even +in the United Kingdom itself. Napoleon had been active in sending +"commercial commissioners" into our land. Many of them were proved to +be soldiers: and the secret instructions sent by Talleyrand to one of +them at Dublin, which chanced to fall into the hands of our +Government, showed that they were charged to make plans of the +harbours, and of the soundings and moorings.[247] + +Then again, the French were almost certainly helping Irish +conspirators. One of these, Emmett, already suspected of complicity in +the Despard conspiracy which aimed at the King's life, had, after its +failure, sought shelter in France. At the close of 1802 he returned to +his native land and began to store arms in a house near Rathfarnham. +It is doubtful whether the authorities were aware of his plans, or, as +is more probable, let the plot come to a head. The outbreak did not +take place till the following July (after the renewal of war), when +Emmett and some of his accomplices, along with Russell, who stirred up +sedition in Ulster, paid for their folly with their lives. They +disavowed any connection with France, but they must have based their +hope of success on a promised French invasion of our coasts.[248] + +The dealings of the French commercial commissioners and the beginnings +of the Emmett plot increased the tension caused by Napoleon's +masterful foreign policy; and the result was seen in the King's +message to Parliament on March 8th, 1803. In view of the military +preparations and of the wanton defiance of the First Consul's recent +message to the Corps Legislatif, Ministers asked for the embodiment of +the militia and the addition of 10,000 seamen to the navy. After +Napoleon's declaration to our ambassador that France was bringing her +forces on active service up to 480,000 men, the above-named increase +of the British forces might well seem a reasonable measure of defence. +Yet it so aroused the spleen of the First Consul that, at a public +reception of ambassadors on March 13th, he thus accosted Lord +Whitworth: + + "'So you are determined to go to war.' 'No, First Consul,' I + replied, 'we are too sensible of the advantage of peace.' 'Why, + then, these armaments? Against whom these measures of precaution? I + have not a single ship of the line in the French ports, but if you + wish to arm I will arm also: if you wish to fight, I will fight + also. You may perhaps kill France, but will never intimidate her.' + 'We wish,' said I, 'neither the one nor the other. We wish to live + on good terms with her.' 'You must respect treaties then,' replied + he; 'woe to those who do not respect treaties. They shall answer + for it to all Europe.' He was too agitated to make it advisable to + prolong the conversation: I therefore made no answer, and he + retired to his apartment, repeating the last phrase."[249] + +This curious scene shows Napoleon in one of his weaker petulant moods: +it left on the embarrassed spectators no impression of outraged +dignity, but rather of the over-weening self-assertion of an autocrat +who could push on hostile preparations, and yet flout the ambassador +of the Power that took reasonable precautions in return. The slight +offered to our ambassador, though hotly resented in Britain, had no +direct effect on the negotiations, as the First Consul soon took the +opportunity of tacitly apologizing for the occurrence; but indirectly +the matter was infinitely important. By that utterance he nailed his +colours to the mast with respect to the British evacuation of Malta. +With his keen insight into the French nature, he knew that "honour" was +its mainspring, and that his political fortunes rested on the +satisfaction of that instinct. He could not now draw back without +affronting the prestige of France and undermining his own position. In +vain did our Government remind him of his admission that "His Majesty +should keep a compensation out of his conquests for the important +acquisitions of territory made by France upon the Continent."[250] That +promise, although official, was secret. Its violation would, at the +worst, only offend the officials of Whitehall. Whereas, if he now +acceded to their demand that Malta should be the compensation, he at +once committed that worst of all crimes in a French statesman, of +rendering himself ludicrous. In this respect, then, the scene of March +13th at the Tuileries was indirectly the cause of the bloodiest war that +has desolated Europe. + +Napoleon now regarded the outbreak of hostilities as probable, if not +certain. Facts are often more eloquent than diplomatic assurances, and +such facts are not wanting. On March 6th Decaen's expedition had set +sail from Brest for the East Indies with no anticipation of immediate +war. On March 16th a fast brig was sent after him with orders that he +should return with all speed from Pondicherry to the Mauritius. +Napoleon's correspondence also shows that, as early as March 11th, +that is, after hearing of George III.'s message to Parliament, he +expected the outbreak of hostilities: on that day he ordered the +formation of flotillas at Dunkirk and Cherbourg, and sent urgent +messages to the sovereigns of Russia, Prussia, and Spain, inveighing +against England's perfidy. The envoy despatched to St. Petersburg was +specially charged to talk to the Czar on philosophic questions, and to +urge him to free the seas from England's tyranny. + +Much as Addington and his colleagues loved peace, they were now +convinced that it was more hazardous than open war. Malta was the only +effectual bar to a French seizure of Egypt or an invasion of Turkey from +the side of Corfu. With Turkey partitioned and Egypt in French hands, +there would be no security against Napoleon's designs on India. The +British forces evacuated the Cape of Good Hope on February 21st, 1803; +they set sail from Alexandria on the 17th of the following month. By the +former act we yielded up to France the sea route to India--for the Dutch +at the Cape were but the tools of the First Consul: by the latter we +left Malta as the sole barrier against a renewed land attack on our +Eastern possessions. The safety of our East Indian possessions was +really at stake, and yet Europe was asked to believe that the question +was whether England would or would not evacuate Malta. This was the +French statement of the case: it was met by the British plea that +France, having declared her acceptance of the principle of compensation +for us, had no cause for objecting to the retention of an island so +vital to our interests. + +Yet, while convinced of the immense importance of Malta, the Addington +Cabinet did not insist on retaining it, if the French Government would +"suggest some other _equivalent security_ by which His Majesty's +object in claiming the permanent possession of Malta may be +accomplished and the independence of the island secured conformably to +the spirit of the 10th Article of the Treaty of Amiens."[251] To the +First Consul was therefore left the initiative in proposing some other +plan which would safeguard British interests in the Levant; and, with +this qualifying explanation, the British ambassador was charged to +present to him the following proposals for a new treaty: Malta to +remain in British hands, the Knights to be indemnified for any losses +of property which they may thereby sustain: Holland and Switzerland to +be evacuated by French troops: the island of Elba to be confirmed to +France, and the King of Etruria to be acknowledged by Great Britain: +the Italian and Ligurian Republics also to be acknowledged, if "an +arrangement is made in Italy for the King of Sardinia, which shall be +satisfactory to him." + +Lord Whitworth judged it better not to present these demands point +blank, but gradually to reveal their substance. This course, he +judged, would be less damaging to the friends of peace at the +Tuileries, and less likely to affront Napoleon. But it was all one and +the same. The First Consul, in his present state of highly wrought +tension, practically ignored the suggestion of an _equivalent +security,_ and declaimed against the perfidy of England for daring to +infringe the treaty, though he had offered no opposition to the Czar's +proposals respecting Malta, which weakened the stability of the Order +and sensibly modified that same treaty. + +Talleyrand was more conciliatory; and there is little doubt that, had +the First Consul allowed his brother Joseph and his Foreign Minister +wider powers, the crisis might have been peaceably passed. Joseph +Bonaparte urgently pressed Whitworth to be satisfied with Corfu or +Crete in place of Malta; but he confessed that the suggestion was +quite unauthorized, and that the First Consul was so enraged on the +Maltese Question that he dared not broach it to him.[252] Indeed, all +through these critical weeks Napoleon's relations to his brothers were +very strained, they desiring peace in Europe so that Louisiana might +even now be saved to France, while the First Consul persisted in his +oriental schemes. He seems now to have concentrated his energies on +the task of postponing the rupture to a convenient date and of casting +on his foes the odium of the approaching war. He made no proposal that +could reassure Britain as to the security of the overland routes; and +he named no other island which could be considered as an equivalent to +Malta. + +To many persons his position has seemed logically unassailable; but it +is difficult to see how this view can be held. The Treaty of Amiens +had twice over been rendered, in a technical sense, null and void by the +action of Continental Powers. Russia and Prussia had not guaranteed the +state of things arranged for Malta by that treaty; and the action of +France and Spain in confiscating the property of the Knights in their +respective lands had so far sapped the strength of the Order that it +could never again support the expense of the large garrison which the +lines around Valetta required. + +In a military sense, this was the crux of the problem; for no one +affected to believe that Malta was rendered secure by the presence at +Valetta of 2,000 troops of the King of Naples, whose realm could +within a week be overrun by Murat's division. This obvious difficulty +led Lord Hawkesbury to urge, in his notes of April 13th and later, +that British troops should garrison the chief fortifications of +Valetta and leave the civil power to the Knights: or, if that were +found objectionable, that we should retain complete possession of the +island for ten years, provided that we were left free to negotiate +with the King of Naples for the cession of Lampedusa, an islet to the +west of Malta. To this last proposal the First Consul offered no +objection; but he still inflexibly opposed any retention of Malta, +even for ten years, and sought to make the barren islet of Lampedusa +appear an equivalent to Malta. This absurd contention had, however, +been exploded by Talleyrand's indiscreet confession "that the +re-establishment of the Order of St. John was not so much the point to +be discussed as that of suffering Great Britain to acquire a +_possession in the Mediterranean_."[253] + +This, indeed, was the pith and marrow of the whole question, whether +Great Britain was to be excluded from that great sea--save at +Gibraltar and Lampedusa--looking on idly at its transformation into a +French lake by the seizure of Corfu, the Morea, Egypt, and Malta +itself; or whether she should retain some hold on the overland route +to the East. The difficulty was frankly pointed out by Lord Whitworth; +it was as frankly admitted by Joseph Bonaparte; it was recognized by +Talleyrand; and Napoleon's desire for a durable peace must have been +slight when he refused to admit England's claim effectively to +safeguard her interests in the Levant, and ever fell back on the +literal fulfilment of a treaty which had been invalidated by his own +deliberate actions. + +Affairs now rapidly came to a climax. On April 23rd the British +Government notified its ambassador that, if the present terms were not +granted within seven days of his receiving them, he was to leave +Paris. Napoleon was no less angered than surprised by the recent turn +of events. In place of timid complaisance which he had expected from +Addington, he was met with open defiance; but he now proposed that the +Czar should offer his intervention between the disputants. The +suggestion was infinitely skilful. It flattered the pride of the young +autocrat and promised to yield gains as substantial as those which +Russian mediation had a year before procured for France from the +intimidated Sultan; it would help to check the plans for an +Anglo-Russian alliance then being mooted at St. Petersburg, and, above +all, it served to gain time. + +All these advantages were to a large extent realized. Though the Czar +had been the first to suggest our retention of Malta, he now began to +waver. The clearness and precision of Talleyrand's notes, and the +telling charge of perfidy against England, made an impression which +the cumbrous retorts of Lord Hawkesbury and the sailor-like diplomacy +of Admiral Warren failed to efface.[254] And the Russian Chancellor, +Vorontzoff, though friendly to England, and desirous of seeing her +firmly established at Malta, now began to complain of the want of +clearness in her policy. The Czar emphasized this complaint, and +suggested that, as Malta could not be the real cause of dispute, the +British Government should formulate distinctly its grievances and so set +the matter in train for a settlement. The suggestion was not complied +with. To draw up a long list of complaints, some drawn from secret +sources and exposing the First Consul's schemes, would have exasperated +his already ruffled temper; and the proposal can only be regarded as an +adroit means of justifying Alexander's sudden change of front. + +Meanwhile events had proceeded apace at Paris. On April 26th Joseph +Bonaparte made a last effort to bend his brother's will, but only +gained the grudging concession that Napoleon would never consent to +the British retention of Malta for a longer time than three or four +years. As this would have enabled him to postpone the rupture long +enough to mature his oriental plans, it was rejected by Lord +Whitworth, who insisted on ten years as the minimum. The evident +determination of the British Government speedily to terminate the +affair, one way or the other, threw Napoleon into a paroxysm of +passion; and at the diplomatic reception of May 1st, from which Lord +Whitworth discreetly absented himself, he vehemently inveighed against +its conduct. Fretted by the absence of our ambassador, for whom this +sally had been intended, he returned to St. Cloud, and there dictated +this curious epistle to Talleyrand: + + "I desire that your conference [with Lord Whitworth] shall not + degenerate into a conversation. Show yourself cold, reserved, and + even somewhat proud. If the [British] note contains the word + _ultimatum_ make him feel that this word implies war; if it does + not contain this word, make him insert it, remarking to him that we + must know where we are, that we are tired of this state of + anxiety.... Soften down a little at the end of the conference, and + invite him to return before writing to his Court." + +But this careful rehearsal was to avail nothing; our stolid ambassador +was not to be cajoled, and on May 2nd, that is, seven days after his +presenting our ultimatum, he sent for his passports. He did not, +however, set out immediately. Yielding to an urgent request, he +delayed his departure in order to hear the French reply to the British +ultimatum.[255] It notified sarcastically that Lampedusa was not in +the First Consul's power to bestow, that any change with reference to +Malta must be referred by Great Britain to the Great Powers for their +concurrence, and that Holland would be evacuated as soon as the terms +of the Treaty of Amiens were complied with. Another proposal was that +Malta should be transferred to Russia--the very step which was +proposed at Amiens and was rejected by the Czar: on that account Lord +Whitworth now refused it as being merely a device to gain time. The +sending of his passports having been delayed, he received one more +despatch from Downing Street, which allowed that our retention of +Malta for ten years should form a secret article--a device which would +spare the First Consul's susceptibilities on the point of honour. Even +so, however, Napoleon refused to consider a longer tenure than two or +three years. And in this he was undoubtedly encouraged by the recent +despatch from St. Petersburg, wherein the Czar promised his mediation +in a sense favourable to France. This unfortunate occurrence completed +the discomfiture of the peace party at the Consular Court, and in a +long and heated discussion in a council held at St. Cloud on May 11th +all but Joseph Bonaparte and Talleyrand voted for the rejection of +the British demands. + +On the next day Lord Whitworth left Paris. During his journey to +Calais he received one more proposal, that France should hold the +peninsula of Otranto for ten years if Great Britain retained Malta for +that period; but if this suggestion was made in good faith, which is +doubtful, its effect was destroyed by a rambling diatribe which +Talleyrand, at his master's orders, sent shortly afterwards.[256] In +any case it was looked upon by our ambassador as a last attempt to gain +time for the concentration of the French naval forces. He crossed the +Straits of Dover on May 17th, the day before the British declaration of +war was issued. + +On May 22nd, 1803, appeared at Paris the startling order that, as +British frigates had captured two French merchantmen on the Breton +coast, all Englishmen between eighteen and sixty years of age who were +in France should be detained as prisoners of war. The pretext for this +unheard-of action, which condemned some 10,000 Britons to prolonged +detention, was that the two French ships were seized prior to the +declaration of war. This is false: they were seized on May 18th, that +is, on the day on which the British Government declared war, three +days after an embargo had been laid on British vessels in French +ports, and seven days after the First Consul had directed his envoy at +Florence to lay an embargo on English ships in the ports of +Tuscany.[257] It is therefore obvious that Napoleon's barbarous decree +merely marked his disappointment at the failure of his efforts to gain +time and to deal the first stroke. How sorely his temper was tried by +the late events is clear from the recital of the Duchesse d'Abrantes, +who relates that her husband, when ordered to seize English residents, +found the First Consul in a fury, his eyes flashing fire; and when +Junot expressed his reluctance to carry out this decree, Napoleon +passionately exclaimed: "Do not trust too far to my friendship: as +soon as I conceive doubt as to yours, mine is gone." + +Few persons in England now cherished any doubts as to the First +Consul's hatred of the nation which stood between him and his oriental +designs. Ministers alone knew the extent of those plans: but every +ploughboy could feel the malice of an act which cooped up innocent +travellers on the flimsiest of pretexts. National ardour, and, alas, +national hatred were deeply stirred.[258] The Whigs, who had paraded the +clemency of Napoleon, were at once helpless, and found themselves +reduced to impotence for wellnigh a generation; and the Tories, who +seemed the exponents of a national policy, were left in power until the +stream of democracy, dammed up by war in 1793 and again in 1803, +asserted its full force in the later movement for reform. + +Yet the opinion often expressed by pamphleteers, that the war of 1803 +was undertaken to compel France to abandon her republican principles, +is devoid of a shred of evidence in its favour. After 1802 there were +no French republican principles to be combated; they had already been +jettisoned; and, since Bonaparte had crushed the Jacobins, his +personal claims were favourably regarded at Whitehall, Addington even +assuring the French envoy that he would welcome the establishment of +hereditary succession in the First Consul's family.[259] But while +Bonaparte's own conduct served to refute the notion that the war of +1803 was a war of principles, his masterful policy in Europe and the +Levant convinced every well-informed man that peace was impossible; +and the rupture was accompanied by acts and insults to the "nation of +shopkeepers" that could be avenged only by torrents of blood. +Diatribes against perfidious Albion filled the French Press and +overflowed into splenetic pamphlets, one of which bade odious England +tremble under the consciousness of her bad faith and the expectation +of swift and condign chastisement. Such was the spirit in which these +nations rushed to arms; and the conflict was scarcely to cease until +Napoleon was flung out into the solitudes of the southern Atlantic. + +The importance of the rupture of the Peace of Amiens will be realized if +we briefly survey Bonaparte's position after that treaty was signed. He +had regained for his adopted country a colonial empire and had given +away not a single French island. France was raised to a position of +assured strength far preferable to the perilous heights attained later +on at Tilsit. In Australia there was a prospect that the tricolour would +wave over areas as great and settlements as prosperous as those of New +South Wales and the infant town of Sydney. From the Ile de France and +the Cape of Good Hope as convenient bases of operations, British India +could easily be assailed; and a Franco-Mahratta alliance promised to +yield a victory over the troops of the East India Company. In Europe the +imminent collapse of the Turkish Empire invited a partition, whence +France might hope to gain Egypt and the Morea. The Ionian Isles were +ready to accept French annexation; and, if England withdrew her troops +from Malta, the fate of the weak Order of St. John could scarcely be a +matter of doubt. + +For the fulfilment of these bright hopes one thing alone was needed, a +policy of peace and naval preparation. As yet Napoleon's navy was +comparatively weak. In March, 1803, he had only forty-three +line-of-battle ships, ten of which were on distant stations; but he +had ordered twenty-three more to be built--ten of them in Holland; +and, with the harbours of France, Holland, Flanders, and Northern +Italy at his disposal, he might hope, at the close of 1804, to +confront the flag of St. George with a superiority of force. That was +the time which his secret instructions to Decaen marked out for the +outbreak of the war that would yield to the tricolour a world-wide +supremacy. + +These schemes miscarried owing to the impetuosity of their contriver. +Hustled out of the arena of European politics, and threatened with +French supremacy in the other Continents, England forthwith drew the +sword; and her action, cutting athwart the far-reaching web of the +Napoleonic intrigues, forced France to forego her oceanic plans, to +muster her forces on the Straits of Dover, and thereby to yield to the +English race the supremacy in Louisiana, India, and Australia, leaving +also the destinies of Egypt to be decided in a later age. Viewed from +the standpoint of racial expansion, the renewal of war in 1803 is the +greatest event of the century. + +[Since this chapter was printed, articles on the same subject have +appeared in the "Revue Historique" (March-June, 1901) by M. +Philippson, which take almost the same view as that here presented. I +cannot, however, agree with the learned writer that Napoleon wanted +war. I think he did not, _until his navy was ready_; but it was not in +him to give way.] + + + NOTE TO THE FIFTH EDITION + + M. Coquelle, in a work which has been translated into English by + Mr. Gordon D. Knox (G. Bell and Sons, Ltd.), has shown clearly that + the non-evacuation of Holland by Napoleon's troops and the + subjection of that Republic to French influence formed the chief + causes of war. I refer my readers to that work for details of the + negotiations in their final stages. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +EUROPE AND THE BONAPARTES + + +The disappointment felt by Napoleon at England's interruption of his +designs may be measured, first by his efforts to postpone the rupture, +and thereafter by the fierce energy which he threw into the war. As +has been previously noted, the Czar had responded to the First +Consul's appeal for mediation in notes which seemed to the British +Cabinet unjustly favourable to the French case. Napoleon now offered +to recognize the arbitration of the Czar on the questions in dispute, +and suggested that meanwhile Malta should be handed over to Russia to +be held in pledge: he on his part offered to evacuate Hanover, +Switzerland, and Holland, if the British would suspend hostilities, to +grant an indemnity to the King of Sardinia, to allow Britain to occupy +Lampedusa, and fully to assure "the independence of Europe," if France +retained her present frontiers. But when the Russian envoy, Markoff, +urged him to crown these proposals by allowing Britain to hold Malta +for a certain time, thereafter to be agreed upon, he firmly refused to +do so on his own initiative, for that would soil his honour: but he +would view with resignation its cession to Britain if that proved to +be the award of Alexander. Accordingly Markoff wrote to his colleague +at London, assuring him that the peace of the world was now once again +assured by the noble action of the First Consul.[260] + +Were these proposals prompted by a sincere desire to assure a lasting +peace, or were they put forward as a device to gain time for the +completion of the French naval preparations? Evidently they were +completely distrusted by the British Government, and with some reason. +They were nearly identical with the terms formulated in the British +ultimatum, which Napoleon had rejected. Moreover, our Foreign Office +had by this time come to suspect Alexander. On June 23rd Lord +Hawkesbury wrote that it might be most damaging to British interests +to place Malta "at the hazard of the Czar's arbitration"; and he +informed the Russian ambassador, Count Vorontzoff, that the aim of the +French had obviously been merely to gain time, that their explanations +were loose and unsatisfactory, and their demands inadmissible, and +that Great Britain could not acknowledge the present territories of +the French Republic as permanent while Malta was placed in +arbitration. In fact, our Government feared that, when Malta had been +placed in Alexander's hands, Napoleon would lure him into oriental +adventures and renew the plans of an advance on India. Their fears +were well founded. + +Napoleon's preoccupation was always for the East: on February 21st, +1803, he had charged his Minister of Marine to send arms and +ammunition to the Suliotes and Maniotes then revolting against the +Sultan; and at midsummer French agents were at Ragusa to prepare for a +landing at the mouth of the River Cattaro.[261] With Turkey rent by +revolt, Malta placed as a pledge in Russian keeping, and Alexander +drawn into the current of Napoleon's designs, what might not be +accomplished? Evidently the First Consul could expect more from this +course of events than from barren strifes with Nelson's ships in the +Straits of Dover. For _us_, such a peace was far more risky than war. +And yet, if the Czar's offer were too stiffly repelled, public opinion +would everywhere be alienated, and in that has always lain half the +strength of England's policy.[262] Ministers therefore declared that, +while they could not accept Russia's arbitration without appeal, they +would accede to her mediation if it concerned all the causes of the +present war. This reasonable proposal was accepted by the Czar, but +received from Napoleon a firm refusal. He at once wrote to Talleyrand, +August 23rd, 1803, directing that the Russian proposals should be made +known to Haugwitz, the Prussian Foreign Minister: + + "Make him see all the absurdity of it: tell him that England will + never get from me any other treaty than that of Amiens: that _I + will never suffer her to have anything in the Mediterranean_; that + I will not treat with her about the Continent; that I am resolved + to evacuate Holland and Switzerland; but that I will never + stipulate this in an article." + +As for Russia, he continued, she talked much about the integrity of +Turkey, but was violating it by the occupation of the Ionian Isles and +her constant intrigues in Wallachia. These facts were correct: but the +manner in which he stated them clearly revealed his annoyance that the +Czar would not wholly espouse the French cause. Talleyrand's views on +this question may be seen in his letter to Bonaparte, when he assures +his chief that he has now reaped from his noble advance to the Russian +Emperor the sole possible advantage--"that of proving to Europe by a +grand act of frankness your love of peace and to throw upon England +the whole blame for the war." It is not often that a diplomatist so +clearly reveals the secrets of his chief's policy.[263] + +The motives of Alexander were less questionable. His chief desire at +that time was to improve the lot of his people. War would disarrange +these noble designs: France would inevitably overrun the weaker +Continental States: England would retaliate by enforcing her severe +maritime code; and the whole world would be rent in twain by this +strife of the elements. + + +These gloomy forebodings were soon to be realized. Holland was the +first to suffer. And yet one effort was made to spare her the horrors +of war. Filled with commiseration for her past sufferings, the British +Government at once offered to respect her neutrality, provided that +the French troops would evacuate her fortresses and exact no succour +either in ships, men, or money.[264] But such forbearance was scarcely +to be expected from Napoleon, who not only had a French division in +that land, supported at its expense, but also relied on its maritime +resources.[265] The proposal was at once set aside at Paris. +Napoleon's decision to drag the Batavian Republic into the war arose, +however, from no spasm of the war fever; it was calmly stated in the +secret instructions issued to General Decaen in the preceding January. +"It is now considered impossible that we could have war with England, +without dragging Holland into it." Holland was accordingly once more +ground between the upper and the nether millstone, between the Sea +Power and the Land Power, pouring out for Napoleon its resources in +men and money, and losing to the masters of the sea its ships, foreign +commerce, and colonies. + +Equally hard was the treatment of Naples. In spite of the Czar's plea +that its neutrality might be respected, this kingdom was at once +occupied by St. Cyr with troops that held the chief positions on the +"heel" of Italy. This infraction of the Treaty of Florence was to be +justified by a proclamation asserting that, as England had retained +Malta, the balance of power required that France should hold these +positions as long as England held Malta.[266] This action punished the +King and Queen of Naples for their supposed subservience to English +policy; and, while lightening the burdens of the French exchequer, it +compelled England to keep a large fleet in the Mediterranean for the +protection of Egypt, and thereby weakened her defensive powers in the +Straits of Dover. To distract his foes, and compel them to extend +their lines, was ever Napoleon's aim both in military and naval +strategy; and the occupation of Taranto, together with the naval +activity at Toulon and Genoa, left it doubtful whether the great +captain determined to strike at London or to resume his eastern +adventures. His previous moves all seemed to point towards Egypt and +India; and the Admiralty instructions of May 18th, 1803, to Nelson, +reveal the expectation of our Government that the real blow would fall +on the Morea and Egypt. Six weeks later our admiral reported the +activity of French intrigues in the Morea, which was doubtless +intended to be their halfway house to Egypt--"when sooner or later, +farewell India."[267] Proofs of Napoleon's designs on the Morea were +found by Captain Keats of H.M.S. "Superb" on a French vessel that he +captured, a French corporal having on him a secret letter from an +agent at Corfu, dated May 23rd, 1803. It ended thus: + + "I have every reason to believe that we shall soon have a + revolution in the Morea, as we desire. I have close relations with + Crepacchi, and we are in daily correspondence with all the chiefs + of the Morea: we have even provided them with munitions of + war."[268] + +On the whole, however, it seems probable that Napoleon's chief aim now +was London and not Egypt; but his demonstrations eastwards were so +skilfully maintained as to convince both the English Government and +Nelson that his real aim was Egypt or Malta. For this project the +French _corps d'armee_ in the "heel" of Italy held a commanding +position. Ships alone were wanting; and these he sought to compel the +King of Naples to furnish. As early as April 20th, 1803, our _charge +d'affaires_ at Naples, Mr. a Court, reported that Napoleon was pressing +on that Government a French alliance, on the ground that: + + "The interests of the two countries are the same: it is the + intention of France to shut every port to the English, from Holland + to the Turkish dominions, to prevent the exportation of her + merchandise, and to give a mortal blow to her commerce, for there + she is most vulnerable. Our joint forces may wrest from her hands + the island of Malta. The Sicilian navy may convoy and protect the + French troops in the prosecution of such a plan, and the most happy + result may be augured to their united exertions." + +Possibly the King and his spirited but whimsical consort, Queen +Charlotte, might have bent before the threats which accompanied this +alluring offer; but at the head of the Neapolitan administration was +an Englishman, General Acton, whose talents and force of will +commanded their respect and confidence. To the threats of the French +ambassador he answered that France was strong and Naples was weak; +force might overthrow the dynasty; but nothing would induce it to +violate its neutrality towards England. So unwonted a defiance aroused +Napoleon to a characteristic revenge. When his troops were quartered +on Southern Italy, and were draining the Neapolitan resources, the +Queen wrote appealing to his clemency on behalf of her much burdened +people. In reply he assured her of his desire to be agreeable to her: +but how could he look on Naples as a neutral State, when its chief +Minister was an Englishman? This was "the real reason that justified +all the measures taken towards Naples."[269] The brutality and +falseness of this reply had no other effect than to embitter Queen +Charlotte's hatred against the arbiter of the world's destinies, +before whom she and her consort refused to bow, even when, three years +later, they were forced to seek shelter behind the girdle of the +inviolate sea. + + + +Hanover also fell into Napoleon's hands. Mortier with 25,000 French +troops speedily overran that land and compelled the Duke of Cambridge +to a capitulation. The occupation of the Electorate not only relieved +the French exchequer of the support of a considerable corps; it also +served to hold in check the Prussian Court, always preoccupied about +Hanover; and it barred the entrance of the Elbe and Weser to British +ships, an aim long cherished by Napoleon. To this we retorted by +blockading the mouths of those rivers, an act which must have been +expected by Napoleon, and which enabled him to declaim against British +maritime tyranny. In truth, the beginnings of the Continental System +were now clearly discernible. The shores of the Continent from the +south of Italy to the mouth of the Elbe were practically closed to +English ships, while by a decree of July 15th _any vessel whatsoever_ +that had cleared from a British port was to be excluded from all +harbours of the French Republic. Thus all commercial nations were +compelled, slowly but inevitably, to side with the master of the land +or the mistress of the seas. + +In vain did the King of Prussia represent to Napoleon that Hanover was +not British territory, and that the neutrality of Germany was +infringed and its interests damaged by the French occupation of +Hanover and Cuxhaven. His protest was met by an offer from Napoleon to +evacuate Hanover, Taranto and Otranto, only at the time when England +should "evacuate Malta and the Mediterranean"; and though the special +Prussian envoy, Lombard, reported to his master that Napoleon was +"truth, loyalty, and friendship personified," yet he received not a +word that betokened real regard for the susceptibilities of Frederick +William III. or the commerce of his people.[270] For the present, +neither King nor Czar ventured on further remonstrances; but the First +Consul had sown seeds of discord which were to bear fruit in the Third +Coalition. + +Having quartered 60,000 French troops on Naples and Hanover, Napoleon +could face with equanimity the costs of the war. Gigantic as they were, +they could be met from the purchase money of Louisiana, the taxation and +voluntary gifts of the French dominions, the subsidies of the Italian +and Ligurian Republics, and a contribution which he now exacted from +Spain. + +Even before the outbreak of hostilities he had significantly reminded +Charles IV. that the Spanish marine was deteriorating, and her +arsenals and dockyards were idle: "But England is not asleep; she is +ever on the watch and will never rest until she has seized on the +colonies and commerce of the world."[271] For the present, however, +the loss of Trinidad and the sale of Louisiana rankled too deeply to +admit of Spain entering into another conflict, whence, as before, +Napoleon would doubtless gain the glory and leave to her the burden of +territorial sacrifices. In spite of his shameless relations to the +Queen of Spain, Godoy, the Spanish Minister, was not devoid of +patriotism; and he strove to evade the obligations which the treaty of +1796 imposed on Spain in case of an Anglo-French conflict. He embodied +the militia of the north of Spain and doubtless would have defied +Bonaparte's demands, had Russia and Prussia shown any disposition to +resist French aggressions. But those Powers were as yet wholly devoted +to private interests; and when Napoleon threatened Charles IV. and +Godoy with an inroad of 80,000 French troops unless the Spanish +militia were dissolved and 72,000,000 francs were paid every year into +the French exchequer, the Court of Madrid speedily gave way. Its +surrender was further assured by the thinly veiled threat that further +resistance would lead to the exposure of the _liaison_ between Godoy +and the Queen. Spain therefore engaged to pay the required sum--more +than double the amount stipulated in 1796--to further the interests of +French commerce and to bring pressure to bear on Portugal. At +the close of the year the Court of Lisbon, yielding to the threats +of France and Spain, consented to purchase its neutrality by +the payment of a million francs a month to the master of the +Continent.[272] + +Meanwhile the First Consul was throwing his untiring energies into the +enterprise of crushing his redoubtable foe. He pushed on the naval +preparations at all the dockyards of France, Holland, and North Italy; +the great mole that was to shelter the roadstead at Cherbourg was +hurried forward, and the coast from the Seine to the Rhine became "a +coast of iron and bronze"--to use Marmont's picturesque phrase--while +every harbour swarmed with small craft destined for an invasion. +Troops were withdrawn from the Rhenish frontiers and encamped along +the shores of Picardy; others were stationed in reserve at St. Omer, +Montreuil, Bruges, and Utrecht; while smaller camps were formed at +Ghent, Compiegne, and St. Malo. The banks of the Elbe, Weser, Scheldt, +Somme, and Seine--even as far up as Paris itself--rang with the blows +of shipwrights labouring to strengthen the flotilla of flat-bottomed +vessels designed for the invasion of England. Troops, to the number of +50,000 at Boulogne under Soult, 30,000 at Etaples, and as many at +Bruges, commanded by Ney and Davoust respectively, were organized +anew, and by constant drill and exposure to the elements formed the +tough nucleus of the future Grand Army, before which the choicest +troops of Czar and Kaiser were to be scattered in headlong rout. To +all these many-sided exertions of organization and drill, of improving +harbours and coast fortifications, of ship-building, testing, +embarking, and disembarking, the First Consul now and again applied +the spur of his personal supervision; for while the warlike enthusiasm +which he had aroused against perfidious Albion of itself achieved +wonders, yet work was never so strenuous and exploits so daring as +under the eyes of the great captain himself. He therefore paid +frequent visits to the north coast, surveying with critical eyes the +works at Boulogne, Calais, Dunkirk, + + +Ostend, and Antwerp. The last-named port engaged his special +attention. Its position at the head of the navigable estuary of the +Scheldt, exactly opposite the Thames, marked it out as the natural +rival of London; he now encouraged its commerce and ordered the +construction of a dockyard fitted to contain twenty-five battleships +and a proportionate number of frigates and sloops. Antwerp was to +become the great commercial and naval emporium of the North Sea. The +time seemed to favour the design; Hamburg and Bremen were blockaded, +and London for a space was menaced by the growing power of the First +Consul, who seemed destined to restore to the Flemish port the +prosperity which the savagery of Alva had swept away with such profit +to Elizabethan London. But grand as were Napoleon's enterprises at +Antwerp, they fell far short of his ulterior designs. He told Las +Cases at St. Helena that the dockyard and magazines were to have been +protected by a gigantic fortress built on the opposite side of the +River Scheldt, and that Antwerp was to have been "a loaded pistol held +at the head of England." + +In both lands warlike ardour rose to the highest pitch. French towns +and Departments freely offered gifts of gunboats and battleships. And +in England public men vied with one another in their eagerness to +equip and maintain volunteer regiments. Wordsworth, who had formerly +sung the praises of the French Revolution, thus voiced the national +defiance: + + "No parleying now! In Britain is one breath; + We all are with you now from shore to shore; + Ye men of Kent, 'tis victory or death." + +In one respect England enjoyed a notable advantage. Having declared +war before Napoleon's plans were matured, she held the command of the +seas, even against the naval resources of France, Holland, and North +Italy. The first months of the war witnessed the surrender of St. +Lucia and Tobago to our fleets; and before the close of the year +Berbice, Demerara, Essequibo, together with < nearly the whole of the +French St. Domingo force, had capitulated to the Union Jack. Our naval +supremacy in the Channel now told with full effect. Frigates were ever +on the watch in the Straits to chase any French vessels that left +port. But our chief efforts were to blockade the enemy's ships. +Despite constant ill-health and frequent gales, Nelson clung to +Toulon. Admiral Cornwallis cruised off Brest with a fleet generally +exceeding fifteen sail of the line and several smaller vessels: six +frigates and smaller craft protected the coast of Ireland; six +line-of-battle ships and twenty-three lesser vessels were kept in the +Downs under Lord Keith as a central reserve force, to which the news +of all events transpiring on the enemy's coast was speedily conveyed +by despatch boats; the newly invented semaphore telegraphs were also +systematically used between the Isle of Wight and Deal to convey news +along the coast and to London. Martello towers were erected along the +coast from Harwich to Pevensey Bay, at the points where a landing was +easy. Numerous inventors also came forward with plans for destroying +the French flotilla, but none was found to be serviceable except the +rockets of Colonel Congreve, which inflicted some damage at Boulogne +and elsewhere. Such were the dispositions of our chief naval forces: +they comprised 469 ships of war, and over 700 armed boats, of all +sizes.[273] + +Our regular troops and militia mustered 180,000 strong; while the +volunteers, including 120,000 men armed with pikes or similar weapons, +numbered 410,000. Of course little could be hoped from these last in a +conflict with French veterans; and even the regulars, in the absence +of any great generals--for Wellesley was then in India--might have +offered but a poor resistance to Napoleon's military machine. +Preparations were, however, made for a desperate resistance. Plans +were quietly framed for the transfer of the Queen and the royal family +to Worcester, along with the public treasure, which was to be lodged +in the cathedral; while the artillery and stores from Woolwich arsenal +were to be conveyed into the Midlands by the Grand Junction +Canal.[274] + +The scheme of coast-defence which General Dundas had drawn up in 1796 +was now again set in action. It included, not only the disposition of +the armed forces, but plans for the systematic removal of all +provisions, stores, animals, and fodder from the districts threatened +by the invader; and it is clear that the country was far better +prepared than French writers have been willing to admit. Indeed, so +great was the expense of these defensive preparations that, when +Nelson's return from the West Indies disconcerted the enemy's plans, +Fox merged the statesman in the partisan by the curious assertion that +the invasion scare had been got up by the Pitt Ministry for party +purposes.[275] Few persons shared that opinion. The nation was +animated by a patriotism such as had never yet stirred the sluggish +veins of Georgian England. The Jacobinism, which Dundas in 1796 had +lamented as paralyzing the nation's energy, had wholly vanished; and +the fatality which dogged the steps of Napoleon was already +discernible. The mingled hatred and fear which he inspired outside +France was beginning to solidify the national resistance: after +uniting rich and poor, English and Scots in a firm phalanx in the +United Kingdom, the national principle was in turn to vivify Spain, +Russia, and Germany, and thus to assure his overthrow. + +Reserving for consideration in another chapter the later developments +of the naval war, it will be convenient now to turn to important +events in the history of the Bonaparte family. + +The loves and intrigues of the Bonapartes have furnished material enough +to fill several volumes devoted to light gossip, and naturally so. Given +an ambitious family, styled _parvenus_ by the ungenerous, shooting aloft +swiftly as the flames of Vesuvius, ardent as its inner fires, and +stubborn as its hardened lava--given also an imperious brother +determined to marry his younger brothers and sisters, not as they +willed, but as he willed--and it is clear that materials are at hand +sufficient to make the fortunes of a dozen comediettas. + +To the marriage of Pauline Bonaparte only the briefest reference need +here be made. The wild humour of her blood showed itself before her +first marriage; and after the death of her husband, General Leclerc, +in San Domingo, she privately espoused Prince Borghese before the +legal time of mourning had expired, an indiscretion which much annoyed +Napoleon (August, 1803). Ultimately this brilliant, frivolous creature +resided in the splendid mansion which now forms the British embassy in +Paris. The case of Louis Bonaparte was somewhat different. Nurtured as +he had been in his early years by Napoleon, he had rewarded him by +contracting a dutiful match with Hortense Beauharnais (January, 1802); +but that union was to be marred by a grotesquely horrible jealousy +which the young husband soon conceived for his powerful brother. + +For the present, however, the chief trouble was caused by Lucien, +whose address had saved matters at the few critical minutes of +Brumaire. Gifted with a strong vein of literary feeling and oratorical +fire he united in his person the obstinacy of a Bonaparte, the +headstrong feelings of a poet, and the dogmatism of a Corsican +republican. His presumptuous conduct had already embroiled him with +the First Consul, who deprived him of his Ministry and sent him as +ambassador to Madrid.[276] He further sinned, first by hurrying on +peace with Portugal--it is said for a handsome present from +Lisbon--and later by refusing to marry the widow of the King of +Etruria. In this he persisted, despite the urgent representations of +Napoleon and Joseph: "You know very well that I am a republican, and +that a queen is not what suits me, an ugly queen too!"--" What a pity +your answer was not cut short, it would have been quite Roman," sneered +Joseph at his younger brother, once the Brutus of the Jacobin clubs. But +Lucien was proof against all the splendours of the royal match; he was +madly in love with a Madame Jouberthon, the deserted wife of a Paris +stockbroker; and in order to checkmate all Napoleon's attempts to force +on a hated union, he had secretly married the lady of his choice at the +village of Plessis-Chamant, hard by his country house (October 26th, +1803). + +The letter which divulged the news of this affair reached the First +Consul at St. Cloud on an interesting occasion.[277] It was during a +so-called family concert, to which only the choicest spirits had been +invited, whence also, to Josephine's chagrin, Napoleon had excluded +Madame Tallien and several other old friends, whose reputation would +have tainted the air of religion and morality now pervading the +Consular Court. While this select company was enjoying the strains of +the chamber music, and Napoleon alone was dozing, Lucien's missive was +handed in by the faithful if indiscreet Duroc. A change came over the +scene. At once Napoleon started up, called out "Stop the music: stop," +and began with nervous strides and agitated gestures to pace the hall, +exclaiming "Treason! it is treason!" Round-eyed, open-mouthed +wonder seized on the disconcerted musicians, the company rose in +confusion, and Josephine, following her spouse, besought him to say +what had happened. "What has happened--why--Lucien has married +his--mistress."[278] + +The secret cause for this climax of fashionable comedy is to be sought +in reasons of state. The establishment of hereditary power was then +being secretly and anxiously discussed. Napoleon had no heirs: Joseph's +children were girls: Lucien's first marriage also had naught but female +issue: the succession must therefore devolve on Lucien's children by a +second marriage. But a natural son had already been born to him by +Madame Jouberthon; and his marriage now promised to make this bastard +the heir to the future French imperial throne. That was the reason why +Napoleon paced the hall at St. Cloud, "waving his arms like a +semaphore," and exclaiming "treason!" Failing the birth of sons to the +two elder brothers, Lucien's marriage seriously endangered the +foundation of a Napoleonic dynasty; besides, the whole affair would +yield excellent sport to the royalists of the Boulevard St. Germain, the +snarling Jacobins of the back streets, and the newspaper writers of +hated Albion. + +In vain were negotiations set on foot to make Lucien divorce his +wife. The attempt only produced exasperation, Joseph himself finally +accusing Napoleon of bad faith in the course of this affair. In the +following springtime Lucien shook off the dust of France from his +feet, and declared in a last letter to Joseph that he departed, hating +Napoleon. The moral to this curious story was well pointed by Joseph +Bonaparte: "Destiny seems to blind us, and intends, by means of our +own faults, to restore France some day to her former rulers." [279] + +At the very time of the scene at St. Cloud, fortune was preparing for +the First Consul another matrimonial trouble. His youngest brother, +Jerome, then aged nineteen years, had shown much aptitude for the +French navy, and was serving on the American station, when a quarrel +with the admiral sent him flying in disgust to the shore. There, at +Baltimore, he fell in love with Miss Paterson, the daughter of a +well-to-do merchant, and sought her hand in marriage. In vain did the +French consul remind him that, were he five years older, he would +still need the consent of his mother. The headstrong nature of his +race brooked no opposition, and he secretly espoused the young lady at +her father's residence. + + +Napoleon's ire fell like a blasting wind on the young couple; but +after waiting some time, in hopes that the storm would blow over, they +ventured to come to Europe. Thereupon Napoleon wrote to Madame Mere in +these terms: + + "Jerome has arrived at Lisbon with the woman with whom he lives.... + I have given orders that Miss Paterson is to be sent back to + America.... If he shows no inclination to wash away the dishonour + with which he has stained my name, by forsaking his country's flag + on land and sea for the sake of a wretched woman, I will cast him + off for ever."[280] + +The sequel will show that Jerome was made of softer stuff than Lucien; +and, strange to say, his compliance with Napoleon's dynastic designs +provided that family with the only legitimate male heirs that were +destined to sustain its wavering hopes to the end of the century. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +THE ROYALIST PLOT + + +From domestic comedy, France turned rapidly in the early months of +1804 to a sombre tragedy--the tragedy of the Georges Cadoudal plot and +the execution of the Duc d'Enghien. + +There were varied reasons why the exiled French Bourbons should +compass the overthrow of Napoleon. Every month that they delayed +action lessened their chances of success. They had long clung to the +hope that his Concordat with the Pope and other anti-revolutionary +measures betokened his intention to recall their dynasty. But in +February, 1803, the Comte de Provence received overtures which showed +that Bonaparte had never thought of playing the part of General Monk. +The exiled prince, then residing at Warsaw, was courteously but most +firmly urged by the First Consul to renounce both for himself and for +the other members of his House all claims to the throne of France, in +return for which he would receive a pension of two million francs a +year. The notion of sinking to the level of a pensionary of the French +Republic touched Bourbon pride to the quick and provoked this spirited +reply: + + "As a descendant of St. Louis, I shall endeavour to imitate his + example by respecting myself even in captivity. As successor to + Francis I., I shall at least aspire to say with him: 'We have lost + everything but our honour."' + +To this declaration the Comte d'Artois, his son, the Duc de Berri, +Louis Philippe of Orleans, his two sons, and the two Condes gave their +ardent assent; and the same loyal response came from the young Conde, +the Duc d'Enghien, dated Ettenheim, March 22nd, 1803. Little did men +think when they read this last defiance to Napoleon that within a year +its author would be flung into a grave in the moat of the Castle of +Vincennes. + +Scarcely had the echoes of the Bourbon retorts died away than the +outbreak of war between England and France raised the hopes of the +French royalist exiles in London; and their nimble fancy pictured the +French army and nation as ready to fling themselves at the feet of +Louis XVIII. The future monarch did not share these illusions. In the +chilly solitudes of Warsaw he discerned matters in their true light, +and prepared to wait until the vaulting ambition of Napoleon should +league Europe against him. Indeed, when the plans of the forward wing +in London were explained to him, with a view of enlisting his support, +he deftly waved aside the embarrassing overtures by quoting the lines: + + "Et pour etre approuves + De semblables projets veulent etre acheves," + +a cautious reply which led his brother, then at Edinburgh, scornfully +to contemn his _feebleness_ as unworthy of any further confidences.[281] +In truth, the Comte d'Artois, destined one day to be Charles X. of +France, was not fashioned by nature for a Fabian policy of delay: not +even the misfortunes of exile could instill into the watertight +compartments of his brain the most elementary notions of prudence. +Daring, however, attracts daring; and this prince had gathered around +him in our land the most desperate of the French royalists, whose hopes, +hatreds, schemes, and unending requests for British money may be scanned +by the curious in some thirty large volumes of letters bequeathed by +their factotum the Comte de Puisaye, to the British Museum. +Unfortunately this correspondence throws little light on the details of +the plot which is fitly called by the name of Georges Cadoudal. + +This daring Breton was, in fact, the only man of action on whom the +Bourbon princes could firmly rely for an enterprise that demanded a +cool head, cunning in the choice of means, and a remorseless hand. +Pichegru it is true, lived near London, but saw little of the +_emigres_, except the venerable Conde. Dumouriez also was in the great +city, but his name was too generally scorned in France for his +treachery in 1793 to warrant his being used. But there were plenty of +swashbucklers who could prepare the ground in France, or, if fortune +favoured, might strike the blow themselves; and a small committee of +French royalists, which had the support of that furious royalist, Mr. +Windham, M.P., began even before the close of 1802 to discuss plans +for the "removal" of Bonaparte. Two of their tools, Picot and Le +Bourgeois by name, plunged blindly into a plot, and were arrested soon +after they set foot in France. Their boyish credulity seems to have +suggested to the French authorities the sending of an agent so as to +entrap not only French _emigres_, but also English officials and +Jacobinical generals. + +The _agent provocateur_ has at all times been a favourite tool of +continental Governments: but rarely has a more finished specimen of +the class been seen than Mehee de la Touche. After plying the trade of +an assassin in the September massacres of 1792, and of a Jacobin spy +during the Terror, he had been included by Bonaparte among the Jacobin +scapegoats who expiated the Chouan outrage of Nivose. Pining in the +weariness of exile, he heard from his wife that he might be pardoned +if he would perform some service for the Consular Government. At once +he consented, and it was agreed that he should feign royalism, should +worm himself into the secrets of the _emigres_ at London, and act as +intermediary between them and the discontented republicans of Paris. + +The man who seems to have planned this scheme was the ex-Minister of +Police. Fouche had lately been deprived by Bonaparte of the +inquisitorial powers which he so unscrupulously used. His duties were +divided between Regnier, the Grand Judge and Minister of Justice, and +Real, a Councillor of State, who watched over the internal security of +France. These men had none of the ability of Fouche, nor did they know +at the outset what Mehee was doing in London. It may, therefore, be +assumed that Mehee was one of Fouche's creatures, whom he used to +discredit his successor, and that Bonaparte welcomed this means of +quickening the zeal of the official police, while he also wove his +meshes round plotting _emigres_, English officials, and French +generals.[282] + +Among these last there was almost chronic discontent, and Bonaparte +claimed to have found out a plot whereby twelve of them should divide +France into as many portions, leaving to him only Paris and its +environs. If so, he never made any use of his discovery. In fact, out +of this group of malcontents, Moreau, Bernadotte, Augereau, Macdonald, +and others, he feared only the hostility of the first. The victor of +Hohenlinden lived in sullen privacy near to Paris, refusing to present +himself at the Consular Court, and showing his contempt for those who +donned a courtier's uniform. He openly mocked at the Concordat; and +when the Legion of Honour was instituted, he bestowed a collar of +honour upon his dog. So keen was Napoleon's resentment at this +raillery that he even proposed to send him a challenge to a duel in +the Bois de Boulogne.[283] The challenge, of course, was not sent; a +show of reconciliation was assumed between the two warriors; but +Napoleon retained a covert dislike of the man whose brusque +republicanism was applauded by a large portion of the army and by the +_frondeurs_ of Paris. + +The ruin of Moreau, and the confusion alike of French royalists and +of the British Ministry, could now be assured by the encouragement of +a Jacobin-Royalist conspiracy, in which English officials should be +implicated. Moreau was notoriously incapable in the sphere of +political intrigue: the royalist coteries in London presented just the +material on which the _agent provocateur_ delights to work; and some +British officials could, doubtless, with equal ease be drawn into the +toils. Mehee de la Touche has left a highly spiced account of his +adventures; but it must, of course, be received with distrust.[284] + +Proceeding first to Guernsey, he gained the confidence of the +Governor, General Doyle; and, fortified by recommendations from him, +he presented himself to the _emigres_ at London, and had an interview +with Lord Hawkesbury and the Under-Secretaries of State, Messrs. +Hammond and Yorke. He found it easy to inflame the imagination of the +French exiles, who clutched at the proposed union between the +irreconcilables, the extreme royalists, and the extreme republicans; +and it was forthwith arranged that Napoleon's power, which rested on +the support of the peasants, in fact of the body of France, should be +crushed by an enveloping move of the tips of the wings. + +Mehee's narrative contains few details and dates, such as enable one +to test his assertions. But I have examined the Puisaye Papers,[285] +and also the Foreign and Home Office archives, and have found proofs +of the complicity of our Government, which it will be well to present +here connectedly. Taken singly they are inconclusive, but collectively +their importance is considerable. In our Foreign Office Records +(France, No 70) there is a letter, dated London, August 30th, 1803, +from the Baron de Roll, the factotum of the exiled Bourbons, to Mr. +Hammond, our Permanent Under-Secretary at the Foreign Office, asking +him to call on the Comte d'Artois at his residence, No. 46, Baker +Street. That the deliberations at that house were not wholly peaceful +appears from a long secret memorandum of October 24th, 1803, in which +the Comte d'Artois reviews the career of "that _miserable adventurer_" +(Bonaparte), so as to prove that his present position is precarious +and tottering. He concludes by naming those who desired his +overthrow--Moreau, Reynier, Bernadotte, Simon, Massena, Lannes, and +Ferino: Sieyes, Carnot, Chenier, Fouche, Barras, Tallien, Rewbel, +Lamarque, and Jean de Bry. Others would not attack him "corps a +corps," but disliked his supremacy. These two papers prove that our +Government was aware of the Bourbon plot. Another document, dated +London, November 18th, 1803, proves its active complicity. It is a +list of the French royalist officers "who had set out or were ready to +set out." All were in our pay, two at six shillings, five at four +shillings, and nine at two shillings a day. It would be indelicate to +reveal the names, but among them occurs that of Joachim P.J. Cadoudal. +The list is drawn up and signed by Frieding--a name that was +frequently used by Pichegru as an _alias_. In his handwriting also is +a list of "royalist officers for whom I demand a year's pay in +advance"--five generals, thirteen _chefs de legion_, seventeen _chefs +de bataillon_, and nineteen captains. The pay claimed amounts to +L3,110 15_s._[286] That some, at least, of our Admiralty officials +also aided Cadoudal is proved by a "most secret" letter, dated +Admiralty Office, July 31st, 1803, from E. N[epean] to Admiral Montagu +in the Downs, charging him to help the bearer, Captain Wright, in the +execution of "a very important service," and to provide for him "one +of the best of the hired cutters or luggers under your orders." +Another "most secret" Admiralty letter, of January 9th, 1804, orders a +frigate or large sloop to be got ready to convey secretly "an officer +of rank and consideration" (probably Pichegru) to the French coast. +Wright carried over the conspirators in several parties, until chance +threw him into Napoleon's power and consigned him to an ignominious +death, probably suicide. + +Finally, there is the letter of Mr. Arbuthnot, Parliamentary Secretary +at the Foreign Office (dated March 12th, 1804), to Sir Arthur Paget, +in which he refers to the "sad result of all our fine projects for the +re-establishment of the Bourbons: ... we are, of course, greatly +apprehensive for poor Moreau's safety."[287] + +In face of this damning evidence the ministerial denials of complicity +must be swept aside.[288] It is possible, however, that the plot was +connived at, not by the more respectable chiefs, but by young and +hot-headed officials. Even in the summer of 1803 that Cabinet was +already tottering under the attacks of the Whigs and the followers of +Pitt. The blandly respectable Addington and Hawkesbury with his +"vacant grin"[289] were evidently no match for Napoleon; and +Arbuthnot himself dubs Addington "a poor wretch universally despised +and laught at," and pronounces the Cabinet "the most inefficient that +ever curst a country." I judge, therefore, that our official aid to +the conspirators was limited to the Under-Secretaries of the Foreign, +War, and Admiralty Offices. Moreover, the royalist plans, _as revealed +to our officials_, mainly concerned a rising in Normandy and Brittany. +Our Government would not have paid the salaries of fifty-four royalist +officers--many of them of good old French families--if it had been +only a question of stabbing Napoleon. The lists of those officers were +drawn up here in November, 1803, that is, three months after Georges +Cadoudal had set out for Normandy and Paris to collect his +desperadoes; and it seems most probable that the officers of the +"royal army" were expected merely to clinch Cadoudal's enterprise by +rekindling the flame of revolt in the north and west. French agents +were trying to do the same in Ireland, and a plot for the murder of +George III. was thought to have been connived at by the French +authorities. But, when all is said, the British Government must stand +accused of one of the most heinous of crimes. The whole truth was not +known at Paris; but it was surmised; and the surmise was sufficient to +envenom the whole course of the struggle between England and Napoleon. + +Having now established the responsibility of British officials in +this, the most famous plot of the century, we return to describe the +progress of the conspiracy and the arts employed by Napoleon to defeat +it. His tool, Mehee de la Touche, after entrapping French royalists +and some of our own officials in London, proceeded to the Continent in +order to inveigle some of our envoys. He achieved a brilliant success. +He called at Munich, in order, as he speciously alleged, to arrange +with our ambassador there the preparations for the royalist plot. The +British envoy, who bore the honoured name of Francis Drake, was a +zealous intriguer closely in touch with the _emigres_: he was +completely won over by the arts of Mehee: he gave the spy money, +supplied him with a code of false names, and even intrusted him with a +recipe for sympathetic ink. Thus furnished, Mehee proceeded to Paris, +sent his briber a few harmless bulletins, took his information to the +police, and, _at Napoleon's dictation_, gave him news that seriously +misled our Government and Nelson.[290] + + +The same trick was tried on Stuart, our ambassador at Vienna, who had +a tempting offer from a French agent to furnish news from every French +despatch to or from Vienna. Stuart had closed with the offer, when +suddenly the man was seized at the instance of the French ambassador, +and his papers were searched.[291] In this case there were none that +compromised Stuart, and his career was not cut short in the +ignominious manner that befell Drake, over whom there may be inscribed +as epitaph the warning which Talleyrand gave to young aspirants--"et +surtout pas trop de zele." + +Thus, while the royalists were conspiring the overthrow of Napoleon, +he through his agents was countermining their clumsy approach to his +citadel, and prepared to blow them sky high when their mines were +crowded for the final rush. The royalist plans matured slowly owing to +changes which need not be noticed. Georges Cadoudal quitted London, +and landed at Biville, a smuggler's haunt not far from Dieppe, on +August 23rd, 1803. Thence he made his way to Paris, and spent some +months in striving to enlist trusty recruits. It has been stated that +the plot never aimed at assassination, but at the overpowering of the +First Consul's escort, and the seizure of his person, during one of +his journeys. Then he was to be forcibly transferred to the northern +coast on relays of horses, and hurried over to England.[292] But, +though the plotters threw the veil of decency over their enterprise by +calling it kidnapping, they undoubtedly meant murder. Among Drake's +papers there is a hint that the royalist emissaries were _at first_ to +speak only of the seizure and deportation of the First Consul. + +Whatever may have been their precise aims, they were certainly known +to Napoleon and his police. On November 1st, 1803, he wrote to +Regnier: + + + "You must not be in a hurry about the arrests: when the author + [Mehee] has given in all the information, we will draw up a plan + with him, and will see what is to be done. I wish him to write to + Drake, and, in order to make him trustful, inform him that, before + the great blow can be dealt, he believes he [Mehee] can promise to + have seized on the table of the First Consul, in his secret room, + notes written in his own hand relating to his great expedition, + and every other important document." + +Napoleon revelled in the details of his plan for hoisting the +engineers with their own petards.[293] But he knew full well that the +plot, when fully ripe, would yield far more than the capture of a few +Chouans. He must wait until Moreau was implicated. The man selected by +the _emigres_ to sound Moreau was Pichegru, and this choice was the +sole instance of common sense displayed by them. It was Pichegru who +had marked out the future fortune of Moreau in the campaign of 1793, +and yet he had seemed to be the victim of that general's gross +ingratitude at Fructidor. Who then so fitted as he to approach the +victor of Hohenlinden? Through a priest named David and General +Lajolais, an interview was arranged; and shortly after Pichegru's +arrival in France, these warriors furtively clasped hands in the +capital which had so often resounded with their praises (January, +1804). They met three or four times, and cleared away some of the +misunderstandings of the past. But he would have nothing to do with +Georges, and when Pichegru mooted the overthrow of Bonaparte and the +restoration of the Bourbons, he firmly warned him: "Do with Bonaparte +what you will, but do not ask me to put a Bourbon in his place." + +From this resolve Moreau never receded. But his calculating reserve did +not save him. Already several suspects had been imprisoned in Normandy. +At Napoleon's suggestion five of them were condemned to death, in the +hope of extorting a confession; and the last a man named Querelle, +gratified his gaolers by revealing (February 14th) not only the lodging +of Georges in Paris, but the intention of other conspirators, among whom +was a French prince, to land at Biville. The plot was now coming to a +head, and so was the counter-plot. On the next day Moreau was arrested +by order of Napoleon, who feigned the utmost grief and surprise at +seeing the victor of Hohenlinden mixed up with royalist assassins in the +pay of England.[294] + +Elated by this success, and hoping to catch the Comte d'Artois +himself, Napoleon forthwith despatched to that cliff one of his most +crafty and devoted servants, Savary, who commanded the _gendarmerie +d'elite._ Tricked out in suitable disguises, and informed by a +smuggler as to the royalist signals, Savary eagerly awaited the royal +quarry, and when Captain Wright's vessel hove in sight, he used his +utmost arts to imitate the signals that invited a landing. But the +crew were not to be lured to shore; and after fruitless endeavours he +returned to Paris--in time to take part in the murder of the Duc +d'Enghien. + +Meanwhile the police were on the tracks of Pichegru and Georges. On +the last day of February the general was seized in bed in the house of +a treacherous friend: but not until the gates of Paris had been +closed, and domiciliary visits made, was Georges taken, and then only +after a desperate affray (March 9th). The arrest of the two Polignacs +and the Marquis de Riviere speedily followed. + +Hitherto Napoleon had completely outwitted his foes. He knew well +enough that he was in no danger. + + "I have run no real risks," he wrote to Melzi, "for the police had + its eyes on all these machinations, and I have the consolation of + not finding reason to complain of a single man among all those I + have placed in this huge administration, Moreau stands alone." + [295] + +But now, at the moment of victory, when France was swelling with rage +against royalist assassins, English gold, and Moreau's treachery, the +First Consul was hurried into an enterprise which gained him an +imperial crown and flecked the purple with innocent blood. + +There was living at Ettenheim, in Baden, not far from the Rhine, a +young prince of the House of Conde, the Duc d'Enghien. Since the +disbanding of the corps of Conde he had been tranquilly enjoying the +society of the Princess Charlotte de Rohan, to whom he had been +secretly married. Her charms, the attractions of the chase, the +society of a small circle of French _emigres_, and an occasional +secret visit to the theatre at Strassburg, formed the chief diversions +to an otherwise monotonous life, until he was fired with the hope of a +speedy declaration of war by Austria and Russia against Napoleon. +Report accused him of having indiscreetly ventured in disguise far +into France; but he indignantly denied it. His other letters also +prove that he was not an accomplice of the Cadoudal-Pichegru +conspiracy. But Napoleon's spies gave information which seemed to +implicate him in that enterprise. Chief among them was Mehee, who, at +the close of February, hovered about Ettenheim and heard that the duke +was often absent for many days at a time. + +Napoleon received this news on March 1st, and ordered the closest +investigation to be made. One of his spies reported that the young +duke associated with General Dumouriez. In reality the general was in +London, and the spy had substituted the name of a harmless old +gentleman called Thumery. When Napoleon saw the name of Dumouriez with +that of the young duke his rage knew no bounds. "Am I a dog to be +beaten to death in the street? Why was I not warned that they were +assembling at Ettenheim? Are my murderers sacred beings? They attack my +very person. I'll give them war for war." And he overwhelmed with +reproaches both Real and Talleyrand for neglecting to warn him of these +traitors and assassins clustering on the banks of the Rhine. The seizure +of Georges Cadoudal and the examination of one of his servants helped to +confirm Napoleon's surmise that he was the victim of a plot of which the +duke and Dumouriez were the real contrivers, while Georges was their +tool. Cadoudal's servant stated that there often came to his master's +house a mysterious man, at whose entry not only Georges but also the +Polignacs and Riviere always arose. This convinced Napoleon that the Duc +d'Enghien was directing the plot, and he determined to have the duke and +Dumouriez seized. That they were on German soil was naught to him. +Talleyrand promised that he could soon prevail on the Elector to +overlook this violation of his territory, and the question was then +discussed in an informal council. Talleyrand, Real, and Fouche advised +the severest measures. Lebrun spoke of the outcry which such a violation +of neutral territory would arouse, but bent before the determination of +the First Consul; and the regicide Cambaceres alone offered a firm +opposition to an outrage which must embroil France with Germany and +Russia. Despite this protest, Napoleon issued his orders and then +repaired to the pleasing solitudes of La Malmaison, where he remained in +almost complete seclusion. The execution of the orders was now left to +Generals Ordener and Caulaincourt, who arranged the raid into Baden; to +Murat, who was now Governor of Paris; and to the devoted and +unquestioning Savary and Real. + +The seizure of the duke was craftily effected. Troops and gendarmes +were quietly mustered at Strassburg: spies were sent forward to survey +the ground; and as the dawn of the 15th of March was lighting up the +eastern sky, thirty Frenchmen encircled Enghien's abode. His hot blood +prompted him to fight, but on the advice of a friend he quietly +surrendered, was haled away to Strassburg, and thence to the castle of +Vincennes on the south-east of Paris. There everything was ready for +his reception on the evening of March 20th. The pall of secrecy was +spread over the preparations. The name of Plessis was assigned to the +victim, and Harel, the governor of the castle, was left ignorant of +his rank.[296] + +Above all, he was to be tried by a court-martial of officers, a form +of judgment which was summary and without appeal; whereas the ordinary +courts of justice must be slow and open to the public gaze. It was +true that the Senate had just suspended trial by jury in the case of +attempts against the First Consul's life--a device adopted in view of +the Moreau prosecution. But the certainty of a conviction was not +enough: Napoleon determined to strike terror into his enemies, such as +a swift and secret blow always inspires. He had resolved on a trial by +court-martial when he still believed Enghien to be an accomplice of +Dumouriez; and when, late on Saturday, March 17th, that mistake was +explained, his purpose remained unshaken--unshaken too by the high +mass of Easter Sunday, March 18th, which he heard in state at the +Chapel of the Tuileries. On the return journey to Malmaison Josephine +confessed to Madame de Remusat her fears that Bonaparte's will was +unalterably fixed: "I have done what I could, but I fear his mind is +made up." She and Joseph approached him once more in the park while +Talleyrand was at his side. "I fear that cripple," she said, as they +came near, and Joseph drew the Minister aside. All was in vain. "Go +away; you are a child; you don't understand public duties." This was +Josephine's final repulse. + +On March 20th Napoleon drew up the form of questions to be put to the +prisoner. He now shifted the ground of accusation. Out of eleven +questions only the last three referred to the duke's connection with +the Cadoudal plot.[297] For in the meantime he had found in the +duke's papers proofs of his having offered his services to the +British Government for the present war,[298] his hopes of +participation in a future Continental war, but nothing that could +implicate him in the Cadoudal plot. The papers were certainly +disappointing; and that is doubtless the reason why, after examining +them on March 19th, he charged Real "to take secret cognizance of +these papers, along with Desmarest. One must prevent any talk on the +more or less of charges contained in these papers." The same fact +doubtless led to their abstraction along with the _dossier_ of the +proceedings of the court-martial.[299] + +The task of summoning the officers who were to form the court-martial +was imposed on Murat. But when this bluff, hearty soldier received +this order, he exclaimed: "What! are they trying to soil my uniform! I +will not allow it! Let him appoint them himself if he wants to." But a +second and more imperious mandate compelled him to perform this +hateful duty. The seven senior officers of the garrison of Paris now +summoned were ordered not to separate until judgment was passed.[300] +At their head was General Hulin, who had shown such daring in the +assault on the Bastille; and thus one of the early heroes of the +Revolution had the evening of his days shrouded over with the horrors +of a midnight murder. Finally, the First Consul charged Savary, who +had just returned to Paris from Biville, furious at being baulked of +his prey, to proceed to Vincennes with a band of his gendarmes for the +carrying out of the sentence. + +The seven officers as yet knew nothing of the nature of their mission, +or of martial law. "We had not," wrote Hulin long afterwards, "the least +idea about trials; and, worst of all, the reporter and clerk had +scarcely any more experience."[301] The examination of the prisoner was +curt in the extreme. He was asked his name, date and place of birth, +whether he had borne arms against France and was in the pay of England. +To the last questions he answered decisively in the affirmative, adding +that he wished to take part in the new war against France. + +His replies were the same as he made in his preliminary examination, +which he closed with the written and urgent request for a personal +interview with Napoleon. To this request the court proposed to accede; +but Savary, who had posted himself behind Hulin's chair, at once +declared this step to be _inopportune_. The judges had only one chance +of escape from their predicament, namely, to induce the duke to +invalidate his evidence: this he firmly refused to do, and when Hulin +warned him of the danger of his position, he replied that he knew it, +and wished to have an interview with the First Consul. + +The court then passed sentence, and, "in accordance with article +(blank) of the law (blank) to the following effect (blank) condemned +him to suffer death." Ashamed, as it would seem, of this clumsy +condemnation, Hulin was writing to Bonaparte to request for the +condemned man the personal interview which he craved, when Savary took +the pen from his hands, with the words: "Your work is done: the rest +is my business."[302] The duke was forthwith led out into the moat of +the castle, where a few torches shed their light on the final scene of +this sombre tragedy: he asked for a priest, but this was denied him: +he then bowed his head in prayer, lifted those noble features towards +the soldiers, begged them not to miss their aim, and fell, shot +through the heart. Hard by was a grave, which, in accordance with +orders received on the previous day, the governor had caused to be +made ready; into this the body was thrown pell-mell, and the earth +closed over the remains of the last scion of the warlike House of +Conde. + +Twelve years later loving hands disinterred the bones and placed them +in the chapel of the castle. But even then the world knew not all the +enormity of the crime. It was reserved for clumsy apologists like +Savary to provoke replies and further investigations. The various +excuses which throw the blame on Talleyrand, and on everyone but the +chief actor, are sufficiently disposed of by the ex-Emperor's will. In +that document Napoleon brushed away the excuses which had previously +been offered to the credulity or malice of his courtiers, and took on +himself the responsibility for the execution: + + "I caused the Duc d'Enghien to be arrested and judged, because it + was necessary for the safety, the interest, and the honour of the + French people when the Comte d'Artois, by his own confession, was + supporting sixty assassins at Paris. In similar circumstances I + would act in the same way again."[303] + + +The execution of the Duc d'Enghien is one of the most important +incidents of this period, so crowded with momentous events. The +sensation of horror which it caused can be gauged by the mental agony +of Madame de Remusat and of others who had hitherto looked on +Bonaparte as the hero of the age and the saviour of the country. His +mother hotly upbraided him, saying it was an atrocious act, the stain +of which could never be wiped out, and that he had yielded to the +advice of enemies' eager to tarnish his fame.[304] Napoleon said +nothing, but shut himself up in his cabinet, revolving these terrible +words, which doubtless bore fruit in the bitter reproaches later to be +heaped upon Talleyrand for his share in the tragedy. Many royalists +who had begun to rally to his side now showed their indignation at the +deed. Chateaubriand, who was about to proceed as the envoy of France +to the Republic of Valais, at once offered his resignation and assumed +an attitude of covert defiance. And that was the conduct of all +royalists who were not dazzled by the glamour of success or cajoled by +Napoleon's favours. Many of his friends ventured to show their horror +of this Corsican vendetta; and a _mot_ which was plausibly, but it +seems wrongly, attributed to Fouche, well sums up the general opinion +of that callous society: "It was worse than a crime--it was a +blunder." + +Scarcely had Paris recovered from this sensation when, on April 6th, +Pichegru was found strangled in prison; and men silently but almost +unanimously hailed it as the work of Napoleon's Mamelukes. This +judgment, however natural after the Enghien affair, seems to be +incorrect. It is true the corpse bore marks which scarcely tallied with +suicide: but Georges Cadoudal, whose cell was hard by, heard no sound of +a scuffle; and it is unlikely that so strong a man as Pichegru would +easily have succumbed to assailants. It is therefore more probable that +the conqueror of Holland, shattered by his misfortunes and too proud to +undergo a public trial, cut short a life which already was doomed. Never +have plotters failed more ignominiously and played more completely into +the hands of their enemy. A _mot_ of the Boulevards wittily sums up the +results of their puny efforts: "They came to France to give her a king, +and they gave her an Emperor." + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +THE DAWN OF THE EMPIRE + + +For some time the question of a Napoleonic dynasty had been freely +discussed; and the First Consul himself had latterly confessed his +intentions to Joseph in words that reveal his super-human confidence +and his caution: "I always intended to end the Revolution by the +establishment of heredity: but I thought that such a step could not be +taken before the lapse of five or six years." Events, however, bore +him along on a favouring tide. Hatred of England, fear of Jacobin +excesses, indignation at the royalist schemes against his life, and +finally even the execution of Enghien, helped on the establishment of +the Empire. Though moderate men of all parties condemned the murder, +the remnants of the Jacobin party hailed it with joy. Up to this time +they had a lingering fear that the First Consul was about to play the +part of Monk. The pomp of the Tuileries and the hated Concordat seemed +to their crooked minds but the prelude to a recall of the Bourbons, +whereupon priestcraft, tithes, and feudalism would be the order of the +day. Now at last the tragedy of Vincennes threw a lurid light into the +recesses of Napoleon's ambition; and they exclaimed, "He is one of +us." It must thenceforth be war to the knife between the Bourbons and +Bonaparte; and his rule would therefore be the best guarantee for the +perpetual ownership of the lands confiscated during the +Revolution.[305] + +To a materialized society that great event had come to be little more +than a big land investment syndicate, of which Bonaparte was now to be +the sole and perpetual director. This is the inner meaning of the +references to the Social Contract which figure so oddly among the +petitions for hereditary rule. The Jacobins, except a few conscientious +stalwarts, were especially alert in the feat of making extremes meet. +Fouche, who now wriggled back into favour and office, appealed to the +Senate, only seven days after the execution, to establish hereditary +power as the only means of ending the plots against Napoleon's life; +for, as the opportunist Jacobins argued, if the hereditary system were +adopted, conspiracies to murder would be meaningless, when, even if they +struck down one man, they must fail to shatter the system that +guaranteed the Revolution. + +The cue having been thus dextrously given, appeals and petitions for +hereditary rule began to pour in from all parts of France. The grand +work of the reorganization of France certainly furnished a solid claim +on the nation's gratitude. The recent promulgation of the Civil Code +and the revival of material prosperity redounded to Napoleon's glory; +and with equal truth and wit he could claim the diadem as a fit reward +_for having revived many interests while none had been displaced._ +Such a remark and such an exploit proclaim the born ruler of men. But +the Senate overstepped all bounds of decency when it thus addressed +him: "You are founding a new era: but you ought to make it last for +ever: splendour is nothing without duration." The Greeks who fawned on +Persian satraps did not more unman themselves than these pensioned +sycophants, who had lived through the days of 1789 but knew them not. +This fulsome adulation would be unworthy of notice did it not convey +the most signal proof of the danger which republics incur when men +lose sight of the higher aims of life and wallow among its sordid +interests.[306] + + + +After the severe drilling of the last four years, the Chambers voted +nearly unanimously in favour of a Napoleonic dynasty. The Corps +Legislatif was not in session, and it was not convoked. The Senate, +after hearing Fouche's unmistakable hints, named a commission of its +members to report on hereditary rule, and then waited on events. These +were decided mainly in private meetings of the Council of State, where +the proposal met with some opposition from Cambaceres, Merlin, and +Thibaudeau. But of what avail are private remonstrances when in open +session opponents are dumb and supporters vie in adulation? In the +Tribunate, on April 23rd, an obscure member named Curee proposed the +adoption of the hereditary principle. One man alone dared openly to +combat the proposal, the great Carnot; and the opposition of Curee to +Carnot might have recalled to the minds of those abject champions of +popular liberty the verse that glitters amidst the literary rubbish of +the Roman Empire: + + "Victrix causa deis placuit, sed victa Catoni." + +The Tribunate named a commission to report; it was favourable to the +Bonapartes. The Senate voted in the same sense, three Senators alone, +among them Gregoire, Bishop of Blois, voting against it. Sieyes and +Lanjuinais were absent; but the well-salaried lord of the manor of +Crosne must have read with amused contempt the resolution of this +body, which he had designed to be the _guardian of the republican +constitution_: + + "The French have conquered liberty: they wish to preserve their + conquest: they wish for repose after victory. They will owe this + glorious repose to the hereditary rule of a single man, who, raised + above all, is to defend public liberty, maintain equality, and + lower his fasces before the sovereignty of the people that + proclaims him." + + +In this way did France reduce to practice the dogma of Rousseau with +regard to the occasional and temporary need of a dictator.[307] + +When the commonalty are so obsequious, any title can be taken by the +one necessary man. Napoleon at first affected to doubt whether the +title of Stadtholder would not be more seemly than that of Emperor; +and in one of the many conferences held on this topic, Miot de Melito +advocated the retention of the term Consul for its grand republican +simplicity. But it was soon seen that the term Emperor was the only +one which satisfied Napoleon's ambition and French love of splendour. +Accordingly a _senatus consultum_ of May 18th, 1804, formally decreed +to him the title of Emperor of the French. As for his former +colleagues, Cambaceres and Lebrun, they were stultified with the +titles of Arch-chancellor and Arch-treasurer of the Empire: his +brother Joseph received the title of Grand Elector, borrowed from the +Holy Roman Empire, and oddly applied to an hereditary empire where the +chief _had_ been appointed: Louis was dubbed Constable: two other +grand dignities, those of Arch-chancellor of State and High Admiral, +were not as yet filled, but were reserved for Napoleon's relatives by +marriage, Eugene Beauharnais and Murat. These six grand dignitaries of +the new Empire were to be irresponsible and irremovable, and, along +with the Emperor, they formed the Grand Council of the Empire. + +On lesser individuals the rays of the imperial diadem cast a fainter +glow. Napoleon's uncle, Cardinal Fesch, became Grand Almoner; +Berthier, Grand Master of the Hounds; Talleyrand, Grand Chamberlain; +Duroc, Grand Marshal of the Palace; and Caulaincourt, Master of the +Horse, the acceptance of which title seemed to the world to convict +him of full complicity in the schemes for the murder of the Duc +d'Enghien. For the rest, the Emperor's mother was to be styled _Madame +Mere_; his sisters became Imperial Highnesses, with their several +establishments of ladies-in-waiting; and Paris fluttered with excitement +at each successive step upwards of expectant nobles, regicides, +generals, and stockjobbers towards the central galaxy of the Corsican +family, which, ten years before, had subsisted on the alms of the +Republic one and indivisible. + +It remained to gain over the army. The means used were profuse, in +proportion as the task was arduous. The following generals were +distinguished as Marshals of the Empire (May 19th): Berthier, Murat, +Massena, Augereau, Lannes, Jourdan, Ney, Soult, Brune, Davoust, +Bessieres, Moncey, Mortier, and Bernadotte; two marshal's batons were +held in reserve as a reward for future service, and four aged +generals, Lefebvre, Serrurier, Perignon, and Kellerman (the hero of +Valmy), received the title of honorary marshals. In one of his +conversations with Roederer, the Emperor frankly avowed his reasons +for showering these honours on his military chiefs; it was in order to +assure the imperial dignity to himself; for how could they object to +this, when they themselves received honours so lofty?[308] The +confession affords a curious instance of Napoleon's unbounded trust +in the most elementary, not to say the meanest, motives of human +conduct. Suitable rewards were bestowed on officers of the second +rank. But it was at once remarked that determined and outspoken +republicans like Suchet, Gouvion St. Cyr, and Macdonald, whose talents +and exploits far outstripped those of many of the marshals, were +excluded from their ranks. St. Cyr was at Taranto, and Macdonald, +after an enforced diplomatic mission to Copenhagen, was received on +his recall with much coolness.[309] Other generals who had given +umbrage at the Tuileries were more effectively broken in by a term of +diplomatic banishment. Lannes at Lisbon and Brune at Constantinople +learnt a little diplomacy and some complaisance to the head of the +State, and were taken back to Napoleon's favour. Bernadotte, though ever +suspected of Jacobinism and feared for the forceful ambition that sprang +from the blending of Gascon and Moorish blood in his veins, was now also +treated with the consideration due to one who had married Joseph +Bonaparte's sister-in-law: he received at Napoleon's hands the house in +Paris which had formerly belonged to Moreau: the exile's estate of +Grosbois, near Paris, went to reward the ever faithful Berthier. +Augereau, half cured of his Jacobinism by the disfavour of the +Directory, was now drilling a small French force and Irish volunteers at +Brest. But the Grand Army, which comprised the pick of the French +forces, was intrusted to the command of men on whom Napoleon could +absolutely rely, Davoust, Soult, and Ney; and, in that splendid force, +hatred of England and pride in Napoleon's prowess now overwhelmed all +political considerations. + +These arrangements attest the marvellous foresight and care which +Napoleon brought to bear on all affairs: even if the discontented +generals and troops had protested against the adoption of the Empire +and the prosecution of Moreau, they must have been easily overpowered. +In some places, as at Metz, the troops and populace fretted against +the Empire and its pretentious pomp; but the action of the commanders +soon restored order. And thus it came to pass that even the soldiery +that still cherished the Republic raised not a musket while the Empire +was founded, and Moreau was accused of high treason. + +The record of the French revolutionary generals is in the main a +gloomy one. If in 1795 it had been prophesied that all those generals +who bore the tricolour to victory would vanish or bow their heads +before a Corsican, the prophet would speedily have closed his +croakings for ever. Yet the reality was even worse. Marceau and Hoche +died in the Rhineland: Kleber and Desaix fell on the same day, by +assassination and in battle: Richepanse, Leclerc, and many other brave +officers rotted away in San Domingo: Pichegru died a violent death in +prison: Carnot was retiring into voluntary exile: Massena and +Macdonald were vegetating in inglorious ease: others were fast +descending to the rank of flunkeys; and Moreau was on his trial for +high treason. + +Even the populace, dazzled with glitter and drunk with sensations, +suffered some qualms at seeing the victor of Hohenlinden placed in the +dock; and the grief of the scanty survivors of the Army of the Rhine +portended trouble if the forms of justice were too much strained. +Trial by jury had been recently dispensed with in cases that concerned +the life of Napoleon. Consequently the prisoner, along with Georges +and his confederates, could be safely arraigned before judges in open +court; and in that respect the trial contrasted with the midnight +court-martial of Vincennes. Yet in no State trial have judges been +subjected to more official pressure for the purpose of assuring a +conviction.[310] The cross examination of numerous witnesses proved +that Moreau had persistently refused his help to the plot; and the +utmost that could be urged against him was that he desired Napoleon's +overthrow, had three interviews with Pichegru, and did not reveal the +plot to the authorities. That is to say, he was guilty of passively +conniving at the success of a plot which a "good citizen" ought to +have denounced. + +For these reasons the judges sentenced him to two years' +imprisonment. This judgment excessively annoyed Napoleon, who desired +to use his imperial prerogative of pardon on Moreau's life, not on a +mere term of imprisonment; and with a show of clemency that veiled a +hidden irritation, he now released him provided that he retired to the +United States.[311] To that land of free men the victor of Hohenlinden +retired with a dignity which almost threw a veil over his past +incapacity and folly; and, for the present at least, men could say that +the end of his political career was nobler than Pompey's, while +Napoleon's conduct towards his rival lacked the clemency which graced +the triumph of Caesar. + +As for the actual conspirators, twenty of them were sentenced to death +on June 10th, among them being the elder of the two Polignacs, the +Marquis de Riviere, and Georges Cadoudal. Urgent efforts were made on +behalf of the nobles by Josephine and "Madame Mere"; and Napoleon +grudgingly commuted their sentence to imprisonment. But the plebeian, +Georges Cadoudal, suffered death for the cause that had enlisted all +the fierce energies of his youth and manhood. With him perished the +bravest of Bretons and the last man of action of the royalists. +Thenceforth Napoleon was not troubled by Bourbon plotters; and +doubtless the skill with which his agents had nursed this silly plot +and sought to entangle all waverers did far more than the strokes of +the guillotine to procure his future immunity. Men trembled before a +union of immeasurable power with unfathomable craft such as recalled +the days of the Emperor Tiberius. + +Indeed, Napoleon might now almost say that his chief foes were the +members of his own household. The question of hereditary succession +had already reawakened and intensified all the fierce passions of the +Emperor's relatives. Josephine saw in it the fatal eclipse of a +divorce sweeping towards the dazzling field of her new life, and +Napoleon is known to have thrice almost decided on this step. She no +longer had any hopes of bearing a child; and she is reported by the +compiler of the Fouche "Memoirs" to have clutched at that absurd +device, a supposititious child, which Fouche had taken care to +ridicule in advance. Whatever be the truth of this rumour, she +certainly used all her powers over Napoleon and over +her daughter Hortense, the spouse of Louis Bonaparte, to have their +son recognized as first in the line of direct succession. But this +proposal, which shelved both Joseph and Louis, was not only hotly +resented by the eldest brother, who claimed to be successor designate, +it also aroused the flames of jealousy in Louis himself. It was +notorious that he suspected Napoleon of an incestuous passion for +Hortense, of which his fondness for the little Charles Napoleon was +maliciously urged as proof; and the proposal, when made with trembling +eagerness by Josephine, was hurled back by Louis with brutal violence. +To the clamour of Louis and Joseph the Emperor and Josephine seemed +reluctantly to yield. + +New arrangements were accordingly proposed. Lucien and Jerome having, +for the present at least, put themselves out of court by their +unsatisfactory marriages, Napoleon appeared to accept a reconciliation +with Joseph and Louis, and to place them in the order of succession, +as the Senate recommended. But he still reserved the right of adopting +the son of Louis and of thus favouring his chances of priority. +Indeed, it must be admitted that the Emperor at this difficult crisis +showed conjugal tact and affection, for which he has received scant +justice at the hands of Josephine's champions. "How could I divorce +this good wife," he said to Roederer, "because I am becoming great?" +But fate seemed to decree the divorce, which, despite the reasonings +of his brothers, he resolutely thrust aside; for the little boy on +whose life the Empress built so many fond hopes was to be cut off by +an early death in the year 1807. + +Then there were frequent disputes between Napoleon and Joseph. Both of +them had the Corsican's instinct in favour of primogeniture; and +hitherto Napoleon had in many ways deferred to his elder brother. Now, +however, he showed clearly that he would brook not the slightest +interference in affairs of State. And truly, if we except Joseph's +diplomatic services, he showed no commanding gifts such as could raise +him aloft along with the bewildering rush of Napoleon's fortunes. The +one was an irrepressible genius, the other was a man of culture and +talent, whose chief bent was towards literature, amours, and the art +of _dolce far niente_, except when his pride was touched: then he was +capable of bursts of passion which seemed to impose even on his +masterful second brother. Lucien, Louis, and even the youthful Jerome, +had the same intractable pride which rose defiant even against +Napoleon. He was determined that his brothers should now take a +subordinate rank, while they regarded the dynasty as largely due to +their exertions at or after Brumaire, and claimed a proportionate +reward. Napoleon, however, saw that a dynasty could not thus be +founded. As he frankly said to Roederer, a dynasty could only take +firm root in France among heirs brought up in a palace: "I have never +looked on my brothers as the natural heirs to power: I only consider +them as men fit to ward off the evils of a minority." + +Joseph deeply resented this conduct. He was a Prince of the Empire, +and a Grand Elector; but he speedily found out that this meant nothing +more than occasionally presiding at the Senate, and accordingly +indulged in little acts of opposition that enraged the autocrat. In +his desire to get his brother away from Paris, the Emperor had already +recommended him to take up the profession of arms; for he could not +include him in the succession, and place famous marshals under him if +he knew nothing of an army. Joseph perforce accepted the command of a +regiment, and at thirty-six years of age began to learn drill near +Boulogne.[312] This piece of burlesque was one day to prove infinitely +regrettable. After the disaster of Vittoria, Napoleon doubtless wished +that Joseph had for ever had free play in the tribune of the Senate +rather than have dabbled in military affairs. But in the spring and +summer of 1804 the Emperor noted his every word; so that, when he +ventured to suggest that Josephine should not be crowned at the coming +coronation, Napoleon's wrath blazed forth. Why should Joseph speak of +_his_ rights and _his_ interests? Who had won power? Who deserved to +enjoy power? Power was his (Napoleon's) mistress, and he dared Joseph +to touch her. The Senate or Council of State might oppose him for ten +years, without his becoming a tyrant: "To make me a tyrant one thing +alone is necessary--a movement of my family."[313] + +The family, however, did not move. As happened with all the brothers +except Lucien, Joseph gave way at the critical moment. After +threatening at the Council of State to resign his Grand Electorate and +retire to Germany if his wife were compelled to bear Josephine's train +at the coronation, he was informed by the Emperor that either he must +conduct himself dutifully as the first subject of the realm, or retire +into private life, or oppose--and be crushed. The argument was +unanswerable, and Joseph yielded. To save his own and his wife's +feelings, the wording of the official programme was altered: she was +_to support Josephine's mantle_, not _to bear her train_. + +In things great and small Napoleon carried his point. Although +Roederer pleaded long and earnestly that Joseph and Louis should come +next to the Emperor in the succession, and inserted a clause in the +report which he was intrusted to draw up, yet by some skilful artifice +this clause was withdrawn from the constitutional act on which the +nation was invited to express its opinion: and France assented to a +_plebiscite_ for the establishment of the Empire in Napoleon's family, +which passed over Joseph and Louis, as well as Lucien and Jerome, and +vested the succession in the natural or adopted son of Napoleon, and +in the heirs male of Joseph or Louis. Consequently these princes had +no place in the succession, except by virtue of the _senatus +consultant_ of May 18th, which gave them a legal right, it is true, +but without the added sanction of the popular vote. More than three +and a half million votes were cast for the new arrangement, a number +which exceeded those given for the Consulate and the Consulate for +Life. As usual, France accepted accomplished facts. + +Matters legal and ceremonial were now approaching completion for the +coronation. Negotiations had been proceeding between the Tuileries and +the Vatican, Napoleon begging and indeed requiring the presence of the +Pope on that occasion. Pius VII. was troubled at the thought of +crowning the murderer of the Duc d'Enghien; but he was scarcely his +own master, and the dextrous hints of Napoleon that religion would +benefit if he were present at Notre Dame seem to have overcome his +first scruples, besides quickening the hope of recovering the north of +his States. He was to be disappointed in more ways than one. Religion +was to benefit only from the enhanced prestige given to her rites in +the coming ceremony, not in the practical way that the Pope desired. +And yet it was of the first importance for Napoleon to receive the +holy oil and the papal blessing, for only so could he hope to wean the +affections of royalists from their uncrowned and exiled king. +Doubtless this was one of the chief reasons for the restoration of +religion by the Concordat, as was shrewdly seen at the time by +Lafayette, who laughingly exclaimed: "Confess, general, that your +chief wish is for the little phial."[314] The sally drew from the +First Consul an obscene disclaimer worthy of a drunken ostler. +Nevertheless, the little phial was now on its way. + +In order to divest the meeting of Pope and Emperor of any awkward +ceremony, Napoleon arranged that it should take place on the road +between Fontainebleau and Nemours, as a chance incident in the middle +of a day's hunting. The benevolent old pontiff was reclining in his +carriage, weary with the long journey through the cold of an early +winter, when he was startled to see the retinue of his host. The +contrast in every way was striking. The figure of the Emperor had now +attained the fullness which betokens abounding health and strength: his +face was slightly flushed with the hunt and the consciousness that he +was master of the situation, and his form on horseback gained a dignity +from which the shortness of his legs somewhat detracted when on foot. As +he rode up attired in full hunting costume, he might have seemed the +embodiment of triumphant strength. The Pope, on the other hand, clad in +white garments and with white silk shoes, gave an impression of peaceful +benevolence, had not his intellectual features borne signs of the +protracted anxieties of his pontificate. The Emperor threw himself from +his horse and advanced to meet his guest, who on his side alighted, +rather unwillingly, in the mud to give and receive the embrace of +welcome. Meanwhile Napoleon's carriage had been driven up: footmen were +holding open both doors, and an officer of the Court politely handed +Pius VII. to the left door, while the Emperor, entering by the right, +took the seat of honour, and thus settled once for all the vexed +question of social precedence.[315] + +During the Pope's sojourn at Fontainebleau, Josephine breathed to him +her anxiety as to her marriage; it having been only a civil contract, +she feared its dissolution, and saw in the Pope's intervention a +chance of a firmer union with her consort. The pontiff comforted her +and required from Napoleon the due solemnization of his marriage; it +was therefore secretly performed by Napoleon's uncle, Cardinal Fesch, +two days before the coronation.[316] + +It was not enough, however, that the successor of St. Peter should +grace the coronation with his presence: the Emperor sought to touch +the imagination of men by figuring as the successor of Charlemagne. We +here approach one of the most interesting experiments of the modern +world, which, if successful, would profoundly have altered the face of +Europe and the character of its States. Even in its failure it attests +Napoleon's vivid imagination and boundless mental resources. He +aspired to be more than Emperor of the French: he wished to make his +Empire a cosmopolitan realm, whose confines might rival those of the +Holy Roman Empire of one thousand years before, and embrace scores of +peoples in a grand, well-ordered European polity. + +Already his dominions included a million of Germans in the Rhineland, +Italians of Piedmont, Genoa, and Nice, besides Savoyards, Genevese, +and Belgians. How potent would be his influence on the weltering chaos +of German and Italian States, if these much-divided peoples learnt to +look on him as the successor to the glories of Charlemagne! And this +honour he was now to claim. However delusive was the parallel between +the old semi-tribal polity and modern States where the peoples were +awakening to a sense of their nationality, Napoleon was now in a +position to clear the way for his great experiment. He had two charms +wherewith to work, material prosperity and his gift of touching the +popular imagination. The former of these was already silently working +in his favour: the latter was first essayed at the coronation. + +Already, after a sojourn at Boulogne, he had visited Aix-la-Chapelle, +the city where Charlemagne's relics are entombed, and where Victor +Hugo in some of his sublimest verse has pictured Charles V. kneeling +in prayer to catch the spirit of the mediaeval hero. Thither went +Napoleon, but in no suppliant mood; for when Josephine was offered the +arm-bones of the great dead, she also proudly replied that she would +not deprive the city of that precious relic, especially as she had the +support of an arm as great as that of Charlemagne.[317] The insignia +and the sword of that monarch were now brought to Paris, and shed on +the ceremony of coronation that historic gleam which was needed to +redeem it from tawdry commonplace. + +All that money and art could do to invest the affair with pomp and +circumstance had already been done. The advice of the new Master of +the Ceremonies, M. de Segur, and the hints of the other nobles who had +rallied to the new Empire, had been carefully collated by the untiring +brain that now watched over France. The sum of 1,123,000 francs had +been expended on the coronation robes of Emperor and Empress, and far +more on crowns and tiaras. The result was seen in costumes of +matchless splendour; the Emperor wore a French coat of red velvet +embroidered in gold, a short cloak adorned with bees and the collar of +the Legion of Honour in diamonds; and at the archbishop's palace he +assumed the long purple robe of velvet profusely ornamented with +ermine, while his brow was encircled by a wreath of laurel, meed of +mighty conquerors. In the pommel of his sword flashed the famous Pitt +diamond, which, after swelling the family fortune of the British +statesman, fell to the Regent of France, and now graced the coronation +of her Dictator. The Empress, radiant with joy at her now indissoluble +union, bore her splendours with an easy grace that charmed all +beholders and gave her an almost girlish air. She wore a robe of white +satin, trimmed with silver and gold and besprinkled with golden bees: +her waist and shoulders glittered with diamonds, while on her brows +rested a diadem of the finest diamonds and pearls valued at more than +a million francs.[318] The curious might remember that for a necklace +of less than twice that value the fair fame of Marie Antoinette had +been clouded over and the House of Bourbon shaken to its base. + +The stately procession began with an odd incident: Napoleon and +Josephine, misled apparently by the all-pervading splendour of the new +state carriage, seated themselves on the wrong side, that is, in the +seats destined for Joseph and Louis: the mistake was at once made good, +with some merriment; but the superstitious saw in it an omen of +evil.[319] And now, amidst much enthusiasm and far greater curiosity, +the procession wound along through the Rue Nicaise and the Rue St. +Honore--streets where Bonaparte had won his spurs on the day of +Vendemiaire--over the Pont-Neuf, and so to the venerable cathedral, +where the Pope, chilled by long waiting, was ready to grace the +ceremony. First he anointed Emperor and Empress with the holy oil; then, +at the suitable place in the Mass he blessed their crowns, rings, and +mantles, uttering the traditional prayers for the possession of the +virtues and powers which each might seem to typify. But when he was +about to crown the Emperor, he was gently waved aside, and Napoleon with +his own hands crowned himself. A thrill ran through the august assembly, +either of pity for the feelings of the aged pontiff or of admiration at +the "noble and legitimate pride" of the great captain who claimed as +wholly his own the crown which his own right arm had won. Then the +_cortege_ slowly returned to the middle of the nave, where a lofty +throne had been reared. + +Another omen now startled those who laid store by trifles. It was +noticed that the sovereigns in ascending the steps nearly fell +backwards under the weight of their robes and trains, though in the +case of Josephine the anxious moment may have been due to the +carelessness, whether accidental or studied, of her "mantle-bearers." +But to those who looked beneath the surface of things was not this an +all-absorbing portent, that all this religious pomp should be removed +by scarcely eleven years from the time when this same nave echoed to +the shouts and gleamed with the torches of the worshippers of the +newly enthroned Goddess of Reason? + +Revolutionary feelings were not wholly dead, but they now vented +themselves merely in gibes. On the night before the coronation the walls +of Paris were adorned with posters announcing: _The last Representation +of the French Revolution--for the Benefit of a poor Corsican Family._ +And after the event there were inquiries why the new throne had no +_glands d'or;_ the answer suggested because it was _sanglant_.[320] +Beyond these quips and jests the Jacobins and royalists did not go. When +the phrase _your subjects_ was publicly assigned to the Corps Legislatif +by its courtier-like president, Fontanes, there was a flutter of wrath +among those who had hoped that the new Empire was to be republican. But +it quickly passed away; and no Frenchman, except perhaps Carnot, made so +manly a protest as the man of genius at Vienna, who had composed the +"Sinfonia Eroica," and with grand republican simplicity inscribed it, +"Beethoven a Bonaparte." When the master heard that his former hero had +taken the imperial crown, he tore off the dedication with a volley of +curses on the renegade and tyrant; and in later years he dedicated the +immortal work to the _memory_ of a great man. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +THE BOULOGNE FLOTILLA + + +The establishment of the Empire, as has been seen, provoked few signs +of opposition from the French armies, once renowned for their +Jacobinism; and by one or two instances of well-timed clemency, the +Emperor gained over even staunch republicans. Notably was this the +case with a brave and stalwart colonel, who, enraged at the first +volley of cheers for the Empire, boldly ordered "Silence in the +ranks." At once Napoleon made him general and appointed him one of his +aides-de-camp; and this brave officer, Mouton by name, was later to +gain glory and the title of Comte de Lobau in the Wagram campaign. +These were the results of a timely act of generosity, such as touches +the hearts of any soldiery and leads them to shed their blood like +water. And so when Napoleon, after the coronation, distributed to the +garrison of Paris their standards, topped now by the imperial eagles, +the great Champ de Mars was a scene of wild enthusiasm. The thunderous +shouts that acclaimed the prowess of the new Frankish leader were as +warlike as those which ever greeted the hoisting of a Carolingian King +on the shields of his lieges. Distant nations heard the threatening +din and hastened to muster their forces for the fray. + +As yet only England was at war with the Emperor. Against her Napoleon +now prepared to embattle the might of his vast Empire. The +preparations on the northern coast were now wellnigh complete, and +there was only one question to be solved--how to "leap the ditch." It +seems strange to us now that no attempt was made to utilize the great +motive force of the nineteenth century--steam power. And the French +memoir-writers, Marmont, Bourrienne, Pasquier, and Bausset, have +expressed their surprise that so able a chief as Napoleon should have +neglected this potent ally. + +Their criticisms seem to be prompted by later reflections rather +than based on an accurate statement of facts. In truth, the +nineteenth-century Hercules was still in his cradle. Henry Bell had in +1800 experimented with a steamer on the Clyde; but it aroused the same +trembling curiosity as Trevithick's first locomotive, or as Fulton's +first paddle-boat built on the Seine in 1803. In fact, this boat of +the great American inventor was so weak that, when at anchor, it broke +in half during a gale, thus ridding itself of the weight of its +cumbrous engine. With his usual energy, Fulton built a larger and +stronger craft, which not only carried the machinery, but, in August, +1803, astonished the members of the French Institute by moving, though +with much circumspection. + +Fulton, however, was disappointed, and if we may judge from the scanty +records of his life, he never offered this invention to Napoleon.[321] +He felt the need of better machinery, and as this could only be +procured in England, he gave the order to a Birmingham firm, which +engined his first successful boat, the "Clermont," launched on the +Hudson in 1807. But for the war, perhaps, Fulton would have continued +to live in Paris and made his third attempt there. He certainly never +offered his imperfect steamship to the First Consul. Probably the fact +that his first boat foundered when at anchor in the Seine would have +procured him a rough reception, if he had offered to equip the whole +of the Boulogne flotilla with an invention which had sunk its first +receptacle and propelled the second boat at a snail's pace. + +Besides, he had already met with one repulse from Napoleon. He had +offered, first to the Directory and later to the First Consul, a boat +which he claimed would "deliver France and the world from British +oppression." + + +This was a sailing vessel, which could sink under water and then +discharge under a hostile ship a "carcass" of gunpowder or +_torpedo_--another invention of his fertile brain. The Directory at +once repulsed him. Bonaparte instructed Monge, Laplace, and Volney to +report on this submarine or "plunging" boat, which had a partial +success. It succeeded in blowing up a small vessel in the harbour at +Brest in July, 1801; but the Commission seems to have reported +unfavourably on its utility for offensive purposes. In truth, as +Fulton had not then applied motive power to this invention, the name +"plunging boat" conveyed an exaggerated notion of its functions, which +were more suited to a life of ascetic contemplation than of +destructive activity. + +It appears that the memoir-writers named above have confused the two +distinct inventions of Fulton just referred to. In the latter half of +1803 he repaired to England, and later on to the United States, and +after the year 1803 he seems to have had neither the will nor the +opportunity to serve Napoleon. In England he offered his torpedo +patent to the English Admiralty, expressing his hatred of the French +Emperor as a "wild beast who ought to be hunted down." Little was done +with the torpedo in England, except to blow up a vessel off Walmer as +a proof of what it could do. It is curious also that when Bell offered +his paddle-boat to the Admiralty it was refused, though Nelson is said +to have spoken in its favour. The official mind is everywhere hostile +to new inventions; and Marmont suggestively remarks that Bonaparte's +training as an artillerist, and his experience of the inconvenience +and expense resulting from the adoption of changes in that arm, had no +slight influence in setting him against all innovations. + +But, to resume our description of the Boulogne flotilla, it may be of +interest to give some hitherto unpublished details about the +flat-bottomed boats, and then to pass in brief review Napoleon's plans +for assuring a temporary command of the Channel. + +It is clear that he at first relied almost solely on the flotilla. +After one of his visits to Boulogne, he wrote on November 23rd, 1803, +to Admiral Gantheaume that he would soon have on the northern coast +1,300 flat-bottomed boats able to carry 100,000 men, while the Dutch +flotilla would transport 60,000. "Do you think it will take us to the +English coast? Eight hours of darkness which favour us would decide +the fate of the universe." There is no mention of any convoying fleet: +the First Consul evidently believed that the flotilla could beat off +any attack at sea. This letter offers a signal proof of his inability, +at least at that time, to understand the risks of naval warfare. But +though his precise and logical mind seems then to have been incapable +of fully realizing the conditions of war on the fickle, troublous, and +tide-swept Channel, his admirals urgently warned him against trusting +to shallow, flat-bottomed boats to beat the enemy out at sea; for +though these _praams_ in their coasting trips repelled the attacks of +British cruisers, which dared not come into shallow waters, it did not +follow that they would have the same success in mid-Channel, far away +from coast defences and amidst choppy waves that must render the guns +of keelless boats wellnigh useless.[320] + +The present writer, after going through the reports of our admiral +stationed in the Downs, is convinced that our seamen felt a supreme +contempt for the flat-bottomed boats when at sea. After the capture of +one of them, by an English gun-brig, Admiral Montagu reported, +November 23rd, 1803: + + "It is impossible to suppose for an instant that anything + effective can be produced by such miserable tools, equally + ill-calculated for the grand essentials in a maritime formation, + battle and speed: that floored as this wretched vessel is, she + cannot hug the wind, but must drift bodily to leeward, which + indeed was the cause of her capture; for, having got a little to + leeward of Boulogne Bay, it was impossible to get back and she was + necessitated to steer large for Calais. On the score of battle, + she has one long 18-pounder, without breeching or tackle, + traversing on a slide, which can only be fired stem on. The + 8-pounder is mounted aft, but is a fixture: so that literally, if + one of our small boats was to lay alongside there would be nothing + but musketry to resist, and those [_sic_] placed in the hands of + poor wretches weakened by the effect of seasickness, exemplified + when this gun-boat was captured--the soldiers having retreated to + the hold, incapable of any energy or manly exertion.... In short, + Sir, these vessels in my mind are completely contemptible and + ridiculous, and I therefore conclude that the numbers collected at + Boulogne are to keep our attention on the _qui vive_, and to gloss + over the real attack meditated from other points." + +The vessel which provoked the contempt of our admiral was not one of +the smallest class: she was 58-1/3 ft. long, 14-1/2 ft. wide, drew 3 +ft. forward and 4 ft. aft: her sides rose 3 ft. above the water, and +her capacity was 35 tons. The secret intelligence of the Admiralty for +the years 1804 and 1805 also shows that Dutch sailors were equally +convinced of the unseaworthiness of these craft: Admiral Verhuell +plainly told the French Emperor that, however flatterers might try to +persuade him of the feasibility of the expedition, "nothing but +disgrace could be expected." The same volume (No. 426) contains a +report of the capture of two of the larger class of French _chaloupes_ +off Cape La Hogue. Among the prisoners was a young French royalist +named La Bourdonnais: when forced by the conscription to enter +Napoleon's service, he chose to serve with the _chaloupes_ "because +of his conviction that all these flotillas were nothing but bugbears +and would never attempt the invasion so much talked of and in which so +few persons really believe." The same was the opinion of the veteran +General Dumouriez, who, now an exile in England, drew up for our +Government a long report on the proposed invasion and the means of +thwarting it. The reports of our spies also prove that all experienced +seamen on the Continent declared Napoleon's project to be either a +ruse or a foolhardy venture. + +The compiler of the Ney "Memoirs," who was certainly well acquainted +with the opinions of that Marshal, then commanding the troops at +Boulogne, also believed that the flotilla was only able to serve as a +gigantic ferry.[322] The French admirals were still better aware of +the terrible risks to their crowded craft in a fight out at sea. They +also pointed out that the difference in the size, draught, and speed +of the boats must cause the dispersion of the flotilla, when its parts +might fall a prey to the more seaworthy vessels of the enemy. Indeed, +the only chance of crossing without much loss seemed to be offered by +a protracted calm, when the British cruisers would be helpless against +a combined attack of a cloud of row-boats. The risks would be greater +during a fog, when the crowd of boats must be liable to collision, +stranding on shoals, and losing their way. Even the departure of this +quaint armada presented grave difficulties: it was found that the +whole force could not clear the harbour in a single tide; and a part +of the flotilla must therefore remain exposed to the British fire +before the whole mass could get under way. For all these reasons +Bruix, the commander of the flotilla, and Decres, Minister of Marine, +dissuaded Napoleon from attempting the descent without the support of +a powerful covering fleet. + +Napoleon's correspondence shows that, by the close of the year 1803, +he had abandoned that first fatuous scheme which gained him from the +wits of Paris the soubriquet of "Don Quixote de la Manche."[323] On +the 7th of December he wrote to Gantheaume, maritime prefect at +Toulon, urging him to press on the completion of his nine ships of the +line and five frigates, and sketching plans of a naval combination that +promised to insure the temporary command of the Channel. Of these only +two need be cited here: + +1. "The Toulon squadron will set out on 20th _nivose_ (January 10th, +1804), will arrive before Cadiz (or Lisbon), will find there the +Rochefort squadron, will sail on without making land, between Brest +and the Sorlingues, will touch at Cape La Hogue, and will pass in +forty-eight hours before Boulogne: thence it will continue to the +mouth of the Scheldt (there procuring masts, cordage, and all needful +things)--or perhaps to Cherbourg. + +2. "The Rochefort squadron will set out on 20th _nivose_, will reach +Toulon the 20th _pluviose:_ the united squadrons will set sail in +_ventose_, and arrive in _germinal_ before Boulogne--that is rather +late. In any case the Egyptian Expedition will cover the departure of +the Toulon squadron: everything will be managed _so that Nelson will +first sail for Alexandria_." + +These schemes reveal the strong and also the weak qualities of +Napoleon. He perceived the strength of the central position which +France enjoyed on her four coasts; and he now contrived all his +dispositions, both naval and political, so as to tempt Nelson away +eastwards from Toulon during the concentration of the French fleet in +the Channel; and for this purpose he informed the military officers at +Toulon that their destination was Taranto and the Morea. It was to +these points that he wished to decoy Nelson; for this end had he sent +his troops to Taranto, and kept up French intrigues in Corfu, the +Morea, and Egypt; it was for this purpose that he charged that wily +spy Mehee to inform Drake that the Toulon fleet was to take 40,000 +French troops to the Morea, and that the Brest fleet, with 200 highly +trained Irish officers, was intended solely for Ireland. But, while +displaying consummate guile, he failed to allow for the uncertainties +of operations conducted by sea. Ignoring the patent fact that the +Toulon fleet was blockaded by Nelson, and that of Rochefort by +Collingwood, he fixed the dates of their departure and junction as +though he were ordering the movements of a _corps d'armee_ in +Provence; and this craving for certainty was to mar his naval plans +and dog his footsteps with the shadow of disaster.[324] + +The plan of using the Toulon fleet to cover an invasion of England was +not entirely new. As far back as the days of De Tourville, a somewhat +similar plan had been devised: the French Channel and Atlantic fleets +under that admiral were closely to engage Russell off the Isle of +Wight, while the Toulon squadron, sailing northwards, was to collect +the French transports on the coasts of Normandy for the invasion of +England. Had Napoleon carefully studied French naval history, he would +have seen that the disaster of La Hogue was largely caused by the +severe weather which prevented the rendezvous, and brought about a +hasty and ill-advised alteration in the original scheme. But of all +subjects on which he spoke as an authority, there was perhaps not one +that he had so inadequately studied as naval strategy: yet there was +none wherein the lessons of experience needed so carefully to be laid +to heart. + +Fortune seemed to frown on Napoleon's naval schemes: yet she was +perhaps not unkind in thwarting them in their first stages. Events +occurred which early suggested a deviation from the combinations +noticed above. In the last days of 1803, hearing that the English +were about to attack Martinique, he at once wrote to Gantheaume, +urging him to despatch the Toulon squadron under Admiral +Latouche-Treville for the rescue of this important island. The +commander of the troops, Cervoni, was to be told that the expedition +aimed at the Morea, so that spies might report this news to Nelson, +and it is clear from our admiral's despatches that the ruse half +succeeded. Distracted, however, by the thought that the French might, +after all, aim at Ireland, Nelson clung to the vicinity of Toulon, and +his untiring zeal kept in harbour the most daring admiral in the French +navy, who, despite his advanced age, excited an enthusiasm that none +other could arouse. + +To him, in spite of his present ill-fortune, Napoleon intrusted the +execution of a scheme bearing date July 2nd, 1804. Latouche was +ordered speedily to put to sea with his ten ships of the line and four +frigates, to rally a French warship then at Cadiz, release the five +ships of the line and four frigates blockaded at Rochefort by +Collingwood, and then sweep the Channel and convoy the flotilla across +the straits. This has been pronounced by Jurien de la Graviere the +best of all Napoleon's plans: it exposed ships that had long been in +harbour only to a short ocean voyage, and it was free from the +complexity of the later and more grandiose schemes. + +But fate interposed and carried off the intrepid commander by that +worst of all deaths for a brave seaman, death by disease in harbour, +where he was shut up by his country's foes (August 20th). + +Villeneuve was thereupon appointed to succeed him, while Missiessy +held command at Rochefort. The choice of Villeneuve has always been +considered strange; and the riddle is not solved by the declaration of +Napoleon that he considered that Villeneuve at the Nile showed his +_good fortune_ in escaping with the only French ships which survived +that disaster. A strange reason this: to appoint an admiral commander +of an expedition that was to change the face of the world because his +good fortune consisted in escaping from Nelson![325] + +Napoleon now began to widen his plans. According to the scheme of +September 29th, three expeditions were now to set out; the first was +to assure the safety of the French West Indies; the second was to +recover the Dutch colonies in those seas and reinforce the French troops +still holding out in part of St. Domingo; while the third had as its +objective West Africa and St. Helena. The Emperor evidently hoped to +daze us by simultaneous attacks in Africa, America, and also in Asiatic +waters. After these fleets had set sail in October and November, 1804, +Ireland was to be attacked by the Brest fleet now commanded by +Gantheaume. Slipping away from the grip of Cornwallis, he was to pass +out of sight of land and disembark his troops in Lough Swilly. These +troops, 18,000 strong, were under that redoubtable fighter, Augereau; +and had they been landed, the history of the world might have been +different. Leaving them to revolutionize Ireland, Gantheaume was to make +for the English Channel, touch at Cherbourg for further orders, and +proceed to Boulogne to convoy the flotilla across: or, if the weather +prevented this, as was probable in January, he was to pass on to the +Texel, rally the seven Dutch battleships and the transports with their +25,000 troops, beat back down the English Channel and return to Ireland. +Napoleon counted on the complete success of one or other of Gantheaume's +moves: "Whether I have 30,000 or 40,000 men in Ireland, or whether I am +both in England and Ireland, the war is ours."[326] + +The objections to the September combination are fairly obvious. It was +exceedingly improbable that the three fleets could escape at the time +and in the order which Napoleon desired, or that crews enervated by +long captivity in port would succeed in difficult operations when +thrust out into the wintry gales of the Atlantic and the Channel. +Besides, success could only be won after a serious dispersion of +French naval resources; and the West Indian expeditions must be +regarded as prompted quite as much by a colonial policy as by a +determination to overrun England or Ireland.[327] + + +At any rate, if the Emperor's aim was merely to distract us by widely +diverging attacks, that could surely have been accomplished without +sending twenty-six sail of the line into American and African waters, +and leaving to Gantheaume so disproportionate an amount of work and +danger. This September combination may therefore be judged distinctly +inferior to that of July, which, with no scattering of the French +forces, promised to decoy Nelson away to the Morea and Egypt, while +the Toulon and Rochefort squadrons proceeded to Boulogne. + +The September schemes hopelessly miscarried. Gantheaume did not elude +Cornwallis, and remained shut up in Brest. Missiessy escaped from +Rochefort, sailed to the West Indies, where he did some damage and +then sailed home again. "He had taken a pawn and returned to his own +square."[328] Villeneuve slipped out from Toulon (January 19th, 1805), +while Nelson was sheltering from westerly gales under the lee of +Sardinia; but the storm which promised to renew his reputation for +good luck speedily revealed the weakness of his ships and crews. + +"My fleet looked well at Toulon," he wrote to Decres, Minister of +Marine, "but when the storm came on, things changed at once. The +sailors were not used to storms: they were lost among the mass of +soldiers: these from sea-sickness lay in heaps about the decks: it was +impossible to work the ships: hence yard-arms were broken and sails +were carried away: our losses resulted as much from clumsiness and +inexperience as from defects in the materials delivered by the +arsenals."[329] + +Inexperience and sea-sickness were factors that found no place in +Napoleon's calculations; but they compelled Villeneuve to return to +Toulon to refit; and there Nelson closed on him once more. + +Meanwhile events were transpiring which seemed to add to Napoleon's +naval strength and to the difficulties of his foes. On January 4th, +1805, he concluded with Spain a treaty which added her naval resources +to those of France, Holland, and Northern Italy. The causes that led +to an open rupture between England and Spain were these. Spain had +been called upon by Napoleon secretly to pay him the stipulated sum of +72,000,000 francs a year (see p. 437), and she reluctantly consented. +This was, of course, a covert act of hostility against England; and +the Spanish Government was warned at the close of 1803 that, if this +subsidy continued to be paid to France, it would constitute "at any +future period, when circumstances may render it necessary, a just +cause of war" between England and Spain. Far from complying with this +reasonable remonstrance, the Spanish Court yielded to Napoleon's +imperious order to repair five French warships that had taken refuge +in Ferrol from our cruisers, and in July, 1804, allowed French seamen +to travel thither overland to complete the crews of these vessels. +Thus for some months our warships had to observe Ferrol, as if it were +a hostile port. + +Clearly, this state of things could not continue; and when the +protests of our ambassador at Madrid were persistently evaded or +ignored, he was ordered, in the month of September, to leave that +capital unless he received satisfactory assurances. He did not leave +until November 10th, and before that time a sinister event had taken +place. The British Ministry determined that Spanish treasure-ships from +South America should not be allowed to land at Cadiz the sinews of war +for France, and sent orders to our squadrons to stop those ships. Four +frigates were told off for that purpose. On the 5th of October they +sighted the four rather smaller Spanish frigates that bore the ingots of +Peru, and summoned them to surrender, thereafter to be held in pledge. +The Spaniards, nobly resolving to yield only to overwhelming force, +refused; and in the ensuing fight one of their ships blew up, whereupon +the others hauled down their flags and were taken to England. Resenting +this action, Spain declared war on December 12th, 1804. + +Stripped of all the rodomontade with which French historians have +enveloped this incident, the essential facts are as follows. Napoleon +compelled Spain by the threat of invasion to pay him a large subsidy: +England declared this payment, and accompanying acts, to be acts of +war; Spain shuffled uneasily between the two belligerents but +continued to supply funds to Napoleon and to shelter and repair his +warships; thereupon England resolved to cut off her American +subsidies, but sent a force too small to preclude the possibility of a +sea-fight; the fight took place, with a lamentable result, which +changed the covert hostility of Spain into active hostility. + +Public opinion and popular narratives are, however, fashioned by +sentiment rather than founded on evidence; accordingly, Britain's +prestige suffered from this event. The facts, as currently reported, +seemed to convict her of an act of piracy; and few persons on the +Continent or among the Whig coteries of Westminster troubled to find +out whether Spain had not been guilty of acts of hostility and whether +the French Emperor was not the author of the new war. Undoubtedly it +was his threatening pressure on Spain that had compelled her to her +recent action: but that pressure had been for the most part veiled by +diplomacy, while Britain's retort was patent and notorious. +Consequently, every version of this incident that was based merely on +newspaper reports condemned her conduct as brutally piratical; and +only those who have delved into archives have discovered the real +facts of the case.[330] Napoleon's letter to the King of Spain quoted +on p. 437 shows that even before the war he was seeking to drag him +into hostilities with England, and he continued to exert a remorseless +pressure on the Court of Madrid; it left two alternatives open to +England, either to see Napoleon close his grip on Spain and wield her +naval resources when she was fully prepared for war, or to precipitate +the rupture. It was the alternative, _mutatis mutandis_, presented to +George III. and the elder Pitt in 1761, when the King was for delay +and his Minister was for war at once. That instance had proved the +father's foresight; and now at the close of 1804 the younger Pitt +might flatter himself that open war was better than a treacherous +peace. + +In lieu of a subsidy Spain now promised to provide from twenty-five to +twenty-nine sail of the line, and to have them ready by the close of +March. On his side, Napoleon agreed to guarantee the integrity of the +Spanish dominions, and to regain Trinidad for her. The sequel will +show how his word was kept. + +The conclusion of this alliance placed the hostile navies almost on an +equality, at least on paper. But, as the equipment of the Spanish +fleet was very slow, Napoleon for the present adhered to his plan of +September, 1804, with the result already detailed. Not until March +2nd, 1805, do we find the influence of the Spanish alliance observable +in his naval schemes. On that date he issued orders to Villeneuve and +Gantheaume, which assigned to the latter most of the initiative, as also +the chief command after their assumed junction. Gantheaume, with the +Brest fleet, after eluding the blockaders, was to proceed first to +Ferrol, capture the British ships off that port and, reinforced by the +French and Spanish ships there at anchor, proceed across the Atlantic to +the appointed rendezvous at Martinique. The Toulon squadron under +Villeneuve was at the same time to make for Cadiz, and, after collecting +the Spanish ships, set sail for the West Indies. Then the armada was to +return with all speed to Boulogne, where Napoleon expected it to arrive +between June 10th and July 10th.[331] + +Diverse judgments have been passed on this, the last and grandest of +Napoleon's naval combinations. On the one hand, it is urged that, as +the French fleets had seen no active service, a long voyage was +necessary to impart experience and efficiency before matters were +brought to the touch in the Straits of Dover; and as Britain and +France both regarded their West Indian islands as their most valued +possessions, a voyage thither would be certain to draw British sails +in eager pursuit. Finally, those islands dotted over a thousand miles +of sea presented a labyrinth wherein it would be easy for the French +to elude Nelson's cruisers. + +On the other hand, it may be urged that the success of the plan +depended on too many _ifs_. Assuming that the Toulon and Brest +squadrons escaped the blockaders, their subsequent movements would +most probably be reported by some swift frigate off Gibraltar or +Ferrol. The chance of our divining the French plans was surely as +great as that Gantheaume and Villeneuve would unite in the West +Indies, ravage the British possessions, and return in undiminished +force. The English fleets, after weary months of blockade, were adepts +at scouting; their wings covered with ease a vast space, their +frigates rapidly signalled news to the flagship, and their +concentration was swift and decisive. Prompt to note every varying +puff of wind, they bade fair to overhaul their enemies when the chase +began in earnest, and when once the battle was joined, numbers counted +for little: the English crews, inured to fights on the ocean, might be +trusted to overwhelm the foe by their superior experience and +discipline, hampered as the French now were by the lumbering and +defective warships of Spain. + +Napoleon, indeed, amply discounted the chances of failure of his +ultimate design, the command of the Channel. The ostensible aims of +the expedition were colonial. The French fleets were to take on board +11,908 soldiers, of whom three-fourths were destined for the West +Indies; and, in case Gantheaume did not join Villeneuve at Martinique, +the latter was ordered, after waiting forty days, to set sail for the +Canaries, there to intercept the English convoys bound for Brazil and +the East Indies. + +In the spring and summer of 1805 Napoleon's correspondence supplies +copious proof of the ideas and plans that passed through his brain. +After firmly founding the new Empire, he journeyed into Piedmont, +thence to Milan for his coronation as King of Italy, and finally to +Genoa. In this absence of three months from Paris (April-July) many +lengthy letters to Decres attest the alternations of his hopes and +fears. He now keeps the possibility of failure always before him: his +letters no longer breathe the crude confidence of 1803: and while +facing the chances of failure in the West Indies, his thoughts swing +back to the Orient: + + "According to all the news that I receive, five or six thousand men + in the [East] Indies would ruin the English Company. Supposing that + our [West] Indian expedition is not fully successful, and I cannot + reach the grand end which will demolish all the rest, I think we + must arrange the [East] Indian expedition for September. We have + now greater resources for it than some time ago."[332] + +How tenacious is his will! He here recurs to the plan laid down before +Decaen sailed to the East Indies in March, 1803. Even the prospects of +a continental coalition fail to dispel that gorgeous dream. But amid +much that is visionary we may discern this element of practicality: in +case the blow against England misses the mark, Napoleon has provided +himself with a splendid alternative that will banish all thought of +failure. + +It is needless to recount here the well-known details of Villeneuve's +voyage and Nelson's pursuit. The Toulon and Cadiz fleets got clear +away to the West Indies, and after a last glance towards the Orient, +Nelson set out in pursuit. On the 4th of June the hostile fleets were +separated by only a hundred miles of sea; and Villeneuve, when off +Antigua, hearing that Nelson was so close, decided forthwith to return +to Europe. After disembarking most of his troops and capturing a fleet +of fourteen British merchantmen, he sailed for Ferrol, in pursuance of +orders just received from Napoleon, which bade him rally fifteen +allied ships at that port, and push on to Brest, where he must release +Gantheaume. + +In this gigantic war game, where the Atlantic was the chess-board, and +the prize a world-empire, the chances were at this time curiously +even. Fortune had favoured Villeneuve but checked Gantheaume. +Villeneuve successfully dodged Nelson in the West Indies, but +ultimately the pursuer divined the enemy's scheme of returning to +Europe, and sent a swift brig to warn the Admiralty, which was thereby +informed of the exact position of affairs on July 8th, that is, twelve +days before Napoleon himself knew of the state of affairs. On July +20th, the French Emperor heard, _through English newspapers_, that his +fleet was on its return voyage: and his heart beat high with hope that +Villeneuve would now gather up his squadrons in the Bay of Biscay and +appear before Boulogne in overwhelming force; for he argued that, even +if Villeneuve should keep right away from Brest, and leave blockaders +and blockaded face to face, he would still be at least sixteen ships +stronger than any force that could be brought against him. + +But Napoleon was now committing the blunder which he so often censured +in his inferiors. He was "making pictures" to himself, pictures in +which the gleams of fortune were reserved for the tricolour flag, and +gloom and disaster shrouded the Union Jack; he conceived that Nelson +had made for Jamaica, and that the British squadrons were engaged in +chasing phantom French fleets around Ireland or to the East Indies. +"We have not to do," he said, "with a far-seeing, but with a very +proud, Government." + +In reality, Nelson was nearing the coast of Portugal, Cornwallis had +been so speedily reinforced as to marshal twenty-eight ships of the +line off Brest, while Calder was waiting for Villeneuve off Cape +Finisterre with a fleet of fifteen battleships. Thus, when Villeneuve +neared the north-west of Spain, his twenty ships of the line were +confronted by a force which he could neither overwhelm nor shake off. +The combat of July 22nd, fought amidst a dense haze, was unfavourable +to the allies, two Spanish ships of the line striking their colours to +Calder before the gathering fog and gloom of night separated the +combatants: on the next two days Villeneuve strove to come to close +quarters, but Calder sheered off; thereupon the French, unable then to +make Ferrol, put into Vigo, while Calder, ignorant of their position, +joined Cornwallis off Brest. This retreat of the British admiral +subjected him to a court-martial, and consternation reigned in London +when Villeneuve was known to be on the Spanish coast unguarded; but +the fear was needless; though the French admiral succeeded in rallying +the Ferrol squadron, yet, as he was ordered to avoid Ferrol, he put +into Corunna, and on August 15th he decided to sail for Cadiz. + +To realize the immense importance of this decision we must picture to +ourselves the state of affairs just before this time. + +Nelson, delayed by contrary winds and dogged by temporary ill-luck, +had made for Gibraltar, whence, finding that no French ships had +passed the straits, he doubled back in hot haste northwards, and there +is clear proof that his speedy return to the coast of Spain spread +dismay in official circles at Paris. "This unexpected union of forces +undoubtedly renders every scheme of invasion impracticable for the +present," wrote Talleyrand to Napoleon on August 2nd, 1805.[333] +Missing Villeneuve off Ferrol, Nelson joined Cornwallis off Ushant on +the very day when the French admiral decided to make for Cadiz. +Passing on to Portsmouth, the hero now enjoyed a few days of +well-earned repose, until the nation called on him for his final +effort. + +Meanwhile Napoleon had arrived on August 3rd at Boulogne, where he +reviewed a line of soldiery nine miles long. The sight might well +arouse his hopes of assured victory. He had ground for hoping that +Villeneuve would soon be in the Channel. Not until August 8th did he +receive news of the fight with Calder, and he took pains to parade it +as an English defeat. He therefore trusted that, in the spirit of his +orders to Villeneuve dated July the 26th, that admiral would sail to +Cadiz, gather up other French and Spanish ships, and return to Ferrol +and Brest with a mighty force of some sixty sail of the line: + + "I count on your zeal for my service, on your love for the + fatherland, on your hatred of this Power which for forty + generations has oppressed us, and which a little daring and + perseverance on your part will for ever reduce to the rank of the + small Powers: 150,000 soldiers ... and the crews complete are + embarked on 2,000 craft of the flotilla, which, despite the English + cruisers, forms a long line of broadsides from Etaples to Cape + Grisnez. Your voyage, and it alone, makes us without any doubt + masters of England." + +Austria and Russia were already marshalling their forces for the war +of the Third Coalition. Yet, though menaced by those Powers, to whom +he had recently offered the most flagrant provocations, this +astonishing man was intent only on the ruin of England, and secretly +derided their preparations. "You need not" (so he wrote to Eugene, +Viceroy of Italy) "contradict the newspaper rumours of war, but make +fun of them.... Austria's actions are probably the result of +fear."--Thus, even when the eastern horizon lowered threateningly with +clouds, he continued to pace the cliffs of Boulogne, or gallop +restlessly along the strand, straining his gaze westward to catch the +first glimpse of his armada. That horizon was never to be flecked with +Villeneuve's sails: they were at this time furled in the harbour of +Cadiz. + +Unmeasured abuse has been showered upon Villeneuve for his retreat to +that harbour. But it must be remembered that in both of Napoleon's +last orders to him, those of July 16th and 26th, he was required to +sail to Cadiz under certain conditions. In the first order prescribing +alternative ways of gaining the mastery of the Channel, that step was +recommended solely as a last alternative in case of misfortune: he was +directed not to enter the long and difficult inlet of Ferrol, but, +after collecting the squadron there, to cast anchor at Cadiz. In the +order of July 26th he was charged positively to repair to Cadiz: "My +intention is that you rally at Cadiz the Spanish ships there, +disembark your sick, and, without stopping there more than four days +at most, again set sail, return to Ferrol, etc." Villeneuve seems not +to have received these last orders, but he alludes to those of July +16th.[334] + +These, then, were probably the last instructions he received from +Napoleon before setting sail from the roads of Corunna on August 13th. +The censures passed on his retreat to Cadiz are therefore based on the +supposition that he received instructions which he did not +receive.[335] He expressly based his move to Cadiz on Napoleon's +orders of July 16th. The mishaps which the Emperor then contemplated +as necessitating such a step had, in Villeneuve's eyes, actually +happened. The admiral considered the fight of July 22nd _la malheureuse +affaire;_ his ships were encumbered with sick; they worked badly; on +August 15th a north-east gale carried away the top-mast of a Spanish +ship; and having heard from a Danish merchantman the news--false news, +as it afterwards appeared--that Cornwallis with twenty-five ships was to +the north, he turned and scudded before the wind. He could not divine +the disastrous influence of his conduct on the plan of invasion. He did +not know that his master was even then beginning to hesitate between a +dash on London or a campaign on the Danube, and that the events of the +next few days were destined to tilt the fortunes of the world. Doubtless +he ought to have disregarded the Emperor's words about Cadiz and to have +struggled on to Brest, as his earlier and wider orders enjoined. But the +Emperor's instructions pointed to Cadiz as the rendezvous in case of +misfortune or great difficulty. As a matter of fact, Napoleon on July +26th ordered the Rochefort squadron to _meet Villeneuve at Cadiz;_ and +it is clear that by that date Napoleon had decided on that rendezvous, +apparently because it could be more easily entered and cleared than +Ferrol, and was safer from attack. But, as it happened, the Rochefort +squadron had already set sail and failed to sight an enemy or friend for +several weeks. + +Such are the risks of naval warfare, in which even the greatest +geniuses at times groped but blindly. Nelson was not afraid to confess +the truth. The French Emperor, however, seems never to have made an +admission which would mar his claim to strategic infallibility. Even +now, when the Spanish ships were proved to clog the enterprise, he +persisted in merely counting numbers, and in asserting that Villeneuve +might still neutralize the force of Calder and Cornwallis. These hopes +he cherished up to August 23rd, when, as the next chapter will show, +he faced right about to confront Austria. His Minister of Marine, who +had more truly gauged the difficulties of all parts of the naval +enterprise, continued earnestly to warn him of the terrible risk of +burdening Villeneuve's ships with the unseaworthy craft of Spain and +of trusting to this ill-assorted armada to cover the invasion now that +their foes had divined its secret. The Emperor bitterly upbraided his +Minister for his timidity, and in the presence of Daru, Intendant +General of the army, indulged in a dramatic soliloquy against +Villeneuve for his violation of orders: "What a navy! What an admiral! +What sacrifices for nothing! My hopes are frustrated--- Daru, sit down +and write"--whereupon it is said that he traced out the plans of the +campaign which was to culminate at Ulm and Austerlitz.[336] + +The question has often been asked whether Napoleon seriously intended +the invasion of England. Certainly the experienced seamen of England, +France, and Holland, with few exceptions, declared that the +flat-bottomed boats were unseaworthy, and that a frightful disaster +must ensue if they were met out at sea by our ships. When it is +further remembered that our coasts were defended by batteries and +martello towers, that several hundreds of pinnaces and row-boats were +ready to attack the flotilla before it could attempt the +disembarkation of horses, artillery, and stores, and that 180,000 +regulars and militia, aided by 400,000 volunteers, were ready to +defend our land, the difficulties even of capturing London will be +obvious. And the capture of the capital would not have decided the +contest. Napoleon seems to have thought it would. In his voyage to St. +Helena he said: "I put all to the hazard; I entered into no +calculations as to the manner in which I was to return; I trusted all +to the impression the occupation of the capital would have +occasioned."[337]--But, as has been shown above (p. 441), plans had been +secretly drawn up for the removal of the Court and the national treasure +to Worcester; the cannon of Woolwich were to be despatched into the +Midlands by canal; and our military authorities reckoned that the +systematic removal of provisions and stores from all the districts +threatened by the enemy would exhaust him long before he overran the +home counties. Besides, the invasion was planned when Britain's naval +power had been merely evaded, not conquered. Nelson and Cornwallis and +Calder would not for ever be chasing phantom fleets; they would +certainly return, and cut Napoleon from his base, the sea. + +Again, if Napoleon was bent solely on the invasion of England, why +should he in June, 1805, have offered to Russia and Austria so +gratuitous an affront as the annexation of the Ligurian Republic? He +must have known that this act would hurry them into war. Thiers +considers the annexation of Genoa a "grave fault" in the Emperor's +policy--but many have doubted whether Napoleon did not intend Genoa to +be the gate leading to a new avenue of glory, now that the success of +his naval dispositions was doubtful. Marbot gives the general opinion +of military circles when he says that the Emperor wanted to provoke a +continental war in order to escape the ridicule which the failure of +his Boulogne plans would otherwise have aroused. "The new coalition +came just at the right moment to get him out of an annoying +situation." The compiler of the Fouche "Memoirs," which, though not +genuine, may be accepted as generally correct, took the same view. He +attributes to Napoleon the noteworthy words: "I may fail by sea, but +not by land; besides, I shall be able to strike the blow before the +old coalition machines are ready: the kings have neither activity nor +decision of character: I do not fear old Europe." The Emperor also +remarked to the Council of State that the expense of all the +preparations at Boulogne was fully justified by the fact that they +gave him "fully twenty days' start over all enemies.... A pretext had +to be found for raising the troops and bringing them together without +alarming the Continental Powers: and that pretext was afforded me by +the projected descent upon England."[338] + +It is also quite possible that his aim was Ireland as much as England. +It certainly was in the plan of September, 1804: and doubtless it +still held a prominent place in his mind, except during the few days +when he pictured Calder vanquished and Nelson scouring the West +Indies. Then he doubtless fixed his gaze solely upon London. But there +is much indirect evidence which points to Ireland as forming at least +a very important part of his scheme. Both Nelson and Collingwood +believed him to be aiming at Ireland.[339] + +But indeed Napoleon is often unfathomable. Herein lies much of the +charm of Napoleonic studies. He is at once the Achilles, the Mercury, +and the Proteus of the modern world. The ease with which his mind +grasped all problems and suddenly concentrated its force on some new +plan may well perplex posterity as it dazed his contemporaries. If we +were dealing with any other man than Napoleon, we might safely say +that an invasion of England, before the command of the sea had been +secured, was infinitely less likely than a descent on Ireland. The +landing of a _corps d'armee_ there would have provoked a revolution; +and British ascendancy would have vanished in a week. Even had Nelson +returned and swept the seas, Ireland would have been lost to the +United Kingdom; and Britain, exhausted also by the expenses which the +Boulogne preparations had compelled her to make for the defence of +London, must have succumbed. + +If ever Napoleon intended risking all his fortunes on the conquest of +England, it can be proved that his mind was gradually cleared of +illusions. He trusted that a popular rising would overthrow the British +Government: people and rulers showed an accord that had never been known +since the reign of Queen Anne. He believed, for a short space, that the +flotilla could fight sea-going ships out at sea: the converse was proved +up to the hilt. Finally, he trusted that Villeneuve, when burdened with +Spanish ships, would outwit and outmanoeuvre Nelson! + +What then remained after these and many other disappointments? Surely +that scheme alone was practicable, in which the command of the sea +formed only an unimportant factor. For the conquest of England it was +an essential factor. In Ireland alone could Napoleon find the +conditions on which he counted for success--a discontented populace +that would throng to the French eagles, and a field of warfare where +the mere landing of 20,000 veterans would decide the campaign.[340] + +And yet it is, on the whole, certain that his expedition for Ireland +was meant merely to distract and paralyze the defenders of Great +Britain, while he dealt the chief blow at London. Instinct and +conviction alike prompted him to make imposing feints that should lead +his enemy to lay bare his heart, and that heart was our great capital. +His indomitable will scorned the word _impossible_--"a word found only +in the dictionary of fools"; he felt England to be the sole barrier to +his ambitions; and to crush her power he was ready to brave, not only +her stoutest seamen, but also her guardian angels, the winds and +storms. Both the man and the occasion were unique in the world's +history and must not be judged according to tame probabilities. For +his honour was at stake. He was so deeply pledged to make use of the +vast preparations at his northern ports that, had all his complex +dispositions worked smoothly, he would certainly have attempted a dash +at London; and only after some adequate excuse could he consent to give +up that adventure. + +The excuse was now furnished by Villeneuve's retreat to Cadiz; and +public opinion, ignorant of Napoleon's latest instructions on that +subject, and knowing only the salient facts of the case, laid on that +luckless admiral the whole burden of blame for the failure of the +scheme of invasion. With front unabashed and a mind presaging certain +triumphs, Napoleon accordingly wheeled his legions eastward to +prosecute that alluring alternative, the conquest of England through +the Continent. + + * * * * * + +APPENDIX + +[_The two following State Papers have never before been published_] + + +No. I. is a despatch from Mr. Thornton, our _charge d'affaires_ at +Washington, relative to the expected transfer of the vast region of +Louisiana from Spain to France (see ch. xv. of this vol.). + + [In "F O.," America, No. 35.] + "WASHINGTON, + "26 _Jany._, 1802. + + "MY LORD, + + "... About four years ago, when the rumour of the transfer of + Louisiana to France was first circulated, I put into Mr. + Pickering's hands for his perusal a despatch written by Mr. Fauchet + about the year 1794, which with many others was intercepted by one + of H.M. ships. In that paper the French Minister urged to his + Government the absolute necessity of acquiring Louisiana or some + territory in the vicinity of the United States in order to obtain a + permanent influence in the country, and he alluded to a memorial + written some years before by the Count du Moutier to the same + effect, when he was employed as His Most Christian Majesty's + Minister to the United States. The project seems therefore to have + been long in the contemplation of the French Government, and + perhaps no period is more favourable than the present for carrying + it into execution. + + "When I paid my respects to the Vice-President, Mr. Burr, on his + arrival at this place, he, of his own accord, directed conversation + to this topic. He owned that he had made some exertion indirectly + to discover the truth of the report, and thought he had reason to + believe it. He appeared to think that the great armament destined + by France to St. Domingo, had this ulterior object in view, and + expressed much apprehension that the transfer and colonization of + Louisiana were meditated by her with the concurrence or + acquiescence of His Maj'^{s} Gov^{t}. It was impossible for me to + give any opinion on this part of the measure, which, whatever may + be its ultimate tendency, presents at first view nothing but danger + to His Maj'^{s} Trans-Atlantic possessions. + + "Regarding alone the aim of France to acquire a preponderating + influence in the councils of the United States, it may be very well + doubted whether the possession of Louisiana, and the means which + she would chose to employ are calculated to secure that end. + Experience seems now to have sanctioned the opinion that if the + provinces of Canada had been restored to France at the Peace of + Paris, and if from that quarter she had been left to press upon the + American frontier, to harass the exterior settlements and to mingle + in the feuds of the Indian Tribes, the colonies might still have + preserved their allegiance to the parent country and have retained + their just jealousy of that system of encroachment adopted by + France from the beginning of the last century. The present project + is but a continuance of the same system; and neither her power nor + her present temper leave room for expectation that she will pursue + it with less eagerness or greater moderation than before. Whether, + therefore, she attempt to restrain the navigation of the + Mississippi or limit the freedom of the port of New Orleans; + whether she press upon the Western States with any view to + conquest, or seduce them by her principles of fraternity (for which + indeed they are well prepared) she must infallibly alienate the + Atlantic States and force them into a straiter connection with + Great Britain. + + "I have scarcely met with a person under whatever party he may rank + himself, who does not dread this event, and who would not prefer + almost any neighbours to the French: and it seems perfect + infatuation in the Administration of this country that they chuse + the present moment for leaving that frontier almost defenceless by + the reduction of its military establishment. + + "I have, etc., + + "[Signed] EDW'D THORNTON." + + * * * * * + +No. II. is a report in "F.O.," France, No. 71, by one of our spies in +Paris on the doings of the Irish exiles there, especially O'Connor, +whom Napoleon had appointed General of Division in Marshal Augereau's +army, then assembling at Brest for the expedition to Ireland. After +stating O'Connor's appointment, the report continues: + + "About eighty Irishmen were sent to Morlaix to be formed into a + company of officers and taught how they were to discipline and + instruct their countrymen when they landed in Ireland. McShee, + General de Brigade, commands them. He and Blackwell are, I + believe, the only persons among them of any consequence, who have + seen actual service. Emmett's brother and McDonald, who were + jealous of the attention paid to O'Connor, would not go to + Morlaix. They were prevailed on to go to Brest towards the end of + May, and there to join General Humbert. Commandant Dalton, a young + man of Irish extraction, and lately appointed to a situation in + the Army at Boulogne, translated everything between O'Connor and + the War Department at Paris. There is no Irish Committee at Paris + as is reported. O'Connor and General Hartry, an old Irishman who + has been long in the French service, are the only persons applied + to by the French Government, O'Connor for the expedition, and + Hartry for the Police, etc., of the Irish in France. + + "O'Connor, though he had long tried to have an audience of + Bonaparte, never saw him till the 20th of May [1805], when he was + presented to him at the levee by Marshal Augereau. The Emperor and + the Empress complimented him on his dress and military appearance, + and Bonaparte said to him _Venez me voir en particulier demain + matin._ O'Connor went and was alone with him near two hours. On + that day Bonaparte did not say a word to him respecting his + intention on England; all their conversation regarded Ireland. + O'Connor was with him again on the Thursday and Friday following. + Those three audiences are all that O'Connor ever had in private + with Bonaparte. + + "He told me on the Saturday evening that he should go to Court the + next morning to take public leave of the Emperor and leave Paris + as soon as he had received 10,000 livres which Maret was to give + him for his travelling expenses, etc., and which he was to have in + a day or two. His horses and all his servants but one had set off + for Brest some time before. + + "Bonaparte told O'Connor, when speaking of the prospect of a + continental War, 'la Russie peut-etre pourroit envoyer cette annee + 100,000 hommes contre la France, mais j'ai pour cela assez de + monde a ma disposition: je ferois meme marcher, s'il le faut, une + armee contre la Russie, et si l'Empereur d'Allemagne refusoit un + passage a cette armee dans son pays, je la ferois passer malgre + lui.' He afterwards said--'il y a plusieurs moyens de detruire + l'Angleterre, mais celui de lui oter Irlande est bon. Je vous + donnerai 25,000 bonnes troupes et s'il en arrive seulement 15,000, + ce sera assez. Vous aurez aussi 150,000 fusils pour armer vos + compatriotes, et un parc d'artillerie legere, des pieces de 4 et + de 6 livres, et toutes les provisions de guerre necessaires.' + + "O'Connor endeavoured to persuade Bonaparte that the best way to + conquer England was first to go to Ireland, and thence to England + with 200,000 Irishmen. Bonaparte said he did not think that would + do; _d'ailleurs,_ he added, _ce seroit trop long_. They agreed + that all the English in Ireland should be exterminated as the + whites had been in St. Domingo. Bonaparte assured him that, as + soon as he had formed an Irish army, he should be Commander in + Chief of the French and Irish forces. Bonaparte directed O'Connor + to try to gain over to his interest Laharpe, the Emperor of + Russia's tutor. Laharpe had applied for a passport to go to St. + Petersbourg. He says he will do everything in his power to engage + the Emperor to go to war with Bonaparte. Laharpe breathes nothing + but vengeance against Bonaparte, who, besides other injuries, + turned his back on him in public and would not speak to him. + Laharpe was warned of O'Connor's intended visit, and went to the + country to avoid seeing him: The Senator Garat is to go to Brest + with O'Connor to write a constitution for Ireland. O'Connor is + getting out of favor with the Irish in France; they begin to + suspect his ambitious and selfish views. There was a coolness + between Admiral Truguet and him for some time previous to + Truguet's return to Brest. Augereau had given a dinner to all the + principal officers of his army then at Paris. Truguet invited all + of them to dine with him, two or three days after, except + O'Connor. O'Connor told me he would never forgive him for it." + + * * * * * + +VOLUME II + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XXII + +ULM AND TRAFALGAR + + +"Napoleon is the only man in Europe that knows the value of +time."--Czartoryski. + + +Before describing the Continental campaign which shattered the old +European system to its base, it will be well to take a brief glance at +the events which precipitated the war of the Third Coalition. Even at +the time of Napoleon's rupture with England, his highhanded conduct +towards the Italian Republic, Holland, Switzerland, and in regard to +the Secularizations in Germany, had exposed him to the hostility of +Russia, Sweden, and Austria; but as yet it took the form of secret +resentment. The last-named Power, under the Ministry of Count Cobenzl, +had relapsed into a tame and undignified policy, which the Swedish +Ambassador at Vienna described as "one of fear and hope--fear of the +power of France, and hope to obtain favours from her."[1] At Berlin, +Frederick William clung nervously to neutrality, even though the +French occupation of Hanover was a threat to Prussia's influence in +North Germany. The Czar Alexander was, at present, wrapt up in home +affairs; and the only monarch who as yet ventured to show his dislike +of the First Consul was the King of Sweden. In the autumn of 1803 +Gustavus IV. defiantly refused Napoleon's proposals for a +Franco-Swedish alliance, baited though they were with the offer of +Norway as an eventual prize for Sweden, and a subsidy for every +Swedish warship serving against England. And it was not the dislike of +a proud nature to receive money which prompted his refusal; for +Gustavus, while in Germany, hinted to Drake that he desired to have +pecuniary help from England for the defence of his province of +Pomerania.[2] + +But a doughtier champion of European independence was soon to enter +the field. The earlier feelings of respect and admiration which the +young Czar had cherished towards Napoleon were already overclouded, +when the news of the execution of the Duc d'Enghien at once roused a +storm of passion in his breast. The chivalrous protection which he +loved to extend to smaller States, the guarantee of the Germanic +system which the Treaty of Teschen had vested in him, above all, his +horror at the crime, led him to offer an emphatic protest. The Russian +Court at once went into mourning, and Alexander expressed both to the +German Diet and to the French Government his indignation at the +outrage. It was ever Napoleon's habit to return blow with blow; and he +now instructed Talleyrand to reply that in the D'Enghien affair he had +acted solely on the defensive, and that Russia's complaint "led him to +ask if, at the time when England was compassing the assassination of +Paul I., the authors of the plot had been known to be one league +beyond the [Russian] frontiers, every effort would not have been made +to have them seized?" Never has a poisoned dart been more deftly sped +at the weak spot of an enemy's armour. The Czar, ever haunted by the +thought of his complicity in a parricidal plot, was deeply wounded by +this malicious taunt, and all the more so because, as the death of +Paul had been officially ascribed to a fit, the insult could not be +flung back.[3] The only reply was to break off all diplomatic +relations with Napoleon; and this took place in the summer of 1804.[4] + +Yet war was not to break out for more than a year. This delay was due +to several causes. Austria could not be moved from her posture of +timid neutrality. In fact, Francis II. and Cobenzl saw in Napoleon's +need of a recognition of his new imperial title a means of assuring a +corresponding change of title for the Hapsburg Dominions. Francis had +long been weary of the hollow dignity of Elective Emperor of the Holy +Roman Empire. The faded pageantry of Ratisbone and Frankfurt was all +that remained of the glories of the realm of Charlemagne: the medley +of States which owned him as elected lord cared not for the decrees of +this ghostly realm; and Goethe might well place in the mouth of his +jovial toper, in the cellar scene of "Faust," the words: + + "Dankt Gott mit jedem Morgen + Dass Ihr nicht braucht fuer's Roem'sche Reich zu sorgen!" + +In that bargaining and burglarious age, was it not better to build a +more lasting habitation than this venerable ruin? Would not the +hereditary dominions form a more lasting shelter from the storm? Such +were doubtless the thoughts that prompted the assumption of the title +of Hereditary Emperor of Austria (August 11th, 1804). The +letter-patent, in which this change was announced, cited as parallels +"the example of the Imperial Court of Russia in the last century and +of the new sovereign of France." Both references gave umbrage to +Alexander, who saw no parallel between the assumption of the title of +Emperor by Peter the Great and the game of follow-the-leader played by +Francis to Napoleon.[5] + +Prussian complaisance to the French Emperor was at this time to be +expected. Frederick William III. reigned over 10,000,000 subjects; he +could marshal 248,000 of the best trained troops in Europe, and his +revenue was more fruitful than that of the great Frederick. Yet the +effective power of Prussia had sadly waned; for her policy was now +marked by an enervating indecision. In the autumn of 1804, however, +the Prussian King was for a time spurred into action by the news that +Sir George Rumbold, British envoy at Hamburg, had been seized on the +night of October 24th, by French troops, and carried off to Paris. +This aggression upon the Circle of Lower Saxony, of which Frederick +William was Director, aroused lively indignation at Berlin; and the +King at once wrote to Napoleon a request for the envoy's liberation as +a proof of his "friendship and high consideration ...a seal on the past +and a pledge for the future." + +To this appeal Napoleon returned a soothing answer that Sir George +would at once be released, though England was ever violating the +rights of neutrals, and her agents were conspiring against his life. +The Emperor, in fact, saw that he had taken a false step, which might +throw Prussia into the arms of England and Russia. For this latter +Power had already (May, 1804) offered her armed help to the Court of +Berlin in case the French should violate any other German +territory.[6] But the King was easily soothed; and when, in the +following spring, Napoleon sent seven Golden Eagles of the Legion of +Honour to the Court of Berlin, seven Black Eagles of the renowned +Prussian Order were sent in return--an occurrence which led Gustavus +IV. to return his Order of the Black Eagle with the remark that he +could not recognize "Napoleon and his like" as comrades in an Order of +Chivalry and Religion.[7] Napoleon's aim was achieved: Prussia was +sundered from any league in which Gustavus IV. was a prominent member. + +Thus, the chief steps in the formation of the Third Coalition were +taken by Sweden, England, and Russia. Early in 1804 Gustavus proposed +a League of the Powers; and, on the advent of the Pitt Ministry to +office, overtures began to pass between St. Petersburg and London for +an alliance. Important proposals were made by Pitt and our Foreign +Minister, the Earl of Harrowby, in a note of June 26th, 1804, in which +hopes were expressed that Russia, England, Austria, Sweden, and if +possible Prussia, might be drawn together.[8] Alexander and +Czartoryski were already debating the advantages of an alliance with +England. Their aims were certainly noble. International law and the +rights of the weak States bordering on France were to be championed, +and it was suggested by Czartoryski that disputes should be settled, +not by force, but by arbitration.[9] + +The statement of these exalted ideas was intrusted to a special envoy +to London, M. Novossiltzoff, who propounded to Pitt the scheme of a +European polity where the States should be independent and enjoy +institutions "founded on the sacred rights of humanity." With this aim +in view, the Czar desired to curb the power of Napoleon, bring back +France to her old limits, and assure the peace of Europe on a firm +basis, namely on the principle of the _balance of power_. Pitt and +Lord Harrowby having agreed to these proposals, details were discussed +at the close of 1804. None of the allies were, in any case, to make a +separate peace; and England (said M. Novossiltzoff) must not only use +her own troops, but grant subsidies to enable the Powers to set on +foot effective forces. + +This last sentence claims special notice, as it disposes of the +well-worn phrase, that the Third Coalition was _built up_ by Pitt's +gold. On the contrary, Russia was the first to set forth the need of +English subsidies, which Pitt was by no means eager to supply. The +phrase used by French historians is doubtless correct in so far as +English gold enabled our allies to arm efficiently; but it is wholly +false if it implies that the Third Coalition was merely trumped up by +our money, and that the Russian, Austrian, and Swedish Governments +were so many automatic machines which, if jogged with coins, would +instantly supply armies to the ready money purchaser. This is +practically the notion still prevalent on the Continent; and it is +clearly traceable to the endless diatribes against Pitt's gold with +which Napoleon seasoned his bulletins, and to the caricatures which he +_ordered to be drawn_. The following was his direction to his Minister +of Police, Fouche: "Have caricatures made--an Englishman purse in +hand, _entreating the various Powers to take his money. This is the +real direction to give the whole business._" How well he knew mankind: +he rightly counted on its gullibility where pictures were concerned; +and the direction which he thus gave to public opinion bids fair to +persist, in spite of every exposure of the trickery.[10] + +But, to return to the plans of the allies, Holland, Switzerland, and +Italy were to be liberated from their "enslavement to France," and +strengthened so as to provide barriers to future aggressions: the King +of Sardinia was to be restored to his mainland possessions, and +receive in addition the Ligurian, or Genoese, Republic.[11] + +On all essential topics the British Government was in full accord with +the views of the Czar, and Pitt insisted on the need of a system of +international law which should guarantee the Continent against further +rapacious acts. But Europe was not destined to find peace on these +principles until after ten years of desolating war. + +Various causes hindered the formation of this league. On January 2nd, +1805, Napoleon sent to George III. an offer of peace; and those +persons who did not see that this was a device for discovering the +course of negotiations believed that he ardently desired it. We now +know that the offer was despatched a week after he had ordered +Missiessy to ravage the British West Indies.[12] And, doubtless, his +object was attained when George III. replied in the speech from the +throne (January 15th) that he could not entertain the proposal without +reference to the Powers with whom he was then engaged in confidential +intercourse, and especially the Emperor of Russia. Yet the British +Government discussed with the Czar the basis for a future pacification +of Europe; and the mission of Novossiltzoff at midsummer to Berlin, on +his way to Paris, was the answer, albeit a belated one, to Napoleon's +New Year's pacific appeal. We shall now see why this delay occurred, +and what acts of the French Emperor finally dispelled all hopes of +peace. + +The delay was due to differences between Russia and England respecting +Malta and our maritime code. The Czar insisted on our relinquishing +Malta and relaxing the rigours of the right of search for deserters +from our navy. To this the Pitt Ministry demurred, seeing that Malta +was our only means of protecting the Mediterranean States, and our +only security against French aggressions in the Levant, while the +right of searching neutral vessels was necessary to prevent the +enfeebling of our navy.[13] Negotiations were nearly broken off even +after a treaty between the two Powers had been brought to the final +stage on April 11th, 1805; but in July (after the Czar had recorded +his solemn protest against our keeping Malta) it was ratified, and +formed the basis for the Third Coalition. The aims of the allies were +to bring about the expulsion of French troops from North Germany; to +assure the independence of the Republics of Holland and Switzerland; +and to reinstate the King of Sardinia in Piedmont. Half a million of +men were to be set in motion, besides the forces of Great Britain; and +the latter Power, as a set-off to her lack of troops, agreed to +subsidize her allies to the extent of; L1,250,000 a year for every +100,000 men actually employed in the war. It was further stipulated +that a European Congress at the close of the war should endeavour to +fix more surely the principles of the Law of Nations and establish a +federative system. Above all, the allies bound themselves not to +hinder the popular wish in France respecting the form of government--a +clause which deprived the war of the Third Coalition of that +monarchical character which had pervaded the league of 1793 and, to a +less extent, that of 1799.[14] + +What was the attitude of Napoleon towards this league? He certainly +took little pains to conciliate the Czar. In fact, his actions towards +Russia were almost openly provocative. Thus, while fully aware of the +interest which Alexander felt in the restoration of the King of +Sardinia, he sent the proposal that that unlucky King should receive +the Ionian Isles and Malta as indemnities for his losses, and that too +when Russia looked upon Corfu as her own. To this offer the Czar +deigned not a word in reply. Napoleon also sent an envoy to the Shah +of Persia with an offer of alliance, so as to check the advances of +Russia on the shores of the Caspian.[15] + +On the other hand, he used every effort to allure Prussia, by secretly +offering her Hanover, and that too as early as the close of July.[16] +For a brief space, also, he took some pains to conciliate Austria. +This indeed was necessary: for the Court of Vienna had already +(November 6th, 1804) framed a secret agreement with Russia to make war +on Napoleon if he committed any new aggression in Italy or menaced any +part of the Turkish Empire.[17] Yet this act was really defensive. +Francis desired only to protect himself against Napoleon's ambition, +and, had he been treated with consideration, would doubtless have +clung to peace. + +For a time Napoleon humoured that Court, even as regards the changes +now mooted in Italy. On January 1st, 1805, he wrote to Francis, +stating that he was about to proclaim Joseph Bonaparte King of Italy, +if the latter would renounce his claim to the crown of France, and so +keep the governments of France and Italy separate, as the Treaty of +Luneville required; that this action would enfeeble his (Napoleon's) +power, but would carry its own recompense if it proved agreeable to +the Emperor Francis. + +But it soon appeared that Joseph was by no means inclined to accept +the crown of Lombardy if it entailed the sacrifice of all hope of +succeeding to the French Empire. He had already demurred to _le vilain +titre de roi_, and on January 27th announced his final rejection of +the offer. Napoleon then proposed to Louis that he should hold that +crown in trust for his son; but the suggestion at once rekindled the +flames of jealousy which ever haunted Louis; and, after a violent +scene, the Emperor thrust his brother from the room. + +Perhaps this anger was simulated. He once admitted that his rage only +mounted this high--pointing to his chin; and the refusals of his +brothers were certainly to be expected. However that may be, he now +resolved to assume that crown himself, appointing as Viceroy his +step-son, Eugene Beauharnais. True, he announced to the French Senate +that the realms of France and Italy would be kept separate: but +neither the Italian deputies, who had been summoned to Paris to vote +this dignity to their master, nor the servile Senate, nor the rulers +of Europe, were deceived. Thus, when in the early summer Napoleon +reviewed a large force that fought over again in mimic war the battle +of Marengo; when, amidst all the pomp and pageantry that art could +devise, he crowned himself in the cathedral of Milan with the iron +circlet of the old Lombard Kings, using the traditional formula: "God +gave it me, woe to him who touches it"; when, finally, he incorporated +the Ligurian Republic in the French Empire, Francis of Austria +reluctantly accepted the challenges thus threateningly cast down, and +began to arm.[18] The records of our Foreign Office show conclusively +that the Hapsburg ruler felt himself girt with difficulties: the +Austrian army was as yet ill organized: the reforms after which the +Archduke Charles had been striving were ill received by the military +clique; and the sole result had been to unsettle rather than +strengthen the army, and to break down the health of the Archduke.[19] +Yet the intention of Napoleon to treat Italy as a French province was +so insultingly paraded that Francis felt war to be inevitable, and +resolved to strike a blow while the French were still entangled in +their naval schemes. He knew well the dangers of war; he would have +eagerly welcomed any sign of really peaceful intentions at Paris; but +no signs were given; in fact, French agents were sent into Switzerland +to intrigue for a union of that land with France. Here again the pride +of the Hapsburgs was cut to the quick, and they disdained to submit to +humiliations such as were eating the heart out of the Prussian +monarchy. + +The Czar, too, was far from eager for war. He had sent Novossiltzoff +to Berlin _en route_ for Paris, in the hope of coming to terms with +Napoleon, when the news of the annexation of Genoa ended the last +hopes of a compromise. "This man is insatiable," exclaimed Alexander; +"his ambition knows no bounds; he is a scourge of the world; he wants +war; well, he shall have it, and the sooner the better," The Czar at +once ordered all negotiations to be broken off. Novossiltzoff, on July +10th, declared to Baron Hardenberg, the successor of Haugwitz at the +Prussian Foreign Office, that Napoleon had now passed the utmost +limits of the Czar's patience; and he at once returned his French +passports. In forwarding them to the French ambassador at Berlin, +Hardenberg expressed the deep regret of the Prussian monarch at the +breakdown of this most salutary negotiation--a phrase which showed +that the patience of Berlin was nearly exhausted.[20] + +Clearly, then, the Third Coalition was not cemented by English gold, +but by Napoleon's provocations. While England and Russia found great +difficulty in coming to an accord, and Austria was arming only from +fear, the least act of complaisance on his part would have unravelled +this ill-knit confederacy. But no such action was forthcoming. All his +letters written in North Italy after his coronation are puffed up with +incredible insolence. Along with hints to Eugene to base politics on +dissimulation and to seek only to be feared, we find letters to +Ministers at Paris scorning the idea that England and Russia can come +to terms, and asserting that the annexation of Genoa concerns England +alone; but if Austria wants to find a pretext for war, she may now +find it. + +Then he hurries back to Fontainebleau, covering the distance from +Turin in eighty-five hours; and, after a brief sojourn at St. Cloud, +he reaches Boulogne. There, on August the 22nd, he hears that Austria +is continuing to arm: a few hours later comes the news that Villeneuve +has turned back to Cadiz. Fiercely and trenchantly he resolves this +fateful problem. He then sketches to Talleyrand the outlines of his +new policy. He will again press, and this time most earnestly, his +offer of Hanover to Prussia as the price of her effective alliance +against the new coalition. Perhaps this new alliance will strangle the +coalition at its birth; at any rate it will paralyze Austria. +Accordingly, he despatches to Berlin his favourite aide-de-camp, +General Duroc, to persuade the King that his alliance will save the +Continent from war.[21] + +Meanwhile the Hapsburgs were completely deceived. They imagined +Napoleon to be wholly immersed in his naval enterprise, and +accordingly formed a plan of campaign, which, though admirable against +a weak and guileless foe, was fraught with danger if the python's +coils were ready for a spring. As a matter of fact, he was far better +prepared than Austria. As late as July 7th, the Court of Vienna had +informed the allies that its army would not be ready for four months; +yet the nervous anxiety of the Hapsburgs to be beforehand with +Napoleon led them to hurry on war: and on August 9th they secretly +gave their adhesion to the Russo-British alliance. + +Then, too, by a strange fatuity, their move into Bavaria was to be +made with a force of only 59,000 men, while their chief masses, some +92,000 strong, were launched into Italy against the strongholds on the +Mincio. To guard the flanks of these armies, Austria had 34,000 men in +Tyrol; but, apart from raw recruits, there were fewer than 20,000 +soldiers in the rest of that vast empire. In fact, the success of the +autumn campaign was known to depend on the help of the Russians, who +were expected to reach the banks of the Inn before the 20th of +October, while it was thought that the French could not possibly reach +the Danube till twenty days later.[22] It was intended, however, to +act most vigorously in Italy, and to wage a defensive campaign on the +Danube. + +Such was the plan concocted at Vienna, mainly under the influence of +the Archduke Charles, who took the command of the army in Italy, while +that of the Danube was assigned to the Archduke Ferdinand and Mack, +the new Quarter-Master-General. This soldier had hitherto enjoyed a +great reputation in Austria, probably because he was the only general +who had suffered no great defeat. Amidst the disasters of 1797 he +seemed the only man able to retrieve the past, and to be shut out from +command by Thugut's insane jealousy of his "transcendent +abilities."[23] Brave he certainly was: but his mind was always swayed +by preconceived notions; he belonged to the school of "manoeuvre +strategists," of whom the Duke of Brunswick was the leader; and he now +began the campaign of 1805 with the fixed purpose of holding a +commanding military position. Such a position the Emperor Francis and +Mack had discovered in the weak fortress of Ulm and the line of the +River Iller. Towards these points of vantage the Austrians now began +to move. + +The first thing was to gain over the Elector of Bavaria. The Court of +Vienna, seeking to persuade or compel that prince to join the +Coalition, made overtures (September 3rd to 6th) with which he dallied +for a day or two until an opportunity came of escaping to the fortress +of Wuerzburg. Mack thereupon crossed the River Inn and sought, but in +vain, to cut off the Bavarian troops from that stronghold. +Accordingly, the Austrian leader marched on to Ulm, where he arrived +in the middle of September; and, not satisfied with holding this +advanced position, he pushed on his outposts to the chief defiles of +the Black Forest, while other regiments held the valley of the River +Iller and strengthened the fortress of Memmingen. Doubtless this would +have been good strategy, had his forces been equal in numbers to those +of Napoleon. At that time the Black Forest was the only physical barrier +between France and Southern Germany; the Rhine was then practically a +French river; and, only by holding the passes of that range could the +Austrians hope to screen Swabia from invasion on the side of Alsace. + +[Illustration: BATTLE OF ULM.] + +But Mack forgot two essential facts. Until the Russians arrived, he +was too weak to hold so advanced a position in what was hostile +ground, now that Bavaria and the other South German States obeyed +Napoleon's summons to range themselves on his side. Further, he was +dangerously exposed on the north, as a glance at the map will show. +Ulm and the line of the Iller formed a strong defence against the +south-west: but on the north that position is singularly open: it can +be turned from the valleys of the Main, the Neckar, and the Altmuehl, +all of which conduct an invader to the regions east of Ulm. Indeed, it +passes belief how even the Aulic Council could have ignored the +dangers of that position. Possibly the fact that Ulm had been stoutly +held by Kray in 1796 now induced them to overrate its present +importance; but at that time the fortified camp of Ulm was the central +knot of vast operations, whereas now it was but an advanced +outpost.[24] If Francis and his advisers were swayed by historical +reminiscences it is strange that they forgot the fate of Melas in +Piedmont. The real parallel had been provided, not by Kray, but by the +general who was cut off at Marengo. Indeed, in its broad outlines, the +campaign of Ulm resembles that of Marengo. Against foes who had thrust +their columns far from their base, Napoleon now, as in 1800, +determined to deal a crushing blow. On the part of the Austrians we +notice the same misplaced confidence, the same lack of timely news, +and the same inability to understand Napoleon's plan until his +dispositions are complete; while his strategy and tactics in 1805 +recall to one's mind the masterly simplicity of design, the subtlety +and energy of execution, which led up to his triumph in the plains of +Piedmont. + +Meanwhile the allies were dissipating their strength. A Russian corps, +acting from Corfu as a base, and an English expedition from Malta, +were jointly to attack St. Cyr in the south of Italy, raise the +country at his rear and compel him to surrender. This plan was left +helplessly flapping in the air by a convention which Napoleon imposed +on the Neapolitan ambassador. On September 21st Talleyrand induced +that envoy to guarantee the neutrality of the kingdom of Naples, all +belligerents being excluded from its domains. Consequently St. Cyr's +corps evacuated that land and brought a welcome reinforcement to +Massena on the Mincio. Equally skilful was Napoleon's action as +regards Hanover. On that side also the allies planned a formidable +expedition. From the fortress of Stralsund in Swedish Pomerania, a +force of Russians and Swedes, which Gustavus burned to command, was to +march into Hanover, and, when strengthened by an Anglo-Hanoverian +corps, drive the French from the Low Countries. It is curious to +contrast the cumbrous negotiations concerning this expedition--the +quarrels about the command, the anxiety at the outset lest Villeneuve +should perhaps sail into the Baltic, the delays of the British War +Office, the remonstrances of the Czar, and the efforts to avert the +jealousy of Prussia--with the serene indifference of Napoleon as to +the whole affair. He knew full well that the war would not be decided +by diversions at the heel of Italy or on the banks of the Ems, but by +the shock of great masses of men on the Danube. He denuded Hanover of +French troops, except at its southern fortress of Hameln, so that he +could overwhelm the levies of Austria before the Russians came up. In +brief, while the Coalition sought, like a Briareus, to envelop him on +all sides, he prepared to deal a blow at its heart. + +As the first part of the campaign depended almost entirely on problems +of time and space, it will be well to follow the chief movements of +the hostile forces somewhat closely. The Austrian plan aimed at +forestalling the French in the occupation of Swabia; and its apparent +success puffed up Mack with boundless confidence. At Ulm he threw up +extensive outworks to strengthen that obsolete fortress, extended his +lines to Memmingen far on the south, and trusted that the Muscovites +would come up long before the French eagles hovered above the sources +of the Danube. But at that time the Russian vanguard had not reached +Linz in Upper Austria, and not before October 10th did it appear on +the banks of the River Inn.[25] + +Far from being the last to move, the French Emperor outstripped his +enemies in the speed of his preparations. Whereas the Austrians +believed he would not be able to reach the Danube in force before +November 10th, he intended to have 200,000 men in Germany by September +18th. But he knew not at first the full extent of his good fortune: it +did not occur to him that the Austrians would cross the Inn: all he +asks Talleyrand, on August 23rd, is that such news may appear in the +"Moniteur" as will gain him twenty days and give General Bertrand time +to win over Bavaria, while "I make my 200,000 men pirouette into +Germany." On August 29th the _Army of England_ became the _Grand +Army_, composed of seven corps, led by Bernadotte, Marmont, Davoust, +Soult, Lannes, Ney and Augereau. The cavalry was assigned to Murat; +while Bessieres was in command of the Imperial Guard, now numbering +some 10,000 men. + +Already the greater part of this vast array was beginning to move +inland; Davoust and Soult left some regiments, 30,000 strong, to guard +the flotilla, and Marmont detached 14,000 men to defend the coasts of +Holland; but the other corps on September 2nd began their march +Rhine-wards in almost their full strength. On that day Bernadotte +broke up his cantonments in Hanover, and began his march towards the +Main, on which so much was to turn. The Elector of Hesse-Cassel now +espoused Napoleon's cause. Thus, without meeting any opposition, +Bernadotte's columns reached Wuerzburg at the close of September; there +the Elector of Bavaria welcomed the Marshal and gave him the support +of his 20,000 troops; and at that stronghold he was also joined by +Marmont. + +In order to mislead the Austrians, Napoleon remained up to September +23rd at St. Cloud or Paris; and during his stay appeared a _Senatus +Consultum_ ordering that, after January 1st, 1806, France should give +up its revolutionary calendar and revert to the Gregorian. He then set +out for Strassburg, as though the chief blows were to be dealt through +the passes of the Black Forest at the front of Mack's line of defence; +and, to encourage that general in this belief, Murat received orders +to show his horsemen in the passes held by Mack's outposts, but to +avoid any serious engagements. This would give time for the other +corps to creep up to the enemy's rear. Mack, meanwhile, had heard of +the forthcoming junction of the French and Bavarians at Wuerzburg, but +opined that it threatened Bohemia.[26] + +Accordingly, he still clung to his lines, contenting himself with +sending a cavalry regiment to observe Bernadotte's movements; but +neither he nor his nominal chief, the Archduke Ferdinand, divined the +truth. Indeed, so far did they rely on the aid of the Russians as to +order back some regiments sent from Italy by the more sagacious +Archduke Charles; but 11,000 troops from Tyrol reached the Swabian +army. That force was now spread out so as to hold the bridges of the +Danube between Ingolstadt and Ulm; and on October 7th the Austrians +were disposed as follows: 18,000 men under Kienmayer were guarding +Ingolstadt, Neuburg, Donauwoerth, Guenzburg, and lesser points, while +Mack had about 35,000 men at Ulm and along the line of the Iller; the +arrival of other detachments brought the Austrian total to upwards of +70,000 men. Against this long scattered line Napoleon led greatly +superior forces.[27] The development of his plans proceeded apace. +Though Prussia had proclaimed her strict neutrality, he did not +scruple to violate it by sending Bernadotte's corps through her +principality of Ansbach, which lay in their path. He charged +Bernadotte to "offer many assurances favourable to Prussia, and +testify all possible affection and respect for her--and then rapidly +cross her land, asserting the impossibility of doing anything else." +Accordingly, that Marshal was lavish in his regrets and apologies, but +ordered his columns to defile past the battalions and squadrons of +Prussia, that were powerless to resent the outrage.[28] + +The news of this trespass on Prussian territory reached the ears of +Frederick William at a critical time, when the Czar sent to Berlin a +kind of ultimatum, intimating that, even if Prussia deserted the cause +of European independence, Russian troops must nevertheless pass +through part of Prussian Poland. Stung by this note from his usually +passive demeanour, the King sent off an answer that such a step would +entail a Franco-Prussian alliance against the violators of his +territory, when the news came that Napoleon had actually done at +Ansbach what Alexander had announced his intention of doing in the +east. The revulsion of feeling was violent: for a short space the King +declared he would dismiss Duroc and make war on Napoleon for this +insult, but in the end he called a cabinet council and invited the +Czar to come to Berlin.[29] + +While the Gallophil counsellors, Haugwitz and Lombard, were using all +their arts to hinder the Prusso-Russian understanding, the meshes were +being woven fast around Mack and the Archduke Ferdinand. Bernadotte's +corps, after making history in its march, was detached to the +south-east so as to hold in check the Russian vanguard, and to give +plenty of room to the troops that were to cut off Mack from Austria, a +move which may be compared with the march of Bonaparte to Milan before +he essayed the capture of Melas. Both steps bespeak his desire to have +ample space at his back before circling round his prey. + +On October 6th the corps of Soult and Lannes, helped by Murat's +powerful cavalry, cut the Austrian lines on the Danube at Donauwoerth, +and gained a firm footing on the right bank. Over the crossing thus +secured far in Mack's rear, the French poured in dense array, and +marched south and south-west towards the back of the Austrian +positions, while Ney's corps marched to seize the chief bridges over +the Danube. + +A study of the processes of Mack's brain at this time is not without +interest. It shows the danger of intrusting the fate of an army to a +man who cannot weigh evidence. Mack was not ignorant of the course of +events, though his news generally came late. The mischief was that his +brain warped the news. On October 6th he wrote to Vienna that the +enemy seemed about to aim a blow at his communications: on October +7th, when he heard of the loss of Donauwoerth, he described it as an +unfortunate event, which no one thought to be possible. The Archduke +now urged the need of an immediate retreat towards Munich, and marched +in an easterly direction on Guenzburg: another Austrian division of +8,000 men moved on Wertingen, where, on October 8th, it was furiously +attacked by the troops of Murat and Lannes. At first the Imperialists +firmly kept their ranks; but the unequal contest closed with a hasty +flight, which left 2,000 men in the hands of the French Then Murat, +pressing on through the woods, cut off Mack's retreat to Augsburg. Yet +that general still took a cheerful view of his position. On that same +day he wrote from Guenzburg that, as soon as the enemy had passed over +the Lech, he would cross the Danube and cut their communications at +Noerdlingen. He wrote thus when Ney's corps was striving to seize the +Danube bridges below Ulm. If Mack were to march north-east against the +French communications it was of the utmost importance for him to hold +the chief of these bridges: but Ney speedily seized three of them, and +on the 9th was able to draw closer the toils around Ulm. + +From his position at Augsburg the French Emperor now directed the +final operations; and, as before Marengo, he gave most heed to that +side by which he judged his enemy would strive to break through, in +this case towards Kempten and Tyrol. This would doubtless have been +Mack's safest course; for he was strong enough to brush aside Soult, +gain Tyrol, seal up its valleys against Napoleon, and carry +reinforcements to the Archduke Charles. But he was still intent on his +Noerdlingen scheme, even after the loss of the Danube bridges exposed +his march thither to flank attacks from the four French corps now +south of the river. Nevertheless, Napoleon's miscalculation of Mack's +plans, or, as Thiers has striven to prove, a misunderstanding of his +orders by Murat, gave the Austrians a chance such as fortune rarely +bestows.[30] + +In spite of Ney's protests, one of his divisions, that led by Dupont, +had been left alone to guard the northern bank of the Danube, a +position where it might have been overwhelmed by an enterprising foe. +What is more extraordinary, Dupont, with only 6,000 men, was charged +to advance on Ulm, and carry it by storm. On the 11th he accordingly +advanced against Mack's fortified camp north of that city. The +Austrians met him in force, and, despite the utmost heroism of his +troops, finally wrested the village of Hasslach from his grasp; later +in the day a cloud of their horsemen, swooping round his right wing, +cut up his tired troops, took 1,000 prisoners, and left 1,500 dead and +wounded on the field. Among the booty was found a despatch of Napoleon +ordering Dupont to carry Ulm by storm--which might have shown them +that the French Emperor believed that city to be all but deserted.[31] +In truth, Napoleon's miscalculation opened for Mack a path of safety; +and had he at once marched away to the north, the whole aspect of +affairs might have changed. The Russian vanguard was on the banks of +the Inn: all the French, except the relics of Dupont's division, were +south of the Danube, and a few vigorous blows at their communications +might have greatly embarrassed troops that had little artillery, light +stores of ammunition, and lived almost entirely on the produce of the +country. We may picture to ourselves the fierce blows that, in such a +case, Frederick the Great would have rained on his assailants as he +wheeled round on their rear and turned their turning movements. With +Frederick matched against Napoleon, the Lech and the Danube would have +witnessed a very cyclone of war. + +But Mack was not Frederick: and he had to do with a foe who speedily +made good an error. On October 13th, when Mack seemed about to cut off +the French from the Main, he received news through Napoleon's spies +that the English had effected a landing at Boulogne, and a revolution +had broken out in France. The tidings found easy entrance into a brain +that had a strange bias towards pleasing falsities and rejected +disagreeable facts. At once he leaped to the conclusion that the moves +of Soult, Murat, Lannes, Marmont, and Ney round his rear were merely +desperate efforts to cut back a way to Alsace. He therefore held fast +to his lines, made only feeble efforts to clear the northern road, and +despatched reinforcements to Memmingen. The next day brought other +news; that Memmingen had been invested by Soult; that Ney by a +brilliant dash across the Danube at Elchingen had routed an Austrian +division there, and was threatening Ulm from the north-east; and that +the other French columns were advancing from the south-east. Yet Mack, +still viewing these facts in the twilight of his own fancies, pictured +them as the efforts of despair, not as the drawing in of the hunter's +toils. + +He was now almost alone in his reading of events. The Archduke +Ferdinand, though nominally in supreme command, had hitherto deferred +to Mack's age and experience, as the Emperor Francis enjoined. But he +now urged the need of instantly marching away to the north with all +available forces. Still Mack clung to his notion that it was the +French who were in sore straits; and he forbade the evacuation of Ulm; +whereupon the Archduke, with Schwarzenberg, Kollowrath, Gyulai, and +all whose instincts or rank prompted and enabled them to defy the +madman's authority, assembled 1,500 horsemen and rode off by the +northern road. It was high time; for Ney, firmly established at +Elchingen, was pushing on his vanguard towards the doomed city: Murat +and Lannes were charged to support him on the north bank, while across +the river Marmont, and further south Soult, cut off the retreat on +Tyrol. + +At last the scales fell from Mack's eyes. Even now he protested +against the mere mention of surrender. But again he was disappointed. +Ney stormed the Michaelsberg north of Ulm, a position on which the +Austrians had counted; and on October 17th the hapless commander +agreed to terms of capitulation, whereby his troops were to march out +and lay down their arms in six days' time, if an Austro-Russian army +able to raise the siege did not come on the scene. These conditions +were afterwards altered by the captor, who, wheedling his captive with +a few bland words, persuaded him to surrender on the 20th on condition +that Ney and his corps remained before Ulm until the 25th. This was +Mack's last offence against his country and his profession; his assent +to this wily compromise at once set free the other French corps for +offensive operations; and that too when every day was precious to +Austria, Russia, and Prussia. + +On October 20th the French Emperor, with a brilliant staff, backed by +the solid wall of his Guard and flanked by eight columns of his +troops, received the homage of the vanquished. First came their +commander, who, bowed down by grief, handed his sword to the victor +with the words, "Here is the unfortunate Mack." Then there filed out +to the foot of the Michaelsberg 20,000 foot and 3,000 horse, who laid +down their arms before the Emperor, some with defiant rage, the most +part in stolid dejection, while others flung them away with every sign +of indecent joy.[32] As if the elements themselves conspired to +enhance the brilliance of Napoleon's triumph, the sun, which had been +obscured for days by storm-clouds and torrents of rain, now shone +brightly forth, bathing the scene in the mild radiance of autumn, +lighting up the French forces disposed on the slopes of that natural +amphitheatre, while it cast deep shadows from the long trail of the +vanquished beneath. The French were electrified by the sight: the +fatigues of their forced marches through the dusty heats of September, +and the slush, swamps, and torrents of the last few days were all +forgotten, and they hailed with jubilant shouts the chief whose +sagacity had planned and achieved a triumph hitherto unequalled in the +annals of war. "Our Emperor," said they, "has found out a new way of +making war: he no longer makes it with our arms, but with our +legs."[33] + +Meanwhile the other Austrian detachments were being hunted down. Only +a few men escaped from Memmingen into Tyrol: the division, which, if +properly supported, might have cut a way through to Noerdlingen three +days earlier, was now overwhelmed by the troops of Murat and Lannes; +out of 13,000 foot-soldiers very few escaped. Most of the horsemen +succeeded in joining the Archduke Ferdinand, on whose track Murat now +flung himself with untiring energy. The _beau sabreur_ swept through +part of Ansbach in pursuit, came up with Ferdinand near Nuremberg, and +defeated his squadrons, their chief, with about 1,700 horse and some +500 mounted artillerymen, finally reaching the shelter of the Bohemian +Mountains. All the rest of Mack's great array had been engulfed. + +Thus closed the first scene of the War of the Third Coalition. Hasty +preparations, rash plans, and, above all, Mack's fatal ingenuity in +reading his notions into facts--these were the causes of a disaster +which ruined the chances of the allies. The Archduke Charles, who had +been foiled by Massena's stubborn defence, was at once recalled from +Italy in order to cover Vienna; and, worst of all, the Court of Berlin +now delayed drawing the sword. + +Yet, even amidst the unstinted boons that she showered on Napoleon by +land, Fortune rudely baffled him at sea. When he was hurrying from Ulm +towards the River Inn, to carry the war into Austria, he heard that +the French navy had been shattered. Trafalgar was fought the day after +Mack's army filed out of Ulm. The greatest sea-fight of the century +was the outcome of Napoleon's desire that his ships should carry +succour to his troops in Italy. For this voyage the Emperor was about +to substitute Admiral Rosily for Villeneuve: and the unfortunate +admiral, divining that resolve, sought by a bold stroke to retrieve +his fortunes. He put to sea, and Trafalgar was the result. It would be +superfluous to describe this last and most splendid of Nelson's +exploits; but a few words as to the bearing of this great victory on +the events of that time may not be out of place. It is certain that +Villeneuve at Trafalgar fought under more favourable conditions than +in the conflict of July 22nd. He had landed his very numerous sick, +his crews had been refreshed and reinforced, and, above all, the worst +of the Spanish ships had been replaced by seaworthy and serviceable +craft. Yet out of the thirty-three sail of the line, he lost eighteen +to an enemy that numbered only twenty-seven sail; and that fact alone +absolves him from the charge of cowardice in declining to face +Cornwallis and Calder in July with ships that were cumbered with sick +and badly needed refitting. + +Then again: it is often stated that Trafalgar saved England from +invasion. To refute this error it is merely needful to remind the +reader that all immediate fear of invasion was over, when, at the +close of August, Napoleon wheeled the Grand Army against Austria. Not +until the Continent was conquered could the landing in Kent become +practicable. That opportunity occurred two years later, after Tilsit; +then, in truth, the United Kingdom was free from panic because +Trafalgar had practically destroyed the French navy. For these +islands, then, the benefits of Trafalgar were prospective. But, for +the British Empire, they were immediate. Every French, Dutch, and +Spanish colony that now fell into our hands was in great measure the +fruit of Nelson's victory, which heralded the second and vaster stage +of imperial growth. + +Finally, the decisive advantage which Britain now gained over Napoleon +at sea compelled him, if he would realize the world-wide schemes ever +closest to his heart, to adopt the method of warfare against us which +he had all along contemplated as an effective alternative. As far back +as February, 1798, he pointed out that there were three ways of +attacking and ruining England, either a direct invasion, or a French +control of North Germany which would ruin British commerce, or an +expedition to the Indies. After Trafalgar the first of these +alternatives was impossible, and the last receded for a time into the +background. The second now took the first place in his thoughts; he +could only bring England to his feet and gain a world-empire by +shutting out her goods from the whole of the Continent, and thus +condemning her to industrial strangulation. In a word, Trafalgar +necessitated the adoption of the Continental System, which was built +up by the events now to be described. + + Note to the Third Edition.--An American critic has charged me with + inconsistency in saying that the Third Coalition was not built up + by English gold, because I state (p. 5) that the first advances + were made by England to Russia. I ought to have used the phrase + "the first _written_ proposals that I have found were made," etc. + Czartoryski's "Memoirs" (vol. ii., chs. ii.-iii.), to which I + referred my readers for details, show clearly that Alexander and + his advisers looked on a rupture with France as inevitable, but + wished to temporize for some three months or so, until certain + matters were cleared up; they therefore cautiously sounded the + position at Vienna and London. This passage from Czartoryski (vol. + ii., ch. iii.) proves that Russia wanted the English alliance: + + "After the diplomatic rupture consequent upon the execution of the + Duc d'Enghien, it became indispensable to come to an understanding + with the only Power, except Russia, which thought herself strong + enough to contend with France--to ascertain as thoroughly as + possible what were her inclinations and designs, the principles of + her policy, and those which she could be led to adopt in certain + contingencies. It would have been a great advantage to obtain the + concurrence in our views of so powerful a State as England, and to + strive with her for the same objects; but for this it was + necessary, not only to make sure of her present inclinations, but + to weigh well the possibilities of the future after the death of + George III. and the fall of the Pitt Ministry. We had to make + England understand that the wish to fight Napoleon was not in + itself sufficient to establish an indissoluble bond between her + Government and that of St. Petersburg...." + + In "F.O.," Russia, No. 55, is a despatch of our ambassador at St. + Petersburg, Admiral Warren, of June 30, 1804, in which he reports + Czartoryski's concern at rumours of negotiations between England + and France: "The prince [Czartoryski] remarked that he could not + suppose, after what had passed between the two Courts, and the + manner in which the Emperor [Alexander] had explained himself to + England, and after the measures which Russia had since proposed, + that Great Britain would make a peace at once by herself." + + Of these earlier negotiations I have found no trace; but obviously + the first proposals for an alliance must have come from Russia. + Sweden was the first to propose a monarchical league against + Napoleon. (See my article in the "Revue Napoleonienne" for June, + 1902.) + + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +AUSTERLITZ + + +After the capitulation of Ulm, the French Emperor marched against the +Russian army, which, as he told his troops, _English gold had brought +from the ends of the earth._ As is generally the case with coalitions, +neither of the allies was ready in time or sent its full quota. In +place of the 54,000 which Alexander had covenanted to send to +Austria's support, he sent as yet only 46,000; and of these 8,000 were +detached into Podolia in order to watch the warlike moves of the +Turks, whom the French had stirred up against the Muscovite. + +But Alexander had another and weightier excuse for not denuding his +realm of troops, namely, the ambiguous policy of Prussia. Up to the +middle of October this great military Power clung to her somewhat +threatening neutrality, an attitude not unlike that of the +Scandinavian States, which, in 1691, remained deaf to the entreaties +of William of Orange to take up the cause of European freedom against +Louis XIV., and were dubbed the Third Party. It would seem, however, +that the Prussian King had some grounds for his conduct: he feared the +Polish influence which Czartoryski wielded over the Czar, and saw in +the Russian request for a right of way through Prussian Poland a +deep-laid scheme for the seizure of that territory. Indeed, the +letters of Czartoryski prove that such a plan was pressed forward, and +found much favour with the Czar, though at the last moment he +prudently shelved it.[34] + +For a time the hesitations of Prussia were ended by Napoleon's +violation of Ansbach, and by Alexander's frank explanations at +Potsdam; but meanwhile the delays caused by Prussia's suspicions had +marred the Austrian plans. A week's grace granted by Napoleon, or a +week gained by the Russians on their actual marching time, would have +altered the whole situation in Bavaria--and Prussia would have drawn +the sword against France to avenge the insult at Ansbach. + +On October 10th Hardenberg informed the Austrian ambassador, +Metternich, that Frederick William was on the point of declaring for +the allies. Nothing, however, was done until Alexander reached +Potsdam, and the first news that he received on his arrival (October +25th) was of the surrender of Ulm. Nevertheless, the influence of the +Czar checkmated the efforts of Haugwitz and the French party, and kept +that Government to its resolve, which on November 3rd took the form of +the Treaty of Potsdam between Russia, Austria, and Prussia. Frederick +William pledged himself to offer the armed mediation of Prussia, and, +if it were refused by Napoleon, to join the allies. The Prussian +demands were as follows: indemnities for the King of Sardinia in +Lombardy, Liguria, and Parma; the independence of Naples, Holland, +Germany, and Switzerland; and the Mincio as Austria's boundary in +Italy.[35] + +An envoy was to offer these terms to Napoleon, and to bring back a +definite answer within one month from the time of his departure, and +in the meantime 180,000 Prussians prepared to threaten his flank and +rear. Alexander also secretly pledged himself to use his influence +with George III. to gain Hanover for Frederick William at the close of +the war, England meanwhile subsidizing Prussia and her Saxon allies on +the usual scale. The Czar afterwards accompanied the King and Queen to +the crypt of the Great Frederick, kissed the tomb, and, as he took his +leave of their majesties, cast a significant look at the altar.[36] + +Did he fear the peace-loving tendencies of the King, or the treachery +of Haugwitz? It is difficult to see good faith in every detail of the +treaty. Apart from the strange assumption that England would subsidize +Prussia and also give up Hanover, the manner in which the armed +mediation was to be offered left several loopholes for escape. After +the surrender of Ulm, speedy and vigorous action was needed to restore +the balance; yet a month's delay was bargained for. Then, too, +Haugwitz, who was charged with this most important mission, deferred +his departure for ten days on the plea that Prussia's forces could not +be ready before the middle of December. Such was the statement of the +leisurely Duke of Brunswick; but it can scarcely be reconciled with +Frederick William's threat, a month earlier, of immediate war against +the Russians if they entered his lands. Yet now that monarch approved +of the delay. Haugwitz therefore did not set out till November 14th, +and by that time Napoleon was master of Vienna, and the allies were +falling back into Moravia. + +We now turn to the scene of war. For the first time in modern history +the Hapsburg capital had fallen into the hands of a foreign foe. +Napoleon now installed himself at the stately palace of Schoenbrunn, +while Francis was fleeing to Olmuetz and the Archdukes Charles and John +were struggling in the defiles of the Alps to disengage themselves +from the vanguard of Massena. The march of the French on Vienna, and +thence northwards to Bruenn, led to only one incident of general +interest, namely, the filching away from the Austrians of the bridge +over the Danube to the north of Vienna. As it nears the city, that +great river spreads out into several channels, the largest being on +the north. The wooden bridge further up the river having been burnt by +the Russian rearguard, there remained only the bridge or bridges, +opposite the city, on the possession of which Napoleon set much store. +He therefore charged Murat and Lannes to secure them if possible. + +Murat was smarting under the Emperor's displeasure for a rash advance +on Vienna which had wellnigh cost the existence of Mortier's corps on +the other bank. Indeed, only by the most resolute bravery did the +remnant of that corps hew its way through overwhelming numbers. Murat, +who should have kept closely in touch with Mortier by a flotilla of +boats, was eager to retrieve his fault, and, with Lannes, Bertrand, +and an officer of engineers, he now approached the first part of the +bridge as if for a parley during an informal armistice which had just +been discussed but not concluded. The French Marshals had disposed the +grenadiers of General Oudinot, a body of men as renowned as their +leader for fighting qualities, behind some thickets that spread along +the southern bank and partly screened the approach. The plank +barricade at the southern end was now thrown down, and the four +Frenchmen advanced. An Austrian mounted sentinel fired his carbine and +galloped away to the main bridge; thereupon the four men advanced, +called to the officer there in command as if for a parley, and stopped +him in the act of firing the gunpowder stored beneath the bridge, with +the assurance that an armistice was, or was about to be, concluded. + +Reaching the northern end they repeated their tale, and claimed to see +the commander. While the defenders were hesitating, Oudinot's +grenadiers were rapidly marching forward. As soon as they were seen, +the Austrians prepared once more to fire the bridge. Again they were +implored to desist, as peace was as good as signed. But when the +grenadiers had reached the northern bank, the mask was dropped: fresh +troops were hurrying up and the chance of saving the bridge from their +grasp was now lost. By these means did Murat and Lannes secure an +undisputed passage to the northern bank, for which four years later +the French had desperately to fight. Napoleon was delighted at Murat's +exploit, which greatly furthered his pursuit of the allies, and he at +once restored that Marshal to high favour. But those who placed +gentlemanly conduct above the glamour of a trickster's success were +not slow, even then, to express their disapproval of this act of +perfidy.[37] + +The prolonged retreat into Moravia, the unexpected feebleness of the +Hapsburg arms, and the lack of supplies weighed heavily on Alexander's +spirits, as is shown in his letter from Olmuetz to the King of Prussia +on November 19th: "Our position is more than critical: we stand almost +alone against the French, who are close on our heels. As for the +Austrian army, it does not exist.... If your armies advance, the whole +position will alter at once."[38] A few days later, however, when +27,000 more Russians were at hand, including his Imperial Guard, the +Czar passed from the depths of depression to the heights of +confidence. The caution of his wary commander, Kutusoff, who urged a +Fabian policy of delay and retreat, now began to weary him. To retire +into northern Hungary seemed ignominious. And though Frederick William +held to his resolve of not drawing the sword before December 15th, and +by that time the Archduke Charles with a large army was expected below +Vienna, yet the susceptible young autocrat spurned the behests of +irksome prudence. In vain did Kutusoff and Schwarzenberg urge the need +of delay and retreat: Alexander gave more heed to the rash counsels of +his younger officers. An advance was ordered on Bruenn, and a +successful cavalry skirmish at Wischau confirmed the Czar in his +change from the strategy of Fabius to that of Varro. + +Napoleon, who was now at Bruenn, had already divined this change in the +temper of his foe, and called back his men with the express purpose of +humouring Alexander's latest mood and tempting him on to a decisive +battle. He saw clearly the advantage of fighting at once. The renewed +offers of an armistice, which he received from the prudent Francis, +might alone have convinced him of this; and they came in time to give +him an argument, telling enough to daunt the Prussian envoy, who was +now drawing near to his headquarters. + +After proceeding towards Vienna and being sent back to Bruenn, Haugwitz +arrived there on November 29th.[39] Of the four hours' private +conference that ensued with Napoleon we have but scanty records, and +those by Haugwitz himself, who had every reason for warping the truth. +He states that he was received with icy coldness, and at once saw that +the least threat of hostile pressure by Prussia would drive Napoleon +to make a separate peace with Austria. But after the first hour the +Emperor appeared to thaw: he discussed the question of a Continental +peace and laid aside all resentment at Prussia's conduct: finally, he +gave a general assent to her proposals, on two conditions, namely, +that the allied force then in Hanover should not be allowed by Prussia +to invade Holland, and that the French garrison in the fortress of +Hameln, now compassed about by Prussians, should be provisioned. To +both of these requests Haugwitz assented, and pledged the word of his +King, an act of presumption which that monarch was to repudiate. + +While exceeding his instructions on this side, Haugwitz did +practically nothing to advance the chief business of his mission. +Either his own fears, or the crafty mixture of threats and flattery +that cajoled so many envoys, led him to neglect the interests of +Prussia, and to play into the hands of the very man whose ambition he +was sent to check. After the interview, when the envoy had retired to +his lodging, Caulaincourt came up in haste to warn him that a battle +was imminent, that his personal safety might be endangered, and that +Napoleon requested him to repair to Vienna, where he might consult +with Talleyrand on affairs of State. Horses and an escort were ready, +and Haugwitz set out for that city, where he arrived on November 30th, +only to find that Talleyrand was strictly forbidden to do more than +entertain him with commonplaces. Thus, the all-important question as +to the action of Prussia's legions was again postponed, even when +150,000 Prussians and Saxons were ready to march against the French +communications. + +Napoleon's letter of November 30th to Talleyrand reveals his secret +anxiety at this time. In truth, the crisis was terrible. With a +superior force in front, with the Archdukes Ferdinand and Charles +threatening to raise Bohemia and Hungary on his flanks, while two +Prussian armies were about to throw themselves on his rear, his +position was fully as serious as that of Hannibal before Cannae, from +which the Carthaginian freed himself only by that staggering blow. Did +that example inspire the French Emperor, or did he take counsel from +his own boundless resources of brain and will? Certain it is that, +after a passing fit of discouragement, he braced himself for a final +effort, and staked all on the effect of one mighty stroke. In order to +hurry on the battle he feigned discouragement and withdrew his lines +from Austerlitz to the Goldbach. Already he had sent General Savary to +the Czar with proposals for a short truce.[40] The word truce now +spelt guile; its offer through Savary, whose hands were stained with +the blood of the Duc d'Enghien, was in itself an insult, and Alexander +gave that envoy the coolest reception. In return he sent Prince +Dolgoruki, the leader of the bellicose youths now high in favour, who +proudly declared to the French Emperor the wishes of his master for +the independence of Europe--adding among other things that Holland +must be free and have Belgium added to it. + +This suggestion greatly amused Napoleon, who replied that Russia ought +now to think of her own advantages on the side of Turkey. The answer +convinced the Czar that Napoleon dreaded a conflict in his dangerously +advanced position. He knew not his antagonist's resources. Napoleon +had hurried up every available regiment. Bernadotte's corps was +recalled from the frontier of Bohemia; Friant's division of 4,000 men +was ordered up from Pressburg; and by forced marches it also was nigh +at hand on the night of December 1st, worn with fatigue after covering +an immense space in two days, but ready to do excellent service on the +morrow.[41] By this timely concentration Napoleon raised his forces to +a total of at least 73,000 men, while the enemy founded their plan on +the assumption that Napoleon had less than 50,000, and would scarcely +resist the onset of superior forces. + +Their plan was rash, even for an army which numbered about 80,000 men. +The Austrian General Weyrother had convinced the Czar that an +energetic advance of his left wing, which rested on the southern spurs +of the Pratzenberg, would force back Napoleon's right, which was +ranged between the villages of Kobelnitz and Sokelnitz, and so roll up +his long line that stretched beyond Schlapanitz. This move, if +successful, would not only win the day, but decide the campaign, by +cutting off the French from their supplies coming from the south and +driving them into the exhausted lands around Olmuetz. Such was +Weyrother's scheme, which enchanted the Czar and moved the fears of +the veteran Kutusoff: it was expounded to the Russian and Austrian +generals after midnight on December the 2nd. Strong in the great +central hill, the Pratzenberg, and the cover of its village at the +foot, the Czar had no fear for his centre: to his right or northern +wing he gave still less heed, as it rested firmly on villages and was +powerful in cavalry and artillery; but his left wing, comprising fully +two-fifths of the allied army, was expected easily to defeat +Napoleon's weak and scattered right, and so decide the day. Kutusoff +saw the peril of massing so great a force there and weakening the +centre, but sadly held his peace. + +Napoleon had already divined their secret. In his order of battle he +took his troops into his confidence, telling them that, while the +enemy marched to turn his right, they would expose their flank to his +blows. To announce this beforehand was strangely bold, and it has been +thought that he had the plan from some traitor on the enemy's staff. +No proof of this has been given; and such an explanation seems +superfluous to those who have observed Napoleon's uncanny power of +fathoming his adversary's designs. The idea of withdrawing one wing in +order to tempt the foe unduly to prolong his line on that side, and +then to crush it at the centre, or sever it from the centre, is common +both to Castiglione and Austerlitz. It is true, the peculiarities of +the ground, the ardour of the Russian attack, and the vastness of the +operations lent to the present conflict a splendour and a horror which +Castiglione lacked. But the tactics which won both battles were +fundamentally the same. + +He had studied the ground in front of Austerlitz; and the priceless +gift of strategic imagination revealed to him what a rash and showy +leader would be certain to do on that ground;[42] he tempted him to +it, and the announcement of the enemy's plan to the French soldiery +supplied the touch of good comradeship which insured their utmost +devotion on the morrow. At midnight, as he returned from visiting the +outposts, the soldiers greeted him with a weird illumination: by a +common impulse they tore down the straw from their rude shelters and +held aloft the burning wisps on long poles, dancing the while in +honour of the short gray-coated figure, and shouting, "It is the +anniversary of the coronation. Long live the Emperor." Thus was the +great day ushered in. The welkin glowed with this tribute of an army's +heroworship: the frost-laden clouds echoed back the multitudinous +acclaim; and the Russians, as they swung forward their left, surmised +that, after all, the French would stand their ground and fight, whilst +others saw in the flare a signal that Napoleon was once more about to +retreat. + +December the 2nd may well be the most famous day of the Napoleonic +calendar: it was the day of his coronation, it was the day of +Austerlitz, and, a generation later, another Napoleon chose it for his +_coup d'etat_. The "sun of Austerlitz," which the nephew then hailed, +looked down on a spectacle far different from that which he wished to +gild with borrowed splendour. Struggling dimly through dense banks of +mist, it shone on the faces of 73,000 Frenchmen resolved to conquer or +to die: it cast weird shadows before the gray columns of Russia and +the white-coats of Austria as they pressed in serried ranks towards +the frozen swamps of the Goldbach. At first the allies found little +opposition; and Kienmayer's horse cleared the French from Tellnitz and +the level ground beyond. But Friant's division, hurrying up from the +west, restored the fight and drove the first assailants from the +village. Others, however, were pressing on, twenty-nine battalions +strong, and not all the tenacious bravery of Davoust's soldiery +availed to hold that spot. Nor was it necessary. Napoleon's plan was +to let the allied left compromise itself on this side, while he rained +the decisive blows at its joint with the centre on the southern spur +of the Pratzenberg. + +For this reason he reduced Davoust to defensive tactics, for which his +stubborn methodical genius eminently fitted him, until the French +centre had forced the Russians from the plateau. Opposite or near that +height he had posted the corps of Soult and Bernadotte, supporting +them with the grenadiers of Oudinot and the Imperial Guard. +Confronting these imposing forces was the Russian centre, weakened by +the heavy drafts sent towards Tellnitz, but strong in its position and +in the experience of its leader Kutusoff. Caution urged him to hold +back his men to the last moment, until the need of giving cohesion to +the turning movement led the Czar impatiently to order his advance. +Scarcely had the Russians descended beyond Pratzen when they were +exposed to a furious attack. Vandamme, noted even then as one of the +hardest hitters in the army, was leading his division of Soult's corps +up the northern slopes of the plateau; by a sidelong slant his men cut +off a detachment of Russians in the village, and, aided by the brigade +of Thiebault, swarmed up the hill at a speed which surprised and +unsteadied its defenders. Oudinot's grenadiers and the Imperial Guard +were ready to sustain Soult: but the men of his corps had the glory of +seizing the plateau and driving back the Russians. Yet these returned +to the charge. Alexander and Kutusoff saw the importance of the +heights, and brought up a great part of their reserves. Soon the +divisions of Vandamme and St. Hilaire were borne back; +and it needed all the grand fighting powers of their troops to hold up +against the masses of howling Russians. For two hours the battle there +swayed to and fro; and Thiebault has censured Napoleon for the lack of +support, and Soult for his apathy, during this soldiers' battle. + +[Illustration: BATTLE OF AUSTERLITZ] + +But the Emperor was awaiting the development of events on the wings. A +sharp fight of all arms was raging on the plain further to the north. +There the allies at first gained ground, the Austrian horse well +maintaining its old fame: but the infantry of Lannes' corps, supported +by powerful artillery ranged on a small conical hill, speedily checked +their charges; the French horse, marshalled by Murat and Kellermann +somewhat after the fashion of the British cavalry at Waterloo, so as +to support the squares and dash through the intervals in pursuit, soon +made most effective charges upon the dense squadrons of the allies, +and finally a general advance of Lannes and Murat overthrew the +wavering lines opposite and chased them back towards the small town of +Austerlitz. + +Thus by noon the lines of fighting swerved till they ranged along the +course of the Littawa stream, save where the allies had thrust forward +a long and apparently successful wedge beyond Tellnitz. The Czar saw +the danger of this almost isolated wing, and sought to keep touch with +it; but the defects of the allied plan were now painfully apparent. +Napoleon, having the interior lines, while his foes were scattered +over an irregular arc, could reinforce his hard-pressed right. There +Davoust was being slowly borne back, when the march of Duroc with part +of the Imperial Guard restored the balance on that side. The French +centre also was strengthened by the timely arrival of part of +Bernadotte's corps. That Marshal detached a division towards the +northern slopes of the plateau; for he divined that there his master +would need every man to deal the final blows.[43] + +In truth, Alexander and Kutusoff were struggling hard to regain the +Pratzenberg. Four times did the Muscovites fling themselves on the +French centre, and not without some passing gleams of success. Here +occurred the most famous cavalry fight of the war. The Russian Guards, +mounted on superb horses, had cut up two of Vandamme's battalions, +when Rapp rode to their rescue with the chasseurs of the French +Imperial Guard. These choice bodies of horsemen met with a terrible +shock, which threw the Russians into disorder. Rallied by other +squadrons, these now overthrew their assailants and seemed about to +overpower them, when Bessieres with the heavy cavalry of the Guard +fell on the flank of the Muscovite horse and drove their lines, horse +and foot, into the valley beyond. + +Assured of his centre, Napoleon now launched Soult's corps down the +south-western spurs of the plateau upon the flank and rear of the +allied left: this unexpected onset was decisive: the French, sweeping +down the slopes with triumphant shouts, cut off several battalions on +the banks of the Goldbach, scattered others in headlong flight towards +Bruenn, and drove the greater part down to the Lake of Tellnitz. Here +the troubles of the allies culminated. A few gained the narrow marshy +gap between the two lakes; but dense bodies found no means of escape +save the frozen surface of the upper lake. In some parts the ice bore +the weight of the fugitives; but where they thronged pell-mell, or +where it was cut up by the plunging fire of the French cannon on the +heights, crowds of men sank to destruction. The victors themselves +stood aghast at this spectacle; and, for the credit of human nature be +it said, many sought to save their drowning foes. Among others, the +youthful Marbot swam to a floe to help bring a Russian officer to +land, a chivalrous exploit which called forth the praise of Napoleon. +The Emperor brought this glorious day to a fitting close by visiting +the ground most thickly strewn with his wounded, and giving directions +for their treatment or removal. As if satisfied with the victory, he +gave little heed to the pursuit. In truth, never since Marlborough cut +the Franco-Bavarian army in twain at Blenheim, had there been a battle +so terrible in its finale, and so decisive in its results as this of +the three Emperors, which cost the allies 33,000 men and 186 cannon. + +The Emperors Alexander and Francis fled eastwards into the night. +Between them there was now a tacit understanding that the campaign was +at an end. On that night Francis sent proposals for a truce; and in +two days' time Napoleon agreed to an armistice (signed on December +6th) on condition that Francis would send away the Russian army and +entirely exclude that of Prussia from his territories. A contribution +of 100,000,000 francs was also laid upon the Hapsburg dominions. On +the next day Alexander pledged himself to withdraw his army at once; +and Francis proceeded to treat for peace with Napoleon. This was an +infraction of the treaties of the Third Coalition, which prescribed +that no separate peace should be made. + +Under the circumstances, the conduct of the Hapsburgs was pardonable: +but the seeming break-up of the coalition furnished the Court of +Berlin with a good reason for declining to bear the burden alone. It +was not Austerlitz that daunted Frederick William; for, after hearing +of that disaster, he wrote that he would be true to his pledge given +on November 3rd. But then, on the decisive day (December 15th), came +the news of the defection of Austria, the withdrawal of Alexander's +army, and the closing of the Hapsburg lands to a Prussian force. These +facts absolved Frederick William from his obligations to those Powers, +and allowed him with perfect good faith to keep his sword in the +scabbard. The change, it is true, sadly dulled the warlike ardour of +his army; but it could not be called desertion of Russia and +Austria.[44] The disgrace came later, when, on Christmas Day, Haugwitz +reached Berlin, and described to the King and Ministers his interview +with Napoleon in the palace of Schoenbrunn, and the treaty which the +victor then and there offered to Prussia at the sword's point. + +For most men a great victory such as Austerlitz would have brought a +brief spell of rest, especially after the ceaseless toils and +anxieties of the previous fortnight. Yet now, after ridding himself of +all fear of Austria, Napoleon at once used every device of his subtle +statecraft to dissolve the nascent coalition. And Fortune had willed +that, when flushed with triumph, he should have to deal with a +timorous time-server. + +It is the curse of a policy of keeping up a dainty balance in a +hurricane that it unmans the balancer, until at last the peacemaker +resembles a juggler. A decade of compromise and evasion of +difficulties had enfeebled the spirit of Prussia, until the hardest +trial for her King was to take any step that could not be retraced. He +had often spoken "feelingly, if not energetically," of the +predicaments of his position between France, England, and Russia.[45] +And, as in the case of that other _bon pere de famille_, Louis XVI., +whom Nature framed for a farmhouse and Fate tossed into a revolution, +his lack of foresight and resolution took the heart out of his +advisers and turned statesmen into trimmers. Even before the news of +Austerlitz reached the ears of Talleyrand and Haugwitz at Vienna, the +bearer of Prussia's ultimatum was posing as the friend of France. On +all occasions he wore the cordon of the Legion of Honour; and while +the hosts of East and West were in the death-grapple on the +Pratzenberg, he strove to convince the French Foreign Minister that +the Prussians had entered Hanover only in order to keep the peace in +North Germany; that, as Russians had traversed Prussian territory, the +French would, of course, be equally free to do so; that Frederick +William objected to the descent of any English force in Hanover, which +belonged _de facto_ to France; and finally that the Treaty of Potsdam +was not a treaty at all, but merely a declaration with the "offer of +Prussia's good offices and of mediation, but without any mingling of +hostile intentions." Well might Talleyrand write to Napoleon: "I am +very satisfied with M. Haugwitz."[46] + +Napoleon's victory over Prussian diplomacy was therefore won, even +before the lightning-stroke of Austerlitz blasted the Third Coalition. +Haugwitz began his conference with the victor at Schoenbrunn on +December 13th, by offering Frederick William's congratulations on his +triumph at Austerlitz, to which the Emperor replied by a sarcastic +query whether, if the result of that battle had been different, he +would have spoken at all about the friendship of his master.[47] After +thus disconcerting the envoy and upbraiding him with the Treaty of +Potsdam, Napoleon unmasked his battery by offering Prussia the +Electorate of Hanover in return for the comparatively petty sacrifices +of Ansbach to Bavaria, and Cleves and Neufchatel to France. For the +loss of these outlying districts Prussia could buy that long-coveted +land.[48] The envoy was dazzled by this glittering offer, and by +others that followed. The conqueror proposed an offensive and +defensive alliance, whereby France and Prussia mutually guaranteed +their lands along with prospective additions in Germany and Italy; and +the Court of Berlin was also to uphold the independence of Turkey. + +Such were the terms that Napoleon peremptorily required Haugwitz to +sign within a few hours: and the bearer of Prussia's ultimatum on +December 15th signed this Treaty of Schoenbrunn, which degraded the +would-be arbitress of Europe to her former position of well-fed +follower of France. This was the news which Haugwitz brought back to +his astonished King. His reception was of the coolest; for Frederick +William was an honest man, who sought peace, prosperity, and the +welfare of his people, and now saw himself confronted by the +alternative of war or national humiliation. In truth, every turn and +double of his course was now leading him deeper into the discredit and +ruin which will be described in the next chapter. + +Leaving for the present that unhappy King amidst his increasing +perplexities, we return to the affairs of Austria. Mack's disaster +alone had cast that Government into the depths of despair, and we +learn from Lord Gower, our ambassador at St. Petersburg, that he had +seen copies of letters written by the Emperor Francis to Napoleon +"couched in terms of humility and submission unworthy of a great +monarch," to which the latter replied in a tone of superiority and +affected commiseration, and with a demand for the Hapsburg lands in +Venetia and Swabia.[49] + +The same tone of whining dejection was kept up by Cobenzl and other +Austrian Ministers, even before Austerlitz, when Prussia was on the +point of drawing the sword; and they sent offers of peace, when it was +rather for their foe to sue for it. After that battle, and, still more +so, after signing the armistice of December 6th, they were at the +conqueror's mercy; and Napoleon knew it. After probing the inner +weakness of the Berlin Court, he now pressed with merciless severity +on the Hapsburgs. He proposed to tear away their Swabian and Tyrolese +lands and their share of the spoils of Venice. In vain did the +Austrian plenipotentiaries struggle against these harsh terms, +pleading for Tyrol and Dalmatia, and pointing out the impossibility of +raising 100,000,000 francs from territories ravaged by war. In vain +did they proffer a claim to Hanover for one of their Archdukes: though +Talleyrand urged the advantage of this step as dissolving the +Anglo-Austrian alliance, yet Napoleon refused to hear of it; for at +that time he was offering that Electorate to Haugwitz.[50] Still less +would he hear a word in favour of the Court of Naples, whose conduct +had aroused his resentment. The utmost that the Austrian envoys could +wring from him was the reduction of the war contribution to 40,000,000 +francs. + +The terms finally arranged in the Treaty of Pressburg (December 26th, +1805) may be thus summarized: Austria recognized the recent +acquisitions and changes of title made by Napoleon in Italy, and ceded +to him her parts of Venetia, Istria, and Dalmatia. She recognized the +title of King now bestowed by Napoleon on the Electors of Bavaria and +Wuertemberg, a change which was not to invalidate their membership of +the "Germanic Confederation." To those potentates and to the Elector +(now Grand Duke) of Baden, the Hapsburgs ceded all their scattered +Swabian domains, while Bavaria also gained Tyrol and Vorarlberg. As a +slight compensation for these grievous losses, Austria gained +Salzburg, whose Elector was to receive from Bavaria the former +principality of Wuerzburg. The domains and revenues of the Teutonic and +Maltese Orders were secularized, so as to furnish appanages to some +other princes of the Hapsburg House; and another blow was dealt at the +Germanic system by the declaration that Napoleon guaranteed the full +and entire sovereignty of the rulers of Bavaria, Wuertemberg, and +Baden. In fact, as will appear in the next chapter, Napoleon now +usurped the place in Germany previously held by the Hapsburgs, and +extended his influence as far east as the River Inn, and, on the +south, down to the remote city of Ragusa on the Adriatic. + +But it is one thing to win a brilliant diplomatic triumph, and quite +another thing to secure a firm and lasting peace. The Peace of +Pressburg raised Napoleon to heights of power never dreamt of by Louis +XIV.: but his pre-eminence was at best precarious. When by moderate +terms he might have secured the alliance of Austria and severed her +friendship with England, he chose to place his heel on her neck and +drive her to secret but irreconcilable hatred. + +And his choice was deliberate. Two months earlier, Talleyrand had sent +him a memorandum on the subject of a Franco-Austrian alliance, which +is instinct with statesmanlike foresight. He stated that there were +four Great Powers--France, Great Britain, Russia, and Austria: he +excluded Prussia, whose rise to greatness under Frederick the Great +was but temporary. Austria, he claimed, must remain a Great Power. She +had opposed revolutionary France; but with Imperial France she had no +lasting quarrel. Rather did her manifest destiny clash with that of +Russia on the lower Danube, where the approaching break-up of the +Ottoman Power must bring those States into conflict. It was good +policy, then, to give a decided but friendly turn of Hapsburg policy +towards the east. Let Napoleon frankly approach the Emperor Francis +and say in effect: "I never sought this war with you, but I have +conquered: I wish to restore complete harmony between us: and, in +order to remove all causes of dispute, you must give up your Swabian, +Tyrolese, and Venetian lands: of these Tyrol shall fall to a prince of +your choice, and Venice (along with Trieste and Istria) shall form an +aristocratic Republic under a magistrate nominated in the first +instance by me. As a set-off to these losses, you shall receive +Moldavia, Wallachia, and northern Bulgaria. If the Russians object to +this and attack you, I will be your ally." Such was Talleyrand's +proposal.[51] + +It is easy to criticise it in many details; but there can be little +doubt that its adoption by Napoleon would have laid a firmer +foundation for French supremacy than was afforded by the Treaties of +Pressburg and Tilsit. Austria would not have been deeply wounded, as +she now was by the transfer of her faithful Tyrolese to the detested +rule of Bavaria, and by the undisguised triumph of Napoleon in Italy +and along the Adriatic. Moreover, the erection of Tyrol and Venetia +into separate States would have been a wise concession to those +clannish societies; and Austria could not have taken up the +championship of outraged Tyrolese sentiment, which she assumed four +years later. Instead of figuring as the leader of German nationality, +she would have been on the worst of terms with the Czar over the +Eastern Question; and their discord would have enabled France to +dictate her own terms as to the partition of the Sultan's dominions. +Talleyrand had no specific for dissolving the traditional friendship +of England and Austria, and we may imagine the joy with which he heard +from the Hapsburg envoys the demand for Hanover, at a time when +English gold was pouring into the empty coffers at Vienna. Here was +the sure means of embroiling England and Austria for a generation at +least. But this further chance of preventing future coalitions was +likewise rejected by Napoleon, who deliberately chose to make Austria +a deadly foe, and to aggrandize her rival Prussia.[52] + +Why did Napoleon reject Talleyrand's plan? Unquestionably, I think, +because he had resolved to build up a Continental System, which should +"hermetically seal" the coasts of Europe against English commerce. If +he was to realize those golden visions of his youth, ships, colonies, +and an Eastern empire, which, even amidst the glories of Austerlitz, +he placed far above any European triumph, he must extend his coast +system and subject or conciliate the maritime States. Of these the +most important were Prussia and Russia. The seaborne commerce of +Austria was insignificant, and could easily be controlled from his +vassal lands of Venetia and Dalmatia. To the would-be conqueror of +England the friendship or hatred of Austria seemed unimportant: he +preferred to depress this now almost land-locked Power, and to draw +tight the bonds of union with Prussia, always provided that she +excluded British goods.[53] + +The same reason led him to hope for a Russian alliance. Only by the +help of Russia and Prussia could he shut England out from the Baltic; +and, to win that help, he destined Hanover for Prussia and the +Danubian States for the Czar. For the founder of the Continental +System such a choice was natural; but, viewed from the standpoint of +Continental politics, his treatment of Austria was a serious blunder. +His frightful pressure on her motley lands endowed them with a +solidity which they had never known before; and in less than four +years, the conqueror had cause to regret having driven the Hapsburgs +to desperation. It may even be questioned whether Austerlitz itself +was not a misfortune to him. Just before that battle he thought of +treating Austria leniently, taking only Verona and Legnago, and +exchanging Venetia against Salzburg. This would have detached her from +the Coalition, and made a friend of a Power that is naturally inclined +to be conservative. + +After Austerlitz, he rushed to the other extreme and forced the +Hapsburgs to a hostility in which the Marie Louise marriage was only a +forced and uneasy truce. His motives are not, in my judgment, to be +assigned to mere lust of domination, but rather to a reasoned though +exaggerated conviction of the need of Prussia and Russia to his +Continental System. Above all things, he now sought to humble England, +so that finally he might be free for his long-deferred Oriental +enterprise. This is the irony of his career, that, though he preferred +the career of Alexander the Great to that of Caesar; though he placed +his victory at Austerlitz far below the triumph of the great +Macedonian at Issus which assured the conquest of the Orient, yet he +felt himself driven to the very measures which tethered him to _cette +vieille Europe_ and which finally roused the Continent against him. + +Among his errors of judgment, assuredly his behaviour to Austria in +1805 was not the least. The recent history of Europe supplies a +suggestive contrast. Two generations after Austerlitz, the Hapsburg +Power was shattered by the disaster of Koeniggraetz, and once more lost +all influence in Germany and Italy. But the victor then showed +consideration for the vanquished. Bismarck had pondered over the +lessons of history, because, as he said, _history teaches one how far +one may safely go_. He therefore persuaded King William to forego +claims that would have embittered the rivalry of Prussia and Austria. +Nay! he recurred to Talleyrand's policy of encouraging the Hapsburgs +to seek in the Balkan Peninsula compensation for their losses in the +west: and within fifteen years the basis of the Triple Alliance was +firmly laid. Napoleon, on the other hand, for lack of that +statesmanlike moderation which consecrates victory and cements the +fabric of an enduring Empire, soon saw the political results of +Austerlitz swept away by the rising tide of the nations' wrath. In +less than nine years the Austrians and their allies were masters of +Paris. + + NOTE TO THE THIRD EDITION.--The account given on p. 41 of the + drowning of numbers of Russians at the close of the Battle of + Austerlitz was founded upon the testimony of Napoleon and many + French generals; the facts, as related by Lejeune, seemed quite + convincing; the Czar Alexander also asserted at Vienna in 1815 + that 20,000 Russians had been drowned there. But the local + evidence (kindly furnished to me by Professor Fournier of Vienna) + seems to prove that the story is a myth. Both lakes were drained + only a few days after the battle, _at Napoleon's orders_; in the + lower lake not a single corpse was found; in the upper lake 150 + corpses of horses, but only two, some say three, of men, were + found. Probably Napoleon invented the catastrophe for the sake of + dramatic effect, and others followed the lead given in his + bulletin. The Czar may have adopted the story because it helped to + excuse his defeat. (See my article in the "Eng. Hist. Rev." for + July, 1902.) + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV + +PRUSSIA AND THE NEW CHARLEMAGNE + + +An eminent German historian, who has striven to say some kind words +about Frederick William's Government before the collapse at Jena, +prefaces his apology by the axiom that from a Prussian monarch one +ought to expect, not French, English, or Russian policy, but only +Prussian policy. The claim may well be challenged. Doubtless, there +are some States concerning which it would be true. Countries such as +Great Britain and Spain, whose areas are clearly defined by nature, +may with advantage be self-contained until their peoples overflow into +new lands: before they become world Powers, they may gain in strength +by being narrowly national. But there are other States whose fortunes +are widely different. They represent some principle of life or energy, +in the midst of mere political wreckage. If the binding power, which +built up an older organism, should decline, as happened to the Holy +Roman Empire after the religious wars, fragments will fall away and +join bodies to which they are now more akin. + +Of the States that throve among the crumbling masses of the old Empire +the chief was Brandenburg-Prussia. She had a twofold energy which the +older organism lacked: she was Protestant and she was national; she +championed the new creed cherished by the North Germans, and she felt, +though dimly as yet, the strength that came from an almost single kin. +Until she seized on part of the spoils of Poland, her Slavonic +subjects were for the most part germanized Slavs; and even after +acquiring Posen and Warsaw at the close of the eighteenth century, she +could still claim to be the chief Germanic State. A generation +earlier, Frederick the Great had seen this to be the source of her +strength. His policy was not merely Prussian: in effect, if not in +aim, it was German. His victory at Rossbach over a great polyglot +force of French and Imperialists first awakened German nationality to +a thrill of conscious life; and the last success of his career was the +championship of the lesser German princes against the encroachments of +the Hapsburgs. In fact, it seems now a mere commonplace to assert that +Prussia has prospered most when, as under Frederick the Great and +William the Great, her policy has been truly German, and that she has +fallen back most in the years 1795-1806 and 1848-1852, when the +subservience of her Frederick Williams to France and Austria has lost +them the respect and support of the rest of the Fatherland. A State +that would attract other fragments of the same nation must be +attractive, and it must be broadly national if it is to attract. If +Stein and Bismarck had been merely Prussians, if Cavour's policy had +been narrowly Sardinian, would their States ever have served as the +rallying centres for the Germany and Italy of to-day? + +The difficulties which beset Frederick William III. in 1805 were not +entirely of his own making. His predecessor of the same ill-omened +name, when nearing the close of his inglorious reign, made the Peace +of Basel (1795), which began to place the policy of Berlin at the beck +and call of the French revolutionists. But the present ruler had +assured Prussia's subservience to France at the time of the +Secularizations, when he gained Erfurt, Eichsfeld, Hildesheim, +Paderborn, and a great part of the straggling bishopric of Muenster. +Even at that time of shameless rapacity, there were those who saw that +the gain of half a million of subjects to Prussia was a poor return +for the loss of self-respect that befell all who shared in the +sacrilegious plunder bartered away by Bonaparte and Talleyrand. +Frederick William III. was even suspected of a leaning towards French +methods of Government; and a Prussian statesman said to the French +ambassador: + + "You have only the nobles against you: the King and the people are + openly for France. The revolution which you have made from below + upwards will be slowly effected in Prussia from above downwards: + the King is a democrat after his fashion: he is always striving to + curtail the privileges of the nobles, but by slow means. In a few + years feudal rights will cease to exist in Prussia."[54] + +Could the King have carried out these much-needed reforms, he might +perhaps have opposed a solid society to the renewed might of France. +But he failed to set his house in order before the storm burst; and in +1803 he so far gave up his championship of North German affairs as to +allow the French to occupy Hanover, a land that he and his Ministers +had long coveted. + +We saw in the last chapter that Hanover was the bait whereby Napoleon +hooked the Prussian envoy, Haugwitz, at Schoenbrunn; and that the very +man who had been sent to impose Prussia's will upon the French Emperor +returned to Berlin bringing peace and dishonour. The surprise and +annoyance of Frederick William may be imagined. On all sides +difficulties were thickening around him. Shortly before the return of +Haugwitz to Berlin, the Russian troops campaigning in Hanover had been +placed under the protection of Prussia; and the King himself had +offered to our Minister, Lord Harrowby, to protect Cathcart's +Anglo-Hanoverian corps which, _with the aid of Prussian troops_, was +restoring the authority of George III. in that Electorate. + +Moreover, Frederick William could not complain of any shabby treatment +from our Government. Knowing that he was set on the acquisition of +Hanover and could only be drawn into the Coalition by an equally +attractive offer, the Pitt Ministry had proposed through Lord Harrowby +the cession to Prussia at the general peace of the lands south-west of +the Duchy of Cleves, "bounded by a frontier line drawn from Antwerp to +Luxemburg," and connected with the rest of her territories.[55] This +plan, which would have planted Prussia firmly at Antwerp, Liege, +Luxemburg, and Cologne, also aimed at installing the Elector of +Salzburg in the rest of the new Rhenish acquisitions of France; while +the equipoise of the Powers was to be adjusted by the cession of +Salzburg, the Papal Legations, and the line of the Mincio to Austria, +she in her turn giving up part of her Dalmatian lands to Russia. +Prussia was to be the protectress of North Germany and regard any +incursion of the French, "north of the Maine or at least of the Lahn," +as an act of war. Great Britain, after subsidizing Prussia for 100,000 +troops on the usual scale, pledged herself to restore all her +conquests made, or to be made, during the war, with the exception of +the Cape of Good Hope: but no questions were to be raised about that +desirable colony, or Malta, or the British maritime code.[56] + +At the close of 1805, then, Frederick William was face to face with +the offers of England and those brought by Haugwitz from Napoleon. +That is, he had to choose between the half of Belgium and the +Rhineland as offered by England, or Hanover as a gift from Napoleon. +The former gain was the richer, but apparently the more risky, for it +entailed the hatred of France: the latter seemed to secure the +friendship of the conqueror, though at the expense of the claims of +honour and a naval war with England. His confidential advisers, +Lombard, Beyme, and Haugwitz, were determined to gain the Electorate, +preferably at Napoleon's hands; while his Foreign Minister, +Hardenberg, a Hanoverian by birth, desired to assure the union of his +native land with Prussia by more honourable means, and probably by +means of an exchange with George III., which will be noticed +presently. In his opposition to French influence, Hardenberg had the +support of the more patriotic Prussians, who sought to safeguard +Prussia's honour, and to avert war with England. The difficulty in +accepting the Electorate at the point of Napoleon's sword was not +merely on the score of morality: it was due to the presence of a large +force of English, Hanoverians, and Russians on the banks of the Weser, +and to the protection which the Prussian Government had offered to +those troops against any French attack, always provided that they did +not move against Holland and retired behind the Prussian +battalions.[57] The indignation of British officers at this last order +is expressed by Christian Ompteda, of the King's German Legion, in a +letter to his brother at Berlin: "My dear fellow, if this sort of +thing goes on, the Continent will soon be irrecoverably lost. The +Russian and English armies will not long creep for refuge under the +contemptible Prussian cloak. We are here, 40,000 of the best and +bravest troops. A swift move on Holland only would have opened the +road to certain success.... And this is Lombard's and Haugwitz's +work!"[58] + +What meanwhile were George III.'s Ministers doing? At this crisis +English policy suffered a terrible blow. Death struck down the +"stately column" that held up the swaying fortunes of our race. +William Pitt, long failing in health, was sore-stricken by the news of +Austerlitz and the defection of Austria. But the popular version as to +the cause of his death--that _Austerlitz killed Pitt_--is more +melodramatic than correct. Among the many causes that broke that +unbending spirit, the news of the miserable result of the Hanoverian +Expedition was the last and severest. The files of our Foreign Office +papers yield touching proof of the hopes which the Cabinet cherished, +even after Vienna was in Napoleon's hands. Harrowby was urged to do +everything in his power--short of conceding Hanover--to bring Prussia +into the field, in which case "nearly 300,000 men will be available in +North Germany at the beginning of the next campaign, which will +include 70,000 British and Hanoverian troops employed there or in +maritime enterprises."[59] To this hope Pitt clung, even after hearing +the news of Austerlitz, and it was doubtless this which enabled him to +bear that last journey from Bath to Putney Heath, with less fatigue +and far more quickly than had been expected. He arrived home on +Saturday night, January 11th. On the following Wednesday his friend, +George Rose, called on him and found that a serious change for the +worse had set in. + + "On the Sunday he was better, and continued improving till Monday + in the afternoon, when Lord Castlereagh insisted on seeing him, + and, having obtained access to him, entered (Lord Hawkesbury being + also present) on points of public business of the most serious + importance (principally respecting the bringing home the British + troops from the Continent), which affected him visibly that + evening and the next day, and this morning the effect was more + plainly observed: ... his countenance is extremely changed, his + voice weak, and his body almost wasted." + +It is clear also from the medical evidence which the diarist gives +that the news from Hanover was the cause of this sudden change. On the +previous Sunday, that is, just after the fatigue of the three days' +journey, the physicians "thought there was a reasonable prospect of +Mr. Pitt's recovery, that the probability was in favour of it, and +that, if his complaint should not take an unfavourable turn, he might +be able to attend to business in about a month."[60] That unfavourable +turn took place when the heroic spirit lost all hope under the +distressing news from Berlin and Hanover. Austerlitz, it is true, had +depressed him. Yet that, after all, did not concern British honour and +the dearest interests of his master. + +But, that Frederick William, from whom he had hoped so much, to whom +he was on the point of advancing a great subsidy, should now fall +away, should talk of peace with Napoleon and claim Hanover, should +forbid an invasion of Holland and request the British forces to +evacuate North Germany--this was a blow to George III., to our +military prestige, and to the now tottering Ministry. How could he +face the Opposition, already wellnigh triumphant in the sad Melville +business, with a King's Speech in which this was the chief news? +Losing hope, he lost all hold on life: he sank rapidly: in the last +hours his thoughts wandered away to Berlin and Lord Harrowby. "What is +the wind?" he asked. "East; that will do; that will bring him fast," +he murmured. And, on January 23rd, about half an hour before he +breathed his last, the servant heard him say: "My country: oh my +country."[61] + +Thus sank to rest, amidst a horror of great darkness, the statesman +whose noon had been calm and glorious. Only a superficial reading of +his career can represent him as eager for war and a foe to popular +progress. His best friends knew full well his pride in the great +financial achievements of 1784-6, his resolute clinging to peace in +1792, and his longing for a pacification in 1796, 1797, and 1800, +provided it could be gained without detriment to our allies and to the +vital interests of Britain. His defence lies buried amidst the +documents of our Record Office, and has not yet fully seen the light. +For he was a reserved man, the warmth of whose nature blossomed forth +only to a few friends, or on such occasions as his inspired speech on +the emancipation of slaves. To outsiders he had more than the usual +fund of English coldness: he wrote no memoirs, he left few letters, he +had scant means of influencing public opinion; and he viewed with +lofty disdain the French clamour that it was he who made and kept up +the war. "I know it," he said; "the Jacobins cry louder than we can, +and make themselves heard."[62] He was, in fact, a typical champion of +our rather dumb and stolid race, that plods along to the end of the +appointed stage, scarcely heeding the cloud of stinging flies. Both +the people and its champion were ill fitted to cope with Napoleon. +None of our statesmen had the Latin tact and the histrionic gifts +needful to fathom his guile, to arouse the public opinion of Europe +against him, or to expose his double-dealing. + +But Pitt was unfortunate above all of them. It was his fate to begin +his career in an age of mediocrities and to finish it in an almost +single combat with the giant. He was no match for Napoleon. The +Coalition, which the Czar and he did so much to form, was a house of +cards that fell at the conqueror's first touch; and the Prussian +alliance now proved to be a broken reed. His notions of strategy were +puerile. The French Emperor was not to be beaten by small forces +tapping at his outworks; and Austria might reasonably complain that +our neglect to attack the rear of the Grand Army in Flanders exposed +her to the full force of its onset on the Danube. But though his +genius pales before the fiery comet of Napoleon, it shines with a +clear and steady radiance when viewed beside that of the Continental +statesmen of his age. They flickered for a brief space and set. His +was the rare virtue of dauntless courage and unswerving constancy. By +the side of their wavering groups he stands forth like an Abdiel: + + "Unshaken, unseduced, unterrified, + His loyalty he kept, his love, his zeal: + Nor number nor example with him wrought + To swerve from truth or change his constant mind, + Though single." + +While English statesmanship was essaying the task of forming a +Coalition Ministry under Fox and Grenville, Napoleon with untiring +activity was consolidating his position in Germany, Italy, and France. +In Germany he allied his family by marriage with the now royal Houses +of Bavaria and Wuertemberg. He chased the Bourbons of Naples from their +Continental domains. In France he found means to mitigate a severe +financial crisis, and to strengthen his throne by a new order of +hereditary nobility. In a word, he became the new Charlemagne. + +The exaltation of the South German dynasties had long been a favourite +project with Napoleon, who saw in the hatred of the House of Bavaria +for Austria a sure basis for spreading French influence into the heart +of Germany. Not long after the battle of Austerlitz, the Elector of +Bavaria, while out shooting, received from a French courier a letter +directed to "Sa Majeste _le Roi_ de Baviere et de Suabe."[63] This +letter was despatched six days after a formal request was sent through +Duroc, that the Elector would give his daughter Augusta in marriage to +Eugene Beauharnais. The affair had been mooted in October: it was +clinched by the victory of Austerlitz; and after Napoleon's arrival at +Munich on the last day of the year, the final details were arranged. +The bridegroom was informed of it in the following laconic style: "I +have arrived at Munich. I have arranged your marriage with the +Princess Augusta. It has been announced. This morning the princess +visited me, and I spoke with her for a long time. She is very pretty. +You will find herewith her portrait on a cup; but she is much better +looking." The wedding took place at Munich as soon as the bridegroom +could cross the Alps; and Napoleon delayed his departure for France in +order to witness the ceremony which linked him with an old reigning +family. At the same time he arranged a match between Jerome Bonaparte +and Princess Catherine of Wuertemberg. This was less expeditious, +partly because, in the case of a Bonaparte, Napoleon judged it needful +to sound the measure of his obedience. But Jerome had been broken in: +he had thrown over Miss Paterson, and, after a delay of a year and a +half, obeyed his brother's behests, and strengthened the ties +connecting Swabia with France. A third alliance was cemented by the +marriage of the heir to the Grand Duchy of Baden with Stephanie de +Beauharnais, niece of Josephine. + +In the early part of 1806 Napoleon might flatter himself with his +brilliant success as a match-maker. Yet, after all, he was less +concerned with the affairs of Hymen than with those of Mars and +Mercury. He longed to be at Paris for the settlement of finances; and +he burned to hear of the expulsion of the Bourbons from Naples. For +this last he had already sent forth his imperious mandates from +Vienna; and, after a brief sojourn at the Swabian capitals, he set out +for Paris, where he arrived incognito at midnight of January 26th. +During his absence of one hundred and twenty-five days he had captured +or destroyed two armies, stricken a mighty coalition to the heart, +shattered the Hapsburg Power, and revolutionized the Germanic system +by establishing two Napoleonic kingdoms in its midst. + +Yet, as if nothing had been done, and all his hopes and thoughts lay +in the future, he summoned his financial advisers to a council for +eight o'clock in the morning. Scarcely did he deign to notice their +congratulations on his triumphs. "We have," he said, "to deal with +more serious questions: it seems that the greatest dangers of the +State were not in Austria: let us hear the report of the Minister of +the Treasury." It then appeared that Barbe-Marbois had been concerned +in risky financial concerns with the Court of Spain, through a man +named Ouvrard. The Minister therefore was promptly dismissed, and +Mollien then and there received his post. The new Minister states in +his memoirs that the money, which had sufficed to carry the French +armies from the English Channel to the Rhine, had been raised on +extravagant terms, largely on loans on the national domains. In fact, +it had been an open question whether victory would come promptly +enough to avert a wholesale crash at Paris. + +So bad were the finances that, though 40,000,000 francs were poured +every year into France as subsidies from Italy and Spain, yet loans of +120,000,000 francs had been incurred in order to meet current +expenses.[64] It would exceed the limits of our space to describe by +what forceful means Napoleon restored the financial equilibrium and +assuaged the commercial crisis resulting from the war with England. +Mollien soon had reason to know that, so far from avoiding Continental +wars, the Emperor thenceforth seemed almost to provoke them, and that +the motto--_War must support war_--fell far short of the truth. +Napoleon's wars, always excepting his war with England, supported the +burdens of an armed peace. In this respect his easy and gainful +triumph over Austria was a disaster for France and Europe. It beckoned +him on to Jena and Tilsit. + +While reducing his finances to order and newspaper editors to +servility, the conqueror received news of the triumph of his arms in +Southern Italy. There the Bourbons of Naples had mortally offended +him. After concluding a convention for the peaceable withdrawal of St. +Cyr's corps and the strict observance of neutrality by the kingdom of +Naples, Ferdinand IV. and his Queen Caroline welcomed the arrival at +their capital of an Anglo-Russian force of 20,000 men, and intrusted +the command of these and of the Neapolitan troops to General Lacy.[65] +This force, it is true, did little except weaken the northward march +of Massena; but the violation of neutrality by the Bourbons galled +Napoleon. At Vienna he refused to listen to the timid pleading of the +Hapsburgs on their behalf, and as soon as peace was signed at +Pressburg he put forth a bulletin stating that St. Cyr was marching on +Naples to hurl from the throne that guilty woman who had so flagrantly +violated all that is sacred among men. France would fight for thirty +years rather than pardon her atrocious act of perfidy: the Queen of +Naples had ceased to reign: let her go to London and form a committee +of sympathetic ink with Drake, Spencer-Smith, Taylor, and Wickham. + +This diatribe was not the first occasion on which the conqueror had +proved that he was no gentleman. In his brutal letter of January 2nd, +1805, to Queen Caroline, he told her that, if she was the cause of +another war, she and her children would beg their bread all through +Europe. That and similar outbursts afford some excuse for the conduct +of the Bourbons in the autumn of 1805. They infringed the neutrality +which their ambassador had engaged to observe: but it is to be +remembered that Napoleon's invasion of the Neapolitan States in 1803 +was a gross violation of international law, which the French Foreign +Office sought to cloak by fabricating two secret articles of the +Treaty of Amiens.[66] And though troth should doubtless be kept, even +with a law-breaker, yet its violation becomes venial when the latter +adopts the tone of a bully. For the present he triumphed. Joseph +Bonaparte invaded Naples in force, and on January 13th the King, +Queen, and Court set sail for Palermo. The Anglo-Russian divisions +re-embarked and sailed away for Malta and Corfu. One of the Neapolitan +strongholds, Gaeta, held out till the middle of July. Elsewhere the +Bourbon troops gave little trouble. + +The conquest of Naples enabled Napoleon to extend his experiment of a +federation of Bonapartist Kings. He announced to Miot de Melito, now +appointed one of Joseph's administrators, his intentions in an +interview at the Tuileries on January 28th. Joseph was to be King of +Naples, if he accepted the honour quickly. If not, the Emperor would +adopt a son, as in the case of Eugene, and make him King.--"I don't +need a wife to have an heir. It is by my pen that I get +children."--But Joseph must also show himself worthy of the honour. +Let him despise fatigue, get wounded, break a leg. + + "Look at me. The recent campaign, agitation, and movement have + made me fat. I believe that if all the kings coalesced against me, + I should get a quite ridiculous stomach.... You have heard my + words. I can no longer have relatives in obscurity. Those who will + not rise with me, shall no longer be of my family. I am making a + family of kings attached to my federative system."[67] + +The threat having had its effect, Joseph was proclaimed King of Naples +by a decree of Napoleon. "Keep a firm hand: I only ask one thing of +you: be entirely the master there."[68] Such was the advice given to +his amiable brother, who after enjoying a military promenade +southwards was charged to undertake the conquest of Sicily. It +mattered little that the overthrow of the Neapolitan Bourbons offended +the Czar, who had undertaken the protection of that House. + +As though intent on browbeating Alexander by an exhibition of his +power, Napoleon lavished Italian titles on his Marshals and statesmen. +Talleyrand became Prince of Benevento; and Bernadotte, Prince of +Ponte-Corvo (two Papal enclaves in Neapolitan soil). To these and +other titles were attached large domains (not divisible at death), +which enabled his paladins and their successors to support their new +dignities with pomp and splendour; especially was this so with the two +titles which his bargains with Prussia and Bavaria enabled him to +bestow. Thanks to the complaisance of their Kings, the Grand Duchy of +Berg and Cleves was granted to Murat, while the energetic and trusty +Berthier was rewarded with the Principality of Neufchatel and a truly +princely fortune.[69] + +Thus was founded the Napoleonic nobility; and thus was fulfilled Mme. +de Stael's prophecy that the priests and nobles would be the +_caryatides_ of the future throne. The change was brought about +skilfully. It took place when pride in Napoleon's exploits was at its +height, and when the "Gazette de France" asserted: + + "France is henceforth the arbitress of Europe.... Civilization + would have perished in Europe, if forth from the ruins there had + not arisen one of these men before whom the world keeps silence, + and to whom Providence seems to intrust its destinies."[70] + +This adulation, which recalls that of the Court of Augustus or +Tiberius, gives the measure of French thought. In truth, Napoleon +showed profound insight into human nature when he judged the hatred of +an order of nobility to be a mere passing spasm of revolutionary +fever; and he evinced equal good sense in restoring that order through +the chiefs of the one truly popular institution in France, the army. +Besides, the new titles were not taken from French domains, which +would have revived the idea of feudal dependence in France: they were +the fruit of Napoleon's great victory; and the sound of distant names +like Benevento, Berg, and Dalmatia skilfully flattered the pride of +_la grande nation_. + +It is now time to return to the affairs of Prussia and to point out +the chief stages in her downward course. On January 3rd, 1806, an +important State Council was held at Berlin in order to decide on +certain modifications to the Schoenbrunn Treaty with Napoleon. The +chief change resolved on was as follows: Instead of the cessions of +territory being immediate and absolute, as proposed by Napoleon, they +were not to take effect before the general peace. Until that took +place, Frederick William resolved to occupy Hanover provisionally, +meanwhile answering to France for the tranquillity of the north of +Germany.[71] The Prussian Government therefore gave strong hints that +the presence of a British force there was objectionable, and the +troops were withdrawn.[72] + +Napoleon was to be less pliable. And yet Haugwitz assured the Prussian +King and council that he had looked Napoleon through and through, and +had discerned an unexpressed wish to deal easily with Prussia. As to +his acceptance of these changes in the Schoenbrunn Treaty, Haugwitz +felt no doubt whatever, at least so his foe, Hardenberg, states. But +the Prussian Ministers were now proposing, not the offensive and +defensive treaty of alliance that Napoleon required, but rather a +mediation for peace between France and England. They were, in fact, +striving to steer halfway between Napoleon and George III.--and gain +Hanover. Verily, here was a belief in half measures passing that of +women. + +The envoy despatched to assure Napoleon's assent to these new +conditions was the very man who had quailed before the Emperor at +Schoenbrunn. Count Haugwitz set out on January 14th for Munich and +thence for Paris; but long before any definite news was received from +him, the Court of Berlin decided, on the strength of a few oily +compliments from the French ambassador, Laforest, to regard the +acceptance of Napoleon as fully assured. Accordingly, on January 24th, +the Government resolved to place the Prussian army on a peace-footing +and recall the troops from Franconia, as a daily saving of 100,000 +thalers might thereby be effected. Never was there a greater act of +extravagance. As soon as the retreat and demobilizing of the Prussian +forces was announced, the French troops in Bavaria and Franconia began +to press forward, while others poured across the Rhine. Affecting to +ignore these threatening moves, the Prussian Court strove peaceably to +acquire Hanover by secretly offering George III. a re-arrangement of +territories, whereby the Hanoverian lands east of the Weser, along +with a few districts west of Hameln and Nienburg, should pass to +Prussia. Frederick William proposed to keep Minden and Ravensburg, but +to cede East Frisia and all the rest of his Westphalian possessions to +King George, who would retain the electoral dignity for these new +lands.[73] The only reply that our ruler deigned to this offer was +that he trusted: + + "His Prussian Majesty will follow the honourable dictates of his + own heart, and will demonstrate to the world that he will not set + the dreadful example of indemnifying himself at the expense of a + third party, whose sentiments and conduct towards him and his + subjects have been uniformly friendly and pacifick."[74] + +But by the close of February this appeal fell on deaf ears. Frederick +William had decided to comply with Napoleon's terms and was about to +take formal possession of Hanover. + +The conqueror was far from taking that easy view of the changes made +in the Schoenbrunn Treaty which the discerning Haugwitz had trustfully +expected. At first, every effort was made by Talleyrand to delay his +interview with the Emperor, evidently in the hope that the subtle +flattery of Laforest at Berlin would lead to the demobilization of the +Prussian forces. This fatal step was known at Paris before February +6th, when Haugwitz was received by the Emperor; and the knowledge that +Prussia was at his mercy decided the conqueror's tone. He began by +some wheedling words as to the ability shown by Haugwitz in the +Schoenbrunn negotiation: + + "If anyone but myself had treated with you I should have thought + him bought over by you; but, let me confess to you, the treaty was + due to your talents and merit. You were in my eyes the first + statesman in Europe, and covered yourself with immortal glory." + +Before that interview, forsooth, he had decided to make war on +Prussia; and only Haugwitz had induced him to offer her peace and the +gift of Hanover. Why, then, had that treaty been so criticised at +Berlin? Why had the French ambassador been slighted? Why was +Hardenberg high in favour? Why had not the King dismissed that tool of +England? Here the envoy strove to stem the rising torrent of the +Emperor's wrath; his words were at once swept aside; and the deluge +flowed on. As Prussia had not ratified the treaty pure and simple, she +was in a state of war with France; for she still had Russian and +English troops on her soil. Here again Haugwitz observed that those +forces were withdrawing, and that the Prussians were entering Hanover +in force. The storm burst forth anew. What right had Prussia thus to +carry into effect a treaty which she had not ratified? If her forces +entered Hanover, his troops should forthwith occupy Ansbach, Cleves, +and Neufchatel: if Frederick William meant to have Hanover, he should +pay dearly for it. But he would allow Haugwitz to see Talleyrand, so +as to prevent an immediate war.[75] + +The calm of the Foreign Minister was as dangerous as the bluster of +the Emperor. Talleyrand was no friend to Prussia. He had long known +Napoleon's determination to press on a war between England and +Prussia, and he lent himself to the plan of undermining the +Hohenzollerns. The scales now fell from the envoy's eyes. He saw that +his country stood friendless before an exacting creditor, who now +claimed further sacrifices--or Prussia's life-blood. The Emperor's +threats were partly fictitious; and when Haugwitz was thoroughly +frightened and ready to concede almost anything, Napoleon came to the +real point at issue, and demanded that the whole of the German +coast-line on the North Sea should be closed to English commerce. With +this stringent clause superadded, Hanover was now handed over to +Prussia. Never was a Greek gift more skilfully offered. The present of +Hanover on those terms implied for the recipient Russia's disapproval +and the hostility of England.[76] + +This was the news brought by Haugwitz to Berlin. Frederick William was +now on the horns of the very dilemma which he had sought to avoid. +Either he must accept Napoleon's terms, or defy the conqueror to +almost single combat. The irony of his position was now painfully +apparent. In his longing for peace and retrenchment he had dismissed +his would-be allies, and had sent his own soldiers grumbling to their +homes. Moreover, he was tied by his previous action. If he accepted +peace from Napoleon at Christmas, when 300,000 men could have disputed +the victor's laurels, how much more must he accept it now! He not only +gave way on this point: he even complied with Napoleon's wishes by +keeping Hardenberg at a distance. He did not dismiss him--the +friendship of the spirited Queen Louisa forbade that: but Hardenberg +yielded up to Haugwitz the guidance of foreign affairs, and was +granted unlimited leave of absence. + +Popular feeling was deeply moved by this craven compliance with French +behests. The officers of the Berlin garrison serenaded the patriotic +statesman, while Haugwitz twice had his windows smashed. Public +opinion, it is true, counted for little in Prussia. The rigorous +separation of classes, the absence of popular education, the complete +subjection of the journals to Government, and the mutual jealousy of +soldiers and civilians, prevented any general expression of opinion in +that almost feudal society. + +But when the people of Ansbach piteously begged not to be handed over +to Bavaria, and forthwith saw their land occupied by the French before +Prussia had ratified the cession of that principality; when the North +Germans found that the gain of Hanover by Prussia was at the price of +war with England and the ruin of their commerce; when it was seen that +Frederick William and Haugwitz had clipped the wings of the Prussian +eagle till it shunned a fight with the Gallic cock, a feeling of shame +and indignation arose which proved that the limits of endurance had +been reached. Observers saw that, after all, the old German feeling +was not dead; it was only torpid; and forces were beginning to work +which threatened ruin to the Hohenzollerns if they again tarnished the +national honour.[77] + +Meanwhile the first overtures for peace were exchanged between Paris, +London, and St. Petersburg. In the spring of 1806 there seemed some +ground for hope that Europe might find repose, at least on land, after +fourteen years of almost constant war. France was no longer +Jacobinical. Under Napoleon she had quickly fallen into line with the +monarchical States, and the questions now at stake merely related to +boundaries and the balance of power. The bellicose ardour of the Czar +had melted away at Austerlitz. The seizure of Hanover by Prussia moved +him but little, and he sought to compose the resulting strife. As for +the other Powers, they were either helpless or torpid. The King of +Sweden was venting his spleen upon Prussia. Italy, South Germany, +Holland, and Spain were at Napoleon's beck; and the policy of England +under the new Grenville-Fox Ministry inclined strongly towards peace. +There seemed, then, every chance of founding the supremacy of France +upon lasting foundations, if the claims of Britain and Austria +received reasonable satisfaction. Napoleon also seems to have wanted +peace for the consolidation of his power in Europe and the extension +of his colonies and commerce. As at the close of all his land +campaigns, his thoughts turned to the East, and on January 31st, 1806, +he issued orders to Decres which, far from showing any despair as to +the French navy, foreshadowed a vigorous naval and colonial policy; +while his moves on the Dalmatian coast, and the despatch of Sebastiani +on a mission to the Porte, revealed the magnetic attraction which the +Levant still had for him. + +A peculiar interest therefore attaches to the negotiations for peace +in 1806, especially as they were pushed on by that generous orator, +Fox, who had so long pleaded for a good understanding with France. On +February 20th, 1806, he disclosed to Talleyrand the details of a +supposed plot for the murder of the French Emperor, which some person +had proposed to him, an offer which he rejected with horror, at the +same time ordering the man to be expelled from the kingdom. It is more +than probable that the whole thing was got up by the French police as +a test of the esteem which Fox had always expressed for Bonaparte. + +The experiment having turned out well, Talleyrand assured Fox of the +pacific desires of the French Emperor as recently stated to the Corps +Legislatif, namely, that peace could be had on the terms of the Treaty +of Amiens. Fox at once clasped the outstretched hand, but stated that +the negotiations must be in concert with Russia, and the treaty such +as our allies could honourably accept. To this Talleyrand, on April +1st, gave a partial assent, adding that Napoleon was convinced that +the rupture of the Peace of Amiens was due solely to the refusal of +France to grant a treaty of commerce. France and England could now +come to satisfactory terms, if England would be content with the +sovereignty of the seas, and not interfere with Continental +affairs.[78] France desired, not a truce, but a durable peace. + +To this Fox assented, but traversed the French claim that Russia's +participation would imply her mediation. Peace could only come from an +honourable understanding between all the Powers actually at war. +Talleyrand denied that Russia was at war with France, as the Third +Coalition had lapsed; but Fox held his ground, and declared there must +be peace with England _and Russia_, or not at all: otherwise France +would be seen to aim at "excluding us from any connection with the +Continental Powers of Europe."[79] + +Such a beginning was disappointing: it showed that Napoleon and +Talleyrand were intent on sowing distrust between England and Russia, +who were mutually pledged not to make peace separately; and for a time +all overtures ceased between London and Paris, until it was known that +a Russian envoy was going to Paris. Hitherto the French Foreign Office +had won brilliant successes by skilfully separating and embittering +allies. But now it seemed that their tactics were foiled. Two firm and +trusty allies yet remained, Britain and Russia. To Czartoryski our +Foreign Minister had expressed his desire that the former offensive +alliance should now take a solely defensive character: "If we cannot +reduce the enormous power of France, it will always be something to +stop its progress." To these opinions the Russian Minister gave a +cordial assent, and despatched a special envoy to London to concert +terms of peace along with the British Ministry, while Oubril, "a safe +man on whose prudence and principles the two allied Courts may safely +rely," was despatched to Vienna and Paris.[80] + +Oubril proceeded to Vienna, where he had long discussions with the +British and French ambassadors: Fox also requested that Lord Yarmouth, +one of the many hundreds of Englishmen still kept under restraint in +France, might have his freedom and repair at once to Paris for a +preliminary discussion with Talleyrand. The request being granted, the +prisoner left the depot at Verdun, and, early in June, saw that +Minister in his first flush of pride at the new title of Prince of +Benevento. At that time Paris was intoxicated with Napoleon's glory. +The French were lords of Franconia, whence they levied heavy +exactions: in Italy they defied the Pope's authority.[81] They were +firmly installed at Ancona, despite repeated protests of Pius VII. +King Joseph with an army of 45,000 men was planning the expulsion of +the Bourbons from Sicily. And in these early days of June, Louis +Bonaparte was declared King of Holland. + +Yet Talleyrand was not so dazzled by this splendour as to slight the +idea of peace with England; and when Lord Yarmouth stated that George +III. would above all things require the restoration of Hanover, the +Minister, after a delay in which he consulted his master, stated that +that would make no difficulty. As to the other questions, namely, +Sicily and the maintenance of the Turkish Empire, he replied: "You +hold Sicily, we do not ask it of you: if we possessed it, it might +much increase our difficulties"; and as regards Turkey he advised +that England should speedily gain the guarantee of its integrity from +France--"for much is being prepared, but nothing is yet done." After +reporting these views at Downing Street, Lord Yarmouth returned to +Paris for further discussions, with the general understanding that the +principle of _uti possidetis_ should form their basis--except as +regards Hanover. He now was informed by Talleyrand that the +negotiations with Russia were to be kept separate, and that Napoleon +had other views about Sicily, as he looked on its conquest as +necessary for Joseph's security on the mainland. + +Surprised at this change, our envoy stated that he could not discuss +any terms of peace in which Sicily was not kept for the Bourbons; +whereupon Talleyrand replied that things were altered, and that we +ought to be content with regaining Hanover from Prussia and keeping +Malta and the Cape of Good Hope. On Lord Yarmouth declining to proceed +further until the French claims to Sicily were renounced, the offer of +the Hanse Towns (Luebeck, Hamburg, and Bremen) was made for his +Sicilian Majesty; and on the refusal of that bait, Dalmatia, Ragusa, +and Albania were proposed. + +As Napoleon had offered to guarantee the integrity of the Turkish +Empire, Lord Yarmouth showed some indignation at a proposal which +would have begun its partition; and, but for the expected arrival of +Oubril, would have broken off the negotiation. On July 8th he saw the +Russian envoy and found him a man of straw. Oubril approved +everything. He was glad that France would give back Hanover to +England, because that would sever the Franco-Prussian union and make +the Court of Berlin dependent on Russia. He even thought it might be +well for the Hanse Towns to go to the Neapolitan Bourbons, provided +those towns were placed under the Czar's protection. But even better +was the proposal that those Bourbons should have Dalmatia and +neighbouring lands; for that would drive a wedge between Napoleon and +Turkey. Such was the gist of this curious interview. Desirous of +testing the accuracy of his account of it, Lord Yarmouth read it over +to Oubril at their next interview, when the Russian envoy added the +following written corrections: + + "N.B.M. d'Oubril believes, though he has no directions on this + subject, that it would be suitable to Russia, and even + advantageous for the assuring their own independence, that Hamburg + and Luebeck should pass under the suzerainty of Russia.--N.B. + Although M. d'Oubril has a positive order to insist on the + preservation of Sicily for the King of Naples, yet he is of + opinion that the acquisition of Venetia, Istria, Dalmatia, and + Albania" [should be an establishment for his Sicilian + Majesty].[82] + +That a reed shaken by every breeze should bow before Napoleon's will +was not surprising; and late at night on July 20th Lord Yarmouth heard +that the Russian envoy had just signed a separate peace with France, +whereby the independence of the Ionian Isles was recognized (Russia +keeping only 4,000 troops in Corfu), and Germany was to be evacuated +by the French. But the sting was in the tail: for a secret article +stipulated that Ferdinand IV. should cede Sicily to Joseph Bonaparte +and receive the Balearic Isles from Napoleon's ally, Spain. + +Such was the news which our envoy heard, after forcing his way to +Oubril's presence, just as the latter was hurrying off to St. +Petersburg. At that city an important change had taken place; +Czartoryski had retired in favour of Baron Budberg, who was less +favourable to a close alliance with England; and it appears certain +that Oubril would not have broken through his instructions had he not +known of this change. What other motives led him to break faith with +England, Sicily, and Spain are not clearly known. He claimed that the +new order of things in Germany rendered it highly important to get the +French troops out of that land. Doubtless this was so; but even that +benefit would have been dearly bought at the price of disgrace to the +Czar.[83] + +Leaving for the present Oubril to face his indignant master, we turn +to notice an epoch-making change, the details of which were settled at +Paris in the midst of the negotiations with England and Russia. On +July 17th was quietly signed the Act of the Confederation of the +Rhine, that destroyed the old Germanic Empire. + +Some such event had long been expected. The Holy Roman Empire, after a +thousand years of life, had been stricken unto death at Austerlitz. +The seizure of Hanover by Prussia had led the King of Sweden to +declare that he, for his Pomeranian lands, would take no more share in +the deliberations of the senile Diet at Ratisbon which took no notice +of that outrage. Moreover, Ratisbon was now merely the second city of +Bavaria, whose King might easily deny to that body its local +habitation; and the use of the term Germanic Confederation in the +Treaty of Pressburg sounded the death-knell of an Empire which +Voltaire with equal wit and truth had described as neither holy, nor +Roman, nor an Empire. In the new age of trenchant realities how could +that venerable figment survive--where the election of the Emperor was +a sham, his coronation a mere parade of tattered robes before a crowd +of landless Serenities, and where the Diet was largely concerned with +regulating the claims of the envoys of princes to sit on seats of red +cloth or on the less honourable green cloth, or with apportioning the +traditional thirty-seven dishes of the imperial banquet so that the +last should be borne by a Westphalian envoy?[84] + +Among these spectral survivals of an outworn life the incursion of +Napoleon across the Rhine had aroused a panic not unlike that which +the sturdy form of AEneas cast on the gibbering shades of the Greeks in +the mourning fields of Hades. And when, on August 1st, 1806, the heir +to the Revolution notified to the Diet at Ratisbon that neither he nor +the States of South and Central Germany any longer recognized the +existence of the old Empire, feebler protests arose than came from the +straining throats of the scared comrades of Agamemnon. The Diet itself +uttered no audible sound. The Emperor, Francis II., forthwith declared +that he laid down his crown, absolved all the electors and princes +from their allegiance, and retired within the bounds of the Austrian +Empire. + +Thus feebly flickered out the light which had shed splendour on +mediaeval Christendom. Kindled in the basilica of St. Peter's on +Christmas Day of the year 800 in an almost mystical union of spiritual +and earthly power, by the blessing of Pope Leo on Karl the Great, it +was now trodden under foot by the chief of a more than Frankish State, +who aspired to unquestioned sway over a dominion as great as that of +the mediaeval hero. For Napoleon, as Protector of the Rhenish +Confederation, now controlled most of the German lands that +acknowledged Charlemagne, while his hold on Italy was immeasurably +stronger. Further parallels between two ages and systems so unlike as +those of Charlemagne and his imitator are of course superficial; and +Napoleon's attempt at impressing the imagination of the Germans seems +to us to smack of unreality. Yet we must remember that they were then +the most impressionable and docile of nations, that his attempt was +made with much skill, and that none of the appointed guardians of the +old Empire raised a voice in protest while he imposed a constitution +on the fifteen Princes of the new Confederation. + +They included the rulers of South Germany, as well as Dalberg the +Arch-Chancellor, who now took the title of Prince Primate, the +Grand-Duke of Berg, the Landgrave, now Grand-Duke, of Hesse-Darmstadt, +two Princes of the House of Nassau, and seven lesser potentates. In +some cases German laws were abolished in favour of the _Code +Napoleon_. A close offensive and defensive alliance was framed between +France and these States, that were to furnish in all 63,000 troops at +the bidding of the Protector. Napoleon also gained some control over +their fiscal and commercial codes--an important advantage, in view of +the Continental System, that was soon to take definite form.[85] + +As a set-off to this surrender of all questions of foreign policy and +many internal rights, what did these rulers receive? As happened +almost uniformly in Napoleon's aggrandizements, he struck a bargain +extremely serviceable to himself, less so to those whose support he +sought, and in which the losses fell crushingly on the weak. His +statecraft in this respect was more cynical than that of the crowned +robbers who had degraded eighteenth-century politics into a game of +grab. Their robberies were at least direct and straightforward. It was +reserved for Napoleon at the Treaty of Campo Formio to win huge gains +mostly at the expense of a weak third party, namely, Venice. He +pursued the same profitable tactics in the Secularizations, when +France and the greater German Powers gained enormously at the final +cost of the Church lands and the little States; and now he ground up +the German domains that were to cement his new Rhenish system. + +There were still numbers of Imperial Counts and Knights, as well as +free cities, that had not been absorbed in 1803. The survivors were +now wiped out by Napoleon for the benefit of his Rhenish underlings, +the spoliation being veiled under the term _Mediatization_. The +euphemism claims a brief explanation. In old German law the nobles and +cities that gained local independence by shaking off the control of +the local potentate were termed _immediate_, because they owed +allegiance directly to the Emperor, without any feudal intermediary: +if by mischance they fell under that hated control they were said to +be _mediatized_. This term was now applied to acts that subjected the +knight, or city, not to feudal control, but to complete absorption by +the king or prince of Napoleon's creation. Six Imperial or Free Cities +survived the Secularizations, namely, the three Hanse towns, and +Augsburg, Frankfurt, and Nuremberg. The northern towns still held +their ancient rights; but Augsburg and Nuremberg now fell to the King +of Bavaria, and Frankfurt was bestowed by Napoleon on Dalberg, the +Prince Primate of the Confederation. + +German life began to lose much of the quaint diversity beloved of +artists and poets; but it also gained much. No longer did the Count of +Limburg-Styrum parade his army of one colonel, six officers, and two +privates in the valley of the Roehr: he and his passed under the sway +of Murat, and the lapse of these pigmy forces made a national army +possible in the dim future. No more did the Imperial lawyers at +Wetzlar browse on evergreen lawsuits: justice was administered after +the concise methods of Napoleon. The crops of the Swabian peasant were +now comparatively safe from the deer of His Translucency of the castle +hard by; for the spirit of the French Revolution breathed upon the old +game laws and robbed them of their terrors. And the German patriot of +to-day must still confess that the first impulse for reform, however +questionable its motives and brutal its application, came from the new +Charlemagne. + + NOTE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.--In a volume of Essays entitled + "Napoleonic Studies" (George Bell and Sons, 1904) I have treated + somewhat fully the questions of Pitt's Continental policy, and of + Napoleon's relations to the new thought of the age, in two Essays, + entitled "Pitt's Plans for the Settlement of Europe" and + "Wordsworth, Schiller, Fichte, and the Idealist Revolt against + Napoleon." + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XXV + +THE FALL OF PRUSSIA + + +We now turn to consider the influence which the founding of the +Rhenish Confederation exerted on the international problems which were +being discussed at Paris. Having gained this diplomatic victory, +Napoleon, it seems, might well afford to be lenient to Prussia, to the +Czar, even to England. Would he seize this opportunity, and soothe the +fears of these Powers by a few timely concessions, or would he press +them all the harder because the third of Germany was now under his +control? Here again he was at the parting of the ways. + +As the only obstacles to the conclusion of a durable peace with +England were Sicily and Hanover, it may be well to examine here the +bearing of these questions on the peace of Europe and Napoleon's +future. + +It is clear from his letters to Joseph that he had firmly resolved to +conquer Sicily. Before his brother had reached Naples he warned him to +prepare for the expulsion of the Bourbons from that island. For that +purpose the French pushed on into Calabria and began to make extensive +preparations--at the very time when Talleyrand stated to Lord Yarmouth +that the French did not want Sicily. But the English forces defending +that island prepared to deal a blow that would prevent a French +descent. A force of about 5,000 men under Sir John Stuart landed in +the Bay of St. Euphemia: and when, on the 4th of July, 1806, Reynier +led 7,000 troops against them in full assurance of victory, his +choicest battalions sank before the fierce bayonet charge of the +British: in half an hour the French were in full retreat, leaving half +their numbers on the field. + +The moral effect of this victory was very great. Hitherto our troops, +except in Egypt, had had no opportunity of showing their splendid +qualities. More than half a century had passed since at Minden a +British force had triumphed over a French force in Europe; and +Napoleon expressed the current opinion when he declared to Joseph his +joy that at last the _slow and clumsy English_ had ventured on the +mainland.[86] Moreover, the success at Maida, the general rising of +the Calabrias that speedily followed, and Stuart's capture of Reggio, +Cortone, and other towns, with large stores and forty cannon destined +for the conquest of Sicily, scattered to the winds the French hope of +carrying Sicily by a _coup de main_. + +If there was any chance of the Russian and British Governments +deserting the cause of the Bourbons, it was ended by the news from the +Mediterranean; and Napoleon now realized that the mastery of that +sea--"_the principal and constant aim of my policy_"--had once more +slipped from his grasp! On their side the Bourbons were unduly elated +by a further success which was more brilliant than solid. Queen +Caroline, excited at the capture of Capri by Sir Sidney Smith, sought +to rouse all her lost provinces: she intrigued behind the back of the +King and of General Acton, while the knight-errant succeeded in +paralyzing the plans of Sir John Stuart.[87] Meanwhile Massena, after +reducing the fortress of Gaeta to surrender, marched southward with a +large force, and the British and Bourbon forces re-embarked for +Sicily, leaving the fierce peasants and bandits of Calabria to the +mercies of the conquerors. But Maida was not fought in vain. Sicily +thenceforth was safe, the British army regained something of its +ancient fame, and the hope of resisting Napoleon was strengthened both +at St. Petersburg and London. + +Peace can rarely be attained unless one of the combatants is overcome +or both are exhausted. But neither Great Britain nor France was in +this position. By sea our successes had been as continuous as those of +Napoleon over our allies on land. In January we captured the Cape from +the Dutch: in February the French force at St. Domingo surrendered to +Sir James Duckworth: Admiral Warren in March closed the career of the +adventurous Linois; and early in July a British force seized great +treasure at Buenos Ayres, whence, however, it was soon obliged to +retire. After these successes Fox could not but be firm. He refused to +budge from the standpoint of _uti possidetis_ which our envoy had +stated as the basis of negotiations: and the Earl of Lauderdale, who +was sent to support and finally to supersede the Earl of Yarmouth, at +once took a firm tone which drew forth a truculent rejoinder. If that +was to be the basis, wrote Clarke, the French plenipotentiary, then +France would require Moravia, Styria, the whole of Austria (Proper), +and Hanover, and in that case leave England her few colonial +conquests. + +This reply of August 8th nearly severed the negotiations on the spot: +but Talleyrand persistently refused to grant the passports which +Lauderdale demanded--evidently in the hope that the Czar's +ratification of Oubril's treaty would cause us to give up Sicily.[88] +He was in error. On September 3rd the news reached Paris that +Alexander scornfully rejected his envoy's handiwork. Nevertheless, +Napoleon refused to forego his claims to Sicily; and the closing days +of Fox were embittered by the thought that this negotiation, the last +hope of a career fruitful in disappointments, was doomed to failure. +After using his splendid eloquence for fifteen years in defence of the +Revolution and its "heir," he came to the bitter conclusion that +liberty had miscarried in France, and that that land had bent beneath +the yoke in order the more completely to subjugate the Continent. He +died on September 13th. + +French historians, following an article in the "Moniteur" of November +26th, have often asserted that the death of Fox and the accession to +power of the warlike faction changed the character of the +negotiations.[89] Nothing can be further from the truth. Not long +before his end, Fox thus expressed to his nephew his despair of peace: + + "We can in honour do nothing without the full and _bona fide_ + consent of the Queen and Court of Naples; but, even exclusive of + that consideration and of the great importance of Sicily, it is + not so much the value of the point in dispute as the manner in + which the French fly from their word that disheartens me. It is + not Sicily, but the shuffling, insincere way in which they act, + that shows me that they are playing a false game; and in that case + it would be very imprudent to make any concessions, which by any + possibility could be thought inconsistent with our honour, or + could furnish our allies with a plausible pretence for suspecting, + reproaching, or deserting us." + +It is further to be noted that Lauderdale stayed on at Paris three +weeks after the death of Fox; that he put forward no new demand, but +required that Talleyrand should revert to his first promise of +renouncing all claim to Sicily, and should treat conjointly with +England and Russia. It was in vain. Napoleon's final concessions were +that the Bourbons, after losing Sicily, should have the Balearic Isles +and be pensioned _by Spain_; that Russia should hold Corfu (as she +already did); and that we should recover Hanover from Prussia, and +keep Malta, the Cape, Tobago, and the three French towns in India; +but, except Hanover, all of these were in our power. On Sicily he +would not bate one jot of his pretensions. The negotiations were +therefore broken off on October 6th, twelve days after Napoleon left +Paris to marshal his troops against Prussia.[90] The whole affair +revealed Napoleon's determination to trick the allies into signing +separate and disadvantageous treaties, and thus to regain by craft the +ground which he had lost in fair fight at Maida. + +If Sicily was the rock of stumbling between us and Napoleon, Hanover +was the chief cause of the war between France and Prussia. During the +negotiations at Paris, Lord Yarmouth privately informed Lucchesini, +the Prussian ambassador, that Talleyrand made no difficulty about the +restitution of Hanover to George III. The news, when forwarded to +Berlin at the close of July, caused a nervous flutter in ministerial +circles, where every effort was being made to keep on good terms with +France. + +Even before this news arrived, the task was far from easy. Murat, when +occupying his new Duchy of Berg, pushed on his troops into the old +Church lands of Essen and Werden. Prussia looked on these districts as +her own, and the sturdy patriot Bluecher at once marched in his +soldiers, tore down Murat's proclamations, and restored the Prussian +eagle with blare of trumpet and beat of drum.[91] A collision was with +difficulty averted by the complaisance of Frederick William, who +called back his troops and referred the question to lawyers; but even +the King was piqued when the Grand-Duke of Berg sent him a letter of +remonstrance on Bluecher's conduct, commencing with the familiar +address, _Mon frere_. + +Bluecher meanwhile and the soldiery were eating out their hearts with +rage, as they saw the French pouring across the Rhine, and +constructing a bridge of boats at Wesel; and had they known that that +important stronghold, the key of North Germany, was quietly declared +to be a French garrison town, they would probably have forced the +hands of the King.[92] For at this time Frederick William and Haugwitz +were alarmed by the formation of the Rhenish Confederation, and were +not wholly reassured by Napoleon's suggestion that the abolition of +the old Empire must be an advantage to Prussia. They clutched eagerly, +however, at his proposal that Prussia should form a league of the +North German States, and made overtures to the two most important +States, Saxony and Hesse-Cassel. During a few halcyon days the King +even proposed to assume the title _Emperor of Prussia_, from which, +however, the Elector of Saxony ironically dissuaded him. This castle +in the air faded away when news reached Berlin at the beginning of +August that Napoleon was seeking to bring the Elector of Hesse-Cassel +into the Rhenish Confederation, and was offering as a bait the domains +of some Imperial Knights and the principality of Fulda, now held by +the Prince of Orange, a relative of Frederick William. Moreover, the +moves of the French troops in Thuringia were so threatening to Saxony +that the Court of Dresden began to scout the project of a North German +Confederation. + +Still, the King and Haugwitz tried to persuade themselves that +Napoleon meant well for Prussia, that England had been doing her +utmost to make bad blood between the two allies, and that "great +results could not be attained without some friction." In this hope +they were encouraged by the French ambassador, the man who had enticed +Prussia to her demobilization. He was charged by Talleyrand to report +at Berlin that "peace with England would be made, as well as with +Russia, if France had consented to the restitution of Hanover.--I have +renewed," added Laforest, "the assurance that the Emperor [Napoleon] +would never yield on this point." + +And yet at that very time the French Foreign Office was at work upon a +Project of a Treaty in which the restitution of Hanover to George III. +was expressly named and received the assent of Napoleon.[93] The +Prussian ambassador, Lucchesini, had some inkling of this from French +sources,[94] as well as from Lord Yarmouth, and on July 28th penned a +despatch which fell like a thunderbolt on the optimists of Berlin. It +crossed on the way--such is the irony of diplomacy--a despatch from +Berlin that required him to show unlimited confidence in Napoleon. +From confidence the King now rushed to the opposite extreme, and saw +Napoleon's hand in all the friction of the last few weeks. + +Here again he was wrong; for the French Emperor had held back Murat +and the other hot-bloods of the army who were longing to measure +swords with Prussia.[95] His correspondence proves that his first +thoughts were always in the Mediterranean. For one page that he wrote +about German affairs he wrote twenty to Joseph or Eugene on the need +of keeping a firm hand and punishing Calabrian rebels--"shoot three +men in every village"--above all, on the plans for conquering Sicily. +It was therefore with real surprise that on August 16th-18th he learnt +from a purloined despatch of Lucchesini that the latter suspected him +of planning with the Czar the partition of Prussian Poland. He treated +the matter with contempt, and seems to have thought that Prussia would +meekly accept the morsels which he proposed to throw to her in place +of Hanover. But he misread the character of Frederick William, if he +thought so grievous an insult would be passed over, and he knew not +the power of the Prussian Queen to kindle the fire of patriotism. + +Queen Louisa was at this time thirty years of age and in the flower of +that noble matronly beauty which bespoke a pure and exalted being. As +daughter of a poverty-stricken prince of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, her +youth had been spent in the homeliest fashion, until her charms won +the heart of the Crown Prince of Prussia. Her first entry into Berlin +was graced by an act that proclaimed a loving nature. When a group of +children dressed in white greeted her with verses of welcome, she +lifted up and kissed their little leader, to the scandal of stiff +dowagers, and the joy of the citizens. The incident recalls the easy +grace and disregard of etiquette shown by Marie Antoinette at +Versailles in her young bridal days; and, in truth, these queens have +something in common, besides their loveliness and their misfortunes. +Both were mated with cold and uninspiring consorts. Destiny had +refused both to Frederick William and to Louis XVI. the power of +exciting feelings warmer than the esteem and respect due to a worthy +man; and all the fervour of loyalty was aroused by their queens. + +Louisa was a North German Marie Antoinette, but more staid and homely +than the vivacious daughter of Maria Theresa. Neither did she +interfere much in politics, until the great crash came: even when the +blow was impending, and the patriotic statesmen, with whom she +sympathized, begged the King to remove Haugwitz, she disappointed them +by withholding the entreaties which her instincts urged but her wifely +obedience restrained. Her influence as yet was that of a noble, +fascinating woman, who softened the jars occasioned by the King's +narrow and pedantic nature, and purified the Court from the grossness +of the past. But in the dark days that were to come, her faith and +enthusiasm breathed new force into a down-trodden people; and where +all else was shattered, the King and Queen still held forth the ideal +of that first and strongest of Teutonic institutions, a pure family +life. + +The "Memoirs" of Hardenberg show that the Queen quietly upheld the +patriotic cause;[96] and in the tone of the letter that Frederick +William wrote to the Czar (August 8th) there is something of feminine +resentment against the French Emperor: after recounting his grievances +at Napoleon's hands, he continued: + + "If the news be true, if he be capable of perfidy so black, be + convinced, Sire, that it is not merely a question about Hanover + between him and me, but that he has decided to make war against me + at all costs. He wants no other Power beside his own.... Tell me, + Sire, I conjure you, if I may hope that your troops will be within + reach of succour for me, and if I may count on them in case of + aggression." + +Alexander wrote a cheering response, advising him to settle his +differences with England and Sweden, and assuring him of help. +Whereupon the King replied (September 6th) that he had reopened the +North Sea rivers to British ships and hoped for peace and pecuniary +help from London. He concluded thus: + + "Meanwhile, Bonaparte has left me at my ease: for not only does he + not enter into any explanation about my armaments, but he has even + forbidden his Ministers to give and receive any explanations + whatever. It appears, then, that it is I who am to take the + initiative. My troops are marching on all sides to hasten that + moment."[97] + +These last sentences are the handwriting on the wall for the _ancien +regime_ in Prussia. Taking the bland assurances of Talleyrand and the +studied indifference of Laforest as signs that Napoleon might be +caught off his guard, Prussia continued her warlike preparations; and +in order to gain time Lucchesini was recalled and replaced by an envoy +who was to enter into lengthy explanations. The trick did not deceive +Napoleon, who on September 3rd had heard with much surprise that +Russia meant to continue the war. At once he saw the germ of a new +Coalition, and bent his energies to the task of conciliating Austria, +and of fomenting the disputes between Russia and Turkey. Towards +Frederick William his tone was that of a friend who grieves at an +unexpected quarrel. How--he exclaimed to Lucchesini on the +ambassador's departure--how could the King credit him with encouraging +the intrigues of a fussy ambassador at Cassel or the bluster of Murat? + +As for Hanover, he had intended sending some one to Berlin to propose +an equivalent for it in case England still made its restitution a +_sine qua non_ of peace. "But," he added, "if your young officers and +your women at Berlin want war, I am preparing to satisfy them. Yet my +ambition turns wholly to Italy. She is a mistress whose favours I will +share with no one. I will have all the Adriatic. The Pope shall be my +vassal, and I will conquer Sicily. On North Germany I have no claims: +I do not object to the Hanse towns entering your confederation. As to +the inclusion of Saxony in it, my mind is not yet made up."[98] + +Indeed, the tenor of his private correspondence proves that before the +first week of September he did not expect a new Coalition. He believed +that England and Russia would give way before him, and that Prussia +would never dare to stir. For the Court of Berlin he had a sovereign +contempt, as for the "old coalition machines" in general. His conduct +of affairs at this time betokens, not so much desire for war as lack +of imagination where other persons' susceptibilities are concerned. It +is probable that he then wanted peace with England and peace on the +Continent; for his diplomacy won conquests fully as valuable as the +booty of his sword, and only in a naval peace could he lay the +foundations of that oriental empire which, he assured O'Meara at St. +Helena, held the first place in his thoughts after the overthrow of +Austria. But it was not in his nature to make the needful concessions. +"_I must follow my policy in a geometrical line_" he said to +Lucchesini. England might have Hanover and a few colonies if she would +let Sicily go to a Bonaparte: as for Prussia, she might absorb +half-a-dozen neighbouring princelings. + +That is the gist of Napoleon's European policy in the summer of 1806; +and the surprise which he expressed to Mollien at the rejection of his +offers is probably genuine. Sensitive to the least insult himself, his +bluntness of perception respecting the honour of others might almost +qualify him to rank with Aristotle's man devoid of feeling. It is +perfectly true that he did not make war on Prussia in 1806 any more +than on England in 1803. He only made peace impossible.[99] + +The condition on which Prussia now urgently insisted was the entire +evacuation of Germany by French troops. This Napoleon refused to +concede until Frederick William demobilized his army, a step that +would have once more humbled him in the eyes of this people. It might +even have led to his dethronement. For an incident had just occurred +in Bavaria that fanned German sentiment to a flame. A bookseller of +Nuremberg, named Palm, was proved by French officers to have sold an +anonymous pamphlet entitled "Germany in her deep Humiliation." It was +by no means of a revolutionary type, and the worthy man believed it to +be a mistake when he was arrested by the military authorities. He was +wrong. Napoleon had sent orders that a terrible example must be made +in order to stop the sale of patriotic German pamphlets. Palm was +therefore haled away to Braunau, an Austrian town then held by French +troops, was tried by martial law and shot (August 25th). Never did the +Emperor commit a greater blunder. The outrage sent a thrill of +indignation through the length and breadth of Germany. Instead of +quenching, it inflamed the national sentiment, and thus rendered +doubly difficult any peaceful compromise between Frederick William and +Napoleon. The latter was now looked upon as a tyrant by the citizen +class which his reforms were designed to conciliate: and Frederick +William became almost the champion of Germany when he demanded the +withdrawal of the French troops. + +Unfortunately, the King refused to appoint Ministers who inspired +confidence. With Hardenberg in place of Haugwitz, men would have felt +sure that the sword would not again be tamely sheathed; great efforts +were made to effect this change, but met with a chilling repulse from +the King.[100] It is true that Haugwitz and Beyme now expressed the +bitterest hatred of Napoleon, as well they might for a man who had +betrayed their confidence. But, none the less, the King's refusal to +change his men along with his policy was fatal. Both at St. Petersburg +and London no trust was felt in Prussia as long as Haugwitz was at the +helm. The man who had twice steered the ship of state under Napoleon's +guns might do it again; and both England and Russia waited to see some +irrevocable step taken before they again risked an army for that +prince of waverers. + +Grenville rather tardily sent Lord Morpeth to arrange an alliance, but +only after he should receive a solemn pledge that Hanover would be +restored. That envoy approached the Prussian headquarters just in time +to be swept away in the torrent of fugitives from Jena. As for Russia, +she had awaited the arrival of a Prussian officer at St. Petersburg to +concert a plan of campaign. When he arrived he had no plan; and the +Czar, perplexed by the fatuity of his ally, and the hostility of the +Turks, refused to march his troops forthwith into Prussia.[101] +Equally disappointing was the conduct of Austria. This Power, bleeding +from the wounds of last year and smarting under the jealousy of +Russia, refused to move until the allies had won a victory. And so, +thanks to the jealousies of the old monarchies, Frederick William had +no Russian or Austrian troops at his side, no sinews of war from +London to invigorate his preparations, when he staked his all in the +high places of Thuringia. He gained, it is true, the support of Saxony +and Weimar; but this brought less than 21,000 men to his side. + +On the other hand, Napoleon, as Protector of the Rhenish +Confederation, secured the aid of 25,000 South Germans, as well as an +excellent fortified base at Wuerzburg. His troops, holding the citadels +of Passau and Braunau on the Austrian frontier, kept the Hapsburgs +quiet; and 60,000 French and Dutch troops at Wesel menaced the +Prussians in Hanover. Above all, his forces already in Germany were +strengthened until, in the early days of October, some 200,000 men +were marching from the Main towards the Duchy of Weimar. Soult and Ney +led 60,000 men from Amberg towards Baireuth and Hof: Bernadotte and +Davoust, with 90,000, marched towards Schleitz, while Lannes and +Augereau, with 46,000, moved by a road further to the left towards +Saalfeld. + +The progress of these dense columns near together and through a hilly +country presented great difficulties, which only the experience of the +officers, the energy and patience of the men, and the genius of their +great leader could overcome. Meanwhile Napoleon had quietly left Paris +on September 25th. Travelling at his usual rapid rate, he reached +Mainz on the 28th: he was at Wuerzburg on October 2nd; there he +directed the operations, confident that the impact of his immense +force would speedily break the Prussians, drive them down the valley +of the Saale and thus detach the Elector of Saxony from an alliance +that already was irksome. + +The French, therefore, had a vast mass of seasoned fighters, a good +base of operations, and a clear plan of attack. The Prussians, on the +contrary, could muster barely 128,000 men, including the Saxons, for +service in the field; and of these 27,000 with Ruechel were on the +frontier of Hesse-Cassel seeking to assure the alliance of the +Elector. The commander-in-chief was the septuagenarian Duke of +Brunswick, well known for his failure at Valmy in 1792 and his recent +support to the policy of complaisance to France. His appointment +aroused anger and consternation; and General Kalckreuth expressed to +Gentz the general opinion when he said that the Duke was quite +incompetent for such a command: "His character is not strong enough, +his mediocrity, irresolution, and untrustworthiness would ruin the +best undertaking." The Duke himself was aware of his incompetence. Why +then, we ask, did he accept the command? The answer is startling; but +it rests on the evidence of General von Mueffling: + + "The Duke of Brunswick had accepted the command _in order to avert + war_. I can affirm this with perfect certainty, since I have heard + it from his own lips more than once. He was fully aware of the + weaknesses of the Prussian army and the incompetence of its + officers."[102] + +Thus there was seen the strange sight of a diffident, peace-loving +King accompanying the army and sharing in all the deliberations; while +these were nominally presided over by a despondent old man who still +intrigued to preserve peace, and shifted on to the King the +responsibility of every important act. And yet there were able +generals who could have acted with effect, even if they fell short of +the opinion hopefully bruited by General Ruechel, that "several were +equal to M. de Bonaparte." Events were to prove that Gneisenau, +Scharnhorst, and Bluecher rivalled the best of the French Marshals; but +in this war their lights were placed under bushels and only shone +forth when the official covers had been shattered. Scharnhorst, +already renowned for his strategic and administrative genius, took +part in some of the many councils of war where everything was +discussed and little was decided; but his opinion had no weight, for +on October 7th he wrote: "What we ought to do I know right well, what +we _shall_ do only the gods know."[103] He evidently referred to the +need of concentration. At that time the thin Prussian lines were +spread out over a front of eighty-five miles, the Saxons being near +Gera, the chief army, under Brunswick, at Erfurth, while Ruechel was so +far distant on the west that he could only come up at Jena just one +hour too late to avert disaster. + +And yet with these weak and scattered forces, Prince Hohenlohe +proposed a bold move forward to the Main. Brunswick, on the other +hand, counselled a prudent defensive; but he could not, or would not, +enforce his plan; and the result was an oscillation between the two +extremes. Had he massed all his forces so as to command the valleys of +the Saale and Elster near Jena and Gera, the campaign might possibly +have been prolonged until the Russians came up. As it was, the allies +dulled the ardour of their troops by marches, counter-marches, and +interminable councils-of-war, while Napoleon's columns were threading +their way along those valleys at the average rate of fifteen miles a +day, in order to turn the allied left and cut the connection between +Prussia and Saxony.[104] + +The first serious fighting was on October the 10th at Saalfeld, where +Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia with a small force sought to protect +Hohenlohe's flank march westwards on Jena. The task was beyond the +strength even of this flower of Prussian chivalry. He was overpowered +by the weight and vigour of Lannes' attack, and when already wounded +in a cavalry _melee_ was pierced through the body by an officer to +whom he proudly refused to surrender. The death of this hero, the +"Alcibiades" of Prussia, cast a gloom over the whole army, and +mournful faces at headquarters seemed to presage yet worse disasters. +Perhaps it was some inkling of this discouragement, or a laudable +desire to stop "an impolitic war," that urged Napoleon two days later +to pen a letter to the King of Prussia urging him to make peace before +he was crushed, as he assuredly would be. In itself the letter seems +admirable--until one remembers the circumstances of the case. The King +had pledged his word to the Czar to make war; if, therefore, he now +made peace and sent the Russians back, he would once more stand +condemned of preferring dishonourable ease to the noble hazards of an +affair of honour. As Napoleon was aware of the union of the King and +Czar, this letter must be regarded as an attempt to dissolve the +alliance and tarnish Frederick William's reputation. It was viewed in +that light by that monarch; and there is not a hint in Napoleon's +other letters that he really expected peace. + +He was then at Gera, pushing forward his corps towards Naumburg so as +to cut off the Prussians from Saxony and the Elbe. Great as was his +superiority, these movements occasioned such a dispersion of his +forces as to invite attack from enterprising foes; but he despised the +Prussian generals as imbeciles, and endeavoured to unsteady their rank +and file by seizing and burning their military stores at the latter +town. He certainly believed that they were all in retreat northwards, +and great was his surprise when he heard from Lannes early on October +13th that his scouts, after scaling the hills behind Jena in a dense +mist, had come upon the Prussian army. The news was only partly +correct. It was only Hohenlohe's corps: for the bulk of that army, +under Brunswick, was retreating northwards, and nearly stumbled upon +the corps of Davoust and Bernadotte behind Naumburg. + +Lannes also was in danger on the Landgrafenberg. This is a lofty hill +which towers above the town of Jena and the narrow winding vale of the +Saale; while its other slopes, to the north and west, rise above and +dominate the broken and irregular plateau on which Hohenlohe's force +was encamped. Had the Prussians attacked his weary regiments in force, +they might easily have hurled them into the Saale. But Hohenlohe had +received orders to retire northwards in the rear of Brunswick, as soon +as he had rallied the detachment of Ruechel near Weimar, and was +therefore indisposed to venture on the bold offensive which now was +his only means of safety. The respite thus granted was used by the +French to hurry every available regiment up the slopes north and west +of Jena. Late in the afternoon, Napoleon himself ascended the +Landgrafenberg to survey the plateau; while a pastor of the town was +compelled to show a path further north which leads to the same plateau +through a gulley called the Rau-thal.[105] + +[Illustration: BATTLE OF JENA] + +On the south the heights sink away into a wider valley, the Muehl-thal, +along which runs the road to Weimar; and on this side too their wooded +brows are broken by gulleys, up one of which runs a winding track +known as the Schnecke or Snail. Villages and woods diversified the +plateau and hindered the free use of that extended line formation on +which the Prussians relied, while favouring the operations of dense +columns preceded by clouds of skirmishers by which Napoleon so often +hewed his way to victory. His greatest advantage, however, lay in the +ignorance of his foes. Hohenlohe, believing that he was confronted +only by Lannes' corps, took little thought about what was going on in +his front, and judging the Muehl-thal approach alone to be accessible, +posted his chief force on this side. So insufficient a guard was +therefore kept on the side of the Landgrafenberg that the French, +under cover of the darkness, not only crowned the summit densely with +troops, but dragged up whole batteries of cannon. + +The toil was stupendous: in one of the steep hollow tracks a number of +cannon and wagons stuck fast; but the Emperor, making his rounds at +midnight, brought the magic of his presence to aid the weary troops +and rebuke the officers whose negligence had caused this block. +Lantern in hand, he went up and down the line to direct the work; and +Savary, who saw this scene, noted the wonder of the men, as they +caught sight of the Emperor, the renewed energy of their blows at the +rocks, and their whispers of surprise that _he_ should come in person +when their officers were asleep. The night was far spent when, after +seeing the first wagon right through the narrow steep, he repaired to +his bivouac amidst his Guards on the summit, and issued further orders +before snatching a brief repose. By such untiring energy did he assure +victory. Apart from its immense effect on the spirits of his troops, +his vigilance reaped a rich reward. Jena was won by a rapid +concentration of troops, and the prompt seizure of a commanding +position almost under the eyes of an unenterprising enemy. The corps +of Soult and Ney spent most of the night and early morning in marching +towards Jena and taking up their positions on the right or north wing, +while Lannes and the Guard held the central height, and Augereau's +corps in the Muehl-thal threatened the Saxons and Prussians guarding +the Schnecke.[106] + +A dense fog screened the moves of the assailants early on the morrow, +and, after some confused but obstinate fighting, the French secured +their hold on the plateau not only above the town of Jena, where their +onset took the Prussians by surprise, but also above the Muehl-thal, +where the enemy were in force. + +By ten o'clock the fog lifted, and the warm rays of the autumn sun +showed the dense masses of the French advancing towards the middle of +the plateau. Hohenlohe now saw the full extent of his error and +despatched an urgent message to Ruechel for aid. It was too late. The +French centre, led by Lannes, began to push back the Prussian lines on +the village named Vierzehn Heiligen. It was in vain that Hohenlohe's +choice squadrons flung themselves on the serried masses in front: the +artillery and musketry fire disordered them, while French dragoons +were ready to profit by their confusion. The village was lost, then +retaken by a rally of the Prussians, then lost again when Ney was +reinforced; and when the full vigour of the French attack was +developed by the advance of Soult and Augereau on either wing, +Napoleon launched his reserves, his Guard, and Murat's squadrons on +the disordered lines. The impact was irresistible, and Hohenlohe's +force was swept away. Then it was that Ruechel's force drew near, and +strove to stem the rout. Advancing steadily, as if on parade, his +troops for a brief space held up the French onset; but neither the +dash of the Prussian horse nor the bravery of the foot-soldiers could +dam that mighty tide, which laid low the gallant leader and swept his +lines away into the general wreck.[107] + +In the headlong flight before Murat's horsemen, the fugitives fell in +with another beaten array, that of Brunswick. At Jena the Prussians, +if defeated, were not disgraced: before the first shot was fired their +defeat was a mathematical certainty. At the crisis of the battle they +had but 47,400 men at hand, while Napoleon then disposed of 83,600 +combatants.[108] But at Auerstaedt they were driven back and disgraced. +There they had a decided superiority in numbers, having more than +35,000 of their choicest troops, while opposite to them stood only the +27,000 men of Davoust's corps. + +Hitherto Davoust had been remarkable rather for his dog-like devotion +to Napoleon than for any martial genius; and the brilliant Marmont had +openly scoffed at his receiving the title of Marshal. But, under his +quiet exterior and plodding habits, there lay concealed a variety of +gifts which only needed a great occasion to shine forth and astonish +the world.[109] The time was now at hand. Frederick William and +Brunswick were marching from Auerstaedt to make good their retreat on +the Elbe, when their foremost horsemen, led by the gallant Bluecher, +saw a solid wall of French infantry loom through the morning fog. It +was part of Davoust's corps, strongly posted in and around the village +of Hassenhausen. + +At once Bluecher charged, only to be driven back with severe loss. +Again he came on, this time supported by infantry and cannon: again he +was repulsed; for Davoust, aided by the fog, had seized the +neighbouring heights which commanded the high road, and held them with +firm grip. Determined to brush aside or crush this stubborn foe, the +Duke of Brunswick now led heavy masses along the narrow defile; but +the steady fire of the French laid him low, with most of the officers; +and as the Prussians fell back, Davoust swung forward his men to +threaten their flanks. The King was dismayed at these repeated checks, +and though the Prussian reserves under Kalckreuth could have been +called up to overwhelm the hard-pressed French by the weight of +numbers, yet he judged it better to draw off his men and fall back on +Hohenlohe for support. + +But what a support! Instead of an army, it was a terrified mob flying +before Murat's sabres, that met them halfway between Auerstaedt and +Weimar. Threatened also by Bernadotte's corps on their left flank, the +two Prussian armies now melted away in one indistinguishable torrent, +that was stemmed only by the sheltering walls of Erfurt, Magdeburg, +and of fortresses yet more remote. + +Of the twin battles of Jena and Auerstaedt, the latter was +unquestionably the more glorious for the French arms. That Napoleon +should have beaten an army of little more than half his numbers is in +no way remarkable. What is strange is that so consummate a leader +should have been entirely ignorant of the distribution of the enemy's +forces, and should have left Davoust with only 27,000 men exposed to +the attack of Brunswick with nearly 40,000.[110] In his bulletins, as +in the "Relation Officielle," the Emperor sought to gloze over his +error by magnifying Hohenlohe's corps into a great army and +attenuating Davoust's splendid exploit, which in his private letters +he warmly praised. The fact is, he had made all his dispositions in +the belief that he had the main body of the Prussians before him at +Jena. + +That is why, on the afternoon of the 13th, he hastily sent to recall +Murat's horse and Bernadotte's corps from Naumburg and its vicinity; +and in consequence Bernadotte took no very active part in the +fighting. For this he has been bitterly blamed, on the strength of an +assertion that Napoleon during the night of the 13th-14th sent him an +order to support Davoust. This order has never been produced, and it +finds no place in the latest and fullest collection of French official +despatches, which, however, contains some that fully exonerate +Bernadotte.[111] Unfortunately for Bernadotte's fame, the tattle of +memoir writers is more attractive and gains more currency than the +prosaic facts of despatches. + +Fortune plays an immense part in warfare; and never did she favour the +Emperor more than on October the 14th, 1806. Fortune and the skill and +bravery of Davoust and his corps turned what might have been an almost +doubtful conflict into an overwhelming victory. Though Napoleon was as +ignorant of the movements of Brunswick as he was of the flank march of +Bluecher at Waterloo, yet the enterprise and tenacity of Davoust and +Lannes yielded him, on the Thuringian heights, a triumph scarcely +paralleled in the annals of war. It is difficult to overpraise those +Marshals for the energy with which they clung to the foe and brought +on a battle under conditions highly favourable to the French: without +their efforts, the Prussian army could never have been shattered on a +single day. + +The flood of invasion now roared down the Thuringian valleys and +deluged the plains of Saxony and Brandenburg. Rivers and ramparts were +alike helpless to stay that all-devouring tide. On October the 16th, +16,000 men surrendered at Erfurt to Murat: then, spurring eastward, +_le beau sabreur_ rushed on the wreck of Hohenlohe's force, and with +the aid of Lannes' untiring corps compelled it to surrender at +Prenzlau.[112] Bluecher meanwhile stubbornly retreated to the north; +but, with Murat, Soult, and Bernadotte dogging his steps, he finally +threw himself into Luebeck, where, after a last desperate effort, he +surrendered to overpowering numbers (November 7th). + +Here the gloom of defeat was relieved by gleams of heroism; but before +the walls of other Prussian strongholds disaster was blackened by +disgrace. Held by timid old men or nerveless pedants, they scarcely +waited for a vigorous attack. A few cannon-shots, or even a +demonstration of cavalry, generally brought out the white flag. In +quick succession, Spandau, Stettin, Kuestrin, Magdeburg, and Hameln +opened their gates, the governor of the last-named being mainly +concerned about securing his future retiring pension from the French +as soon as Hanover passed into their keeping. + +Amidst these shameful surrenders the capital fell into the hands of +Davoust (October 25th). Varnhagen von Ense had described his mingled +surprise and admiration at seeing those "lively, impudent, +mean-looking little fellows," who had beaten the splendid soldiers +trained in the school of Frederick the Great. His wonder was natural; +but all who looked beneath the surface well knew that Prussia was +overthrown before the first shot was fired. She was the victim of a +deadening barrack routine, of official apathy or corruption, and of a +degrading policy which dulled the enthusiasm of her sons. + +Thirteen days after the great battle, Napoleon himself entered Berlin +in triumph. It was the first time that he allowed himself a victor's +privilege, and no pains were spared to impress the imagination of +mankind by a parade of his choicest troops. First came the foot +grenadiers and chasseurs of the Imperial Guard: behind the central +group marched other squadrons and battalions of these veterans, +already famed as the doughtiest fighters of their age. In their midst +came the mind of this military machine--Napoleon, accompanied by three +Marshals and a brilliant staff. Among them men noted the plain, +soldierlike Berthier, the ever trusty and methodical chief of the +staff. At his side rode Davoust, whose round and placid face gave +little promise of his rapid rush to the front rank among the French +paladins. There too was the tall, handsome, threatening form of +Augereau, whose services at Jena, meritorious as they were, scarcely +maintained his fame at the high level to which it soared at +Castiglione. Then came Napoleon's favourite aide-de-camp, Duroc, a +short, stern, war-hardened man, well known in Berlin, where twice he +had sought to rivet close the bonds of the French alliance. + +Above all, the gaze of the awe-struck crowd was fixed on the figure of +the chief, now grown to the roundness of robust health amidst toils +that would have worn most men to a shadow; and on the face, no longer +thin with the unsatisfied longings of youth, but square and full with +toil requited and ambition wellnigh sated--a visage redeemed from the +coarseness of the epicure's only by the knitted brows that bespoke +ceaseless thought, and by the keen, melancholy, unfathomable eyes. + + +NOTE ADDED TO THE FOURTH EDITION + + Several facts of considerable interest and importance respecting + the Anglo-French negotiations of 1806 have been brought to light + by M. Coquelle in his recently published work "Napoleon and + England, 1803-1813," chapters xi.-xvii. (George Bell and Sons, + 1904). + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI + +THE CONTINENTAL SYSTEM: FRIEDLAND + + "I know full well that London is a corner of the world, and that + Paris is its centre."--_Letter of Napoleon_, August 18th, 1806. + +On the 21st of November, 1806, Napoleon issued at Berlin the decree +which proclaimed open and unrelenting war on English industry and +commerce, a war that was to embroil the whole civilized world and +cease only with his overthrow. After reciting his complaints against +the English maritime code, he declared the British Isles to be in a +state of blockade, interdicted all commerce with them, threatened +seizure and imprisonment to English goods and subjects wherever found +by French or allied troops, forbade all trade in English and colonial +wares, and excluded from French and allied ports any ship that had +touched at those of Great Britain; while any ship that connived at the +infraction of the present decree was to be held a good prize of +war.[113] This ukase, which was binding for France, Italy, +Switzerland, Holland, and the Rhenish Confederation, formed the +foundation of the Continental System, a term applicable to the sum +total of the measures that aimed at ruining England by excluding her +goods from the Continent. + +The plan of strangling Britain by her own wealth was not peculiar to +Napoleon. In common with much of his political stock-in-trade he had +it from the Jacobins, who stoutly maintained that England's wealth was +fictitious and would collapse as soon as her commerce was attacked in +the Indies and excluded from the Rhine and Elbe. At first the +fulminations of Parisian legislators fell idly on the stately pile of +British industry; but when the young Bonaparte appeared on the scene, +the commercial warfare became serious. As soon as his victories in +Italy widened the sphere of French influence, the Directory banned the +entry of all our products, counting all cotton and woollen goods as +English unless the contrary could be proved by certificates of +origin.[114] Public opinion in France, which, unless held in by an +intelligent monarch, has always swung towards protection or +prohibition, welcomed that vigorous measure; and great was the outcry +of manufacturers when it was rumoured in 1802 that Napoleon was about +to make a commercial treaty with the national enemy. Tradition and +custom, therefore, were all on his side, when, after Trafalgar, he +concentrated all his energy on his "coast-system."[115] + +Ostensibly the Berlin Decree was a retort to our Order in Council of +May 16th, 1806, which declared all the coast between Brest and the +Elbe in a state of blockade; and French historians have defended it on +this ground, asserting that it was a necessary reply to England's +aggressive action.[116] But this plea can scarcely be maintained. The +aggressor, surely, was the man who forced Prussia to close the neutral +North German coast to British goods (February, 1806). Besides, there +is indirect proof that Napoleon looked on our blockade of the northern +coasts as not unreasonable. In his subsequent negotiations with us, he +raised no protest against it, and made no difficulty about our +maritime code: if we would let him seize Sicily, we might, it seems, +have re-enacted that code in all its earlier stringency. Far from +doing so, Fox and his successors relaxed the blockade of North +Germany; and by an order dated September 25th, the coast between the +Elbe and the Ems was declared free. + +Napoleon's grievance against us was thereby materially lessened, and +his protest against fictitious blockades in the preamble of the Berlin +Decree really applied only to our action on the coast between the +Helder and Brest, where our cruisers were watching the naval +preparations still going on. His retort in the interests of outraged +law was certainly curious; he declared our 3,000 miles of coast in a +state of blockade--a mere _brutum fulmen_ in point of fact, but +designed to give a show of legality to his Continental System. Yet, +apart from this thin pretext, he troubled very little about law. +Indeed, blockade is an act of war; and its application to this or that +part or coast depends on the will and power of the belligerents. +Napoleon frankly recognized that fact; and, however much his preambles +appealed to law, his conduct was decided solely by expediency. When he +wanted peace (along with Sicily) he said nothing about our maritime +claims: when the war went on, he used them as a pretext for an action +that was ten times as stringent. + +The gauntlet thrown down by him at Berlin was promptly taken up by +Great Britain. An Order in Council of January 7th, 1807, forbade +neutrals to trade between the ports of France and her allies, or +between ports that observed the Berlin Decree, under pain of seizure +and confiscation of the ship and cargo. In return Napoleon issued from +Warsaw (January 27th) a decree, ordering the seizure in the Hanse +Towns of all English goods and colonial produce. By way of reprisal +England reimposed a strict blockade on the North German coast (March +11th); and after the Peace of Tilsit laid the Continent at the feet of +Napoleon, he frankly told the diplomatic circle at Fontainebleau that +he would no longer allow any commercial or political relations between +the Continent and England. "The sea must be subdued by the land." In +these words Napoleon pithily summed up his enterprise; and whatever +may be thought of the means which he adopted, the design is not +without grandeur. Granted that Britannia ruled the waves, yet he ruled +the land; and the land, as the active fruitful element, must overpower +the barren sea. Such was the notion: it was fallacious, as will appear +later on; but it appealed strongly to the French imagination as +providing an infallible means of humbling the traditional foe. +Furthermore, it placed in Napoleon's hands a potent engine of +government, not only for assuring his position in France, but for +extending his sway over North Germany and all coasts that seemed +needful to the success of the experiment. + +Indirectly also it seems to have fed, without satisfying, his +ever-growing love of power. Here we touch on the difficult question of +motive; and it is perhaps impossible, except for dogmatists, to +determine whether the enterprises that led to his ruin--the partition +of Portugal, which slid easily into the occupation of Spain, together +with his Moscow adventure--were prompted by ambition or by a +semi-fatalistic feeling that they were necessary to the complete +triumph of his Continental System. He himself, with a flash of almost +uncanny insight, once remarked to Roederer that his ambition was +different from that of other men: for they were slaves to it, whereas +it was so interwoven with the whole texture of his being as to +interfere with no single process of thought and will. Whether that is +possible is a question for psychologists and casuists; but every +open-minded student of Napoleon's career must at times pause in utter +doubt, whether this or that act was prompted by mad ambition, or +followed naturally, perhaps inevitably, from that world-embracing +postulate, the Continental System. + +England also derived some secondary advantages from this war of the +elements. In order to stalemate her mighty foe, she pushed on her +colonial conquests so as to control the resources of the tropics, and +thus prevent that deadly tilting of the balance landwards which +Napoleon strove to effect. And fate decreed that the conquests of +English seamen and settlers were to be more enduring than those of +Napoleon's legions. While the French were gaining barren victories +beyond the Vistula and Ebro, our seamen seized French and Dutch +colonies and our pioneers opened up the interior of Australia and +South Africa. + +We also used our maritime monopoly to depress neutral commerce. We +have not space to discuss the complex question of the rights of +neutrals in time of war, which would involve an examination of the +"rule of 1756" and the compromises arrived at after the two Armed +Neutrality Leagues. Suffice it to say that our merchants had recently +been indignant at the comparative immunity enjoyed by neutral ships, +and had pressed for more vigorous action against such as traded to +French ports.[117] Yet the statement that our Orders in Council were +determined by the clamour of the mercantile class is an exaggeration: +they were reprisals against Napoleon's acts, following them in almost +geometrical gradations. To his domination over the industrial +resources of the Continent we had nothing to oppose but our +manufacturing skill, our supremacy in the tropics, and our control of +the sea. The methods used on both sides were alike brutal, and, when +carried to their logical conclusion at the close of the year, crushed +the neutrals between the upper and the nether millstone. But it is +difficult to see what other alternative was open to an insular State +that was all-powerful at sea and weak on land. Our very existence was +bound up with maritime commerce; and an abandonment of the carrying +trade to neutrals would have been the tamest of surrenders, at a time +when surrender meant political extinction. + +We turn now to follow the chief steps in Napoleon's onward march, +which enabled him to impose his system on nearly the whole of the +Continent. While encamped in the Prussian capital he decreed the +deposition of the Elector of Hesse-Cassel, and French and Dutch troops +forthwith occupied that Electorate. Towards Saxony he acted with +politic clemency; and on December 11th, 1806, the Elector accepted the +French alliance, entered the Confederation of the Rhine, and received +the title of King.[118] + +Meanwhile Frederick William, accompanied by his grief-stricken +consort, was striving to draw together an army in his eastern +provinces. Some overtures with a view to peace had been made after +Jena; but Napoleon finally refused to relax his pursuit unless the +Prussians retired beyond the Vistula, and yielded up to him all the +western parts of the kingdom, with their fortresses. Besides, he let +it be known that Prussia must join him in a close alliance against +Russia, with a view to checking her ambitious projects against Turkey; +for the Czar, resenting the Sultan's deposition of the hospodars of +the Danubian Principalities, an act suggested by the French, had sent +an army across the River Pruth, even when the Porte timidly revoked +its objectionable firman.[119] The Eastern Question having been thus +reopened, Napoleon suggested a Franco-Prussian alliance so as to avert +a Russian conquest of the Balkan Peninsula. But now, as ever, his +terms to Prussia were too exacting. The King deigned not to stoop to +such humiliation, but resolved to stake his all on the courage of his +troops and the fidelity of the Czar. + +The Russians, though delayed by their distrust of Haugwitz, and by +their insensate war with Turkey, were now marching, 73,000 strong, +into Prussian Poland, but were too late to save the Silesian +fortresses, most of which surrendered to the French. The fighting in +the open also went against the allies, though at Pultusk, a town north +of Warsaw, the Russians claimed that the contest had been drawn in +their favour. + +At the close of the year the armies went into winter-quarters. It was +high time. The French were ill supplied for a winter campaign amid the +desolate wastes of Poland. Snow and rain, frosts and thaws had turned +the wretched tracks into muddy swamps, where men sank to their knees, +horses to their bellies, and carriages beyond their axles. The +carriage conveying Talleyrand was a whole night stuck fast, in spite +of the efforts of ten horses to drag it out. The opinion of the +soldiery on Poland and the Poles is well expressed by that prince of +_raconteurs_, Marbot: "Weather frightful, victuals very scarce, no +wine, beer detestable, water muddy, no bread, lodgings shared with +cows and pigs. 'And they call this their country,' said our soldiers." + +Yet Polish patriotism had been a mighty power in the world; and +Napoleon, ever on the watch for the weak places of his foes, saw how +effective a lever it might be. This had been his constant practice: he +had pitted Italians against Austrians, Copts against Mamelukes, Druses +against Turks, Irish against English, South Germans against the +Hapsburgs and Hohenzollerns, and for the most part with success. But, +except in the case of the Italian people and the South German princes, +he rarely, if ever, bestowed boons proportionate to the services +rendered. It is very questionable whether he felt more warmly for +Irish nationalists than for Copts and Druses.[120] Except in regard to +his Italian kindred, none of the nationalist aspirations that were to +mould the history of the century touched a responsive chord in his +nature. In this, as in other affairs of state, he held "true policy" +to be "nothing else than the calculation of combinations and chances." + +It was in this spirit that he surveyed the Polish Question. Arising +out of the partitions of that unhappy land by Russia, Austria, and +Prussia, it had distracted the repose of Europe scarcely less than the +French Revolution; and now the heir to the Revolution, after hewing +his way through the weak monarchies of Central Europe, was about to +probe this ulcer of Christendom. As usual, nothing had been done to +forestall him. Czartoryski had begged Alexander to declare Russian +Poland an autonomous kingdom united with Russia only by the golden +link of the crown, but this timely proposal was rejected;[121] and the +Czar displayed the weakness of his judgment and the strength of his +vanity by plunging into war with Turkey and Persia, at a time when +Poland was opening her arms to the victor of a hundred fights. It was, +therefore, easy for Napoleon to surround Russia with foes; and, as +will shortly appear, he took steps to invigorate even the remote +Persian Empire. + +But, above all, he spurred on the Poles to take up arms. His +encouragements were discreetly vague. True, he countenanced Polish +proclamations, which spoke grandiloquently of national liberty; but +proclamations he ever viewed as the _ballons d'essai_ of politics. He +also warned Murat not to promise the Poles too much: "My greatness +does not depend on the aid of a few thousand Poles. Let them show a +firm resolve to be independent: let them pledge themselves to support +the King that will be given to them, and then I will see what is to be +done." + +There were two reasons for this caution. His Marshals found no very +general disposition among the Poles to take up arms for France; and he +desired not to offend Austria by revolutionizing Galicia and her +districts south and east of Warsaw. Already the Hapsburgs were +nervously mustering their troops, and Napoleon had no wish to tempt +fortune by warring against three Powers a thousand miles away from his +own frontiers. He therefore calmed the Court of Vienna by promising +that he would discourage any rising in Austrian Poland, and he held +forth the prospect of regaining Silesia. This tempting offer was made +secretly and conditionally; and evoked no expression of thanks, but +rather a redoubling of precautions. Yet, despite the efforts of +England and Russia, the Hapsburg ruler refused to join the allies: he +preferred to play the waiting game which had ruined Prussia.[122] + +The campaign was reopened amidst terrible weather by a daring move of +Bennigsen's Russians westwards, in the hope of saving Danzig and +Graudenz from the French. At first a screen of forests well concealed +his advance. But, falling in with Bernadotte near the River Passarge, +his progress was checked and his design revealed. At once Napoleon +prepared to march northwards and throw the Russians into the sea, a +plan which in its turn was foiled by the seizure of a French despatch +by Cossacks. Bennigsen, now aware of his danger, at once retreated +towards Koenigsberg, but at Eylau turned on his pursuers and fought the +bloodiest battle fought in Europe since Malplaquet. The numbers on +both sides were probably about equal, numbering some 75,000 men, the +Russians having a slight superiority in men and still more in +artillery. Driven from Eylau on the night of February 7th after +confused fighting, the Muscovite withdrew to a strong position formed +by an irregular line of hills, which he crowned with cannon. + +As the dawn peered through the snow-laden clouds, guns began to deal +death amongst the hostile masses, and heavy columns moved forward. +Davoust, on the French right, began to push back the Russians on that +side, whereupon Napoleon ordered Augereau's corps to complete the +advantage by driving in the enemy's centre. Gallantly the French +advanced. Their leading regiment, the 14th, had seized a hillock which +commanded the enemy's lines,[123] when, amidst a whirlwind of snow +that beat in their faces, a deadly storm of grape and canister almost +annihilated the corps. Its shattered lines fell back, leaving the 14th +to its fate. But a cloud of Cossacks now swept on the retiring +companies, stabbing with their long spears; and it was a scanty band +that found safety in their former position. Russian cannon and cavalry +also stopped the advance of Davoust, and the fighting for a time +resolved itself into confused but murderous charges at close quarters. +As if to increase the horrors of the scene, snowstorms again swept +over the field, dazing the French and shrouding with friendly wings +the fierce charges of Cossacks. Yet the Grand Army fought on with +devoted heroism; and the chief, determined to snatch at victory, +launched eighty squadrons of horse against the Russian centre. +Sweeping aside the Cossacks, and defying the cannon that riddled their +files, they poured upon the first line of Russian infantry: for a time +they were stemmed, but, finding some weaker places, the cuirassiers +burst through, only to be thrown back by the second line; and, when +furiously charged by Cossacks, they fell back in disorder. "These +Russians fight like bulls," said the French. The simile was just. Even +while Murat was hacking at their centre a column of 4,000 Russian +grenadiers, detaching itself from their mangled line, marched straight +forward on the village of Eylau. With the same blind courage that +nerved Solmes' division at Steinkirk, they beat aside the French light +horse and foot, and were now threatening the cemetery where Napoleon +and his staff were standing. + + "I never was so much struck with anything in my life," said + General Bertrand at St. Helena, "as by the Emperor at Eylau when + he was almost trodden under foot by the Russian column. He kept + his ground as the Russians advanced, saying frequently, 'What + boldness.'" + +But, when all around him trembled, and Berthier ordered up the horses +as if for retreat, he himself quietly signalled for his Guards. These +sturdy troops, long fuming at their inaction, marched forward with a +stern joy. As at Steinkirk the French Household Brigade disdained to +fire on the bull-dogs, so now the Guards rushed on the Muscovites with +the cold steel. The shock was terrible; but the pent-up fury of the +French carried all before it, and the grenadiers were wellnigh +destroyed. The battle might still have ended in a French victory; for +Davoust was obstinately holding the village which he had seized in the +morning, and even threatened the rear of Bennigsen's centre. But when +both sides were wellnigh exhausted, the Prussian General Lestocq with +8,000 men, urged on by the counsels of Scharnhorst, hurried up from +the side of Koenigsberg, marched straight on Davoust, and checked his +forward movements. Ney followed Lestocq, but at so great a distance +that his arrival at nightfall served only to secure the French left. + +Thus darkness closed over some 100,000 men, who wearily clung to their +posts, and over snowy wastes where half that number lay dead, dying, +or disabled. Well might Ney exclaim: "What a massacre, and without any +issue!" Each side claimed the victory, and, as is usual in such cases, +began industriously to minimize its own and to magnify the enemy's +losses. The truth seems to be that both sides had about 25,000 men +_hors de combat_; but, as Bennigsen lacked tents, supplies, and above +all, the dauntless courage of Napoleon, he speedily fell back, and +this enabled the Emperor to claim a decisive victory.[124] + +Exhausted by this terrific strife, the combatants now relaxed their +efforts for a brief space; but while Napoleon used the time of respite +in hurrying up troops from all parts of his vast dominions, the allies +did little to improve their advantage. This inertness is all the more +strange as Prussia and Russia came to closer accord in the Treaty of +Bartenstein (April 26th, 1807).[125] + +The two monarchs now recur to the generous scheme of a European peace, +for which the Czar and William Pitt had vainly struggled two years +before. The present war is to be fought out to the end, not so as to +humble France and interfere in her internal concerns, but in order to +assure to Europe the blessings of a solid peace based on the claims of +justice and of national independence. France must be satisfied with +reasonable boundaries, and Prussia be restored to the limits of 1805 +or their equivalent. Germany is to be freed from the dictation of the +French, and become a "constitutional federation," with a boundary +"parallel to the Rhine." Austria is to be asked to join the present +league, regaining Tyrol and the Mincio frontier. England and Sweden +must be rallied to the common cause. The allies will also take steps +to cause Denmark to join the league. For the rest, the integrity of +Turkey is to be maintained, and the future of Italy decided in concert +with Austria and England, the Kings of Sardinia and Naples being +restored. Even should Austria, England, and Sweden not join them, yet +Russia and Prussia will continue the struggle and not lay down their +arms save by mutual consent. + +Had all the Powers threatened by Napoleon at once come forward and +acted with vigour, these ends might, even now, have been attained. But +Austria merely renewed her offers of mediation, a well-meaning but +hopeless proposal. England, a prey to official incapacity, joined the +league, promised help in men and money, and did little or nothing +except send fruitless expeditions to Alexandria and the Dardanelles +with the aim of forcing the Turks to a peace with Russia. In Sicily we +held our own against Joseph's generals, but had no men to spare for a +diversion against Marmont's forces in Dalmatia, which Alexander urged. +Still less could we send from our own shores any force for the +effective aid of Prussia. Though we had made peace with that Power, +and ordinary prudence might have dictated the taking of steps to save +the coast fortresses, Danzig and Colberg, from the French besiegers, +yet our efforts were limited to the despatch of a few cruisers to the +former stronghold. Even more urgent was the need of rescuing +Stralsund, the chief fortress of Swedish Pomerania. Such an expedition +clearly offered great possibilities with the minimum of risk. From the +Isle of Ruegen Mortier's corps could be attacked; and when Stralsund +was freed, a dash on Stettin, then weakly held by the French, promised +an easy success that would raise the whole of North Germany in +Napoleon's rear.[126] + +But arguments were thrown away upon the Grenville Ministry, which +clung to its old plan of doing nothing and of doing it expensively. +The Foreign Secretary, Lord Howick, replied that the allies must not +expect any considerable aid from our land forces. Considering that the +Income or War Tax of 2s. in the L had yielded close on L20,000,000, +and that the army numbered 192,000 men (exclusive of those in India), +this declaration did not shed lustre on the Ministry of all the +Talents. That bankrupt Cabinet, however, was dismissed by George III. +in March, 1807, because it declined to waive the question of Catholic +Emancipation, and its place was filled by the Duke of Portland, with +Canning as Foreign Minister. Soon it was seen that Pitt's cloak had +fallen on worthy shoulders, and a new vigour began to inspirit our +foreign policy. Yet the bad results of frittering away our forces on +distant expeditions could not be wiped out at once. In fact, our +military expert, Lord Cathcart, reported that only some 12,000 men +could at present be spared for service in the Baltic; and, as it would +be beneath our dignity to send so small a force, it would be better to +keep it at home ready to menace any part of the French coast. As to +Stralsund, he thought that plan was more feasible, but that, even +there, the allies would not make head against Mortier's corps.[127] + +This is a specimen of the reasoning that was fast rendering Britain +contemptible alike to friends and foes. It is not surprising that such +timorous selfishness should have at last moved the Czar to say to our +envoy: "Act where you please, provided that you act at all."[128] In +the end the new Ministry did venture to act: it engaged to send 20,000 +men to the succour of Stralsund; but, with the fatality that then +dogged our steps, that decision was formed on June the 17th, three +days after the Coalition was shattered by the mighty blow of +Friedland. + +In striking contrast to the faint-hearted measures of the allies was +the timely energy of Napoleon in bringing up reinforcements. These +were drawn partly from Mortier's corps in Pomerania, now engaged in +watching the Swedes, who made a truce; partly from the Bavarians and +Saxons; but mostly from French troops already in Central Germany, +their places being taken by Italians, Spaniards, Swiss, and Dutch. In +France a new levy of conscripts was ordered--the third since the +outbreak of war with Prussia. The Turks were encouraged to press on +the war against Russia and England; and a mission was sent to the Shah +of Persia to strengthen his arms against the Czar. To this last we +will now advert. + +For some time past Napoleon had been coquetting with Persia, and an +embassy from the Shah now came to the castle of Finkenstein, a +beautiful seat not far from the Vistula, where the Emperor spent the +months of spring. A treaty was drawn up, and General Gardane was +deputed to draw closer the bonds of friendship with the Court of +Teheran. The instructions secretly issued to this officer are of great +interest. He is ordered to proceed to Persia by way of Constantinople, +to concert an alliance between Sultan and Shah, to redouble Persia's +efforts against her "natural enemy," Russia, and to examine the means +of invading India. For this purpose a number of officers are sent with +him to examine the routes from Egypt or Syria to Delhi, as also to +report on the harbours in Persia with a view to a maritime expedition, +either by way of Suez or the Cape of Good Hope. The Shah is to be +induced to form a corps of 12,000 men, drilled on the European model +and armed with weapons sold by France. This force will attack the +Russians in Georgia and serve later in an expedition to India. With a +view to the sending of 20,000 French troops to India, Gardane is to +communicate with the Mahratta princes and prepare for this enterprise +by every possible means. + +We may note here that Gardane proceeded to Persia and was urging on +the Shah to more active measures against Russia when the news of the +Treaty of Tilsit diverted his efforts towards the east. At the close +of the year, he reported to Napoleon that, for the march overland from +Syria to the Ganges, Cyprus was an indispensable base of supplies: he +recommended the route Bir, Mardin, Teheran, Herat, Cabul, and +Peshawar: forty to fifty thousand French troops would be needed, and +thirty or forty thousand Persians should also be taken up. Nothing +came of these plans; but it is clear that, even when Napoleon was face +to face with formidable foes on the Vistula, his thoughts still turned +longingly to the banks of the Ganges.[129] + +The result of Napoleon's activity and the supineness of his foes were +soon apparent. Danzig surrendered to the French on May the 24th, and +Neisse in Silesia a little later; and it was not till the besiegers of +these fortresses came up to swell the French host that Bennigsen +opened the campaign. He was soon to rue the delay. His efforts to +drive the foe from the River Passarge were promptly foiled, and he +retired in haste to his intrenched camp at Heilsberg. There, on June +the 10th, he turned fiercely at bay and dealt heavy losses to the +French vanguard. In vain did Soult's corps struggle up towards the +intrenchments; his men were mown down by grapeshot and musketry: in +vain did Napoleon, who hurried up in the afternoon, launch the +fusiliers of the Guard and a division of Lannes' corps. The Muscovites +held firm, and the day closed ominously for the French. It was Eylau +over again on a small scale. + +But Bennigsen was one of those commanders who, after fighting with +great spirit, suffer a relapse. Despite the entreaties of his +generals, he had retreated after Eylau; and now, after a day of +inaction, his columns filed off towards Koenigsberg under cover of the +darkness. In excuse for this action it has been urged that he had but +two days' supply of bread in the camp, and that a forward move of +Davoust's corps round his right flank threatened to cut him off from +his base of supplies, Koenigsberg.[130] + +The first excuse only exposes him to greater censure. The Russian +habit at that time usually was to live almost from hand to mouth; but +that a carefully-prepared position like that of Heilsberg should be +left without adequate supplies is unpardonable. On the two next days +the rival hosts marched northward, the one to seize, the other to +save, Koenigsberg. They were separated by the winding vale of the Alle. +But the course of this river favoured Napoleon as much as it hindered +Bennigsen. The Alle below Heilsberg makes a deep bend towards the +north-east, then northwards again towards Friedland, where it comes +within forty miles of Koenigsberg, but in its lower course flows +north-east until it joins the Pregel. + +An army marching from Heilsberg to the old Prussian capital by the +right bank would therefore easily be outstripped by one that could +follow the chord of the arc instead of the irregular arc itself. +Napoleon was in this fortunate position, while the Russians plodded +amid heavy rains over the semicircular route further to the east. +Their mistake in abandoning Heilsberg was now obvious. The Emperor +halted at Eylau on the 13th for news of the Prussians in front and of +Bennigsen on his right flank. Against the former he hurled his chief +masses under the lead of Murat in the hope of seizing Koenigsberg at +one blow.[131] But, foreseeing that the Russians would probably pass +over the Alle at Friedland he despatched Lannes to Domnau to see +whether they had already crossed in force. Clearly, then, Napoleon did +not foresee what the morrow had in store for him: his aim was to drive +a solid wedge between Bennigsen and the defenders of Koenigsberg, to +storm that city first, and then to turn on Bennigsen. The claim of +some of Napoleon's admirers that he laid a trap for the Russians at +Friedland, as he had done at Austerlitz, is therefore refuted by the +Emperor's own orders. + +None the less did Bennigsen walk into a trap, and one of his own +choosing. Anxious to thrust himself between Napoleon and the old +Prussian capital, he crossed the river at Friedland and sought to +strengthen his position on the left bank by driving Lannes' vanguard +back on Domnau, by throwing three bridges over the stream, and by +crowning the hills on the right bank with a formidable artillery. But +he had to deal with a tough and daring opponent. Throughout the winter +Lannes had been a prey to ill-health and resentment at his chief's +real or fancied injustice: but the heats of summer re-awakened his +thirst for glory and restored him to his wonted vigour. Calling up the +Saxon horse, Grouchy's dragoons, and Oudinot's grenadiers, he held his +ground through the brief hours of darkness. Before dawn he posted his +10,000 troops among the woods and on the plateau of Posthenen that +lies to the west of Friedland and strove to stop the march of 40,000 +Russians. After four hours of fighting, his men were about to be +thrust back, when the divisions of Verdier and Dupas--the latter from +Mortier's corps--shared the burden of the fight until the sun was at +its zenith. When once more the fight was doubtful, the dense columns +of Ney and Victor were to be seen, and by desperate efforts the French +vanguard held its ground until this welcome aid arrived. + +Napoleon, having received Lannes' urgent appeals for help, now rode up +in hot haste, and in response to the cheers of his weary troops +repeatedly exclaimed: "Today is a lucky day, the anniversary of +Marengo." Their ardour was excited to the highest pitch, Oudinot +saluting his chief with the words: "Quick, sire! my grenadiers can +hold no longer: but give me reinforcements and I'll pitch the Russians +into the river."[132] The Emperor cautiously gave them pause: the +fresh troops marched to the front and formed the first line, those who +had fought for nine hours now forming the supports. Ney held the post +of honour in the woods on the right flank, nearly above Friedland; +behind him was the corps of Bernadotte, which, since the disabling of +that Marshal by a wound had been led by General Victor: there too were +the dragoons of Latour-Maubourg, and the imposing masses of the Guard. +In the centre, but bending in towards the rear, stood the remnant of +Lannes' indomitable corps, now condemned for a time to comparative +inactivity; and defensive tactics were also enjoined on +Mortier and Grouchy on the left wing, until Ney and Victor should +decide the fortunes of the second fight. The Russians, as if bent on +favouring Napoleon's design, continued to deploy in front of +Friedland, keeping up the while a desultory fight; and Bennigsen, +anxious now about his communications with Koenigsberg, detached 6,000 +men down the right bank of the river towards Wehlau. Only 46,000 men +were thus left to defend Friedland against a force that now numbered +80,000: yet no works were thrown up to guard the bridges--and this +after the arrival of Napoleon with strong reinforcements was known by +the excitement along the enemy's front. + +[Illustration: BATTLE OF FRIEDLAND] + +Nevertheless, as late as 3 p.m., Napoleon was in doubt whether he +should not await the arrival of Murat. At his instructions, Berthier +ordered that Marshal to leave Soult at Koenigsberg and hurry back with +Davoust and the cavalry towards Friedland: "If I perceive at the +beginning of this fight that the enemy is in too great force, I might +be content with cannonading to-day and awaiting your arrival." But a +little later the Emperor decides for instant attack. The omens are all +favourable. If driven back the Russians will fight with their backs to +a deep river. Besides, their position is cut in twain by a mill-stream +which flows in a gulley, and near the town is dammed up so as to form +a small lake. Below this lies Friedland in a deep bend of the river +itself. Into this _cul-de-sac_ he will drive the Russian left, and +fling their broken lines into the lake and river. + +At five o'clock a salvo of twenty guns opened the second and greater +battle of Friedland. To rush on the Muscovite van and clear it from +the wood of Sortlack was for Ney's leading division the work of a +moment; but on reaching the open ground their ranks were ploughed by +the shot of the Russian guns ranged on the hills beyond the river. +Staggered by this fire, the division was wavering, when the Russian +Guards and their choicest squadrons of horse charged home with deadly +effect. But Ney's second division, led by the gallant Dupont, hurried +up to restore the balance, while Latour-Maubourg's dragoons fell on +the enemy's horsemen and drove them pell-mell towards Friedland. + +The Russian artillery fared little better: Napoleon directed Senarmont +with thirty-six guns to take it in flank and it was soon overpowered. +Freed now from the Russian grapeshot and sabres, Ney held on his +course like a torrent that masters a dam, reached the upper part of +the lake, and threw the bewildered foe into its waters or into the +town. Friedland was now a death-trap: huddled together, plied by +shell, shot and bayonet, the Russians fought from street to street +with the energy of despair, but little by little were driven back on +the bridges. No help was to be found there; for Senarmont, bringing up +his guns, swept the bridges with a terrific fire: when part of the +Russian left and centre had fled across, they burst into flames, a +signal that warned their comrades further north of their coming doom. +On that side, too, a general advance of the French drove the enemy +back towards the steep banks of the river. But on those open plains +the devotion and prowess of the Muscovite cavalry bore ampler fruit: +charging the foe while in the full swing of victory, these gallant +riders gave time for the infantry to attempt the dangers of a deep +ford: hundreds were drowned, but others, along with most of the guns, +stole away in the darkness down the left bank of the river. + +On the morrow Bennigsen's army was a mass of fugitives straggling +towards the Pregel and fighting with one another for a chance to cross +its long narrow bridge. Even on the other side they halted not, but +wandered on towards the Niemen, no longer an army but an armed mob. On +its banks they were joined by the defenders of Koenigsberg, who after a +stout stand cut their way through Soult's lines and made for Tilsit. +There, behind the broad stream of the Niemen, the fugitives found +rest. + +It will always be a mystery why Bennigsen held on to Friedland after +French reinforcements arrived; and the feeling of wonder and +exasperation finds expression in the report of our envoy, Lord +Hutchinson, founded on the information of two British officers who +were at the Russian headquarters: + + "Many of the circumstances attending the Battle of Friedland are + unexampled in the annals of war. We crossed the River Alle, not + knowing whether we had to contend with a corps or the whole French + army. From the commencement of the battle it was manifest that we + had a great deal to lose and probably little to gain: ... General + Bennigsen would, I believe, have retired early in the day from + ground which he ought never to have occupied; but the corps in our + front made so vigorous a resistance that, though occasionally we + gained a little ground, yet we were never able to drive them from + the woods or the village of Heinrichsdorf."[133] + +This evidence shows the transcendent services of Lannes, Oudinot, and +Grouchy in the early part of the day; and it is clear that, as at +Jena, no great battle would have been fought at all but for the valour +and tenacity with which Lannes clung to the foe until Napoleon came +up. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII + +TILSIT + + +Even now matters were not hopeless for the allies. Crowds of +stragglers rejoined the colours at Tilsit, and Tartar reinforcements +were near at hand. The gallant Gneisenau was still holding out bravely +at Kolberg against Brune's divisions; and two of the Silesian +fortresses had not yet surrendered. Moreover, Austria seemed about to +declare against Napoleon, and there were hopes that before long +England would do something. But, above all, since the war was for +Prussia solely an affair of honour,[134] it deeply concerned +Alexander's good name not to desert an ally to whom he was now pledged +by all the claims of chivalry until satisfactory terms could be +gained. + +But Alexander's nature had not as yet been strengthened by misfortune +and religious convictions: it was a sunny background of flickering +enthusiasms, flecked now and again by shadows of eastern cunning or +darkened by warlike ambitions--a nature in which the sentimentalism of +Rousseau and the passions of a Boyar alternately gained the mastery. +No realism is more crude than that of the disillusionized idealist; +and for months the young Czar had seen his dream of a free and happy +Europe fade away amidst the smoke of Napoleon's guns and the mists of +English muddling. At first he blenched not even at the news of +Friedland. In an interview with our ambassador, Lord Gower, on June +the 17th, he bitterly upbraided him with our inactivity in the Baltic +and the Mediterranean, and the non-fulfilment of our promise of a +loan; as for himself, "he would never stoop to Bonaparte: he would +rather retire to Kazan or even to Tobolsk." But five days later, +acting under pressure from his despairing generals, some of whom +reminded him of his father's fate, he arranged an armistice with the +conqueror.[135] Five days only were allowed in which Prussia might +decide to follow his example or proceed with the war alone. She +accepted the inevitable on the following day. + +The international situation was now strangely like that which followed +immediately upon the battle of Austerlitz. Then it was Prussia, now it +was Austria, that played the part of the cautious friend at the very +time when the beaten allies were meditating surrender. For some time +past the Court of Vienna had been offering its services for mediation: +they were well received at London, with open disappointment by +Prussia, and with ill-concealed annoyance by Napoleon. As at the time +when Haugwitz came to him to dictate Prussia's terms, so now the +Emperor kept the Austrian envoy waiting without an answer, until the +blow of Friedland was dealt.[136] Even then Austria seemed about to +enter the lists, when news arrived of the conclusion of the armistice +at Tilsit. This enabled her to sheathe her sword with no loss of +honour; but, as was the case with Prussia at the close of 1805, her +conduct was seen to be timid and time-serving; and it merited the +secret rebuke of Canning that she "was (as usual) just ten days too +late in her determination, or the world might have been saved."[137] + +Whether Austria had been beguiled by the recent diplomatic caresses of +Napoleon may well be doubted; for they were obviously aimed at keeping +her quiet until he had settled scores with Prussia and Russia. His +advances only began on the eve of the last war, and the sharpness of +the transition from threats to endearments could not be smoothed over +even by Talleyrand's finesse.[138] When the slaughter at Eylau placed +him in peril, he again bade Talleyrand soothe the Austrian envoy with +assurances that, if his master was anxious to maintain the integrity +of Turkey, France would maintain it; or if he desired to share in an +eventual partition, France would also arrange that to his liking.[139] +But as the prospects for the campaign improved, Napoleon's tone +hardened. On March the 14th he states that he has enough men to keep +Austria quiet and to "get rid of the Russians in a month." And now he +looks on an alliance with the Hapsburgs merely as giving a short time +of quiet, whereas an alliance with Russia would be "very +advantageous."[140] He had also felt the value of alliance with +Prussia, as his repeated overtures during the campaign testify; but +when Frederick William persistently rejected all accommodation with +the man who had so deeply outraged his kingly honour, he turned +finally to Alexander. + +The Czar was made of more pliable stuff. Moreover, he now cherished +one sentiment that brought him into sympathy with Napoleon, namely, +hatred of England. He certainly had grave cause for complaint. We had +done nothing to help the allies in the Polish campaign except to send +a few cruisers and 60,000 muskets, which last did not reach the +Swedish and Russian ports until the war was over. True, we had gone +out of our way to attack Constantinople at his request; but that +attack had failed; and our attitude towards his Turkish policy was one +of veiled suspicion, varied with moral lectures.[141] As for the loan +of five millions sterling which the Czar had asked us to guarantee, we +had put him off, our envoy finally reminding him that it had been of +the first importance to help Austria to move. Worst of all, our +cruisers had seized some Russian merchantmen coming out of French +ports, and despite protests from St. Petersburg the legality of that +seizure was maintained. Thus, in a war which concerned our very +existence we had not rendered him a single practical service, and yet +strained the principles of maritime law at the expense of Russian +commerce.[142] + +Over against our policy of blundering delay there was that of +Napoleon, prompt, keen, and ever victorious. The whole war had arisen +out of the conflict of these two Powers; and Napoleon had never ceased +to declare that it was essentially a struggle between England and the +Continent. After Eylau Alexander was proof against these arguments; +but now the triumphant energy of Napoleon and the stolid apathy of +England brought about a quite bewildering change in Russian policy. +Delicate advances having been made by the two Emperors, an interview +was arranged to take place on a raft moored in the middle of the River +Niemen (June 25th). + +"I hate the English as much as you do, and I will second you in all +your actions against them." Such are said to have been the words with +which Alexander greeted Napoleon as they stepped on to the raft. +Whereupon the conqueror replied: "In that case all can be arranged and +peace is made."[143] As the two Emperors were unaccompanied at that +first interview, it is difficult to see on what evidence this story +rests. It is most unlikely that either Emperor would divulge the +remarks of the other on that occasion; and the words attributed to +Alexander seem highly impolitic. For what was his position at this +time? He was striving to make the best of a bad case against an +opponent whose genius he secretly feared. Besides, we know for certain +that he was most anxious to postpone his rupture with England for some +months.[144] All desire for an immediate break was on Napoleon's side. + +We can therefore only guess at what transpired, from the vague +descriptions of the two men themselves. They are characteristic +enough: "I never had more prejudices against anyone than against +_him_," said Alexander afterwards; "but, after three-quarters of an +hour of conversation, they all disappeared like a dream"; and later he +exclaimed: "Would that I had seen him sooner: the veil is torn aside +and the time of error is past." As for Napoleon, he wrote to +Josephine: "I have just seen the Emperor Alexander: I have been very +pleased with him: he is a very handsome, good, and young Emperor: he +has an intellect above what is commonly attributed to him."[145] The +tone of these remarks strikes the keynote of all the conversations +that followed. At the next day's conference, also held in the +sumptuous pavilion erected on the raft, the King of Prussia was +present; but towards him Napoleon's demeanour was cold and +threatening. He upbraided him with the war, lectured him on the duty +of a king to his people, and bade him dismiss Hardenberg. Frederick +William listened for the most part in silence; his nature was too +stiff and straightforward to practise any Byzantine arts; but when his +trusty Minister was attacked, he protested that he should not know how +to replace him. Napoleon had foreseen the plea and at once named three +men who would give better advice. Among them was the staunch patriot +Stein! + +From the ensuing conferences the King was almost wholly excluded. They +were held in a part of the town of Tilsit which was neutralized for +that purpose, as also for the guards and diplomatists of the three +sovereigns. There, too, lived the two Emperors in closest intercourse, +while on most days the Prussian King rode over from a neighbouring +village to figure as a sad, reproachful guest at the rides, parades, +and dinners that cemented the new Franco-Russian alliance. Yet, amid +all the melodious raptures of Alexander over Napoleon's newly +discovered virtues, it is easy to detect the clinging ground-tone of +Muscovite ambition. An event had occurred which excited the hopes of +both Emperors. At the close of May, the Sultan Selim was violently +deposed by the Janissaries who clamoured for more vigorous measures +against the Russians. Never did news come more opportunely for +Napoleon than this, which reached him at Tilsit on, or before, June +the 24th. He is said to have exclaimed to the Czar with a flash of +dramatic fatalism: "It is a decree of Providence which tells me that +the Turkish Empire can no longer exist."[146] + +Certain it is that the most potent spell exerted by the great +conqueror over his rival was a guarded invitation to share in some +future partition of the Turkish Empire. That scheme had fascinated +Napoleon ever since the year 1797, when he gazed on the Adriatic. +Though laid aside for a time in 1806, when he roused the Turks against +Russia, it was never lost sight of; and now, on the basis of a common +hatred of England and a common desire to secure the spoils of the +Ottoman Power, the stately fabric of the Franco-Russian alliance was +reared. + +On his side, Alexander required some assurance that Poland should not +be reconstituted in its integrity--a change that would tear from +Russia the huge districts stretching almost up to Riga, Smolensk, and +Kiev, which were still Polish in sympathy. Here Napoleon reassured +him, at least in part. He would not re-create the great kingdom of +Poland: he would merely carve out from Prussia the greater part of her +Polish possessions. + +These two important questions being settled, it only remained for the +Czar to plead for the King of Prussia, to acknowledge Napoleon's +domination as Emperor of the West, while he himself, as autocrat of +the East, secured a better western boundary for Russia. At first he +strove to gain for Frederick William the restoration of several of his +lands west of the Elbe. This championship was not wholly +disinterested; for it is now known that the Czar had set his heart on +a great part of Prussian Poland. + +In truth, he was a sufficiently good disciple of the French +revolutionists to plead very cogently his claims to a "natural +frontier." He disliked a "dry frontier": he must have a riverine +boundary: in fact, he claimed the banks of the Lower Niemen, and, +further south, the course of the rivers Wavre, Narew and Bug. To this +claim he had perhaps been encouraged by some alluring words of +Napoleon that thenceforth the Vistula must be the boundary of their +empires. But his ally was now determined to keep Russia away from the +old Polish capital; and in strangely prophetic words he pointed out +that the Czar's claims would bring the Russian eagles within sight of +Warsaw, which would be too clear a sign that that city was destined to +pass under the Russian rule.[147] Divining also that Alexander's plea +for the restoration by France of some of Prussia's western lands was +linked with a plan which would give Russia some of her eastern +districts,[148] Napoleon resolved to press hard on Prussia from the +west. While handing over to the Czar only the small district around +Bialystock, he remorselessly thrust Prussia to the east of the Elbe. + +From this neither the arguments of the Czar nor the entreaties of +Queen Louisa availed to move him. And yet, in the fond hope that her +tears might win back Magdeburg, that noble bulwark of North German +independence, the forlorn Queen came to Tilsit to crave this boon +(July 6th). It was a terrible ordeal to do this from the man who had +repeatedly insulted her in his official journals, figuring her, first +as a mailed Amazon galloping at the head of her regiment, and finally +breathing forth scandals on her spotless reputation. + +Yet, for the sake of her husband and her people, she braced herself up +to the effort of treating him as a gentleman and appealing to his +generosity. If she was able to conceal her loathing, this was scarcely +so with her devoted lady in waiting, the Countess von Voss, who has +left us an acrid account of Napoleon's visit to the Queen at the +miller's house at Tilsit.[149] + + "He is excessively ugly, with a fat swollen sallow face, very + corpulent, besides short and entirely without figure. His great + eyes roll gloomily around; the expression of his features is + severe; he looks like the incarnation of fate: only his mouth is + well shaped, and his teeth are good. He was extremely polite, + talked to the Queen a long time alone.... Again, after dinner, he + had a long conversation with the Queen, who also seemed pretty + well satisfied with the result."[150] + + +Queen Louisa's verdict about his appearance was more favourable; she +admired his head "as that of a Caesar." With winsome boldness inspired +by patriotism, she begged for Magdeburg. Taken aback by her beauty and +frankness, Napoleon had recourse to compliments about her dress. "Are +we to talk about fashion, at such a time?" was her reply. Again she +pleaded, and again he fell back on vapidities. Nevertheless, her +appeals to his generosity seemed to be thawing his statecraft, when +the entrance of that unlucky man, her husband, gave the conversation a +colder tone. The dinner, however, passed cheerfully enough; and, +according to French accounts, Napoleon graced the conclusion of +dessert by offering her a rose. Her woman's wit flew to the utterance: +"May I consider it a token of friendship, and that you grant my +request for Magdeburg?" But he was on his guard, parried her onset +with a general remark as to the way in which such civilities should be +taken, and turned the conversation. Then, as if he feared the result +of a second interview, he hastened to end matters with the Prussian +negotiators.[151] + +He thus described the interview in a letter to Josephine: + + "I have had to be on my guard against her efforts to oblige me to + some concessions for her husband; but I have been gallant, and + have held to my policy." + +This was only too clear on the following day, when the Queen again +dined with the sovereigns. + + "Napoleon," says the Countess von Voss, "seemed malicious and + spiteful, and the conversation was brief and constrained. After + dinner the Queen again conversed apart with him. On taking leave + she said to him that she went away feeling it deeply that he + should have deceived her. My poor Queen: she is quite in despair." + + +When conducted to her carriage by Talleyrand and Duroc, she sank down +overcome by emotion. Yet, amid her tears and humiliation, the old +Prussian pride had flashed forth in one of her replies as the rainbow +amidst the rain-storm. When Napoleon expressed his surprise that she +should have dared to make war on him with means so utterly inadequate, +she at once retorted: "Sire, I must confess to Your Majesty, the glory +of Frederick the Great had misled us as to our real strength"--a +retort which justly won the praise of that fastidious connoisseur, +Talleyrand, for its reminder of Prussia's former greatness and the +transitoriness of all human grandeur.[152] + +On that same day (July 7th) the Treaty of Tilsit was signed. Its terms +may be thus summarized. Out of regard for the Emperor of Russia, +Napoleon consented to restore to the King of Prussia the province of +Silesia, and the old Prussian lands between the Elbe and Niemen. But +the Polish lands seized by Prussia in the second and third partitions +were (with the exception of the Bialystock district, now gained by +Russia) to form a new State called the Duchy of Warsaw. Of this duchy +the King of Saxony was constituted ruler. Danzig, once a Polish city, +was now declared a free city under the protection of the Kings of +Prussia and Saxony, but the retention there of a French garrison until +the peace made it practically a French fortress. Saxe-Coburg, +Oldenburg, and Mecklenburg-Schwerin were restored to their dukes, but +the two last were to be held by French troops until England made peace +with France. With this aim in view, Napoleon accepted Alexander's +mediation for the conclusion of a treaty of peace with England, +provided that she accepted that mediation within one month of the +ratification of the present treaty. + +On his side, the Czar now recognized the recent changes in Naples, +Holland, and Germany; among the last of these was the creation of the +Kingdom of Westphalia for Jerome Bonaparte out of the Prussian lands +west of the Elbe, the Duchy of Brunswick, and the Electorate of +Hesse-Cassel. Holland gained East Frisia at the expense of Prussia. As +regards Turkey, the Czar pledged himself to cease hostilities at once, +to accept the mediation of Napoleon in the present dispute, and to +withdraw Russian troops from the Danubian Provinces as soon as peace +was concluded with the Sublime Porte. Finally, the two Emperors +mutually guaranteed the integrity of their possessions and placed +their ceremonial and diplomatic relations on a footing of complete +equality. + +Such were the published articles of the Treaty of Tilsit. Even if this +had been all, the European system would have sustained the severest +blow since the Thirty Years' War. The Prussian monarchy was suddenly +bereft of half its population, and now figured on the map as a +disjointed land, scarcely larger than the possessions of the King of +Saxony, and less defensible than Jerome Bonaparte's Kingdom of +Westphalia; while the Confederation of the Rhine, soon to be +aggrandized by the accession of Mecklenburg and Oldenburg, seemed to +doom the House of Hohenzollern to lasting insignificance.[153] + +But the published treaty was by no means all. There were also secret +articles, the chief of which were that the Cattaro district--to the +west of Montenegro--and the Ionian Islands should go to France, and +that the Czar would recognize Joseph Bonaparte as King of Sicily when +Ferdinand of Naples should have received "an indemnity such as the +Balearic Isles, or Crete, or their equivalent." Also, if Hanover +should eventually be annexed to the Kingdom of Westphalia, a +Westphalian district with a population of from three to four hundred +thousand souls would be retroceded to Prussia. Finally, the chiefs of +the Houses of Orange-Nassau, Hesse-Cassel, and Brunswick were to +receive pensions from Murat and Jerome Bonaparte, who dispossessed +them. + +Most important of all was the secret treaty of alliance with Russia, +also signed on July 7th, whereby the two Emperors bound themselves to +make common cause in any war that either of them might undertake +against any European Power, employing, if need be, the whole of their +respective forces. Again, if England did not accept the Czar's +mediation, or if she did not, by the 1st of December, 1807, recognize +the perfect equality of all flags at sea, and restore her conquests +made from France and her allies since 1805, then Russia would make war +on her. In that case, the present allies will "summon the three Courts +of Copenhagen, Stockholm, and Lisbon to close their ports against the +English and declare war against England. If any one of the three +Courts refuse, it shall be treated as an enemy by the high contracting +parties, and if Sweden refuse, _Denmark shall be compelled to declare +war on her_." Pressure would also be put on Austria to follow the same +course. But if England made peace betimes, she might recover Hanover, +on restoring her conquests in the French, Spanish, and Dutch colonies. +Similarly, if Turkey refused the mediation of Napoleon, he would in +that case help Russia to drive the Turks from Europe--"the city of +Constantinople and the province of Roumelia alone excepted."[154] + +The naming of the city of Constantinople, which is in Roumelia, +betokens a superfluity of prudence. But it helps to confirm the +statement of Napoleon's secretary, M. Meneval, that the future of that +city led to a decided difference of opinion between the Emperors. +After one of their discussions, Napoleon stayed poring over a map, and +finally exclaimed, "Constantinople! Never! It is the empire of the +world." Doubtless it was on this subject that Alexander cherished some +secret annoyance. Certain it is that, despite all his professions of +devotion to Napoleon, he went back to St. Petersburg ill at ease and +possessed with a certain awe of the conqueror. For what had he gained? +He received a small slice of Prussian Poland, and the prospect of +aggrandizement on the side of Turkey and Sweden, Finland being pointed +out as an easy prey. For these future gains he was to close his ports +to England and see his commerce, his navy, and his seaboard suffer. It +is not surprising that before leaving Tilsit he remarked to Frederick +William that "the most onerous condition imposed by Napoleon was +common to Russia and Prussia."[155] + +This refers to the compulsion put upon them to join Napoleon's +Continental System. In the treaty signed with Prussia on July 9th, +Napoleon not only wrested away half her lands, but required the +immediate closing of all her ports to British vessels. We may also +note here that, by the extraordinary negligence of the Prussian +negotiator, Marshal Kalckreuth, the subsequent convention as to the +evacuation of Prussia by the French troops left open a loophole for +its indefinite occupation. Each province or district was to be +evacuated when the French requisitions had been satisfied.[156] The +exaction of impossible sums would therefore enable the conquerors, +quite legally, to keep their locust swarms in that miserable land. And +that was the policy pursued for sixteen months. + +Why this refinement of cruelty to his former ally? Why not have +annexed Prussia outright? Probably there were two reasons against +annexation: first, that his army could live on her in a way that would +not be possible with his own subjects or allies; second, that the army +of occupation would serve as a guarantee both for Russia's good faith +and for the absolute exclusion of British goods from Prussia.[157] +This had long been his aim. He now attained it, but only by war that +bequeathed a legacy of war, and a peace that was no peace. + +Napoleon's behaviour at Tilsit has generally been regarded, at least +in England, as prompted by an insane lust of power; and the treaty has +been judged as if its aim was the domination of the Continent. But +another explanation, though less sweeping and attractive, seems more +consonant with the facts of the case. + +He hoped that, before so mighty a confederacy as was framed at Tilsit, +England would bend the knee, give up not only her maritime claims but +her colonial conquests, and humbly take rank with Powers that had +lived their day. The conqueror who had thrice crumpled up the Hapsburg +States, and shattered Prussia in a day, might well believe that the +men of Downing Street, expert only in missing opportunities and +exasperating their friends, would not dare to defy the forces of +united Europe, but would bow before his prowess and grant peace to a +weary world. In his letter of July 6th, 1807, to the Czar, he advised +the postponement of the final summons to the British Government, +because it would "give five months in which the first exasperation +will die down in England, and she will have time to understand the +immense consequences that would result from so imprudent a struggle." +Neither Napoleon nor Alexander was deaf to generous aspirations. They +both desired peace, so that their empires might expand and +consolidate. Above all, France was weary of war; and by peace the +average Frenchman meant, not respite from Continental strifes that +yielded a surfeit of barren glories, but peace with England. The words +of Lucchesini, the former Prussian ambassador in Paris, on this +subject are worth quoting: + + "The war with England was at bottom the only one in which the + French public took much interest, since the evils it inflicted on + France were felt every moment: nothing was spoken of so decidedly + among all classes of the people as the wish to have done with that + war; and when one spoke of peace at Paris, one always meant peace + with England: peace with the others was as indifferent to the + public as the victories or the conquests of Bonaparte."[158] + +If the French middle classes longed for a maritime peace so that +coffee and sugar might become reasonably cheap, how much more would +their ruler, whose heart was set on colonies and a realm in the +Orient? In Poland he had cheered his troops with the thought that they +were winning back the French colonial empire; and, as we have seen, he +was even then preparing the ground in Persia for a future invasion of +India. These plans could only be carried out after a time of peace +that should rehabilitate the French navy. Humanitarian sentiment, +patriotism, and even the promptings of a wider ambition, therefore +bade him strive for a general pacification, such as he seemed to have +assured at Tilsit. + +But the means which he adopted were just those that were destined to +defeat this aim. Where he sought to intimidate, he only aroused a more +stubborn resistance: where he should have allayed national fears, he +redoubled them. He did not understand our people: he saw not that, +behind our official sluggishness and muddling, there was a quenchless +national vitality, which, if directed by a genius, could defy a +world-wide combination. If, instead of making secret compacts with the +Czar and trampling on Prussia; if, instead of intriguing with the +Sultan and the Shah, and thus reawakening our fears respecting Egypt +and India, he had called a Congress and submitted all the present +disputes to general discussion, there is reason to think that Great +Britain would have received his overtures. George III.'s Ministers had +favoured the proposal of a Congress when put forward by Austria in the +spring;[159] and they would doubtless have welcomed it from Napoleon +after Friedland, had they not known of far-reaching plans which +rendered peace more risky than open war. This great genius had, in +fact, one fatal defect; he had little faith except in outward +compulsion; and his superabundant energy of menace against England +blighted the hopes of peace which he undoubtedly cherished. + +Long before Alexander's offer of mediation was forwarded to London, +our Ministers had taken a sudden and desperate resolution. They +determined to compel Denmark to join England and Sweden, and to hold +the fleet at Copenhagen as a gauge of Danish fidelity. + +That momentous resolve was formed on or just before July the 16th, in +consequence of news that had arrived from Memel and Tilsit. The exact +purport of that news, and the manner of its acquisition, have been one +of the puzzles of modern history. But the following facts seem to +furnish a solution. Our Foreign Office Records show that our agent at +Tilsit, Mr. Mackenzie, who was on confidential terms with General +Bennigsen, left post haste for England immediately after the first +imperial interview; and the news which he brought, together with +reports of the threatening moves of the French on Holstein, clinched +the determination of our Government to checkmate the Franco-Russian +aims by bringing strong pressure to bear on Denmark. To keep open the +mouth of the Baltic was an urgent necessity, otherwise we should lose +touch with the Anglo-Swedish forces campaigning against the French +near Stralsund.[160] Furthermore, it should be noted that Denmark held +the balance in naval affairs. France and her allies now had fifty-nine +sail of the line ready for sea: the compact with the Czar would give +her twenty-four more; and if Napoleon seized the eighteen Danish and +nine Portuguese battleships, his fighting strength would be nearly +equal to our own.[161] Canning therefore determined, on July 16th, to +compel Denmark to side with us, or at least to observe a neutrality +favourable to the British cause; and, to save her honour, he proposed +to send an irresistible naval force. + + "Denmark's safety," he wrote on July 16th, "is to be found, under + the present circumstances of the world, only in a balance of + opposite dangers. For it is not to be disguised that the influence + which France has acquired from recent events over the North of + Europe, might, unless balanced by the naval power of Great + Britain, leave to Denmark no other option than that of compliance + with the demands of Bonaparte."[162] + +_A balance of opposite dangers!_ In this phrase Canning summed up his +policy towards Denmark. Threatened by Napoleon on the land, she was to +be threatened by us from the sea; and Canning hoped that these +opposite forces would, at least, secure Danish neutrality, without +which Sweden must succumb in her struggle against France. That some +compulsion would be needed had long been clear. In fact, the use of +compulsion had first been recommended by the Russian and Prussian +Governments, which had gone so far as to include in the Treaty of +Bartenstein a proposal of common action, along with England, Austria +and Sweden, _to compel Denmark to side with the allies against +Napoleon_.[163] To this resolve England still clung, despite the +defection of the Czar. In truth, his present conduct made the case for +the coercion of Denmark infinitely more urgent. + +As to the reality of Napoleon's designs on Denmark, there can be no +doubt. After his return to France, he wrote from St. Cloud, directing +Talleyrand to express his displeasure that Denmark had not fulfilled +her _promises_: "Whatever my desire to treat Denmark well, I cannot +hinder her suffering from having allowed the Baltic to be violated [by +the English expedition to Stralsund]; and, if England refuses Russia's +mediation, Denmark must choose either to make war against England, or +against me."[164] Whence it is clear that Denmark had given Napoleon +grounds for hoping that she would declare the Baltic a _mare clausum_. + +The British Government had so far fathomed these designs as to see the +urgency of the danger. Accordingly it proposed to Denmark a secret +defensive alliance, the chief terms of which were the handing over of +the Danish fleet, to be kept as a "sacred pledge" by us till the +peace, a subsidy of L100,000 paid to Denmark for that fleet, and the +offer of armed assistance in case she should be attacked by France. +This offer of defensive alliance was repulsed, and the Danish Prince +Royal determined to resist even the mighty armada which was now +nearing his shores. Towards the close of August, eighty-eight British +ships were in the Sound and the Belt; and when the transports from +Ruegen and Stralsund joined those from Yarmouth, as many as 15,400 +troops were at hand, under the command of Lord Cathcart. A landing was +effected near Copenhagen, and offers of alliance were again made, +including the deposit of the Danish fleet; "but if this offer is +rejected now, it cannot be repeated. The captured property, public and +private, must then belong to the captors: and the city, when taken, +must share the fate of conquered places." The Danes stoutly repelled +offers and threats alike: the English batteries thereupon bombarded +the city until the gallant defenders capitulated (September 7th). The +conditions hastily concluded by our commanders were that the British +forces should occupy the citadel and dockyard for six weeks, should +take possession of the ships and naval stores, and thereupon evacuate +Zealand. + +These terms were scrupulously carried out; and at the close of six +weeks our forces sailed away with the Danish fleet, including fifteen +sail of the line, fifteen frigates, and thirty-one small vessels. This +end to the expedition was keenly regretted by Canning. In a lengthy +Memorandum he left it on record that he desired, not merely Denmark's +fleet, but her alliance. In his view nothing could save Europe but a +firm Anglo-Scandinavian league, which would keep open the Baltic and +set bounds to the designs of the two Emperors. Only by such an +alliance could Sweden be saved from Russia and France. Indeed, +foreseeing the danger to Sweden from a French army acting from Zealand +as a base, Canning proposed to Gustavus that he should occupy that +island, or, failing that, receive succour from a British force on his +own shore of the Sound. But both offers were declined. The final +efforts made to draw Denmark into our alliance were equally futile, +and she kept up hostilities against us for nearly seven years. Thus +Canning's scheme of alliance with the Scandinavian States failed. +Britain gained, it is true, a further safeguard against invasion; but +our statesman, while blaming the precipitate action of our commanders +in insisting solely upon the surrender of the fleet, declared that +that action, apart from an Anglo-Danish alliance, was "an act of great +injustice."[165] + +And as such it has been generally regarded, that is, by those who did +not, and could not, know the real state of the case. In one respect +our action was unpardonable: it was not the last desperate effort of a +long period of struggle: it came after a time of selfish torpor fatal +alike to our reputation and the interests of our allies. After +protesting their inability to help them, Ministers belied their own +words by the energy with which they acted against a small State. And +the prevalent opinion found expression in the protests uttered in +Parliament that it would have been better to face the whole might of +the French, Russian, and Danish navies than to emulate the conduct of +those who had overrun and despoiled Switzerland. + +Moreover, our action did not benefit Sweden, but just the reverse. +Cathcart's force, that had been helping the Swedes in the defence of +their Pomeranian province, was withdrawn in order to strengthen our +hands against Copenhagen. Thereupon the gallant Gustavus, overborne by +the weight of Marshal Brune's corps, sued for an armistice. It was +granted only on the condition that Stralsund should pass into Brune's +hands (August 20th); and the Swedes, unable even to hold Ruegen, were +forced to give up that island also. Sick in health and weary of a +world that his chivalrous instincts scorned, Gustavus withdrew his +forces into Sweden. Even there he was menaced. The hostilities which +Denmark forthwith commenced against England and Sweden exposed his +southern coasts; but he now chose to lean on the valour of his own +subjects rather than on the broken reed of British assistance, and +awaited the attacks of the Danes on the west and of the Russians on +his province of Finland. + +The news from Copenhagen also furnished the Czar with a good excuse +for hostilities with England. For such an event he had hitherto been +by no means desirous. On his return from Tilsit to St. Petersburg he +found the nobility and merchants wholly opposed to a rupture with the +Sea Power, the former disdaining to clasp the hand of the conqueror of +Friedland, the latter foreseeing ruin from the adoption of the +Continental System; and when Napoleon sent Savary on a special mission +to the Czar's Court, the Empress-Mother and nobles alike showed their +abhorrence of "the executioner of the Duc d'Enghien." In vain were +imperial favours lavished on this envoy. He confessed to Napoleon that +only the Czar and the new Foreign Minister, Romantzoff, were +favourable to France; and it was soon obvious that their ardour for a +partition of Turkey must disturb the warily balancing policy which +Napoleon adopted as soon as the Czar's friendship seemed assured. + +The dissolution of this artificial alliance was a task far beyond the +powers of British statesmanship. To Alexander's offer of mediation +between France and England Canning replied that we desired first to +know what were "the just and equitable terms on which France intended +to negotiate," and secondly what were the secret articles of the +Treaty of Tilsit. That there were such was obvious; for the published +treaty made no mention of the Kings of Sardinia and of the two +Sicilies, in whom Alexander had taken so deep an interest. But the +second request annoyed the Czar; and this feeling was intensified by +our action at Copenhagen. Yet, though he pronounced it an act of +"unheard-of violence," the Russian official notes to our Government +were so far reassuring that Lord Castlereagh was able to write to Lord +Cathcart (September 22nd): "Russia does not show any disposition to +resent or to complain of what we have done at Copenhagen.... The tone +of the Russian cabinet has become much more conciliatory to us since +they heard of your operations at Copenhagen."[166] It would seem, +however, that this double-dealing was prompted by naval +considerations. The Czar desired to temporize until his Mediterranean +squadron should gain a place of safety and his Baltic ports be encased +in ice; but on 27th October (8th November, N.S.) he broke off all +communications with us, and adopted the Continental System. + +Meanwhile, at the other extremity of Europe, events were transpiring +that served as the best excuse for our harshness towards Denmark. Even +before our fleet sailed for the Sound, Napoleon was weaving his plans +for the destruction of Portugal. It is clear that he designed to +strike her first before taking any action against Denmark. During his +return journey from Tilsit to Paris, he directed Talleyrand to send +orders to Lisbon for the closing of all Portuguese ports against +British goods by September the 1st--"in default of which I declare war +on Portugal." He also ordered the massing of 20,000 French troops at +Bayonne in readiness to join the Spanish forces that were to threaten +the little kingdom.[167] + +What crime had Portugal committed? She had of late been singularly +passive: anxiously she looked on at the gigantic strifes that were +engulfing the smaller States one by one. Her conduct towards Napoleon +had been far less provocative than that of Denmark towards England. +Threatened with partition by him and Spain in 1801, she had eagerly +snatched at peace, and on the rupture of the Peace of Amiens was fain +to purchase her neutrality at the cost of a heavy subsidy to France, +which she still paid in the hope of prolonging her "existence on +sufferance."[168] That hope now faded away. + +As far back as February, 1806, Napoleon had lent a ready ear to the +plans which Godoy, the all-powerful Minister at Madrid, had proposed +for the partition of Portugal; and, in the month of July following, +Talleyrand held out to our plenipotentiary at Paris the threat that, +unless England speedily made peace with France, Napoleon would annex +Switzerland--"but still less can we alter, for any other +consideration, our intention of invading Portugal. The army destined +for that purpose is already assembling at Bayonne." A year's respite +was gained for the House of Braganza by the campaigns of Jena and +Friedland. But now, with the tenacity of his nature, the Emperor +returned to the plan, actually tried in 1801 and prepared for in 1806, +of crushing our faithful ally in order to compel us to make peace. On +this occasion he counted on certain success, as may be seen by the +following extract from the despatch of the Portuguese ambassador at +Paris to his Government: + + "On Sunday afternoon [August 2nd] there was a diplomatic Levee. + The Emperor came up to me as I stood in the circle, and in a low + voice said: 'Have you written to your Court? Have you despatched a + courier with my final determination?'--I replied in the + affirmative.--'Very well,' said the Emperor, 'then by this time + your Court knows that she must break with England before the 1st + of September. It is the only way to accelerate peace.'--As the + place did not permit discussion on my part, I answered: 'I should + think, Sire, that England must now be sincerely anxious to make + peace.'--'Oh,' replied the Emperor, 'we are very certain of that: + however, in all cases, you must break either with England or + France before the 1st of September.'--He then turned about and + addressed himself to the Danish Minister, as far as I could judge + to the same purport."[169] + +Equally confident is Napoleon's tone in the lately published letter of +September 7th: + + "As soon as I received news of the English expedition against + Copenhagen,[170] I caused Portugal to be informed that all her + ports must be closed to England, and I massed an army of 40,000 + men at Bayonne to join the Spaniards in enforcing this action, if + necessary. But a letter I have just received from the Prince + Regent [of Portugal] leads me to presume that this last measure + will not be necessary, that the Portuguese ports will be closed to + the English by the time this is read, and that Portugal will have + declared war against England. On the other hand, my flotilla will + be ready for action on 1st October, and I shall have a large army + at Boulogne, ready to attempt a _coup de main_ on England." + +The letter concludes by ordering that all British diplomatists are to +be driven _out of Europe_, and that Sweden must make common cause with +France and Russia. Such were the means to be used for forcing +affrighted Peace again to visit this distracted earth. + +In truth, the fate of the British race seemed for the time to hang +upon the events at Copenhagen and Lisbon. Very much depended on the +action of the Prince Regent of Portugal. Had he tamely submitted to +Napoleon's ukase and placed his fleet and his vast colonial empire at +the service of France, it is doubtful whether even the high-souled +Canning would not have stooped to surrender in face of odds so +overwhelming. The young statesman's anxiety as to the action of +Portugal is attested by many a long and minutely corrected despatch to +Viscount Strangford, our envoy at Lisbon. But, fortunately for us, +Napoleon committed the blunder which so often marred his plans: he +pushed them too far: he required the Prince Regent to adopt a course +of conduct repellent to an honourable man, namely, to confiscate the +merchandise and property of British merchants who had long trusted the +good faith of the House of Braganza. To this last demand the prince +opposed a dignified resistance, though on all other points he gave +way. This will appear from Lord Strangford's despatch of August 13th: + + " ... The Portuguese Ministers place all their hopes of being able + to ward off this terrible blow in the certainty which they + entertain of England being obliged to enter into negotiations for + a general peace.... The very existence of the Portuguese Monarchy + depends on the celerity with which England shall meet the pacific + interference of the Emperor of Russia. The Prince Regent gives the + most solemn promise that he will not on any account consent to the + measure of confiscating the property of British subjects residing + under his protection. But I think that if France could be induced + to give up this point, and limit her demands to the exclusion of + British commerce from Portugal, the Government of this country + would accede to them...." + +A week later he states that Portugal begged England to put up with a +temporary rupture, and reports that a quantity of diamonds had been +taken out of the Treasury and sent to Paris to be distributed in +presents to persons supposed to possess influence over the minds of +Bonaparte and Talleyrand. It would be interesting to trace the history +of these diamonds. But, as Napoleon had recently awarded sums +amounting in all to 26,582,000 francs from out of the estates +confiscated in Poland,[171] signs of sudden affluence were widespread +in Paris and rendered it difficult to detect the receivers of the +gems. Talleyrand was the usual recipient of such _douceurs_. But on +August the 14th he had retired from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, +gaining the title of Vice Grand-Elector; and, if we are to be guided, +not by the statements of his personal foes, Hauterive and Pasquier, +but by the determination which he is known to have formed at Tilsit, +that he would not be "the executioner of Europe," we may judge that he +disapproved of the barbarous treatment meted out to Prussia and now +planned against Portugal.[172] + +As has been stated above, the partition of this kingdom had been +planned by Godoy in concert with Napoleon early in 1806. That pampered +minion of the Spanish Court, angry at the shelving of plans which +promised to yield him a third of Portugal, called Spain to arms while +Napoleon was marching to Jena, an affront which the conqueror seemed +to overlook but never really forgave. Now, however, he appeared wholly +to enter into Godoy's scheme; and, while the Prince Regent of Portugal +was appealing to his pity, the Emperor (September 25th, 1807) charged +Duroc to confer with Godoy's confidential agent at Paris, Don +Izquierdo. " ...As for Portugal, I make no difficulty about granting to +the King of Spain a suzerainty over Portugal, and even taking part of +it away for the Queen of Etruria and the Prince of the Peace [Godoy]." +Duroc was also to point out the difficulty, now that "all Italy" +belonged to Napoleon, of allowing "that deformity," the kingdom of +Etruria, to disfigure the peninsula. The change would in fact, doubly +benefit the French Emperor. It would enable him completely to exclude +British commerce from the port of Leghorn, where it was trickling in +alarmingly, and also to place the mouths of the Tagus and Douro in the +hands of obedient vassals. + +Such was the scheme in outline. Despite the offer of the Prince Regent +to obey all Napoleon's behests except that relating to the seizure of +British subjects and their property, war was irrevocably resolved on +by October the 12th.[173] And on October the 27th a secret convention +was signed at the Palace of Fontainebleau for arranging "the future +lot of Portugal by a healthy policy and conformably to the interests +of France and Spain." Portugal was now to be divided into three very +unequal parts: the largest portion, comprising Estremadura, Beira, and +Tras-os Montes, was reserved for a future arrangement at the general +peace, but meanwhile was to be held by France: Algarve and Alemtejo +were handed over to Godoy; while the diminutive province of Entre +Minho e Douro was flung as a sop to the young King of Etruria and his +mother, a princess of the House of Spain, to console them for the loss +of Etruria. A vague promise was made that the House of Braganza might +be reinstated in the first of these three portions, in case England +restored Gibraltar, Trinidad, and other colonies taken by her from +Spain or her allies; and Napoleon guaranteed to the King of Spain his +possessions in Europe, exclusive of the Balearic Isles, offering also +to recognize him as Emperor of the Two Americas. + +Meanwhile Junot was leading his army corps from Bayonne towards +Salamanca and Ciudad Rodrigo, to give effect to this healthful +arrangement. This general, whom it was desirable to remove from Paris +on account of his rather too open _liaison_ with one of the Bonaparte +princesses, was urged to the utmost speed and address by the Emperor. +He must cover the whole 200 leagues in thirty-five days; lack of +provisions must not hinder the march, for "20,000 men can live +anywhere, even in a desert"; and, above all, as the Prince Regent had +again offered to declare war on England, he (Junot) could represent +that he came as an ally: "I have already informed you that my +intention in authorizing you to enter that land as an ally was to +enable you to seize its fleet, but that my mind was fully made up to +take possession of Portugal."[174] Lisbon, in fact, was to be served +as Venice was ten years before, the lion donning the skin of the fox +so as to effect a peaceful seizure. But that ruse could hardly succeed +twice. The Prince Regent had his ships ready for flight. The bluff and +headstrong Junot, nicknamed "the tempest" by the army, was too artless +to catch the prince by guile; but he hurried his soldiers over +mountains and through flooded gorges until, on November 30th, 1,500 +tattered, shoeless, famished grenadiers straggled into Lisbon--to find +that the royal quarry had flown. + +The Prince Regent took this momentous resolve with the utmost +reluctance. For many weeks he had clung to the hope that Napoleon +would spare him; and though he accepted a convention with England, +whereby he gained the convoy of our men-of-war across the Atlantic and +the promise of aggrandizement in South America, he still continued to +temporize, and that too, when a British fleet was at hand in the Tagus +strong enough to thwart the designs of the Russian squadron there +present to prevent his departure. When the French were within two +days' march of Lisbon, Lord Strangford feared that the Portuguese +fleet would be delivered into their hands; and only after a trenchant +declaration that further vacillation would be taken as a sign of +hostility to Great Britain, did the Prince Regent resolve to seek +beyond the seas the independence which was denied to him in his own +realm.[175] + +Few scenes are more pathetic than the departure of the House of +Braganza from the cradle of its birth. Love for the Prince Regent as a +man, mingled with pity for the demented Queen, held the populace of +Lisbon in tearful silence as the royal family and courtiers filed +along the quays, followed by agonized groups of those who had decided +to share their trials. But silence gave way to wails of despair as the +exiles embarked on the heaving estuary and severed the last links with +Europe. Slowly the fleet began to beat down the river in the teeth of +an Atlantic gale. Near the mouth the refugees were received with a +royal salute by the British fleet, and under its convoy they breasted +the waves of the ocean and the perils of the future. + +The conduct of England towards Denmark and that of Napoleon towards +Portugal call for a brief comparison. Those small kingdoms were the +victims of two powerful States whose real or fancied interests +prompted them to the domination of the land and of the sea. But when +we compare the actions of the two Great Powers, important differences +begin to reveal themselves. England had far more cause for complaint +against Denmark than Napoleon had against Portugal. The hostility of +the Danes to the recent coalition was notorious. To compel them to +change their policy without loss of national honour, we sent the most +powerful armada that had ever left our shores, with offers of alliance +and a demand that their fleet, the main object of Napoleon's designs, +should be delivered up to be held in deposit. The offer was refused, +and we seized the fleet. The act was brutal, but it was at least open +and above board, and the capitulation of September 7th was +scrupulously observed, even when the Danes prepared to renew +hostilities. + +On the other hand, the demands of Napoleon on the Court of Lisbon were +such as no honourable prince could accept; they were relentlessly +pressed on in spite of the offer of the Prince Regent to meet him in +every particular save one; the appeals of the victim were deliberately +used by the aggressor to further his own rapacious designs; and the +enterprise fell short of ending in a massacre only because the glamour +of the French arms so dazzled the susceptible people of the south +that, for the present, they sank helplessly away at the sight of two +battalions of spectres. Finally, Portugal was partitioned--or rather +it was kept entirely by Napoleon; for, after the promises of partition +had done their work, the sleeping partners in the transaction were +quietly shelved, and it was then seen that Portugal had finally served +as the bait for ensnaring Spain. To this subject we shall return in +the next chapter. + +In Italy also, the Juggernaut car of the Continental System rolled +over the small States. The Kingdom of Etruria, which in 1802 had +served as an easy means of buying the whole of Louisiana from the +Spanish Bourbons, was now wrested from that complaisant House, and in +December was annexed to the French Empire. + +The Pope also passed under the yoke. For a long time the relations +between Pius VII. and Napoleon had been strained. Gentle as the +Pontiff was by nature, he had declined to exclude all British +merchandise from his States, or to accept an alliance with Eugene and +Joseph. He also angered Napoleon by persistently refusing to dissolve +the marriage of Jerome Buonaparte with Miss Paterson; and an +interesting correspondence ensued, culminating in a long diatribe +which Eugene was charged to forward to the Vatican as an extract from +a private letter of Napoleon to himself.[176] Pius VII. was to be +privately warned that Napoleon had done more good to religion than the +Pope had done harm. Christ had said that His Kingdom was not of this +world. Why then did the Pope set himself above Christ? Why did he +refuse to render to Caesar that which was Caesar's?--A fortnight later +the Emperor advised Eugene to despatch troops in the direction of +Bologna--"and if the Pope commits an imprudence, it will be a fine +opportunity for depriving him of the Roman States." + +No imprudence was committed. Yet, in the following January, Napoleon +ordered his troops to occupy Rome, alleging that the Eternal City was +a hotbed of intrigues fomented by England and the ex-Queen of Naples, +that Neapolitan rebels had sought an asylum in the Papal States, and +that, though he had no wish to deprive the Pope of his territories, +yet he must include him in his "system." When Pius VII. refused to +commit himself to a policy which would involve war with England, +Napoleon ordered that his lands east of the Apennines should be +annexed to the Kingdom of Italy (April 2nd, 1808). Napoleon thus +gained complete control over the Adriatic coasts, which, along with +the island of Corfu, had long engaged his most earnest attention.[177] + +True to his aim of forcing or enticing all maritime States into a +mighty confederacy for the humiliation of England, Napoleon had given +most heed to lands possessing extensive seaboards. Northern Italy, +Holland, Naples, North Germany, Prussia, Russia, Portugal, Spain, +Denmark, and Central Italy had, in turn, adopted his system. On +Austria he exerted a less imperious pressure; for her coast-line of +Trieste and Croatia was so easily controlled by his Italian and +Dalmatian territories that English merchandise with difficulty found +admittance. Yet, in order to carry out there also his policy of +"Thorough," he brought the arguments of Paris and St. Petersburg to +bear on the Court of Vienna; and on February 18th, 1808, Austria was +enrolled in a league that might well be called continental; for in the +spring of that year it embraced every land save Sweden and Turkey. + +His activity at this time almost passes belief. While he fastened his +grip on the Continent, gallicized the institutions of Italy and +Germany, and almost daily instructed his brothers in the essentials of +successful statecraft, he found time to turn his thoughts once more to +the East, and to mark every device of England for lengthening her +lease of life. Noticing that we had annulled our blockade of the Elbe +and Weser, with the aim of getting our goods introduced there by +neutral ships, Napoleon charged his Finance Minister, Gaudin, to +prepare a decree for pressing hard on neutrals who had touched at any +of our ports or carried wares that could be proved to be of British +origin.[178] + +He was perfectly correct in his surmise that English goods were about +to be sent into the Continent extensively on neutral vessels. After +the consequences of the Treaty of Tilsit had been fully developed, +that was almost their only means of entry. "In August, September and +October, British commerce lay prostrate and motionless until a +protecting and self-defensive system was interposed by our Orders in +Council."[179] The first of these ordered reprisals against the new +Napoleonic States (November 4th): a week later came a second which +declared that, as the Orders of January had not induced the enemy to +relax his commercial hostilities, but these were now enforced with +increased rigour, any port whence the British flag was excluded would +be treated as if it were actually blockaded; that is, the principle of +the legality of a nominal blockade, abandoned in 1801, was now +reaffirmed. The carriage of hostile colonial products was likewise +prohibited to neutrals, though certain exceptions were allowed. Also +any neutral vessel carrying "certificates of origin"--a device for +distinguishing between British and neutral goods--was to be considered +a lawful prize of war. A third Order in Council of the same date +allowed goods to be imported into the United Kingdom from a hostile +port in neutral ships, subject to the ordinary duties, and bonding +facilities were granted for the re-exportation of such goods to any +friendly or neutral port.[180] These orders were designed to draw +neutral commerce through our ports, and to give secret facilities for +the carriage of our goods by neutrals, while pressing upon those that +obeyed Napoleon's system. + +The harshest of them was that which encouraged the searching of +neutral vessels for certificates of origin--a measure as severe as the +confiscation of British property by Napoleon, which it was designed to +defeat. And we may note here that the friction resulting from our +Orders in Council and our enforcement of the right of search led to +the United States passing a Non-Intercourse Act (December 23rd, 1807) +that preluded active hostilities against us. It also led Napoleon to +confiscate all American ships in his harbours after April 17th, 1808. + +The November Orders in Council soon drew a reply from Napoleon. He +heard of them during a progress through the north of Italy, and from +Milan he flung back his retort, the famous Milan Decrees of November +23rd and December 17th. He thereby declared every neutral ship, which +submitted to those orders, to be denationalized and good prize of war; +and the same doom was pronounced against every vessel sailing to or +from any port in the United Kingdom or its colonies or possessions. +But these measures were not to affect ships of those States that +compelled Great Britain to respect their flag. The islanders might +well be dismayed at the prospect of a seclusion which promised to +recall the Virgilian line: + + "penitus toto divisos orbe Britannos." + +Yet they resolved to pit the resources of the outer world against the +militarism of Napoleon; and, drawing the resources of the tropics to +the new power-looms of Lancashire and Yorkshire, they might well hope +to pour their unequalled goods into Europe from points of vantage such +as Sicily, Gibraltar, the Channel Islands, and Heligoland. There were +many Englishmen who believed that the November Orders in Council +brought nothing but harm to our cause. They argued that our +manufactured goods must find their way into the Continent in spite of +the Berlin Decrees; and they could point to the curious fact that +Bourrienne, Napoleon's agent at Hamburg, when charged to procure +50,000 overcoats for the French army during the Eylau campaign, was +obliged to buy them from England.[181] + +The incident certainly proves the folly of the Continental System. And +if we had had to consult our manufacturing interests alone, a policy +of _laisser faire_ would doubtless have been the best. England, +however, prided herself on her merchant service: to that she looked as +the nursery for the royal navy: and the abandonment of the world's +carrying trade to neutrals would have seemed an act of high treason. +Her acts of retaliation against the Berlin Decrees and the policy of +Tilsit were harsh and high-handed. But they were adopted during a +pitiless commercial strife; and, in warfare of so novel and desperate +a kind, acts must unfortunately be judged by their efficacy to harm +the foe rather than by the standards of morality that hold good during +peace. Outwardly, it seemed as if England were doomed. She had lost +her allies and alienated the sympathies of neutrals. But from the sea +she was able to exert on the Napoleonic States a pressure that was +gradual, cumulative, and resistless; and the future was to prove the +wisdom of the words of Mollien: "England waged a warfare of modern +times; Napoleon, that of ancient times. There are times and cases when +an anachronism is fatal." + +Moreover, at the very time when the Emperor was about to complete his +great experiment by subduing Sweden and preparing for the partition of +Turkey, it sustained a fatal shock by the fierce rising of the Spanish +people against his usurped authority. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII + +THE SPANISH RISING + + +The relations of Spain to France during the twelve years that preceded +the rising of 1808 are marked by acts of folly and unmanly +complaisance that promised utterly to degrade a once proud and +sensitive people. They were the work of the senile and spiritless +King, Charles IV., of his intriguing consort, and, above all, of her +paramour, the all-powerful Minister Godoy. Of an ancient and +honourable family, endowed with a fine figure, courtly address, and +unscrupulous arts, this man had wormed himself into the royal +confidence; and after bringing about a favourable peace with France in +1795, he was styled The Prince of the Peace. + +In the next year the meaning of the French alliance was revealed in +the Treaty of St. Ildefonso, which required Spain to furnish troops, +ships, and subsidies for the war against England, a state of vassalage +which was made harder by Napoleon. The results are well known. After +being forced by him to cede Trinidad to us at the Peace of Amiens, she +sacrificed her navy at Trafalgar, saw her colonies and commerce decay +and her finances shrivel for lack of the golden streams formerly +poured in by Mexico and Peru. + +In the summer of 1806, while sinking into debt and disgrace, the Court +of Madrid heard with indignation of Napoleon's design to hand over the +Balearic Isles to the Spanish Bourbons whom he had driven from Naples +and proposed to drive from Sicily. At once Spanish pride caught fire +and clutched at means of revenge.[182] Godoy was further incensed by +the sudden abandonment of the plans which he had long discussed with +Napoleon for the partition of Portugal, plans which gave him the +prospect of reigning as King over the southern portion of that +realm.[183] Accordingly, when the Emperor was entering upon the Jena +campaign, he summoned the Spanish people to arms in a most threatening +manner. The news of the collapse of Prussia ended his bravado. +Complaisance again reigned at Madrid, and 15,000 Spaniards were sent, +at Napoleon's demand, to serve on the borders of Denmark, while the +autocrat of the West perfected his plans against the Iberian +Peninsula. As was noted in the previous chapter, the Emperor renewed +his offers of a partition of Portugal in the early autumn of 1807; and +in pursuance of the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau, Junot's corps +marched through Spain into Portugal, where they were helped by a +Spanish corps. + +It is significant that, as early as October 17th, 1807, Napoleon +ordered his general to send a detailed description of the country and +of his line of march, the engineer officers being specially charged to +send sketches, "_which it is important to have_." Other French +divisions then crossed the Pyrenees, under plea of keeping open +Junot's communications with France; and spies were sent to observe the +state of the chief Spanish strongholds. Others were charged to report +on the condition of the Spanish army and the state of public opinion; +while Junot was cautioned to keep a sharp watch on the Spanish troops +in Portugal, to allow no fortress to be in their hands, and to send +all the Portuguese troops away to France. Thus, in the early days of +1808, Napoleon had some 20,000 troops in Portugal, about 40,000 in the +north of Spain, and 12,000 in Catalonia. By various artifices they +gained admission into the strongholds of Pamplona, Monjuik, Barcelona, +St. Sebastian, and Figueras, so that by the month of March the north +and west of the peninsula had passed quietly into his hands, while the +greater part of the Spanish army was doing his work in Portugal or on +the shores of the Baltic.[184] + +These proceedings began to arouse alarm and discontent among the +Spanish people; but on its Government their influence was as benumbing +as that which the boa-constrictor exerts on its prey. In vain did +Charles IV. and Godoy strive to set a limit to the numbers of the +auxiliaries that poured across the Pyrenees to help them against +fabled English expeditions. In vain did they beg that the partition of +Portugal might now proceed in accordance with the terms of the secret +Treaty of Fontainebleau. The King was curtly told that affairs were +not yet ripe for the publication of that treaty.[185] And the growing +conviction that he had been duped poured gall into the cup of family +bitterness that had long been full to overflowing. + +The scandalous relations of the Queen with Godoy had deeply incensed +the heir to the throne, Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias. His attitude of +covert opposition to his parents and their minion was strengthened by +the influence of his bride, a daughter of the ex-Queen of Naples, and +their palace was the headquarters of all who hoped to end the +degradation of the kingdom. As later events were to prove, Ferdinand +had not the qualities of courage and magnanimity that command general +homage; but it was enough for his countrymen that he opposed the +Court. In 1806 his consort died; and on October 11th, 1807, without +consulting his father, he secretly wrote to Napoleon, requesting the +hand of a Bonaparte princess in marriage, and stating that such an +alliance was the ardent wish of all Spaniards, while they would abhor +his union with a sister of the Princess of the Peace. To this letter +Napoleon sent no reply. But Charles IV. had some inkling of the fact +that the prince had been treating direct with Napoleon; and this, +along with another unfilial action of the prince, furnished an excuse +for a charge of high treason. It was spitefully pressed home and was +revoked only on his humble request for the King's pardon. + +Now, this "School for Scandal" was being played at Madrid at the time +when Napoleon was arranging the partition of Portugal; and the schism +in the Spanish royal House may well have strengthened his +determination to end its miserable existence and give a good +government to Spain. At the close of the so-called palace plot, +Charles IV. informed his august ally of _that frightful attempt_, and +begged him to _give the aid of his lights and his counsels_.[186] The +craven-hearted King thus himself opened the door for that intervention +which Napoleon had already meditated. His resolve now rapidly +hardened. At the close of January, 1808, he wrote to Junot asking him: +"If unexpected events occurred in Spain, what would you fear from the +Spanish troops? Could you easily rid yourself of them?"[187] On +February the 20th he appointed Murat, Grand Duke of Berg, to be his +Lieutenant in Spain and commander of the French Forces. The choice of +this bluff, headstrong cavalier, who had done so much to provoke +Prussia in 1806, certainly betokened a forward policy. Yet the Emperor +continued to smile on the Spanish Court, and gave a sort of half +sanction to the union of Ferdinand with a daughter of Lucien +Bonaparte.[188] In fact, the hope of this alliance was now used to +keep quiet the numerous partisans of Ferdinand, while Murat advanced +rapidly towards Madrid. To his Lieutenant the Emperor wrote (March +16th): "Continue your kindly talk. Reassure the King, the Prince of +the Peace, the Prince of Asturias, the Queen. The chief thing is to +reach Madrid, to rest your troops and replenish your provisions. Say +that I am about to come so as to arrange matters." + +As to Napoleon's real aims, Murat was in complete ignorance; and he +repeatedly complained of the lack of confidence which a brother-in-law +had a right to expect.[189] But while the Grand Duke of Berg beamed on +the Spaniards with meaningless affability, Izquierdo, Godoy's secret +agent at Paris, troubled his master with gloomy reports of the +deepening reserve and lowering threats of Ministers at Paris. There +was talk of requiring from Spain the cession of her lands between the +Pyrenees and the Ebro: there were even dark suggestions as to the need +of dethroning the Spanish Bourbons once for all. Interpreting these +hints in the light of their own consciences, the King, Queen, and +favourite saw themselves in imagination flung forth into the Atlantic, +a butt to the scorn of mankind; and they prepared to flee to the New +World betimes, with the needful treasure. + +But there, too, Napoleon forestalled them. On February 21st a secret +order was sent to a French squadron to anchor off Cadiz and stop the +King and Queen of Spain if they sought to "repeat the scene of +Lisbon."[190] Their escape to America would be even more favourable to +England than the flight of the Court of Lisbon had been; and Napoleon +took good care that the King, to whom he had awarded the title of +Emperor of the two Americas, should remain a prisoner in Europe. +Scared, however, by the approach of Murat and the news from Paris, +Charles still prepared for flight; and the Queen's anxiety to save her +favourite from the growing fury of the populace also bent her desires +seawards. + +The Court was at the palace of Aranjuez, not far from Madrid, and it +seemed easy to escape into Andalusia, and to carry away, by guile or +by force, the heir to the throne. But Ferdinand, who hoped for +deliverance at the hands of the French, thwarted the scheme by a +timely hint to his faithful guards. At once his partisans gathered +round him; and the people, rushing to Godoy's residence, madly +ransacked it in the hope of tearing to pieces the author of the +nation's ruin. After thirty-six hours' concealment, Godoy ventured to +steal forth; at once he was discovered, was kicked and beaten; and +only the intervention of Ferdinand, prompted by the agonized +entreaties of his mother, availed to save the dregs of that wretched +life. The roars of the crowd around the palace, and the smashing of +the royal carriage, now decided the King to abdicate; and he declared +that his declining years and failing health now led him to yield the +crown to Ferdinand (March 19th, 1808). + +Loud was the acclaim that greeted the young King when he entered +Madrid; but the rejoicings were soon damped by the ambiguous behaviour +of Murat, who, on entering Madrid at the head of his troops, skilfully +evaded any recognition of Ferdinand as King. In fact, Murat had +received (March 21st) a letter from Charles IV.'s daughter begging for +his help to her parents at Aranjuez; and it soon transpired that the +ex-King and Queen now repented of their abdication, which they +represented as brought about by force and therefore null and void. The +Grand Duke of Berg saw the advantage which this dispute might give to +Napoleon; and he begged the Emperor to come immediately to Madrid for +the settlement of matters on which he alone could decide. To this +Napoleon replied (March 30th) commending his Lieutenant's prudence, +and urging him to escort Charles IV. to the Escurial as King, while +Godoy was also to be protected and sent to Bayonne. + +To this town the Emperor set out on April the 2nd, as though he would +thence proceed to Madrid. Ferdinand, meanwhile, was treated with +guarded courtesy that kept alive his hope of an alliance with a French +princess. To favour this notion, Napoleon despatched the wariest of +his agents, Savary, who artfully persuaded him to meet the Emperor at +Burgos. He succeeded, and even induced him to continue his journey to +Vittoria. At that place the citizens sought to cut the traces of the +royal carriage, so much did they fear treachery if he proceeded +further. Yet the young King, beguiled by the Emperor's letter of April +16th, which offered the hand of a French princess, prolonged his +journey, crossed the frontier, and was received by Napoleon at Bayonne +(April 20th). His arguments, proving that his father's abdication had +been voluntary, fell on deaf ears. The Emperor invited him to dinner, +and afterwards sent Savary to inform him that he must hand back the +crown to his father. To this Ferdinand returned a firm refusal; and +his advisers, Escoiquiz and Labrador, ventured to warn the Emperor +that the Spaniards would swear eternal hatred to France if he tampered +with the crown of Spain. Napoleon listened good-humouredly, pulled +Escoiquiz by the ear as a sign of his personal regard, and added: "You +are a deep fellow; but, I tell you, the Bourbons will never let me +alone." On the next day he offered Ferdinand the throne of Etruria. It +was coldly declined.[191] + +Charles IV., his Queen, and Godoy, arrived at Bayonne at the close of +April. The ex-King had offered to put himself and his claim in +Napoleon's hands, which was exactly what the Emperor desired. The +feeble creature now poured forth his bile on his disobedient son, and +peevishly bade him restore the crown. Ferdinand assented, provided his +father would really reign, and would dismiss those advisers who were +hated by the nation; but the attempt to impose conditions called forth +a flash of senile wrath, along with the remark that "one ought to do +everything _for_ the people and nothing _by_ the people." + +Meanwhile the men of Madrid were not acting with the passivity desired +by their philosophizing monarch. At first they had welcomed Murat as +delivering them from the detested yoke of Godoy; but the conduct of +the French in their capital, and the detention of Ferdinand at +Bayonne, aroused angry feelings, which burst forth on May the 2nd, and +long defied the grapeshot of Murat's guns and the sabres of his +troopers. The news of this so-called revolt gave Napoleon another +handle against his guests. He hurried to Charles and cowed him by +well-simulated signs of anger, which that _roi faineant_ thereupon +vented on his son, with a passion that was outdone only by the shrill +gibes of the Queen. At the close of this strange scene, the Emperor +interposed with a few stern words, threatening to treat the prince as +a rebel if he did not that very evening restore the crown to his +father. Ferdinand braved the parental taunts in stolid silence, but +before the trenchant threats of Napoleon he quailed, and broke down. + +Resistance was now at an end. On that same night (May 5th) the Emperor +concluded with Godoy a convention whereby Charles IV. agreed to hand +over to Napoleon the crowns of Spain and the Indies, on consideration +that those dominions should remain intact, should keep the Roman +Catholic faith to the exclusion of all others, and that he himself +should be pensioned off with the estates of Compiegne and Chambord, +receiving a yearly income of seven and a half million francs, payable +by the French treasury. The Spanish princes were similarly treated, +Ferdinand signing away his rights for a castle and a pension. To crown +the farce, Napoleon ordered Talleyrand to receive them at his estate +of Valencay, and amuse them with actors and the charms of female +society. Thus the choicest humorist of the age was told off to +entertain three uninteresting exiles; and the ex-Minister of Foreign +Affairs, who disapproved of the treachery of Bayonne, was made to +appear the Emperor's accomplice. + +Such were the means whereby Napoleon gained the crowns of Spain and +the Indies, without striking a blow. + +His excuse for the treachery as expressed at the time was as follows: +"My action is not good from a certain point of view, I know. But my +policy demands that I shall not leave in my rear, so near to Paris, a +dynasty hostile to mine." From this and from other similar remarks, it +would seem that his resolve to dethrone the Bourbons was taken while +on his march to Jena, but was thrust down into the abyss of his +inscrutable will for a whole year, until Junot's march to Lisbon +furnished a safe means for effecting the subjugation of Spain. This +end he thenceforth pursued unswervingly with no sign of remorse, or +even of hesitation--unless we accept as genuine the almost certainly +spurious letter of March 29th, 1808. That letter represents him as +blaming Murat for entering Madrid, when he had repeatedly urged him to +do so; as asking his advice after he had all along kept him in +ignorance as to his aims; and as writing a philosophical homily on the +unused energies of the Spanish people, for whom in his genuine letters +he expressed a lofty contempt.[192] + +The whole enterprise is, indeed, a masterpiece of skill, but a +masterpiece marred by ineffaceable stains of treachery. And at the +close of his life, he himself said: "I embarked very badly on the +Spanish affair, I confess: the immorality of it was too patent, the +injustice too cynical, and the whole thing wears an ugly look since I +have fallen; for the attempt is only seen in its hideous nakedness +deprived of all majesty and of the many benefits which completed my +intention." + +That he hoped to reform Spain is certain. Political and social reforms +had hitherto consolidated the work of conquest; and those which he +soon offered to the Spaniards might possibly have renovated that +nation, had they not been handed in at the sword's point; but the +motive was too obvious, the intervention too insulting, to render +success possible with the most sensitive people in Europe. On May 2nd +he wrote to Murat that he intended King Joseph of Naples to reign at +Madrid, and offered to Murat either Portugal or Naples.[193] He chose +the latter. Joseph was allowed no choice in the matter. He was +summoned from Naples to Bayonne, and, on arriving at Pau, heard with +great surprise that he was King of Spain. + +Napoleon's selection was tactful. At Naples, the eldest of the +Bonapartes had effected many reforms and was generally popular; but +the treachery of Bayonne blasted all hopes of his succeeding at +Madrid. Though the grandees of Spain welcomed the new monarch with +courtly grace, though Charles IV. gave him his blessing, though +Ferdinand demeaned himself by advising his former subjects quietly to +submit, the populace willed otherwise. + +Every instinct of the Spanish nature was aflame with resentment. +Loathing for Charles IV., his Queen, and their favourite, whom +Napoleon richly dowered, love of the young King whom he falsely +filched away, detestation of the French troops who outraged the rights +of hospitality, and zeal for the Roman Catholic Church, whose chief +had just been robbed of half his States, goaded the Spaniards to +madness. Their indignation rumbled hoarsely for a time, like a volcano +in labour, and then burst forth in an explosion of fury. The +constitution which Napoleon presented to the Spanish Notables at +Bayonne was accepted by them, only to be flung back with scorn by the +people. The men of enlightenment who counselled prudence and patience +were slain by raging mobs or sought safety in flight. The rising was +at once national in its grand spontaneity and local in its intensity. +Province after province rose in arms, except the north and centre, +where 80,000 French troops held the patriots in check. In the van of +the movement was the rugged little province of Asturias, long ago the +forlorn hope of the Christians in their desperate conflicts with the +Moors. Intrenched behind their mountains and proud of their ancient +fame, the Asturians ventured on the sublime folly of declaring war +against the ruler of the West and the lord of 900,000 warriors. +Swiftly Galicia and Leon in the north repeated the challenge; while in +the south, the fertile lands of Andalusia, Murcia, and Valencia +flashed back from their mountains the beacon lights of a national war. +The former dislike of England was forgotten. The Juntas of Asturias, +Galicia, and Andalusia sent appeals to us for help, to which Canning +generously responded; and, on July 4th, we passed at a single bound +from war with the Spanish Bourbons to an informal alliance with the +people of Spain. + +Napoleon now began to see the magnitude of his error. Instead of +gaining control over Spain and the Indies, he had changed +long-suffering allies into irreconcilable foes. He prepared to conquer +Spain. While Joseph was escorted to his new capital by a small army, +Napoleon from Bayonne directed the operations of his generals. Holding +the northern road from Bayonne to Burgos and Madrid, they were to send +out cautious feelers against the bands of insurgents; for, as Napoleon +wrote to Savary (July 13th): "In civil wars it is the important posts +that must be held: one ought not to go everywhere." Weighty words, +which his lieutenants in Spain were often to disregard! Bessieres in +the north gained a success at Medina de Rio Seco; but a signal +disaster in the south ruined the whole campaign. Dupont, after beating +the levies of Andalusia, penetrated into the heart of that great +province, and, when cumbered with plunder, his divided forces were +surrounded, cut off from their supplies, and forced to surrender at +Baylen--in all about 20,000 men (July 19th). The news that a French +army had laid down its arms caused an immense sensation in an age when +Napoleon's troops were held to be invincible. Baylen was hailed +everywhere by despairing patriots as the dawn of a new era. And such +it was to be. If Valmy proclaimed the advent of militant democracy, +the victory of Spaniards over one of the bravest of Napoleon's +generals was felt to be an even greater portent. It ushered in the +epoch of national resistance to the overweening claims of the Emperor +of the West. + +That truth he seems dimly to have surmised. His rage on hearing of the +capitulation was at first too deep for words. Then he burst out: +"Could I have expected that from Dupont, a man whom I loved, and was +rearing up to become a Marshal? They say he had no other way to save +the lives of his soldiers. Better, far better, to have died with arms +in their hands. Their death would have been glorious: we should have +avenged them. You can always supply the place of soldiers. Honour +alone, when once lost, can never be regained." + +Moreover, the material consequences were considerable. The Spaniards +speedily threatened Madrid; and, on the advice of Savary, Joseph +withdrew from his capital after a week's sojourn, and fell back +hurriedly on the line of the Upper Ebro, where the French rallied for +a second advance. + +Their misfortunes did not end here. In the north-east the hardy +Catalans had risen against the invaders, and by sheer pluck and +audacity cooped them up in their ill-gotten strongholds of Barcelona +and Figueras. The men of Arragon, too, never backward in upholding +their ancient liberties, rallied to defend their capital Saragossa. +Their rage was increased by the arrival of Palafox, who had escaped in +disguise from the suite of Ferdinand at Bayonne, and brought news of +the treachery there perpetrated. Beaten outside their ancient city, +and unable to hold its crumbling walls against the French cannon and +columns of assault, the defenders yet fiercely turned to bay amidst +its narrow lanes and massive monasteries. There a novel warfare was +waged. From street to street and house to house the fight eddied for +days, the Arragonese opposing to French valour the stubborn devotion +ever shown by the peoples of the peninsula in defence of their walled +cities, and an enthusiasm kindled by the zeal of their monks and the +heroism of the Maid of Saragossa. Finally, on August 10th, the noble +city shook off the grip of the 15,000 assailants, who fell back to +join Joseph's forces higher up the Ebro. + +Even now the Emperor did not fully realize the serious nature of the +war that was beginning. Despite Savary's warnings of the dangers to be +faced in Spain, he persisted in thinking of it as an ordinary war that +could be ended by good strategy and a few victories. He censured +Joseph and Savary for giving up the line of the Upper Douro: he blamed +them next for the evacuation of Tudela, and summed up the situation by +stating that "all the Spanish forces are not able to overthrow 25,000 +French in a reasonable position"--adding, with stinging satire: "In +war _men_ are nothing: it is _a man_ who is everything." + +When, at the close of August, Napoleon penned these memorable words in +his palace of St. Cloud, he knew not that a _man_ had arrived on the +scene of action. At the beginning of that month, Sir Arthur Wellesley +with a British force of 12,300 men landed at the mouth of the River +Mondego, and, aided by Portuguese irregulars, began his march on +Lisbon. This is not the place for a review of the character and career +of our great warrior: in truth, a volume would be too short for the +task. With fine poetic insight, Lord Tennyson has noted in his funeral +Ode the qualities that enabled him to overcome the unexampled +difficulties caused by our own incompetent Government and by jealous, +exacting, and slipshod allies: + + "Mourn for the man of long-enduring blood, + The statesman-warrior, moderate, resolute, + Whole in himself, a common good." + + +Glory and vexation were soon to be his. On the 17th he drove the +French vanguard from Rolica; and when, four days later, Junot hurried +up with all his force, the British inflicted on that presumptuous +leader a signal defeat at Vimiero. So bad were Junot's tactics that +his whole force would have been cut off from Torres Vedras, had not +Wellesley's senior officer, Sir Harry Burrard, arrived just in time to +take over the command and stop the pursuit. Thereupon Wellesley +sarcastically exclaimed to his staff: "Gentlemen, nothing now remains +to us but to go and shoot red-legged partridges." The peculiarities of +our war administration were further seen in the supersession of +Burrard by Sir Hew Dalrymple, whose chief title to fame is his signing +of the Convention of Cintra. + +By this strange compact the whole of Junot's force was to be conveyed +from Portugal to France on British ships, while the Russian squadron +blockaded in the Tagus was to be held by us in pledge till the peace, +the crews being sent on to Russia. The convention itself was violently +attacked by the English public; but it has found a defender in Napier, +who dwells on the advantages of getting the French at once out of +Portugal, and thus providing a sure base for the operations in Spain. +Seeing, however, that Junot's men were demoralized by defeat, and that +the nearest succouring force was in Navarre, these excuses seem +scarcely tenable, except on the ground that, with such commanders as +Burrard and Dalrymple, it was certainly desirable to get the French +speedily away. + +On his side, Napoleon showed much annoyance at Junot's acceptance of +this convention, and remarked: "I was about to send Junot to a council +of war: but happily the English got the start of me by sending their +generals to one, and thus saved me from the pain of punishing an old +friend." With his customary severity to those who had failed, he +frowned on all the officers of the Army of Portugal, and, on landing +in France, they were strictly forbidden to come to Paris. The fate of +Dupont and of his chief lieutenants, who were released by the +Spaniards, was even harder: on their return they were condemned to +imprisonment. By such means did Napoleon exact the uttermost from his +troops, even in a service so detested as that in Spain ever was.[194] + +Despite the blunderings of our War Office, the silly vapourings of the +Spaniards, and the insane quarrels of their provincial juntas about +precedence and the sharing of English subsidies, the summer of 1808 +saw Napoleon's power stagger under terrible blows. Not only did he +lose Spain and Portugal and the subsidies which they had meekly paid, +but most of the 15,000 Spanish troops which had served him on the +shores of the Baltic found means to slip away on British ships and put +a backbone into the patriotic movements in the north of Spain. But +worst of all was the loss of that moral strength, which he himself +reckoned as three-fourths of the whole force in war. Hitherto he had +always been able to marshal the popular impulse on his side. As the +heir to the Revolution he had appealed, and not in vain, to the +democratic forces which he had hypnotized in France but sought to stir +up in his favour abroad. Despite the efforts of Czartoryski and Stein +to tear the democratic mask from his face, it imposed on mankind until +the Spanish Revolution laid bare the truth; and at St. Helena the +exile gave his own verdict on the policy of Bayonne: "It was the +Spanish ulcer which ruined me." + + + NOTE TO THE THIRD EDITION.--For a careful account of the + Convention of Cintra in its military and political aspects, see + Mr. Oman's recently published "History of the Peninsular War," + vol. i., pp. 268-278, 291-300. I cannot, however, agree with the + learned author that that Convention was justifiable on military + grounds, after so decisive a victory as Vimiero. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XXIX + +ERFURT + + "At bottom the great question is--who shall have + Constantinople?"--NAPOLEON, May 31st, 1808. + + +The Spanish Rising made an immense rent in Napoleon's plans. It opened +valuable markets for British goods both in the Peninsula and in South +and Central America, and that too at the very time when the +Continental System was about to enfold us in its deadly grip.[195] And +finally it disarranged schemes that reached far beyond Europe. To +these we must now briefly recur. + +Even amidst his greatest military triumphs Napoleon's gaze turned +longingly towards the East; and no sooner did he force peace on the +conquered than his thoughts centred once more on his navy and +colonies, on Egypt and India. The Treaty of Tilsit gave him leisure to +renew these designs. The publication in 1807 of his official Atlas of +Australia, in which he claimed nearly half that continent for France, +proves that he never accepted Trafalgar as a death-blow to his +maritime and colonial aspirations. And the ardour of his desire for +the conquest of India is seen in the letter which he wrote to the Czar +on February 2nd, 1808. After expressing his desire for the glory and +expansion of Russia, and advising the Czar to conquer Finland, he +proceeds: + + "An army of 50,000 men, Russians, French, and perhaps a few + Austrians, that penetrated by way of Constantinople into Asia, + would not reach the Euphrates before England would tremble and bow + the knee before the Continent. I am ready in Dalmatia. Your + Majesty is ready on the Danube. A month after we came to an + agreement the army could be on the Bosporus.... By the 1st of May + our troops can be in Asia, and at the same time those of Your + Majesty, at Stockholm. Then the English, threatened in the Indies, + and chased from the Levant, will be crushed under the weight of + events with which the atmosphere will be charged."[196] + +There were several reasons why Napoleon should urge on this scheme. He +was irritated by the continued resistance of Great Britain, and +thought to terrify us into surrender by means of those oriental +enterprises which convinced our statesmen that we must fight on for +dear life. He also desired to restore the harmony of his relations +with Alexander. For, in truth, the rapturous harmonies of Tilsit had +soon been marred by discord. Alexander did not withdraw his troops +from the Danubian provinces; whereupon Napoleon declined to evacuate +Silesia; and the friction resulting from this wary balancing of +interests was increased, when, at the close of 1807, a formal proposal +was sent from Paris that, if Russia retained those provinces, Silesia +should be at the disposal of France.[197] The dazzling vistas opened +up to Alexander's gaze at Tilsit were thus shrouded by a sordid and +distasteful bargain, which he hotly repelled. To repair this false +step, Napoleon now wrote the alluring letter quoted above; and the +Czar exclaimed on perusing it: "Ah, this is the language of Tilsit." + +Yet, it may be questioned whether Napoleon desired to press on an +immediate partition of the Ottoman Power. His letter invited the Czar +to two great enterprises, the conquest of Finland and the invasion of +Persia and India. The former by itself was destined to tax Russia's +strength. Despite Alexander's offer of a perpetual guarantee for the +Finnish constitution and customs, that interesting people opposed a +stubborn resistance. Napoleon must also have known that Russia's +forces were then wholly unequal to the invasion of India; and his +invitation to Alexander to engage in two serious enterprises certainly +had the effect of postponing the partition of Turkey. Delay was all in +his favour, if he was to gain the lion's share of the spoils. Russian +troops were ready on the banks of the Danube; but he was not as yet +fully prepared. His hold on Dalmatia, Ragusa, and Corfu was not wholly +assured. Sicily and Malta still defied him; and not until he seized +Sicily could he gain the control of the Mediterranean--"the constant +aim of my policy." Only when that great sea had become a French lake +could he hope to plant himself firmly in Albania, Thessaly, Greece, +Crete, Egypt, and Syria. + +For the present, then, the Czar was beguiled with the prospect of an +eastern expedition; and, while Russian troops were overrunning +Finland, Napoleon sought to conquer Sicily and reduce Spain to the +rank of a feudatory State. From this wider point of view, he looked on +the Iberian Peninsula merely as a serviceable base for a greater +enterprise, the conquest of the East. This is proved by a letter that +he wrote to Decres, Minister of Marine and of the Colonies, from +Bayonne on May 17th, 1808, when the Spanish affair seemed settled: +"There is not much news from India. England is in great penury there, +and the arrival of an expedition [from France] would ruin that colony +from top to bottom. The more I reflect on this step, the less +inconvenience I see in taking it." Two days later he wrote to Murat +that money must be found for naval preparations at the Spanish ports: +"I must have ships, for I intend striking a heavy blow towards the end +of the season." But at the close of June he warned Decres that as +Spanish affairs were going badly, he must postpone his design of +despatching a fleet far from European waters.[198] + +Spain having proved to be, not a meek purveyor of fleets, but a +devourer of French armies, there was the more need of a close accord +with the Czar. Napoleon desired, not only to assure a further +postponement of the Turkish enterprise, but also to hold Austria and +Germany in check. The former Power, seeing Napoleon in difficulties, +pushed on apace her military organization; and Germany heaved with +suppressed excitement at the news of the Spanish Rising. The dormant +instinct of German nationality had already shown signs of awakening. +In the early days of 1808 the once cosmopolitan philosopher, Fichte, +delivered at Berlin within sound of the French drums his "Addresses to +the German Nation," in which he dwelt on the unquenchable strength of +a people that determined at all costs to live free. + +On the philosopher's theme the Spaniards now furnished a commentary +written with their life-blood. Thinkers and soldiers were alike moved +by the stories of Baylen and Saragossa. Varnhagen von Ense relates how +deep was the excitement of the quaint sage, Jean Paul Richter, who +"doubted not that the Germans would one day rise against the French as +the Spaniards had done, and that Prussia would revenge its insults and +give freedom to Germany.... I proved to him how hollow and weak was +Napoleon's power: how deeply rooted was the opposition to it. The +Spaniards were the refrain to everything, and we always returned to +them." + +The beginnings of a new civic life were then being laid in Prussia by +Stein. Called by the King to be virtually a civic dictator, this great +statesman carried out the most drastic reforms. In October, 1807, +there appeared at Memel the decrees of emancipation which declared the +abolition of serfdom with all its compulsory and menial services. The +old feudal society was further invigorated by the admission of all +classes to the holding of land or to any employment, while trade +monopolies were similarly swept away. Municipal self-government gave +new zest and energy to civic life; and the principle that the army +"ought to be the union of all the moral and physical energies of the +nation" was carried out by the military organizer Scharnhorst, who +conceived and partly realized the idea that all able-bodied men should +serve their time with the colours and then be drafted into a reserve. +This military reform excited Napoleon's distrust, and he forced the +King to agree by treaty (September, 1808) that the Prussian army +should never exceed 42,000 men, a measure which did not hinder the +formation of an effective reserve, and was therefore complied with to +the letter, if not in spirit. + +In fact, in the previous month a plan of a popular insurrection had +been secretly discussed by Stein, Scharnhorst, and other patriotic +Ministers. The example of the Spaniards was everywhere to be followed, +and, if Austria sent forth her legions on the Danube and England +helped in Hanover, there seemed some prospect of shaking off the +Napoleonic yoke. The scheme miscarried, and largely owing to the +interception of a letter in which Stein imprudently referred to the +exasperation of public feeling in Germany and the lively hope excited +by the events in Spain and the preparations of Austria. Napoleon +caused the letter to be printed in the "Moniteur" of September 8th, +and sequestered Stein's property in Westphalia. He also kept his grip +on Prussia; for while withdrawing most of his troops from that +exhausted land, he retained French garrisons in Stettin, Glogau, and +Kuestrin. Holding these fortresses on the strong defensive line of the +Oder, he might smile at the puny efforts of Prussian patriots and hope +speedily to crush the Spanish rebels, provided he could count on the +loyal support of Alexander in holding Austria in check. + +To gain this support and to clear away the clouds that bulked on their +oriental horizon, Napoleon urgently desired an interview with his +ally. For some months it had been proposed; but the Spanish Rising and +the armaments of Austria made it essential. + +The meeting took place at Erfurt (September 27th). The Thuringian city +was ablaze with uniforms, and the cannon thundered salvoes of welcome +as the two potentates and their suites entered the ancient walls and +filed through narrow streets redolent of old German calm, an abode +more suited to the speculations of a Luther than to the +world-embracing schemes of the Emperors of the West and East. With +them were their chief warriors and Ministers, personages who now threw +into the shade the new German kings. There, too, were the lesser +German princes, some of them to grace the Court of the man who had +showered lands and titles on them, others to hint a wish for more +lands and higher titles. In truth, the title of king was tantalizingly +common; and if we may credit a story of the time, the French soldiery +had learnt to despise it. For, on one occasion, when the guard of +honour, deceived by the splendour of the King of Wuertemberg's chariot, +was about to deliver the triple salute accorded only to the two +Emperors, the officer in command angrily exclaimed: "Be quiet: it's +only a king." + +The Emperors at Erfurt devoted the mornings to personal interviews, +the afternoons to politics, the evenings to receptions and the +theatre. The actors of the Comedie Francaise had been brought from +Paris, and played to the Emperors and a parterre of princes the +masterpieces of the French stage, especially those which contained +suitable allusions. A notable incident occurred on the recital of the +line in the "Oedipe" of Voltaire: + + "L'amitie d'un grand homme est un bienfait des dieux." + +As if moved by a sudden inspiration, Alexander arose and warmly +pressed the hand of Napoleon, who was then half-dozing at his +side.[199] On the surface, indeed, everything was friendship and +harmony. With urbane facility, the Czar accompanied his ally to the +battlefield of Jena, listened to the animated description of the +victor, and then joined in the chase in a forest hard by. + +But beneath these brilliant shows there lurked suspicions and fears. +Alexander was annoyed that Napoleon retained French garrisons in the +fortresses on the Oder and claimed an impossible sum as indemnity from +Prussia. This was not the restoration of Prussia's independence, for +which he, Alexander, had pleaded; and while the French eagles were at +Kuestrin, the Russian frontier could not be deemed wholly safe.[200] +Then again the Czar had been secretly warned by Talleyrand against +complaisance to the French Emperor. "Sire, what are you coming here +for? It is for you to save Europe, and you will only succeed in that +by resisting Napoleon. The French are civilized, their sovereign is +not. The sovereign of Russia is civilized, her people are not. +Therefore the sovereign of Russia must be the ally of the French +people."[201] We may doubt whether this symmetrical proposition would +have had much effect, if Alexander had not received similar warnings +from his own ambassador at Paris; and it would seem that too much +importance has been assigned to what is termed Talleyrand's +_treachery_ at Erfurt.[202] Affairs of high policy are determined, not +so much by the logic of words as by the sterner logic of facts. Ever +since Tilsit, Napoleon had been prodigal of promises to his ally, but +of little else. The alluring visions set forth in his letter of +February 2nd were as visionary as ever; and Romantzoff expressed the +wish of his countrymen in his remark to Champagny: "We have come to +Erfurt to set a limit to this conduct." It was evident that if +Napoleon had his way completely, the partition of Turkey would take +place at the time and in the manner desired by him; this the Czar was +determined to prevent, and therefore turned a deaf ear to his ally's +proposal that they should summon Austria to explain her present +ambiguous behaviour and frankly to recognize Joseph Bonaparte as King +of Spain. If Austria put a stop to her present armaments, the +supremacy of Napoleon in Central Europe would be alarmingly great. +Clearly it was not to Russia's interest to weaken the only +buffer-state that remained between her and the Empire of the West. + +These fears were quietly fed by a special envoy of the Court of +Vienna, Baron Vincent, who brought complimentary notes to the two +Emperors and remained to feel the pulse of European policy. It boded +peace for Austria for the present. Despite Napoleon's eager arguments +that England would never make peace until Austria accepted the present +situation in Spain, Alexander quietly but firmly refused to take any +steps to depress the Hapsburg Power. The discussions waxed warm; for +Napoleon saw that, unless the Court of Vienna were coerced, England +would persist in aiding the Spanish patriots; and Alexander showed an +unexpected obstinacy. Napoleon's plea, that peace could only be +assured by the entire discouragement of England, Austria, and the +Spanish "rebels," had no effect on him: in fact, he began to question +the sincerity of a peacemaker whose methods were war and intimidation. +Finding arguments useless, Napoleon had recourse to anger. At the end +of a lively discussion, he threw his cap on the ground and stamped on +it. Alexander stopped, looked at him with a meaning smile, and said +quietly: "You are violent: as for me, I am obstinate: anger gains +nothing from me: let us talk, let us reason, or I go." He moved +towards the door, whereupon Napoleon called him back--and they +reasoned. + +It was of no avail. Though Alexander left his ally a free hand in +Spain, he refused to join him in a diplomatic menace to Austria; and +Napoleon saw that "those devilish Spanish affairs" were at the root of +this important failure, which was to cost him the war on the Danube in +the following year. + +As a set-off to this check, he disappointed Alexander respecting +Prussia and Turkey. He refused to withdraw his troops from the +fortresses on the Oder, and grudgingly consented to lower his +pecuniary claims on Prussia from 140,000,000 francs to 120,000,000. +Towards the Czar's Turkish schemes he showed little more complaisance. +After sharp discussions it was finally settled that Russia should gain +the Danubian provinces, but not until the following year. France +renounced all mediation between Alexander and the Porte, but required +him to maintain the integrity of all the other Turkish possessions, +which meant that the partition of Turkey was to be postponed until it +suited Napoleon to take up his oriental schemes in earnest. The golden +visions of Tilsit were thus once more relegated to a distant future, +and the keenness of the Czar's disappointment may be measured by his +striking statement quoted by Caulaincourt in one of his earlier +reports from St. Petersburg: "Let the world be turned upside down +provided that Russia gains Constantinople and the Dardanelles."[203] + +The Erfurt interview left another hidden sore. It was there that the +divorce from Josephine was officially discussed, with a view to a more +ambitious alliance. Persistent as the rumours of a divorce had been +for seven years past, they seem to have emanated, not from the +husband, but from jealous sisters-in-law, intriguing relatives, and +officious Ministers. To the most meddlesome of these satellites, +Fouche, who had ventured to suggest to Josephine the propriety of +sacrificing herself for the good of the State, Napoleon had lately +administered a severe rebuke. But now he caused Talleyrand and +Caulaincourt to sound the Czar as to the feasibility of an alliance +with one of his sisters. The response was equally vague and discreet. +Alexander expressed his gratification at the friendship which +proffered such a request and his desire for the founding of a +Napoleonic House. Further than this he did not go: and eight days +after his return to St. Petersburg his only marriageable sister, +Catherine, was affianced to the heir to the Duchy of Oldenburg. This +event, it is true, was decided by the Dowager Empress; but no one, +least of all Napoleon, could harbour any doubts as to its +significance. + +In truth, Napoleon's chief triumphs at Erfurt were social and +literary. His efforts to dazzle German princes and denationalize two +of her leading thinkers were partly successful. Goethe and Wieland +bowed before his greatness. To the former Napoleon granted a lengthy +interview. He flattered the aged poet at the outset by the words, "You +are a man": he then talked about several works in a way that Goethe +thought very just; and he criticised one passage of the poet's +youthful work, "Werther," as untrue to nature, with which Goethe +agreed. On Voltaire's "Mahomet" he heaped censure, for its unworthy +portraiture of the conqueror of the East and its ineffective fatalism. +"These pieces belong to an obscure age. Besides, what do they mean +with their fatalism? Politics is fatalism." The significance of this +saying was soon to be emphasized, so that misapprehension was +impossible. After witnessing Voltaire's "La Mort de Cesar," Napoleon +suggested that the poet ought to write a tragedy in a grander style +than Voltaire's, so as to show how the world would have benefited if +the great Roman had had time to carry out his vast plans. + +Finally, Goethe was invited to come to Paris, where he would find +abundant materials for his poetic creations. Fortunately, Goethe was +able to plead his age in excuse; and the world was therefore spared +the sight of a great genius saddled with an imperial commission and +writing a Napoleonized version of Caesar's exploits and policy. But the +pressing character of the invitation reveals the Emperor's +dissatisfaction with his French poetasters and his intention to +denationalize German literature. He had a dim perception that Teutonic +idealism was a dangerous foe, inasmuch as it kept alive the sense of +nationality which he was determined to obliterate. He was right. The +last and most patriotic of Schiller's works, "Wilhelm Tell," the +impassioned discourses of Fichte, the efforts of the new patriotic +league, the Tugendbund, and last, but not least, the memory of the +murdered Palm, all these were influences that baffled bayonets and +diplomacy. Conquer and bargain as he might, he could not grapple with +the impalpable forces of the era that was now dawning. The younger +generation throbbed responsive to the teachings of Fichte, the appeals +of Stein, and the exploits of the Spaniards; it was blind to the +splendours of Erfurt: and it heard with grief, but with no change of +conviction, that Goethe and Wieland had accepted from Napoleon the +cross of the Legion of Honour, and that too on the anniversary of the +Battle of Jena. + +After thus finally belittling the two poets, he shot a parting shaft +at German idealism in his farewell to the academicians. He bade them +beware of idealogues as dangerous dreamers and disguised materialists. +Then, raising his voice, he exclaimed: "Philosophers plague themselves +with weaving systems: they will never find a better one than +Christianity, which, reconciling man with himself, also assures public +order and repose. Your idealogues destroy every illusion; and the time +of illusions is for peoples and individuals alike the time of +happiness. I carry one away, that you will think kindly of me." He +then mounted his carriage and drove away to Paris to resume his +conquest of Spain.[204] + +The last diplomatic proceeding at Erfurt was the drawing up of a +secret convention which assigned Finland and the Danubian Provinces to +Russia, and promised Russia's help to Napoleon in case Austria should +attack him. The Czar also recognized Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain +and joined Napoleon in a joint note to George III. summoning him to +make peace. On the same day (October 12th) that note was drawn up and +despatched to London. In reply, Canning stated our willingness to +treat for peace, provided that it should include all parties: that, +although bound by no formal treaty to Ferdinand VII. and the Spanish +people, yet we felt ourselves none the less pledged to them, and +presumed that they, as well as our other allies, would be admitted to +the negotiations. Long before this reply reached Paris, Napoleon had +left for Spain. But on November 19th, he charged Champagny to state +that the Spanish rebels could no more be admitted than the Irish +insurgents: as for the other parties to the dispute he would not +refuse to admit "either the King reigning in Sweden, or the King +reigning in Sicily, or the King reigning in Brazil." This insulting +reply sufficiently shows the insincerity of his overtures and the +peculiarity of his views of monarchy. The Spaniards were rebels +because they refused to recognize the forced abdication of their young +King; and the rulers of Sweden, Naples and Portugal, were Kings as +long as it suited Napoleon to tolerate them, and no longer. It is +needless to add that our Government refused to desert the Spaniards; +and in his reply to St. Petersburg, Canning expressed George III.'s +deep regret that Alexander should sanction + + "An usurpation unparalleled in the history of the world.... If + these be the principles to which the Emperor of Russia has + inviolably attached himself ... deeply does His Majesty [George + III.] lament a determination by which the sufferings of Europe + must be aggravated and prolonged. But not to His Majesty is to be + attributed the continuance of the calamities of war, by the + disappointment of all hope of such a peace as would be compatible + with justice and honour."[205] + +No open-minded person can peruse the correspondence on this subject +without concluding that British policy, if lacking the breadth, grip +and _finesse_ that marked that of France and Russia, yet possessed the +sterling merits of manly truthfulness and staunch fidelity. The words +quoted above were the words of Canning, but the spirit that animated +them was that of George III. His storm-tossed life was now verging +towards the dread bourne of insanity; but it was given to him to make +this stern yet half-pleading appeal to the Czar's better nature. And +who shall say that the example of constancy which the aged King +displayed amidst the gathering gloom of his public and private life +did not ultimately bear fruit in the later and grander phase of +Alexander's character and career? + +Meanwhile Napoleon was bursting through the Spanish defence. The +patriots, puffed up with their first successes, had been indulging in +dreams of an invasion of France; and their provincial juntas +quarrelled over the sharing of the future spoils as over the +apportionment of English arms and money. Their awakening was terrible. +With less than 90,000 raw troops they were attacked by 250,000 men led +by the greatest warrior of the age. Everywhere they were routed, and +at a last fight at the pass over the Somosierra mountain, the +superiority of the French was strikingly shown. While the Spaniards +were pouring down grapeshot on the struggling masses of the +assailants, the Emperor resolved to hurl his light Polish horse uphill +at the death-dealing guns. Dashingly was the order obeyed. Some forty +or fifty riders bit the dust, but the rest swept on, sabred the +gunners, and decided the day. The Spaniards, amazed at these +unheard-of tactics, took to their heels, and nothing now stayed +Napoleon's entry into Madrid (December 4th). There he strove to +popularize Joseph's rule by offering several desirable reforms, such +as the abolition of feudal laws and of the Inquisition. It was of no +avail. The Spaniards would have none of them at his hands. + +After a brief stay in Madrid, he turned to crush Sir John Moore. That +brave soldier, relying on the empty promises of the patriots, had +ventured into the heart of Leon with a British force of 26,000 men. If +he could not save Madrid, he could at least postpone a French conquest +of the south. In this he succeeded; his chivalrous daring drew on him +the chief strength of the invaders; and when hopelessly outnumbered he +beat a lion-like retreat to Corunna. There he turned and dealt the +French a blow that closed his own career with glory and gained time +for his men to embark in safety. + +While the red-coats saw the snowy heights of Galicia fade into the +sky, Napoleon was spurring back to the Pyrenees. He had received news +that portended war with Austria; and, cherishing the strange belief +that Spain was conquered, he rushed back to Paris to confront the +Hapsburg Power. But Spain was not conquered. Scattered her armies were +in the open, and even brave Saragossa fell in glorious ruins under +Lannes' persistent attacks. But the patriots fiercely rallied in the +mountains, and Napoleon was to find out the truth of the Roman +historian's saying: "In no land does the character of the people and +the nature of the country help to repair disasters more readily than +in Spain." + +There was another reason for Napoleon's sudden return. Rumours had +reached him as to the _rapprochement_ of those usually envious rivals, +Talleyrand and Fouche, who now walked arm in arm, held secret +conclaves, and seemed to have some understanding with Murat. Were they +plotting to bring this ambitious man and his still more ambitious and +vindictive consort from the despised throne at Naples to seize on +power at Paris while the Emperor was engulfed in the Spanish quagmire? +A story ran that Fouche had relays of horses ready between Naples and +Paris for this enterprise.[206] But where Fouche and Talleyrand are +concerned, truth lurks at the bottom of an unfathomable well. + +All that we know for certain is that Napoleon flew back to Paris in a +towering rage, and that, after sharply rebuking Fouche, he subjected +the Prince of Benevento to a violent tirade: just as he (Talleyrand) +had first advised the death of the Duc d'Enghien and then turned that +event to his sovereign's discredit, so now, after counselling the +overthrow of the Spanish dynasty, he was making the same underhand use +of the miscarriage of that enterprise. The Grand Chamberlain stood as +if unmoved until the storm swept by, and then coldly remarked to the +astonished circle: "What a pity that so great a man has been so badly +brought up." Nevertheless, the insult rankled deep in his being, there +to be nursed for five years, and then in the fullness of time to dart +forth with a snake-like revenge. In 1814 and 1815 men saw that not the +least serious result of Napoleon's Spanish policy was the envenoming +of his relations with the two cleverest of living Frenchmen. + + +NOTE TO THE THIRD EDITION.--In the foregoing narrative, describing the +battle of the Somosierra, I followed the usually accepted account, +which assigns the victory solely to the credit of the Polish horsemen. +But Mr. Oman has shown ("History of the Peninsular War," vol. i., pp. +459-461) that their first charge failed, and that only when a brigade +of French infantry skirmished right up to the crest, did a second +effort of the Poles, supported by cavalry of the Guard, secure the +pass. Napier's description (vol. i., p. 267), based on the French +bulletin, is incorrect. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XXX + +NAPOLEON AND AUSTRIA + + +"Never maltreat an enemy by halves": such was the sage advice of +Prussia's warrior King Frederick the Great, who instinctively saw the +folly of half measures in dealing with a formidable foe. The only +statesmanlike alternatives were, to win his friendship by generous +treatment, or to crush him to the earth so that he could not rise to +deal another blow. + +As we have seen, Napoleon deliberately took the perilous middle course +with the Hapsburgs after Austerlitz. He tore away from them their +faithful Tyrolese along with all their Swabian lands, and he half +crippled them in Italy by leaving them the line of the Adige instead +of the Mincio. Later on, he compelled Austria to join the Continental +System, to the detriment of her commerce and revenue; and his thinly +veiled threats at Erfurt nerved her to strike home as soon as she saw +him embarked on the Spanish enterprise. She had some grounds for +confidence. The blows showered on the Hapsburg States had served to +weld them more closely together; reforms effected in the +administration under the guidance of the able and high-spirited +minister, Stadion, promised to reinvigorate the whole Empire; and army +reforms, championed by the Archduke Charles, had shelved the petted +incapables of the Court and opened up undreamt-of vistas of hope even +to the common soldier. Moreover, it was certain that the Tyrolese +would revolt against the cast-iron Liberalism now imposed on them from +Munich, which interfered with their cherished customs and church +festivals. + +Throughout Germany, too, there were widespread movements for casting +off the yoke of Napoleon. The benefits gained by the adoption of his +laws were already balanced by the deepening hardships entailed by the +Continental System; and the national German sentiment, which Napoleon +ever sought to root out, persistently clung to Berlin and Vienna. A +new thrill of resentment ran through Germany when Napoleon launched a +decree of proscription against Stein, who had resigned office on +November 24th. It was dated from Madrid (December 16th, 1808), and +ordered that "the man named Stein," for seeking to excite troubles in +Germany, should be held an enemy of France and the Confederation of +the Rhine, and suffer confiscation of his property and seizure of his +person, wherever he might be. The great statesman thereupon fled into +Austria, where all the hopes of German nationalists now centred.[207] + +On April the 6th the Archduke Charles issued a proclamation in which +the new hopes of reformed Austria found eloquent expression: "The +freedom of Europe has sought refuge beneath your banners. Soldiers, +your victories will break her chains: your German brothers who are now +in the ranks of the enemy wait for their deliverance." These hopes +were premature. Austria was too late or too soon: she was too late to +overpower the Bavarians, or to catch the French forces leaderless, and +too soon to gain the full benefit from her recent army reforms and +from the diversion promised by England on the North Sea.[208] But our +limits of space render it impossible adequately to describe the course +of the struggle on the Danube or of the Tyrolese rising. + +Napoleon, hurrying from Paris, found his forces spread out over a +front of sixty miles from Ratisbon to positions south of Augsburg, and +it needed all his skill to mass them before the Archduke's blows fell. +Thanks to Austrian slowness the danger was averted, and a difficult +retrograde movement was speedily changed into a triumphant offensive. +Five successive days saw as many French victories, the chief of which, +at Eckmuehl (April 22nd), forced the Archduke with the Austrian right +wing northwards towards Ratisbon, which was stormed on the following +day, Charles now made for the Boehmer Wald, while his left wing on the +south of the Danube fell back towards the Inn. Pushing his advantage +to the utmost, the victor invaded Austria and forced Vienna to +surrender (May 13th). + +At that city Napoleon issued (May 17th) a decree which reveals the +excess of his confidence. It struck down the temporal power of the +Pope, and annexed to the French Empire the part of the Papal States +which he had spared the year before. The form of the decree was as +remarkable as its substance. With an effrontery only equalled by its +historical falsity, it cited the example of "Charlemagne, my august +predecessor, Emperor of the French"; and, after exalting the Imperial +dignity, it proceeded to lower the Popes to the position of Bishops of +Rome. The subordination of the spiritual to the civil power was also +assured by the assigning of a yearly stipend of 2,000,000 francs to +the Pope. + +When Pius VII. protested against the seizure of his States, and hurled +a bull of excommunication at the spoliator, Napoleon issued orders +which led to his arrest; and shortly after midsummer the unfortunate +pontiff was hurried away from Rome to Florence. + +Meanwhile Napoleon had experienced an unlooked-for reverse. Though so +far cowed by his defeats in Bavaria as to send Napoleon a cringing +request for peace, to which the victor deigned no reply, the Archduke +Charles obstinately clung to the northern bank of the Danube opposite +the capital, and inflicted a severe defeat on the Emperor when the +latter sought to drive him from Aspern-Essling (May 21st-22nd). Had +the Austrian commander had that remorseless resolve which ever +prompted Napoleon to wrest from Fortune her utmost favours, the +white-coats might have driven their foes into the river; for at the +close of both of those days of carnage they had a clear advantage. A +French disaster was in fact averted only by the combined efforts of +Napoleon, Massena, Lannes, and General Mouton; and even they were for +a time dismayed by the frightful losses, and by the news that the +bridges, over which alone they could retire, had been swept away by +trees and barges sent down the flooded stream. But, as at Eylau, +Napoleon's iron will imposed on his foes, and, under cover of +darkness, the French were withdrawn into the island of Lobau, after +losing some 25,000 men.[209] + +Among them was that prince of vanguard leaders, Lannes. On hearing +that his old friend was mortally wounded, the Emperor hurried to him, +and tenderly embraced him. The interview, says Marbot, who was +supporting the Marshal's shoulders, was most affecting, both these +stern warriors displaying genuine emotion. And yet, it is reported +that, after Lannes was removed to Ebersdorf, his last words were those +of reproach to the Emperor for his ambition. At that time, however, +the patient was delirious, and the words, if really uttered, were +meaningless; but the inventor of the anecdote might plead that it was +consonant with the recent tenor of the Marshal's thoughts. Like all +thoughtful soldiers, who placed France before Napoleon, Lannes was +weary of these endless wars. After Jena his heart was not in the work; +and he wrote thus about Napoleon during the siege of Danzig: "I have +always been the victim of my attachment to him. He only loves you by +fits and starts, that is, when he has need of you." His presentiment +was true. He was a victim to a war that was the outcome solely of +Napoleon's Continental System, and not of the needs of France. He +passed away, leaving a brilliant military fame and a reputation for +soldierly republican frankness which was fast vanishing from the camps +and _salons_ of the Empire.[210] + +As yet, however, Napoleon's genius and the martial ardour of his +soldiers sufficed to overbear the halting efforts of Austria and her +well-wishers. On retiring into Lobau Island he put forth to the utmost +his extraordinary powers of organization. Boats brought vast supplies +of stores and ammunition from Vienna, which the French still held. The +menacing front of Massena and Davoust imposed on the enemy. +Reinforcements were hurried up from Bavaria. Tyrol was denuded of +Franco-Bavarian troops, so that the peasants, under the lead of the +brave innkeeper, Hofer, were able to organize a systematic defence. +And a French army which had finally beaten the Austrians in Venetia, +now began to drive them back into Hungary. In Poland the white-coats +were held in check, and the Franco-Russian compact deterred Frederick +William from making any move against France such as Prussian patriots +ardently counselled. + +To have done so would have been madness, unless England sent powerful +aid on the side of Hanover; and that aid was not forthcoming. Yet the +patriotic ardour of the Germans led to two daring efforts against the +French. Schill, with a Prussian cavalry regiment, sought to seize +Magdeburg, and failing there moved north in hopes of British help. His +adventurous ride was ended by Napoleon's Dutch and North German +troops, who closed in on him at Stralsund, and, on May 31st, cut to +pieces his brave troop. Schill met a warrior's death: most of the +survivors were sent to the galleys in France. Undeterred by this +failure, the young Duke of Brunswick sought to rouse Saxony and +Westphalia by a dashing cavalry raid (June); but, beyond showing the +weakness of Jerome Bonaparte's rule and the general hatred of the +French, he effected little: with his 2,000 followers he was finally +saved by British cruisers (August). Had the British expedition, which +in the ensuing autumn rotted away on Walcheren, been landed at +Stralsund, or in Hanover during the spring, it is certain that Germany +would have risen in Napoleon's rear; and in that case, the doubtful +struggle which closed at Wagram might have ended very +differently.[211] + +All hopes for European independence centred in Wellesley and the +Archduke Charles. Although there was no formal compact between England +and Austria, yet the Hapsburgs rested their hopes largely on the +diversions made by our troops. In the early part of the Peninsular +campaign of 1809, these hopes were brilliantly fulfilled. Wellesley +moved against Soult at Oporto, and, by a dextrous crossing of that +river in his rear, compelled him to beat a calamitous retreat on +Spain, with the loss of all his cannon and stores. The French reached +Lugo an armed rabble, and were greeted there with jeers and +execrations by the men of Ney's corps. The two Marshals themselves +took up the quarrel, and so fierce were the taunts of Ney that Soult +drew his sword and a duel was barely averted.[212] An appearance of +concord was restored during their operations in Galicia and Asturias: +but no opportunity was missed of secretly thwarting the hated rival; +and here, as all through the Peninsular War, the private jealousies of +the French leaders fatally compromised the success of their arms. +Wellesley, seeing that the operations in Galicia would never decide +the war, began to prepare a deadly blow at the centre of French +authority, Madrid. + +While Wellesley thrust a thin wedge into the heart of Spain, the +Archduke Charles was overthrown on the banks of the Danube. After +drawing in reinforcements from France, the Rhenish Confederation, and +Eugene's army of Italy, the French Emperor disposed of 180,000 +highly-trained troops, whom he massed in the Lobau Island, or on the +right shore of the Danube. Every preparation was made for deceiving +the Austrians as to the point of crossing and with complete success. +With great labour the defenders threw up intrenchments facing the +north side of the island. But, on a thick stormy night (July 4th), six +bridges of boats were quickly swung across the stream lower down, that +is, on the east side of Lobau, while a furious cannonade on the north +side misled their foes. The crossing was effected without loss by +Oudinot and Massena; and sunrise saw the whole French army advancing +rapidly northwards, thereby outflanking the Austrian earthworks, which +were now evacuated. + +Charles was outmanoeuvred and outnumbered. His brother, the Archduke +John, was at Pressburg with 20,000 men, watched hitherto by Davoust. +But the French Marshal cleverly withdrew his corps, leaving only +enough men to impose on that unenterprising leader. Other Austrian +detachments were also far away at the critical time, and thus Napoleon +had a superiority of force of about 50,000 men. Nevertheless, the +defence at Wagram was most obstinate (July 6th). Holding his own on +the hills behind the Russbach, the Archduke swung forward his right in +such strength as to drive back Massena on Aspern; but his weakened +centre was now pushed back and endangered by the persistent vigour of +Macdonald's onset. This success at the centre gave time for Davoust to +wrest Neusiedel from the white-coats, a movement which would have been +stopped or crushed, had the Archduke John obeyed his brother's orders +and marched from the side of Pressburg on Napoleon's unguarded right +flank. Finally, after an obstinate stand, the Austrians fell back in +good order, effectively covering their retreat by a murderous +artillery fire. A total loss of some 50,000 men, apportioned nearly +equally on either side, was the chief result of this terrible day. It +was not remarkable for brilliant tactics; and, as at Aspern, the +Austrians fully equalled their foes in courage. + +[Illustration: WAGRAM] + +Such was the battle of Wagram, one of the greatest of all time, if the +number of combatants be counted, but one of the least decisive in its +strictly military results. If we may compare Austerlitz with Blenheim, +Wagram may with equal fitness be matched with the vast slaughter of +Malplaquet exactly a century before. The French now felt the hardening +of the national defence of Austria and the falling off in their own +fighting powers. Marmont tells how, at the close of the day, the +approach of the Archduke John's scouts struck panic into the +conquerors, so that for a time the plain on the east was covered with +runaway conscripts and disconcerted plunderers. The incident proved +the deterioration of the Grand Army from the times of Ulm and Jena. +Raw conscripts raised before their time and hurriedly drafted into the +line had impaired its steadiness, and men noted as another ominous +fact that few unwounded prisoners were taken from the Austrians, and +only nine guns and one colour. In fact, the only reputation enhanced +was that of Macdonald, who for his great services at the centre +enjoyed the unique honour of receiving a Marshal's baton from Napoleon +on the field of battle. + +Had the Archduke Charles been made of the same stuff as Wellington, +the campaign might still have been retrieved. But softness and +irresolution were the characteristics of Austria's generals no less +than of her rulers.[213] The Hapsburg armies were still led with the +old leisurely _insouciance_; and their counsels swayed to and fro +under the wavering impulses of a seemingly decrepit dynasty. Francis +had many good qualities: he was a good husband and father, and his +kindly manners endeared him to the Viennese even in the midst of +defeat. But he was capricious and shortsighted; anything outside of +the well-worn ruts of routine vexed and alarmed him; and it is a +supreme proof of the greatness and courage of his reforming Minister, +Stadion, that his innovations should have been tolerated for so long. +Now that disasters were shaking his throne he began to suspect the +reformer; and Stadion confessed to the publicist, Gentz, that it was +impossible to reckon on the Emperor for a quarter of an hour together, +unless one stayed by him all the twenty-four hours.--"After a great +defeat, he will take himself off at once and will calmly commend us to +God."--This was what now happened. Another failure at Znaim so daunted +the Archduke that he sued for an armistice (July 12th). For this there +was some excuse. The latest news both from Spain and Prussia inspired +the hope that, if time were gained, important diversions might be made +in both quarters. + +As we have seen, Sir Arthur Wellesley opened the campaign with a +brilliant success, and then prepared to strike at the heart of the +French power. The memorable campaign of Talavera was the result. +Relying on promises of aid from the Spanish Junta and from their +cross-grained commander, Cuesta, he led a small British force up the +valley of the Tagus to seize Madrid, while the chief French armies +were engaged in distant provinces. In one sense he achieved his aim. +He compelled the enemy to loose their hold on those provinces and +concentrate to save the capital. And before they fully effected their +concentration, he gave battle to King Joseph and Marshals Jourdan and +Victor at Talavera (July 28th). Skilfully posting the Spaniards behind +intrenchments and in gardens where their raw levies could fight with +every advantage, he extended his thin red lines--he had only 17,000 +British troops--along a ridge stretching up to a plateau that +dominated the broken ground north of the town. On that hill Wellesley +planted his left: and all the efforts of Victor to turn that wing or +to break it by charges across the intervening ravine were bloodily +beaten off. + +The fierce heat served but to kindle French and British to greater +fury. Finally, the dashing charge of our 23rd dragoons and the +irresistible advance of the 48th regiment of foot overthrew the +enemy's centre; and as the day waned, the 30,000 French retired, with +a loss of 17 cannon and of 7,000 men in killed, wounded, and +prisoners. Had the other Spanish armies now offered the support which +Wellesley expected, he would doubtless have seized Madrid. He had +written three days before Talavera: "With or without a battle we shall +be at Madrid soon." But his allies now failed him utterly: they did +not hold the mountain passes which confronted Soult in his march from +Salamanca into the valley of the Tagus; and they left the British +forces half starving.--"We are here worse off than in a hostile +country," wrote our commander; "never was an army so ill used: we had +no assistance from the Spanish army: we were obliged to unload our +ammunition and our treasure in order to employ the cars in the removal +of our sick and wounded." Meanwhile Soult, with 50,000 men, was +threading his way easily through the mountains and threatened to cut +us off from Portugal: but by a rapid retreat Wellesley saved his army, +vowing that he would never again trust Spanish offers of help.[214] + +Far more dispiriting was the news that reached the Austrian +negotiators from the North Sea. There the British Government succeeded +in eclipsing all its former achievements in forewarning foes and +disgusting its friends. Very early in the year, the men of Downing +Street knew that Austria was preparing to fight Napoleon and built her +hopes of success, partly on the Peninsular War, partly on a British +descent in Hanover, where everything was ripe for revolution. +Unfortunately, we were still, formally, at war with her: and the +conclusion of the treaty of peace was so long delayed at Vienna that +July was almost gone before the Austrian ratification reached London, +and our armada set sail from Dover.[215] The result is well known. +Official favouritism handed over the command of 40,000 troops to the +Earl of Chatham, who wasted precious days in battering down the walls +of Flushing when he should have struck straight at the goal now aimed +at, Antwerp. That fortress was therefore ready to beat him off; and he +finally withdrew his army into the Isle of Walcheren, into whose +fever-laden swamps Napoleon had refused to send a single French +soldier. A tottering remnant was all that survived by the close of the +year: and the climax of our national disgrace was reached when a +court-martial acquitted the commanders. Napoleon would have had them +shot. + +Helpless as the old monarchies were to cope with Napoleon, a wild +longing for vengeance was beginning to throb among the peoples. It +showed itself in a remarkable attempt on his life during a review at +Schoenbrunn. A delicate youth named Staps, son of a Thuringian pastor, +made his way to the palace, armed with a long knife, intending to stab +him while he read a petition (October 12th). Berthier and Rapp, noting +the lad's importunity, had him searched and brought before Napoleon. +"What did you mean to do with that knife?" asked the Emperor. "Kill +you," was the reply. "You are an idiot or an Illuminat." "I am not an +idiot and do not know what an Illuminat is." "Then you are diseased." +"No, I am quite well." "Why do you wish to kill me?" "Because you are +the curse of my Fatherland." "You are a fanatic; I will forgive you +and spare your life." "I want no forgiveness." "Would you thank me if +I pardoned you?" "I would seek to kill you again." The quiet firmness +with which Staps gave these replies and then went to his doom made a +deep impression on Napoleon; and he sought to hurry on the conclusion +of peace with these odd Germans whom he could conquer but not +convince. + +The Emperor Francis was now resigned to his fate, but he refused to +hear of giving up his remaining sea-coast in Istria. On this point +Metternich strove hard to bend Napoleon's will, but received as a +final answer: "Then war is unavoidable."[216] In fact, the victor knew +that Austria was in his power. The Archduke Charles had thrown up his +command, the soldiery were depressed, and a great part of the Empire +was in the hands of the French. England's efforts had failed; and of +all the isolated patriotic movements in Germany only that of the +Tyrolese mountaineers still struggled on. Napoleon could therefore +dictate his own terms in the Treaty of Schoenbrunn (October 14th), +which he announced as complete, when as yet Francis had not signed +it.[217] Austria thereby recognized Joseph as King of Spain, and ceded +Salzburg and the Inn-viertel to Napoleon, to be transferred by him to +Bavaria. To the French Empire she yielded up parts of Austrian Friuli +and Carinthia, besides Carniola, the city and district of Trieste, and +portions of Croatia and Dalmatia to the south of the River Save. Her +spoils of the old Polish lands now went to aggrandize the Duchy of +Warsaw, a small strip of Austrian Gallicia also going to Russia. +Besides losing 3,500,000 subjects, Austria was mulcted in an indemnity +of L3,400,000, and again bound herself to exclude all British +products. By a secret clause she agreed to limit her army to 150,000 +men. + +Perhaps the severest loss was the abandonment of the faithful +Tyrolese. After Aspern, the Emperor Francis promised that he would +never lay down his arms until they were re-united with his Empire. +This promise now went the way of the many fond hopes of reform and +championship of German nationality which her ablest men had lately +cherished, and the Empire settled down in torpor and bankruptcy. In +dumb wrath and despair Austrian patriots looked on, while the Tyrolese +were beaten down by French, Bavarian, and Italian forces. Hofer +finally took to the hills, was betrayed by a friend, and was taken to +Mantua. Some of the officers who there tried him desired to spare his +life, but a special despatch of Napoleon[218] ordered his execution, +and the brave mountaineer fell, with the words on his lips: "Long live +the Emperor Francis." Tyrol, meanwhile, was parcelled out between +Bavaria, Illyria, and the Kingdom of Italy; but bullets and partitions +were of no avail against the staunch patriotism of her people, and the +Tyrolese campaign boded ill for Napoleon if monarchs, generals, and +statesmen should ever be inspired by the sturdy faith and hardihood of +that noble peasantry. + +As yet, however, prudence and timidity reigned supreme. Though the +Czar uttered some snappish words at the threatening increase to the +Duchy of Warsaw, he still posed as Napoleon's ally. The Swedes, weary +of their hopeless strifes with France, Russia, and Denmark, deposed +the still bellicose Gustavus IV.; and his successor, Charles XIII., +made peace with those Powers, retaining Swedish Pomerania, but only at +the cost of submitting to the Continental System. Prussia seemed, to +official eyes, utterly cowed. The Hapsburgs, having failed in their +bold championship of the cause of reform and of German nationality, +now fell back into a policy marked by timid opportunism and decorously +dull routine. + +The change was marked by the retirement of Stadion, a man whose +enterprising character, no less than his enthusiasm for reform, ill +fitted him for the time of compromise and subservience now at hand. He +it was who had urged Austria forward in the paths of progress and had +sought safety in the people: he was the Stein of Austria. But now, on +the eve of peace, he earnestly begged to be allowed to resign the +Ministry of Foreign Affairs; and the Emperor Francis thereupon +summoned to that seemingly thankless office a young diplomatist, who +was destined to play a foremost part in the mighty drama of Napoleon's +overthrow, and thereafter to wield by his astute policy almost as +great an influence in Central and Southern Europe as the autocrat +himself. + +Metternich was born at Coblentz in 1773, and was therefore four years +the junior of Napoleon. He came of an old family of the Rhineland, and +his father's position in the service of the old Empire secured him +early entrance into the diplomatic circle. After acting as secretary +to the Imperial delegates at the Congress of Rastatt, he occupied the +post of Austrian ambassador successively at the Courts of Dresden and +Berlin; and in 1806 he was suddenly called to take up the embassy in +Paris. There he displayed charms of courtly tact, and lively and +eloquent conversation, which won Napoleon's admiration and esteem. He +was looked on as a Gallophil; and, like Bismarck at a later crisis, he +used his social gifts and powers of cajolery so as to gain a correct +estimate of the characters of his future opponents. + +Yet, besides these faculties of finesse and intrigue--and the Miltonic +Belial never told lies with more winsome grace--Metternich showed at +times a manly composure and firmness, even when Napoleon unmasked a +searching fire of diplomatic questions and taunts. Of this he had +given proof shortly before the outbreak of the late war, and his +conduct had earned the thanks of the other ambassadors for giving the +French Emperor a lesson in manners, while the autocrat liked him none +the less, but rather the more, for standing up to him. But now, after +the war, all was changed; craft was more serviceable than fortitude; +and the gay Rhinelander brought to the irksome task of subservience to +the conqueror a courtly _insouciance_ under which he nursed the hope +of ultimate revenge.--"From the day when peace is signed," he wrote to +the Emperor Francis on August 10th, 1809, "we must confine our system +to tacking and turning, and flattering. Thus alone may we possibly +preserve our existence, till the day of general deliverance."[219] +This was to be the general drift of Austrian policy for the next four +years; and it may be granted that only by bending before the blast +could that sore-stricken monarchy be saved from destruction. An +opportunity soon occurred of carrying the new system into effect. +Metternich offered the conqueror an Austrian Archduchess as a bride. + +After the humiliation of the Hapsburgs and of the Spanish patriots, +nothing seemed wanting to Napoleon's triumph but an heir who should +found a durable dynasty. This aim was now to be reached. As soon as +the Emperor returned to Paris, his behaviour towards Josephine showed +a marked reserve. The passage communicating between their private +apartments was closed, and the gleams of triumphant jealousy that +flashed from her sisters-in-law warned Josephine of her approaching +doom. The divorce so long bruited by news-mongers was at hand. The +Emperor broke the tidings to his consort in the private drawing-room +of the Tuileries on November 30th, and strove to tone down the +harshness of his decision by basing it on the imperative needs of the +State. But she spurned the dictates of statecraft. With all her +faults, she was affectionate and tender; she was a woman first and an +Empress afterwards; she now clung to Napoleon, not merely for the +splendour of the destiny which he had opened to her, but also from +genuine love. + +Their relations had curiously changed. At the outset she had slighted +his mad devotion by her shallow coldness and occasional infidelities, +until his lava-like passion petrified. Thenceforth it was for her to +woo, and woo in vain. For years past she had to bemoan the waning of +his affection and his many conjugal sins. And now the chasm, which she +thought to have spanned by the religious ceremony on the eve of the +coronation, yawned at her feet. The woman and the Empress in her +shrank back from the black void of the future; and with piteous +reproaches she flung back the orders of the Emperor and the soothings +of the husband. Napoleon, it would seem, had nerved himself against +such an outbreak. In vain did Josephine sink down at his feet with +heart-rending cries that she would never survive the disgrace: failing +to calm her himself, he opened the door and summoned the prefect of +the palace, Bausset, and bade him bear her away to her private +apartments. Down the narrow stairs she was borne, the Emperor lifting +her feet and Bausset supporting her shoulders, until, half fainting, +she was left to the sympathies of her women and the attentions of +Corvisart. But hers was a wound that no sympathy or skill could +cure.[220] + +On his side, Napoleon felt the wrench. Not only the ghost of his early +love, but his dislike of new associates and novel ways cried out +against the change. "In separating myself from my wife," Napoleon once +said to Talleyrand, "I renounce much. I should have to study the +tastes and habits of a young woman. Josephine accommodates herself to +everything: she understands me perfectly."[221] But his boundless +triumphs, his alliance with the Czar and total overthrow of the +Bourbons and the Pope, had fed the fires of his ambition. He aspired +to give the _mot d'ordre_ to the universe; and he scrupled not to put +aside a consort who could not help him to found a dynasty. Yet it was +not without pangs of sorrow and remorse. His laboured, panting breath +and almost gasping words left on Bausset the impression that he was +genuinely affected; and, consummate actor though he was, we may well +believe that he felt the parting from his early associations. +Underneath his generally cold exterior he hid a nervous nature, +dominated by an inflexible will, but which now and again broke through +all restraint, bathing the beloved object with sudden tenderness or +blasting a foe with fiery passion. And it would seem that Josephine's +pangs had power to reawaken the feelings of his more generous youth. +The ceremony of divorce took place on December 15th Josephine +declaring with agonized pride that she gave her assent for the welfare +of France. + +Already the new marriage negotiations had begun. They are unique even +amidst the frigid annals of royal betrothals. The French ambassador, +Caulaincourt, was charged to make definite overtures at St. Petersburg +for the hand of the Czar's younger sister; the conditions could easily +be arranged; religion need be no difficulty; but time was pressing; +the Emperor had need of an heir; "we are counting the minutes here," +ran the despatch; and an answer was expected from St. Petersburg after +an interval of _two days_.[222] The request caused Alexander the +greatest perplexity. He parried it with the reply, correct enough in +form as in fact, that the disposal of his sister rested with the +Dowager Empress. But her hostility to Napoleon was well known. After +the half overtures of Erfurt she had at once betrothed her elder +daughter to the Duke of Oldenburg. No similar escape was now possible +for the younger one: but, after leaving Napoleon's request unanswered +until February 4th, the reply was then despatched that the tender age +of the princess, she being only twenty years old, formed an +insuperable obstacle. + +Some such answer had long been expected at Paris. Metternich asserts +in his "Memoirs" that Napoleon had caused Laborde, one of his +diplomatic agents at Vienna, tentatively to sound that Court as to his +betrothal with the Archduchess Marie Louise. But the French archives +show that the first hint came from Metternich, who saw in it a means +of weakening the Franco-Russian alliance and saving Austria from +further disasters.[223] A little later the Countess Metternich was at +Paris; and great was her surprise when, on January 2nd, 1810, +Josephine informed her that she favoured a marriage between Napoleon +and Marie Louise. "I spoke to him of it yesterday," she said; "his +choice is not yet fixed; but he thinks that this would be his choice +if he were sure of its being accepted." Thereafter the Countess +received the most flattering attentions at Court, a proof that the +Hapsburg match was now favoured, even though the coyness of the Czar +was as yet unknown. + +At the close of January a Privy Council was held at the Tuileries to +decide on the imperial bride. The votes were nearly equal: four voted +for Austria, four for Saxony, and three for Russia. After listening +quietly to the arguments, Napoleon summed up the discussion by +pronouncing firmly and warmly in favour of Austria. The marriage +contract was therefore drawn up on February 7th; and Berthier was +despatched to Vienna to claim the hand of Marie Louise. He entered +that city over the ruins of the old ramparts, which were now being +dismantled in accordance with the French demands. + +The marriage took place at Vienna by proxy; the bride was conducted to +Paris; and the final ceremony took place at Notre Dame on April 2nd, +but not until the union had been consummated. Such were Napoleon's +second wooing and wedding. Nevertheless, he showed himself an +attentive and even indulgent spouse, and he remarked at St. Helena +that if Josephine was all grace and charm, Marie Louise was innocence +and nature herself. + +The Austrian marriage was an event of the first importance. It gained +a few years' respite for the despairing Hapsburgs, and gave tardy +satisfaction to Talleyrand's statesmanlike scheme of a Franco-Austrian +alliance which should be in the best sense conservative. Had Napoleon +taken this step after Austerlitz in the way that his counsellor +advised, possibly Europe might have reached a condition of stable +equilibrium, always provided that he gave up his favourite scheme of +partitioning Turkey. But that was not to be; and when Austria finally +yielded up Marie Louise as an unpicturesque Iphigenia on the marriage +altar, she did so only as a desperate device for appeasing an +inexorable destiny. And, strange to say, she succeeded. For Alexander +took offence at the marriage negotiations; and thus was opened a +breach in the Franco-Russian alliance which other events were rapidly +to widen, until Western and Central Europe hurled themselves against +the East, and reached Moscow. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XXXI + +THE EMPIRE AT ITS HEIGHT + + +Napoleon's star had now risen to its zenith. After his marriage with a +daughter of the most ancient of continental dynasties, nothing seemed +lacking to his splendour. He had humbled Pope and Emperor alike: +Germany crouched at his feet: France, Italy, and the Confederation of +the Rhine gratefully acknowledged the benefits of his vigorous sway: +the Czar was still following the lead given at Erfurt: Sweden had +succumbed to the pressure of the two Emperors: and Turkey survived +only because it did not yet suit Napoleon to shear her asunder: he +must first complete the commercial ruin of England and drive +Wellington into the sea. Then events would at last be ripe for the +oriental schemes which the Spanish Rising had postponed. + +He might well hope that England's strength was running out: near the +close of 1810 the three per cent. consols sank to sixty-five, and the +declared bankruptcies averaged 250 a month. The failure of the +Walcheren expedition had led to terrible loss of men and treasure, and +had clouded over the reputation of her leaders. After mutual +recriminations Canning and Castlereagh resigned office and fought a +duel. Shortly afterwards the Premier, the Duke of Portland, fell ill +and resigned: his place was taken by Mr. Perceval, a man whose sole +recommendation for the post was his conscientious Toryism and powers +of dull plodding. Ruled by an ill-assorted Ministry and a King whose +reason was now hopelessly overclouded, weakened by the strangling grip +of the Continental System, England seemed on the verge of ruin; and, +encouraged alike by the factious conduct of our parliamentary +Opposition and by Soult's recent conquest of Andalusia, Napoleon bent +himself to the final grapple by extending his coast system, and by +sending Massena and his choicest troops into Spain to drive the +leopards into the sea. + +The limits of our space prevent any description of the ensuing +campaign of Torres Vedras; and we must refer our readers to the ample +canvas of Napier if they would realize the sagacity of Wellington in +constructing to the north of Lisbon that mighty _tete de pont_ for the +Sea Power against Massena's veteran army. After dealing the staggering +blow of Busaco at that presumptuous Marshal, our great leader fell +back, through a tract which he swept bare of supplies, on this sure +bulwark, and there watched the French host of some 65,000 men waste +away amidst the miseries of hunger and the rains and diseases of +autumn. At length, in November, Massena drew off to positions near +Santarem, where he awaited the succour which Napoleon ordered Soult to +bring. It was in vain: Soult, puffed up by his triumphs in Andalusia, +was resolved to play his own game and reduce Badajoz; he won his point +but marred the campaign; and, at last, foiled by Wellington's skilful +tactics, Massena beat a retreat northwards out of Portugal after +losing some 35,000 men (March, 1811). Wellington's success bore an +immeasurable harvest of results. The unmanly whinings of the English +Opposition were stilled; the replies of the Czar to Napoleon's demands +grew firmer; and the patriots of the Peninsula stiffened their backs +in a resistance so stubborn, albeit unskilful, that 370,000 French +troops utterly failed to keep Wellington in check, and to stamp out +the national defence in the summer of 1811. + +In truth, Napoleon had exasperated the Spaniards no less than their +_soi disant_ king, by a series of provocations extending over the year +1810. On the plea that Spain must herself meet the expenses of the +war, he erected the four northern provinces into commands for French +generals, who were independent of his brother's authority and levied +all the taxes over that vast area (February). On May 29th he withdrew +Burgos and Valladolid from Joseph's control, and divided the greater +part of Spain for military and administrative purposes into districts +that were French satrapies in all but name. The decree was doubly +disastrous: it gave free play to the feuds of the French chiefs; and +it seemed to the Spaniards to foreshadow a speedy partition of Spain. +The surmise was correct. Napoleon intended to unite to France the +lands between the Pyrenees and the Ebro. Indeed, in his conception, +the conquest of Portugal was mainly desirable because it would provide +his brother with an indemnity in the west for the loss of his northern +provinces. Joseph's protests against such a partition of the land, +which Napoleon had sworn at Bayonne to keep intact, were disregarded; +but letters on this subject fell into the hands of the Spanish +guerillas and were published by order of the Regency at Cadiz. +Despised by the Spaniards, flouted by Napoleon, set at defiance by the +French satraps, and reduced wellnigh to bankruptcy, the puppet King +felt his position insupportable, and, hurrying to Paris, tendered his +resignation of the crown (May, 1811). In his anxiety to huddle up the +scandal, Napoleon appeased his brother, promised him one-fourth of the +taxes levied by the French commanders, and coaxed or drove him to +resume his thankless task at Madrid. But the doggedness of the +Emperor's resolve may be measured by the fact that, even when on the +brink of war with Russia, he defied Spanish national sentiment by +annexing Catalonia to France (March, 1812). + +It seems strange that Napoleon did not himself proceed to Spain in +order to direct the operations in person and thus still the jealousies +of the Marshals which so hampered his armies. Wellington certainly +feared his coming. At a later date he told Earl Stanhope that Napoleon +was vastly superior to any of his Marshals: "There was nothing like +him. He suited a French army so exactly.... His presence on the field +made a difference of 40,000 men."[224] That estimate is certainly +modest if one looks not merely at tactics but at the strategy of the +whole Peninsular War. But the Emperor did not again come into Spain. +At the outset of 1810 he prepared to do so; but, as soon as the +Austrian marriage was arranged, he abandoned this salutary project. + +There were thenceforth several reasons why he should remain in or near +Paris. His attentions to his young wife, and his desire to increase +the splendour of the Court, counted for much. Yet more important was +it to curb the clericals (now incensed at the imprisonment of the +Pope), and sharply to watch the intrigues of the royalists and other +malcontents. Public opinion, also, still needed to be educated; the +constant drain of men for the wars and the increase in the price of +necessaries led to grumblings in the Press, which claimed the presence +of his Argus eye and the adoption of a very stringent censorship.[225] +But, above all, there was the commercial war with England. This could +be directed best from Paris, where he could speedily hear of British +endeavours to force goods into Germany, Holland, or Italy, and of any +change in our maritime code. + +Important as was the war in Spain, it was only one phase of his +world-wide struggle with the mistress of the seas; and he judged that +if she bled to death under his Continental System, the Peninsular War +must subside into a guerilla strife, Spain thereafter figuring merely +as a greater Vendee. Accordingly, the year 1810 sees the climax of his +great commercial experiment. + +The first land to be sacrificed to this venture was Holland. For many +months the Emperor had been discontented with his brother Louis, who +had taken into his head the strange notion that he reigned there by +divine right. As Napoleon pathetically said at St. Helena, when +reviewing the conduct of his brothers, "If I made one a king, he +imagined that he was _King by the grace of God_. He was no longer my +lieutenant: he was one enemy more for me to watch." A singular fate +for this king-maker, that he should be forgotten and the holy oil +alone remembered! Yet Louis probably used that mediaeval notion as a +shield against his brother's dictation. The tough Bonaparte nature +brooked not the idea of mere lieutenancy. He declined to obey orders +from the brother whom he secretly detested. He flatly refused to be +transferred from the Hague to Madrid, or to put in force the +burdensome decrees of the Continental System. + +On his side, Napoleon upbraided him with governing too softly, and +with seeking popularity where he should seek control. After the +Walcheren expedition, he chid him severely for allowing the English +fleet ever to show its face in the Scheldt; for "the fleets of that +Power ought to find nothing but rocks of iron" in that river, "which +was as important to France as the Thames to England."[226] But the +head and front of his offending was that British goods still found +their way into Holland. In vain did the Emperor forbid that American +ships which had touched at English ports should be debarred from those +of Holland. In vain did he threaten to close the Scheldt and Rhine to +Dutch barges. Louis held on his way, with kindly patience towards his +merchants, and with a Bonapartist obstinacy proof against fraternal +advice or threats. At last, early in 1810, Napoleon sent troops to +occupy Walcheren and neighbouring Dutch lands. It seemed for a time as +though this was but a device to extort favourable terms of peace from +England in return for an offer that France would not annex Holland. +Negotiations to this effect were set on foot through the medium of +Ouvrard and Labouchere, son-in-law of the banker Baring: Fouche also, +without the knowledge of his master, ventured to put forth a +diplomatic feeler as to a possible Anglo-French alliance against the +United States, an action for which he was soon very properly +disgraced.[227] + +The negotiation failed, as it deserved to do. Our objections were, not +merely to the absurd proposal that we should give up our maritime code +if Napoleon would abstain from annexing Holland and the Hanseatic +towns, but still more against the man himself and his whole policy. We +had every reason to distrust the good faith of the man who had +betrayed the Turks at Tilsit, Portugal at Fontainebleau, and the +Spaniards at Bayonne. To pause in the strife, to relax our hold on our +new colonies, and to desert the Spaniards, in order to preserve the +merely titular independence of Holland and the Hanse Towns, would have +been an act of singular simplicity. Nor does Napoleon seem to have +expected it. He wrote to his Foreign Minister, Champagny, on March +20th, 1810: "From not having made peace sooner, England has lost +Naples, Spain, Portugal, and the market of Trieste. If she delays much +longer, she will lose Holland, the Hanse Towns, and Sicily." And +surely this Sibylline conduct of his required that he should annex +these lands and all Europe in order to exact a suitable price from the +exhausted islanders. Such was the corollary of the Continental System. + +Meanwhile Louis, nettled by the inquisitions of the French +_douaniers_, and by the order of his brother to seize all American +ships in Dutch ports, was drawing on himself further reproaches and +threats: "Louis, you are incorrigible ... you do not want to reign for +any length of time. States are governed by reason and policy, and not +by acrimony and weakness." Twenty thousand French troops were +approaching Amsterdam to bring him to reason, when the young ruler +decided to be rid of this royal mummery. On the night of July 1st he +fled from Haarlem, and travelled swiftly and secretly eastwards until +he reached Teplitz, in Bohemia. The ignominy of this flight rested on +the brother who had made kingship a mockery. The refugee left behind +him the reputation of a man who, lovable by nature but soured by +domestic discords, sought to shield his subjects from the ruin into +which the rigid application of the Continental System was certain to +plunge them. That fate now befell the unhappy little land. On July 9th +it was annexed to the French Empire, and all the commercial decrees +were carried out as rigidly at Rotterdam as at Havre. + +At the close of the year, Napoleon's coast system was extended to the +borders of Holstein by the annexation of Oldenburg, the northern parts +of Berg, Westphalia, and Hanover, along with Lauenburg and the Hanse +Towns, Bremen, Hamburg, and Luebeck. The little Swiss Republic of +Valais was also absorbed in the Empire. + +This change in North Germany, which carried the French flag to the +shores of the Baltic, was his final expedient for assuring England's +commercial ruin. As far back as February, 1798, he had recommended the +extension of French influence over the Hanse Towns as a means of +reducing his most redoubtable foe to surrender, and now there were two +special reasons for this annexation. First, the ships of Oldenburg had +been largely used for conveying British produce into North +Germany;[228] and secondly, the French commercial code was so rigorous +that no officials with even the semblance of independence could be +trusted with its execution. On August 5th a decree had been +promulgated at the Trianon, near Versailles, which imposed enormous +duties on every important colonial product. Cotton--especially that +from America--sugar, tea, coffee, cocoa, and other articles were +subjected to dues, generally of half their value and irrespective of +their place of production. + +[Illustration: CENTRAL EUROPE AFTER 1810] + +Traders were ordered to declare their possession of all colonial wares +and to pay the duty, under pain of confiscation. Depots of such goods +within four days' distance from the frontiers of the Empire were held +to be clandestine; and troops were sent forthwith into Germany, +Switzerland, and Spain to seize such stores, a proceeding which +aroused the men of Stuttgart, Frankfurt, and Berne to almost open +resistance. It is difficult to see the reason for this decree, except +on the supposition that the Continental System did not stop British +imports, and that all tropical products were British. + +Napoleon's own correspondence shows that he believed this to be so. At +that same time he issued orders that all colonial produce found at +Stettin should be confiscated because it was evidently English +property brought on American ships. He further recommended Murat and +Eugene to press hard on such wares in order to replenish their +exchequers and raise funds for restoring their commerce. Eugene must, +however, be careful to tax American and colonial cotton most heavily, +while letting in that of the Levant on favourable terms. + +Jerome, too, was bidden rigorously to enforce the Trianon tariff in +Westphalia; and the hint was to be passed on to Prussia and the +Rhenish Confederation that, by subjecting colonial goods to these +enormous imposts, those States would gain several millions of francs +"and the loss would fall partly on English commerce and partly on the +smugglers."[229] In fact, all his acts and words at this time reveal +the densest ignorance, not only of political economy, but of the +elementary facts of commerce, as when he imagined that officials, who +were sufficiently hard worked with watching a nimble host of some +100,000 smugglers along an immense frontier, would also be able to +distinguish between Syrian and American cottons, and to exact 800 +francs from 100 kilogrammes of the latter, as against 400 francs from +the former, or that six times as much could ever be levied on Chinese +teas as on other teas! Such a tariff called for a highly drilled army +of those sufficiently rare individuals, honest _douaniers_, endowed +also with Napoleonic activity and omniscience. But, as Chaptal +remarked, the Emperor had never thought much about the needs of +commerce, and he despised merchants as persons who had "neither a +faith nor a country, whose sole object was gain." His own notion about +commerce was that he could "make it manoeuvre like a regiment"; and +this military conception of trade led him to entertain the fond hope +that exchequers benefited by confiscation and prohibitive tariffs, +that a "national commerce" could be speedily built up by cutting off +imports, and that the burden of loss in the present commercial war +fell on England and not on the continental consumer. + +Such was the penalty which the great man paid for scorning all new +knowledge as _idealogie_. The principles set forth by Quesnay, Turgot, +and Adam Smith were to him mere sophistical juggling. He once said to +Mollien: "I seek the good that is practical, not the ideal best: the +world is very old: we must profit by its experience: it teaches that +old practices are worth more than new theories: you are not the only +one who knows trade secrets."[230] This was his general attitude +towards the exponents of new financial or commercial views. Indeed, we +can hardly think of this great champion of external control and state +intervention favouring the open-handed methods of _laisser faire_. +Unhappy France, that gave this motto to the world but let her greatest +ruler emphasize her recent reaction towards commercial mediaevalism! +Luckless Emperor, who aspired to found the United States of Europe, +but outraged the principle which most surely and lastingly works for +international harmony, that of Free Trade! + +While the Trianon tariff sought to hinder the import of England's +colonial products, or, failing that, to reap a golden harvest from +them, Napoleon further endeavoured to terrify continental dealers from +accepting any of her manufactures. His Fontainebleau decree of October +18th, 1810, ordered that all such goods should be seized and publicly +burnt; and five weeks later special tribunals were instituted for +enforcing these ukases and for trying all persons, whether smugglers +caught red-handed or shopkeepers who inadvertently offered for sale +the cottons of Lancashire or the silks of Bengal. + +The canon was now complete. It only remained to convert the world to +the new gospel of pacific war. The results were soon clearly visible +in a sudden rise of prices throughout France, Germany, and Italy. Raw +cotton now fetched 10 to 11 francs, sugar 6 to 7 francs, coffee 8 +francs, and indigo 21 francs, per pound, or on the average about ten +times the prices then ruling at London.[231] The reason for this +advantage to the English consumer and manufacturer is clear. England +swayed the tropics and held the seas; and, having a monopoly of +colonial produce, she could import it easily and abundantly, while the +continental purchaser had ultimately to pay for the risks incurred by +his shopkeeper, by British merchants, and by their smugglers, who "ran +in" from Heligoland, Jersey, or Sicily. These classes vied in their +efforts to prick holes in the continental decrees. Bargees and women, +dogs and hearses, were pressed into service against Napoleon. The +last-named device was for a time tried with much success near Hamburg, +until the French authorities, wondering at the strange increase of +funerals in a river-side suburb, peered into the hearses, and found +them stuffed full with bales of British merchandise. This gruesome +plan failing, others were tried. Large quantities of sand were brought +from the seashore, until, unfortunately for the housewives, some +inquisitive official found that it hailed from the West Indies. + +Or again, devious routes were resorted to. Sugar was smuggled from +London into Germany by way of Salonica, that being now almost the only +neutral port open to British commerce. Thence it was borne in panniers +on the backs of mules over the Balkans to Belgrade, where it was +transferred to barges and carried up the Danube. Another illicit trade +route was from the desolate shores of Dalmatia through Hungary. The +writer of a pamphlet, "England, Ireland, and America," states that his +firm then employed 500 horses on and near that coast in carrying +British goods into Central Europe, and that the cost of getting them +into France was "about L28 per cwt., or more than fifty times the +present freight to Calcutta." In fact, the result of the Emperor's +economic experiments may be summed up in the statement of Chaptal that +the general run of prices in France was higher by one-third than it +was before 1789. + +Now the merest tyro might see that the difference in price above the +normal level was paid by the consumer. The colonial producer, the +British merchant and shipper were certainly harassed, and trade was +dislocated; but, as Mollien observed, commerce soon adapted itself to +altered conditions; and merchants never parted with their wares +without getting hard cash or resorting to the primitive method of +barter. Money was also frequently melted down in France and Germany so +as to effect bargains with England in bars of metal. And so, in one +way or another, trade was carried on, with infinite discomfort and +friction, it is true; but it never wholly ceased even between England +and France direct. + +In fact, Napoleon so clung to the old mercantilist craze of +stimulating exports in order that they might greatly exceed the +imports, as to favour the sending of agricultural produce to England, +provided that such cargoes comprised manufactured goods. He allowed +this privilege not only to his Empire but also to the Kingdom of +Italy.[232] The difficulty was that England would not receive the +manufactured goods of her enemies; and, as corn and cheese could not +be exported to England, unless a certain proportion of silk and cloths +went with them, the latter were got up so as to satisfy the French +customs officers and then cast into the sea. It is needless to add +that this export of manufactures to England, on which Napoleon prided +himself, was limited to showy but worthless articles, which were made +solely _ad usum delphinorum_. + +It was fortunate for us that Napoleon entertained these crude ideas on +political economy; for his action opened for us a loophole of escape +from a very serious difficulty. At that time our fast growing +population was barely fed by our own wheat even after good seasons; +and Providence afflicted us in 1809 and 1810 with very poor harvests. +In 1810 the average price was 103 shillings the quarter, the highest +ever known except in 1800 and 1801; and as commerce was dislocated by +the Continental System and hand-labour was being largely replaced by +the new power-looms and improved spinning machinery, the outlook would +have been hopeless, had not our great enemy allowed us to import +continental corn. This device, which he imagined would impoverish us +to enrich his own States, was the greatest aid that he could have +rendered to our hard-pressed social system; and readers of Charlotte +Bronte's realistic sketches of the Luddite rioting in Yorkshire may +imagine what would have befallen England if, besides lack of work and +low wages, there had been the added horrors of a bread famine. But +fortunately the curious commercial notions harboured by our foe +enabled us in the winter of 1810-11 to get supplies of corn not only +from Prussia and Poland but even from Italy and France. + +In one sense this incident has been misunderstood. It has been +referred to by Porter[233] and other hopeful persons as proof positive +that as long as we can buy corn we shall get it, even from our +enemies. It proves nothing of the sort. Napoleon's correspondence and +his whole policy with regard to licences, which we shall presently +examine, shows clearly that he believed he would greatly benefit his +own States and impoverish our people by selling us large stores of +corn at a very high price. There is no hint in any of his letters that +he ever framed the notion of _starving_ us into surrender. All that he +looked to was the draining away of our wealth by cutting off our +exports, and by allowing imports to enter our harbours much as usual. +As long as he prevented us selling our produce, he heeded little how +much we bought from his States: in fact, the more we bought, the +sooner we should be bankrupt--such was his notion. + +It is strange that he never sought to cut off our corn-supplies. They +were then drawn almost entirely from the Baltic ports. The United +States and Canada had as yet only sent us a few driblets of corn. La +Plata and the Cape of Good Hope were quite undeveloped; and our +settlements in New South Wales were at that time often troubled by +dearth. The plan of sealing up the cornfields of Europe from Riga to +Trieste would have been feasible, at least for a few weeks; French +troops held Danzig and Stettin; Russia, Prussia, and Denmark were at +his beck and call; and an imperial decree forbidding the export of +corn from France and her allied States to the United Kingdom could +hardly have failed to reduce us to starvation and surrender in the +very critical winter of 1810-11. But that strange mental defect of +clinging with ever increasing tenacity to preconceived notions led +Napoleon to allow and even to favour exports of corn to us in the time +of our utmost need; and Britain survived the strain.[234] + +What folly, however, to refer to the action of this man of one +economic idea as being likely to determine the conduct of continental +statesmen in some future naval war with England. In truth, the urgency +of the problem of our national food-supply in time of a great war can +only be fully understood by those who have studied the Napoleonic era. +England then grew nearly enough corn for her needs; her fleets swept +the seas; and Napoleon's economic hobby left her foreign food-supply +unhampered at the severest crisis. Yet, even so, the price of the +quartern loaf rose to more than fifteenpence, and we were brought to +the verge of civil war. A comparison of that time with the conditions +that now prevail must yield food for reflection to all but the +case-hardened optimists. + +But already Napoleon was convinced that the Continental System must be +secretly relaxed in special cases. Despite the fulsome addresses which +some Chambers of Commerce sent up, he knew that his seaports were in +the depths of distress, and that French cotton manufacturers could not +hope to compete with those of Lancashire now that his own tariff had +doubled the price of raw cotton and dyes in France. He therefore hit +upon the curious device of allowing continental merchants to buy +licences for the privilege of secretly evading his own decrees. The +English Government seems to have been the first to issue similar +secret permits; but Napoleon had scarcely signed his Berlin Decree for +the blockade of England before he connived at its infraction. When +sugar, coffee, and other comforts became scarce, they were secretly +imported from perfidious Albion for the imperial table. The final +stage was reached in July, 1810, when licences to import forbidden +goods were secretly sold to favoured merchants, and many +officials--among them Bourrienne--reaped a rich harvest from the sale +of these imperial indulgences. Merchants were so eager to evade the +hated laws that they offered high prices to the treasury and +_douceurs_ to officials for the coveted boon; and as much as L40,000 +is said to have been paid for a single licence. + +On both sides of the Channel this device was abhorred, but its results +were specially odious in Napoleon's States, where the burdens to be +evaded were far heavier than those entailed by the Orders in Council. +In fact, the Continental System was now seen to be an organized +hypocrisy, which, in order to ruin the mistress of the seas, exposed +the peoples to burdens more grievous than those borne by England, and +left all but the wealthiest merchants a prey to a grinding fiscal +tyranny. And the sting of it all was its social injustice; for while +the poor were severely punished, sometimes with death, for smuggling +sugar or tobacco, Napoleon and the favoured few who could buy licences +often imported these articles in large quantities. What wonder, then, +that Russia and Sweden should decline long to endure these gratuitous +hardships, and should seek to evade the behests of the imperial +smuggler of the Tuileries! + +Nevertheless, as no inventive people can ever be thrown wholly on its +own resources without deriving some benefit, we find that France met +the crisis with the cheery patience and unflagging ingenuity which she +has ever evinced. In a great Empire which embraced all the lands +between Hamburg, Bayonne, and Rome, not to mention Illyria and +Dalmatia, a great variety of products might readily reward the +inventor and the husbandman. Tobacco, rice, and cotton could be reared +in the southern portions. Valiant efforts were also made to get +Asiatic produce overland, so as to disappoint the English cruisers; +and the coffee of Arabia was taxed very lightly, so as to ruin the +American producer. When the fragrant berry became more and more +scarce, chicory was discovered by good patriots to be a palatable +substitute, and scientific men sought to induce French manufacturers +to use the isatis plant instead of indigo. Prizes were offered by the +State and by local Chambers of Commerce to those who should make up +for the lack of tropical goods and dyes. + +A notable discovery was made by Chaptal and Delessert, who improved on +Markgraf's process of procuring sugar from beetroot and made it a +practical success. Napoleon also hoped that a chemical substitute for +indigo had been found, and exclaimed to a doleful deputation of +merchants, who came to the Tuileries in the early summer of 1811, that +chemistry would soon revolutionize commerce as completely as the +discovery of the compass had done. Besides, the French Empire was the +richest country in the world, and could almost do without foreign +commerce, at least until England had given way; and that would soon +come to pass; for the pressure of events would soon compel London +merchants to throw their sugar and indigo into the Thames.[235] + +In reality, he placed commerce far behind agriculture, which he +considered to be the basis of a nation's wealth and a nation's health. +But he also took a keen interest in manufactures. The silk industry at +Lyons found in him a generous patron. He ordered that the best +scientific training should there be given, so as to improve the +processes of manufacture; and, as silk of nearly all kinds could be +produced in France and Italy, Lyons was comparatively prosperous. +When, however, it suffered from the general rise of prices and from +the impaired buying power of the community, he adopted heroic +remedies. He ordered that all ships leaving France should carry silk +fabrics equal in value to one-fourth of the whole freight; but whether +these stuffs went to adorn women or mermaids seems an open question. +Or again, on the advice of Chaptal, the Emperor made large purchases +of surplus stocks of Lyons silk, Rouen cottons, and Ste. Antoine +furniture, so as to prevent an imminent collapse of credit and a +recrudescence of Jacobinism in those industrial centres; for as he +said: "I fear a rising brought about by want of bread: I had rather +fight an army of 200,000 men than that."[236] + +In the main, this policy of giving _panem et circenses_ was successful +in France; at least, it kept her quiet. The national feeling ran +strongly in favour of commercial prohibition. In 1787 Arthur Young +found the cotton-workers of the north furious at the recent inroads of +Lancashire cottons, while the wine-growers of the Garonne were equally +favourable to the enlightened Anglo-French commercial treaty of 1786. +It was Napoleon's lot to win the favour of the rigid protectionists, +while not alienating that of the men of the Gironde, who saw in him +the champion of agrarian liberty against the feudal nobles. Moreover, +the nation still cherished the pathetic belief that the war was due to +Albion's perfidy respecting Malta, and burned with a desire to +chastise the recreant islanders. For these reasons, Frenchmen endured +the drain of men and money with but little show of grumbling. + +They were tired of the wars. _We have had enough glory_, they said, +even in the capital itself, and an acute German observer describes the +feeling there as curiously mixed. Parisian gaiety often found vent in +lampoons against the Emperor; and much satire at his expense might +with safety be indulged in among a crowd, provided it were seasoned +with wit. The people seemed not to fear Napoleon, as he was feared in +Germany: the old revolutionary party was still active and might easily +become far more dangerous than the royalist coteries of the Boulevard +St. Germain. For the rest, they were all so accustomed to political +change that they looked on his government as provisional, and put up +with him only as long as the army triumphed abroad and he could make +his power felt at home. Such was the impression of Paris gained by +Varnhagen von Ense. Public opinion in the provinces seems to have been +more favourable to Napoleon; and, on the whole, pride in the army and +in the vigorous administration which that nation loves, above all, +hatred of England and the hope of wresting from her the world's +empire, led the French silently to endure rigorous press laws, +increased taxes, war prices, licences, and chicory. + +For Germans the hardships were much greater and the alleviations far +less. They had no deep interest in Malta or in the dominion of the +seas; and political economy was then only beginning to dawn on the +Teutonic mind. The general trend of German thought had inclined +towards the _Everlasting Nay_, until Napoleon flashed across its ken. +For a time he won the admiration of the chief thinkers of Germany by +brushing away the feudal cobwebs from her fair face. He seemed about +to call her sons to a life of public activity; and in the famous +soliloquy of Faust, in which he feels his way from word to thought, +from thought to might, and from might to action, we may discern the +literary projection of the influence exerted by the new Charlemagne on +that nation of dreamers.[237] But the promise was fulfilled only in +the most harshly practical way, namely, by cutting off all supplies of +tobacco and coffee; and when Teufelsdroeckh himself, admirer though he +was of the French Revolution, found that the summons for his favourite +beverage--the "dear melancholy coffee, that begets fancies," of +Lessing--produced only a muddy decoction of acorns, there was the risk +of his tendencies earthwards taking a very practically revolutionary +turn. + +In truth, the German universities were the leaders of the national +reaction against the Emperor of the West. Fichte's pleading for a +truly national education had taken effect. Elementary instruction was +now being organized in Prussia; and the divorce of thought from +action, which had so long sterilized German life, was ended by the +foundation of the University of Berlin by Humboldt. Thus, in 1810, the +year of Prussia's deepest woe, when her brave Queen died of a stricken +heart, when French soldiers and _douaniers_ were seizing and burning +colonial wares, her thinkers came into closer touch with her men of +action, with mutually helpful results. Thinkers ceased to be mere +dreamers, and Prussian officials gained a wider outlook on life. The +life of beneficent activity, to which Napoleon might have summoned the +great majority of Germans, dawned on them from Berlin, not from Paris. + +His influence was more and more oppressive. The final results of his +commercial decrees on the trade of Hamburg were thus described by +Perthes, a well-known writer and bookseller of that town: "Of the 422 +sugar-boiling houses, few now stood open: the printing of cottons had +ceased entirely: the tobacco-dressers were driven away by the +Government. The imposition of innumerable taxes, door and window, +capitation and land taxes, drove the inhabitants to despair." But the +same sagacious thinker was able to point the moral of it all, and +prove to his friends that their present trials were due to the selfish +particularism of the German States: "It was a necessity that some +great power should arise in the midst of the degenerate selfishness of +the times and also prove victorious, for there was nothing vigorous to +oppose it. Napoleon is an historical necessity."[238] + +Thus, both in the abodes of learning and in the centres of industry +men were groping after a higher unity and a firmer political +organization, which, after the Napoleonic deluge had swept by, was to +lay the foundation of a New Germany. + +To all appearances, however, Napoleon's power seemed to be more firmly +established than ever in the ensuing year. On March 20th, 1811, a son +was born to him. At the crisis of this event, he revealed the warmth +of his family instincts. On hearing that the life of mother or infant +might have to be sacrificed, he exclaimed at once, "Save the +mother."[239] When the danger was past, he very considerately informed +Josephine, stating, "he has my chest, my mouth and my eyes. I trust +that he will fulfil his destiny." That destiny was mapped out in the +title conferred on the child, "King of Rome," which was designed to +recall the title "King of the Romans," used in the Holy Roman Empire. + +Napoleon resolved that the old elective dignity should now be renewed +in a strictly hereditary Empire, vaster than that of Charlemagne. +Paris was to be its capital, Rome its second city, and the future +Emperors were always to be crowned a second time at Rome. Furthermore, +lest the mediaeval dispute as to the supremacy of Emperor or Pope in +Rome should again vex mankind, the Papacy was virtually annexed: the +status of the pontiff was defined in the most Erastian sense, imperial +funds were assigned for his support, and he was bidden to maintain two +palaces, "the one necessarily at Paris, the other at Rome." + +It is impossible briefly to describe the various conflicts between +Pius VII. and Napoleon. Though now kept in captivity by Napoleon, the +Pope refused to ratify these and other ukases of his captor; and the +credit which Napoleon had won by his wordly-wise +Concordat was now lost by his infraction of many of its clauses and by +his harsh treatment of a defenceless old man. It is true that Pius had +excommunicated Napoleon; but that was for the crime of annexing the +Papal States, and public opinion revolted at the spectacle of an +all-powerful Emperor now consigning to captivity the man who in former +years had done so much to consolidate his authority. After the +disasters of the Russian campaign, he sought to come to terms with the +pontiff; but even then the bargain struck at Fontainebleau was so hard +that his prisoner, though unnerved by ill-health, retracted the unholy +compromise. Whereupon Napoleon ordered that the cardinals who advised +this step should be seized and carried away from Fontainebleau. Few of +Napoleon's actions were more harmful than this series of petty +persecutions; and among the influences that brought about his fall, we +may reckon the dignified resistance of the pontiff, whose meekness +threw up in sharp relief the pride and arrogance of his captor. The +Papacy stooped, but only to conquer. + +For the present, everything seemed to favour the new Charlemagne. +Never had the world seen embodied might like that of Napoleon's +Empire; and well might he exclaim at the birth of the King of Rome, +"Now begins the finest epoch of my reign." All the auguries seemed +favourable. In France, the voice of opposition was all but hushed. +Italians, Swiss, and even some Spaniards, helped to keep down Prussia. +Dutchmen and Danes had hunted down Schill for him at Stralsund. Polish +horsemen had charged up the Somosierra Pass against the Spanish guns, +and did valiant service on the bloody field of Albuera. The +Confederation of the Rhine could send forth 150,000 men to fight his +battles. The Hapsburgs were his vassals, and only faint shadows of +discord as yet clouded his relations with Alexander. One of his +Marshals, Bernadotte, had been chosen to succeed to the crown of +Sweden; and at the other end of Europe, it seemed that Wellington and +the Spanish patriots must ultimately succumb to superior numbers. + +Surely now was the time for the fulfilment of those glowing oriental +designs beside which his European triumphs seemed pale. In the autumn +of 1810 he sent agents carefully to inspect the strongholds of Egypt +and Syria, and his consuls in the Levant were ordered to send a report +every six months on the condition of the Turkish Empire.[240] Above +all, he urged on the completion of dockyards and ships of war. Vast +works were pushed on at Antwerp and Cherbourg: ships and gunboats were +to be built at every suitable port from the Texel to Naples and +Trieste; and as the result of these labours, the Emperor counted on +having 104 ships of the line, which would cover the transports from +the Mediterranean, Cherbourg, Boulogne and the Scheldt, and threaten +England with an array of 200,000 fighting men.[241] + +In March, 1811, this plan was modified, possibly because, as in 1804, +he found the difficulties of a descent on our coasts greater than he +first imagined. He now seeks merely to weary out the English in the +present year. But in the next year, or in 1813, he will send an +expedition of 40,000 men from the Scheldt, as if to menace Ireland; +and, having thrown us off our guard, he will divide that force into +four parts for the recovery of the French and Dutch colonies in the +West Indies. He counts also on having a part of his army in Spain free +for service elsewhere: it must be sent to seize Sicily or Egypt. + +But this was not all. His thoughts also turn to the Cape of Good Hope. +Eight thousand men are to sail from Brest to seize that point of +vantage at which he had gazed so longingly in 1803. Of these plans, +the recovery of Egypt evidently lay nearest to his heart. He orders +the storage at Toulon of everything needful for an Egyptian +expedition, along with sixty gun-vessels of light draught suitable for +the navigation of the Nile or of the lakes near the coast.[242] Decres +is charged to send models of these craft; and we may picture the eager +scrutiny which they received. For the Orient was still the pole to +which Napoleon's whole being responded. Turned away perforce by wars +with Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Spain, it swung round towards Egypt +and India on the first chance of European peace, only to be driven +back by some untoward shock nearer home. In 1803 he counted on the +speedy opening of a campaign on the Ganges. In 1811 he proposes that +the tricolour shall once more wave on the citadel of Cairo, and +threaten India from the shores of the Red Sea. But a higher will than +his disposed of these events, and ordained that he should then be +flung back from Russia and fight for his Empire in the plains of +Saxony. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XXXII + +THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN + + +Two mighty and ambitious potentates never fully trust one another. +Under all the shows of diplomatic affection, there remains a thick +rind of reserve or fear. Especially must that be so with men who +spring from a fierce untamed stock. Despite the training of Laharpe, +Alexander at times showed the passions and finesse of a Boyar. And who +shall say that the early Jacobinism and later culture of Napoleon was +more than a veneer spread all too thinly over an Italian _condottiere_ +of the Renaissance age? These men were too expert at wiles really to +trust to the pompous assurances of Tilsit and Erfurt. De Maistre tells +us that Napoleon never partook of Alexander's repasts on the banks of +the Niemen. For him Muscovite cookery was suspect. + +Amidst the glories of Erfurt, Oudinot saw an incident that revealed +the Czar's hidden feelings. During one of their rides, the Emperors +were stopped by a dyke, which Napoleon's steed refused to take; +accordingly the Marshal had to help it across; but the Czar, proud of +his horsemanship, finally cleared the obstacle with a splendid bound, +though at the cost of a shock which broke his sword-belt. The sword +fell to the ground, and Oudinot was about to hand it to Alexander, +when Napoleon quickly said: "Keep that sword and bring it to me +later": then, turning to the Czar, he added: "You have no objection, +Sire?" A look of surprise and distrust flashed across the Czar's +features; but, resuming his easy bearing, he gave his assent. Later in +the day, Napoleon sent his own sword to Alexander, and thus came off +easily best from an incident which threatened at first to throw him +into the shade. The affair shows the ready wit and mental superiority +of the one man no less than the veiled reserve and uneasiness of the +other. + +At the close of 1809, Alexander confessed his inner feeling to +Czartoryski. Napoleon, he said, was a man who would not scruple to use +any means so long as he gained his end: his mental strength was +unquestioned: in the worst troubles he was cool and collected: his +fits of passion were only meant to intimidate: his every act was the +result of calculation: it was absurd to say that his prodigious +exertions would drive him mad: his health was splendid and was equal +to any effort provided that he had eight hours' sleep every day. The +impression left on the ex-Minister was that Alexander understood his +ally thoroughly and _feared him greatly_.[243] + +A few days later came Napoleon's request for the hand of the Czar's +sister, a request which Alexander declined with many expressions of +goodwill and regret. What, then, was his surprise to find that, before +the final answer had been returned, Napoleon was in treaty for the +hand of an Austrian Archduchess.[244] This time it was for him to feel +affronted. And so this breathless search for a bride left sore +feelings at both capitals, at Paris because the Czar declined +Napoleon's request, at St. Petersburg because the imperial wooer was +off on another scent before the first had given out. + +Alexander's annoyance was increased by his ally's doubtful behaviour +about Poland. After the recent increase of the Duchy of Warsaw he had +urged Napoleon to make a declaration that "the Kingdom of Poland shall +never be re-established." This matter was being discussed side by side +with the matrimonial overtures; and, after their collapse, Napoleon +finally declined to give this assurance which Alexander felt needful +for checking the rising hopes of Poles and Lithuanians. The utmost the +French Emperor would do was to promise, _in a secret clause_, that he +would never aid any other Power or any popular movement that aimed at +the re-establishment of that kingdom.[245] In fact, as the Muscovite +alliance was on the wane, he judged it bad policy to discourage the +Poles, who might do so much for him in case of a Franco-Russian war. +He soon begins to face seriously the prospect of such an event. At the +close of 1810 he writes that the Russians are intrenching themselves +on the Dwina and Dniester, which "shows a bad spirit." + +But the great difficulty is Russia's imperfect observation of the +Continental System. He begs the Czar to close his ports against +English ships: 600 of them are wandering about the Baltic, after being +repulsed from its southern shores, in the hope of getting into Russian +harbours. Let Alexander seize their cargoes, and England, now at her +last gasp, must give in. Five weeks later he returns to the charge. It +is not enough to seize British ships; the hated wares get in under +American, Swedish, Spanish, and Portuguese, _even under French flags_. +Of the 2,000 ships that entered the Baltic in 1810, not one was really +a neutral: they were all charged with English goods, with false papers +and _forged certificates of origin manufactured in London_.[246] Any +other unit among earth's millions would have been convinced of the +futility of the whole enterprise, now that his own special devices +were being turned against him. It was not enough to conquer and +enchain the Continent. Every customs officer must be an expert in +manufactures, groceries, documents, and the water-marks of paper, if +he was to detect the new "frauds of the neutral flags." + +But Napoleon knew not the word impossible--"a word that exists only in +the dictionary of fools." In fact, his mind, naturally unbending, was +now working more and more in self-made grooves. Of these the deepest +was his commercial warfare; and he pushed on, reckless of Europe and +reckless of the Czar. In the middle of December he annexed the North +Sea coast of Germany, including Oldenburg. The heir to this duchy had +married Alexander's sister, whose hand Napoleon had claimed at Erfurt. +The duke, it is true, was offered the district of Erfurt as an +indemnity; but that proposal only stung the Czar the more. The +deposition of the duke was not merely a personal affront; it was an +infraction of the Treaty of Tilsit which had restored him to his +duchy. + +A fortnight later, when as yet he knew not of the Oldenburg incident, +Alexander himself broke that treaty.[247] At the close of 1810 he +declined to admit land-borne goods on the easy terms arranged at +Tilsit, but levied heavy dues on them, especially on the _articles de +luxe_ that mostly hailed from France. Some such step was inevitable. +Unable to export freely to England, Russia had not money enough to buy +costly French goods without disordering the exchange and ruining her +credit. While seeking to raise revenue on French manufactures, the +Czar resolved to admit on easy terms all colonial goods, especially +American. English goods he would shut out as heretofore; and he +claimed that this new departure was well within the limits of the +Treaty of Tilsit. Far different was Napoleon's view: "Here is a great +planet taking a wrong direction. I do not understand its course at +all."[248] Such were his first words on reading the text of the new +ukase. A fatalistic tone now haunts his references to Russia's policy. +On April 2nd he writes: "If Alexander does not quickly stop the +impetus which has been given, he will be carried away by it next year; +and thus war will take place in spite of him, _in spite of me_, in +spite of the interests of France and Russia.... It is an operatic +scene, of which the English are the shifters." What madness! As if +Russia's craving for colonial wares and solvency were a device of the +diabolical islanders.[249] As if his planetary simile were anything +more than a claim that he was the centre of the universe and his will +its guiding and controlling power. + +Nevertheless, Russia held on her way. In vain did Alexander explain to +his ally the economic needs of his realm, protest his fidelity to the +Continental System, and beg some consideration for the Duke of +Oldenburg. It was evident that the Emperor of the West would make no +real concession. In fact, the need of domination was the quintessence +of his being. And Maret, Duc de Bassano, who was now his Foreign +Minister, or rather, we should say, the man who wrote and signed his +despatches, revealed the psychological cause of the war which cost the +lives of nearly a million of men, in a note to Lauriston, the French +ambassador at St. Petersburg. Napoleon, he wrote, cared little about +interviews or negotiations unless the movements of his 450,000 men +caused serious concern in Russia, recalled her to the Continental +System as settled at Tilsit, and "brought her back to the state of +inferiority in which she was then."[250] + +This was, indeed, the gist of the whole question. Napoleon saw that +Alexander was slipping out of the leading strings of Tilsit, and that +he was likely to come off best from that bargain, which was intended +to confirm the supremacy of the Western Empire. For both potentates +that treaty had been, at bottom, nothing more than a truce. Napoleon +saw in it a means of subjecting the Continent to his commercial code, +and of preparing for a Franco-Russian partition of Turkey. The Czar +hailed it as a breathing space wherein he could reorganize his army, +conquer Finland, and stride towards the Balkans. The Erfurt interview +prolonged the truce; for Napoleon felt the supreme need of stamping +out the Spanish Rising and of postponing the partition of Turkey which +his ally was eager to begin. By the close of 1811 both potentates had +exhausted all the benefits likely to accrue from their alliance.[251] +Napoleon flattered himself that the conquest of Spain was wellnigh +assured, and that England was in her last agonies. On the other hand, +Russia had recovered her military strength, had gained Finland and +planted her foot on the Lower Danube, and now sought to shuffle off +Napoleon's commercial decrees. In fine, the monarch, who at Tilsit had +figured as mere clay in the hands of the Corsican potter, had proved +himself to be his equal both in cunning and tenacity. The seeming dupe +of 1807 now promised to be the victor in statecraft. + +Then there was the open sore of Poland. The challenge, on this +subject, was flung down by Napoleon at a diplomatic reception on his +birthday, August 15th, 1811. Addressing the Russian envoy, he +exclaimed: "I am not so stupid as to think that it is Oldenburg which +troubles you. I see that Poland is the question: you attribute to me +designs in favour of Poland. I begin to think that you wish to seize +it. No: if your army were encamped on Montmartre, I would not cede an +inch of the Warsaw territory, not a village, not a windmill." His +fears as to Russia's designs were far-fetched. Alexander's sounding of +the Poles was a defensive measure, seriously undertaken only after +Napoleon's refusal to discourage the Polish nationalists. But it +suited the French Emperor to aver that the quarrel was about Poland +rather than the Continental System, and the scene just described is a +good specimen of his habit of cool calculation even in seemingly +chance outbursts of temper. His rhapsody gained him the ardent support +of the Poles, and was vague enough to cause no great alarm to Austria +and Prussia.[252] + +On the next day Napoleon sketched to his Ministers the general plan of +campaign against Russia. The whole of the Continent was to be +embattled against her. On the Hapsburg alliance he might well rely. +But the conduct of Prussia gave him some concern. For a time she +seemed about to risk a war _a outrance_, such as Stein, Fichte, and +the staunch patriots of the Tugendbund ardently craved. Indeed, +Napoleon's threats to this hapless realm seemed for a time to portend +its annihilation. The King, therefore, sent Scharnhorst first to St. +Petersburg and then to Vienna with secret overtures for an alliance. +They were virtually refused. Prudence was in the ascendant at both +capitals; and, as will presently appear, the more sagacious Prussians +soon came to see that a war, in which Napoleon could be enticed into +the heart of Russia, might deal a mortal blow at his overgrown Empire. +Certainly it was quite impossible for Prussia to stay the French +advance. A guerilla warfare, such as throve in Spain, must surely be +crushed in her open plains; and the diffident King returned +Gneisenau's plan of a rising of the Prussian people against Napoleon +with the chilling comment, "Very good as poetry." + +Thus, when Napoleon wound up his diplomatic threats by an imperious +summons to side with him or against him, Frederick William was fain to +abide by his terms, sending 20,000 troops against Russia, granting +free passage to Napoleon's army, and furnishing immense supplies of +food and forage, the payment of which was to be settled by some future +arrangement (February, 1812). These conditions seemed to thrust +Prussia down to the lowest circle of the Napoleonic Inferno; and great +was the indignation of her patriots. They saw not that only by +stooping before the western blast could Prussia be saved. To this +topic we shall recur presently, when we treat of the Russian plan of +campaign. + +Sweden was less tractable than Napoleon expected. He had hoped that +the deposition of his personal enemy, Gustavus IV., the enthronement +of a feeble old man, Charles XIII., and the choice of Bernadotte as +heir to the Swedish crown, would bring that land back to its +traditional alliance with France. But, on accepting his new dignity, +Bernadotte showed his customary independence of thought by refusing to +promise that he would never bear arms against France--a refusal that +cost him his principality of Ponte Corvo. He at once adopted a forward +Scandinavian policy; and, as the Franco-Russian alliance waned, he +offered Swedish succour to Napoleon if he would favour the acquisition +of Norway by the Court of Stockholm. + +The Emperor had himself mooted this project in 1802, but he now +returned a stern refusal (February 25th, 1811), and bade Sweden +enforce the Continental System under pain of the occupation of Swedish +Pomerania by French troops. Even this threat failed to bend the will +of Bernadotte, and the Swedes preferred to forego their troublesome +German province rather than lose their foreign commerce. In the +following January, Napoleon carried out his threat, thereby throwing +Sweden into the arms of Russia. By the treaty of March-April, 1812, +Bernadotte gained from Alexander the prospect of acquiring Norway, in +return for the aid of Sweden in the forthcoming war against Napoleon. +This was the chief diplomatic success gained by Alexander; for though +he came to terms with Turkey two months later (retaining Bessarabia), +the treaty was ratified too late to enable him to concentrate all his +forces against the Napoleonic host that was now flooding the plains of +Prussia.[253] + +The results of this understanding with the Court of Stockholm were +seen in the Czar's note presented at Paris at the close of April. He +required of Napoleon the evacuation of Swedish Pomerania by French +troops and a friendly adjustment of Franco-Swedish disputes, the +evacuation of Prussia by the French, the reduction of their large +garrison at Danzig, and the recognition of Russia's right to trade +with neutrals. If these terms were accorded by France, Alexander was +ready to negotiate for an indemnity for the Duke of Oldenburg and a +mitigation of the Russian customs dues on French goods.[254] The +reception given by Napoleon to these reasonable terms was unpromising. +"You are a gentleman," he exclaimed to Prince Kurakin, "--and yet you +dare to present to me such proposals?--You are acting as Prussia did +before Jena." Alexander had already given up all hope of peace. A week +before that scene, he had left St. Petersburg for the army, knowing +full well that Napoleon's cast-iron will might be shivered by a mighty +blow, but could never be bent by diplomacy. + +On his side, Napoleon sought to overawe his eastern rival by a display +of imposing force. Lord of a dominion that far excelled that of the +Czar in material resources, suzerain of seven kingdoms and thirty +principalities, he called his allies and vassals about him at Dresden, +and gave to the world the last vision of that imperial splendour which +dazzled the imagination of men. + +It was an idle display. In return for secret assurances that he might +eventually regain his Illyrian provinces, the Emperor Francis had +pledged himself by treaty to send 30,000 men to guard Napoleon's flank +in Volhynia. But everyone at St. Petersburg knew that this aid, along +with that of Prussia, was forced and hollow.[255] The example of Spain +and the cautious strategy of Wellington had dissolved the spell of +French invincibility; and the Czar was resolved to trust to the +toughness of his people and the defensive strength of his boundless +plains. The time of the Macks, the Brunswicks, the Bennigsens was +past: the day of Wellington and of truly national methods of warfare +had dawned. + +Yet the hosts now moving against Alexander bade fair to overwhelm the +devotion of his myriad subjects and the awful solitudes of his +steppes. It was as if Peter the Hermit had arisen to impel the peoples +of Western and Central Europe once more against the immobile East. +Frenchmen to the number of 200,000 formed the kernel of this vast +body: 147,000 Germans from the Confederation of the Rhine followed the +new Charlemagne: nearly 80,000 Italians under Eugene formed an Army of +Observation: 60,000 Poles stepped eagerly forth to wrest their +nation's liberty from the Muscovite grasp; and Illyrians, Swiss, and +Dutch, along with a few Spaniards and Portuguese, swelled the Grand +Army to a total of 600,000 men. Nor was this all. Austria and Prussia +sent their contingents, amounting in all to 50,000 men, to guard +Napoleon's flanks on the side of Volhynia and Courland. And this +mighty mass, driven on by Napoleon's will, gained a momentum which was +to carry its main army to Moscow. + +After reviewing his vassals at Dresden, and hurrying on the +arrangements for the transport of stores, Napoleon journeyed to the +banks of the Niemen. On all sides were to be seen signs of the passage +of a mighty host, broken-down carts, dead horses, wrecked villages, +and dense columns of troops that stripped Prussia wellnigh bare. Yet, +despite these immense preparations, no hint of discouragement came +from the Czar's headquarters. On arriving at the Niemen, Napoleon +issued to the Grand Army a proclamation which was virtually a +declaration of war. In it there occurred the fatalistic remark: +"Russia is drawn on by fate: her destinies must be fulfilled." +Alexander's words to his troops breathed a different spirit: "God +fights against the aggressor." + +Much that is highly conjectural has been written about the plans of +campaign of the two Emperors. That of Napoleon may be briefly stated: +it was to find out the enemy's chief forces, divide them, or cut them +from their communications, and beat them in detail. In other words, he +never started with any set plan of campaign, other than the +destruction of the chief opposing force. But, in the present instance, +it may be questioned whether he had not sought by his exasperating +provocations to drive Prussia into alliance with the Czar. In that +case, Alexander would have been bound in honour to come to the aid of +his ally. And if the Russians ventured across the Niemen, or the +Vistula, as Napoleon at first believed they would,[256] his task would +doubtless have been as easy as it proved at Friedland. Many Prussian +officers, so Mueffling asserts, believed that this was the aim of +French diplomacy in the early autumn of 1811, and that the best reply +was an unconditional surrender. On the other hand, there is the fact +that St. Marsan, Napoleon's ambassador at Berlin, assured that +Government, on October 29th, that his master did not wish to destroy +Prussia, but laid much stress on the supplies which she could furnish +him--a support that would enable the Grand Army to advance on the +Niemen _like a rushing stream_. + +The metaphor was strangely imprudent. It almost invited Prussia to +open wide her sluices and let the flood foam away on to the sandy +wastes of Lithuania; and we may fancy that the more discerning minds +at Berlin now saw the advantage of a policy which would entice the +French into the wastes of Muscovy. It is strange that Napoleon's +Syrian adage, "Never make war against a desert," did not now recur to +his mind. But he gradually steeled himself to the conviction that war +with Alexander was inevitable, and that the help of Austria and +Prussia would enable him to beat back the Muscovite hordes into their +eastern steppes. For a time he had unquestionably thought of +destroying Prussia before he attacked the Czar; but he finally decided +to postpone her fate until he had used her for the overthrow of +Russia.[257] + +After the experiences of Austerlitz and Friedland, the advantages of a +defensive campaign could not escape the notice of the Czar. As early +as October, 1811, when Scharnhorst was at St. Petersburg, he discussed +these questions with him; and not all that officer's pleading for the +cause of Prussian independence induced Alexander to offer armed help +unless the French committed a wanton aggression on Koenigsberg. Seeing +that there was no hope of bringing the Russians far to the west, +Scharnhorst seems finally to have counselled a Fabian strategy for the +ensuing war; and, when at Vienna, he drew up a memoir in this sense +for the guidance of the Czar.[258] + +Alexander was certainly much in need of sound guidance. Though +Scharnhorst had pointed out the way of salvation, a strategic tempter +was soon at hand in the person of General von Phull, an uncompromising +theorist who planned campaigns with an unquestioning devotion to +abstract principles. Untaught by the catastrophes of the past, +Alexander once more let his enthusiasm for theories and principles +lead him to the brink of the abyss. Phull captivated him by setting +forth the true plan of a defensive campaign which he had evolved from +patient study of the Seven Years' War. Everything depended on the +proper selection of defensive positions and the due disposition of the +defending armies. There must be two armies of defence, and at least +one great intrenched camp. One army must oppose the invader on a line +near, or leading up to, the camp; while the other army must manoeuvre +on his rear or flanks. And the camp must be so placed as to stretch +its protecting influence over one, or more, important roads. It need +not be on any one of them: in fact, it was better that it should be +some distance away; for it thus fulfilled better the all-important +function of a "flanking position." + +Such a position Phull had discovered at Drissa in a curve of the River +Dwina. It was sufficiently far from the roads leading from the Niemen +to St. Petersburg and to Moscow efficiently to protect them both. +There, accordingly, he suggested that vast earthworks should be +prepared; for there, at that artificial Torres Vedras, Russia's chief +force might await the Grand Army, while the other force harassed its +flank or rear.[259] + +Napoleon had not probed this absurdity to its inmost depths: but he +early found out that the Russians were in two widely separated armies; +and this sufficed to decide his movements and the early part of the +campaign. Having learnt that one army was near Vilna, and the other in +front of the marshes of the Pripet, he sought to hold them apart by a +rapid irruption into the intervening space, and thereafter to destroy +them piecemeal. Never was a visionary theory threatened by a more +terrible realism. For Napoleon at midsummer was mustering a third of a +million of men on the banks of the Niemen, while the Russians, with +little more than half those numbers as yet available for the +fighting-line, had them spread out over an immense space, so as to +facilitate those flanking operations on which Phull set such +store.[260] + +On the morn of June 23rd, three immense French columns wound their way +to the pontoon bridges hastily thrown over the Niemen near Kovno; and +loud shouts of triumph greeted the great leader as the vanguard set +foot on Lithuanian soil. No Russians were seen except a few light +horsemen, who galloped up, inquired of the engineers why they were +building the bridges, and then rode hastily away. During three days +the Grand Army filed over the river and melted away into the sandy +wastes. No foe at first contested their march, but neither were they +met by the crowds of downtrodden natives whom their fancy pictured as +thronging to welcome the liberators. In truth, the peasants of +Lithuania had no very close racial affinity to the Poles, whose +offshoots were found chiefly among the nobles and the wealthier +townsfolk. Solitude, the sultry heat of a Russian mid-summer, and +drenching thunderstorms depressed the spirits of the invaders. The +miserable cart tracks were at once cut up by the passage of the host, +and 10,000 horses perished of fatigue or of disease caused by the rank +grass, in the fifty miles' march from the Niemen to Vilna. + +The difficulties of the transport service began at once, and they were +to increase with every day's march. With his usual foresight, Napoleon +had ordered the collection of immense stores of all kinds at Danzig, +his chief base of supplies. Two million pairs of boots were required +for the wear and tear of a long campaign, and all preparations were on +the same colossal scale. In this connection it is noteworthy that no +small proportion of the cloaks and boots came from England, as the +industrial resources of the Continent were wholly unequal to supplying +the crusaders of the Continental System. + +A great part of those stores never reached the troops in Russia. The +wherries sent from Danzig to the Niemen were often snapped up by +British cruisers, and the carriage of stores from the Niemen entailed +so frightful a waste of horseflesh that only the most absolute +necessaries could keep pace with the army in its rapid advance. The +men were thus left without food except such as marauding could extort. +In this art Napoleon's troops were experts. Many miles of country were +scoured on either side of the line of march, and the Emperor, on +reaching Vilna, had to order Ney to send out cavalry patrols to gather +in the stragglers, who were committing "horrible devastations" and +would "fall into the hands of the Cossacks." + +At Vilna the Grand Army met with a more cheering reception than +heretofore. Deftly placing his Polish regiments in front and chasing +the retiring Russians beyond the town, Napoleon then returned to find +a welcome in the old Lithuanian capital. The old men came forth clad +in the national garb, and it seemed that that province, once a part of +the great Polish monarchy, would break away from the empire of the +Czars and extend Napoleon's influence to within a few miles of +Smolensk.[261] The newly-formed Diet at Warsaw also favoured this +project: it constituted itself into a general confederation, declared +the Kingdom of Poland to be restored, and sent a deputation to +Napoleon at Vilna begging him to utter the creative words: "Let the +Kingdom of Poland exist." The Emperor gave a guarded answer. He +declared that he loved the Poles, he commended them for their +patriotism, which was "the first duty of civilized man," but added +that only by a unanimous effort could they now compel their enemies to +recognize their rights; and that, having guaranteed the integrity of +the Austrian Empire, he could not sanction any movement which would +disturb its remaining Polish provinces. + +This diplomatic reply chilled his auditors. But what would have been +their feelings had they known that the calling of the Diet at Warsaw, +and the tone of its address to Napoleon; had all been sketched out +five weeks before by the imperial stage manager himself? Yet such was +the case. + +The scene-shifter was the Abbe de Pradt, Archbishop of Malines, whom +Napoleon sent as ambassador to Warsaw, with elaborate instructions as +to the summoning of the Diet, the whipping-up of Polish enthusiasm, +the revolutionizing of Russian Poland, and the style of the address to +him. Nay, his passion for the regulation of details even led him to +inform the ambassador that the imperial reply would be one of praise +of Polish patriotism and of warning that Polish liberty could only be +won by their "zeal and their efforts." The trickery was like that +which he had played upon the Poles shortly before Eylau. In effect, he +said now, as then: "Pour out your blood for me first, and I will do +something for you." But on this occasion the scenic setting was more +impressive, the rush of the Poles to arms more ardent, the diplomatic +reply more astutely postponed, and the finale more awful.[262] + +Still, the Poles marched on; but their devotion became more +questioning. The feelings of the Lithuanians were also ruffled by +Napoleon's reply to the Polish deputies: nor were they consoled by his +appointment of seven magnates to regulate the affairs of the districts +of Lithuania, under the aegis of French commissioners, who proved to be +the real governors. Worst of all was the marauding of Napoleon's +troops, who, after their long habituation to the imperial maxim that +"war must support war," could not now see the need of enduring the +pangs of hunger in order that Lithuanian enthusiasm might not cool. + +[Illustration: CAMPAIGN IN RUSSIA] + +Meanwhile the war had not progressed altogether as he desired. His aim +had been to conceal his advance across the Niemen, to surprise the two +chief Russian armies while far separated, and thus to end the war on +Lithuanian soil by a blow such as he had dealt at Friedland. The +Russian arrangements seemed to favour his plan. Their two chief +arrays, that led by the Czar and by General Barclay de Tolly, some +125,000 strong north of Vilna, and that of Prince Bagration mustering +now about 45,000 effectives, in the province of Volhynia, were +labouring to carry out the strategy devised by Phull. The former was +directly to oppose the march of Napoleon's main army, while the +smaller Russian force was to operate on its flanks and rear. Such a +plan could only have succeeded in the good old times when war was +conducted according to ceremonious etiquette; it courted destruction +from Napoleon. At Vilna the Emperor directed the movements that were +to ensnare Bagration. Already he had urged on the march of Davoust, +who was to circle round from the north, and the advance of Jerome +Bonaparte's Westphalians, who were bidden to hurry on eastwards from +the town of Grodno on the Upper Niemen. Their convergence would drive +Bagration into the almost trackless marshes of the Pripet, whence his +force would emerge, if at all, as helpless units. + +Such was Napoleon's plan, and it would have succeeded but for a +miscalculation in the time needed for Jerome's march. Napoleon +underrated the difficulties of his advance or else overrated his +brother's military capacity. The King of Westphalia was delayed a few +days at Grodno by bad weather and other difficulties; thus Bagration, +who had been ordered by the Czar to retire, was able to escape the +meshes closing around him by a speedy retreat to Bobruisk, whence he +moved northwards. Napoleon was enraged at this loss of a priceless +opportunity, and addressed vehement reproaches to Jerome for his +slowness and "small-mindedness." The youngest of the Bonapartes +resented this rebuke which ignored the difficulties besetting a rapid +advance. The prospect of being subjected to that prince of martinets, +Davoust, chafed his pride; and, throwing up his command, he forthwith +returned to the pleasures of Cassel. + +By great good fortune, Bagration's force had escaped from the snares +strewn in its path by the strategy of Phull and the counter-moves of +Napoleon. The fickle goddess also favoured the rescue of the chief +Russian army from imminent peril at Drissa. In pursuance of Phull's +scheme, the Czar and Barclay de Tolly fell back with that army towards +the intrenched camp on the Dwina. But doubts had already begun to +haunt their minds as to the wisdom of Phull's plans. In fact, the bias +of Barclay's nature was towards the proven and the practical. He came +of a Scottish family which long ago had settled in Livonia, and had +won prosperity and esteem in the trade of Riga. His ancestry and his +early surroundings therefore disposed him to the careful weighing of +evidence and distrust of vague theories. His thoroughness in military +organization during the war in Finland and his unquestioned probity +and open-mindedness, had recently brought him high into favour with +the Czar, who made him War Minister. He had no wide acquaintance with +the science of warfare, and has been judged altogether deficient in a +wide outlook on events and in those masterly conceptions which mark +the great warrior.[263] But nations are sometimes ruined by lofty +genius, while at times they may be saved by humdrum prudence; and +Barclay's common sense had no small share in saving Russia. + +Two months before the Grand Army passed the Niemen, he had expressed +the hope that God would send retreat to the Russian armies; and we may +safely attribute to his influence with the Czar the timely order to +Bagration to desist from flanking tactics and beat a retreat while yet +there was time. That portion of Phull's strategy having signally +failed, Alexander naturally became more suspicious about the Drissa +plan; and during the retirement from Vilna, he ordered a survey of the +works to be made by Phull's adjutant, a young German named Clausewitz, +who was destined to win a name as an authority in strategy. This +officer was unable conscientiously to present a cheering report. He +found the camp deficient in many respects. Nevertheless, Alexander +still clung to the hope of checking the French advance before these +great intrenchments. + +On his arrival there, on July 8th, this hope also was dashed. Michaud, +a young Sardinian engineer, pointed out several serious defects in +their construction. Barclay also protested against shutting up a large +part of the defending army in a camp which could easily be blockaded +by Napoleon's vast forces. Finally, as the Russian reserves stationed +there proved to be disappointingly weak both in numbers and +efficiency, the Czar determined to evacuate the camp, intrust the sole +command to Barclay, and retire to his northern capital. It is said +that, before he left the army, the Grand Duke Constantine, a friend of +the French cause, made a last effort to induce him to come to terms +with Napoleon, now that the plan of campaign had failed. If so, +Alexander repelled the attempt. Pride as a ruler and a just resentment +against Napoleon prevented any compromise; and probably he now saw +that safety for himself and ruin for his foe lay in the firm adoption +of that Fabian policy of retreat and delay, which Scharnhorst had +advocated and Barclay was now determined to carry out. + +Though still hampered by the intrigues of Constantine, Bennigsen, and +other generals, who hated him as a foreigner and feigned to despise +him as a coward, Barclay at once took the step which he had long felt +to be necessary; he ordered a retreat which would bring him into touch +with Bagration. Accordingly, leaving Wittgenstein with 25,000 men to +hold Oudinot's corps in check on the middle Dwina, he marched +eastwards towards Vitepsk. True, he left St. Petersburg open to +attack; but it was not likely that Napoleon, when the summer was far +spent, would press so far north and forego his usual plan of striking +at the enemy's chief forces. He would certainly seek to hinder the +junction of the two Russian armies, as soon as he saw that this was +Barclay's aim. Such proved to be the case. Napoleon soon penetrated +his design, and strove to frustrate it by a rapid move from Vilna +towards Polotsk on Barclay's flank, but he failed to cut into his line +of march, and once more had to pursue. + +Despite the heavy shrinkage in the Grand Army caused by a remorseless +rush through a country wellnigh stripped of supplies, the Emperor +sought to force on a general engagement. He hoped to catch Barclay at +Vitepsk. "The whole Russian army is at Vitepsk--we are on the eve of +great events," he writes on July 25th. But the Russians skilfully +withdrew by night from their position in front of that town, which he +entered on July 28th. Chagrined and perplexed, the chief stays a +fortnight to organize supplies and stores, while his vanguard presses +on to envelop the Russians at Smolensk. Again his hopes revive when he +hears that Barclay and Bagration are about to join near that city. In +fact, those leaders there concluded that strategic movement to the +rear which was absolutely necessary if they were not to be overwhelmed +singly. They viewed the retreat in a very different light. To the +cautious Barclay it portended a triumph long deferred, but sure: while +the more impulsive Muscovite looked upon the constant falling back as +a national disgrace. + +The feelings of the soldiery also forbade a spiritless abandonment of +the holy city of the Upper Dnieper that stands as sentinel to Russia +Proper. On these feelings Napoleon counted, and rightly. He was now in +no haste to strike: the blow must be crushing and final. At last he +hears that Davoust, the leader whose devotion and methodical +persistence merit his complete trust, has bridged the River Dnieper +below the city, and has built ovens for supplying the host with bread. +And having now drawn up troops and supplies from the rear, he pushes +on to end the campaign. + +Barclay was still for retreat; but religious sentiment and patriotism +bade the defenders stand firm behind those crumbling walls, while +Bagration secured the line of retreat. The French, ranged +around on the low hills which ring it on the south, looked for an easy +triumph, and Napoleon seems to have felt an excess of confidence. At +any rate, his dispositions were far from masterly. He made no serious +effort to threaten the Russian communications with Moscow, nor did he +wait for his artillery to overwhelm the ramparts and their defenders. +The corps of Ney, Davoust, and Poniatowski, with Murat's cavalry and +the Imperial Guard posted in reserve, promised an easy victory, and +the dense columns of foot moved eagerly to the assault. They were +received with a terrific fire. Only after three hours' desperate +fighting did they master the southern suburbs, and at nightfall the +walls still defied their assaults. Yet in the meantime Napoleon's +cannon had done their work. The wooden houses were everywhere on fire; +a speedy retreat alone could save the garrison from ruin; and amidst a +whirlwind of flame and smoke Barclay drew off his men to join +Bagration on the road to Moscow (August 17th). + +Once more, then, the Russian army had slipped from Napoleon's grasp, +though this time it dealt him a loss of 12,000 in killed or wounded. +And the momentous question faced him whether he should halt, now that +summer was on the wane, or snatch under the walls of Moscow the +triumph which Vilna, Vitepsk, and Smolensk had promised and denied. It +is stated by that melodramatic narrator, Count Philip Segur, that on +entering Vitepsk, the Emperor exclaimed: "The campaign of 1812 is +ended, that of 1813 will do the rest." But the whole of Napoleon's +"Correspondence" refutes the anecdote. Besides, it was not Napoleon's +habit to go into winter quarters in July, or to rest before he had +defeated the enemy's main army.[264] + +At Smolensk the question wore another aspect. Napoleon told Metternich +at Dresden that he would not in the present year advance beyond +Smolensk, but would organize Lithuania during winter and advance again +in the spring of 1813, adding: "My enterprise is one of those of which +the solution is to be found in patience." A policy of masterly +inactivity certainly commended itself to his Marshals. But the desire +to crush the enemy's rear drew Ney and Murat into a sharp affair at +Valutino or Lubino: the French lost heavily, but finally gained the +position: and the hope that the foe were determined to fight the +decisive battle at Dorogobuzh lured Napoleon on, despite his earlier +decision.[265] Besides, his position seemed less hazardous than it was +before Austerlitz. The Grand Army was decidedly superior to the united +forces of Barclay and Bagration. On the Dwina, Oudinot held the +Russians at bay; and when he was wounded, his successor, Gouvion St. +Cyr, displayed a tactical skill which enabled him easily to foil a +mere fighter like Wittgenstein. On the French right flank, affairs +were less promising; for the ending of the Russo-Turkish war now left +the Russian army of the Pruth free to march into Volhynia. But, for +the present, Napoleon was able to summon up strong reserves under +Victor, and assure his rear. + +With full confidence, then, he pressed onwards to wrest from Fortune +one last favour. It was granted to him at Borodino. There the Russians +made a determined stand. National jealousy of Barclay, inflamed by his +protracted retreat, had at last led to his being superseded by +Kutusoff; and, having about 110,000 troops, the old fighting general +now turned fiercely to bay. His position on the low convex curve of +hills that rise behind the village of Borodino was of great strength. +On his right was the winding valley of the Kolotza, an affluent of the +Moskwa, and before his centre and left the ground sloped down to a +stream. On this more exposed side the Russians had hastily thrown up +earthworks, that at the centre being known as the Great Redoubt, +though it had no rear defences. + +Napoleon halted for two days, until his gathering forces mustered some +125,000 men, and he now prepared to end the war at a blow. After +surveying the Russian position, he saw Kutusoff's error in widely +extending his lines to the north; and while making feints on that +side, so as to prevent any concentration of the Muscovite array, he +planned to overwhelm the more exposed centre and left, by the assaults +of Davoust and Poniatowski on the south, and of Ney's corps and +Eugene's Italians on the redoubts at the centre. Davoust begged to be +allowed to outflank the Russian left; but Napoleon refused, perhaps +owing to a fear that the Russians might retreat early in the day, and +decided on dealing direct blows at the left and centre. As the 7th of +September dawned with all the splendour of a protracted summer, cannon +began to thunder against the serried arrays ranged along the opposing +slopes, and Napoleon's columns moved against the redoubts and woods +that sheltered the Muscovite lines. The defence was most obstinate. +Time after time the smaller redoubts were taken and retaken; and +while, on the French right centre, the tide of battle surged up and +down the slope, the Great Redoubt dealt havoc among Eugene's Italians, +who bravely but, as it seemed, hopelessly struggled up that fatal +rise. + +Then was seen a soul-stirring sight. Of a sudden, a mass of +Cuirassiers rushed forth from the invaders' ranks, flung itself +uphill, and girdled the grim earthwork with a stream of flashing steel +There, for a brief space, it was stayed by the tough Muscovite lines, +until another billow of horsemen, marshalled by Grouchy and Chastel, +swept all before it, took the redoubt on its weak reverse, and +overwhelmed its devoted defenders.[266] In vain did the Russian +cavalry seek to save the day: Murat's horsemen were not to be denied, +and Kutusoff was at last fain to draw back his mangled lines, but +slowly and defiantly, under cover of a crushing artillery fire. + +Thus ended the bloodiest fight of the century. For several hours 800 +cannon had dealt death among the opposing masses; the Russians lost +about 40,000 men, and, whatever Napoleon said in his bulletins, the +rents in his array were probably nearly as great. He has been censured +for not launching his Guard at the wavering foe at the climax of the +fight; and the soldiery loudly blamed its commander, Bessieres, for +dissuading his master from this step. But to have sacrificed those +veterans to Russian cannon would have been a perilous act.[267] His +Guard was the solid kernel of his army: on it he could always rely, +even when French regulars dissolved, as often happened after long +marches, into bands of unruly marauders; and its value was to be found +out during the retreat. More fitly may Napoleon be blamed for not +seeking earlier in the day to turn the Russian left, and roll that +long line up on the river. Here, as at Smolensk, he resorted to a +frontal attack, which could only yield success at a frightful cost. +The day brought little glory to the generals, except to Ney, Murat, +and Grouchy. For his valour in the _melee_, Ney received the title of +Prince de la Moskwa. + +A week before this Pyrrhic triumph, Napoleon had heard of a terrible +reverse to French arms in Spain. His old friend, Marmont, who had won +the Marshal's baton after Wagram, measured his strength with +Wellington in the plains of Leon with brilliant success until a false +move near Salamanca exposed him to a crushing rejoinder, and sent his +army flying back towards Burgos. Madrid was now uncovered and was +occupied for a time by the English army (August 13th). Thus while +Napoleon was gasping at Moscow, his brother was expelled from Madrid, +until the recall of Soult from Andalusia gave the French a superiority +in the centre of Spain which forced Wellington to retire to Ciudad +Rodrigo. He lost the fruits of his victory, save that Andalusia was +freed: but he saved his army for the triumphant campaign of 1813. Had +Napoleon shown the like prudence by beating a timely retreat from +Moscow, who can say that the next hard-fought fights in Silesia and +Saxony would not have once more crowned his veterans with decisive +triumph? + +As it was, the Grand Army toiled on through heat, dust, and the smoke +of burning villages, to gain peace and plenty at Moscow. But when, on +September the 14th, the conqueror entered that city with his vanguard, +solitude reigned almost unbroken. A few fanatics, clinging to the +tradition that the Kremlin was impregnable, idly sought to defend it; +but troops, officials, nobles, merchants, and the great mass of the +people were gone, and the military stores had been burnt or removed. +Rostopchin, the governor, had released the prisoners and broken the +fire engines. Flames speedily burst forth, and Bausset, the Prefect of +Napoleon's Palace, affirms that while looking forth from the Kremlin +he saw the flames burst forth in several districts in quick +succession; and that a careful examination of cellars often proved +them to be stored with combustibles, vitriol in one case being +swallowed by a French soldier who took it for brandy! If all this be +true, it proves that the Muscovites were determined to fire their +capital. But their writers have as stoutly affirmed that the fires +were caused by French and Polish plunderers.[268] Three days later, +the powers of the air and the demons of drink and frenzy raged +uncontrolled; and Napoleon himself barely escaped from the whirlwinds +of flame that enveloped the Kremlin and nearly scorched to death the +last members of his staff. For several hours the conflagration was +fanned by an equinoctial gale, and when, on the 20th, it died down, +convicts or plunderers kindled it anew. + +Yet the army did not want for shelter, and, as Sergeant Bourgogne +remarks, if every house had been gutted there were still the caves and +cellars that promised protection from the cold of winter. The real +problem was now, as ever, the food-supply. The Russians had swept the +district wellnigh bare; and though the Grand Army feasted for a +fortnight on dainties and drink, yet bread, flour, and meat were soon +very scarce. In vain did the Emperor seek to entice the inhabitants +back; they knew the habits of the invaders only too well; and despite +several distant raids, which sometimes cost the French dear, the +soldiery began to suffer. + +October wore on with delusive radiance, but brought no peace. Soon +after the great conflagration at Moscow, Napoleon sent secret and +alluring overtures to Alexander, offering to leave Russia a free hand +in regard to Turkey, inclusive of Constantinople, which he had +hitherto strictly reserved, and hinting that Polish affairs might also +be arranged to the Czar's liking.[269] But Alexander refused tamely to +accept the fruits of victory from the man who, he believed, had burnt +holy Moscow, and clung to his vow never to treat with his rival as +long as a single French soldier stood on Russian soil. His resolve +saved Europe. Yet it cost him much to defy the great conqueror to the +death: he had so far feared the capture of St. Petersburg as to +request that the Cronstadt fleet might be kept in safety in +England.[270] But gradually he came to see that the sacrifice of +Moscow had saved his empire and lured Napoleon to his doom. Kutusoff +also played a waiting game. Affecting a wish for peace, he was about +secretly to meet Napoleon's envoy, Lauriston, when the Russian +generals and our commissioner, Sir R. Wilson, intervened, and required +that it should be a public step. It seems likely, however, that +Kutusoff was only seeking to entrap the French into barren +negotiations; he knew that an answer could not come from the banks of +the Neva until winter began to steal over the northern steppes. + +Slowly the truth begins to dawn on Napoleon that Moscow is not _the +heart of Russia_, as he had asserted to De Pradt that it was. +Gradually he sees that that primitive organism had no heart, that its +almost amorphous life was widespread through myriads of village +communes, vegetating apart from Moscow or Petersburg, and that his +march to the old capital was little more than a sword-slash through a +pond.[271] Had he set himself to study with his former care the real +nature of the hostile organism, he would certainly never have ventured +beyond Smolensk in the present year. But he had now merged the thinker +in the conqueror, and--sure sign of coming disaster--his mind no +longer accurately gauged facts, it recast them in its own mould. + +By long manipulation of men and events, it had framed a dogma of +personal infallibility. This vice had of late been growing on him +apace. It was apparent even in trifles. The Countess Metternich +describes how, early in 1810, he persisted in saying that Kaunitz was +her brother, in spite of her frequent disclaimers of that honour; and, +somewhat earlier, Marmont noticed with half-amused dismay that when +the Emperor gave a wrong estimate of the numbers of a certain corps, +no correction had the slightest effect on him; his mind always +reverted to the first figure. In weightier matters this peculiarity +was equally noticeable. His clinging to preconceived notions, however +unfair or burdensome they were to Britain, Prussia, or Austria, had +been the underlying cause of his wars with those Powers. And now this +same defect, burnt into his being by the blaze of a hundred victories, +held him to Moscow for five weeks, in the belief that Russia was +stricken unto death, and that the facile Czar whom he had known at +Tilsit would once more bend the knee. An idle hope. "I have learnt to +know him now," said the Czar, "Napoleon or I; I or Napoleon; we cannot +reign side by side." Buoyed up by religious faith and by his people's +heroism, Alexander silently defied the victor of Moscow and rebuked +Kutusoff for receiving the French envoy. + +At last, on October 18th, the Russians threw away the scabbard and +surprised Murat's force some forty miles south of Moscow, inflicting a +loss of 3,000 men. But already, a day or two earlier, Napoleon had +realized the futility of his hope of peace and had resolved to +retreat. The only alternative was to winter at Moscow, and he judged +that the state of French and Spanish affairs rendered such a course +perilous. He therefore informed Maret that the Grand Army would go +into winter quarters between the Dnieper and the Dwina.[272] + +There is no hint in his letters that he anticipated a disastrous +retreat. The weather hitherto had been "as fine as that at +Fontainebleau in September," and he purposed retiring by a more +southerly route which had not been exhausted by war. Full of +confidence, then, he set out on the 19th, with 115,000 men, persuaded +that he would easily reach friendly Lithuania and his winter quarters +"before severe cold set in." The veil was rudely torn from his eyes +when, south of Malo-Jaroslavitz, his Marshals found the Russians so +strongly posted that any further attack seemed to be an act of folly. +Eugene's corps had suffered cruelly in an obstinate fight in and +around that town, and the advice of Berthier, Murat, and Bessieres was +against its renewal. For an hour or more the Emperor sat silently +gazing at a map. The only prudent course now left was to retreat north +and then west by way of Borodino, _over his devastated line of +advance_.[273] Back, then, towards Borodino the army mournfully +trudged (October 26th): + + "Everywhere (says Labaume) we saw wagons abandoned for want of + horses to draw them. Those who bore along with them the spoils of + Moscow trembled for their riches; but we were disquieted most of + all at seeing the deplorable state of our cavalry. The villages + which had but lately given us shelter were level with the ground: + under their ashes were the bodies of hundreds of soldiers and + peasants.... But most horrible was the field of Borodino, where we + saw the forty thousand men, who had perished there, yet lying + unburied." + +For a time, Kutusoff forbore to attack the sore-stricken host; but, +early in November, the Russian horse began to infest the line of +march, and at Viasma their gathering forces were barely held off: had +Kutusoff aided his lieutenants, he might have decimated his famished +foes. + +Hitherto the weather had been singularly mild and open, so much so +that the superstitious peasants looked on it as a sign that God was +favouring Napoleon. But, at last, on November the 6th, the first storm +of winter fell on the straggling array, and completed its miseries. +The icy blasts struck death to the hearts of the feeble; and the puny +fighting of man against man was now merged in the awful struggle +against the powers of the air. Drifts of snow blotted out the +landscape; the wandering columns often lost the road and thousands +forthwith ended their miseries. Except among the Old Guard all +semblance of military order was now lost, and battalions melted away +into groups of marauders. + +The search for food and fuel became furious, even when the rigour of +the cold abated. The behaviour of Bourgogne, a sergeant in the +Imperial Guard, may serve to show by what shifts a hardy masterful +nature fought its way through the wreckage of humanity around: "If I +could meet anybody in the world with a loaf, I would make him give me +half--nay, I would kill him so as to get the whole." These were his +feelings: he acted on them by foraging in the forest and seizing a pot +in which an orderly was secretly cooking potatoes for his general. +Bourgogne made off with the potatoes, devoured most of them +half-boiled, returned to his comrades and told them he had found +nothing. Taking his place near their fire, he scooped out his bed in +the snow, lay under his bearskin, and clasped his now precious +knapsack, while the others moaned with hunger. Yet, as his narrative +shows, he was not naturally a heartless man: in such a situation man +is apt to sink to the level of the wolf. The best food obtainable was +horseflesh, and hungry throngs rushed at every horse that fell, +disputing its carcass with the packs of dogs or wolves that hung about +the line of march.[274] + +Smolensk was now the thought dearest to every heart; and, buoyed with +the hope of rest and food, the army tottered westwards as it had +panted eastwards through the fierce summer heats with Moscow as its +cynosure. The hope that clung about Smolensk was but a cruel mirage. +The wreck of that city offered poor shelter; the stores were exhausted +by the vanguard; and, to the horror of Eugene's Italians, men swarmed +out of that fancied abode of plenty and pounced on every horse that +stumbled to its doom on the slippery banks of the Dnieper. With +inconceivable folly, Napoleon, or his staff, had provided no means for +roughing the horses' shoes. The Cossacks, when they knew this, +exclaimed to Wilson: "God has made Napoleon forget that there was a +winter here." + +Disasters now thickened about the Grand Army. During his halt at +Smolensk (November 9th-14th), Napoleon heard that Victor's force on +the Dwina had been worsted by the Russians, and there was ground for +fearing that the Muscovite army of the Ukraine would cut into the line +of retreat. The halt at Smolensk also gave time for Kutusoff to come +up parallel with the main force, and had he pressed on with ordinary +speed and showed a tithe of his wonted pugnacity, he might have +captured the Grand Army and its leader. As it was, his feeble attack +on the rearguard at Krasnoe only gave Ney an opportunity of showing +his dauntless courage. The "bravest of the brave" fought his way +through clouds of Cossacks, crossed the Dnieper, though with the loss +of all his guns, and rejoined the main body. Napoleon was greatly +relieved on hearing of the escape of this Launcelot of the Imperial +chivalry. He ordered cannon to be fired at suitable intervals so as to +forward the news if it were propitious; and on hearing their distant +boomings, he exclaimed to his officers: "I have more than 400,000,000 +francs in the cellars of the Tuileries, and would gladly have given +the whole for the ransom of my faithful companion in arms."[275] + +Far greater was the danger at the River Beresina. The Russian army of +the south had seized the bridge at Borisoff on which Napoleon's safety +depended, and Oudinot vainly struggled to wrest it back. The +Muscovites burnt it under his eyes. Such was the news which Napoleon +heard at Bobr on November 24th. It staggered him; for, with his usual +excess of confidence, he had destroyed his pontoons on the banks of +the Dnieper; and now there was no means of crossing a river, usually +insignificant, but swollen by floods and bridged only by half-thawed +ice. Yet French resource was far from vanquished. General Corbineau, +finding from some peasants that the river was fordable three leagues +above Borisoff, brought the news to Oudinot, who forthwith prepared to +cross there. Napoleon, coming up on the 26th, approved the plan, and +cheeringly said to his Marshal, "Well, you shall be my locksmith and +open that passage for me."[276] + +To deceive the foe, the Emperor told off a regiment or two southwards +with a long tail of camp-followers that were taken to be an army. And +this wily move, harmonizing with recent demonstrations of the +Austrians on the side of Minsk, convinced the Muscovite leader that +Napoleon was minded to clasp hands with them.[277] While the Russians +patrolled the river on the south, French sappers were working, often +neck deep in the water, to throw two light bridges across the stream +higher up. By heroic toil, which to most of them brought death, the +bridges were speedily finished, and, as the light of November 26th was +waning Oudinot's corps of 7,000 men gained a firm footing on the +homeward side. But they were observed by Russian scouts, and when on +the next day Napoleon and other corps had struggled across, the enemy +came up, captured a whole division, and on the morrow strove to hurl +the invaders into the river. Victor and the rearguard staunchly kept +them at bay; but at one point the Russian army of the Dwina +temporarily gained ground and swept the bridges and their approaches +with artillery fire. + +Then the panic-stricken throngs of wounded and stragglers, women and +camp-followers, writhed and fought their way until the frail planks +were piled high with living and dead. To add to the horrors, one +bridge gave way under the weight of the cannon. The rush for the one +remaining bridge became yet more frantic and the day closed amidst +scenes of unspeakable woe. Stout swimmers threw themselves into the +stream, only to fall victims to the ice floes and the numbing cold. At +dawn of the 29th, the French rearguard fired the bridge to cover the +retreat. Then a last, loud wail of horror arose from the farther bank, +and despair or a loathing of life drove many to end their miseries in +the river or in the flames. + +Such was the crossing of the Beresina. The ghastly tale was told once +more with renewed horrors when the floods of winter abated and laid +bare some 12,000 corpses along the course of that fatal stream. It +would seem that if Napoleon, or his staff, had hurried on the +camp-followers to cross on the night of the 27th to the 28th, those +awful scenes would not have happened, for on that night the bridges +_were not used at all_. Grosser carelessness than this cannot be +conceived; and yet, even after this shocking blunder, the devotion of +the soldiers to their chief found touching expression. When he was +suffering from cold in the wretched bivouac west of the river, +officers went round calling for dry wood for his fire; and shivering +men were seen to offer precious sticks, with the words, "Take it for +the Emperor."[278] + +On that day Napoleon wrote to Maret that possibly he would leave the +army and hurry on to Paris. His presence there was certainly needed, +if his crown was to be saved. On November 6th, the day of the first +snowstorm, he heard of the Quixotic attempt of a French republican, +General Malet, to overthrow the Government at Paris. With a handful of +followers, but armed with a false report of Napoleon's capture in +Russia, this man had apprehended several officials, until the scheme +collapsed of sheer inanity.[279] "How now, if we were at Moscow," +exclaimed the Emperor, on hearing this curious news; and he saw with +chagrin that some of his generals merely shrugged their shoulders. +After crossing the Beresina, he might hope that the worst was over and +that the stores at Vilna and Kovno would suffice for the remnant of +his army. The cold for a time had been less rigorous. The behaviour of +Prussia and Austria was, in truth, more important than the conduct of +the retreat. Unless those Powers were kept to their troth, not a +Frenchman would cross the Elbe. + +At Smorgoni, then, on December the 5th, he informed his Marshals that +he left them in order to raise 300,000 men; and, intrusting the +command to Murat, he hurried away. His great care was to prevent the +extent of the disaster being speedily known. "Remove all strangers +from Vilna," he wrote to Maret: "the army is not fine to look upon +just now." The precaution was much needed. Frost set in once more, and +now with unending grip. Vilna offered a poor haven of refuge. The +stores were soon plundered, and, as the Cossacks drew near, Murat and +the remnant of the Grand Army decamped in pitiable panic. Amidst ever +deepening misery they struggled on, until, of the 600,000 men who had +proudly crossed the Niemen for the conquest of Russia, only 20,000 +famished, frost-bitten, unarmed spectres staggered across the bridge +of Kovno in the middle of December. The auxiliary corps furnished by +Austria and Prussia fell back almost unscathed. But the remainder of +that mighty host rotted away in Russian prisons or lay at rest under +Nature's winding-sheet of snow.[280] + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII + +THE FIRST SAXON CAMPAIGN + + +Despite the loss of the most splendid army ever marshalled by man, +Napoleon abated no whit of his resolve to dominate Germany and dictate +terms to Russia. At Warsaw, in his retreat, he informed De Pradt that +there was but one step from the sublime _to the ridiculous_, that is, +from the advance on Moscow to the retreat. At Dresden he called on his +allies, Austria and Prussia, to repel the Russians; and at Paris he +strained every nerve to call the youth of the Empire to arms. The +summons met with a ready response: he had but to stamp his foot when +the news from East Prussia looked ominous, and an array of 350,000 +conscripts was promised by the Senate (January 10th). + +In truth, his genius had enthralled the mind of France. The +magnificence of his aims, his hitherto triumphant energy, and the +glamour of his European supremacy had called forth all the faculties +of the French and Italian peoples, and set them pulsating with +ecstatic activity. He knew by instinct all the intricacies of their +being, which his genius controlled with the easy decisiveness of a +master-key. The rude shock of the Russian disaster served but to +emphasize the thoroughness of his domination, and the dumb +trustfulness of his forty-three millions of subjects. + +And yet their patience might well have been exhausted. His military +needs had long ago drawn in levies the year before they were legally +liable; but the mighty swirl of the Moscow campaign now sucked 150,000 +lads of under twenty years of age into the devouring vortex. In the +Dutch and German provinces of his Empire the number of those who +evaded the clutches of the conscription was very large. In fact, the +number of "refractory conscripts" in the whole realm amounted to +40,000. Large bands of them ranged the woods of Brittany and La +Vendee, until mobile columns were sent to sweep them into the +barracks. + +But in nearly the whole of France (Proper), Napoleon's name was still +an unfailing talisman, appealing as it did to the two strongest +instincts of the Celt, the clinging to the soil and the passion for +heroic enterprise. Thus it came about that the peasantry gave up their +sons to be "food for cannon" with the same docility that was shown by +soldiers who sank death-stricken into a snowy bed with no word of +reproach to the author of their miseries. A like obsequiousness was +shown by the officials and legislators of France, who meekly listened +to the Emperor's reproaches for their weakness in the Malet affair, +and heard with mild surprise his denunciation against republican +idealogy--_the cloudy metaphysics to which all the misfortunes of our +fair France may be attributed_. No tongue dared to utter the retort +which must have fermented in every brain.[281] + +But his explanations and appeals did not satisfy every Frenchman. Many +were appalled at the frightful drain on the nation's strength. They +asked in private how the deficit of 1812 and the further expenses of +1813 were to be met, even if he allotted the communal domains to the +service of the State. They pointed to allies ruined or lost; to Spain, +where Joseph's throne still tottered from the shock of Salamanca; to +Poland, lying mangled at the feet of the Muscovites; to Italy, +desolated by the loss of her bravest sons; to the Confederation of the +Rhine, equally afflicted and less resigned; to Austria and Prussia, +where timid sovereigns and calculating Courts alone kept the peoples +true to the hated French alliance. Only by a change of system, they +averred, could the hatred of Europe be appeased, and the formation of +a new and vaster Coalition avoided. Let Napoleon cease to force his +methods of commercial warfare on the Continent: let him make peace on +honourable terms with Russia, where the chief Minister, Romantzoff, +was ready to meet him halfway: let him withdraw his garrisons from +Prussian fortresses, soothe the susceptibilities of Austria--and +events would tend to a solid and honourable peace. + +To all promptings of prudence Napoleon was deaf. His instincts and his +experience of the Kings prevented him yielding on any important point. +He determined to carry on the war from the Tagus to the Vistula, to +bolster up Joseph in Spain, to keep his garrisons fast rooted in every +fortress as far east as Danzig. Russia and Prussia, he said, had more +need of peace than France. If he began by giving up towns, they would +demand kingdoms, whereas by yielding nothing he would intimidate them. +And if they did form a league, their forces would be thinly spread out +over an immense space; he would easily dispose of their armies when +they were not aided by the climate; and a single victory would undo +the clumsy knot (_ce noeud mal assorti_).[282] + +In truth, if he left Spain out of his count, the survey of the +military position was in many ways reassuring. England's power was +enfeebled by the declaration of war by the United States. In Central +Europe his position was still commanding. He held nearly all the +fortresses of Prussia, and though he had lost a great army, that loss +was spread out very largely over Poles, Germans, Italians, and smaller +peoples. Many of the best French troops and all his ablest generals +had survived. His Guard could therefore be formed again, and the +brains of his army were also intact. The war had brought to light no +military genius among the Russians; and all his past experience of the +"old coalition machines" warranted the belief that their rusty +cogwheels, even if oiled by English subsidies, would clank slowly +along and break down at the first exceptional strain. Such had been +the case at Marengo, at Austerlitz, at Friedland. Why should not +history repeat itself? + +While he was guiding his steps solely by the light of past experience, +events were occurring that heralded the dawn of a new era for Central +Europe. On the 30th of December, the Prussian General Yorck, who led +the Prussian corps serving previously under Macdonald in Courland, +concluded the Convention of Tauroggen with the Russians, stipulating +that this corps should hold the district around Memel and Tilsit as +neutral territory, until Frederick William's decision should be known. +Strictly considered, this convention was a grave breach of +international law and an act of treachery towards Napoleon. The King +at first viewed it in that light; but to all his subjects it seemed a +noble and patriotic action. To continue the war with Russia for the +benefit of Napoleon would have been an act of political suicide. + +Yet, for some weeks, Frederick William waited on events; and these +events decided for war, not against Russia, but against France. The +Prussian Chancellor, Hardenberg, did his best to hoodwink the French +at Berlin, and quietly to play into the hands of the ardent German +patriots. After publishing an official rebuke to Yorck, he secretly +sent Major Thile to reassure him. He did more: in order to rescue the +King from French influence, still paramount at Berlin, he persuaded +him to set out for Breslau, on the pretext of raising there another +contingent for service under Napoleon. The ruse completely succeeded: +it deceived the French ambassador, St. Marsan: it fooled even Napoleon +himself. With his now invariable habit of taking for granted that +events would march according to his word of command, the Emperor +assumed that this was for the raising of the corps of 30,000 men which +he had requested Frederick William to provide, and said to Prince +Hatzfeld (January 29th): "Your King is going to Breslau: I think it a +timely step." Such was Napoleon's frame of mind, even after he heard +of Yorck's convention with the Russians. That event he considered "the +worst occurrence that could happen." Yet neither that nor the +patriotic ferment in Prussia reft the veil from his eyes. He still +believed that the Prussians would follow their King, and that the King +would obey him. On February the 3rd he wrote to Maret, complaining +that 2,000 Prussian horsemen were shutting themselves up in Silesian +towns, "as if they were afraid of us, instead of helping us and +covering their country." + +Once away from Berlin, Frederick William found himself launched on a +resistless stream of national enthusiasm. At heart he was no less a +patriot than the most ardent of the university students; but he knew +far better than they the awful risks of war with the French Empire. +His little kingdom of 4,700,000 souls, with but half-a-dozen +strongholds it could call its own, a realm ravaged by Napoleon's +troops alike in war and peace until commerce and credit were but a dim +memory--such a land could ill afford to defy an empire ten times as +populous and more than ten times as powerful. True, the Russians were +pouring in under the guise of friendship; but the bitter memories of +Tilsit forbade any implicit trust in Alexander. And, if the dross had +been burnt out of his nature by a year of fiery trial, could his army, +exhausted by that frightful winter campaign and decimated by the +diseases which Napoleon's ghastly array scattered broadcast in its +flight, ever hope, even with the help of Prussia's young levies, to +cope with the united forces of Napoleon and Austria? + +For at present it seemed that the Court of Vienna would hold fast to +the French alliance. There Metternich was all-powerful, and the +keystone of his system was a guarded but profit-seeking subservience +to Napoleon. Not that the Emperor Francis and he loved the French +potentate; but they looked on him now as a pillar of order, as a +barrier against Jacobinism in France, against the ominous +pan-Germanism preached by Prussian enthusiasts, and against Muscovite +aggandizement in Turkey and Poland. Great was their concern, first at +the Russo-Turkish peace which installed the Muscovites at the northern +mouth of the Danube, and still more at the conquering swoops of the +Russian eagle on Warsaw and Posen. How could they now hope to gain +from Turkey the set-off to the loss of Tyrol and Illyria on which they +had recently been counting, and how save any of the Polish lands from +the grip of Russia? For the present Russia was more to be feared than +Napoleon. Her influence seemed the more threatening to the policy of +balance on which the fortunes of the Hapsburgs were delicately poised. + +Only by degrees were these fears and jealousies laid to rest. It +needed all the address of a British envoy, Lord Walpole, who repaired +secretly to Vienna and held out the promise of tempting gains, to +assuage these alarms, and turn Austria's gaze once more on her lost +provinces, Tyrol, Illyria, and Venetia. For the present, however, +nothing came of these overtures; and when the French discovered +Walpole's presence at Vienna, Metternich begged him to leave.[283] + +For the present, then, Austria assumed a neutral attitude. A truce was +concluded with Russia, and a special envoy was sent to Paris to +explain the desire of the Emperor Francis to act as mediator, with a +view to the conclusion of a general peace. The latest researches into +Austrian policy show that the Kaiser desired an honourable peace for +all parties concerned, and that Metternich may have shared his views. +But, early in the negotiations, Napoleon showed flashes of distrust as +to the sincerity of his father-in-law, and Austria gradually changed +her attitude. The change was to be fatal to Napoleon. But the question +whether it was brought about by Napoleon's obstinacy, or Metternich's +perfidy, or the force of circumstances, must be postponed for the +present, while we consider events of equal importance and of greater +interest. + +While Austria balanced and Frederick William negotiated, the sterner +minds of North Germany rushed in on the once sacred ground of +diplomacy and statecraft. The struggle against Napoleon was prepared +for by the exile Stein, and war was first proclaimed by a professor. + +Among the many influences that urged on the Czar to a war for the +liberation of Prussia and Europe, not the least was that wielded at +his Court in the latter half of 1812 by the staunch German patriot, +Stein. His heroic spirit never quailed, even in the darkest hour of +Prussia's humiliation; and he now pointed out convincingly that the +only sure means of overthrowing Napoleon was to raise Germany against +him. To remain on a tame defensive at Warsaw would be to court another +French invasion in 1813. The safety of Russia called for a pursuit of +the French beyond the Elbe and a rally of the Germans against the man +they detested. The appeal struck home. It revived Alexander's longings +for the liberation of Europe, which he had buried at Tilsit; and it +agreed with the promptings of an ambitious statecraft. Only by +overthrowing Napoleon's supremacy in Germany could the Czar gain a +free hand for a lasting settlement of the Polish Question. The eastern +turn given to his policy in 1807 was at an end--but not before Russia +had taken another step towards the Bosphorus. With one leg planted at +the mouth of the Danube, the Colossus now prepared to stride over +Central Europe. The aims of Catherine II. in 1792 were at last to be +realized. While Europe was wrestling with Revolutionary France, the +Muscovite grasp was to tighten on Poland. It is not surprising that +Alexander, on January 13th, commented on the "brilliance of the +present situation," or that he decided to press onward. He gave little +heed to the Gallophil counsels of Romantzoff or the dolorous warnings +of the German-hating Kutusoff; and, on January 18th, he empowered +Stein provisionally to administer in his name the districts of Prussia +(Proper) when occupied by Russian troops. + +So irregular a proceeding could only be excused by dire necessity and +by success. It was more than excused; it was triumphantly justified. +Four days later Stein arrived at Koenigsberg, in company with the +patriotic poet, Arndt. The Estates, or Provincial Assemblies, of East +and West Prussia were summoned, and they heartily voted supplies for +forming a Landwehr or militia, as well as a last line of defence +called the Landsturm. This step, unique in the history of Prussia, was +taken apart from, almost in defiance of, the royal sanction: it was, +in fact, due to the masterful will of Stein, who saw that a great +popular impulse, and it alone, could overcome the inertia of King and +officials. That impulse he himself originated, and by virtue of powers +conferred on him by the Emperor Alexander. And the ball thus set +rolling at Koenigsberg was to gather mass and momentum until, thanks to +the powerful aid of Wellington in the South, it overthrew Napoleon at +Paris. + +The action of the exile was furthered by the word of a thinker and +seer. A worthy professor at the University of Breslau, named Steffens, +had long been meditating on some means of helping his country. The +arrival of Frederick William had kindled a flame of devotion which +perplexed that modest and rather pedantic ruler. But he so far +responded to it as to allow Hardenberg to issue (February 3rd) an +appeal for volunteers to "reinforce the ranks of the old defenders of +the country." The appeal was entirely vague: it did not specify +whether they would serve against the nominal enemy, Russia, or the +real enemy, Napoleon. Pondering this weighty question, as did all good +patriots, Steffens heard, in the watches of the night, the voice of +conscience declare: "Thou must declare war against Napoleon." At his +early morning lecture on Physics, which was very thinly attended, he +told the students that he would address them at eleven on the call for +volunteers. That lecture was thronged; and to the sea of eager faces +Steffens spoke forth the thought that simmered in every brain, the +burning desire for _war with Napoleon_. He offered himself as a +recruit: 200 students from Breslau and 258 from the University of +Berlin soon flocked to the colours, and that, too, chiefly from the +classes which of yore had detested the army. Thanks to the teachings +of Fichte and the still deeper lessons of adversity, the mind of +Germany was now ranged on the side of national independence and +against an omnivorous imperialism. + +Where the mind led the body followed, yet still somewhat haltingly. In +truth, the King and his officials were in a difficult position. They +distrusted the Russians, who seemed chiefly eager to force Frederick +William into war with France and to arrange the question of a frontier +afterwards. But the eastern frontier was a question of life and death +for Prussia. If Alexander kept the whole of the great Duchy of Warsaw, +the Hohenzollern States would be threatened from the east as +grievously as ever they were on the west by the French at Magdeburg. +And the Czar seemed resolved to keep the whole of Poland. He told the +Prussian envoy, Knesebeck, that, while handing over to Frederick +William the whole of Saxony, Russia must retain all the Polish lands, +a resolve which would have planted the Russian standards almost on the +banks of the Oder. Nay, more: Knesebeck detected among the Russian +officials a strong, though as yet but half expressed, longing for the +whole of Prussia east of the lower Vistula. + +For his part, Frederick William cherished lofty hopes. He knew that +the Russian troops had suffered horribly from privations and disease, +that as yet they mustered only 40,000 effectives on the Polish +borders, and that they urgently needed the help of Prussia. He +therefore claimed that, if he joined Russia in a war against Napoleon, +he must recover the whole of what had been Prussian Poland, with the +exception of the district of Bialystock ceded at Tilsit.[284] It +seemed, then, that the Polish Question would once more exert on the +European concert that dissolving influence which had weakened the +Central Powers ever since the days of Valmy. Had Napoleon now sent to +Breslau a subtle schemer like Savary, the apple of discord might have +been thrown in with fatal results. But the fortunes of his Empire then +rested on a Piedmontese nobleman, St. Marsan, who showed a singular +credulity as to Prussia's subservience. He accepted all Hardenberg's +explanations (including a thin official reproof to Steffens), and did +little or nothing to countermine the diplomatic approaches of Russia. +The ground being thus left clear, it was possible for the Czar to +speak straight to the heart of Frederick William. This he now did. +Knesebeck was set aside; and Alexander, meeting the Prussian demands +halfway, promised in a treaty, signed at Kalisch on February 27th, to +leave Prussia all her present territories, and to secure for her the +equivalent, in a "statistical, financial, and geographical sense," of +the lands which she had lost since 1806, along with a territory +adapted to connect Prussia Proper with the province of Silesia.[285] + +It seems certain that Stein's influence weighed much with Alexander in +this final compromise, which postponed the irritating question of the +eastern frontier and bent all the energies of two great States to the +War of Liberation. Stein was sent to Frederick William at Breslau; but +the King hardly deigned to see him, and the greatest of German +patriots was suffered to remain in a garret of that city during a +wearisome attack of fever. But he lived through disease and official +neglect as he triumphed over Slavonic intrigues; and he had at hand +that salve of many an able man--the knowledge that, even while he +himself was slighted, his plans were adopted with beneficent and +far-reaching results. + +The Russo-Prussian alliance was firmly upheld by Lord Cathcart, the +British ambassador to Russia, who reached headquarters on March the +2nd. For the present, Great Britain did not definitely join the +allies; but the discussions on the Hanoverian Question, which had +previously sundered us from Prussia, soon proved that wisdom had been +learnt in the school of adversity. The Hohenzollerns now renounced all +claims to Hanover, though they showed some repugnance to our +Prince-Regent's demand that the Electorate should receive some +territorial gain. + +Thus the two questions on which Napoleon had counted as certain to +clog the wheels of the Coalition, as they had done in the past, were +removed, and the way was cleared for a compact firmer than any which +Europe had hitherto known. On March 17th a Russo-Prussian Convention +was concluded at Breslau whereby those Powers agreed to deliver +Germany from France, to dissolve the Confederation of the Rhine, and +to summon the German princes and people to help them; every prince +that refused would suffer the loss of his States; and arrangements +were made for the provisional administration of the lands which the +allies should occupy. Frederick William also appealed to his people +and to his army, and instituted that coveted order of merit, the Iron +Cross. + +But there was small need of appeals and decorations. The people rushed +to arms with an ardour that rivalled the _levee en masse_ of France in +1793. Nobles and students, professors and peasants, poets and +merchants, shouldered their muskets. Housewives and maidens brought +their scanty savings or their treasured trinkets as offerings for the +altar of the Fatherland. One incident deserves special notice. A girl, +Nanny by name, whose ringlets were her only wealth, shore them off, +sold them, and brought the price of them, two thalers, for the sacred +cause. A noble impulse thrilled through Germany. Volunteers came from +far, many of whom were to ride with Luetzow's irregular horse in his +wild ventures. Most noteworthy of these was the gifted young poet, +Korner, a Saxon by birth, who now forsook a life of ease, radiant with +poetic promise, at the careless city of Vienna, to follow the Prussian +eagle. "A great time calls for great hearts," he wrote to his father: +"am I to write vaudevilles when I feel within me the courage and +strength for joining the actors on the stage of real life?" Alas! for +him the end was to be swift and tragic. Not long after inditing an ode +to his sword, he fell in a skirmish near Hamburg. + +Germany mourned his loss; but she mourned still more that her greatest +poet, Goethe, felt no throb of national enthusiasm. The great Olympian +was too much wrapped up in his lofty speculations to spare much +sympathy for struggling mortals below: "Shake your chains, if you +will: the man (Napoleon) is too strong for you: you will not break +them." Such was his unprophetic utterance at Dresden to the elder +Korner. Men who touched the people's pulse had no such doubts. "Ah! +those were noble times," wrote Arndt: "the fresh young hope of life +and honour sang in all hearts; it echoed along every street; it rolled +majestically down every chancel." The sight of Germans thronging from +all parts into Silesia to fight for their Prussian champions awakened +in him the vision of a United Germany, which took form in the song, +"What is the German's Fatherland?"[286] + +Against this ever-rising tide of national enthusiasm Napoleon pitted +the resources which Gallic devotion still yielded up to his demands. +They were surprisingly great. In less than half a year, after the loss +of half a million of men, a new army nearly as numerous was marshalled +under the imperial eagles. Thirty thousand tried troops were brought +from Spain, thereby greatly relieving the pressure on Wellington. +Italy and the garrison towns of the Empire sent forth a vast number. +But the majority were young, untrained troops; and it was remarked +that the conscripts born in the years of the Terror, 1793-4, had not +the stamina of the earlier levies. Brave they were, superbly brave; +and the Emperor sought by every means to breathe into them his own +indomitable spirit. One of them has described how, on handing them +their colours, he made a brief speech; and, at the close, rising in +his stirrups and stretching forth his hand, he shot at them the +question: "'You swear to guard them?' I felt, as we all felt, that he +snatched from our very navel the cry, 'Yes, we swear.'" Truly, the +Emperor could make boys heroes, but he could never repair the losses +of 1812. Guns he possessed to the number of a thousand in his +arsenals; but he lacked the thousands of skilled artillerymen: youths +he could find and horses he could buy: but not for many a month had he +the resistless streams of horsemen that poured over Prussia after +Jena, or swept into the Great Redoubt at Borodino. Nevertheless, the +energy which embattled a new host within five months of a seemingly +overwhelming disaster, must be considered the most extraordinary event +of an age fertile in marvels. "The imagination sinks back confounded," +says Pasquier, "when one thinks of all the work to be done and the +resources of all kinds to be found, in order to raise, clothe, and +equip such an army in so short a time." + +While immersed in this prodigious task, the Emperor heard, with some +surprise but with no dismay, the news of Prussia's armaments and +disaffection. At first he treats it as a passing freak which will +vanish with firm treatment. "Remain at Berlin as long as you can," he +writes to Eugene, March 5th. "Make examples for the sake of +discipline. At the least insult, whether from a village or a town, +were it from Berlin itself, burn it down." The chief thing that still +concerns him is the vagueness of Eugene's reports, which leave him no +option but to get news about his troops in Germany from _the English +newspapers_. "Do not forget," he writes again on March 14th, "that +Prussia has only four millions of people. She never in her most +prosperous times had more than 150,000 troops. She will not have more +than 40,000 now." That, indeed, was the number to which he had limited +her after Tilsit; and he was unable to conceive that Scharnhorst's +plan of passing men into a reserve would send triple that force into +the field.[287] As for the Russians, he writes, they are thinned by +disease, and must spread out widely in order to besiege the many +fortresses between the Vistula and the Elbe. Indeed, he assures his +ally, the King of Bavaria, that it will be good policy to let them +advance: "The farther they advance, the more certain is their ruin." +Sixty thousand troops were being led by Bertrand from Italy into +Bavaria.[288] These, along with the corps of Eugene and Davoust, would +crush the Russian columns. And, while the allies were busy in Saxony, +Napoleon proposed to mass a great force under the shelter of the Harz +Mountains, cross the Elbe near Havelberg, make a rush for the relief +of Stettin, and stretch a hand to the large French force beleaguered +at Danzig. + +Such was his first plan. It was upset by the rapidity of the Cossacks +and the general uprising of Prussia. Augereau's corps was driven from +Berlin by a force of Cossacks led by Tettenborn; and this daring free +lance, a native of Hamburg, thereupon made a dash for the liberation +of his city. For the time he was completely successful: the fury of +the citizens against the French _douaniers_ gave the Cossacks and +patriots an easy triumph there and throughout Hanover. This news +caused Napoleon grave concern. The loss of the great Hanse Town opened +a wide door for English goods, English money, and English troops into +Germany. It must be closed at all costs: and, with severe rebukes to +Eugene and Lauriston, who were now holding the line of the middle +Elbe, he charged Davoust (March 18th) to hold the long winding course +of that river between Magdeburg and Hamburg. The advance of this +determined leader was soon to change the face of affairs in North +Germany. + +Shortly before Napoleon left Paris for the seat of war, he received +the new Austrian ambassador, Prince Schwarzenberg (April 9th). With a +jocular courtesy that veiled the deepest irony, he complimented him on +having waged _a fine campaign in_ 1812. Austria's present requests +were not reassuring. While professing the utmost regard for the +welfare of Napoleon, she renewed her offer of mediation in a more +pressing way. In fact, Metternich's aim now was to free Austria from +the threatening pressure of Napoleon on the west and of Russia on the +east. She must now assure to Europe a lasting peace--"not a mere truce +in disguise, like all former treaties with Napoleon"--but a peace that +would restrict the power of France and "establish a balance of power +among the chief States."[289] Such was the secret aim of Austria's +mediation. Obviously, it gave her many advantages. While posing as +mediator, she could claim her share in the territorial redistribution +which must accompany the peace. The blessing awarded to the peacemaker +must be tangible and immediate. + +Napoleon's reply to the ambassador was carefully guarded. War was not +to his interest. It would cost more blood than the Moscow campaign. +The great hindrance to any settlement would be England. Russia also +seemed disposed to a fight _a outrance_; but if the Czar wanted peace, +it was for him, not for France, to take the initiative: "I cannot take +the initiative: that would be like capitulating as if I were in a +fort: it is for the others to send me their proposals." And he +expressed his resolve to accept no disadvantageous terms in these +notable words: "If I concluded a dishonourable peace, it would be my +overthrow. I am a new man; I must pay the more heed to public opinion, +because I stand in need of it. The French have lively imaginations: +they love fame and excitement, and are nervous. Do you know the prime +cause of the fall of the Bourbons? It dates from Rossbach." Benevolent +assurances as to Napoleon's desire for peace and for the assembly of a +Congress were all that Schwarzenberg could gain; and his mission was +barren of result, except to increase suspicions on both sides. + +In fact, Napoleon was playing his cards at Vienna. He had sent Count +Narbonne thither on a special mission, the purport of which stands +revealed in the envoy's "verbal note" of April 7th. In that note +Austria was pressed to help France with 100,000 men, against Russia +and Prussia, in case they should open hostilities; her reward was to +be the rich province of Silesia. As for the rest of Prussia, two +millions of that people were to be assigned to Saxony, Frederick +William being thrust to the east of the lower Vistula, and left with +one million subjects.[290] Such was the glittering prize dangled +before Metternich. But even the prospect of regaining the province +torn away by the great Frederick moved him not. He judged the +establishment of equilibrium in Europe to be preferable to a mean +triumph over Prussia. To her and to the Czar he had secretly held out +hopes of succour in case Napoleon should prove intractable: and to +this course of action he still clung. True, he trampled on _la petite +morale_ in neglecting to aid his nominal ally, Napoleon. But to +abandon him, if he remained obdurate, was, after all, but an act of +treachery to an individual who had slight claims on Austria, and whose +present offer was alike immoral and insulting. Four days later +Metternich notified to Russia and Prussia that the Emperor Francis +would now proceed with his task of armed mediation.[291] + +Austria's overtures for a general peace met with no encouragement at +London. Her envoy, Count Wessenberg, was now treated with the same +cold reserve that had been accorded to Lord Walpole at Vienna early in +the year. On April 9th Castlereagh informed him that all hope of peace +had failed since the "Ruler of France" had declared to the Legislative +Body that _the French Dynasty reigned and would continue to reign in +Spain, and that he had already stated all the sacrifices that he could +consent to make for peace_. + + "Whilst he [Napoleon] shall continue to declare that none of the + territories arbitrarily incorporated into the French Empire shall + become matter of negotiation, it is in vain to hope that His + Imperial Majesty's beneficent intentions can by negotiation be + accomplished. It is for His Imperial Majesty to consider, after a + declaration in the nature of a defiance from the Ruler of France, + a declaration highly insulting to His Imperial Majesty when his + intervention for peace had been previously accepted, whether the + moment is not arrived for all the Great Powers of Europe to act in + concert for their common interests and honour. To obtain for their + States what may deserve the name of peace they must look again to + establish an Equilibrium in Europe." + +Finally, the British Government refused to lend itself to a +negotiation which must weaken and distract the efforts of Russia and +Prussia.[292] + +For the present Napoleon indulged the hope that the bribe of Silesia +would range Austria's legions side by side with his own, and with +Poniatowski's Poles. Animated with this hope, he left Paris before the +dawn of April 15th; and, travelling at furious speed, his carriage +rolled within the portals of Mainz in less than forty hours. There he +stayed for a week, feeling every throb of the chief arteries of his +advance. They beat full and fast; the only bad symptom was the refusal +of Saxony to place her cavalry at his disposal. But, at the close of +the week, Austria's attitude gave him concern. It was clear that she +had not swallowed the bait of Silesia, and that her troops could not +be counted on. + +At once he takes precautions. His troops in Italy are to be made +ready, the strongholds of the Upper Danube strengthened, and his +German vassals are closely to watch the policy of Vienna.[293] He then +proceeds to Weimar. There, on April 29th, he mounts his war-horse and +gazes with searching eyes into the columns that are winding through +the Thuringian vales towards Leipzig. The auguries seem favourable. +The men are full of ardour: the line of march is itself an +inspiration; and the veterans cheer the young conscripts with tales of +the great day of Jena and Auerstaedt. + +At the close of April the military situation was as follows. Eugene +Beauharnais, who commanded the relics of the Grand Army, after +suffering a reverse at Mockern, had retired to the line of the Elbe; +and French garrisons were thus left isolated in Danzig, Modlin, +Zamosc, Glogau, Kuestrin, and Stettin.[294] Napoleon's first plan of an +advance direct to Stettin and Danzig having miscarried, he now sought +to gather an immense force as secretly as possible near the Main, +speedily to reinforce Eugene, crush the heads of the enemy's columns, +and, rolling them up in disorder, carry the war to the banks of the +Oder, and relieve his beleaguered garrisons by way of Leipzig and +Torgau. The plan would have the further advantage of bringing a +formidable force near to the Austrian frontier, and holding fast the +Hapsburgs and Saxons to the French alliance. + +Meanwhile the allied army was pressing westwards with no less +determination. The Czar and King had addressed a menacing summons to +the King of Saxony to join them, but, receiving no response, invaded +his States. Thereupon Frederick Augustus fled into Bohemia, relying on +an offer from Vienna which guaranteed him his German lands if he would +join the Hapsburgs in their armed mediation.[295] For the present, +however, Saxony was to be the battlefield of the two contending +principles of nationality and Napoleonic Imperialism. + +They clashed together on the historic ground of Luetzen. Not only the +associations of the place, but the reputation of the leaders helped to +kindle the enthusiasm of the rank and file. On the one side was the +great conqueror himself, with faculties and prestige undimmed even by +the greatest disaster recorded in the annals of civilized nations. He +was opposed by men no less determined than himself. The illness and +finally the death of the obstinate old Kutusoff had stopped the +intrigues of the Slav peace party, hitherto strong in the Russian +camp: and the command now devolved on Wittgenstein, a more energetic +man, whose heart was in his work. + +But the most inspiring influence was that of Bluecher. The staunch +patriot seemed to embody the best qualities of the old _regime_ and of +the new era. The rigour learnt in the school of Frederick the Great +was vivified by the fresh young enthusiasm of the dawning age of +nationality. Not that the old soldier could appreciate the lofty +teachings of Fichte the philosopher and Schleiermacher the preacher. +But his lack of learning--he could never write a despatch without +strange torturings of his mother-tongue--was more than made up by a +quenchless love of the Fatherland, by a robust common sense, which hit +straight at the mark where subtler minds strayed off into side issues, +by a comradeship that endeared him to every private, and by a courage +that never quailed. And all these gifts, homely but invaluable in a +people's war, were wrought to utmost tension by an all-absorbing +passion, hatred of Napoleon. In the dark days after Jena, when, +pressed back to the Baltic, his brave followers succumbed to the +weight of numbers, he began to store up vials of fury against the +insolent conqueror. Often he beguiled the weary hours with lunging at +an imaginary foe, calling out--_Napoleon_. And this almost Satanic +hatred bore the old man through seven years of humiliation; it gave +him at seventy-two years of age the energy of youth; far from being +sated by triumphs in Saxony and Champagne, it nerved him with new +strength after the shocks to mind and body which he sustained at +Ligny; it carried him and his army through the miry lanes of Wavre on +to the sunset radiance of Waterloo. + +What he lacked in skill and science was made up by his able +coadjutors, Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, the former pre-eminent in +organization, the latter in strategy. After organizing Prussia's +citizen army, it was Scharnhorst's fate to be mortally wounded in the +first battle; but his place, as chief of staff, was soon filled by +Gneisenau, in whose nature the sternness of the warrior was happily +blended with the coolness of the scientific thinker. The accord +between him and Bluecher was close and cordial; and the latter, on +receiving the degree of doctor of laws from the University of Oxford, +wittily acknowledged his debt to the strategist. "Well," said he, "if +I am to be a doctor, they must make Gneisenau an apothecary; for he +makes up the pills and I then administer them." + +On these resolute chiefs and their 33,000 Prussians fell the brunt of +the fighting near Luetzen. Wittgenstein, with his 35,000 Russians, +showed less energy; but if a fourth Russian corps under Miloradovitch, +then on the Elster, had arrived in time, the day might have closed +with victory for the allies. Their plan was to cross a stream, called +the Floss Graben, some five miles to the south of Luetzen, storm the +villages of Gross Goerschen, Rahna, and Starsiedel, held by the French +vanguard, and, cutting into Napoleon's line of march towards Luetzen +and Leipzig, throw it into disorder and rout. But their great enemy +had recently joined his array to that of Eugene: he was in force, and +was then planning a turning movement on the north, similar to that +which threatened his south flank. Ney, on whom fell Bluecher's first +blows, had observed the preparations, and one of his divisions, that +of Souham, had strengthened the village of Gross Goerschen for an +obstinate defence. The French position is thus described by Lord +Cathcart, who was then present at the allied headquarters: + + "The country is uncovered and open, but with much variety of hill + and valley, and much intersected by hollow ways and millstreams, + the former not discernible till closely approached. The enemy, + placed behind a long ridge and in a string of villages, with a + hollow way in front, and a stream sufficient to float timber on + the left, waited the near approach of the allies. He had an + immense quantity of ordnance: the batteries in the open country + were supported by masses of infantry in solid squares. The plan of + our operations was to attack Gross Goerschen with artillery and + infantry, and meanwhile to pierce the line, to the enemy's right + of the villages, with a strong column of cavalry in order to cut + off the troops in the villages from support.... The cavalry of the + Prussian Reserve, to whose lot this attack fell, made it with + great gallantry; but the showers of grapeshot and musketry to + which they were exposed in reaching the hollow way made it + impracticable for them to penetrate; and, the enemy appearing + determined to hold the villages at any expense, the affair assumed + the most expensive character of attack and defence of a post + repeatedly taken, lost, and retaken. The cavalry made several + attempts to break the enemy's line, and in some of their attacks + succeeded in breaking into the squares and cutting down the + infantry. Late in the evening, Bonaparte, having called in the + troops from [the side of] Leipzig and collected all his reserves, + made an attack on the right of the allies, supported by the fire + of several batteries advancing. The vivacity of this movement made + it expedient to change the front of our nearest brigades on our + right; and, as the whole cavalry from our left was ordered to the + right to turn this attack, I was not without hopes of witnessing + the destruction of Bonaparte and of all his army; but before the + cavalry could arrive, it became so dark that nothing could be seen + but the flashes of the guns."[296] + +The desperate fight thus closed with a slight advantage to the French, +due to the timely advance of Eugene with Macdonald's corps against the +right flank of the wearied allies, when it was too late for them to +make any counter-move. These had lost severely, and among the fallen +was Scharnhorst, whose wound proved to be mortal. But Bluecher, far +from being daunted by defeat or by a wound, led seven squadrons of +horse against the victors after nightfall, threw them for a brief +space into a panic, and nearly charged up to the square which +sheltered Napoleon. The Saxon Captain von Odeleben, who was at the +French headquarters, states that the Emperor was for a few minutes +quite dazed by the daring of this stroke; and he now had too few +squadrons to venture on any retaliation. Both sides were, in fact, +exhausted. The allies had lost 10,000 men killed and wounded, but no +prisoners or guns: the French losses were nearly as heavy, and five +guns and 800 prisoners fell into Bluecher's hands. Both armies camped +on the field of battle; but, as the supplies of ammunition of the +allies had run low, and news came to hand that Lauriston had dislodged +Kleist from Leipzig, it was decided to retreat towards Dresden. + +Napoleon cautiously followed them, leaving behind Ney's corps, which +had suffered frightfully at Gross Goerschen; and he strove to inspirit +the conscripts, many of whom had shown unsteadiness, by proclaiming to +the army that the victory of Luetzen would rank above Austerlitz, Jena, +Friedland, and Borodino. + +Far from showing dejection, Alexander renewed to Cathcart his +assurance of persevering in the war. At Dresden our envoy was again +assured (May 7th) that the allies would not give in, but that "Austria +will wear the cloak of mediation till the time her immense force is +ready to act, the 24th instant. Count Stadion is hourly expected here: +he will bring proposals of terms of peace and similar ones will be +sent to the French headquarters. Receiving and refusing these +proposals will occupy most of the time." In fact, Metternich was on +the point of despatching from Vienna two envoys, Stadion to the +allies, Count Bubna to Napoleon, with the offer of Austria's armed +mediation. + +It found him in no complaisant mood. He had entered Dresden as a +conqueror: he had bitterly chidden the citizens for their support of +the Prussian volunteers, and ordered them to beg their own King to +return from Bohemia. To that hapless monarch he had sent an imperious +mandate to come back and order the Saxon troops, who obstinately held +Torgau, forthwith to hand it over to the French. On all sides his +behests were obeyed, the Saxon troops grudgingly ranging themselves +under the French eagles. And while he was tearing Saxony away from the +national cause, he was summoned by Austria to halt. The victor met the +request with a flash of defiance. After a reproachful talk with Bubna, +on May 17th, he wrote two letters to the Emperor Francis. In the more +official note he assured him that he desired peace, and that he +assented to the opening of a Congress with that aim in view, in which +England, Russia, Prussia, and even the Spanish insurgents might take +part. He therefore proposed that an armistice should be concluded for +the needful preparations. But in the other letter he assured his +father-in-law that he was ready to die at the head of all the generous +men of France rather than become the sport of England. His resentment +against Austria finds utterance in his despatch of the same day, in +which he bids Caulaincourt seek an interview at once with the Czar: +"The essential thing is to have a talk with him.... My intention is to +build him a golden bridge so as to deliver him from the intrigues of +Metternich. If I must make sacrifices, I prefer to make them to a +straightforward enemy, rather than to the profit of Austria, which +Power has betrayed my alliance, and, under the guise of mediator, +means to claim the right of arranging everything." Caulaincourt is to +remind Alexander how badly Austria behaved to him in 1812, and to +suggest that if he treats at once before losing another battle, he can +retire with honour and _with good terms for Prussia, without any +intervention from Austria_. + +His other letters of this time show that it is on the Hapsburgs that +his resentment will most heavily fall. Eugene, who had recently +departed to organize the forces in Italy, is urged to threaten Austria +with not fewer than 80,000 men, and to give out that he will soon have +150,000 men under arms. And, while straining every nerve in Germany, +France, and Italy, Napoleon asserts that there will be an armistice +for the conclusion of a general peace.[297] But the allies were not to +be duped into a peace that was no peace. They had good grounds for +expecting the eventual aid of Austria; and when Caulaincourt craved an +interview, the Czar refused his request, thus bringing affairs once +more to the arbitrament of the sword. The only effect of +Caulaincourt's mission, and of Napoleon's bitter words to Bubna, was +to alarm Austria. + +On their side, the allies desired to risk no further check; and they +had therefore taken up a strong position near Bautzen, where they +could receive reinforcements and effectually cover Silesia. Their +extreme left rested on the spurs of the Lusatian mountains, while +their long front of some four miles in extent stretched northwards +along a ridge that rose between the River Spree and an affluent, and +bent a convex threatening brow against that river and town. There they +were joined by Barclay, whose arrival brought their total strength to +82,000 men. But again Napoleon had the advantage in numbers. Suddenly +calling in Ney's and Lauriston's force of 60,000 men, which had been +sent north so as to threaten Berlin, he confronted the allies with at +least 130,000 men.[298] + +On the first day of fighting (May 20th) the French seized the town of +Bautzen, but failed to drive the allies from the hilly, wooded ground +on the south. The fighting on the next day was far more serious. At +dawn of a beautiful spring morning, in a country radiant with verdure +and diversified by trim villages, the thunder of cannon and the +sputter of skirmishers' lines presaged a stubborn conflict. The allied +sovereigns from the commanding ridge at their centre could survey all +the enemy's movements on the hills opposite; and our commissary, +Colonel (afterwards Sir Hudson) Lowe, has thus described his view of +Napoleon, who was near the French centre: + + "He was about fifty paces in front of the others, accompanied by + one of his marshals, with whom he walked backwards and forwards + for nearly an hour. He was dressed in a plain uniform coat and a + star [_sic_], with a plain hat, different from that of his + marshals and generals, which was feathered. In the rear, and to + the left of the ridge on which he stood, were his reserves. They + were formed in lines of squadrons and battalions, appearing like a + large column of battalions: their number must have been between + 15,000 and 20,000. + + After he had retired from the eminence, several of the battalions + were observed to be drawn off to his left, and to be replaced by + others from the rear: the masses of his reserves appeared to + suffer scarcely any diminution.... Those troops which were to act + against our right continued their march: the others, opposite our + centre, planted themselves about midway on the slope, which + descended from the ridge towards our position; and, under the + protection of the guns that crowned the ridge, they appeared to + set our cavalry at defiance.... Yet there was no forward movement + in that part. To turn and overthrow our flanks, particularly the + right one, appeared now to be their main object." + +This was the case. Napoleon was employing his usual tactics of +assailing the allies everywhere by artillery and musketry fire, so as +to keep them in their already very extended position until he could +deliver a decisive blow. This was dealt, though somewhat tardily, by +Ney with his huge corps at the allied right, where Barclay's 5,000 +Russians were outmatched and driven back. The village of Preititz was +lost, and with it the allies' communications were laid bare. It was of +the utmost importance to recover the village; and Bluecher, at the +right centre, hard pressed though he was, sent down Kleist's brigade, +which helped to wrench the prize from that Marshal's grasp. But Ney +was too strong to be kept off, even by the streams of cannon-shot +poured upon his dense columns. With the help of Lauriston's corps, he +again slowly pressed on, began to envelop the allies' right, and +threatened to cut off their retreat. Bluecher was also furiously +assailed by Marmont and Bertrand. On the left, it is true, the +Russians had beaten back Oudinot with heavy loss; but, as Napoleon had +not yet seriously drawn on his reserves, the allied chiefs decided to +draw off their hard-pressed troops from this unequal contest, where +victory was impossible and delay might place everything in jeopardy. + +The retirement began late in the afternoon. Covered by the fire of a +powerful artillery from successive crests, and by the charges of their +dauntless cavalry, the allies beat off every effort of the French to +turn the retreat into a rout. In vain did Napoleon press the pursuit. +As at Luetzen, he had cause to mourn the loss in the plains of Russia +of those living waves that had swept his enemies from many a +battlefield. But now their columns refused to melt away. They filed +off, unbroken and defiant, under the covering wings of Uhlans and +Cossacks.[299] + +The next day witnessed the same sight, the allies drawing steadily +back, showering shot from every post of vantage, and leaving not a +prisoner or a caisson in the conquerors' hands. "What!" said Napoleon, +"after such a butchery, no results? no prisoners?" Scarcely had he +spoken these words, when a cannon-ball tore through his staff, killing +one general outright, wounding another, and shattering the frame of +Duroc, Duc de Friuli. Napoleon was deeply affected by this occurrence. +He dismounted, went into the cottage where Duroc was taken, and for +some time pressed his hand in silence. Then he uttered the words: +"Duroc, there is another world where we shall meet again." To which +the Grand Marshal made reply: "Yes, sire; but it will be in thirty +years, when you have triumphed over your enemies and realized all the +hopes of your country." After a long pause of painful silence, the +Emperor mournfully left the man for whom he felt, perhaps, the +liveliest sympathy and affection he ever bestowed. Under Duroc's cold, +reserved exterior the Emperor knew that there beat a true heart, +devoted and loyal ever since they had first met at Toulon. He received +no one else for the rest of that night, and a hush of awe fell on the +camp at the unwonted signs of grief of their great leader. + +Possibly this loss strengthened the Emperor's desire for a truce, a +feeling not lessened by a mishap befalling one of his divisions, which +fell into an ambush laid by the Prussians at Hainau, and lost 1,500 +men and 18 guns. + +For their part, the allies equally desired a suspension of arms. Their +forces were in much confusion. Alexander had superseded Wittgenstein +by Barclay, who now insisted on withdrawing the Russians into Poland. +To this the Prussian staff offered the most strenuous resistance. Such +a confession of weakness, urged Mueffling, would dishearten the troops +and intimidate the Austrian statesmen who had promised speedy succour. +Let the allies cling to the sheltering rampart of the Riesengebirge, +where they might defy Napoleon's attacks and await the white-coats. +The fortress of Schweidnitz would screen their retreat, and the +Landwehr of Silesia would make good the gaps in their ranks. Towards +Schweidnitz, then, the Czar ordered Barclay to retreat. + +There two disappointments awaited them. The fortifications, dismantled +by the French in 1807, were still in disrepair, and the 20,000 muskets +bought in Austria for the Silesian levies were without touch-holes! +Again Barclay declared that he must retreat into Poland, and only the +offer of a truce by Napoleon deterred him from that step, which must +have compromised the whole military and political situation. What +would not Napoleon have given to know the actual state of things at +the allied headquarters?[300] But no spy warned him of the truth; and +as his own instincts prompted him to turn aside, so as to prepare +condign chastisement for Austria, he continued to treat for an +armistice. + +"Nothing," he wrote to Eugene on June 2nd, "can be more perfidious +than that Court. If I granted her present demands, she would +afterwards ask for Italy and Germany. Certainly she shall have nothing +from me." Events served to strengthen his resolve. The French entered +Breslau in triumph, and raised the siege of Glogau. The coalition +seemed to be tottering. That the punishment dealt to the allies and +Austria might be severe and final, he only needed a few weeks for the +reorganization of his once formidable cavalry. Then he could vent his +rage upon Austria. Then he could overthrow the Hungarian horse, and +crumple up the ill-trained Austrian foot. A short truce, he believed, +was useless: it would favour the allies more than the French. And, +under the specious plea that the discussion of a satisfactory peace +must take up at least forty days, he ordered his envoy, Caulaincourt, +to insist on a space of time which would admit of the French forces +being fully equipped in Saxony, Bavaria, and Illyria. "If," he wrote +to Caulaincourt on June 4th, "we did not wish to treat with a view to +peace, we should not be so stupid as to treat for an armistice at the +present time." And he urged him to insist on the limit of July 20th, +"always on the same reasoning, namely, that we must have forty full +days to see if we can come to an understanding." Far different was his +secret warning to General Clarke, the Minister of War. To him he wrote +on June 2nd: + + "If I can, I will wait for the month of September to deal great + blows. I wish then to be in a position to crush my enemies, though + it is possible that, when Austria sees me about to do so, she may + make use of her pathetic and sentimental style, in order to + recognize the chimerical and ridiculous nature of her pretensions. + I have wished to write you this letter so that you may thoroughly + know my thoughts once for all." + +And to Maret, his Minister for Foreign Affairs, he wrote on the same +day: + + "We must gain time, and to gain time without displeasing Austria, + we must use the same language we have used for the last six + months--that we can do everything if Austria is our ally.... Work + on this, beat about the bush, and gain time.... You can embroider + on this canvas for the next two months, and find matter for + sending twenty couriers."[301] + +In such cases, where Napoleon's diplomatic assurances are belied by +his secret military instructions, no one who has carefully studied his +career can doubt which course would be adopted. The armistice was +merely the pause that would be followed by a fiercer onset, unless the +allies and Austria bent before his will. Of this they gave no sign +even after the blow of Bautzen. In the negotiations concerning the +armistice they showed no timidity; and when, on June 4th, it was +signed at Poischwitz up to July 20th, Napoleon felt some doubts +whether he had not shown too much complaisance. + +It was so: in granting a suspension of arms he had signed his own +death warrant. + +The news that reached him at Dresden in the month of June helped to +stiffen his resolve once more. Davoust and Vandamme had succeeded in +dispersing the raw levies of North Germany and in restoring Napoleon's +authority at the mouths of the Elbe and Weser; and in this they now +had the help of the Danes. + +For some time the allies had been seeking to win over Denmark. But +there was one insurmountable barrier in the way, the ambition of +Bernadotte. As we have seen, he was desirous of signalizing his +prospective succession to the Swedish throne by bringing to his +adopted country a land that would amply recompense it for the loss of +Finland.[302] This could only be found in Norway, then united with +Denmark; and this was the price of Swedish succour, to which the Czar +had assented during the war of 1812. For reasons which need not be +detailed here, Swedish help was not then forthcoming. But early in +1813 it was seen that a diversion caused by the landing of 30,000 +Swedes in North Germany might be most valuable, and it was especially +desired by the British Government. Still, England was loth to gain the +alliance of Bernadotte at the price of Norway, which must drive +Denmark into the arms of France. Castlereagh, therefore, sought to +tempt him by the offer of our recent conquest of Guadeloupe. Or, if he +must have Norway, would not Denmark give her assent if she received +Swedish Pomerania and Luebeck? Bernadotte himself once suggested that +he would be satisfied with the Bishopric of Trondjem, the northern +part of Norway, if he could gain no compensation for Denmark in +Germany.[303] + +This offer was tentatively made. It was all one. Denmark would not +hear of the cession of Norway or any part of it; and in the course of +the negotiations with England she even put in a claim to the Hanse +Towns, which was at once rejected. As Denmark was obdurate, Bernadotte +insisted that Sweden should gain the whole of Norway as the price of +her help to the allies. By the treaty of Stockholm (March 3rd, 1813) +we acceded to the Russo-Swedish compact of the previous year, which +assigned Norway to Sweden: we also promised to cede Guadeloupe to +Bernadotte, and to pay L1,000,000 towards the support of the Swedish +troops serving against Napoleon.[304] In the middle of May it was +known at Copenhagen that nothing was to be hoped for from Russia and +England. The Danes, therefore, ranged themselves on the French side, +with results that were to prove fatal to the welfare of their kingdom. + +Thus the bargain which Bernadotte drove with the allies leagued +Denmark against them, and thereby hindered the liberation of North +Germany. But, such is the irony of fate, the transfer of Norway from +Denmark to Sweden has had a permanence in which Napoleon's territorial +arrangements have been signally lacking. + +Bernadotte landed at Stralsund with 24,000 men, on May 18th. But the +organization of his troops for the campaign was so slow that he could +send no effective help to the Cossacks and patriots at Hamburg. His +seeming lethargy at once aroused the Czar's suspicions. This the +Swedish Prince Royal speedily detected; and, on hearing of the +armistice, he feared that another Tilsit would be the result. In a +passionate letter, of June 10th, he begged Alexander not to accept +peace: "To accept a peace dictated by Napoleon is to rear a sepulchre +for Europe: and if this misfortune happens, only England and Sweden +can remain intact." + +This was the real Bernadotte. Those who called him a disguised friend +of Napoleon little knew the depth of his hatred for the Emperor, a +hatred which was even then compassing the earth for means of +overthrowing him, and saw in the person of a lonely French exile +beyond the Atlantic an instrument of vengeance. Already he had bidden +his old comrade in arms, Moreau, to come over and direct the people's +war against the tyrant who had exiled him; and the victor of +Hohenlinden was soon to land at Stralsund and spend his last days in +serving against the tricolour. + +For the present the prospects of the allies seemed gloomy indeed. In +the south-east they had lost all the land up to Breslau and Glogau; +and in North Germany Davoust began to turn Hamburg into a great +fortress. This was in obedience to Napoleon's orders. "I shall never +feel assured," the Emperor wrote to his Marshal, "until Hamburg can be +looked on as a stronghold provisioned for several months and prepared +in every way for a long defence."--The ruin of commercial interests +was nought to him; and when Savary ventured to hint at the discontent +caused in French mercantile circles by these steps, he received a +sharp rebuke: "... The cackling of the Paris bankers matters very +little to me. I am having Hamburg fortified. I am having a naval +arsenal formed there. Within a few months it will be one of my +strongest fortresses. I intend to keep a standing army of 15,000 men +there."[305] His plan was ruthlessly carried out. The wealth of +Hamburg was systematically extorted in order to furnish means for a +completer subjection. Boundless exactions, robbery of the bank, odious +oppression of all classes, these were the first steps. Twenty thousand +persons were thereafter driven out, first the young and strong as +being dangerous, then the old and weak as being useless; and a once +prosperous emporium of trade became Napoleon's chief northern +stronghold, a centre of hope for French and Danes, and a stimulus to +revenge for every patriotic Teuton.[306] + +Yet the patriots were not cast down by recent events. Their one desire +was for the renewal of war: their one fear was that the diplomatists +would once more barter away German independence. "Our people," cried +Karl Mueller, "is still too lazy because it is too wealthy. Let us +learn, as the Russians did, to go round and burn, and then find +ourselves dagger and poison, as the Spaniards did. Against those two +peoples Napoleon's troops could effect nothing." And while gloom and +doubt hung over Germany, a cheering ray shot forth once more from the +south-west. At the close of June came the news that Wellington had +utterly routed the French at Vittoria. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV + +VITTORIA AND THE ARMISTICE + + +It would be beyond the scope of this work to describe in detail the +campaign that culminated at Vittoria. Our task must be limited to +showing what was the position of affairs at the close of 1812, what +were the Emperor's plans for holding part, at least, of Spain, and why +they ended in utter failure. + +The causes, which had all along weakened the French operations in +Spain, operated in full force during the campaign of 1812. The +jealousy of the Marshals, and, still more, their insubordination to +King Joseph, prevented that timely concentration of force by which the +Emperor won his greatest triumphs. Discordant aims and grudging +co-operation marked their operations. Military writers have often been +puzzled to account for the rash moves of Marmont, which brought on him +the crushing blow of Salamanca. Had he waited but a few days before +pressing Wellington hard, he would have been reinforced by King Joseph +with 14,000 men.[307] But he preferred to risk all on a last dashing +move rather than to wait for the King and contribute, as second in +command, to securing a substantial success. + +The correspondence of Joseph before and after Salamanca is +instructive. We see him unable to move quickly to the support of +Marmont, because the French Army of the North neglects to send him the +detachment needed for the defence of Madrid; and when, on hearing the +news of Salamanca, he orders Soult to evacuate Andalusia so as to +concentrate forces for the recovery of the capital, his command is for +some time disobeyed. When, at last, Joseph, Soult, and Suchet +concentrate their forces for a march on Madrid, Wellington is +compelled to retire. Pushing on his rear with superior forces, Joseph +then seeks to press on a battle; but again Soult moves so slowly that +Wellington is able to draw off his men and make good his retreat to +Ciudad Rodrigo.[308] + +Apparently Joseph came off victor from the campaign of 1812; but the +withdrawal of French troops towards Madrid and the valley of the Douro +had fatal consequences. The south was at once lost to the French; and +the sturdy mountaineers of Biscay, Navarre, and Arragon formed large +bands whose persistent daring showed that the north was far from +conquered. Encouraged by the presence of a small British force, they +seized on most of the northern ports; and their chief, Mina, was able +to meet the French northern army on almost equal terms. In the east, +Suchet held his own against the Spaniards and an Anglo-Sicilian +expedition. But in regard to the rest of Spain, Soult's gloomy +prophecy was fulfilled: "The loss of Andalusia and the raising of the +siege of Cadiz are events whose results will be felt throughout the +whole of Europe." + +The Spanish Cortes, or Parliament, long cooped up in Cadiz, now sought +to put in force the recently devised democratic constitution. It was +hailed with joy by advanced thinkers in the cities, and with loathing +by the clergy, the nobles, the wealthy, and the peasants. But, though +the Cortes sowed the seeds of political discord, they took one very +commendable step. They appointed Wellington generalissimo of all the +Spanish armies; and, in a visit which he paid to the Cortes at +Christmastide, he prepared for a real co-operation of Spanish forces +in the next campaign. + +At that time Napoleon was uneasily looking into the state of Spanish +affairs. As soon as he mastered the contents of the despatches from +Madrid he counselled a course of action that promised, at any rate, to +postpone the overthrow of his power. The advice is set forth in +letters written on January 4th and February 12th by the Minister of +War, General Clarke; for Napoleon had practically ceased to correspond +with his brother. In the latter of these despatches Clarke explained +in some detail the urgent need of acting at once, while the English +were inactive, so as to stamp out the ever-spreading flame of revolt +in the northern provinces. Two French armies, that of the North and +the so-called "Army of Portugal," were to be told off for this duty; +and Joseph was informed that his armies of the south and of the centre +would for the present suffice to hold the British in check. As to +Joseph's general course of action, it was thus prescribed: + + "The Emperor commands me to reiterate to your Majesty that the use + of Valladolid as a residence and as headquarters is an + indispensable preliminary. From that place must be sent out on the + Burgos road, and on other fit points, the troops which are to + strengthen or to second the army of the north. Madrid, and even + Valencia, form parts of this system only as posts to be held by + your extreme left, not as places to be kept by a concentration of + forces.... To occupy Valladolid and Salamanca, to use the utmost + exertion to pacify Navarre and Arragon to keep the communication + with France rapid and safe, to be always ready to take the + offensive--these are the Emperor's instructions for the campaign, + and the principles on which all its operations ought to be + founded...."[309] + +A fortnight later, Clarke bade the King threaten Ciudad Rodrigo so as +to make Wellington believe that the French would invade Portugal. He +was also to lay heavy contributions on Madrid and Toledo. In fact, the +capital was to be held only as long as it could be squeezed. + +Such were the plans. They show clearly that the Emperor was impressed +with the need of crushing the rising in the north of Spain; for he +ordered as great a force against Mina and his troublesome bands as he +deemed necessary to watch the Portuguese frontier. Clausel was charged +to stamp out the northern rising, and Napoleon seems to have judged +that this hardy fighter would end this tedious task before Wellington +dealt any serious blows. The miscalculation was to be fatal. Mina was +not speedily to be beaten, nor was the British general the slow +unenterprising leader that the Emperor took him to be. And then again, +in spite of all the experiences of the past, Napoleon failed to allow +for the delays caused by the capture of his couriers, or by their long +detours. Yet, never were these more serious. Clarke's first urgent +despatch, that of January 4th, did not reach the King until February +16th.[310] When its directions were being doubtfully obeyed, those +quoted above arrived on March 12th, and led to changes in the +disposition of the troops. Thus the forces opposed to Wellington were +weakened in order to crush the northern revolt, and yet these +detachments were only sent north at the close of March for a difficult +enterprise which was not to be completed before the British leader +threw his sword decisively into the scales of war. + +Joseph has been severely blamed for his tardy action: but, in truth, +he was in a hopeless _impasse_: on all sides he saw the walls of his +royal prison house closing in. The rebels in the north cut off the +French despatches, thus forestalling his movements and delaying by +some weeks his execution of Napoleon's plans. Worst of all, the +Emperor withdrew the pith and marrow of his forces: 1,200 officers, +6,000 non-commissioned officers, and some 24,000 of the most seasoned +soldiers filed away towards France to put strength and firmness into +the new levies of the line, or to fill out again the skeleton +battalions and squadrons of the Imperial Guard.[311] + +It is strange that Napoleon did not withdraw all his troops from +Spain. They still exceeded 150,000 men; and yet, after he had flung +away army after army, the Spaniards were everywhere in arms, except in +Valencia. The north defied all the efforts of Clausel for several +weeks, until he declared that it would take 50,000 men three months to +crush the mountaineers.[312] Above all, Wellington was known to be +mustering a formidable force on the Portuguese borders. In truth, +Napoleon seems long to have been afflicted with political colour +blindness in Spanish affairs. Even now he only dimly saw the +ridiculous falsity of his brother's position--a parvenu among the +proudest nobility in the world, a bankrupt King called upon to keep up +regal pomp before a ceremonious race, a benevolent ruler forced to +levy heavy loans and contributions on a sensitive populace whose +goodwill he earnestly strove to gain, an easy-going epicure spurred on +to impetuous action by orders from Paris which he dared not disregard +and could not execute, a peace-loving valetudinarian upon whom was +thrust the task of controlling testy French Marshals, and of holding a +nation in check and Wellington at bay. + +The concentration on which Napoleon laid such stress would doubtless +have proved a most effective step had the French forces on the Douro +been marshalled by an able leader. But here, again, the situation had +been fatally compromised by the recall of the ablest of the French +commanders in Spain. Wellington afterwards said that Soult was second +only to Massena among the French Marshals pitted against him. He had +some defects. "He did not quite understand a field of battle: he was +an excellent tactician, knew very well how to bring his troops up to +the field, but not so well how to use them when he had brought them +up."[313] But the fact remains that, with the exception of his Oporto +failure, Soult came with credit, if not glory, out of every campaign +waged against Wellington. Yet he was now recalled. + +Indeed, this vain and ambitious man had mortally offended King Joseph. +After Salamanca he had treated him with gross disrespect. Not only did +he, at first, refuse to move from Andalusia, but he secretly revealed +to six French generals his fears that Joseph was betraying the French +cause by treating with the Spanish national government at Cadiz. He +even warned Clarke of the King's supposed intentions, in a letter +which by chance fell into Joseph's hands.[314] The hot blood of the +Bonapartes boiled at this underhand dealing, and he at once despatched +Colonel Desprez to Napoleon to demand Soult's instant recall. The +Emperor, who was then at Moscow, temporized. Perhaps he was not sorry +to have in Spain so vigilant an informer; and he made the guarded +reply that Soult's suspicions did not much surprise him, that they +were shared by many other French generals, who thought King Joseph +preferred Spain to France, and that he could not recall Soult, as he +had "the only military head in Spain." The threatening war-cloud in +Central Europe led Napoleon to change his resolve. Soult was recalled, +but not disgraced, and, after the death of Bessieres, he received the +command of the Imperial Guard. + +The commander who now bore the brunt of responsibility was Jourdan, +who acted as major-general at the King's side, a post which he had +held once before, but had forfeited owing to his blunders in the +summer of 1809. The victor of Fleurus was now fifty-one years of age, +and his failing health quite unfitted him for the Herculean tasks of +guiding refractory generals, and of propping up a tottering monarchy. +For Jourdan's talents Napoleon had expressed but scanty esteem, +whereas on many occasions he extolled the abilities of Suchet, who was +now holding down Valencia and Catalonia. Certainly Suchet's tenacity +and administrative skill rendered his stay in those rich provinces +highly desirable. But the best talent was surely needed on +Wellington's line of advance, namely, at Valladolid. To the +shortcomings and mishaps of Joseph and Jourdan in that quarter may be +chiefly ascribed the collapse of the French power. + +In fact, the only part of Spain that now really interested Napoleon +was the north and north-east. So long as he firmly held the provinces +north of the Ebro, he seems to have cared little whether Joseph +reigned, or did not reign, at Madrid. All that concerned him was to +hold the British at bay from the line of the Douro, while French +authority was established in the north and north-east. This he was +determined to keep; and probably he had already formed the design, +later on to be mooted to Ferdinand VII. at Valencay, of restoring him +to the throne of Spain and of indemnifying him with Portugal for the +loss of the north-eastern provinces. This scheme may even have formed +part of a plan of general pacification; for at Dresden, on May 17th, +he proposed to Austria the admission of representatives of the Spanish +_insurgents_ to the European Congress. But it is time to turn from the +haze of conjecture to the sharp outlines of Wellington's +campaign.[315] + +While the French cause in Spain was crumbling to pieces, that of the +patriots was being firmly welded together by the organizing genius of +Wellington. By patient efforts, he soon had the Spanish and Portuguese +contingents in an efficient condition: and, as large reinforcements +had come from England, he was able early in May to muster 70,000 +British and Portuguese troops and 30,000 Spaniards for a move +eastwards. Murray's force tied Suchet fast to the province of +Valencia; Clausel was fully employed in Navarre, and thus Joseph's +army on the Douro was left far too weak to stem Wellington's tide of +war. Only some 45,000 French were ready in the districts between +Salamanca and Valladolid. Others remained in the basin of the Tagus in +case the allies should burst in by that route. + +Wellington kept up their illusions by feints at several points, while +he prepared to thrust a mighty force over the fords of the Tormes and +Esla. He completely succeeded. While Joseph and Jourdan were haltingly +mustering their forces in Leon, the allies began that series of rapid +flanking movements on the north which decided the campaign. Swinging +forward his powerful left wing he manoeuvred the French out of one +strong position after another. The Tormes, the Esla, the Douro, the +Carrion, the Pisuerga, none of these streams stopped his advance. +Joseph nowhere showed fight; he abandoned even the castle of Burgos, +and, fearing to be cut off from France, retired behind the upper Ebro. + +The official excuse given for this rapid retreat was the lack of +provisions: but the diaries of two British officers, Tomkinson and +Simmons, show that they found the country between the Esla and the +Ebro for the most part well stocked and fertile. Simmons, who was with +the famous Light Division, notes that the Rifles did not fire a shot +after breaking up their winter quarters, until they skirmished with +the French in the hills near the source of the Ebro. The French +retreat was really necessary in order to bring the King's forces into +touch with the corps of Generals Clausel and Foy, in Navarre and +Biscay respectively. Joseph had already sent urgent orders to call in +these corps; for, as he explained to Clarke, the supreme need now was +to beat Wellington; that done, the partisan warfare would collapse. + +But Clausel and Foy took their orders, not from the King, but from +Paris; and up to June 5th, Joseph heard not a word from Clausel. At +last, on June 15th, that general wrote from Pamplona that he had +received Joseph's commands of May 30th and June 7th, and would march +to join him. Had he at once called in his mobile columns and covered +with all haste the fifty miles that separated him from the King, the +French army would have been the stronger by at least 14,000 men. But +his concentration was a work of some difficulty, and he finally drew +near to Vittoria on June 22nd, when the French cause was irrecoverably +lost.[316] + +Wellington, meanwhile, had foreseen the supreme need of despatch. +Early in the year he had urged our naval authorities to strengthen our +squadron on the north of Spain, so that he might in due course make +Santander his base of supplies. Naval support was not forthcoming to +the extent that he expected;[317] but after leaving Burgos he was able +to make some use of the northern ports, thereby shortening his line of +communications. In fact, the Vittoria campaign illustrates the immense +advantages gained by a leader, who is sure of his rear and of one +flank, over an enemy who is ever nervous about his communications. The +British squadron acted like a covering force on the north to +Wellington: it fed the guerilla warfare in Biscay, and menaced Joseph +with real though invisible dangers. This explains, in large measure, +why our commander moved forward so rapidly, and pushed forward his +left wing with such persistent daring. Mountain fastnesses and roaring +torrents stayed not the advance of his light troops on that side. Near +the sources of the Ebro, the French again felt their communications +with France threatened, and falling back from the main stream, up the +defile carved out by a tributary, the Zadora, they halted wearily in +the basin of Vittoria. + +There Joseph and Jourdan determined to fight. As usual, there had been +recriminations at headquarters. "Jourdan, ill and angry, kept his +room; and the King was equally invisible."[318] Few orders were given. +The town was packed with convoys and vehicles of all kinds, and it was +not till dawn of that fatal midsummer's day that the last convoy set +out for France, under the escort of 3,000 troops. Nevertheless, Joseph +might hope to hold his own. True, he had but 70,000 troops at hand, or +perhaps even fewer; yet on the evening of the 19th he heard that +Clausel had set out from Pamplona. + +At once he bade him press on his march, but that message fell into the +enemy's hands.[319] Relying, then, on help which was not to arrive, +Joseph confronted the allied army. It numbered, in all, 83,000 men, +though Napier asserts that not more than 60,000 took part in the +fighting. The French left wing rested on steep hills near Puebla, +which tower above the River Zadora, and leave but a narrow defile. +Their centre held a less precipitous ridge, which trends away to the +north parallel to the middle reaches of that stream. Higher up its +course, the Zadora describes a sharp curve that protects the ridge on +its northern flank; and if a daring foe drove the defenders away from +these heights, they could still fall back on two lower ridges nearer +Vittoria. But these natural advantages were not utilized to the full. +The bridges opposite the French front were not broken, and the +defenders were far too widely spread out. Their right wing, consisting +of the "Army of Portugal" under General Reille, guarded the bridge +north of Vittoria, and was thus quite out of touch with the main force +that held the hills five miles away to the west. + +The dawn broke heavily; the air was thick with rain and driving mists, +under cover of which Hill's command moved up against the steeps of +Puebla. A Spanish brigade, under General Morillo, nimbly scaled those +slopes on the south-west, gained a footing near the summit, and, when +reinforced, firmly held their ground. Meanwhile the rest of Hill's +troops threaded their way beneath through the pass of Puebla, and, +after a tough fight, wrested the village of Subijana from the foe. In +vain did Joseph and Jourdan bring up troops from the centre; the +British and Spaniards were not to be driven either from the village or +from the heights. Wellington's main array was also advancing to attack +the French centre occupying the ridge behind the Zadora; and Graham, +after making a long detour to the north through very broken country, +sought to surprise Reille and drive him from the bridge north of +Vittoria. In this advance the guidance of the Spanish irregulars, +under Colonel Longa, was of priceless value. So well was Graham +covered by their bands, that, up to the moment of attack, Reille knew +not that a British division was also at hand. At the centre, too, a +Spanish peasant informed Wellington that the chief bridge of Tres +Puentes was unguarded, and guided Kempt's brigade through rocky ground +to within easy charging distance. + + [Illustration: BATTLE OF VITTORIA] + +The bridge was seized, Joseph's outposts were completely turned, and +time was given for the muster of Picton's men. Stoutly they breasted +the slopes, and unsteadied the weakened French centre, which was also +assailed on its northern flank. At the same time Joseph's left wing +began to waver under Hill's repeated onslaughts; and, distracted by +the distant cannonade, which told of a stubborn fight between Graham +and Reille, the King now began to draw in his lines towards Vittoria. +For a time the French firmly held the village of Arinez, but Picton's +men were not to be denied. They burst through the rearguard, and the +battle now became a running fight, extending over some five miles of +broken country. At the last slopes, close to Vittoria, the defenders +made a last heroic stand, and their artillery dealt havoc among the +assailants; but our fourth division, rushing forward into the smoke, +carried a hill that commanded their left, and the day was won. Nothing +now remained for the French but a speedy retreat, while the gallant +Reille could still hold Graham's superior force at bay. + +There, too, the fight at last swirled back, albeit with many a +rallying eddy, into Vittoria. That town was no place of refuge, but a +death-trap; for Graham had pushed on a detachment to Durana, on the +high-road leading direct to France, and thus blocked the main line of +retreat. Joseph's army was now in pitiable plight. Pent up in the +choked streets of Vittoria, torn by cannon-shot from the English +lines, the wreckage of its three armies for a time surged helplessly +to and fro, and then broke away eastwards towards Pamplona. On that +side only was safety to be found, for British hussars scoured the +plain to the north-east, lending wings to the flight. The narrow +causeway, leading through marshes, was soon blocked, and panic seized +on all: artillerymen cut their traces and fled; carriages crowded with +women, once called gay, but now frantic with terror, wagons laden with +ammunition, stores, treasure-chests, and the booty amassed by generals +and favourites during five years of warfare and extortion, all were +left pell-mell. Jourdan's Marshal's baton was taken, and was sent by +Wellington to the Prince Regent, who acknowledged it by conferring on +the victor the title of Field-Marshal. + +Richly was the title deserved. After four years of battling with +superior numbers, the British leader at last revealed the full majesty +of his powers now that the omens were favourable. In six weeks he +marched more than five hundred miles, crossed six rivers, and, using +the Navarrese revolt as the anvil, dealt the hammer-stroke of +Vittoria. It cost Napoleon 151 pieces of cannon, nearly all the stores +piled up for his Peninsular campaigns--and Spain itself.[320] + +As for Joseph, he left his carriage and fled on horseback towards +France, reaching St. Jean de Luz "with only a napoleon left." He there +also assured his queen that he had always preferred a private station +to the grandeur and agitations of public life.[321] This, indeed, was +one of the many weak points of his brother's Spanish policy. It rested +on the shoulders of an amiable man who was better suited to the ease +of Naples than to the Herculean toils of Madrid. Napoleon now saw the +magnitude of his error. On July 1st he bade Soult leave Dresden at +once for Paris. There he was to call on Clarke, with him repair to +Cambaceres; and, as Lieutenant-General, take steps to re-establish the +Emperor's affairs in Spain. A Regency was to govern in place of +Joseph, who was ordered to remain, according to the state of affairs, +either at Burgos(!) or St. Sebastian or Bayonne. + + "All the follies in Spain" (he wrote to Cambaceres on that day) + "are due to the mistaken consideration I have shown the King, who + not only does not know how to command, but does not even know his + own value enough to leave the military command alone." + +And to Savary he wrote two days later: + + "It is hard to imagine anything so inconceivable as what is now + going on in Spain. The King could have collected 100,000 picked + men: _they might have beaten the whole of England_." + +Reflection, however, showed him that the fault was his own; that if, +as had occurred to him when he left Paris, he had intrusted the +supreme command in Spain to Soult, the disaster would never have +happened.[322] His belief in Soult's capacity was justified by the +last events of the Peninsular War. But neither his splendid rally of +the scattered French forces, nor the skilful movements of Clausel and +Suchet, nor the stubborn defence of Pamplona and San Sebastian, could +now save the French cause. The sole result of these last operations +was to restore the lustre of the French arms and to keep 150,000 men +in Spain when the scales of war were wavering in the plains of Saxony. + +Napoleon's letters betray the agitation which he felt even at the +first vague rumours of the disaster of Vittoria. On the first three +days of July he penned at Dresden seven despatches on that topic in a +style so vehement that the compilers of the "Correspondance de +Napoleon" have thought it best to omit them. He further enjoined the +utmost reserve, and ordered the official journals merely to state +that, after a brisk engagement at Vittoria, the French army was +concentrating in Arragon, and that the British had captured about a +hundred guns and wagons left behind in the town for lack of horses. + +There was every reason for hiding the truth. He saw how seriously it +must weaken his chances of browbeating the Eastern Powers, and of +punishing Austria for her armed mediation. Hitherto there seemed every +chance of his succeeding. The French standards flew on all the +fortresses of the Elbe and Oder. Hamburg was fast becoming a great +French camp, and Denmark was ranged on the side of France. + +Indeed, on reviewing the situation on June 4th, the German publicist, +Gentz, came to the conclusion that the Emperor Francis would probably +end his vacillations by some inglorious compromise. The Kaiser desired +peace; but he also wished to shake off the irksome tutelage of his +son-in-law, and regain Illyria. For the present he wavered. Before the +news of Luetzen reached him, he undoubtedly encouraged the allies: but +that reverse brought about a half left turn towards Napoleon. "Boney's +success at Luetzen," wrote Sir G. Jackson in his Diary, "has made +Francis reconsider his half-formed resolutions." Here was the chief +difficulty for the allies. Their fortunes, and the future of Europe, +rested largely on the decision of a man whose natural irresolution of +character had been increased by adversity. Fortunately, the news from +Spain finally helped to incline him towards war; but for some weeks +his decision remained the unknown quantity in European politics. +Fortunately, too, he was amenable to the gentle but determining +pressure of the kind which Metternich could so skilfully exert. That +statesman, as usual, schemed and balanced. He saw that Austria had +much to gain by playing the waiting game. Her forces were improving +both in numbers and efficiency, and under cover of her offer of armed +mediation were holding strong positions in Bohemia. In fact, she was +regaining her prestige, and might hope to impose her will on the +combatants at the forthcoming European Congress at Prague. Metternich, +therefore, continued to pose as the well-wisher of both parties and +the champion of a reasonable and therefore durable compromise. + +He had acted thus, not only in his choice of measures, but in his +selection of men. He had sent to Napoleon's headquarters at Dresden +Count Bubna, whose sincere and resolute striving for peace served to +lull animosity and suspicions in that place. But to the allied +headquarters, now at Reichenbach, he had despatched Count Stadion, who +worked no less earnestly for war. While therefore the Courts of St. +Petersburg, Berlin, and London hoped, from Stadion's language, that +Austria meant to draw the sword, Napoleon inclined to the belief that +she would never do more than rattle her scabbard, and would finally +yield to his demands. + +Stadion's letters to Metternich show that he feared this result. He +pressed him to end the seesaw policy of the last six months. "These +people are beaten owing to our faults, our half wishes, our half +measures, and presently they will get out of the scrape and leave us +to pay the price." As for Austria's forthcoming demand of Illyria, who +would guarantee that the French Emperor would let her keep it six +months, if he remained master of Germany and Italy? Only by a close +union with the allies could she be screened from Napoleon's vengeance, +which must otherwise lead to her utter destruction. Let, then, all +timid counsellors be removed from the side of the Emperor Francis. "I +cling to my oft-expressed conviction that we are no longer masters of +our own affairs, and that the tide of events will carry us +along."[323] If we may judge from Metternich's statements in his +"Memoirs," written many years later, he was all along in secret +sympathy with these views. But his actions and his official despatches +during the first six weeks of the armistice bore another complexion; +they were almost colourless, or rather, they were chameleonic. At +Dresden they seemed, on the whole, to be favourable to France: at +Reichenbach, when coloured by Stadion, they were thought to hold out +the prospect of another European coalition. + +A new and important development was given to Austrian policy when, on +June 7th, Metternich drew up the conditions on which Austria would +insist as the basis of her armed mediation. They were as follows: (1) +Dissolution of the Duchy of Warsaw; (2) A consequent reconstruction of +Prussia, with the certainty of recovering Danzig; (3) Restitution of +the Illyrian provinces, including Dalmatia, to Austria; (4) +Re-establishment of the Hanse Towns, and an eventual arrangement as to +the cession of the other parts of the 32nd military division [the part +of North Germany annexed by Napoleon in 1810]. To these were added two +other conditions on which Austria would lay great stress, namely: (5) +Dissolution of the Confederation of the Rhine; (6) Reconstruction of +Prussia conformably with her territorial extent previous to 1805. + +At first sight these terms seem favourable to the allied cause; but +they were much less extensive than the proposals submitted by +Alexander in the middle of May. Therefore, when they were set forth to +the allies at Reichenbach, they were unfavourably received, and for +some days suspicion of Austria overclouded the previous goodwill. It +was removed only by the labours of Stadion and by the tact which +Metternich displayed during an interview with the Czar at Opotschna +(June 17th). + +Alexander came there prejudiced against Metternich as a past master in +the arts of double-dealing: he went away convinced that he meant well +for the allies. "What will become of us," asked the Czar, "if Napoleon +accepts your mediation?" To which the statesman replied: "If he +refuses it, the truce will be at an end, and you will find us in the +ranks of your allies. If he accepts it, the negotiations will prove to +a certainty that Napoleon is neither wise nor just; and the issue will +be the same." Alexander knew enough of his great enemy's character to +discern the sagacity of Metternich's forecast; and both Frederick +William and he agreed to the Austrian terms.[324] Accordingly, on June +27th, a treaty was secretly signed at Reichenbach, wherein Austria +pledged herself to an active alliance with Russia and Prussia in case +Napoleon should not, by the end of the armistice, have acceded to her +four _conditiones sine quibus non._ To these was now added a demand +for the evacuation of all Polish and Prussian fortresses by French +troops, a stipulation which it was practically certain that Napoleon +would refuse.[325] + +The allies meanwhile were gaining the sinews of war from England. The +Czar had informed Cathcart at Kalisch that, though he did not press +our Government for subsidies, yet he would not be able to wage a long +campaign without such aid. On June 14th and 15th, our ambassador +signed treaties with Russia and Prussia, whereby we agreed to aid the +former by a yearly subsidy of L1,133,334, and the latter by a sum of +half that amount, and to meet all the expenses of the Russian fleet +then in our harbours. The Czar and the King of Prussia bound +themselves to maintain in the field (exclusive of garrisons) 160,000 +and 80,000 men respectively.[326] + +There was every reason for these preparations. Everything showed that +Napoleon was bent on browbeating the allies. On June 17th Napoleon's +troops destroyed or captured Luetzow's volunteers at Kitzen near +Leipzig. The excuse for this act was that Luetzow had violated the +armistice; but he had satisfied Nisas, the French officer there in +command, that he was loyally observing it. Nevertheless, his brigade +was cut to pieces. The protests of the allies received no response +except that Luetzow's men might be exchanged--as if they had been +captured in fair fight. Finally, Napoleon refused to hear the +statement of Nisas in his own justification, reproached him for +casting a slur on the conduct of French troops, and deprived him of +his command.[327] + +But it was Napoleon's bearing towards Metternich, in an interview held +on June 26th at the Marcolini Palace at Dresden, that most clearly +revealed the inflexibility of his policy. Ostensibly, the interview +was fixed in order to arrange the forms of the forthcoming Congress +that was to insure the world's peace. In reality, however, Napoleon +hoped to intimidate the Austrian statesman, and to gather from him the +results of his recent interview with the Czar. Carrying his sword at +his side and his hat under his arm, he received Metternich in state. +After a few studied phrases about the health of the Emperor Francis, +his brow clouded and he plunged _in medias res_: "So you too want war: +well, you shall have it. I have beaten the Russians at Bautzen: now +you wish your turn to come. Be it so, the rendezvous shall be in +Vienna. Men are incorrigible: experience is lost upon you. Three times +I have replaced the Emperor Francis on his throne. I have promised +always to live at peace with him: I have married his daughter. At the +time I said to myself--you are perpetrating a folly; but it was done, +and now I repent of it." + +Metternich saw his advantage: his adversary had lost his temper and +forgotten his dignity. He calmly reminded Napoleon that peace depended +on him; that his power must be reduced within reasonable limits, or he +would fall in the ensuing struggle. No matador fluttered the cloak +more dextrously. Napoleon rushed on. No coalition should daunt him: he +could overpower any number of men--everything except the cold of +Russia--and the losses of that campaign had been made good. He then +diverged into stories about that war, varied by digressions as to his +exact knowledge of Austria's armaments, details of which were sent to +him daily. To end this wandering talk, Metternich reminded him that +his troops now were not men but boys. Whereupon the Emperor +passionately replied: "You do not know what goes on in the mind of a +soldier; a man such as I does not take much heed of the lives of a +million of men,"--and he threw aside his hat. Metternich did not pick +it up. + +Napoleon noticed the unspoken defiance, and wound up by saying: "When +I married an Archduchess I tried to weld the new with the old, Gothic +prejudices with the institutions of my century: I deceived myself, and +this day I see the whole extent of my error. It may cost me my throne, +but I will bury the world beneath its ruins." In dismissing +Metternich, the Emperor used the device which, shortly before the +rupture with England in 1803, he had recommended Talleyrand to employ +upon Whitworth, namely, after trying intimidation to resort to +cajolery. Touching the Minister on the shoulder, he said quietly: +"Well, now, do you know what will happen? You will not make war on +me?" To which came the quick reply: "You are lost, Sire; I had the +presentiment of it when I came: now, in going, I have the certainty." +In the anteroom the generals crowded around the illustrious visitor. +Berthier had previously begged him to remember that Europe, and +France, urgently needed peace; and now, on conducting him to his +carriage, he asked him whether he was satisfied with Napoleon. "Yes," +was the answer, "he has explained everything to me: it is all over +with the man."[328] + +Substantially, this was the case. Napoleon's resentment against +Austria, not unnatural under the circumstances, had hurried him into +outbursts that revealed the inner fires of his passion. In a second +interview, on June 30th, he was far more gracious, and allowed Austria +to hope that she would gain Illyria. He also accepted Austria's +mediation; and it was stipulated that a Congress should meet at Prague +for the discussion of a general pacification. Metternich appeared +highly pleased with this condescension, but he knew by experience that +Napoleon's caresses were as dangerous as his wrath; and he remained on +his guard. The Emperor soon disclosed his real aim. In gracious tones +he added: "But this is not all: I must have a prolongation of the +armistice. How can we between July 5th and 20th end a negotiation +which ought to embrace the whole world?" He proposed August 20th as +the date of its expiration. To this Metternich demurred because the +allies already thought the armistice too long for their interests. +August 10th was finally agreed on, but not without much opposition on +the part of the allied generals, who insisted that such a prolongation +would greatly embarrass them. + +Outwardly, this new arrangement seemed to portend peace: but it is +significant that on June 28th Napoleon wrote to Eugene that all the +probabilities appeared for war; and on June 30th he wrote his +father-in-law a cold and almost threatening letter.[329] + +Late on that very evening came to hand the first report of the +disaster of Vittoria. Despite all Napoleon's precautions, the news +leaked out at Dresden. Bubna's despatches of July 5th, 6th, and 7th +soon made it known to the Emperor Francis, then at Brandeis in +Bohemia. Thence it reached the allied monarchs and Bernadotte on July +12th at Trachenberg in the midst of negotiations which will be +described presently. The effect of the news was very great. The Czar +at once ordered a Te Deum to be sung: "It is the first instance," +wrote Cathcart, "of a Te Deum having been sung at this Court for a +victory in which the forces of the Russian Empire were not +engaged."[330] But its results were more than ceremonial: they were +practical. Our envoy, Thornton, who followed Bernadotte to +Trachenberg, states that Bubna had learnt that Wellington had +completely routed three French corps with a _debandade_ like that of +the retreat from Moscow. Thornton adds: "The Prince Royal [Bernadotte] +thinks that the French army will be very soon withdrawn from Silesia +and that Buonaparte must soon commence his retreat nearer the Rhine. I +have no doubt of its effect upon Austria. This is visible in the +answer of the Emperor [Francis] to the Prince, which came to-day from +the Austrian head-quarters." That letter, dated July 9th, was indeed +of the most cordial character. It expressed great pleasure at hearing +that "the obstacles which seemed to hinder the co-operation of the +forces under your Royal Highness are now removed. I regard this +co-operation as one of the surest supports of the cause which the +Powers may once more be called on to defend by a war which can only +offer chances of success unless sustained by the greatest and most +unanimous measures."[331] Further than this Francis could scarcely go +without pledging himself unconditionally to an alliance; and doubtless +it was the news of Vittoria that evoked these encouraging assurances. + +It is even more certain that the compact of Trachenberg also helped to +end the hesitations of Austria. This compact arose out of the urgent +need of adopting a general plan of campaign, and, above all, of ending +the disputes between the allied sovereigns and Bernadotte. The Prince +Royal of Sweden had lost their confidence through his failure to save +Hamburg from the French and Danes. Yet, on his side, he had some cause +for complaint. In the previous summer, Alexander led him to expect the +active aid of 35,000 Russian troops for a campaign in Norway: but, +mainly at the instance of England, he now landed in Pomerania and left +Sweden exposed to a Danish attack on the side of Norway. He therefore +suggested an interview with the allied sovereigns, a request which was +warmly seconded by Castlereagh.[332] Accordingly it took place at +Trachenberg, a castle north of Breslau, with the happiest results. The +warmth of the great Gascon's manner cleared away all clouds, and won +the approval of Frederick William. + +There was signed the famous compact, or plan, of Trachenberg (July +12th). It bound the allies to turn their main forces against +Napoleon's chief army, wherever it was: those allied corps that +threatened his flanks or communications were to act on the line that +most directly cut into them: and the salient bastion of Bohemia was +expressly named as offering the greatest advantages for attacking +Napoleon's main force. The first and third of these axioms were +directly framed so as to encourage Austria: the second aimed at +concentrating Bernadotte's force on the main struggle and preventing +his waging war merely against Denmark. + +The plan went even further: 100,000 allied troops were to be sent into +Bohemia, as soon as the armistice should cease, so as to form in all +an army of 200,000 men. On the north, Bernadotte, after detaching a +corps towards Hamburg, was to advance with a Russo-Prusso-Swedish army +of 70,000 men towards the middle course of the Elbe, his objective +being Leipzig; and the rest of the allied forces, those remaining in +Silesia, were to march towards Torgau, and thus threaten Napoleon's +positions in Saxony from the East. This plan of campaign was an +immense advance on those of the earlier coalitions. There was no +reliance here on lines and camps: the days of Mack and Phull were +past: the allies had at last learnt from Napoleon the need of seeking +out the enemy's chief army, and of flinging at it all the available +forces. Politically, also, the compact deserves notice. In concerting +a plan of offensive operations from Bohemia, the allies were going far +to determine the conduct of Austria. + +On that same day the peace Congress was opened at Prague. Its +proceedings were farcical from the outset. Only Anstett and Humboldt, +the Russian and Prussian envoys, were at hand; and at the appointment +of the former, an Alsatian by birth, Napoleon expressed great +annoyance. The difficulties about the armistice also gave him the +opportunity, which he undoubtedly sought, of further delaying +negotiations. In vain did Metternich point out to the French envoy, +Narbonne, at Prague, that these frivolous delays must lead to war if +matters were not amicably settled by August 10th, at midnight.[333] In +vain did Narbonne and Caulaincourt beg their master to seize this +opportunity for concluding a safe and honourable peace. It was not +till the middle of July that he appointed them his plenipotentiaries +at the Congress; and, even then, he retained the latter at Dresden, +while the former fretted in forced inaction at Prague. "I send you +more _powers_ than _power_," wrote Maret to Narbonne with cynical +jauntiness: "you will have your hands tied, but your legs and mouth +free so that you may walk about and dine."[334] At last, on the 26th, +Caulaincourt received his instructions; but what must have been the +anguish of this loyal son of France to see that Napoleon was courting +war with a united Europe. Austria, said his master, was acting as +mediator: and the mediator ought not to look for gains: she had made +no sacrifice and deserved to gain nothing at all: her claims were +limitless; and every concession granted by France would encourage her +to ask for more: he was disposed to make peace with Russia on +satisfactory terms so as to punish Austria for her bad faith in +breaking the alliance of 1812.[335] + +Such trifling with the world's peace seems to belong, not to the +sphere of history, but to the sombre domain of Greek tragedy, where +mortals full blown with pride rush blindly on the embossed bucklers of +fate. For what did Austria demand of him? She proposed to leave him +master of all the lands from the swamps of the Ems down to the Roman +Campagna: Italy was to be his, along with as much of the Iberian +Peninsula as he could hold. His control of Illyria, North Germany, and +the Rhenish Confederation he must give up. But France, Belgium, +Holland, and Italy would surely form a noble realm for a man who had +lost half a million of men, and was even now losing Spain. Yet his +correspondence proves that, even so, he thought little of his foes, +and, least of all, of the Congress at Prague. + +Leaving his plenipotentiaries tied down to the discussion of matters +of form, he set out from Dresden on July 24th for a visit to Mainz, +where he met the Empress and reviewed his reserves. Every item of news +fed his warlike resolve. Soult, with nearly 100,000 men, was about to +relieve Pamplona (so he wrote to Caulaincourt): the English were +retiring in confusion: 12,000 veteran horsemen from his armies in +Spain would soon be on the Rhine; but they could not be on the Elbe +before September. If the allies wanted a longer armistice, he +(Napoleon) would agree to it: if they wished to fight, he was equally +ready, even against the Austrians as well.[336] + +To Davoust, at Hamburg, he expressed himself as if war was certain; +and he ordered Clarke, at Paris, to have 110,000 muskets made by the +end of the year, so that, in all, 400,000 would be ready. Letters +about the Congress are conspicuous by their absence; and everything +proves that, as he wrote to Clarke at the beginning of the armistice, +he purposed striking his great blows in September. Little by little we +see the emergence of his final plan--_to overthrow Russia and Prussia, +while, for a week or two, he amused Austria with separate overtures at +Prague_. + +But, during eight years of adversity, European statesmen had learnt +that disunion spelt disaster; and it was evident that Napoleon's +delays were prompted solely by the need of equipping and training his +new cavalry brigades. As for the Congress, no one took it seriously. +Gentz, who was then in close contact with Metternich, saw how this +tragi-comedy would end. "We believe that on his return to Dresden, +Napoleon will address to this Court a solemn Note in which he will +accuse everybody of the delays which he himself has caused, and will +end up by proclaiming a sort of ultimatum. Our reply will be a +declaration of war."[337] + +This was what happened. As July wore on and brought no peaceful +overtures, but rather a tightening of Napoleon's coils in Saxony, +Bavaria, and Illyria, the Emperor Francis inclined towards war. +As late as July 18th he wrote to Metternich that he was still for +peace, provided that Illyria could be gained.[338] + +But the French military preparations decided him, a few days later, to +make war, unless every one of the Austrian demands should be conceded +by August 10th. His counsellors had already come to that conclusion, +as our records prove. On July 20th Stadion wrote to Cathcart urging +him to give pecuniary aid to General Nugent, who would wait on him to +concert means for rousing a revolt against Napoleon in Tyrol and North +Italy; and our envoy agreed to give L5,000 a month for the "support of +5,000 Austrians acting in communication with our squadron in the +Adriatic." This step met with Metternich's approval; and, when writing +to Stadion from Prague (July 25th), he counselled Cathcart to send a +despatch to Wellington and urge him to make a vigorous move against +the south of France. He (Metternich) would have the letter sent safely +through Switzerland and the south of France direct to our +general.[339] + +With the solemn triflings of the Congress we need not concern +ourselves. The French plenipotentiaries saw clearly that their master +"would allow of no peace but that which he should himself dictate with +his foot on the enemy's neck." Yet they persevered in their thankless +task, for "who could tell whether the Emperor, when he found himself +placed between highly favourable conditions and the fear of having +200,000 additional troops against him, might not hesitate; whether +just one grain of common sense, one spark of wisdom, might not enter +his head?" Alas! That brain was now impervious to advice; and the +young De Broglie, from whom we quote this extract, sums up the opinion +of the French plenipotentiaries in the trenchant phrase, "the devil +was in him."[340] + +But there was method in his madness. In the Dresden interview he had +warned Metternich that not till the eleventh hour would he disclose +his real demands. And now was the opportunity of trying the effect of +a final act of intimidation. On August 4th he was back again in +Dresden: on the next day he dictated the secret conditions on which he +would accept Austria's mediation; and, on August 6th, Caulaincourt +paid Metternich a private visit to find out what Austria's terms +really were. After a flying visit to the Emperor Francis at Brandeis, +the Minister brought back as an ultimatum the six terms drawn up on +June 7th (see p. 316); and to these he now added another which +guaranteed the existing possessions of every State, great or small. + +Napoleon was taken aback by this boldness, which he attributed to the +influence of Spanish affairs and to English intrigues.[341] On August +9th he summoned Bubna and offered to give up the Duchy of +Warsaw--provided that the King of Saxony gained an indemnity--also the +Illyrian Provinces (but without Istria), as well as Danzig, if its +fortifications were destroyed. As for the Hanse Towns and North +Germany, he would not hear of letting them go. Bubna thought that +Austria would acquiesce. But she had said her last word: she saw that +Napoleon was trifling with her until he had disposed of Russia and +Prussia. And, at midnight of August 10th, beacon fires on the heights +of the Riesengebirge flashed the glad news to the allies in Silesia +that they might begin to march their columns into Bohemia. The second +and vaster Act in the drama of liberation had begun. + +Did Napoleon remember, in that crisis of his destiny, that it was +exactly twenty-one years since the downfall of the old French +monarchy, when he looked forth on the collapse of the royalist defence +at the Tuileries and the fruitless bravery of the Swiss Guards? + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XXXV + +DRESDEN AND LEIPZIG + + +The militant Revolution had now attained its majority. It had to +confront an embattled Europe. Hitherto the jealousies or fears of the +Eastern Powers had prevented any effective union. The Austro-Prussian +league of 1792 was of the loosest description owing to the astute +neutrality of the Czarina Catherine. In 1798 and 1805 Prussia seemed +to imitate her policy, and only after Austria had been crushed did the +army of Frederick the Great try conclusions with Napoleon. In the Jena +and Friedland campaigns, the Hapsburgs played the part of the sulking +Achilles, and met their natural reward in 1809. The war of 1812 +marshalled both Austria and Prussia as vassal States in Napoleon's +crusade against Russia. But it also brought salvation, and Napoleon's +fateful obstinacy during the negotiations at Prague virtually +compelled his own father-in-law to draw the sword against him. +Ostensibly, the points at issue were finally narrowed down to the +control of the Confederation of the Rhine, the ownership of North +Germany, and a few smaller points. But really there was a deeper +cause, the character of Napoleon. + +The vindictiveness with which he had trampled on his foes, his almost +superhuman lust of domination, and the halting way in which he met all +overtures for a compromise--this it was that drove the Hapsburgs into +an alliance with their traditional foes. His conduct may be explained +on diverse grounds, as springing from the vendetta instincts of his +race, or from his still viewing events through the distorting medium +of the Continental System, or from his ingrained conviction that, at +bottom, rulers are influenced only by intimidation. + +In any case, he had now succeeded in bringing about the very thing +which Charles James Fox had declared to be impossible. In opening the +negotiations for peace with France in April, 1806, our Foreign +Minister had declared to Talleyrand that "the project of combining the +whole of Europe against France is to the last degree chimerical." Yet +Great Britain and the Spanish patriots, after struggling alone against +the conqueror from 1808 to 1812, saw Russia, Sweden, Prussia, and +Austria, successively range themselves on their side. It is true, the +Germans of the Rhenish Confederation, the Italians, Swiss, and Danes +were still enrolled under the banners of the new Charlemagne; but, +with the exception of the last, they fought wearily or questioningly, +as for a cause that promised naught but barren triumphs and unending +strife. + +Truly, the years that witnessed Napoleon's fall were fruitful in +paradox. The greatest political genius of the age, for lack of the +saving grace of moderation, had banded Europe against him: and the +most calculating of commanders had also given his enemies time to +frame an effective military combination. The Prussian General von +Boyen has told us in his Memoirs how dismayed ardent patriots were at +the conclusion of the armistice in June, and how slow even the wiser +heads were to see that it would benefit their cause. If Napoleon +needed it in order to train his raw conscripts and organize new +brigades of cavalry, the need of the allies was even greater. Their +resources were far less developed than his own. At Bautzen, their army +was much smaller; and Boyen states that had the Emperor pushed them +hard, driven the Russians back into Poland and called the Poles once +more to arms, the allies must have been in the most serious +straits.[342] + +Napoleon, it is true, gained much by the armistice. His conscripts +profited immensely by the training of those nine weeks: his forces now +threatened Austria on the side of Bavaria and Illyria, as well as from +the newly intrenched camp south of Dresden: his cavalry was +re-recovering its old efficiency: Murat, in answer to his imperious +summons, ended his long vacillations and joined the army at Dresden on +August 14th. + +Above all, the French now firmly held that great military barrier, the +River Elbe. Napoleon's obstinacy during the armistice was undoubtedly +fed by his boundless confidence in the strength of his military +position. In vain did his Marshals remind him that he was dangerously +far from France; that, if Austria drew the sword, she could cut him +off from the Rhine, and that the Saale, or even the Rhine itself, +would be a safer line of defence.--Ten battles lost, he retorted, +would scarcely force him to that last step. True, he now exposed his +line of communications with France; but if the art of war consisted in +never running any risk, glory would be the prize of mediocre minds. He +must have a complete triumph. The question was not of abandoning this +or that province: his political superiority was at stake. At Marengo, +Austerlitz, and Wagram, he was in greater danger. His forces now were +not _in the air_; they rested on the Elbe, on its fortresses, and on +Erfurt. Dresden was the pivot on which all his movements turned. His +enemies were spread out on a circumference stretching from Prague to +Berlin, while he was at the centre; and, operating on interior and +therefore shorter lines, he could outmarch and outmanoeuvre them. +"_But_," he concluded, "_where I am not my lieutenants must wait for +me without trusting anything to chance_. The allies cannot long act +together on lines so extended, and can I not reasonably hope sooner or +later to catch them in some false move? If they venture between my +fortified lines of the Elbe and the Rhine, I will enter Bohemia and +thus take them in the rear."[343] + +The plan promised much. The central intrenched camps of Dresden and +Pirna, together with the fortresses of Koenigstein above, and of Torgau +below, the Saxon capital, gave great strategic advantages. The corps +of St. Cyr at Koenigstein and those of Vandamme, Poniatowski, and +Victor further to the east, watched the defiles leading from Bohemia. +The corps of Macdonald, Lauriston, Ney, and Marmont held in check +Bluecher's army of Silesia. On Napoleon's left, and resting on the +fortresses of Wittenberg and Magdeburg, the corps of Oudinot, +Bertrand, and Reynier threatened Berlin and Bernadotte's army of the +north cantonned in its neighbourhood; while Davoust at Hamburg faced +Bernadotte's northern detachments and menaced his communications with +Stralsund. Davoust certainly was far away, and the loss of this ablest +of Napoleon's lieutenants was severely to be felt in the subsequent +complicated moves; with this exception, however, Napoleon's troops +were well in hand and had the advantage of the central position, while +the allies were, as yet, spread out on an extended arc. + +But Napoleon once more made the mistake of underrating both the +numbers and the abilities of his foes. By great exertions they now had +close on half a million of men under arms, near the banks of the Oder +and the Elbe, or advancing from Poland and Hungary. True, many of +these were reserves or raw recruits, and Colonel Cathcart doubted +whether the Austrian reserves were then in existence.[344] But the +best authorities place the total at 496,000 men and 1,443 cannon. +Moreover, as was agreed on at Trachenberg, 77,000 Russians and 49,000 +Prussians now marched from Glatz and Schweidnitz into Bohemia, and +speedily came into touch with the 110,000 Austrians now ranged behind +the River Eger. The formation of this allied Grand Army was a masterly +step. Napoleon did not hear of it before August 16th, and it was not +until a week later that he realized how vast were the forces that +would threaten his rear. For the present his plan was to hold the +Bohemian passes south of Bautzen and Pirna, so as to hinder any +invasion of Saxony, while he threw himself in great force on the Army +of Silesia, now 95,000 strong, though he believed it to number only +50,000.[345] While he was crushing Bluecher, his lieutenants, Oudinot, +Reynier, and Bertrand, were charged to drive Bernadotte's scattered +corps from Berlin; whereupon Davoust was to cut him off from the sea +and relieve the French garrisons at Stettin and Kuestrin. Thus Napoleon +proposed to act on the offensive in the open country towards Berlin +and in Silesia, remaining at first on the defensive at Dresden and in +the Lusatian mountains. This was against the advice of Marmont, who +urged him to strike first at Prague, and not to intrust his +lieutenants with great undertakings far away from Dresden. The advice +proved to be sound; but it seems certain that Napoleon intended to +open the campaign by a mighty blow dealt at Bluecher, and then to lead +a great force through the Lusatian defiles into Bohemia and drive the +allies before him towards Vienna. + +But what did he presume that the allied forces in Bohemia would be +doing while he overwhelmed Bluecher in Silesia? Would not Dresden and +his communications with France be left open to their blows? He decided +to run this risk. He had 100,000 men among the Lusatian hills between +Bautzen and Zittau. St. Cyr's corps was strongly posted at Pirna and +the small fortress of Koenigstein, while his light troops watched the +passes north of Teplitz and Karlsbad. If the allies sought to invade +Saxony, they would, so Napoleon thought, try to force the Zittau road, +which presented few natural difficulties. If they threatened Dresden +by the passages further west, Vandamme would march from near Zittau to +reinforce St. Cyr, or, if need be, the Emperor himself would hurry +back from Silesia with his Guards. If the enemy invaded Bavaria, +Napoleon wished them _bon voyage_: they would soon come back faster +than they went; for, in that case, he would pour his columns down from +Zittau towards Prague and Vienna. The thought that he might for a time +be cut off from France troubled him not: "400,000 men," he said, +"resting on a system of strongholds, on a river like the Elbe, are not +to be turned." In truth, he thought little about the Bohemian army. If +40,000 Russians had entered Bohemia, they would not reach Prague till +the 25th; so he wrote to St. Cyr On the 17th, the day when hostilities +could first begin; and he evidently believed that Dresden would be +safe till September. Its defence seemed assured by the skill of that +master of defensive warfare, St. Cyr, by the barrier of the Erz +Mountains, and still more by Austrian slowness. + +Of this characteristic of theirs he cherished great hopes. Their +finances were in dire disorder; and Fouche, who had just returned from +a tour in the Hapsburg States, reported that the best way of striking +at that Power would be "to affect its paper currency, on which all its +armaments depend."[346] And truly if the transport of a great army +over a mountain range had depended solely on the almost bankrupt +exchequer at Vienna, Dresden would have been safe until Michaelmas; +but, beside the material aid brought by the Russians and Prussians +into Bohemia, England also gave her financial support. In pursuance of +the secret article agreed on at Reichenbach, Cathcart now advanced +L250,000 at once; and the knowledge that our financial support was +given to the federative paper notes issued by the allies enabled the +Court of Vienna privately to raise loans and to wage war with a vigour +wholly unexpected by Napoleon.[347] + +Certainly the allied Grand Army suffered from no lack of advisers. The +Czar, the Emperor Francis, and the King of Prussia were there; as a +compliment to Austria, the command was intrusted to Field-Marshal +Schwarzenberg, a man of diplomatic ability rather than of military +genius. By his side were the Russians, Wittgenstein, Barclay, and +Toll, the Prussian Knesebeck, the Swiss Jomini, and, above all, +Moreau. + +The last-named, as we have seen, came over on the inducement of +Bernadotte, and was received with great honour by the allied +sovereigns. Jomini also was welcomed for his knowledge of the art of +war. This great writer had long served as a French general; but the +ill-treatment that he had lately suffered at Berthier's hands led him, +on August 14th, to quit the French service and pass over to the +allies. His account of his desertion, however, makes it clear that he +had not penetrated Napoleon's designs, for the best of all reasons, +because the Emperor kept them to himself to the very last moment.[348] + +The second part of the campaign opens with the curious sight of +immense forces, commanded by experienced leaders, acting in complete +ignorance of the moves of the enemy only some fifty miles away. +Leaving Bautzen on August 17th, Napoleon proceeded eastwards to +Goerlitz, turned off thence to Zittau, and hearing a false rumour that +the Russo-Prussian force in Bohemia was only 40,000 strong, returned +to Goerlitz with the aim of crushing Bluecher. Disputes about the +armistice had given that enterprising leader the excuse for entering +the neutral zone before its expiration; and he had had sharp affairs +with Macdonald and Ney near Loewenberg on the River Bober. Napoleon +hurried up with his Guards, eager to catch Bluecher;[349] the French +were now 140,000 strong, while the allies had barely 95,000 at hand. +But the Prussian veteran, usually as daring as a lion, was now wily as +a fox. Under cover of stiff outpost affairs, he skilfully withdrew to +the south-east, hoping to lure the French into the depths of Silesia +and so give time to Schwarzenberg to seize Dresden. + +[Illustration: CAMPAIGN OF 1813] + +But Napoleon was not to be drawn further afield. Seeing that his foes +could not be forced to a pitched battle, he intrusted the command to +Macdonald, and rapidly withdrew with Ney and his Guard towards +Goerlitz; for he now saw the possible danger to Dresden if +Schwarzenberg struck home. If, however, that leader remained on the +defensive, the Emperor determined to fall back on what had all along +been his second plan, and make a rush through the Lusatian defiles on +Prague.[350] But a despatch from St. Cyr, which reached him at Goerlitz +late at night on the 23rd, showed that Dresden was in serious danger +from the gathering masses of the allies. This news consigned his +second plan to the limbo of vain hopes. Yet, as will appear a little +later, his determination to defend by taking the offensive soon took +form in yet a third design for the destruction of the allies. + +It is a proof of the quenchless pugnacity of his mind that he framed +this plan during the fatigues of the long forced march back towards +Dresden, amidst pouring rain and the discouragement of knowing that +his raid into Silesia had ended merely in the fruitless wearying of +his choicest troops. Accompanied by the Old Guard, the Young Guard, a +division of infantry, and Latour-Maubourg's cavalry, he arrived at +Stolpen, south-east of Dresden, before dawn of the 25th. Most of the +battalions had traversed forty miles in little more than forty-eight +hours, and that, too, after a partial engagement at Loewenberg, and +despite lack of regular rations. Leaving him for a time, we turn to +glance at the fortunes of the war in Brandenburg and Silesia. + +Napoleon had bidden Oudinot, with his own corps and those of Reynier +and Bertrand, in all about 70,000 men, to fight his way to Berlin, +disperse the Landwehr and the "mad rabble" there, and, if the city +resisted, set it in flames by the fire of fifty howitzers. That +Marshal found that a tough resistance awaited him, although the allied +commander-in-chief, Bernadotte, moved with the utmost caution, as if +he were bent on justifying Napoleon's recent sneer that he would "only +make a show" (_piaffer_). It is true that the position of the Swedish +Prince, with Davoust threatening his rear, was far from safe; but he +earned the dislike of the Prussians by playing the _grand +seigneur_.[351] Meanwhile most of the defence was carried out by the +Prussians, who flooded the flat marshy land, thus delaying Oudinot's +advance and compelling him to divide his corps. Nevertheless, it +seemed that Bernadotte was about to evacuate Berlin. + +At this there was general indignation, which found vent in the retort +of the Prussian General, von Buelow: "Our bones shall bleach in front +of Berlin, not behind it." Seeing an opportune moment while Oudinot's +other corps were as yet far off, Buelow sharply attacked Reynier's +corps of Saxons at Grossbeeren, and gained a brilliant success, taking +1,700 prisoners with 26 guns, and thus compelling Oudinot's scattered +array to fall back in confusion on Wittenberg (August 23rd).[352] +Thither the Crown Prince cautiously followed him. Four days later, a +Prussian column of Landwehr fought a desperate fight at Hagelberg with +Girard's conscripts, finally rushing on them with wolf-like fury, +stabbing and clubbing them, till the foss and the lanes of the town +were piled high with dead and wounded. Scarce 1,700 out of Girard's +9,000 made good their flight to Magdeburg. The failures at Grossbeeren +and Hagelberg reacted unfavourably on Davoust. That leader, advancing +into Mecklenburg, had skirmished with Walmoden's corps of Hanoverians, +British, and Hanseatics; but, hearing of the failure of the other +attempts on Berlin, he fell back and confined himself mainly to a +defensive which had never entered into the Emperor's designs on that +side, or indeed on any side. + +Even when Napoleon left Macdonald facing Bluecher in Silesia, his +orders were, not merely to keep the allies in check: if possible +Macdonald was to attack him and drive him beyond the town of +Jauer.[353] This was what the French Marshal attempted to do on the +26th of August. The conditions seemed favourable to a surprise. +Bluecher's army was stationed amidst hilly country deeply furrowed by +the valleys of the Katzbach and the "raging Neisse."[354] Less than +half of the allied army of 95,000 men was composed of Prussians: the +Russians naturally obeyed his orders with some reluctance, and even +his own countryman, Yorck, grudgingly followed the behests of the +"hussar general." + +Macdonald also hoped to catch the allies while they were sundered by +the deep valley of the Neisse. The Prussians with the Russian corps +led by Sacken were to the east of the Neisse near the village of +Eichholz, the central point of the plateau north of Jauer, which was +the objective of the French right wing; while Langeron's Russian corps +was at Hennersdorf, some three miles away and on the west of that +torrent. On his side, Bluecher was planning an attack on Macdonald, +when he heard that the French had crossed the Neisse near its +confluence with the Katzbach, and were struggling up the streaming +gullies that led to Eichholz. + +Driving rain-storms hid the movements on both sides, and as Souham, +who led the French right, had neglected to throw out flanking scouts, +the Prussian staff-officer, Muffling, was able to ride within a short +distance of the enemy's columns and report to his chief that they +could be assailed before their masses were fully deployed on the +plateau. While Souham's force was still toiling up, Sacken's artillery +began to ply it with shot, and had Yorck charged quickly with his +corps of Prussians, the day might have been won forthwith. But that +opinionated general insisted on leisurely deploying his men. Souham +was therefore able to gain a foothold on the plateau: Sebastiani's men +dragged up twenty-four light cannon: and at times the devoted bravery +of the French endangered the defence. But the defects in their +position slowly but surely told against them, and the vigour of their +attack spent itself. Their cavalry was exhausted by the mud: their +muskets were rendered wellnigh useless by the ceaseless rain; and when +Bluecher late in the afternoon headed a dashing charge of Prussian and +Russian horsemen, the wearied conscripts gave way, fled pell-mell down +the slopes, and made for the fords of the Neisse and the Katzbach, +where many were engulfed by the swollen waters. Meanwhile the Russians +on the allied left barely kept off Lauriston's onsets, and on that +side the day ended in a drawn fight. Macdonald, however, seeing +Lauriston's rear threatened by the advance of the Prussians over the +Katzbach, retreated during the night with all his forces. On the next +few days, the allies, pressing on his wearied and demoralized troops, +completed their discomfiture, so that Bluecher, on the 1st of +September, was able thus to sum up the results of the battle and the +pursuit--two eagles, 103 cannon, 18,000 men, and a vast quantity of +ammunition and stores captured, and Silesia entirely freed from the +foe.[355] + +We now return to the events that centred at Dresden. When, on August +21st and 22nd, the allies wound their way through the passes of the +Erz, they were wholly ignorant of Napoleon's whereabouts. The +generals, Jomini and Toll, who were acquainted with the plan of +operations agree in stating that the aim of the allies was to seize +Leipzig. The latter asserts that they believed Napoleon to be there, +while the Swiss strategist saw in this movement merely a means of +effecting a junction with Bernadotte's army, so as to cut off Napoleon +from the Rhine.[356] Unaware that the rich prize of Dresden was left +almost within their grasp by Napoleon's eastward move, the allies +plodded on towards Freiberg and Chemnitz, when, on the 23rd, the +capture of one of St. Cyr's despatches flashed the truth upon them. + +At once they turned eastwards towards Dresden; but so slow was their +progress over the wretched cross-roads now cut up by the rains, that +not till the early morning of the 25th did the heads of their columns +appear on the heights south-west of the Saxon capital. Yet, even so, +the omens were all in their favour. On their right, Wittgenstein had +already carried the French lines at Pirna, and was now driving in St. +Cyr's outposts towards Dresden. The daring spirits at Schwarzenberg's +headquarters therefore begged him to push on the advantage already +gained, while Napoleon was still far away. Everything, they asserted, +proved that the French were surprised; Dresden could not long hold out +against an attack by superior numbers: its position in a river valley +dominated by the southern and western slopes, which the allies +strongly held, was fatal to a prolonged defence: the thirteen redoubts +hastily thrown up by the French could not long keep an army at bay, +and of these only five were on the left side of the Elbe on which the +allies were now encamped. + +Against these manly counsels the voice of prudence pleaded for delay. +It was not known how strong were St. Cyr's forces in Dresden and in +the intrenched camp south of the city. Would it not therefore be +better to await the development of events? Such was the advice of Toll +and Moreau, the latter warning the Czar, with an earnestness which we +may deem fraught with destiny for himself--"Sire, if we attack, we +shall lose 20,000 men and break our nose."[357] The multitude of +counsellors did not tend to safety. Distracted by the strife of +tongues, Schwarzenberg finally took refuge in that last resort of weak +minds, a tame compromise. He decided to wait until further corps +reached the front, and at four o'clock of the following afternoon _to +push forward five columns for a general reconnaissance in force_. As +Jomini has pointed out, this plan rested on sheer confusion of +thought. If the commander meant merely to find out the strength of the +defenders, that could be ascertained at once by sending forward light +troops, screened by skirmishers, at the important points. If he wished +to attack in force, his movement was timed too late in the day safely +to effect a lodgment in a large city held by a resolute foe. Moreover, +the postponement of the attack for thirty hours gave time for the +French Emperor to appear on the scene with his Guards. + +As we have seen, Napoleon reached Stolpen, a town distant some sixteen +miles from Dresden, very early on the morning of the 25th. His plans +present a telling contrast to the slow and clumsy arrangements of the +allies. He proposed to hurl his Guards at their rear and cut them off +from Bohemia. Crossing the Elbe at Koenigstein, he would recover the +camp of Pirna, hold the plateau further west and intercept +Schwarzenberg's retreat.[358] For the success of this plan he needed a +day's rest for his wearied Guards and the knowledge that Dresden could +hold out for a short time. His veterans could perhaps dispense with +rest; where their Emperor went they would follow; but Dresden was the +unknown quantity. Shortly after midnight of the 25th and 26th, he +heard from St. Cyr that Dresden would soon be attacked in such force +that a successful defence was doubtful. + +At once he changed his plan and at 1 a.m. sent off four despatches +ordering his Guards and all available troops to succour St. Cyr. +Vandamme's corps alone was now charged with the task of creeping round +the enemy's rear, while the Guards long before dawn resumed their +march through the rain and mud. The Emperor followed and passed them +at a gallop, reaching the capital at 9 a.m. with Latour-Maubourg's +cuirassiers; and, early in the afternoon, the bearskins of the Guards +were seen on the heights east of Dresden, while the dark masses of the +allies were gathering on the south and west for their reconnaissance +in force. + +[Illustration: BATTLE OF DRESDEN] + +Lowering clouds and pitiless rain robbed the scene of all brilliance, +but wreathed it with a certain sombre majesty. On the one side was the +fair city, the centre of German art and culture, hastily girdled with +redoubts and intrenchments manned now by some 120,000 defenders. Fears +and murmurings had vanished as soon as the Emperor appeared; and +though in many homes men still longed for the triumph of the allies, +yet loyalty to their King and awe of Napoleon held the great mass of +the citizens true to his alliance. As for the French soldiery, their +enthusiasm was unbounded. As regiment after regiment tramped in +wearily from the east over the Elbe bridge and the men saw that +well-known figure in the gray overcoat, fatigues and discomforts were +forgotten; thunderous shouts of "Vive l'Empereur" rent the air and +rolled along the stream, carrying inspiration to the defenders, doubt +and dismay to the hostile lines. Yet these too were being +strengthened, until they finally mustered close on 200,000 men, who +crowned the slopes south of Dresden with a war-cloud that promised to +sweep away its hasty defences--had not Napoleon been there. + +The news of his arrival shook the nerves of the Russian Emperor, and +it was reserved for the usually diffident King of Prussia to combat +all notion of retreat. Schwarzenberg's reconnaissance in force +therefore took place punctually at four o'clock, when the French, +after a brief rest, were well prepared to meet them. The Prussians had +already seized the "Great Garden" which lines the Pirna road; and from +this point of vantage they now sought to drive St. Cyr from the works +thrown up on its flank and rear. But their masses were torn by a +deadly fire and finally fell back shattered. The Russians, on their +right, fared no better. At the allied centre and left, the attack at +one time promised success. Under cover of a heavy cannonade from their +slopes, the Austrians carried two redoubts: but, with a desperate +charge, the Old Guard drove in through the gorges of these works and +bayoneted the victors of an hour. As night fell, the assailants drew +off baffled, after sustaining serious losses. + +Nevertheless, the miseries of the night, the heavy rains of the +dawning day and the knowledge of the strength of the enemy's position +in front and of Vandamme's movement in their rear, failed to daunt +their spirits. If they were determined, Napoleon was radiant with +hope. His force, though smaller, held the inner line and spread over +some three miles; while the concave front of the allies extended over +double that space, and their left wing was separated from the centre +by the stream and defile of Plauen. From his inner position he could +therefore readily throw an overpowering mass on any part of their +attenuated array. He prepared to do so against their wings. At those +points everything promised success to his methods of attack. + +Never, perhaps, in all modern warfare has the musket been so useless +as amidst the drenching rains which beat upon the fighters at the +Katzbach and before Dresden. So defective was its firing arrangement +then that after a heavy storm only a feeble sputter came from whole +battalions of foot: and on those two eventful days the honours lay +with the artillery and _l'arme blanche_. As for the infantrymen, they +could effect little except in some wild snatches of bayonet work at +close quarters. This explains the course of events both at the +Katzbach on the 26th, and at Dresden on the following day. The allied +centre was too strongly posted on the slopes south of Dresden to be +assailed with much hope of success. But, against the Russian vanguard +on the allied right, Napoleon launched Mortier's corps and Nansouty's +cavalry with complete success, until Wittgenstein's masses on the +heights stayed the French onset. Along the centre, some thousand +cannon thundered against one another, but with no very noteworthy +result, save that Moreau had his legs carried away by a shot from a +field battery that suddenly opened upon the Czar's suite. It was the +first shot that dealt him this fatal wound, but several other balls +fell among the group until Alexander and his staff moved away. + +Meanwhile the great blow was struck by Napoleon at the allied left. +There the Austrian wing was sundered from the main force by the +difficult defile of Plauen; and it was crushed by one of the Emperor's +most brilliant combinations. Directing Victor with 20,000 men of all +arms to engage the white-coats in front, he bade Murat, with 10,000 +horsemen, steal round near the bank of the Elbe and charge their flank +and rear. The division of Count Metzko bore the brunt of this terrible +onset. Nobly it resisted. Though not one musket in fifty would fire, +the footmen in one place beat off two charges of Latour-Maubourg's +cuirassiers, until he headed his line with lancers, who mangled their +ranks and opened a way for the sword.[359] Then all was slaughter; and +as Murat's squadrons raged along their broken lines, 10,000 footmen, +cut off from the main body, laid down their arms. News of this +disaster on the left and the sound of Vandamme's cannon thundering +among the hills west of Pirna decided the allied sovereigns and +Schwarzenberg to prepare for a timely retreat into Bohemia. Yet so +bold a front did they keep at the centre and right that the waning +light showed the combatants facing each other there on even terms. + +During the night, the rumbling of wagons warned Marmont's scouts that +the enemy were retreating;[360] and the Emperor, coming up at break of +day, ordered that Marshal and St. Cyr to press directly on their rear, +while Murat pursued the fugitives along the Freiburg road further to +the west. The outcome of these two days of fighting was most serious +for the allies. They lost 35,000 men in killed, wounded and +prisoners--a natural result of their neglect to seize Fortune's +bounteous favours on the 25th; a result, too, of Napoleon's rapid +movements and unerring sagacity in profiting by the tactical blunders +of his foes. + +It was the last of his great victories. And even here the golden fruit +which he hoped to cull crumbled to bitter dust in his grasp. As has +been pointed out, he had charged General Vandamme, one of the sternest +fighters in the French army, to undertake with 38,000 men a task which +he himself had previously hoped to achieve with more than double that +number. This was to seize Pirna and the plateau to the west, which +commands the three roads leading towards Teplitz in Bohemia. The best +of these roads crosses the Erzgebirge by way of Nollendorf and the +gorge leading down to Kulm, the other by the Zinnwald pass, while +between them is a third and yet more difficult track. Vandamme was to +take up a position west or south-west of Pirna so as to cut off the +retreat of the foe. + +Accordingly, he set out from Stolpen at dawn of the 26th, and on the +next two days fought his way far round the rear of the allied Grand +Army. A Russian force of 14,000 men, led by the young Prince Eugene of +Wuertemberg and Count Ostermann, sought in vain to stop his progress: +though roughly handled on the 28th by the French, the Muscovites +disengaged themselves, fell back ever fighting to the Nollendorf pass, +and took up a strong position behind the village of Kulm. There they +received timely support from the forces of the Czar and Frederick +William, who, after crossing by the Zinnwald pass, heard the firing on +the east and divined the gravity of the crisis. Unless they kept +Vandamme at bay, the Grand Army could with difficulty struggle through +into Bohemia. But now, with the supports hastily sent him, Ostermann +finally beat back Vandamme's utmost efforts. The defenders little knew +what favours Fortune had in store. + +A Prussian corps under Kleist was slowly plodding up the middle of the +three defiles, when, at noonday of the 29th, an order came from the +King to hurry over the ridge and turn east to the support of +Ostermann. This was impossible: the defile was choked with wagons and +artillery: but one of Kleist's staff-officers proposed the daring plan +of plunging at once into cross tracks and cutting into Vandamme's +rear. This novel and romantic design was carried out. While, then, the +French general was showering his blows against the allies below Kulm, +the Prussians swarmed down from the heights of Nollendorf on his rear. +Even so, the French struggled stoutly for liberty. Their leader, +scorning death or surrender, flung himself with his braves on the +Russians in front, but was borne down and caught, fighting to the +last. Several squadrons rushed up the steeps against the Prussians and +in part hewed their way through. Four thousand footmen held their own +on a natural stronghold until their bullets failed, and the survivors +surrendered. Many more plunged into the woods and met various fates, +some escaping through to their comrades, others falling before +Kleist's rearguard. Such was the disaster of Kulm. Apart from the +unbending heroism shown by the conquered, it may be called the Caudine +Forks of modern war. A force of close on 40,000 men was nearly +destroyed: it lost all its cannon and survived only in bands of +exhausted stragglers.[361] + +Who is to be blamed for this disaster? Obviously, it could not have +occurred had Vandamme kept in touch with the nearest French divisions: +otherwise, these could have closed in on Kleist's rear and captured +him. Napoleon clearly intended to support Vandamme by the corps of St. +Cyr, who, early on the 28th, was charged to co-operate with that +general, while Mortier covered Pirna. But on that same morning the +Emperor rode to Pirna, found that St. Cyr, Marmont, and Murat were +sweeping in crowds of prisoners, and directed Berthier to order +Vandamme to "penetrate into Bohemia and overwhelm the Prince of +Wuertemberg."[362] Then, without waiting to organize the pursuit, he +forthwith returned to Dresden, either because, as some say, the rains +of the previous days had struck a chill to his system, or as Marmont, +with more reason, asserts, because of his concern at the news of +Macdonald's disaster on the Katzbach. Certain it is that he recalled +his Old Guard to Dresden, busied himself with plans for a march on +Berlin, and at 5.30 next morning directed Berthier to order St. Cyr to +"pursue the foe to Maxen and in all directions that he has taken." +This order led St. Cyr westwards, in pursuit of Barclay's Russians, +who had diverged sharply in that direction in order to escape +Vandamme. + +The eastern road to Teplitz was thus left comparatively clear, while +the middle road was thronged with pursuers and pursued.[363] No +directions were given by Napoleon to warn Vandamme of the gap thus +left in his rear: neither was Mortier at Pirna told to press on and +keep in touch with Vandamme now that St. Cyr was some eight miles away +to the west. Doubtless St. Cyr and Mortier ought to have concerted +measures for keeping in touch with Vandamme, and they deserve censure +for their lack of foresight; but it was not usual, even for the +Marshals, to take the initiative when the Emperor was near at hand. To +sum up: the causes of Vandamme's disaster were, firstly, his rapid +rush into Bohemia in quest of the Marshal's baton which was to be his +guerdon of victory: secondly, the divergence of St. Cyr westward in +pursuance of Napoleon's order of the 29th to pursue the enemy towards +Maxen: thirdly, the neglect of St. Cyr and Mortier to concert measures +for the support of Vandamme along the Nollendorf road: but, above all, +the return of Napoleon to Dresden, and his neglect to secure a timely +co-operation of his forces along the eastern line of pursuit.[364] + +The disaster at Kulm ruined Napoleon's campaign. While Vandamme was +making his last stand, his master at Dresden was drawing up a long +Note as to the respective advantages of a march on Berlin or on +Prague. He decided on the former course, which would crush the +national movement in Prussia, and bring him into touch with Davoust +and the French garrisons at Kuestrin and Stettin. "Then, if Austria +begins her follies again, I shall be at Dresden with a united army." + +He looked on Austria as cowed by the blows dealt her south of Dresden, +which would probably bring her to sue for peace, and he hoped that one +more great battle would end the war. The mishaps to Macdonald and +Vandamme dispelled these dreams. Still, with indomitable energy, he +charged Ney to take command of Oudinot's army (a post of which this +unfortunate leader begged to be relieved) and to strike at Berlin. He +ordered Friant with a column of the Old Guard to march to Bautzen and +drive in Macdonald's stragglers with the butt ends of muskets.[365] +Then, hearing how pressing was the danger of this Marshal, he himself +set out secretly with the cavalry of the Guard in hope of crushing +Bluecher. But again that leader retreated (September 4th and 5th), and +once more the allied Grand Army thrust its columns through the Erz and +threatened Dresden. Hurrying back in the worst of humours to defend +that city, Napoleon heard bad news from the north. On September 6th +Ney had been badly beaten at Dennewitz. In truth, that brave fighter +was no tactician: his dispositions were worse than those of Oudinot, +and the obstinate bravery of the Prussians, led by Buelow and +Tauenzien, wrested a victory from superior numbers. Night alone saved +Ney's army from complete dissolution: as it was, he lost some 9,000 +killed and wounded, 15,000 prisoners along with eighty cannon, and +frankly summed up the situation thus to his master: "I have been +totally beaten, and still do not know whether my army has +reassembled."[366] Ultimately his army assembled and fell back behind +the Elbe at Torgau. + +Thus, in a fortnight (August 23rd-September 6th), Napoleon had gained +a great success at Dresden, while, on the circumference of operations, +his lieutenants had lost five battles--Grossbeeren, Hagelberg, +Katzbach, Kulm, and Dennewitz. The allies could therefore contract +that circumference, come into closer touch, and threaten his central +intrenched camps at Pirna and Dresden. Yet still, in pursuance of a +preconcerted plan, they drew back where he advanced in person. Thus, +when he sought to drive back Schwarzenberg's columns into Bohemia, +that leader warily retired to the now impregnable passes; and the +Emperor fell back on Dresden, wearied and perplexed. As he said to +Marmont: "The chess-board is very confused: it is only I who can know +where I am." Yet once more he plunged into the Erzgebirge, engaged in +a fruitless skirmish in the defile above Kulm, and again had to lead +his troops back to Pirna and Dresden. A third move against Bluecher led +to the same wearisome result. + +The allies, having worn down the foe, planned a daring move. Bluecher +persuaded the allied sovereigns to strike from Bohemia at Leipzig, +thus turning the flank of the defensive works that the French had +thrown up south of Dresden, and cutting their communications with +France. He himself would march north-west, join the northern army, and +thereafter meet them at Leipzig. This rendezvous he kept, as later he +staunchly kept troth with Wellington at Waterloo; and we may detect +here, as in 1815, the strategic genius of Gneisenau as the prime +motive force. + +Leaving a small force to screen his former positions at Bautzen, the +veteran, with 65,000 men, stealthily set out on his flank march +towards Wittenberg, threw two pontoon bridges over the Elbe at +Wartenburg, about ten miles above that fortress, drove away Bertrand's +battalions who hindered the crossing, and threw up earthworks to +protect the bridges (October 3rd). This done, he began to feel about +for Bernadotte, and came into touch with him south of Dessau. By this +daring march he placed two armies, amounting to 160,000 men, on the +north of Napoleon's lines; and his personal influence checked, even if +it did not wholly stop, the diplomatic loiterings of the Swedish Crown +Prince.[368] Bernadotte's hesitations were finally overcome by the +news that Bluecher was marching south towards Leipzig. Finally he gave +orders to follow him; but we may judge how easy would have been the +task of overthrowing Bernadotte's discordant array if Napoleon could +have carried out his project of September 30th. + +As it was, the disaster of Kulm kept the Emperor tethered for some +days within a few leagues of Dresden, while Buelow and Bluecher saved +the campaign for the allies in the north, thereby exciting a patriotic +ferment which drove Jerome Bonaparte from Cassel and kept Davoust to +the defensive around Hamburg. There the skilful moves of Walmoden with +a force of Russians, British, Swedes, and North Germans kept in check +the ablest of the French Marshals, and prevented his junction with the +Emperor, for which the latter never ceased to struggle. + +Meanwhile the Grand Army of the allies, strengthened by the approach +from Poland of 50,000 Russians of the Army of Reserve, was creeping +through the western passes of the Erz into the plains south of +Leipzig. This move was not unexpected by Napoleon. The importance of +that city was obvious. Situated in the midst of the fertile Saxon +plain, the centre of a great system ofroads, its position and its +wealth alike marked it out as the place likely to be seized by a +daring foe who should seek to cut Napoleon off from France. + +As fortune turned against him, he became ever more nervous about +Leipzig. Yet, for the present, the northward march of Bluecher rivetted +his attention. It puzzled him. Even as late as October 2nd he had not +fathomed Bluecher's real aim[369]. But four days later he heard that +the Prussian leader had crossed the Elbe. At once he hurried +north-west with the Guard to crush him, and to resume the favourite +project of threatening Berlin and join hands with Davoust. Charging +St-Cyr with the defence of Dresden, and Murat with the defence of +Leipzig, he took his stand at Dueben, a small town on the Mulde, nearly +midway between Leipzig and Wittenberg. Thence he reinforced Ney's +army, and ordered that Marshal northwards to fall on the rear of +Bernadotte and Bluecher; while he himself waited in a moated castle at +Dueben to learn the issue of events. + +The saxon Colonel, von Odeleben, has left us a vivid picture of the +great man's restlessness during those four days. Surrounded by maps +and despatches, and waited on by watchful geographer and apprehensive +secretary, he spent much of the time scrawling large letters on a +sheet of paper, uneasily listening for the tramp of a courier. In +truth, few days of his life were more critical that those spent amidst +the rains, swamps, and fogs of Dueben. Could he have caught Bernadotte +and Bluecher far apart, he might have overwhelmed them singly, and then +have carried the war into the heart of Prussia. But he knows that +Dresden and Leipzig are far from safe. The news from that side begins +to alarm him: and though, on the north, Ney, Bertrand, and Reynier cut +up the rearguard of the allies, he learns with some disquiet that +Bluecher is withdrawing westwards behind the River Saale, a move which +betokens a wish to come into touch with Schwarzenberg near Leipzig. + +Yet this disconcerting thought spurs him on to one of his most daring +designs. "As a means of upsetting all their plans, I will march to the +Elbe. There I have the advantage, since I have Hamburg, Magdeburg, +Wittenberg, Torgau, and Dresden."[370] What faith he had in the +defensive capacities of a great river line dotted with fortresses! His +lieutenants did not share it. Caulaincourt tells us that his plan of +dashing at Berlin roused general consternation at headquarters, and +that the staff came in a body to beg him to give it up, and march back +to protect Leipzig. Reluctantly he abandons it, and then only to +change it for one equally venturesome. He will crush Bernadotte and +Bluecher, or throw them beyond the Elbe, and then, himself crossing the +Elbe, ascend its right bank, recross it at Torgau, and strike at +Schwarzenberg's rear near Leipzig. + +The plan promised well, provided that his men were walking machines, +and that Schwarzenberg did nothing in the interval. But gradually the +truth dawns on him that, while he sits weaving plans and dictating +despatches--he sent off six in the small hours of October +12th--Bluecher and Schwarzenberg are drawing near to Leipzig. On that +day he prepared to fall back on that city, a resolve strengthened on +the morrow by the capture of one of the enemy's envoys, who reported +that they had great hopes of detaching Bavaria from the French cause. + +The news was correct. Five days earlier, the King of Bavaria had come +to terms with Austria, offering to place 36,000 troops at her +disposal, while she, in return, guaranteed his complete sovereignty +and a full territorial indemnity for any districts that he might be +called on to restore to the Hapsburgs.[371] Napoleon knew not as yet +the full import of the news, and it is quite incorrect to allege, as +some heedless admirers have done, that this was the only thing that +stayed his conquering march northwards.[372] His retreat to Leipzig +was arranged before he heard the first rumour as to Bavaria's +defection. But the tidings saddened his men on their miry march +southwards; and, strange to say, the Emperor published it to all his +troops at Leipzig on the 15th, giving it as the cause why they were +about to fall back on the Rhine. + +There was much to depress the Emperor when, on the 14th, he drew near +to Leipzig. With him came the King and Queen of Saxony, who during the +last days had resignedly moved along in the tail of this comet, which +had blasted their once smiling realm. Outside the city they parted, +the royal pair seeking shelter under its roofs, while the Emperor +pressed on to Murat's headquarters near Wachau. There, too the news +was doubtful. The King of Naples had not, on that day, shown his old +prowess. Though he disposed of larger masses of horsemen than those +which the allies sent out to reconnoitre, he chose his ground of +attack badly, and led his brigades in so loose an array that, after +long swayings to and fro, the fight closed with advantage to the +allies.[373] It was not without reason that Napoleon on that night +received his Marshals rather coolly at his modest quarters in the +village of Reudnitz. Leaning against the stove, he ran over several +names of those who were now slack in their duty; and when Augereau was +announced, he remarked that he was not the Augereau of Castiglione. +"Ah! give me back the old soldiers of Italy, and I will show you that +I am," retorted the testy veteran. + +As a matter of fact, Napoleon was not the old Napoleon, not even the +Napoleon of Dresden. There he had overwhelmed the foe by a rapid +concentration. Now nothing decisive was done on the 15th, and time was +thereby given the allies to mature their plans. Early on that day +Bluecher heard that on the morrow Schwarzenberg would attack Leipzig +from the south-east, but would send a corps westwards to threaten it +on the side of Lindenau. The Prussian leader therefore hurried on from +the banks of the Saale, and at night the glare of his watch-fires +warned Marmont that Leipzig would be assailed also from the +north-west. Yet, despite the warnings which Napoleon received from his +Marshal, he refused to believe that the north side was seriously +threatened; and, as late as the dawn of the 16th, he bade his troops +there to be ready to march through Leipzig and throw themselves on the +masses of Schwarzenberg.[374] Had Napoleon given those orders on the +15th, all might have gone well; for all his available forces, except +Ney's and Reynier's corps, were near at hand, making a total of nearly +150,000 men, while Schwarzenberg had as yet not many more. But those +orders on the 16th were not only belated: they contributed to the +defeat on the north side. + +The Emperor's thoughts were concentrated on the south. There his lines +stretched in convex front along undulating ground near Wachau and +Liebertwolkwitz, about a league to the south and south-east of the +town. His right was protected by the marshy ground of the small river +Pleisse; his centre stretched across the roads leading towards +Dresden, while his left rested on a small stream, the Parthe, which +curves round towards the north-west and forms a natural defence to the +town on the north. Yet to cautious minds his position seemed unsafe; +he had in his rear a town whose old walls were of no military value, a +town on which several roads converged from the north, east, and south, +but from which, in case of defeat, he could retire westward only by +one road, that leading over the now flooded streams of the Pleisse and +the Elster. But the great captain himself thought only of victory. He +had charged Macdonald and Ney to march from Taucha to his support: +Marmont was to do the same; and, with these concentrated forces acting +against the far more extended array of Schwarzenberg, he counted on +overthrowing him on the morrow, and then crushing the disunited forces +of Bluecher and Bernadotte.[375] + +[Illustration: BATTLE OF LEIPZIG] + +The Emperor and Murat were riding along the ridge near +Liebertwolkwitz, when, at nine o'clock, three shots fired in quick +succession from the allies on the opposite heights, opened the series +of battles fitly termed the Battle of the Nations. For six hours a +furious cannonade shook the earth, and the conflict surged to and fro +with little decisive result; but when Macdonald's corps struck in from +the north-east, the allies began to give ground. Thereupon Napoleon +launched two cavalry corps, those of Latour-Maubourg and Pajol, +against the allied centre. + +Then was seen one of the most superb sights of war. Rising quickly +from behind the ridge, 12,000 horsemen rode in two vast masses against +a weak point in the opposing lines. They were led by the King of +Naples with all his wonted dash. Panting up the muddy slopes opposite, +they sabred the gunners, enveloped the Russian squares, and the three +allied sovereigns themselves had to beat a hasty retreat to avoid +capture. But the horses were soon spent by the furious pace at which +Murat careered along; and a timely charge by Pahlen's Cossacks and the +Silesian cuirassiers, brought up from the allied reserves beyond the +Pleisse, drove the French brigades back in great disorder, with the +loss of their able corps leaders. The allies by a final effort +regained all the lost ground, and the day here ended in a drawn fight, +with the loss of about 20,000 men to either side. + +Meanwhile, on the west side of Leipzig, Bertrand had beaten off the +attack of Giulay's Austrian corps on the village of Lindenau. But, +further north, Marmont sustained a serious reverse. In obedience to +Napoleon's order, he was falling back towards Leipzig, when he was +sharply attacked by Yorck's corps at Moeckern. Between that village and +Eutritzsch further east the French Marshal offered a most obstinate +resistance. Bluecher, hoping to capture his whole corps, begged Sir +Charles Stewart to ride back to Bernadotte and request his succour. +The British envoy found the Swedish Prince at Halle and conjured him +to make every exertion not to be the only leader left out of the +battle.[376] It was in vain: his army was too far away; and only after +the village of Moeckern had been repeatedly taken and re-taken, was +Marmont finally driven out by Yorck's Prussians.[377] + +In truth, Marmont lacked the support of Ney's corps, which Berthier +had led him to expect if he were attacked in force. But the orders +were vague or contradictory. Ney had been charged to follow Macdonald +and impart irresistible momentum to the onset which was to have +crushed Schwarzenberg's right wing. He therefore only detached one +weak division to cover Marmont's right flank, and with the other +divisions marched away south, when an urgent message from Moeckern +recalled him to that side of Leipzig, with the result that his 15,000 +men spent the whole day in useless marches and counter-marches.[378] +The mishap was most serious. Had he strengthened Macdonald's +outflanking move, the right wing of the allied Grand Army might have +been shattered. Had he reinforced Marmont effectively, the position on +the north might have been held. As it was, the French fell back from +Moeckern in confusion, losing 53 cannon; but they had inflicted on +Yorck's corps a loss of 8,000 men out of 21,000. Relatively to the +forces engaged, Albuera and Moeckern are the bloodiest battles of the +Napoleonic wars. + +On the whole, Napoleon had dealt the allies heavier losses than he had +sustained. But they could replace them. On the morrow Bennigsen was +near at hand on the east with 41,000 Russians of the Army of Reserve; +Colloredo's Austrian corps had also come up; and, in the north, +Bernadotte's Army of the North, 60,000 strong, was known to be +marching from Halle to reinforce Bluecher. Napoleon, however, could +only count on Reynier's corps of 15,000 men, mostly Saxons, who +marched in from Dueben. St. Cyr's corps of 27,000 men was too far away, +at Dresden; and Napoleon must have bitterly rued his rashness in +leaving that Marshal isolated on the south-east, while Davoust was +also cut off at Hamburg. He now had scarcely 150,000 effectives left +after the slaughter of the 16th; and of these, the German divisions +were murmuring at the endless marches and privations. Everything +helped to depress men's minds. On that Sabbath morning all was sombre +desolation around Leipzig, while within that city naught was heard but +the groans of the wounded and the lamentations of the citizens. Still +Napoleon's spirit was unquenched. Amidst the steady rain he paced +restlessly with Murat along the dykes of the Pleisse. The King assured +him that the enemy had suffered enormous losses. Then, the dreary walk +ended, the Emperor shut himself in his tent. His resolve was taken. He +would try fortune once more.[379] + +Among the prisoners was the Austrian General Merveldt, over whom +Napoleon had gained his first diplomatic triumph, that at Leoben. He +it was, too, who had brought the first offers of an armistice after +Austerlitz. These recollections touched the superstitious chords in +the great Corsican's being; for in times of stress the strongest +nature harks back to early instincts. This harbinger of good fortune +the Emperor now summoned and talked long and earnestly with him.[380] +First, he complimented him on his efforts of the previous day to turn +the French left at Doelitz; next, he offered to free him on parole in +order to return to the allied headquarters with proposals for an +armistice. Then, after giving out that he had more than 200,000 men +round Leipzig, he turned to the European situation. Why had Austria +deserted him? At Prague she might have dictated terms to Europe. But +the English did not want peace. To this Merveldt answered that they +needed it sorely, but it must be not a truce, but a peace founded on +the equilibrium of Europe.--"Well," replied Napoleon, "let them give +me back my isles and I will give them back Hanover; I will also +re-establish the Hanse Towns and the annexed departments [of North +Germany].... But how treat with England, who wishes to bind me not to +build more than thirty ships of the line in my ports?"[381] + +As for the Confederation of the Rhine, those States might secede that +chose to do so: but never would he cease to protect those that wanted +his protection. As to giving Holland its independence, he saw a great +difficulty: that land would then fall under the control of England. +Italy ought to be under one sovereign; that would suit the European +system. As he had abandoned Spain, that question was thereby decided. +Why then should not peace be the result of an armistice?--The allied +sovereigns thought differently, and at once waved aside the proposal. +No answer was sent. + +In fact, they had Napoleon in their power, as he surmised. Late on +that Sunday, he withdrew his drenched and half-starved troops nearer +to Leipzig; for Bluecher had gained ground on the north and threatened +the French line of retreat. Why the Emperor did not retreat during the +night must remain a mystery. All the peoples of Europe were now +closing in on him. On the north were Prussians, Russians, Swedes, and +a few British troops. To the south-east were the dense masses of the +allied Grand Army drawn from all the lands between the Alps and the +Urals; and among Bennigsen's array on the east of Leipzig were to be +seen the Bashkirs of Siberia, whose bows and arrows gained them from +the French soldiery the sobriquet of _les Amours_. + +To this ring of 300,000 fighters Napoleon could oppose scarcely half +as many. Yet the French fought on, if not for victory, yet for honour; +and, under the lead of Prince Poniatowski, whose valour on the 16th +had gained him the coveted rank of a Marshal of France, the Poles once +more clutched desperately at the wraith of their national +independence. Napoleon took his stand with his staff on a hill behind +Probstheyde near a half-ruined windmill, fit emblem of his fortunes; +while, further south, the three allied monarchs watched from a higher +eminence the vast horse-shoe of smoke slowly draw in towards the city. +In truth, this immense conflict baffles all description. On the +north-east, the Crown Prince of Sweden gradually drove his columns +across the Parthe, while Bluecher hammered at the suburbs. + +Near the village of Paunsdorf, the allies found a weak place in the +defence, where Reynier's Saxons showed signs of disaffection. Some few +went over to the Russians in the forenoon, and about 3 p.m. others +marched over with loud hurrahs. They did not exceed 3,000 men, with 19 +cannon, but these pieces were at once effectively used against the +French. Napoleon hurried towards the spot with part of his Guards, who +restored the fight on that side. But it was only for a time. The +defence was everywhere overmatched. + +Even the inspiration of his presence and the desperate efforts of +Murat, Poniatowski, Victor, Macdonald, and thousands of nameless +heroes, barely held off the masses of the allied Grand Army. On the +north and north-east, Marmont and Ney were equally overborne.[382] +Worst of all, the supply of cannon balls was running low. With +pardonable exaggeration the Emperor afterwards wrote to Clarke: "If I +had then had 30,000 rounds, I should to-day be the master of the +world." + +At nightfall, the chief returned weary and depressed to the windmill, +and instructed Berthier to order the retreat. Then, beside a +watch-fire, he sank down on a bench into a deep slumber, while his +generals looked on in mournful silence. All around them there surged +in the darkness the last cries of battle, the groans of the wounded, +and the dull rumble of a retreating host. After a quarter of an hour +he awoke with a start and threw an astonished look on his staff; then, +recollecting himself, he bade an officer repair to the King of Saxony +and tell him the state of affairs. + +Early next morning, he withdrew into Leipzig, and, after paying a +brief visit to the King, rode away towards the western gate. It was +none too soon. The conflux of his still mighty forces streaming in by +three high roads, produced in all the streets of the town a crush +which thickened every hour. The Prussians and Swedes were breaking +into the northern suburbs, while the white-coats drove in the +defenders on the south. Slowly and painfully the throng of fugitives +struggled through the town towards the western gate. On that side the +confusion became ever worse, as the shots of the allies began to whiz +across the arches and causeway that led over the Pleisse and the +Elster, while the hurrahs of the Russians drew near on the north. +Ammunition wagons, gendarmes, women, grenadiers and artillery, cavalry +and cattle, the wounded, the dying, Marshals and sutlers, all were +wedged into an indistinguishable throng that fought for a foothold on +that narrow road of safety; and high above the din came the clash of +merry bells from the liberated suburbs, bells that three days before +had rung forced peals of triumph at Napoleon's orders, but now bade +farewell for ever to French domination. To increase the rout, a +temporary bridge thrown over the Elster broke down under the crush; +and the rush for the roadway became more furious. In despair of +reaching it, hundreds threw themselves into the flooded stream, but +few reached the further shore: among the drowned was that flower of +Polish chivalry, Prince Poniatowski. + +But this mishap was soon to be outdone. A corporal of engineers, in +the absence of his chief, had received orders to blow up the bridge +outside the western gate, as soon as the pursuers were at hand; but, +alarmed by the volleys of Sacken's Russians, whom Bluecher had sent to +work round by the river courses north-west of the town, the bewildered +subaltern fired the mine while the rearguard and a great crowd of +stragglers were still on the eastern side.[383] This was the climax of +this day of disaster, which left in the hands of the allies as many as +thirty generals, including Lauriston and Reynier, and 33,000 of the +rank and file, along with 260 cannon and 870 ammunition wagons. From +the village of Lindenau Napoleon gazed back at times over the awesome +scene, but in general he busied himself with reducing to order the +masses that had struggled across. The Old Guard survived, staunch as +ever, and had saved its 120 cannon, but the Young Guard was reduced to +a mere wreck. Amidst all the horrors of that day, the Emperor +maintained a stolid composure, but observers saw that he was bathed in +sweat. Towards evening, he turned and rode away westwards; and from +the weary famished files, many a fierce glance and muttered curse shot +forth as he passed by. Men remembered that it was exactly a year since +the Grand Army broke up from Moscow. + +Yet, despite the ravages of typhus, the falling away of the German +States and the assaults of the allied horse, the retreating host +struggled stoutly on towards the Rhine. At Hainau it swept aside an +army of Bavarians and Austrians that sought to bar the road to France; +and, early in November, 40,000 armed men, with a larger number of +unarmed stragglers, filed across the bridge at Mainz. Napoleon had not +only lost Germany; he left behind in its fortresses as many as 190,000 +troops, of whom nearly all were French; and of the 1,300 cannon with +which he began the second part of the campaign, scarce 200 were now at +hand for the defence of his Empire. + +The causes of this immense disaster are not far to seek. They were +both political and military. In staking all on the possession of the +line of the Elbe, Napoleon was engulfing himself in a hostile land. At +the first signs of his overthrow, the national spirit of Germany was +certain to inflame the Franconians and Westphalians in his rear, and +imperil his communications. In regard to strategy, he committed the +same blunder as that perpetrated by Mack in 1805. He trusted to a +river line that could easily be turned by his foes. As soon as Austria +declared against him, his position on the Elbe was fully as perilous +as Mack's lines of the Iller at Ulm. + +And yet, in spite of the obvious danger from the great mountain +bastion of Bohemia that stretched far away in his rear, the Emperor +kept his troops spread out from Koenigstein to Hamburg, and ventured on +long and wearying marches into Silesia, and north to Dueben, which left +his positions in Saxony almost at the mercy of the allied Grand +Army.[384] By emerging from the mighty barrier of the Erzgebirge, that +army compelled him three times to give up his offensive moves and +hastily to fall back into the heart of Saxony. + +The plain truth is that he was out-generalled by the allies. The +assertion may seem to savour of profanity. Yet, if words have any +meaning, the phrase is literally correct. His aim was primarily to +maintain himself on the line of the Elbe, but also, though in the +second place, to keep up his communication with France. Their aim was +to leave him the Elbe line, but to cut him off from France. Even at +the outset they planned to strike at Leipzig: their attack on Dresden +was an afterthought, timidly and slowly carried out. As long, however, +as their Grand Army clung to the Erz mountains, they paralyzed his +movements to the east and north, which merely played into their hands. + +As regards the execution of the allied plans, the honours must +unquestionably rest with Bluecher and Gneisenau. Their tactful retreats +before Napoleon in Silesia, their crushing blow at Macdonald, above +all, their daring flank march to Wartenburg and thence to Halle, are +exploits of a very high order; and doubtless it was the emergence of +this unsuspected volcanic force from the unbroken flats of continental +mediocrity that nonplussed Napoleon and led to the results described +above. Truly heroic was Bluecher's determination to push on to Leipzig, +even when the enemy was seizing the Elbe bridges in his rear. The +veteran saw clearly that a junction with Schwarzenberg near Leipzig +was the all-important step, and that it must bring back the French to +that point. His judgment was as sound as his strokes were trenchant; +and, owing to the illusions which Napoleon still cherished as to the +saving strength of the Elbe line, the French arrived on that mighty +battlefield half-famished and wearied by fruitless marches and +countermarches. Of all Napoleon's campaigns, that of the second part +of 1813 must rank as by far the weakest in conception, the most +fertile in blunders, and the most disastrous in its results for +France. + + +NOTE TO THE THIRD EDITION.--In order not to overcrowd these chapters +with diplomatic details, I have made only the briefest reference to +the Treaties signed at Teplitz on Sept. 9th, 1813, with Russia and +Prussia, which cemented the fourth great Coalition; but it will be +well to describe them here. + +A way having been paved for a closer union by the Treaty of Kalisch +(see p. 276) and by that of Reichenbach (see p. 317), it was now +agreed (1) that Austria and Prussia should be restored as nearly as +possible to the position which they held in 1805; (2) that the +Confederation of the Rhine should be dissolved; (3) and that "full and +unconditional independence" should be accorded to the princes of the +other German States. This last clause was firmly but vainly opposed by +Stein and the German Unionist party. Austria's help was so sorely +needed that she could dictate her terms, and she began to scheme for +the creation of a sort of _Fuerstenbund_, or League of Princes, under +her hegemony. The result was seen in her Treaty of October 7th, 1813, +with Bavaria, which detached that State from the French alliance and +assured the success of Metternich's plans for Germany (see pp. +354-355). The smaller States soon followed the lead given by Bavaria; +and the reconstruction of Germany on the Austrian plan was further +assured by the Treaty of Chaumont (see pp. 402-403). Thus the dire +need of Austrian help felt by Russia and Prussia throughout the +campaigns of 1813-1814 had no small share in moulding the future of +Europe. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVI + +FROM THE RHINE TO THE SEINE + + +"The Emperor Napoleon must become King of France. Up to now all his +work has been done for the Empire. He lost the Empire when he lost his +army. When he no longer makes war for the army, he will make peace for +the French people, and then he will become King of France."--Such were +the words of the most sagacious of French statesmen to Schwarzenberg. +They were spoken on April 15th, 1813, when it still seemed likely that +Napoleon would meet halfway the wishes of Austria. Such, at least, was +Talleyrand's ardent hope. He saw the innate absurdity of attempting to +browbeat Austria, and strangle the infant Hercules of German +nationality, after the Grand Army had been lost in Russia. + +If this was reasonable in the spring of 1813, it was an imperative +necessity at the close of the year. Napoleon had in the meantime lost +400,000 men: and he could not now say, as he did to Metternich of his +losses in Russia, that "nearly half were Germans." The men who had +fallen in Saxony, or who bravely held out in the Polish, German, and +Spanish fortresses, were nearly all French. They were, what the +_triarii_ were to the Roman legion, the reserves of the fighting +manhood of France. That unhappy land was growing restless under its +disasters. In Spain, Wellington had blockaded Pamplona, stormed St. +Sebastian, thrown Soult back on the Pyrenees in a series of desperate +conflicts, and planted the British flag on the soil of France, eleven +days before Napoleon was overthrown at Leipzig. Then, pressing +northwards, in compliance with the urgent appeals of the allied +sovereigns, our great commander assailed the lines south of the +Nivelle, on which the French had been working for three months, drove +the enemy out of them and back over the river, with a loss of 4,200 +men and 51 guns (November 10th).[385] + +The same tale was told in the north. The allies were welcomed by the +secondary German princes, who, in return for compacts guaranteeing +their sovereignty, promised to raise contingents that amounted in all +to upwards of a quarter of a million of men. Bernadotte marched +against the Danes and cut off Davoust in Hamburg, where that Marshal +bravely held out to the end of the war. Elsewhere in the north +Napoleon's domination quickly mouldered away. Buelow, aided by a small +British force, invaded Holland early in November; and, with the old +cry of _Orange boven_, the Dutch tore down the French tricolour and +welcomed back the Prince of Orange. In Italy, Eugene remained faithful +to his step-father and repulsed all the overtures of the allies: but +Murat, whose allegiance had already been shaken by the secret offers +of the allies, now began to show signs of going over to them, as he +did at the dawn of the New Year.[386] + +Meanwhile Napoleon had arrived at Paris (November 9th). He found his +capital sunk in depression, and indignant at the author of its +miseries. Peace was the dearest wish of all. Marie Louise confessed it +by her tears, Cambaceres by his tactful reserve, and the people by +their cries, while the sullen demeanour or bitter words of the +Marshals showed that their patience was exhausted. Evidently a +scapegoat was needed: it was found in the person of Maret, Duc de +Bassano, whose devotion to Napoleon had reduced the Ministry of +Foreign Affairs to a highly paid clerkship. For the crime of not +bending his master's inflexible will at Dresden, he was now cast as a +sop to the peace party; and his portfolio was intrusted to +Caulaincourt, Duc de Vicenza (November 20th). The change was salutary. +The new Minister, when ambassador at St. Petersburg, had been highly +esteemed by the Czar for his frank, chivalrous demeanour. Our +countrywoman, Lady Burghersh, afterwards testified to his personal +charm: "I never saw a countenance so expressive of kindness, +sweetness, and openness."[387] And these gifts were fortified by a +manly intelligence, a profound love of France, and by devotion to her +highest interests. The first of her interests was obviously peace; and +there now seemed some chance of his conferring this boon on her and on +the world at large. + +On November the 8th and 9th Metternich had two interviews at Frankfurt +with Baron St. Aignan, a brother-in-law of Caulaincourt, and formerly +the French envoy at Weimar. The Austrian Minister assured him of the +moderation of the allies, especially of England, and of their wish for +a lasting peace founded on the principle of the balance of power. +France must give up all control of Spain, Italy, and Germany, and +return to her natural frontiers, the Rhine, the Alps, and the +Pyrenees. Lord Aberdeen, our ambassador to Austria, and Count +Nesselrode, the Russian Minister for Foreign Affairs, were present at +the second interview, and assented to this statement, the latter +pledging his word that it had the approval of Prussia. Aberdeen added +his assurance that England was prepared to relax her maritime code and +sacrifice many of her conquests in order to attain a durable peace. To +these Frankfurt overtures Napoleon charged Maret to answer in vaguely +favourable terms, and to suggest the meeting of a European Congress at +Mannheim. The effect of this Note (November 16th) was marred by the +strange statement--"a peace based on the independence of all nations, +both from the continental and the maritime point of view, has always +been the constant object of the desires and policy of the Emperor +[Napoleon]."[388] + +Metternich in reply pointed out that the French Government had not +accepted the proposed terms as a basis for negotiations. The new +Foreign Minister, Caulaincourt, sent off (December 2nd) an acceptance +which was far more frank and satisfactory; but the day before he +penned it, the allies had virtually withdrawn their offer, as they had +told him they would do if it was not speedily accepted. They had all +along decided not to stay the military operations; and, as these were +still flowing strongly in their favour, they could not be expected to +keep open an offer which was exceedingly favourable to Napoleon even +at the time when it was made, that is, before the support of the +Dutch, of the Swiss, and of Murat was fully assured. + +It may be well to pause for a moment to inquire what were the views of +the allied Governments, and of Napoleon himself, at this crisis when +Europe was seething in the political crucible. Had Metternich the full +assent of those Governments when he offered the French Emperor the +natural frontiers? Here we must separate the views of Lord Aberdeen +from those of the British Cabinet, as represented by its Foreign +Minister, Lord Castlereagh: and we must also distinguish between the +Emperor Alexander and his Minister, Nesselrode, a man of weak +character, in whom he had little confidence. Certainly the British +Cabinet was not disposed to leave Antwerp in Napoleon's hands. + + "This nation," wrote Castlereagh to Aberdeen on November 13th, "is + likely to view with disfavour any peace which does not confine + France within her ancient limits.... We are still ready to + encounter, with our allies, the hazards of peace, if peace can be + made on the basis proposed, satisfactorily executed [_sic_]; and + we are not inclined to go out of our way to interfere in the + internal government of France, however much we might desire to see + it placed in more pacific hands. But I am satisfied we must not + encourage our allies to patch up an imperfect arrangement. If they + will do so, we must submit; but it should appear, in that case, to + be their own act, and not ours.... I must particularly entreat you + to keep your attention upon Antwerp. The destruction of that + arsenal is essential to our safety. To leave it in the hands of + France is little short of imposing upon Great Britain the charge + of a perpetual war establishment."[389] + +Thenceforth British policy inclined, though tentatively and with some +hesitations, to the view that it was needful in the interests of peace +to bring France back to the limits of 1791, that is, of withdrawing +from her, not only Holland, the Rhineland and Italy, but also Belgium, +Savoy, and Nice. The Prussian patriots were far more decided. They +were determined that France should not dominate the Rhineland and +overawe Germany from the fortresses of Mainz, Coblentz, and Wesel. On +this subject Arndt spoke forth with no uncertain sound in a +pamphlet--"The Rhine, Germany's river, not her boundary"--which proved +that the French claim to the Rhine frontier was consonant neither with +the teachings of history nor the distribution of the two peoples. The +pamphlet had an immense effect in stirring up Germans to attack the +cherished French doctrine of the natural frontiers, and it clinched +the claim which he had put forward in his "Fatherland" song of the +year before. It bade Germans strive for Treves and Cologne, aye, even +for Strassburg and Metz. Hardenberg and Stein, differing on most +points, united in praising this work. Even before it appeared, the +former chafed at the thought of Napoleon holding the left bank of the +Rhine. On hearing of Metternich's Frankfurt offer to the French +Emperor, he wrote in his diary: "Propositions of peace without my +assent--Rhine, Alps, Pyrenees: a mad business."[390] + +Frederick William's views were less pronounced: in fact, his proneness +to see a lion in every path earned for him the _sobriquet_ of +Cassandra in his Chancellor's diary. But in the main he was swayed by +the Czar; and that autocrat was now determined to dictate at Paris a +peace that would rid him of all prospect of his great rival's revenge. +Vanity and fear alike prescribed such a course of action. He longed to +lead his magnificent Guards to Paris, there to display his clemency in +contrast to the action of the French at Moscow; and this sentiment was +fed by fear of Napoleon. The latter motive was concealed, of course, +but Lord Aberdeen gauged its power during a private interview that he +had with Alexander at Freiburg (December 24th): "He talked with great +freedom: he is more decided than ever as to the necessity of +perseverance, and puts little trust in the fair promises of +Bonaparte.--'_So long as he lives there can be no security_'--he +repeated it two or three times."[391] We can therefore understand his +concern lest the Frankfurt terms should be accepted outright by +Napoleon. Metternich, however, assured him that the French Emperor +would not assent;[392] and, as in regard to the Prague Congress, he +was substantially correct. + +Here again we touch on the disputed question whether Metternich played +a fair game against Napoleon, or whether he tempted him to play with +loaded dice while his throne was at stake. The latter supposition for +a long time held the field; but it is untenable. On several occasions +the Austrian statesman warned Napoleon, or his trusty advisers, that +the best course open to him was to sign peace at once. He did so at +Dresden, and he did so now. On November 10th he sent Caulaincourt a +letter, of which these are the most important sentences: + + " ... M. de St. Aignan will speak to you of my conversations [with + him]. I expect nothing from them, but I shall have done my duty. + France will never sign a more fortunate peace than that which the + Powers will make to-day, and tomorrow if they have reverses. New + successes may extend their views.... I do not doubt that the + approach of the allied armies to the frontiers of France may + facilitate the formation of great armaments by her Government. The + questions will become problematical for the civilized world; but + the Emperor Napoleon will not make peace. There is my profession + of faith, and I shall never be happier than if I am wrong." + +The letter rings true in every part. Metternich made no secret of +sending it, but allowed Lord Aberdeen to see it.[393] And by good +fortune it reached Caulaincourt about the time when he assumed the +portfolio of Foreign Affairs. Its substance must therefore have been +known to Napoleon; and the tone of the Frankfurt proposals ought to +have convinced him of the need of speedily making peace while Austria +held out the olive branch from across the Rhine. But Metternich's +gloomy forecast was only too true. During his sojourn at Paris he had +tested the rigidity of that cast-iron will. + +In fact, no one who knew the Emperor's devotion to Italy could believe +that he would give up Piedmont and Liguria. His own despatches show +that he never contemplated such a surrender. On November 20th he gave +orders for the enrolling of 46,000 Frenchmen _of mature age_--"not +Italians or Belgians"--who were to reinforce Eugene and help him to +defend Italy; that, too, at a time when the defence of Champagne and +Languedoc was about to devolve on lads of eighteen. + +He was equally determined not to give up Holland. On the possession of +this maritime and industrious community he had always laid great +stress. He once remarked to Roederer that the ruin of the French +Bourbons was due to three events--the Battle of Rossbach, the affair +of the diamond necklace, and the victory of Anglo-Prussian influence +over that of France in Dutch affairs (1787). He even appealed to +Nature to prove that that land must form part of the French Empire. +"Holland," said one of his Ministers in 1809, "is the alluvium of the +Rhine, Meuse, and Scheldt--in other words, one of the great arteries +of the Empire." Before the last battle at Leipzig he told Merveldt +that he could not grant Holland its independence, for it would fall +under the tutelage of England. And even while his Empire was crumbling +away after that disaster, he wrote to his mother: "Holland is a French +country, _and will remain so for ever_."[394] + +Russia, Prussia, and Britain were equally determined that the Dutch +should be independent; and if Metternich wavered on the subject of +Dutch independence, his hesitation was at an end by the middle of +December, for a memorandum of the Russian diplomatist, Pozzo di Borgo, +states that Metternich then regarded the Rhine boundary as ending at +Duesseldorf: "after that town the river takes the name of Waal."[395] +Such juggling with geography was surely superfluous; for by that time +the Frankfurt terms had virtually lapsed, owing to Napoleon's belated +acceptance; and Metternich had joined the other allied Governments +that now demanded a more thorough solution of the boundary question. + +In fact, the allies were now able to make political capital out of +their recent moderation.[396] On December 1st they issued an appeal to +the French nation to the following effect: "We do not make war on +France, but we are casting off the yoke which your Government imposed +on our countries. We hoped to have found peace before touching your +soil: we now go to find it there." + +If the sovereigns hoped by means of this declaration to separate +France from Napoleon, they erred. To cross the Rhine was to attack, +not Napoleon, but the French Revolution. Belgium and the Rhine +boundary had been won by Dumouriez, Jourdain, Pichegru, and Moreau, at +a time when Bonaparte's name was unknown outside Corsica and Provence. +France had looked on wearily at Napoleon's wars in Germany, Spain, and +Russia: they concerned him, not her. But when the "sacred soil" was +threatened, citizens began to close their ranks: they ceased their +declamations against the crushing taxes and youth-slaying +conscription: they submitted to heavier taxes and levies of still +younger lads. In fact, by doffing the mask of Charlemagne, the Emperor +became once more the Bonaparte of the days of Marengo. + +He counted on some such change in public opinion; and it enabled him +to defy with impunity the beginnings of a Parliamentary opposition. +The Senate had been puffily obsequious, as usual; but the Corps +Legislatif had mistaken its functions. Summoned to vote new taxes, it +presumed to give advice. A commission of its members agreed to a +report on the existing situation, drawn up by Laine, which gave the +Emperor great offence. Its crime lay in its outspoken requests that +peace should be concluded on the basis of the natural frontiers, that +the rigours of the conscription should be abated, and that the laws +which guaranteed the free exercise of political rights should be +maintained intact. The Emperor was deeply incensed, and, despite the +advice of his Ministers, determined to dissolve the Chamber forthwith +(December 31st). Not content with this exercise of arbitrary power, he +subjected its members to a barrack-like rebuke at the official +reception on New Year's Day.--He had convoked them to do good, and +they had done evil. Two battles lost in Champagne would not have been +so harmful as their last action. What was their mandate compared with +his? France had twice chosen _him_ by some millions of votes: while +_they_ were nominated only by a few hundreds apiece. They had flung +mud at him: but he was a man who might be slain, never dishonoured. He +would fight for the nation, hurl back the foe, and conclude an +honourable peace. Then, for their shame, he would print and circulate +their report.--Such was the gist of this diatribe, which he shot forth +in strident tones and with flashing eyes. He had the copies of the +report destroyed, and dismissed the deputies to their homes throughout +France. + +The country, in the main, took his side; and doubtless the national +instinct was sound; for the allies had crossed the Rhine, and France +once more was in danger. As in 1793, when the nation welcomed the +triumph of the dare-devil Jacobins over the respectable parliamentary +Girondins, as promising a vigorous rule and the expulsion of the +monarchical invaders, so now the soldiers and peasants, if not the +middle classes, rejoiced at the discomfiture of the talkers by the one +necessary man of action. The general feeling was pithily expressed by +an old peasant: "It's no longer a question of Bonaparte. Our soil is +invaded: let us go and fight." + +This was the feeling which the Emperor ruthlessly exploited. He +decreed the enrolment of a great force of National Guards, exacted +further levies for the regular army, and ordered a _levee en masse_ +for the eastern Departments. The difficulties in his way were +enormous. But he flung himself at the task with incomparable _verve_. +Soldiers were wanting: youths were dragged forth, even from the +royalist districts of the extreme north and west and south. Money was +wanting: it was extorted from all quarters, and Napoleon not only +lavished 55,000,000 francs from his own private hoard, but seized that +of his parsimonious mother.[397] Cannon, muskets, uniforms were +wanting: their manufacture was pushed on with feverish haste: Napoleon +ordered his War Office to "procure all the cloth in France, good and +bad," so as to have 200,000 uniforms ready by the end of February; and +he counted on having half a million of effectives in the field at the +close of spring. + +Among these he reckoned--so, at least, he wrote to Melzi--"nearly +200,000" French soldiers from Arragon, Catalonia, and at Bayonne. Even +if we allow for his desire to encourage his officials in Italy, the +estimate is curious. Wellington at that time, it is true, had lessened +his numbers by sending back across the Pyrenees all his Spanish +troops, whose atrocities endangered that good understanding with the +French peasantry which our great leader, for political motives, was +determined to cultivate.[398] Yet, despite the shrinkage in numbers, +he drove the French from the banks of the River Nive, and inflicted on +them severe losses in desperate conflicts near Bayonne (December +9th-13th). In fact, the intrenched camp in front of that town was now +the sole barrier to Wellington's advance northwards, and it was with +difficulty that Soult clung to this position. The peasantry, too, +finding that they were far better treated by Wellington's troops than +by their own soldiers, began to favour the allied cause, with results +that will shortly appear. Yet these disquieting symptoms did not daunt +Napoleon; for he now based his hopes of resisting the British advance +on a compact which he had concluded with Ferdinand VII., the rightful +King of Spain. + +As soon as he returned to St. Cloud after the Leipzig campaign he made +secret overtures to that unhappy exile;[399] and by the Treaty of +Valencay (December 11th, 1813) he agreed to recognize him as King of +the whole of Spain, provided that British and French troops evacuated +that land. His imagination ran riot in picturing the results of this +treaty. Ferdinand was to enter Spain; Suchet, then playing a losing +game in Catalonia, was quietly to withdraw his columns through the +Pyrenees, while Wellington would have his base of operations cut from +under him, and thenceforth be a negligeable quantity.[400] These +pleasing fancies all rested on the acceptance of the new treaty by the +Spanish Regency and Cortes. But, alas for Napoleon! they at once +rejected it, declaring null and void all acts of Ferdinand while he +was a prisoner, and forbidding all negotiations with France while +French troops remained in the Peninsula (January 8th). + +Equally disappointing were affairs in Italy. On the 11th of January, +Murat made an alliance with Austria, and promised to aid her with a +corps of 30,000 Neapolitans, while she guaranteed him his throne and a +slice of the Roman territory. Napoleon directed Eugene, as soon as +this bad news was confirmed, to prepare to fall back on the Alps. But, +in order to clog Murat's movements, the Emperor resolved to make use +of the spiritual power, which for six years he had slighted. He gave +orders that the aged Pope should be released from his detention at +Fontainebleau, and hurried secretly to Rome. "Let him burst on that +place like a clap of thunder," he wrote to Savary (January 21st). But +this stagey device was not to succeed. Even now Napoleon insisted on +conditions with which Pius VII. could not conscientiously comply, and +he was still detained at Tarrascon when his captor was setting out for +Elba. + +Three days after Murat's desertion, Denmark fell away from Napoleon. +Overborne by the forces of Bernadotte, the little kingdom made peace +with England and Sweden, agreeing to yield up Norway to the latter +Power in consideration of recovering an indemnity in Germany. To us +the Danes ceded Heligoland. Thus, within three months of the disaster +at Leipzig, all Napoleon's allies forsook him, and all but the Danes +were now about to fight against him--a striking proof of the +artificiality of his domination. + +By this time it was clear that even France would soon be stricken to +the heart unless Napoleon speedily concentrated his forces. On the +north and east the allies were advancing with a speed that nonplussed +the Emperor. Accustomed to sluggish movements on their part, he had +not expected an invasion in force before the spring, and here it was +in the first days of January. Buelow and Graham had overrun Holland. +The allies, with the exception of the Czar, had no scruples about +infringing the neutrality of Switzerland, as Napoleon had consistently +done, and the constitution, which he had imposed upon that land eleven +years before, now straightway collapsed. Detaching a strong corps +southwards to hold the Simplon and Great St. Bernard Passes and +threaten Lyons, Schwarzenberg led the allied Grand Army into France by +way of Basel, Belfort, and Langres. The prompt seizure of the Plateau +of Langres was an important success. The allies thereby turned the +strong defensive lines of the Vosges Mountains, and of the Rivers +Moselle and Meuse, so that Bluecher, with his "Army of Silesia," was +able rapidly to advance into Lorraine, and drive Victor from Nancy. +Toul speedily surrendered, and the sturdy veteran then turned to the +south-west, in order to come into touch with Schwarzenberg's columns. +Neither leader delayed before the eastern fortresses. The allies had +learnt from Napoleon to invest or observe them and press on, a course +which their vast superiority of force rendered free from danger. +Schwarzenberg, on the 25th, had 150,000 men between Langres, Chaumont, +and Bar-sur-Aube; while Bluecher, with about half those numbers, +crossed the Marne at St. Dizier, and was drawing near to Brienne. In +front of them were the weak and disheartened corps of Marmont, Ney, +Victor, and Macdonald, mustering in all about 50,000 men. Desertions +to the allies were frequent, and Bluecher, wishing to show that the war +was practically over, dismissed both deserters and prisoners to their +homes.[401] + +But the war was far from over: it had not yet begun. Hitherto Napoleon +had hurried on the preparations from Paris, but the urgency of the +danger now beckoned him eastwards. As before, he left the Empress as +Regent of France, but appointed King Joseph as Lieutenant-General of +France. On Sunday, January 23rd, he held the last reception. It was in +the large hall of the Tuileries, where the Parisian rabble had forced +Louis XVI. to don the _bonnet rouge_. Another dynasty was now +tottering to its fall; but none could have read its doom in the faces +of the obsequious courtiers, or of the officers of the Parisian +National Guards, who offered their homage to the heir of the +Revolution. + +He came forward with the Empress and the King of Rome, a flaxen-haired +child of three winters, clad in the uniform of the National Guard. +Taking the boy by the hand into the midst of the circle, he spoke +these touching words: "Gentlemen,--I am about to set out for the army. +I intrust to you what I hold dearest in the world--my wife and my son. +Let there be no political divisions." He then carried him amidst his +dignitaries and officers, while sobs and shouts bespoke the warmth of +the feelings kindled by this scene. And never, surely, since the young +Maria Theresa appealed in person to the Hungarian magnates to defend +her against rapacious neighbours, had any monarch spoken so straight +to the hearts of his lieges. The secret of his success is not far to +seek. He had not commanded as Emperor: he had appealed as a father to +fathers and mothers. + +It is painful to have to add that many who there swore to defend him +were even then beginning to plot his overthrow. Most painful of all is +it to remember that when, before dawn of the 25th, Marie Louise bade +him farewell, it was her last farewell: for she, too, deserted him in +his misfortunes, refused to share his exile, and ultimately degraded +herself by her connection with Count Neipperg. + +Heedless of all that the future might bring, and concentrating his +thoughts on the problems of the present, the great warrior journeyed +rapidly eastwards to Chalons-sur-Marne, and opened the most glorious +of his campaigns. And yet it began with disaster. At Brienne, among +the scenes of his school-days, he assailed Bluecher in the hope of +preventing the junction of the Army of Silesia with that of +Schwarzenberg further south (January 29th). After sharp fighting, the +Prussians were driven from the castle and town. But the success was +illusory. Bluecher withdrew towards Bar-sur-Aube, in order to gain +support from Schwarzenberg, and, three days later, turned the tables +on Napoleon while the latter was indulging in hopes that the allies +were about to treat seriously for peace.[402] Nevertheless, though +surprised by greatly superior numbers, the 40,000 French clung +obstinately to the village of La Rothiere until their thin lines were +everywhere driven in or outflanked, with the loss of 73 cannon and +more than 3,000 prisoners. Each side lost about 5,000 killed and +wounded--a mere trifle to the allies, but a grave disaster to the +defenders. + +The Emperor was much discouraged. He had put forth his full strength, +exposed his own person to the hottest fire, so as to encourage his +men, and yet failed to prevent the union of the allied armies, or to +hold the line of the River Aube. Early on the morrow he left the +castle of Brienne, and took the road for Troyes; while Marmont, with a +corps now reduced to less than 3,000 men, bravely defended the passage +of the Voire at Rosnay, and, after delaying the pursuit, took post at +Arcis-sur-Aube. The means of defence, both moral and material, seemed +wellnigh exhausted. When, on February 3rd, Napoleon entered Troyes, +scarcely a single _vivat_ was heard. Even the old troops were cast +down by defeat and hunger, while as many as 6,000 conscripts are said +to have deserted. The inhabitants refused to supply the necessaries of +life except upon requisition. "The army is perishing of famine," +writes the Emperor at Troyes. Again at Nogent: "Twelve men have died +of hunger, though we have used fire and sword to get food on our way +here." And, now, into the space left undefended between the Marne and +the Aube, Bluecher began to thrust his triumphant columns, with no +barrier to check him until he neared the environs of Paris. Once more +the Prussian and Russian officers looked on the war as over, and +invited one another to dinner at the Palais-Royal in a week's +time.[403] + +But it was on this confidence of the old hussar-general that Napoleon +counted. He knew his proneness to daring movements, and the strong +bias of Schwarzenberg towards delay: he also divined that they would +now separate their forces, Bluecher making straight for Paris, while +other columns would threaten the capital by way of Troyes and Sens. +That was why he fell back on Troyes, so as directly to oppose the +latter movement, "or so as to return and manoeuvre against Bluecher and +stay his march."[404] Another motive was his expectation of finding at +Nogent the 15,000 veterans whom he had ordered Soult to send +northwards. And doubtless the final reason was his determination to +use the sheltering curve of the Seine, which between Troyes and Nogent +flows within twenty miles of the high-road that Bluecher must use if he +struck at Paris. At many a crisis Napoleon had proved the efficacy of +a great river line. From Rivoli to Friedland his career abounds in +examples of riverine tactics. The war of 1813 was one prolonged +struggle for the line of the Elbe. He still continued the war because +he could not yet bring himself to sign away the Rhenish fortresses: +and he now hoped to regain that "natural boundary" by blows showered +on divided enemies from behind the arc of the Seine. + +With wonderful prescience he had guessed at the general plan of the +allies. But he could scarcely have dared to hope that on that very day +(February 2nd) they were holding a council of war at Brienne, and +formally resolved that Bluecher should march north-west on Paris with +about 50,000 men, while the allied Grand Army of nearly three times +those numbers was to diverge south-west towards Bar-sur-Seine and Sens. +So unequal a partition of forces seemed to court disaster. It is true +that the allies had no magazines of supplies: they could not march in +an undivided host through a hostile land where the scanty defenders +themselves were nearly starving. If, however, they decided to move at +all, it was needful to allot the more dangerous task to a powerful +force. Above all, it was necessary to keep their main armies well in +touch with one another and with the foe. Yet these obvious precautions +were not taken. In truth, the separation of the allies was dictated +more by political jealousy than by military motives. To these political +affairs we must now allude; for they had no small effect in leading +Napoleon on to an illusory triumph and an irretrievable overthrow. We +will show their influence, first on the conduct of the allies, and +then on the actions of Napoleon. + +The alarm of Austria at the growing power of Russia and Prussia was +becoming acute. She had drawn the sword only because Napoleon's +resentment was more to be feared than Alexander's ambition. But all +had changed since then. The warrior who, five months ago, still had +his sword at the throat of Germany, was now being pursued across the +dreary flats of Champagne. And his eastern rival, who then plaintively +sued for Austria's aid, now showed a desire to establish Russian +control over all the Polish lands, indemnifying Prussia for losses in +that quarter by the acquisition of Saxony. Both of these changes would +press heavily on Austria from the north; and she was determined to +prevent them as far as possible. Then there was the vexed question of +the reconstruction of Germany to which we shall recur later on. +Smaller matters, involving the relations of the allies to Bernadotte, +Denmark, and Switzerland further complicated the situation: but, above +all, there was the problem of the future limits and form of government +of France. + +On that topic there were two chief parties: those who desired merely +to clip Napoleon's wings, and those who sought to bring back France to +her old boundaries. The Emperor Francis was still disposed to leave +him the "natural frontiers," provided he gave up all control of +Germany, Holland, and Italy. On the other side were the Czar and the +forward wing of the Prussian patriots. Frederick William was more +cautious, but in the main he deferred to the Czar's views on the +boundary question. Still, so powerful was the influence of the Emperor +Francis, Metternich, and Schwarzenberg, that the two parties were +evenly balanced and beset by many suspicions and fears, until the +arrival of the British Foreign Minister, Castlereagh, began to restore +something like confidence and concord. + +The British Cabinet had decided that, as none of our three envoys then +at the allied headquarters had much diplomatic experience, our +Minister should go in person to supervise the course of affairs. He +reached head-quarters in the third week of January, and what Thiers +has called the proud simplicity of his conduct, contrasting as it did +with the uneasy finesse of Metternich and Nesselrode, imparted to his +counsels a weight which they merited from their disinterestedness. +Great Britain was in a very strong position. She had borne the brunt +of the struggle before the present coalition took shape: apart from +some modest gains to Hanover, she was about to take no part in the +ensuing territorial scramble: she even offered to give up many of her +oceanic conquests, provided that the European settlement would be such +as to guarantee a lasting peace.[405] And this, the British Minister +came to see, could not be attained while Napoleon reigned over a Great +France: the only sure pledge of peace would be the return of that +country to its old frontiers, and preferably to its ancient dynasty. + +On the question of boundaries the Czar's views were not clearly +defined; they were personal rather than territorial. He was determined +to get rid of Napoleon; but he would not, as yet, hear of the +re-establishment of the Bourbons. He disliked that dynasty in general, +and Louis XVIII. in particular. Bernadotte seemed to him a far fitter +successor to Napoleon than the gouty old gentleman who for three and +twenty years had been morosely flitting about Europe and issuing +useless proclamations. + +Here, indeed, was Napoleon's great chance: there was no man fit to +succeed him, and he knew it. Scarcely anyone but Bernadotte himself +agreed with the Czar as to the fitness of the choice just named. To +the allies the Prince Royal of Sweden was suspect for his loiterings, +and to Frenchmen he seemed a traitor. We find that Stein disagreed +with the Czar on this point, and declared that the Bourbons were the +only alternative to Napoleon. Assuredly, this was not because the +great German loved that family, but simply because he saw that their +very mediocrity would be a pledge that France would not again overflow +her old limits and submerge Europe. + +Here, then, was the strength of Castlereagh's position. Amidst the +warping disputes and underhand intrigues his claims were clear, +disinterested, and logically tenable. Besides, they were so urged as +to calm the disputants. He quietly assured Metternich that Britain +would resist the absorption of the whole of Poland and Saxony by +Russia and Prussia; and on his side the Austrian statesman showed that +he would not oppose the return of the Bourbons to France "from any +family considerations," provided that that act came as the act of the +French nation.[406] And this was a proviso on which our Government and +Wellington already laid great stress. + +Castlereagh's straightforward behaviour had an immense influence in +leading Metternich to favour a more drastic solution of the French +question than he had previously advocated. The Frankfurt proposals +were now quietly waived, and Metternich came to see the need of +withdrawing Belgium from France and intrusting it to the House of +Orange. Still, the Austrian statesman was for concluding peace with +Napoleon as soon as might be, though he confessed in his private +letters that peace did not depend on the Chatillon parleys. Some +persons, he wrote, wanted the Bourbons back: still more wished for a +Regency (_i.e._, Marie Louise as Regent for Napoleon II.): others +said: "Away with Napoleon, no peace is possible with him": the masses +cried out for peace, so as to end the whole affair: but added +Metternich: "The riddle will be solved before or in Paris."[407] There +spoke the discreet opportunist, always open to the logic of facts and +the persuasion of Castlereagh. + +Our Minister found the sovereigns of Russia and Prussia far less +tractable; and he only partially succeeded in lulling their suspicions +that Metternich was hand and glove with Napoleon. So deep was the +Czar's distrust of the Austrian statesman and commander-in-chief that +he resolved to brush aside Metternich's diplomatic _pourparlers_, to +push on rapidly to Paris, and there dictate peace.[408] + +But it was just this eagerness of the Czar and the Prussians to reach +Paris which kept alive Austrian fears. A complete triumph to their +arms would seal the doom of Poland and Saxony; and it has been thought +that Schwarzenberg, who himself longed for peace, not only sought to +save Austrian soldiers by keeping them back, but that at this time he +did less than his duty in keeping touch with Bluecher. Several times +during the ensuing days the charge of treachery was hurled by the +Prussians against the Austrians, and once at least by Frederick +William himself. But it seems more probable that Metternich and +Schwarzenberg held their men back merely for prudential motives until +the resumption of the negotiations with France should throw more light +on the tangled political jungle through which the allies were groping. +It is significant that while Schwarzenberg cautiously felt about for +Napoleon's rearguard, of which he lost touch for two whole days, +Metternich insisted that the peace Congress must be opened. +Caulaincourt had for several days been waiting near the allied +head-quarters; and, said the Austrian Minister, it would be a breach +of faith to put him off any longer now that Castlereagh had arrived. +Only when Austria threatened to withdraw from the Coalition did +Alexander concede this point, and then with a very bad grace; for the +resumption of the negotiations virtually tied him to the neighbourhood +of Chatillon-sur-Seine, the town fixed for the Congress, while Bluecher +was rapidly moving towards Paris with every prospect of snatching from +the imperial brow the coveted laurel of a triumphal entry. + +To prevent this interference with his own pet plans, the susceptible +autocrat sent off from Bar-sur-Seine (February 7th) an order that +Bluecher was not to enter Paris, but must await the arrival of the +sovereigns. The order was needless. Napoleon, goaded to fury by the +demands which the allies on that very day formulated at Chatillon, +flung himself upon Bluecher and completely altered the whole military +situation. But before describing this wonderful effort, we must take a +glance at the diplomatic overtures which spurred him on. + +The Congress of Chatillon opened on February 5th, and on that day +Castlereagh gained his point, that questions about our maritime code +should be completely banished from the discussions. Two days later the +allies declared that France must withdraw within the boundaries of +1791, with the exception of certain changes made for mutual +convenience and of some colonial retrocessions that England would +grant to France. The French plenipotentiary, Caulaincourt, heard this +demand with a quiet but strained composure: he reminded them that at +Frankfurt they had proposed to leave France the Rhine and the Alps; he +inquired what colonial sacrifices England was prepared to make if she +cooped up France in her old limits in Europe. To this our +plenipotentiaries Aberdeen, Cathcart, and Stewart refused to reply +until he assented to the present demand of the allies. He very +properly refused to do this; and, despite his eagerness to come to an +arrangement and end the misfortunes of France, referred the matter to +his master.[409] + +What were Napoleon's views on these questions? It is difficult to +follow the workings of his mind before the time when Caulaincourt's +despatch flashed the horrible truth upon him that he might, after all, +leave France smaller and weaker than he found her. Then the lightnings +of his wrath flash forth, and we see the tumult and anguish of that +mighty soul: but previously the storm-wrack of passion and the +cloud-bank of his clinging will are lit up by few gleams of the +earlier piercing intelligence. On January the 4th he had written to +Caulaincourt that the policy of England and the personal rancour of +the Czar would drag Austria along. If Fortune betrayed him (Napoleon) +he would give up the throne: never would he sign any shameful peace. +But he added: "You must see what Metternich wants: it is not to +Austria's interest to push matters to the end." In the accompanying +instructions to his plenipotentiary, he seems to assent to the Alpine +and Rhenish frontiers, but advises him to sign the preliminaries as +vaguely as possible, "_as we have everything to gain by delay_." The +Rhine frontier must be so described as to leave France the Dutch +fortresses: and Savona and Spezzia must also count as on the French +side of the Alps. These, be it observed, are his notions when he has +not heard of the defection of Murat, or the rejection of his Spanish +bargain by the Cortes. + +Twelve days later he proposes to Metternich an armistice, and again +suggests that it is not to Austria's interest to press matters too +far. But the allies are too wary to leave such a matter to Metternich: +at Teplitz they bound themselves to common action; and the proposal +only shows them the need of pushing on fast while their foe is still +unprepared. Once more his old optimism asserts itself. The first +French success, that at Brienne, leads him to hope that the allies +will now be ready to make peace. Even after the disaster at La +Rothiere, he believes that the mere arrival of Caulaincourt at the +allied headquarters will foment the discords which there exist.[410] +Then, writing amidst the unspeakable miseries at Troyes (February +4th), he upbraids Caulaincourt for worrying him about "powers and +instructions when it is still doubtful if the enemy wants to +negotiate. His terms, it seems, are determined on beforehand. As soon +as you have them, you have the power to accept them or to refer them +to me within twenty-four hours." + +After midnight, he again directs him to accept the terms, if +acceptable: "in the contrary case we will run the risks of a battle; +even the loss of Paris, and all that will ensue." Later on that day he +allows Maret to send a despatch giving Caulaincourt "carte blanche" to +conclude peace.[411] But the plenipotentiary dared not take on himself +the responsibility of accepting the terms offered by the allies two +days later. The last despatch was too vague to enable him to sign away +many thousands of square miles of territory: it contradicted the tenor +of Napoleon's letters, which empowered him to assent to nothing less +than the Frankfurt terms. And thus was to slip away one more chance of +bringing about peace--a peace that would strip the French Empire of +frontier lands and alien peoples, but leave it to the peasants' ruler, +Napoleon. + +In truth, the Emperor's words and letters breathed nothing but warlike +resolve. Famine and misery accompany him on his march to Nogent, and +there, on the 7th, he hears tidings that strike despair to every heart +but his. An Anglo-German force is besieging the staunch old Carnot in +Antwerp; Buelow has entered Brussels; Belgium is lost: Macdonald's weak +corps is falling back on Epernay, hard pressed by Yorck, while Bluecher +is heading for Paris. Last of all comes on the morrow Caulaincourt's +despatch announcing that the allies now insist on France returning to +the limits of 1791. + +Never, surely, since the time of Job did calamity shower her blows so +thickly on the head of mortal man: and never were they met with less +resignation and more undaunted defiance. After receiving the black +budget of news the Emperor straightway shut himself up. For some time +his Marshals left him alone: but, as Caulaincourt's courier was +waiting for the reply, Berthier and Maret ventured to intrude on his +grief. He tossed them the letter containing the allied terms. A long +silence ensued, while they awaited his decision. As he spoke not a +word, they begged him to give way and grant peace to France. Then his +pent-up feelings burst forth: "What, you would have me sign a treaty +like that, and trample under foot my coronation oath! Unheard-of +disasters may have snatched from me the promise to renounce my +conquests: but, give up those made before me--never! God keep me from +such a disgrace. Reply to Caulaincourt since you wish it, but tell him +that I reject this treaty. I prefer to run the uttermost risks of +war." He threw himself on his camp bed. Maret waited by his side, and +gained from him in calmer moments permission to write to Caulaincourt +in terms that allowed the negotiation to proceed. At dawn on the 9th +Maret came back hoping to gain assent to despatches that he had been +drawing up during the night. To his surprise he found the Emperor +stretched out over large charts, compass in hand. "Ah, there you are," +was his greeting; "now it's a question of very different matters. I am +going to beat Bluecher: if I succeed, the state of affairs will +entirely change, and then we will see." + +The tension of his feelings at this time, when rage and desperation +finally gave way to a fixed resolve to stake all on a blow at +Bluecher's flank, finds expression in a phrase which has been omitted +from the official correspondence.[412] In one of the five letters +which he wrote to Joseph on the 9th, he remarked: "Pray the Madonna of +armies to be for us: Louis, who is a saint, may engage to give her a +lighted candle." A curiously sarcastic touch, probably due to his +annoyance at the _Misereres_ and "prayers forty hours long" at Paris +which he bade his Ministers curtail. Or was it a passing flash of that +religious sentiment which he professed in his declining years? + +He certainly counted on victory over Bluecher. A week earlier, he had +foreseen the chance that that leader would expose his flank: on the +7th he charged Marmont to occupy Sezanne, where he would be strongly +supported; on the afternoon of the 9th he set out from Nogent to +reinforce his Marshal; and on the morrow Marmont and Ney fell upon one +of Bluecher's scattered columns at Champaubert. It was a corps of +Russians, less than 5,000 strong, with no horsemen and but twenty-four +cannon; the Muscovites offered a stout resistance, but only 1,500 +escaped.[413] Bluecher's line of march was now cut in twain. He himself +was at Vertus with the last column; his foremost corps, under Sacken, +was west of Montmirail, while Yorck was far to the north of that +village observing Macdonald's movements along the Chateau-Thierry +road. + +The Emperor with 20,000 men might therefore hope to destroy these +corps piecemeal. Leaving Marmont along with Grouchy's horse to hold +Bluecher in check on the east, he struck westwards against Sacken's +Russians near Montmirail. The shock was terrible; both sides were +weary with night marches on miry roads, along which cannon had to be +dragged by double teams: yet, though footsore and worn with cold and +hunger, the men fought with sustained fury, the French to stamp out +the barbarous invaders who had wasted their villages, the Russians to +hold their position until Yorck's Prussians should stretch a +succouring hand from the north. Many a time did the French rush at the +village of Marchais held by Sacken: they were repeatedly repulsed, +until, as darkness came on, Ney and Mortier with the Guard stormed a +large farmhouse on their left. Then, at last, Sacken's men drew off in +sore plight north-west across the fields, where Yorck's tardy advent +alone saved them from destruction. The next day completed their +discomfiture. Napoleon and Mortier pursued both allied corps to +Chateau-Thierry and, after sharp fighting in the streets of that +place, drove them across the Marne. The townsfolk hailed the advent of +their Emperor with unbounded joy: they had believed him to be at +Troyes, beaten and dispirited; and here he was delivering them from +the brutal licence of the eastern soldiery. Nothing was impossible to +him. + +Next it was Bluecher's turn. Leaving Mortier to pursue the fugitives of +Sacken and Yorck along the Soissons road, Napoleon left +Chateau-Thierry late at night on the 13th, following the mass of his +troops to reinforce Marmont. That Marshal had yielded ground to +Bluecher's desperate efforts, but was standing at bay at Vauchamps, +when Napoleon drew near to the scene of the unequal fight. Suddenly a +mighty shout of "Vive l'Empereur" warned the assailants that they now +had to do with Napoleon. Yet no precipitation weakened the Emperor's +blow: not until his cavalry greatly outnumbered that of the allies did +he begin the chief attack. Stoutly it was beaten off by the allied +squares: but Drouot's artillery ploughed through their masses, while +swarms of horsemen were ready to open out those ghastly furrows. There +was nothing for it but retreat, and that across open country, where +the charges and the pounding still went on. But nothing could break +that stubborn infantry: animated by their leader, the Prussians and +Russians plodded steadily eastwards, until, as darkness drew on, they +found Grouchy's horse barring the road before Etoges. "Forward" was +still the veteran's cry: and through the cavalry they cut their way: +through hostile footmen that had stolen round to the village they also +burst, and at last found shelter near Bergeres. "Words fail me," wrote +Colonel Hudson Lowe, "to express my admiration at their undaunted and +manly behaviour." + +This gallant retreat shed lustre over the rank and file. But the sins +of the commanders had cost the allies dear. In four days the army of +Silesia lost fully 15,000 men, and its corps were driven far asunder +by Napoleon's incursion. His brilliant moves and trenchant strokes +astonished the world. With less than 30,000 men he had burst into +Bluecher's line of march, and scattered in flight 50,000 warriors +advancing on Paris in full assurance of victory. It was not chance, +but science, that gave him these successes. Acting from behind the +screen of the Seine, he had thrown his small but undivided force +against scattered portions of a superior force. It was the strategy of +Lonato and Castiglione over again; and the enthusiasm of those days +bade fair to revive. + +His men, who previously had tramped downheartedly over wastes of snow +and miry cross-roads, now marched with head erect as in former days; +the villagers, far from being cowed by the brutalities of the +Cossacks, formed bands to hang upon the enemies' rear and entrap their +foragers. Above all, Paris was herself once more. Before he began +these brilliant moves, he had to upbraid Cambaceres for his unmanly +conduct. "I see that instead of sustaining the Empress, you are +discouraging her. Why lose your head thus? What mean these _Miserere_ +and these prayers of forty hours? Are you going mad at Paris?" Now the +capital again breathed defiance to the foe, and sent the Emperor +National Guards. Many of these from Brittany, it is true, came "in +round hats and _sabots_": they had no knapsacks: but they had guns, +and they fought. + +Could he have pursued Bluecher on the morrow he might probably have +broken up even that hardy infantry, now in dire straits for want of +supplies. But bad news came to hand from the south-west. Under urgent +pressure from the Czar, Schwarzenberg had pushed forward two columns +from Troyes towards Paris: one of them had seized the bridge over the +Seine at Bray, a day's march below Nogent: the other was nearing +Fontainebleau. Napoleon was furious at the neglect of Victor to guard +the crossing at Bray, and reluctantly turned away from Bluecher to +crush these columns. His men marched or were carried in vehicles, by +way of Meaux and Guignes, to reinforce Victor: on the 17th they drove +back the outposts of Schwarzenberg's centre, while Macdonald and +Oudinot marched towards Nogent to threaten his right. These rapid +moves alarmed the Austrian commander, whose left, swung forward on +Fontainebleau, was in some danger of being cut off. He therefore sued +for an armistice. It was refused; and the request drew from Napoleon a +letter to his brother Joseph full of contempt for the allies (February +18th). "It is difficult," he writes, "to be so cowardly as that! He +[Schwarzenberg] had constantly, and in the most insulting terms, +refused a suspension of arms of any kind, ... and yet these wretches +at the first check fall on their knees. I will grant no armistice till +my territory is clear of them." He adds that he now expected to gain +the "natural frontiers" offered by the allies at Frankfurt--the +minimum that he could accept with honour; and he closes with these +memorable words, which flash a searchlight on his pacific professions +of thirteen months later: "If I had agreed to the old boundaries, I +should have rushed to arms two years later, telling the nation that I +had signed not a peace, but a capitulation."[414] + +The events of the 18th strengthened his resolve. He then attacked the +Crown Prince of Wuertemberg on the north side of the Seine, opposite +Montereau, overthrew him by the weight of the artillery of the Guard, +whereupon a brilliant charge of Pajol's horsemen wrested the bridge +from the South Germans and restored to the Emperor the much-needed +crossing over the river. Napoleon's activity on that day was +marvellous. He wrote or dictated eleven despatches, six of them long +before dawn, gave instructions to an officer who was to encourage +Eugene to hold firm in Italy, fought a battle, directed the aim of +several cannon, and wound up the day by severe rebukes to Marshal +Victor and two generals for their recent blunders. Thus, on a brief +winter's day, he fills the _role_ of Emperor, organizer, tactician, +cannoneer, and martinet; in fact, he crowns it by pardoning Victor, +when that brave man vows that he cannot live away from the army, and +will fight as a common soldier among the Guards: he then and there +assigns to him two divisions of the Guard. To the artillerymen the +_camaraderie_ of the Emperor gave a new zest: and when they ventured +to reproach him for thus risking his life, he replied with a touch of +the fatalism which enthralls a soldier's mind: "Ah! don't fear: the +ball is not cast that will kill me." + +Yes: Napoleon displayed during these last ten days a fertility of +resource, a power to drive back the tide of events, that have dazzled +posterity, as they dismayed his foes. We may seek in vain for a +parallel, save perhaps in the careers of Hannibal and Frederick. +Alexander the Great's victories were won over Asiatics: Caesar's +magnificent rally of his wavering bands against the onrush of the +Nervii was but one effort of disciplined valour crushing the +impetuosity of the barbarian. Marlborough and Wellington often +triumphed over great odds and turned the course of history. But their +star had never set so low as that of Napoleon's after La Rothiere, and +never did it rush to the zenith with a splendour like that which +blinded the trained hosts of Bluecher and Schwarzenberg. Whatever the +mistakes of these leaders, and they were great, there is something +that defies analysis in Napoleon's sudden transformation of his beaten +dispirited band into a triumphant array before which four times their +numbers sought refuge in retreat. But it is just this transcendent +quality that adds a charm to the character and career of Napoleon. +Where analysis fails, there genius begins. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVII + +THE FIRST ABDICATION + + +It now remained to be seen whether Napoleon would make a wise use of +his successes. While the Grand Army drew in its columns behind the +sheltering line of the Seine at Troyes, the French Emperor strove to +reap in diplomacy the fruits of his military prowess. In brief, he +sought to detach Austria from the Coalition. From Nogent he wrote, on +February 21st, to the Emperor Francis, dwelling on the impolicy of +Austria continuing the war. Why should she subordinate her policy to +that of England and to the personal animosities of the Czar? Why +should she see her former Belgian provinces handed over to a +Protestant Dutch Prince about to be allied with the House of Brunswick +by marriage? France would never give up Belgium; and he, as French +Emperor, would never sign a peace that would drive her from the Rhine +and exclude her from the circle of the Great Powers. But if Austria +really wished for the equilibrium of Europe, he (Napoleon) was ready +to forget the past and make peace on the basis of the Frankfurt +terms.[415] + +Had these offers been rather less exacting, and reached the allied +headquarters a week earlier, they might have led to the break up of +the Coalition. For the political situation of the allies had been even +more precarious than that of their armies. The pretensions of the Czar +had excited indignation and alarm. Swayed to and fro between the +counsels of his old tutor, Laharpe, now again at his side, and his own +autocratic instincts, he declared that he would push on to Paris, +consult the will of the French people by a plebiscite, and abide by +its decision, even if it gave a new lease of power to Napoleon. But +side by side with this democratic proposal came another of a more +despotic type, that the military Governor of Paris must be a Russian +officer. + +The amusement caused by these odd notions was overshadowed by alarm. +Metternich, Castlereagh, and Hardenberg saw in them a ruse for +foisting on France either Bernadotte, or an orientalized Republic, or +a Muscovite version of the Treaty of Tilsit. Then again, on February +9th, Alexander sent a mandate to the plenipotentiaries at Chatillon, +requesting that their sessions should be suspended, though he had +recently agreed at Langres to enter into negotiations with France, +provided that the military operations were not suspended. Evidently, +then, he was bent on forcing the hands of his allies, and Austria +feared that he might at the end of the war insist on her taking +Alsace, as a set-off to the loss of Eastern Galicia which he wished to +absorb. So keen was the jealousy thus aroused, that at Troyes +Metternich and Hardenberg signed a secret agreement to prevent the +Czar carrying matters with a high hand at Paris (February 14th); and +on the same day they sent him a stiff Note requesting the resumption +of the negotiations with Napoleon. Indeed, Austria formally threatened +to withdraw her troops from the war, unless he limited his aims to the +terms propounded by the allies at Chatillon. Alexander at first +refused; but the news of Bluecher's disasters shook his determination, +and he assented on that day, provided that steps were at once taken to +lighten the pressure on the Russian corps serving under Bluecher. Thus, +by February 14th, the crisis was over.[416] + +Schwarzenberg cautiously pushed on three columns to attract the +thunderbolts that otherwise would have destroyed the Silesian Army +root and branch; and he succeeded. True, his vanguard was beaten at +Montereau; but, by drawing Napoleon south and then east of the Seine, +he gave time to Bluecher to strengthen his shattered array and resume +the offensive. Meanwhile Buelow, with the northern army, began to draw +near to the scene of action, and on the 23rd the allies took the wise +step of assigning his corps, along with those of Winzingerode, +Woronzoff, and Strogonoff, to the Prussian veteran. The last three +corps were withdrawn from the army of Bernadotte, and that prince was +apprized of the fact by the Czar in a rather curt letter. + +The diplomatic situation had also cleared up before Napoleon's letter +reached the Emperor Francis. The negotiations with Caulaincourt were +resumed at Chatillon on February the 17th; and there is every reason +to think that Austria, England, Prussia, and perhaps even Russia would +now gladly have signed peace with Napoleon on the basis of the French +frontiers of 1791, provided that he renounced all claims to +interference in the affairs of Europe outside those limits.[417] + +These demands would certainly have been accepted by the French +plenipotentiary had he listened to his own pacific promptings. But he +was now in the most painful position. Maret had informed him, the day +after Montmirail, that Napoleon was set on keeping the Rhenish and +Alpine frontiers.[418] He could, therefore, do nothing but temporize. +He knew how precarious was the military supremacy just snatched by his +master, and trusted that a few days more would bring wisdom before it +was too late. But his efforts for delay were useless. + +While he was marking time, Napoleon was sending him despatches +instinct with pride. "I have made 30,000 to 40,000 prisoners," he +wrote on the 17th: "I have taken 200 cannon, a great number of +generals, and destroyed several armies, almost without striking a +blow. I yesterday checked Schwarzenberg's army, which I hope to +destroy before it recrosses my frontier." And two days later, after +hearing the allied terms, he wrote that they would make the blood of +every Frenchman boil with indignation, and that he would dictate _his_ +ultimatum at Troyes or Chatillon. Of course, Caulaincourt kept these +diatribes to himself, but his painfully constrained demeanour betrayed +the secret that he longed for peace and that his hands were tied. + +On all sides proofs were to be seen that Napoleon would never give up +Belgium and the Rhine frontier. When the allies (at the suggestion of +Schwarzenberg, and _with the approval of the Czar_) sued for an +armistice, he forbade his envoys to enter into any parleys until the +allies agreed to accept the "natural frontiers" as the basis for a +peace, and retired in the meantime on Alsace, Lorraine, and +Holland.[419] These last conditions he agreed three days later to +relax; but on the first point he was inexorable, and he knew that the +military commissioners appointed to arrange the truce had no power to +agree to the _political_ article which he made a _sine qua non_. + +Accordingly, no armistice was concluded, and his unbending attitude +made a bad impression on the Emperor Francis, who, on the 27th, +replied to his son-in-law in terms which showed that his blows were +welding the Coalition more firmly together.[420] + +In fact, while the plenipotentiaries at Chatillon were exchanging +empty demands, a most important compact was taking form at Chaumont: +it was dated from the 1st of March, but definitively signed on the +9th. Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia thereby bound +themselves not to treat singly with France for peace, but to continue +the war until France was brought back to her old frontiers, and the +complete independence of Germany, Holland, Switzerland, and Spain was +secured. Each of the four Powers must maintain 150,000 men in the +field (exclusive of garrisons); and Britain agreed to aid her allies +with equal yearly subsidies amounting in all to L5,000,000 for the +year 1814.[421] The treaty would be only defensive if Napoleon +accepted the allied terms formulated at Chatillon: otherwise it would +be offensive and hold good, if need be, for twenty years. + +Undoubtedly this compact was largely the work of Castlereagh, whose +tact and calmness had done wonders in healing schisms; but so intimate +a union could never have been formed among previously discordant +allies but for their overmastering fear of Napoleon. Such a treaty was +without parallel in European history; and the stringency of its +clauses serves as the measure of the prowess and perversity of the +French Emperor. It is puerile to say, as Mollien does, that England +bribed the allies to this last effort. Experiences of the last months +had shown them that peace could not be durable as long as Napoleon +remained in a position to threaten Germany. Even now they were ready +to conclude it with Napoleon on the basis of the old frontiers of +France, provided that he assented before the 11th of March; but the +most pacific of their leaders saw that the more they showed their +desire for peace, the more they strengthened Napoleon's resolve to +have it only on terms which they saw to be fraught with future +danger.[422] + +While the conferences at Chatillon followed one another in fruitless +succession, Bluecher, with 48,000 effectives, was once more resuming +the offensive. Napoleon heard the news at Troyes (February 25th). He +was surprised at the veteran's temerity: he had pictured him crushed +and helpless beyond Chalons, and had cherished the hope of destroying +Schwarzenberg.--"If," he wrote to Clarke on the morrow, "I had had a +pontoon bridge, the war would be over, and Schwarzenberg's army would +no longer exist.... For want of boats, I could not pass the Seine at +the necessary points. It was not 50 boats that I needed, only +20."--With this characteristic outburst against his War Minister, +whose neglect to send up twenty boats from Paris had changed the +world's history, the Emperor turned aside to overwhelm Bluecher. The +Prussian commander was near the junction of the Seine and the Aube; +and seemed to offer his flank as unguardedly as three weeks before. + +Napoleon sent Ney, Victor, and Arrighi northwards to fall on his rear, +and on the 27th repaired to Arcis-sur-Aube to direct the operations. +What, then, was his annoyance when, in pursuance of the allied plan +formed on the 23rd, Bluecher skilfully retired northwards, withdrew +beyond the Marne and broke the bridges behind him. Then after failing +to drive Marmont and Mortier from Meaux and the line of the Ourcq, the +Prussian leader marched towards Soissons, near which town he expected +to meet the northern army of the allies. For some hours he was in +grave danger: Marmont hung on his rear, and Napoleon with 35,000 hardy +troops was preparing to turn his right flank. In fact, had he not +broken the bridge over the Marne at La Ferte-sous-Jouarre, and thereby +delayed the Emperor thirty-six hours, he would probably have been +crushed before he could cross the River Aisne. His men were dead beat +by marching night and day over roads first covered by snow and now +deep in slush: for a week they had had no regular rations, and great +was their joy when, at the close of the 2nd, they drew near to the +42,000 troops that Buelow and Winzingerode mustered near the banks of +the Aisne and Vesle. + +On that day Napoleon, when delayed at La Ferte, conceived the daring +idea of rushing on the morrow after Bluecher, who was "very embarrassed +in the mire," and then of carrying the war into Lorraine, rescuing the +garrisons of Verdun, Toul, and Metz, and rousing the peasantry of the +east of France against the invaders. It mattered not that +Schwarzenberg had dealt Oudinot and Gerard a severe check at +Bar-sur-Aube, as soon as Napoleon's back was turned. That cautious +leader would be certain, he thought, to beat a retreat towards the +Rhine as soon as his rear was threatened; and Napoleon pictured France +rising as in 1793, shaking off her invaders and dictating a glorious +peace. + +Far different was the actual situation. Bluecher was not to be caught; +a sharp frost on the 3rd improved the roads; and his complete junction +with the northern army was facilitated by the surrender of Soissons on +that same afternoon. This fourth-rate fortress was ill-prepared to +withstand an attack; and, after a short bombardment by Winzingerode, +two allied officers made their way to the Governor, praised his +bravery, pointed out the uselessness of further resistance, and +offered to allow the garrison to march out with the honours of war and +rejoin the Emperor, where they could fight to more advantage. The +Governor, who bore the ill-starred name of Moreau, finally gave way, +and his troops, nearly all Poles, marched out at 4 p.m., furious at +his "treason"; for the distant thunder of Marmont's cannon was already +heard on the side of Oulchy. Rumour said that they were the Emperor's +cannon, but rumour lied. At dawn Napoleon's troops had begun to cross +the temporary bridge over the Marne, thirty-five miles away; but by +great exertions his outposts on that evening reached Rocourt, only +some twenty miles south of Soissons.[423] + +The fact deserves notice: for it disposes of the strange statement of +Thiers that the surrender of Soissons was, next to Waterloo, the most +fatal event in the annals of France. The gifted historian, as also, to +some extent, M. Houssaye, assumed that, had Soissons held out, Bluecher +and Buelow could not have united their forces. But Buelow had not relied +solely on the bridge at Soissons for the union of the armies; on the +2nd he had thrown a bridge over the Aisne at Vailly, some distance +above that city, and another on the third near to its eastern +suburb.[424] It is clear, then, that the two armies, numbering in all +over 100,000 men, could have joined long before Napoleon, Marmont, and +Mortier were in a position to attack. Before the Emperor heard of the +surrender, he had marched to Fismes, and had detached Corbineau to +occupy Rheims, evidently with the aim of cutting Bluecher's +communications with Schwarzenberg, and opening up the way to Verdun +and Metz. + +For that plan was now his dominant aim, while the repulse of Bluecher +was chiefly of importance because it would enable him to stretch a +hand eastwards to his beleaguered garrisons.[425] But Bluecher was not +to be thus disposed of. While withdrawing from Soissons to the natural +fortress of Laon, he heard that Napoleon had crossed the Aisne at +Berry-au-Bac, and was making for Craonne. Above that town there rises +a long narrow ridge or plateau, which Bluecher ordered his Russian +corps to occupy. There was fought one of the bloodiest battles of the +war (March 7th). The aim of the allies was to await the French attack +on the plateau, while 10,000 horsemen and sixty guns worked round and +fell on their rear. + +The plan failed, owing to a mistake in the line of march of this +flanking force: and the battle resolved itself into a soldiers' fight. +Five times did Ney lead his braves up those slopes, only to be hurled +back by the dogged Muscovites. But the Emperor now arrived; a sixth +attack by the cavalry and artillery of the Guard battered in the +defence; and Bluecher, hearing that the flank move had failed, ordered +a retreat on Laon. This confused and desperate fight cost both sides +about 7,000 men, nearly a fourth of the numbers engaged. Victor, +Grouchy, and six French generals were among the wounded.[426] + +Nevertheless, Napoleon struggled on: he called up Marmont and Mortier, +gave out that he was about to receive other large reinforcements, and +bade his garrisons in Belgium and Lorraine fall on the rear of the +foe. One more victory, he thought, would end the war, or at least +lower the demands of the allies. It was not to be. Bluecher and Buelow +held the strong natural citadel of Laon; and all Napoleon's efforts on +March the 9th and 10th failed to storm the southern approaches. +Marmont fared no better on the east; and when, at nightfall, the weary +French fell back, the Prussians resolved to try a night attack on +Marmont's corps, which was far away from the main body. Never was a +surprise more successful; Marmont was quite off his guard; horse and +foot fled in wild confusion, leaving 2,500 prisoners and forty-five +cannon in the hands of the victorious Yorck. Could the allies have +pressed home their advantage, the result must have been decisive; but +Bluecher had fallen ill, and a halt was called.[427] + +Alone, among the leaders in this campaign, the Emperor remained +unbroken. All the allied leaders had at one time or another bent under +his blows; and the French Marshals seemed doomed, as in 1813, to fail +wherever their Emperor was not. Ney, Victor, and Mortier had again +evinced few of the qualities of a commander, except bravery. Augereau +was betraying softness and irresolution in the Lyonnais in front of a +smaller Austrian force. Suchet and Davoust were shut up in Catalonia +and Hamburg. St. Cyr and Vandamme were prisoners. Soult had kept a +bold front near Bayonne: but now news was to hand that Wellington had +surprised and routed him at Orthez. On the Seine, Macdonald and +Oudinot failed to hold Troyes against the masses of Schwarzenberg. Of +all the French Marshals, Marmont had distinguished himself the most in +this campaign, and now at Laon he had been caught napping. Yet, while +all others failed, Napoleon seemed invincible. Even after Marmont's +disaster, the allies forbore to attack the chief; and, just as a lion +that has been beaten off by a herd of buffaloes stalks away, mangled +but full of fight and unmolested, so the Emperor drew off in peace +towards Soissons. Thence he marched on Rheims, gained a victory over a +Russian division there, and hoped to succour his Lorraine garrisons, +when, on the 17th, the news of Schwarzenberg's advance towards Paris +led him southwards once more. + +Yielding to the remonstrances of the Czar, the Austrian leader had +purposed to march on the French capital, if everything went well; but +he once more drew back on receiving news of Napoleon's advance against +his right flank. While preparing to retire towards Brienne, he heard +that his great antagonist had crossed that river at Plancy with less +than 20,000 troops. To retrace his steps, fall upon this handful of +weary men with 100,000, and drive them into the river, was not a +daring conception: but so accustomed were the allies to dalliance and +delay that a thrill of surprise ran through the host when he began to +call up its retiring columns for a fight.[428] + +Napoleon also was surprised: he believed the Grand Army to be in full +retreat, and purposed then to dash on Vitry and Verdun.[429] But the +allies gave him plenty of time to draw up Macdonald's and Oudinot's +corps, while they themselves were still so widely sundered as at first +scarcely to stay his onset. The fighting behind Arcis was desperate: +Napoleon exposed his person freely to snatch victory from the +deepening masses in front. At one time a shell burst in front of him, +and his staff shivered as they saw his figure disappear in the cloud +of smoke and dust; but he arose unhurt, mounted another charger and +pressed on the fight. It was in vain: he was compelled to draw back +his men to the town (March 20th). On the morrow a bold attack by +Schwarzenberg could have overwhelmed Napoleon's 30,000 men; but his +bold front imposed on the Austrian leader, while the French were drawn +across the river, only the rearguard suffering heavily from the +belated attack of the allies. With the loss of 4,000 men, Napoleon +fell back northwards into the wasted plains of Sezanne. Hope now +vanished from every breast but his. And surely if human weakness had +ever found a place in that fiery soul, it might now have tempted him +to sue for peace. He had flung himself first north, then south, in +order to keep for France the natural frontiers that he might have had +as a present last November; he had failed; and now he might with +honour accept the terms of the victors. But once more he was too late. + +The negotiations at Chatillon had ended on March 19th, that is, nine +days later than had been originally fixed by the allies. The extension +of time was due mainly to their regard and pity for Caulaincourt; and, +indeed, he was in the most pitiable position, a plenipotentiary +without full powers, a Minister kept partly in the dark by his +sovereign, and a patriot unable to rescue his beloved France from the +abyss towards which Napoleon's infatuation was hurrying her. He knew +the resolve of the allies far better than his master's intentions. It +was from Lord Aberdeen that he heard of the failure of the parleys for +an armistice: from him also he learnt that Napoleon had written a +"passionate" letter to Kaiser Francis, and he expressed satisfaction +that the reply was firm and decided.[430] His private intercourse at +Chatillon with the British plenipotentiaries was frank and friendly, +as also with Stadion. He received frequent letters from Metternich, +advising him quickly to come to terms with the allies;[431] and the +Austrian Minister sent Prince Esterhazy to warn him that the allies +would never recede from their demand of the old frontiers for France, +not even if the fortune of war drove them across the Rhine for a time. +"Is there, then, no means to enlighten Napoleon as to his true +situation, or to save him if he persists in destroying himself? Has he +irrevocably staked his own and his son's fate on the last +cannon?"--Let Napoleon, then, accept the allied proposal by sending a +counter-project, differing only very slightly from theirs, and peace +would be made.[432] Caulaincourt needed no spur. "He works tooth and +nail for a peace," wrote Stewart, "as far as depends on him. He dreads +Bonaparte's successes even more than ours, lest they should make him +more impracticable."[433] + +But, unfortunately, his latest and most urgent appeal to the Emperor +reached the latter just after the Pyrrhic victory at Craonne, which +left him more stubborn than ever. Far from meeting the allies halfway, +he let fall words that bespoke only injured pride: "If one must +receive lashes," he said within hearing of the courier, "it is not for +me to offer my back to them." On the morrow he charged Maret to reply +to his distressed plenipotentiary that he (Napoleon) knew best what +the situation demanded; the demand of the allies that France should +retire within her old frontiers was only their _first word:_ +Caulaincourt must get to know their ultimatum: if this was their +ultimatum, he must reject it. He (Napoleon) would possibly give up +Dutch Brabant and the fortresses of Wesel, Castel (opposite Mainz), +and Kehl, but would make no substantial changes on the Frankfurt +terms. Still, Caulaincourt struggled on. When the session of March +10th was closing, he produced a declaration offering to give up all +Napoleon's claims to control lands beyond the natural limits. + +The others divined that it was his own handiwork, drawn up in order to +spin out the negotiations and leave his master a few days of +grace.[434] They respected his intentions, and nine days of grace were +gained; but the only answer that Napoleon vouchsafed to Caulaincourt's +appeals was the missive of March 17th from Rheims: "I have received +your letters of the 13th. I charge the Duke of Bassano to answer them +in detail. I give you directly the power to make the concessions which +would be indispensable to keep up the activity of the negotiations, +and to get to know at last the ultimatum of the allies, it being well +understood that the treaty would have for result the evacuation of our +territory and the release of all prisoners on both sides." The +instructions which he charged the Duke of Bassano to send to +Caulaincourt were such as a victor might have dictated. The allies +must evacuate his territory and give up all the fortresses as soon as +the preliminaries of peace were signed: if the negotiations were to +break off they had better break off on this question. He himself would +cease to control lands beyond the natural frontiers, and would +recognize the independence of Holland: as regards Belgium, he would +refuse to cede it to a prince of the House of Orange, but he hinted +that it might well go to a French prince as an indemnity--evidently +Joseph Bonaparte was meant. If this concession were made, he expected +that all the French colonies, including the Ile de France, would be +restored. Nothing definite was said about the Rhine frontier. + +The courier who carried these proposals from Rheims to Chatillon was +twice detained by the Russians, and had not reached the town when the +Congress came to an end (March 19th). Their only importance, +therefore, is to show that, despite all the warnings in which the +Prague negotiations were so fruitful, Napoleon clung to the same +threatening and dilatory tactics which had then driven Austria into +the arms of his foes. He still persisted in looking on the time limit +of the allies as meaningless, on their ultimatum as their _first +word_, from which they would soon shuffle away under the pressure of +his prowess--and this, too, when Caulaincourt was daily warning him +that the hours were numbered, that nothing would change the resolve of +his foes, and that their defeats only increased their exasperation +against him. + +If anything could have increased this exasperation, it was the +discovery that he was playing with them all the time. On the 20th the +allied scouts brought to head-quarters a despatch written by Maret the +day before to Caulaincourt which contained this damning sentence: "The +Emperor's desires remain entirely vague on everything relating to the +delivering up of the strongholds, Antwerp, Mayence, and Alessandria, +if you should be obliged to consent to these cessions, as he has the +intention, even after the ratification of the treaty, to take counsel +from the military situation of affairs. Wait for the last +moment."[435] Peace, then, was to be patched up for Napoleon's +convenience and broken by him at the first seasonable opportunity. Is +it surprising that on that same day the Ministers of the Powers +decided to have no more negotiations with Napoleon, and that +Metternich listened not unfavourably to the emissary of the Bourbons, +the Count de Vitrolles, whom he had previously kept at arm's length? + +In truth, Napoleon was now about to stake everything on a plan from +which other leaders would have recoiled, but which, in his eyes, +promised a signal triumph. This was to rally the French garrisons in +Lorraine and throw himself on Schwarzenberg's rear. It was, indeed, +his only remaining chance. With his band of barely 40,000 men, kept up +to that number by the arrival of levies that impaired its solidity, he +could scarcely hope to beat back the dense masses now marshalled +behind the Aube, the Seine, and the Marne. + +A glance at the map will show that behind those rivers the allies +could creep up within striking distance of Paris, while from his +position north of the Aube he could attack them only by crossing one +or other of those great streams, the bridges of which were in their +hands. He still held the central position; but it was robbed of its +value if he could not attack. Warfare for him was little else than the +art of swift and decisive attack; or, as he tersely phrased it, "The +art of war is to march twelve leagues, fight a battle, and march +twelve more in pursuit." As this was now impossible against the fronts +and flanks of the allies, it only remained to threaten the rear of the +army which was most likely to be intimidated by such a manoeuvre. And +this was clearly the army led by Schwarzenberg. From Bluecher and Buelow +naught but defiance to the death was to be expected, and their rear +was supported by the Dutch strongholds. + +But the Austrians had shown themselves as soft in their strategy as in +their diplomacy. Everyone at the allied headquarters knew that +Schwarzenberg was unequal to the load of responsibility thrust on him, +that the incursion of a band of Alsatian peasants on his convoys made +him nervous, and that he would not move on Paris as long as his +"communications were exposed to a movement by Chalons and Vitry."[436] +What an effect, then, would be produced on that timid commander by an +"Imperial Vendee" in Alsace, Lorraine, and Franche-Comte! + +And such a rising might then have become fierce and widespread. The +east and centre were the strongholds of French democracy, as they had +been the hotbed of feudal and monarchical abuses; and at this very +time the Bourbon princes declared themselves at Nancy and Bordeaux. +The tactless Comte d'Artois was at Nancy, striving to whip up royalist +feeling in Lorraine, and his eldest son, the Duc d'Angouleme, entered +Bordeaux with the British red-coats (March 12th). + +To explain how this last event was possible we must retrace our steps. +After Soult was driven by Wellington from the mountains at the back of +the town of Orthez, he drew back his shattered troops over the River +Adour, and then turned sharply to the east in order to join hands with +Suchet's corps. This move, excellent as it was in a military sense, +left Bordeaux open to the British; and Wellington forthwith sent +Beresford northwards with 12,000 troops to occupy that great city. He +met with a warm greeting from the French royalists, as also did the +Duc d'Angouleme, who arrived soon after. The young prince at once +proclaimed Louis XVIII. King of France, and allowed the royalist mayor +to declare that the allies were advancing to Paris merely in order to +destroy Napoleon and replace him by the rightful monarch. Strongly as +Wellington's sympathies ran with the aim of this declaration, he +emphatically repudiated it. Etiquette compelled him to do so; for the +allies were still negotiating with Napoleon; and his own tact warned +him that the Bourbons must never come into France under the cloak of +the allies. + +The allied sovereigns had as yet done nothing to favour their cause; +and the wiser heads among the French royalists saw how desirable it +was that the initiative should come from France. The bad effects of +the Bordeaux manifesto were soon seen in the rallying of National +Guards and peasants to the tricolour against the hated _fleur-de-lys;_ +and Beresford's men could do little more than hold their own.[437] If +that was the case in the monarchical south, what might not Napoleon +hope to effect in the east, now that the Bourbon "chimaera" threatened +to become a fact? + +The news as to the state of Paris was less satisfactory. That fickle +populace cheered royalist allusions at the theatres, hissed off an +"official" play that represented Cossack marauders,[438] and caused +such alarm to Savary that he wrote to warn his master of the inability +of the police to control the public if the war rolled on towards +Paris. Whether Savary's advice was honestly stupid, or whether, as +Lavalette hints, Talleyrand's intrigues were undermining his loyalty +to Napoleon, it is difficult to say. But certainly the advice gave +Napoleon an additional reason for flinging himself on Schwarzenberg's +rear and drawing him back into Lorraine. He had reason to hope that +Augereau, reinforced by some of Suchet's troops, would march towards +Dijon and threaten the Austrians on the south, while he himself +pressed on them from the north-east. In that case, would not Austria +make peace, and leave Alexander and Bluecher at his mercy? And might he +not hope to cut off the Comte d'Artois, and possibly also catch +Bernadotte, who had been angling unsuccessfully for popular support in +the north-east? + +But, while basing all his hopes on the devotion of the French +peasantry and the pacific leanings of Austria, the French Emperor left +out of count the eager hatred of the Czar and the Prussians. "Bluecher +would be mad if he attempted any serious movement," so Napoleon wrote +to Berthier on the 20th, apparently on the strength of his former +suggestion that Joseph should persuade Bernadotte to desert the allies +and attack Bluecher's rear.[439] At least, it is difficult to find any +other reason for Napoleon's strange belief that Bluecher would sit +still while his allies were being beaten; unless, indeed, we accept +Marmont's explanation that Napoleon's brain now rejected all +unpleasing news and registered wishes as facts. + +Fortune seemed to smile on his enterprise. Though he failed to take +Vitry from the allied garrison, yet near St. Dizier he fell on a +Prussian convoy, captured 800 men and 400 wagons filled with stores. +Everywhere he ordered the tocsin to proclaim a _levee en masse_, and +sent messengers to warn his Lorraine garrisons to cut their way to his +side. His light troops spread up the valley of the Marne towards +Chaumont, capturing stores and couriers; and he seized this +opportunity, when he pictured the Austrians as thoroughly demoralized, +to send Caulaincourt from Doulevant with offers to renew the +negotiations for peace (March 25th).[440] But while Napoleon awaits +the result of these proposals, his rear is attacked: he retraces his +steps, falls on the assailants, and finds that they belong to Bluecher. +But how can Prussians be there in force? Is not Bluecher resting on the +banks of the Aisne? And where is Schwarzenberg? The Emperor pushes a +force on to Vitry to solve this riddle, and there the horrible truth +unfolds itself little by little that he stands on the brink of ruin. + +It is a story instinct with an irony like that of the infatuation of +King Oedipus in the drama of Sophocles. Every step that the warrior +has taken to snatch at victory increases the completeness of the +disaster. The Emperor Francis, scared by the approach of the French +horsemen, and not wishing to fall into the hands of his son-in-law, +has withdrawn with Metternich to Dijon. + +Napoleon's letter to him is lost.[441] Metternich, well guarded by +Castlereagh, is powerless to meet Caulaincourt's offer, and their +flight leaves Schwarzenberg under the influence of the Czar.[442] +Moreover, Bluecher has not been idle. While Napoleon is hurrying +eastwards to Vitry, the Prussian leader drives back Marmont's weak +corps, his vanguard crosses the Marne near Epernay on the 23rd, his +Cossacks capture a courier bearing a letter written on that day by +Napoleon to Marie Louise. It ends thus: "I have decided to march +towards the Marne, in order to push the enemy's army further from +Paris, and to draw near to my fortresses. I shall be this evening at +St. Dizier. Adieu, my friend! Embrace my son." Warned by this letter +of Napoleon's plan, Bluecher pushes on; his outposts on the morrow join +hands with those of Schwarzenberg, and send a thrill of vigour into +the larger force. + +That leader, held at bay by Macdonald's rearguard, was groping after +Napoleon, when the capture of a French despatch, and the news +forwarded by Bluecher, informed him of the French Emperor's eastward +march. A council of war was therefore held at Pougy on the afternoon +of the 23rd, when the Czar and the bolder spirits led Schwarzenberg to +give up his communications with Switzerland, and stake everything on +joining Bluecher, and following Napoleon's 40,000 with an array of +180,000 men. But the capture of another French despatch a few hours +later altered the course of events once more. This time it was a +budget of official news from Paris to Napoleon, describing the +exhaustion of the finances, the discontent of the populace, and the +sensation caused by Wellington's successes and the capture of +Bordeaux. These glad tidings inspired Alexander with a far more +incisive plan--to march on Paris. This suggestion had been pressed on +him on the 17th by Baron de Vitrolles, a French royalist agent, at the +close of a long interview; and now its advantages were obvious. +Accordingly, at Sommepuis, on the 24th, he convoked his generals, +Barclay, Volkonski, Toll, and Diebitsch, to seek their advice. Barclay +was for following Napoleon, but the two last voted for the advance to +Paris, Toll maintaining that only 10,000 horsemen need be left behind +to screen their movements. The Czar signified his warm approval of +this plan; a little later the King of Prussia gave his assent, and +Schwarzenberg rather doubtfully deferred to their wishes. Thus the +result of Napoleon's incursion on the rear of the allies signally +belied his expectations. Instead of compelling the enemy to beat a +retreat on the Rhine, it left the road open to his capital.[443] + +At dawn on the 25th, then, the allied Grand Army turned to the +right-about, while Bluecher's men marched joyfully on the parallel road +from Chalons. Near La Fere-Champenoise, on that day, a cloud of +Russian and Austrian horse harassed Marmont's and Mortier's corps, and +took 2,500 prisoners and fifty cannon. Further to the north, Bluecher's +Cossacks swooped on a division of 4,500 men, mostly National Guards, +that guarded a large convoy. Stoutly the French formed in squares, and +beat them off again and again. Thereupon Colonel Hudson Lowe rode away +southwards, to beg reinforcements from Wrede's Bavarians. + +They, too, failed to break that indomitable infantry. The 180 wagons +had to be left behind; but the recruits plodded on, and seemed likely +to break through to Marmont, when the Czar came on the scene. At once +he ordered up artillery, riddled their ranks with grapeshot, and when +their commander, Pacthod, still refused to surrender, threatened to +overwhelm their battered squares by the cavalry of his Guard. Pacthod +thereupon ordered his square to surrender. Another band also grounded +arms; but the men in the last square fought on, reckless of life, and +were beaten down by a whirlwind of sabring, stabbing horsemen, whose +fury the generous Czar vainly strove to curb. "I blushed for my very +nature as a man," wrote Colonel Lowe, "at witnessing this scene of +carnage." The day was glorious for France, but it cost her, in all, +more than 5,000 killed and wounded, 4,000 prisoners, and 80 cannon, +besides the provisions and stores designed for Napoleon's army.[444] +Nothing but the wreck of Marmont's and Mortier's corps, about 12,000 +men in all, now barred the road to Paris. Meeting with no serious +resistance, the allies crossed the Marne at Meaux, and on the 29th +reached Bondy, within striking distance of the French capital. + +In that city the people were a prey, first to sheer incredulity, then +to the wildest dismay. To them history was but a melodrama and war a +romance. Never since the time of Jeanne d'Arc had a foreign enemy come +within sight of their spires. For ramparts they had octroi walls, and +in place of the death-dealing defiance of 1792 they now showed only +the spasmodic vehemence or ironical resignation of an over-cultivated +stock. As M. Charles de Remusat finely remarks on their varying moods, +"The despotism which makes a constant show of prosperity gives men +little fortitude to meet adversity." Doubtless the royalists, with +Talleyrand as their factotum, worked to paralyze the defence; but they +formed a small minority, and the masses would have fought for Napoleon +had he been present to direct everything. But he was far away, rushing +back through Champagne to retrieve his blunder, and in his place they +had Joseph. The ex-King of Spain was not the man for the hour. He was +no hero to breathe defiance into a bewildered crowd, nor was he well +seconded. Clarke, and Moncey, the commander of the 12,000 National +Guards, had not armed one-half of that doubtful militia. Marmont and +Mortier were at hand, and, with the garrison and National Guards, +mustered some 42,000 men. + +But what were these against the trained host of more than 100,000 men +now marching against the feeble barriers on the north and east? +Moreover, Joseph and the Council of Regency had dispirited the +defenders by causing the Empress Regent and the infant King of Rome to +leave the capital along with the treasure. In Joseph's defence it +should be said that Napoleon had twice warned him to transfer the seat +of Government to the south of the Loire if the allies neared Paris, +and in no case to allow the Empress and the King of Rome to be +captured. "Do not leave the side of my son: I had rather know that he +was in the Seine than in the hands of the enemies of France." The +Emperor's views as to the effect of the capture of Paris were also +well known. In January he remarked to Mollien, the Minister of the +Treasure, "My dear fellow, if the enemy reaches the gates of Paris, +the Empire is no more."[445] + +Oppressed by these gloomy omens, the defenders awaited the onset of +the allies at Montreuil, Romainville Pantin, and on the northern plain +(March 30th). At some points French valour held up successfully +against the dense masses; but in the afternoon Marmont, seeing his +thin lines overlapped, and in imminent danger of being cut off at +Belleville, sent out a request for a truce, as Joseph had empowered +him to do if affairs proved to be irretrievable. At all points +resistance was hopeless; Mortier was hard pressed on the north-east; +at the Clichy gate Moncey and his National Guards fought only for +honour; and so, after a whole day of sanguinary conflicts, the great +city surrendered on honourable terms. + +And thus ended the great impulse which had gone forth from Paris since +1789, which had flooded the plains of Germany, the plateaux of Spain, +the cities of Italy, and the steppes of Russia, levelling the barriers +of castes and creeds, and binding men in a new and solid unity. The +reaction against that great centrifugal and international movement had +now become centripetal and profoundly national. Thanks to Napoleon's +statecraft, the peoples of Europe from the Volga to the Tagus were now +embattled in a mighty phalanx, and were about to enter in triumph the +city that only twenty-five years before had heralded the dawn of their +nascent liberties. + +And what of Napoleon, in part the product and in part the cause, of +this strange reaction? By a strange Nemesis, his military genius and +his overweening contempt of Schwarzenberg drew him aside at the very +time when the allies could strike with deadly effect at the heart of +his centralized despotism. On the 29th he hears of disaffection at +Paris, of the disaster at La Fere Champenoise, and of the loss of +Lyons by Augereau. He at once sees the enormity of his blunder. His +weary Guards and he seek to annihilate space. They press on by the +unguarded road by way of Troyes and Fontainebleau, thereby cutting off +all chance of the Emperor Francis and Metternich sending messages from +Dijon to Paris. By incredible exertions the men cover seventeen +leagues on the 29th and reach Troyes. + +Napoleon, accompanied by Caulaincourt, Drouot, Flahaut, and Lefebvre, +rushes on, wearing out horses at every stage: at Fontainebleau on the +30th he hears that his consort has left Paris; at Essonne, that the +battle is raging. Late at night, near Athis, he meets a troop of horse +under General Belliard: eagerly he questions this brave officer, and +learns that Joseph has left Paris, and that the battle is over. +"Forward then to Paris: everywhere where I am not they act +stupidly."--"But, sire," says the general, "it is too late: Paris has +capitulated." + +The indomitable will is not yet broken. He must go on; he will sound +the tocsin, rouse the populace, tear up the capitulation, and beat the +insolent enemy. The sight of Mortier's troops, a little further on, at +last burns the truth into his brain: he sends on Caulaincourt with +full powers to treat for peace, and then sits up for the rest of the +night, poring over his maps and measuring the devotion of his Guard +against the inexorable bounds of time and space. He is within ten +miles of Paris, and sees the glare of the enemy's watch-fires all over +the northern sky. + +On the morrow he hears that the allied sovereigns are about to enter +Paris, and Marmont warns him by letter that public opinion has much +changed since the withdrawal, first of the Empress, and then of +Joseph, Louis, and Jerome. This was true. The people were disgusted by +their flight; Bluecher now had eighty cannon planted on the heights of +Montmartre; and men knew that he would not spare Paris if she hazarded +a further effort. And thus, when, on that same morning, the Czar, with +the King of Prussia on his right, and Schwarzenberg on his left, rode +into Paris at the head of the Russian and Prussian Guards, they met +with nothing worse than sullen looks on the part of the masses, while +knots of enthusiastic royalists shouted wildly for the Bourbons, and +women flung themselves to kiss the boots of the liberating Emperor. +The Bourbon party, however, was certainly in the minority; but at +places along the route their demonstrations were effective enough to +influence an impressionable populace, and to delight the +conquerors.--"The white cockade appeared very universally:"--wrote +Stewart with suspicious emphasis--"many of the National Guards, whom I +saw, wore them."[446] + +Fearing that the Elysee Palace had been mined, the Czar installed +himself at Talleyrand's mansion, opposite the Place de la Concorde; +and forthwith there took place a most important private Council. The +two monarchs were present, along with Nesselrode and Napoleon's +Corsican enemy, Pozzo di Borgo. Princes Schwarzenberg and Lichtenstein +represented Austria; while Talleyrand and Dalberg were there to plead +for the House of Bourbon: De Pradt and Baron Louis were afterwards +summoned. The Czar opened the deliberations by declaring that there +were three courses open, to make peace with Napoleon, to accept Marie +Louise as Regent for her son, or to recall the Bourbons.[447] The +first he declared to be impossible; the second was beset by the +gravest difficulties; and, while stating the objections to the +Bourbons, he let it be seen that he now favoured this solution, +provided that it really was the will of France. He then called on +Talleyrand to speak; and that pleader set forth the case of the +Bourbons with his usual skill. The French army, he said, was more +devoted to its own glory than to Napoleon. France longed for peace, +and she could only find it with due sureties under her old dynasty. If +the populace had not as yet declared for the Bourbons, who could +wonder at that, when the allies persisted in negotiating with +Napoleon? But let them declare that they will no more treat with him, +and France would at once show her real desires. For himself, he would +answer for the Senate. The Czar was satisfied; Frederick William +assented; the Austrian princes said not a word on behalf of the claims +of Marie Louise; and the cause of the House of Bourbon easily +triumphed.[448] + +On the morrow appeared in the "Journal des Debats" a decisive +proclamation, signed by Alexander _on behalf of all the allied +Powers;_ but we must be permitted to doubt whether the Emperor +Francis, if present, would have allowed it to appear, especially if +his daughter were present in Paris as Regent. The proclamation set +forth that the allies would never again treat with "Napoleon +Bonaparte" or any member of his family; that they would respect the +integrity of France as it existed under its lawful kings, and would +recognize and guarantee the constitution which the French nation +should adopt. + +Accordingly, they invited the Senate at once to appoint a Provisional +Government. Talleyrand, as Grand Elector of the Empire, had the power +to summon that guardian of the commonwealth, whose vote would clearly +be far more expeditious than the _plebiscite_ on which Alexander had +previously set his heart. Of the 140 Senators only 64 assembled, but +over them Talleyrand's influence was supreme. He spake, and they +silently registered his suggestions. Thus it was that the august body, +taught by ten years of despotism to bend gracefully before every +breeze, fulfilled its last function in the Napoleonic _regime_ by +overthrowing the very constitution which it had been expressly charged +to uphold. The date was the 1st of April. Talleyrand, Dalberg, +Beurnonville, Jaucourt, and l'Abbe de Montesquiou at once formed a +Provisional Government; but the soul of it was Talleyrand. The Czar +gave the word, and Talleyrand acted as scene-shifter. The last tableau +of this constitutional farce was reached on the following day, when +the Senate and the Corps Legislatif declared that Napoleon had ceased +to reign. + +Such was the ex-bishop's revenge for insults borne for many a year +with courtly tact, but none the less bitterly felt. Napoleon and he +had come to regard each other with instinctive antipathy; but while +the diplomatist hid his hatred under the cloak of irony, the soldier +blurted forth his suspicions. Before leaving Paris, the Emperor had +wound up his last Council-meeting by a diatribe against enemies left +in the citadel; and his words became all the hotter when he saw that +Talleyrand, who was then quietly conversing with Joseph in a corner, +took no notice of the outburst. From Champagne he sent off an order to +Savary to arrest the ex-Minister, but that functionary took upon +himself to disregard the order. Probably there was some understanding +between them. And thus, after steering past many a rock, the patient +schemer at last helped Europe to shipwreck that mighty adventurer when +but a league or two from port. + +But all was not over yet. Napoleon had fallen back on Fontainebleau, +in front of which town he was assembling a force of nearly 60,000 men. +Marie Louise, with the Ministers, was at Blois, and desired to make +her way to the side of her consort. Had she done so, and had her +father been present at Paris, a very interesting and delicate +situation would have been the result; and we may fancy that it would +have needed all Metternich's finesse and Castlereagh's common sense to +keep the three monarchs united. But Francis was still at Dijon; and +Metternich and Castlereagh did not reach Paris until April 10th; so +that everything in these important days was decided by the Czar and +Talleyrand, both of them irreconcilable foes of Napoleon. It was in +vain that Caulaincourt (April 1st) begged the Czar to grant peace to +Napoleon on the basis of the old frontiers. "Peace with him would only +be a truce," was the reply. + +The victor did not repulse the idea of a Regency so absolutely, and +the faithful Minister at once hurried to Fontainebleau to persuade his +master to abdicate in favour of his son. Napoleon repulsed the offer +with disdain: rather than _that_, he would once more try the hazards +of war. He knew that the Old and the Young Guard, still nearly 9,000 +strong in all, burned to revenge the insult to French pride; and at +the close of a review held on the 3rd in the great court of the +palace, they shouted, "To Paris!" and swore to bury themselves under +its ruins. It needed not the acclaim of his veterans to prompt him to +the like resolve. When, on April 1st, he received a Verbal Note from +Alexander, stating that the allies would no longer treat with him, +except on his private and family concerns, he exclaimed to Marmont, at +the line of the Essonne, that he must fight, for it was a necessity of +his position. He also proposed to that Marshal to cross the Seine and +attack the allies, forgetting that the Marne, with its bridges held by +them, was in the way. Marmont, endowed with a keen and sardonic +intelligence, had already seen that his master was more and more the +victim of illusions, never crediting the existence of difficulties +that he did not actually witness. And when, on the 3rd, or perhaps +earlier, offers came from the royalists, the Marshal promised to help +them in the way that will shortly appear. + +Napoleon's last overtures to the Czar came late on the following day. +On that morning he had a long and heated discussion with Berthier, +Ney, Oudinot, and Lefebvre. Caulaincourt and Maret were present as +peacemakers. The Marshals upbraided Napoleon with the folly of +marching on Paris. Angered by their words Napoleon at last said: "The +army will obey me." "No," retorted Ney, "it will obey its commanders." + +Macdonald, who had just arrived with his weary corps, took up their +case with his usual frankness. "Our horses," he said, "can go no +further: we have not enough ammunition for one skirmish, and no means +of procuring more. If we fail, as we probably shall, the whole of +France will be destroyed. We can still impose on the enemy: let us +retain our attitude.... We have had enough of war without kindling +civil war." Finally the Emperor gave way, and drew up a declaration +couched in these terms: "The allied Powers having proclaimed that the +Emperor Napoleon was the sole obstacle to the re-establishment of +peace in Europe, the Emperor Napoleon, faithful to his oaths, declares +that he is ready to descend from the throne, to leave France, and even +give up his life, for the good of the fatherland, inseparable from the +rights of his son, of those of the regency of the Empress and of the +maintenance of the laws of the Empire."[449] + +A careful reading of this document will show that it was not an act of +abdication, but merely a conditional offer to abdicate, which would +satisfy those undiplomatic soldiers and gain time. Macdonald also +relates that, after drawing it up, the Emperor threw himself on the +sofa, struck his thigh, and said: "Nonsense, gentlemen! let us leave +all that alone and march to-morrow, we shall beat them." But they held +him to his promise; and Caulaincourt, Ney, and Macdonald straightway +proceeding to Paris, beset the Czar with many entreaties and some +threats to recognize the Regency. + +In their interview, late at night on the 4th, they seemed to make a +great impression, especially when they reminded him of his promise not +to force any government on France. Next, the Czar called in the +members of the Provisional Government, and heard their arguments that +a Regency must speedily give way before the impact of the one +masterful will. Yet again Alexander listened to the eloquence of +Caulaincourt, and finally to the pleadings of the now anxious +provisionals. So the night wore on at Talleyrand's mansion, the Czar +finally stating that, after hearing the Prussian monarch's advice, he +would give his decision. And shortly before dawn came the news that +Marmont's corps had marched over to the enemy. "You see," said +Alexander to Pozzo di Borgo, "it is Providence that wills it: no more +doubt or hesitation now."[450] + +On that same night, in fact, Marmont's corps of 12,000 men was brought +from Essonne within the lines of the allies, by the Marshal's +generals. Marmont himself was then in Paris, having been induced by +Ney and Macdonald to come with them, so as to hinder the carrying out +of his treasonable design; but his generals, who were in the secret, +were alarmed by the frequency of Napoleon's couriers, and carried out +the original plan. Thus, at dawn of the 5th, the rank and file found +themselves amidst the columns and squadrons of the allies. It was now +too late to escape; the men swore at their leaders with helpless fury; +and 12,000 men were thus filched from Napoleon's array.[451] + +If this conduct be viewed from the personal standpoint, it must be +judged a base betrayal of an old friend and benefactor; and it is +usually regarded in that light alone. And yet Marmont might plead that +his action was necessary to prevent Napoleon sacrificing his troops, +and perhaps also his capital, to a morbid pride and desire for +revenge. The Marshal owed something to France. The Chambers had +pronounced his master's abdication, and Paris seemed to acquiesce in +their decision: Bordeaux and Lyons had now definitely hoisted the +white flag: Wellington had triumphed in the south; Schwarzenberg +marshalled 140,000 men around the capital; and Marmont knew, perhaps, +better than any of the Marshals, the obstinacy of that terrible will +which had strewn the roads between Moscow, Paris, and Lisbon with a +million of corpses. Was it not time that this should end? And would it +end as long as Napoleon saw any chance of snatching a temporary +success? + +However we may regard Marmont's conduct, there can be no doubt that it +helped on Napoleon's fall. The Czar was too subtle a diplomatist to +attach much importance to Napoleon's declaration cited above. He must +have seen in it a device to gain time. But he himself also wished for +a few more hours' respite before flinging away the scabbard; and we +may regard his lengthy balancings between the pleas of Caulaincourt +and Talleyrand as prompted partly by a wish to sip to the full the +sweets of revenge for the occupation of Moscow, but mainly by the +resolve to mark time until Marmont's corps had been brought over. + +Now that the head was struck off Napoleon's lance, the Czar repulsed +all notion of a Regency, but declared that he was ready to grant +generous terms to Napoleon if the latter abdicated outright. "Now, +when he is in trouble," he said, "I will become once more his friend +and will forget the past." In conferences with Napoleon's +representatives, Alexander decided that Napoleon must keep the title +of Emperor, and receive a suitable pension. The islands of Corfu, +Corsica, and Elba were considered for his future abode: the last +offered the fewest objections; and though Metternich later on +protested against the choice of Elba, the Czar felt his honour pledged +to this arrangement.[452] + +Napoleon himself now began to yield to the inevitable. On hearing the +news of Marmont's defection, he sat for some time as if stupefied, +then sadly remarked: "The ungrateful man: well! he will be more +unhappy than I." But once more, on the 6th, the fighting instinct +comes uppermost. He plans to retire with his faithful troops beyond +the Loire, and rally the corps of Augereau, Suchet, and Soult. "Come," +he cries to his generals, "let us march to the Alps." Not one of them +speaks in reply. "Ah," replies the Emperor to their unspoken thoughts; +"you want repose: have it then. Alas! you know not how many +disappointments and dangers await you on your beds of down." He then +wrote his formal abdication: + + "The allied Powers having declared that the Emperor was the sole + obstacle to the re-establishment of peace in Europe, the Emperor, + faithful to his oaths, declares that he renounces, for himself and + his heirs, the thrones of France and Italy, and that there is no + sacrifice, not even that of life, which he is not ready to make + for the interest of France." + +The allies made haste to finish the affair; for even now they feared +that the caged lion would burst his bars. Indeed, the trusty secretary +Fain asserts that when on Easter Monday, the 11th, Caulaincourt +brought back the allies' ratification of this deed, Napoleon's first +demand was to retract the abdication. It would be unjust, however, to +lay too much stress on this strange conduct; for at that time the +Emperor's mind was partly unhinged by maddening tumults. + +His anguish increased when he heard the final terms of the allies. +They allotted to him the isle of Elba; to his consort and heir, the +duchies of Parma, Placentia and Guastalla, and two millions of francs +as an annual subsidy, divided equally between himself and her. They +were to keep the title of Emperor and Empress; but their son would +bear the name of Duke of Parma, etc. The other Bonapartes received an +annual subsidy of 2,500,000 francs, this and the former sum being paid +by France. Four hundred soldiers might accompany him to Elba. A +"suitable establishment" was to be provided for Eugene outside of +France.[453] For some hours Napoleon refused to ratify this compact. +All hope of resistance was vain, for Oudinot, Victor, Lefebvre, and, +finally, Ney and Berthier, had gone over to the royalists: even the +soldiery began to waver. But a noble pride held back the mighty +conqueror from accepting Elba and signing a money compact. It is not +without a struggle that a Caesar sinks to the level of a Sancho Panza. + +He then talked to Caulaincourt with the insight that always illumined +his judgments. Marie Louise ought to have Tuscany, he said: Parma +would not befit her dignity. Besides, if she had to traverse other +States to come to him, would she ever do so? He next talked of his +Marshals. Massena's were the greatest exploits: but Suchet had shown +himself the wisest both in war and administration. Soult was able, but +too ambitious. Berthier was honest, sensible, the model of a chief of +the staff; and "yet he has now caused me much pain." Not a word +escaped him about Davoust, still manfully struggling at Hamburg. Not +one of his Ministers, he complained, had come from Blois to bid him +farewell. He then spoke of his greatest enemy--England. "She has done +me much harm, doubtless, but I have left in her flanks a poisoned +dart. It is I who have made this debt, that will ever burden, if not +crush, future generations." Finally, he came back to the hateful +compact which Caulaincourt pressed him in vain to sign. How could he +take money from the allies. How could he leave France so small, after +receiving her so great! + +That same night he sought to end his life. On February the 8th he had +warned his brother Joseph that he would do so if Paris were captured. +During the retreat from Moscow he had carried about a phial which was +said to contain opium, and he now sought to end his miseries. But +Caulaincourt, his valet Constant, and the surgeon Ivan were soon at +hand with such slight cures as were possible. After violent sickness +the Emperor sank into deep prostration; but, when refreshed by tea, +and by the cool air of dawning day, he gradually revived. "Fate has +decided," he exclaimed: "I must live and await all that Providence has +in store for me."[454] He then signed the treaty with the allies, +presented Macdonald with the sword of Murad Bey, and calmly began to +prepare for his departure. + +Marie Louise did not come to see him. Her decision to do so was +overruled by her father, in obedience to whose behests she repaired +from Blois to Rambouillet. + +There, guarded by Cossacks, she saw Francis, Alexander, and Frederick +William in turn. What passed between them is not known: but the result +was that, on April 23rd, she set out for Vienna, whence she finally +repaired to Parma; she manifested no great desire to see her consort +at Elba, but soon consoled herself with the Count de Neipperg. + +No doubts as to her future conduct, no qualms of conscience as to the +destiny of France now ruffled Napoleon's mind. Like a sky cleared by a +thunderstorm, once more it shone forth with clear radiance. Those who +saw him now were astonished at his calmness, except in some moments +when he declaimed at his wife and child being kept from him by +Austrian schemes. Then he stormed and wept and declared that he would +seek refuge in England, which General Koeller, the Austrian +commissioner appointed to escort him to Elba, strongly advised him to +do. But for the most part he showed remarkable composure. When Bausset +sought to soothe him by remarking that France would still form one of +the finest of realms, he replied: "_with remarkable serenity_--'I +abdicate and I yield nothing.'"[455] The words hide a world of +meaning: they inclose the secret of the Hundred Days. + +On the 20th, he bade farewell to his Guard: in thrilling words he told +them that his mission thenceforth would be to describe to posterity +the wonders they had achieved: he then embraced General Petit, kissed +the war-stained banner, and, wafted on his way by the sobs of these +unconquered heroes, set forth for the Mediterranean. In the central +districts, and as far as Lyons, he was often greeted by the well-known +shouts, but, further south, the temper of the people changed. + +At Orange they cursed him to his face, and hurled stones at the +windows of the carriage; Napoleon, protected by Bertrand, sat huddled +up in the corner, "apparently very much frightened." After forcing a +way through the rabble, the Emperor, when at a safe distance, donned a +plain great coat, a Russian cloak, and a plain round hat with a white +cockade: in this or similar disguises he sought to escape notice at +every village or town, evincing, says the British Commissioner, +Colonel Campbell, "much anxiety to save his life." + +By a detour he skirted the town of Avignon, where the mob thirsted for +his blood; and by another device he disappointed the people of Orgon, +who had prepared an effigy of him in uniform, smeared with blood, and +placarded with the words: "Voila donc l'odieux tyran! Tot ou tard le +crime est puni."[456] In this humiliating way he hurried on towards +the coast, where a British frigate, the "Undaunted," was waiting for +him. There some suspicious delays ensued, which aroused the fears of +the allied commissioners, especially as bands of French soldiers began +to draw near after the break-up of Eugene's army.[457] + +At last, on the 28th, accompanied by Counts Bertrand and Drouot, he +set sail from Frejus. It was less than fifteen years since he had +landed there crowned with the halo of his oriental adventures. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVIII + +ELBA AND PARIS + + +If it be an advantage to pause in the midst of the rush of life and +take one's bearings afresh, then Napoleon was fortunate in being +drifted to the quiet eddy of Elba. He there had leisure to review his +career, to note where he had served his generation and succeeded, +where also he had dashed himself fruitlessly against the fundamental +instincts of mankind. Undoubtedly he did essay this mental +stock-taking. He remarked to the conscientious Drouot that he was +wrong in not making peace at the Congress of Prague; that trust in his +own genius and in his soldiery led him astray; "but those who blame me +have never drunk of Fortune's intoxicating cup." When a turn of her +wheel brought him uppermost again, he confessed that at Elba he had +heard, as in a tomb, the verdict of posterity; and there are signs +that his maturer convictions thenceforth strove to curb the old +domineering instincts that had wrecked his life. + +Introspection, however, was alien to his being; he was made for the +camp rather than the study; his critical powers, if turned in for a +time on himself, quickly swung back to work upon men and affairs; and +they found the needed exercise in organizing his Liliputian Empire and +surveying the course of European politics. In the first weeks he was +up at dawn, walking or riding about Porto Ferrajo and its environs, +planning better defences, or tracing out new roads and avenues of +mulberry trees. "I have never seen a man," wrote Campbell, "with so +much activity and restless perseverance: he appears to take pleasure +in perpetual movement, and in seeing those who accompany him sink +under fatigue." About seven hundred of his Guards were brought over on +British transports; and these, along with Corsicans and Tuscans, +guarded him against royalist plotters, real or supposed. In a short +time he purchased a few small vessels, and annexed the islet of +Pianosa. These affairs and the formation of an Imperial Court for the +delectation of his mother and his sister Pauline, who now joined him, +served to drive away ennui; but he bitterly resented the Emperor +Francis's refusal to let his wife and son come to him. Whether Marie +Louise would have come is more than doubtful, for her relations to +Count Neipperg were already notorious; but the detention of his son +was a heartless action that aroused general sympathy for the lonely +man. The Countess Walewska paid him a visit for some days, bringing +the son whom she had borne him.[458] + +Meanwhile Europe was settling down uneasily on its new political +foundations. Considering that France had been at the mercy of the +allies, she had few just grounds of complaint against them. The +Treaties of Paris (May 30th, 1814) left her with rather wider bounds +than those of 1791; and she kept the art treasures reft by Napoleon. +Perfidious Albion yielded up all her French colonial conquests, except +Mauritius, Tobago, and St. Lucia. Britons grumbled at the paltry gains +brought by a war that had cost more than L600,000,000: but Castlereagh +justified the policy of conciliation. "It is better," said he, "for +France to be commercial and pacific than a warlike and conquering +State." We insisted on her ceding Belgium to the House of Orange, +while we retained the Dutch colonies conquered by us, the Cape, +Demerara, and Curacoa--paying L6,000,000 for them. + +The loss of the Netherlands, the Rhineland, and Italy galled French +pride. Loud were the murmurs of the throngs of soldiers that came from +the fortresses of Germany, or the prisons of Spain, Russia, and +England--70,000 crossed over from our shores alone--at the harshness +of the allies and the pusillanimity of the Bourbons. The return from +war to peace is always hard; and now these gaunt warriors came back to +a little France that perforce discharged them or placed them on +half-pay. Perhaps they might have been won over by a tactful Court: +but the Bourbons, especially that typical _emigre_, the Comte +d'Artois, were nothing if not tactless, witness their shelving of the +Old Guard and formation of the Maison du Roi, a privileged and highly +paid corps of 6,000 nobles and royalist gentlemen. The peasants, too, +were uneasy, especially those who held the lands of nobles confiscated +in the Revolution. To indemnify the former owners was impossible in +face of the torrent of exorbitant claims that flowed in. And the year +1814, which began as a soul-stirring epic, ended with sordid squabbles +worthy of a third-rate farce. + +Moreover, at this very time, the former allies seemed on the brink of +war. The limits of our space admit only of the briefest glance at the +disputes of the Powers at the Congress of Vienna. The storm centre of +Europe was the figure of the Czar. To our ambassador at Vienna, Sir +Charles Stewart, he declared his resolve to keep western Poland and +never to give up 7,000,000 of his "Polish subjects."[459] Strange to +say, he ultimately gained the assent of Prussia to this objectionable +scheme, provided that she acquired the whole of Saxony, while +Frederick Augustus was to be transplanted to the Rhineland with Bonn +as capital. To these proposals Austria, England, and France offered +stern opposition, and framed a secret compact (January 3rd, 1815) to +resist them, if need be, with armies amounting to 450,000 men. But, +though swords were rattled in their scabbards, they were not drawn. +When news reached Vienna of the activity of Bonapartists in France and +of Murat in Italy, the Powers agreed (February 8th) to the +Saxon-Polish compromise which took shape in the map of Eastern Europe. +The territorial arrangements in the west were evidently inspired by +the wish to build up bulwarks against France. Belgium was tacked on to +Holland; Germany was huddled into a Confederation, in which the +princes had complete sovereign powers; and the Kingdom of Sardinia +grew to more than its former bulk by recovering Savoy and Nice and +gaining Genoa. + +This piling up of artificial barriers against some future Napoleon was +to serve the designs of the illustrious exile himself. The instinct of +nationality, which his blows had aroused to full vigour, was now +outraged by the sovereigns whom it carried along to victory. Belgians +strongly objected to Dutch rule, and German "Unitarians," as +Metternich dubbed them, spurned a form of union which subjected the +Fatherland to Austria and her henchmen. Hardest of all was the fate of +Italy. After learning the secret of her essential unity under +Napoleon, she was now parcelled out among her former rulers; and +thrills of rage shot through the peninsula when the Hapsburgs settled +down at Venice and Milan, while their scions took up the reins at +Modena, Parma, and Florence. + +It was on this popular indignation that Murat now built his hopes. +After throwing over Napoleon, he had looked to find favour with the +allies; but his movements in 1814 had been so suspicious that the fate +of his kingdom remained hanging in the balance. The Bourbons of Paris +and Madrid strove hard to effect his overthrow; but Austria and +England, having tied their hands early in 1814 by treaties with him, +could only wait and watch in the hope that the impetuous soldier would +take a false step. He did so in February, 1815, when he levied forces, +summoned Louis XVIII. to declare whether he was at war with him, and +prepared to march into Northern Italy. + +The disturbed state of the peninsula caused the Powers much uneasiness +as to the presence of Napoleon at Elba. Louis XVIII. in his +despatches, and Talleyrand in private conversations, two or three +times urged his removal to the Azores; but, with the exception of +Castlereagh, who gave a doubtful assent, the plenipotentiaries scouted +the thought of it. Metternich entirely opposed it, and the Czar would +certainly have objected to the reversal of his Elba plan, had +Talleyrand made a formal proposal to that effect. But he did not do +so. The official records of the Congress contain not a word on the +subject. Equally unfounded were the newspaper rumours that the +Congress was considering the advisability of removing Napoleon to St. +Helena. On this topic the official records are also silent; and we +have the explicit denial of the Duke of Wellington (who reached Vienna +on the 1st of February to relieve Castlereagh) that "the Congress ever +had any intention of removing Bonaparte from Elba to St. Helena."[460] + +Napoleon's position was certainly one of unstable equilibrium, that +tended towards some daring enterprise or inglorious bankruptcy. The +maintenance of his troops cost him more than 1,000,000 francs a year, +while his revenue was less than half of that sum. He ought to have +received 2,000,000 francs a year from Louis XVIII.; but that monarch, +while confiscating the property of the Bonapartes in France, paid not +a centime of the sums which the allies had pledged him to pay to the +fallen House. Both the Czar and our envoy, Castlereagh, warmly +reproached Talleyrand with his master's shabby conduct; to which the +plenipotentiary replied that it was dangerous to furnish Napoleon with +money as long as Italy was in so disturbed a state. Castlereagh, on +his return to England by way of Paris, again pressed the matter on +Louis XVIII., who promised to take the matter in hand. But he was soon +quit of it: for, as he wrote to Talleyrand on March 7th, Bonaparte's +landing in France _spared him the trouble_.[461] + +To assert, however, that Napoleon's escape from Elba was prompted by a +desire to avoid bankruptcy, is to credit him with respectable +_bourgeois_ scruples by which he was never troubled. Though "Madame +Mere" and Pauline complained bitterly to Campbell of the lack of funds +at Elba, the Emperor himself was far from depressed. "His spirits seem +of late," wrote Campbell on December 28th, "rather to rise, and not to +yield in the smallest degree to the pressure of pecuniary +difficulties." Both Campbell and Lord John Russell, who then paid the +Emperor a flying visit, thought that he was planning some great move, +and warned our Ministers.[462] But they shared the view of other +wiseacres, that Italy would be his goal, and that too, when Campbell's +despatches teemed with remarks made to him by Napoleon as to the +certainty of an outbreak in France. Here are two of them: + + He said that there would be a violent outbreak, similar to the + Revolution, in consequence of their present humiliation: every man + in France considers the Rhine to be the natural frontier of + France, and nothing can alter this opinion. If the spirit of the + nation is roused into action nothing can oppose it. It is like a + torrent.... The present Government of France is too feeble: the + Bourbons should make war as soon as possible so as to establish + themselves upon the throne. It would not be difficult to recover + Belgium. It is only for the British troops there that the French + army has the smallest awe" (_sic_). + +His final resolve to put everything to the hazard was formed about +February 13th, when, shortly after receiving tidings as to the unrest +in Italy, the discords of the Powers, and the resolve of the allied +sovereigns to leave Vienna on the 20th, he heard news of the highest +importance from France. On that day one of his former officials, +Fleury de Chaboulon, landed in Elba, and informed him of the hatching +of a plot by military malcontents, under the lead of Fouche, for the +overthrow of Louis XVIII.[463] Napoleon at once despatched his +informant to Naples, and ordered his brig, "L'Inconstant," to be +painted like an English vessel. Most fortunately for him, Campbell on +the 16th set sail for Tuscany--"for his health and on private +affairs"--on the small war-vessel, "Partridge," to which the British +Government had intrusted the supervision of Napoleon. Captain Adye, of +that vessel, promised, after taking Campbell to Leghorn, to return and +cruise off Elba. He called at Porto Ferrajo on the 24th, and to +Bertrand's question, when he was to bring Campbell back, returned the +undiplomatic answer that it was fixed for the 26th. The news seems to +have decided Napoleon to escape on that day, when the "Partridge" +would be absent at Leghorn. Meanwhile Campbell, alarmed by the news of +the preparations at Elba, was sending off a request to Genoa that +another British warship should be sent to frustrate the designs of the +"restless villain." + +But it was now too late. On that Sunday night at 9 p.m., the Emperor, +with 1,050 officers and men, embarked at Porto Ferrajo on the +"Inconstant" and six smaller craft. Favoured by the light airs that +detained the British vessel, his flotilla glided away northwards; and +not before the 28th did Adye and Campbell find that the imperial eagle +had flown. Meanwhile Napoleon had eluded the French guard-ship, +"Fleur-de-Lys," and ordered his vessels to scatter. On doubling the +north of Corsica, he fell in with another French cruiser, the +"Zephyr," which hailed his brig and inquired how the great man was. +"Marvellously well," came the reply, suggested by Napoleon himself to +his captain. The royalist cruiser passed on contented. And thus, +thanks to the imbecility of the old Governments and of their servants, +Napoleon was able to land his little force safely in the Golfe de +Jouan on the afternoon of March 1st.[464] Is it surprising that +foreigners, who had not yet fathomed the eccentricities of British +officialdom, should have believed that we connived at Napoleon's +escape? It needed the blood shed at Waterloo to wipe out the +misconception. + +"I shall reach Paris without firing a shot." Such was the prophecy of +Napoleon to his rather questioning followers as they neared the coast +of Provence. It seemed the wildest of dreams. Could the man, who had +been wellnigh murdered by the rabble of Avignon and Orgon, hope to +march in peace through that royalist province? And, if he ever reached +the central districts where men loved him better, would the soldiery +dare to disobey the commands of Soult, the new Minister of War, of +Ney, Berthier, Macdonald, St. Cyr, Suchet, Augereau, and of many more +who were now honestly serving the Bourbons? The King and his brothers +had no fears. They laughed at the folly of this rash intruder. + +At first their confidence seemed justified. Napoleon's overtures to +the officer and garrison of Antibes were repulsed, and the small +detachment which he sent there was captured. Undaunted by this check, +he decided to hurry on by way of Grasse towards Grenoble, thus +forestalling the news of his first failure, and avoiding the royalist +districts of the lower Rhone. + +Napoleon was visibly perturbed as he drew near to Grenoble. There the +officer in command, General Marchand, had threatened to exterminate +this "band of brigands"; and his soldiers as yet showed no signs of +defection. But, by some bad management, only one battalion held the +defile of Laffray on the south. As the bear-skins of the Guard came in +sight, the royalist ranks swerved and drew back. Then the Emperor came +forward, and ordered his men to lower their arms. "There he is: fire +on him," cried a royalist officer. Not a shot rang out.--"Soldiers," +said the well-known voice, "if there is one among you who wishes to +kill his Emperor, he can do so. Here I am." At once a great shout of +"Vive l'Empereur" burst forth: and the battalion broke into an +enthusiastic rush towards the idol of the soldiery. + +That scene decided the whole course of events. A little later, a young +noble, Labedoyere, leads over his regiment; at Grenoble the garrison +stands looking on and cheering while the Bonapartists batter in the +gates; and the hero is borne in amidst a whirlwind of cheers. At +Lyons, the Comte d'Artois and Macdonald seek safety in flight; and +soldiers and workmen welcome their chief with wild acclaim; but amidst +the wonted cries are heard threats of "The Bourbons to the +guillotine," "Down with the priests!" + +The shouts were ominous: they showed that the Jacobins meant to use +Napoleon merely as a tool for the overthrow of the Bourbons. The +"have-nots" cheered him, but the "haves" shivered at his coming, for +every thinking man knew that it implied war with Europe.[465] Napoleon +saw the danger of relying merely on malcontents and sought to arouse a +truly national feeling. He therefore on March 13th issued a series of +popular decrees, that declared the rule of the Bourbons at an end, +dissolved the Senate and Chamber of Deputies, and summoned the +"electoral colleges" of the Empire to a great assembly, or Champ de +Mai, at Paris. He further proscribed the white flag, ordered the +wearing of the tri-colour cockade, disbanded the hated "Maison du +Roi," abolished feudal titles, and sequestered the domains of the +Bourbon princes. In brief, he acted as the Bonaparte of 1799. He then +set forth for Paris, at the head of 14,000 men. + +Ney was at the same time marching with 6,000 men from Besancon. He had +lately assured Louis XVIII. that Napoleon deserved to be brought to +Paris in an iron cage. But now his soldiers kept a sullen silence. At +Bourg the leading regiment deserted; and while beset by difficulties, +the Marshal received from Napoleon the assurance that he would be +received as he was on the day after the Moskwa (Borodino). This was +enough. He drew his troops around him, and, to their lively joy, +declared for the Emperor (March 14th). Napoleon was as good as his +word. Never prone to petty malice, he now received with equal +graciousness those officers who flung themselves at his feet, and +those who staunchly served the King to the very last. Before this +sunny magnanimity the last hopes of the Bourbons melted away. Greeted +on all sides by soldiers and peasants, the enchanter advances on +Paris, whence the King and Court beat a hasty retreat towards Lille. + +Crowds of peasants line and almost block the road from Fontainebleau +to catch a glimpse of the gray coat; and, to expedite matters, he +drives on in a cabriolet with his faithful Caulaincourt. Escorted by a +cavalcade of officers he enters Paris after nightfall; but there the +tone of the public is cool and questioning, until the front of the +Tuileries facing the river is reached.[466] Then a mighty shout arises +from the throng of jubilant half-pay officers as the well-known figure +alights: he passes in, and is half carried up the grand staircase, +"his eyes half closed," says Lavalette, "his hands extended before him +like a blind man, and expressing his joy only by a smile." Ladies are +there also, who have spent the weary hours of waiting in stripping off +_fleurs-de-lys_, and gleefully exposing the N's and golden bees +concealed by cheap Bourbon upholstery. Anon they fly back to this +task; the palace wears its wonted look; and the brief spell of Bourbon +rule seems gone for ever. + +To his contemporaries this triumph of Napoleon appeared a miracle +before which the voice of criticism must be dumb. And yet, if we +remember the hollowness of the Bourbon restoration, the tactlessness +of the princes and the greed of their partisans, it seems strange that +the house of cards reared by the Czar and Talleyrand remained standing +even for eleven months. Napoleon correctly described the condition of +France when he said to his comrades on the "Inconstant": "There is no +historic example that induces me to venture on this bold enterprise: +but I have taken into account the surprise that will seize on men, the +state of public feeling, the resentment against the allies, the love +of my soldiers, in fine, all the Napoleonic elements that still +germinate in our beautiful France."[467] + +Still less was he deceived by the seemingly overwhelming impulse in +his favour. He looked beyond the hysteria of welcome to the cold and +critical fit which follows; and he saw danger ahead. When Mollien +complimented him on his return, he replied, alluding to the general +indifference at the departure of the Bourbons: "My dear fellow! People +have let me come, just as they let the others go." The remark reveals +keen insight into the workings of French public opinion. The whole +course of the Revolution had shown how easy it was to destroy a +Government, how difficult to rebuild. In truth, the events of March, +1815, may be called the epilogue of the revolutionary drama. The royal +House had offended the two most powerful of French interests, the +military and the agrarian, so that soldiers and peasants clutched +eagerly at Napoleon as a mighty lever for its overthrow. + +The Emperor wisely formed his Ministry before the first enthusiasm +cooled down. Maret again became Secretary of State; Decres took the +Navy; Gaudin the finances; Mollien was coaxed back to the Treasury, +and Davoust reluctantly accepted the Ministry of War. Savary declined +to be burdened with the Police, and Napoleon did not press him: for +that clever intriguer, Fouche, was pointed out as the only man who +could rally the Jacobins around the imperial throne: to him, then, +Napoleon assigned this important post, though fully aware that in his +hands it was a two-edged tool. Carnot was finally persuaded to become +Minister for Home Affairs. + +Napoleon's fate, however, was to be decided, not at Paris, but by the +statesmen assembled at Vienna. There time was hanging somewhat +heavily, and the news of Napoleon's escape was welcomed at first as a +grateful diversion. Talleyrand asserted that Napoleon would aim at +Italy, but Metternich at once remarked: "He will make straight for +Paris." When this prophecy proved to be alarmingly true, a drastic +method was adopted to save the Bourbons. The plenipotentiaries drew up +a declaration that Bonaparte, having broken the compact which +established him at Elba--the only legal title attaching to his +existence--had placed himself outside the bounds of civil and social +relations, and, as an enemy and disturber of the peace of the world, +was consigned to "public prosecution" (March 13th).[468] The rigour of +this decree has been generally condemned. But, after all, it did not +exceed in harshness Napoleon's own act of proscription against Stein; +it was a desperate attempt to stop the flight of the imperial eagle to +Paris and to save France from war with Europe. + +Public considerations were doubtless commingled with the promptings of +personal hatred. We are assured that Talleyrand was the author of this +declaration, which had the complete approval of the Czar. But Napoleon +had one enemy more powerful than Alexander, more insidious than +Talleyrand, and that was--his own past. Everywhere the spectre of war +rose up before the imagination of men. The merchant pictured his ships +swept off by privateers: the peasant saw his homestead desolate: the +housewife dreamt of her larder emptied by taxes, and sons carried off +for the war. At Berlin, wrote Jackson, all was agitation, and +everybody said that _the work of last year would have to be done over +again_. + +In England the current of public feeling was somewhat weakened by the +drifts and eddies of party politics. Many of the Whigs made a popular +hero of Napoleon, some from a desire to overthrow the Liverpool +Ministry that proscribed him; others because they believed, or tried +to believe, that the return of Napoleon concerned only France, and +that he would leave Europe alone if Europe left him alone. Others +there were again, as Hazlitt, who could not ignore the patent fact +that Napoleon was an international personage and had violated a +European compact, yet nevertheless longed for his triumph over the bad +old Governments and did not trouble much as to what would come next. +But, on the whole, the judgment of well-informed people may be summed +up in the conclusion of that keen lawyer, Crabb Robinson: "The +question is, peace with Bonaparte now, or war with him in Germany two +years hence."[469] The matter came to a test on April 28th, when +Whitbread's motion against war was rejected by 273 to 72.[470] + +If that was the general opinion in days when Ministers and +diplomatists alone knew the secrets of the game, it was certain that +the initiated, who remembered his wrongheaded refusals to make peace +even in the depressing days of 1814, would strive to crush him before +he could gather all his strength. In vain did he protest that he had +learnt by sad experience and was a changed man. They interpreted his +pacific speeches by their experience of his actions; and thus his +overweening conduct in the past blotted out all hope of his crowning a +romantic career by a peaceful and benignant close. The declaration of +outlawry was followed, on March 25th, by the conclusion of treaties +between the Powers, which virtually renewed those framed at Chaumont. +In quick succession the smaller States gave in their adhesion; and +thus the coalition which tact and diplomacy had dissolved was +revivified by the fears which the mighty warrior aroused. Napoleon +made several efforts to sow distrust among the Powers; and chance +placed in his hands a veritable apple of discord. + +The Bourbons in their hasty flight from Paris had left behind several +State papers, among them being the recent secret compact against +Russia and Prussia. Napoleon promptly sent this document to the Czar +at Vienna; but his hopes of sundering the allies were soon blighted. +Though Alexander and Metternich had for months refused to exchange a +word or a look, yet the news of Napoleon's adventure brought about a +speedy reconciliation; and when the compromising paper from Paris was +placed in the Czar's hands, he took the noble revenge of sending for +Metternich, casting it into the fire, and adjuring the Minister to +forget recent disputes in the presence of their common enemy. Napoleon +strove to detach Austria from the Coalition, as did also Fouche on his +own account; but the overtures led to no noteworthy result, except +that Napoleon, on finding out Fouche's intrigue, threatened to have +him shot--a threat which that necessary tool treated with quiet +derision. + +A few acts of war occurred at once; but Austria and Russia pressed for +delay, the latter with the view of overthrowing Murat. That potentate +now drew the sword on behalf of Napoleon, and summoned the Italians to +struggle for their independence. But he was quickly overpowered at +Tolentino (May 3rd), and fled from his kingdom, disguised as a sailor, +to Toulon. There he offered his sword to Napoleon; but the Emperor +refused his offer and blamed him severely, alleging that he had +compromised the fortunes of France by rendering peace impossible. The +charge must be pronounced not proven. The allies had taken their +resolve to destroy Napoleon on March 13th, and Murat's adventure +merely postponed the final struggle for a month or so. + +Napoleon used this time of respite to form his army and stamp out +opposition in France. The French royalist bands gave him little +trouble. In the south-west the _fleur-de-lys_ was speedily beaten +down; but in La Vendee royalism had its roots deep-seated. Headed by +the two Larochejacqueleins, the peasants made a brave fight; and +20,000 regulars failed to break them up until the month of June was +wearing on. What might not those 20,000 men, detained in La Vendee, +have effected on the crest of Waterloo? + +Napoleon's preoccupation, however, was the conduct of the Jacobins in +France, who had been quickened to immense energy by the absurdities of +the royalist reaction and felt that they had the new ruler in their +power. A game of skill ensued, which took up the greater part of the +"Hundred Days" of Napoleon's second reign. His conduct proved that he +was not sure of success. He felt out of touch with this new +liberty-loving France, so different from the passively devoted people +whom he had left in 1814; he bridled his impetuous nature, reasoning +with men, inviting criticism, and suggesting doubts as to his own +proposals, in a way that contrasted curiously with the old +sledge-hammer methods. + + "He seemed," writes Mollien, "habitually calm, pensive, and + preserved without affectation a serious dignity, with little of + that old audacity and self-confidence which had never met with + insuperable obstacles.... As his thoughts were cramped in a narrow + space girt with precipices instead of soaring freely over a vast + horizon of power, they became laborious and + +This Pegasus in harness chafed at the unwonted yoke; and at times the +old instincts showed themselves. On one occasion, when the subject +turned on the new passion for liberty, he said to Lavalette with a +question in his voice: "All this will last two or three years?" "Your +Majesty," replied the Minister, "must not believe that. It will last +for ever." + +The first grave difficulty was to frame a constitution, especially as +his Lyons decrees led men to believe that it would emanate from the +people, and be sanctioned by them in a great _Champ de Mai_. Perhaps +this was impossible. A great part of France was a prey to civil +strifes; and it was a skilful device to intrust the drafting of a +constitution to Benjamin Constant. + +This brilliant writer and talker had now run through the whole gamut +of political professions. A pronounced Jacobin and free-thinker during +the Consulate, he subsequently retired to Germany, where he unlearnt +his politics, his religion, and his philosophy. The sight of +Napoleon's devastations made him a supporter of the throne and altar, +compelled him to recast his treatises, and drove him to consort with +the quaint circle of pietists who prayed and grovelled with Madame de +Krudener. Returning to France at the Restoration, he wielded his +facile pen in the cause of the monarchy, and fluttered after the +fading charms of Madame Recamier, confiding to his friend, De Broglie, +that he knew not whether to trust most to divine or satanic agencies +for success in this lawless chase. In March, 1815, he thundered in the +Press against the brigand of Elba--until the latter won him over in +the space of a brief interview, and persuaded him to draft, with a few +colleagues, the final constitution of the age. + +Not that Constant had a free hand: he worked under imperial +inspiration. The present effort was named the Additional +Act--additional, that is, to the Constitutions of the Empire (April +22nd, 1815). It established a Chamber of Peers nominated by Napoleon, +with hereditary rights, and a Chamber of Representatives elected on +the plan devised in August, 1802. The Emperor was to nominate all the +judges, including the _juges de paix;_ the jury system was maintained, +and liberty of the Press was granted. The Chambers also gained +somewhat wider control over the Ministers.[471] + +This Act called forth a hail of criticisms. When the Council of State +pointed out that there was no guarantee against confiscations, +Napoleon's eyes flashed fire, and he burst forth: + + "You are pushing me in a way that is not mine. You are weakening + and chaining me. France looks for me and does not find me. Public + opinion was excellent: now it is execrable. France is asking what + has come to the Emperor's arm, this arm which she needs to master + Europe. Why speak to me of goodness, abstract justice, and of + natural laws? The first law is necessity: the first justice is the + public safety." + +The councillors quailed under this tirade and conceded the +point--though we may here remark that Napoleon showed a wise clemency +towards his foes, and confiscated the estates of only thirteen of +them. + +Public opinion became more and more "execrable." Some historians have +asserted that the decline of Napoleon's popularity was due, not to the +Additional Act, but to the menaces of war from a united Europe: this +may be doubted. Miot de Melito, who was working for the Emperor in the +West, states that "never had a political error more immediate effects" +than that Act; and Lavalette, always a devoted adherent, asserts +That Frenchmen thenceforth "saw only a despot in the Emperor and forgot +about the enemy." + +As a display of military enthusiasm, the _Champ de Mai_, of June 1st, +recalled the palmy days gone by. Veterans and conscripts hailed their +chief with jubilant acclaim, as with a few burning words he handed +them their eagles. But the people on the outskirts cheered only when +the troops cheered. Why should they, or the "electors" of France, +cheer? They had hoped to give her a constitution; and they were now +merely witnesses to Napoleon's oath that he would obey the +constitution of his own making. As a civic festival, it was a mockery +in the eyes of men who remembered the "Feast of Pikes," and were not +to be dazzled by the waving of banners and the gorgeous costumes of +Napoleon and his brothers. The opening of the Chambers six days later +gave an outlet to the general discontent. The report that Napoleon +designed his brother Lucien for the Presidency of the Lower House is +incorrect. That honest democrat Lanjuinais was elected. Everything +portended a constitutional crisis, when the summons to arms rang +forth; and the chief, warning the deputies not to imitate the Greeks +of the late Empire by discussing abstract propositions while the +battering-ram thundered at their gates, cut short these barren debates +by that appeal to the sword which had rarely belied his hopes. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIX + +LIGNY AND QUATRE BRAS + + +A less determined optimist than Napoleon might well have hoped for +success over the forces of the new coalition. True, they seemed +overwhelmingly great. But many a coalition had crumbled away under the +alchemy of his statecraft; and the jealousies that had raged at the +Congress of Vienna inspired the hope that Austria, and perhaps +England, might speedily be detached from their present allies. Strange +as it seems to us, the French people opined that Napoleon's escape +from Elba was due to the connivance of the British Government; and +Captain Mercer states that, even at Waterloo, many of the French clung +to the belief that the British resistance would be a matter of form. +Napoleon cherished no such illusion: but he certainly hoped to +surprise the British and Prussian forces in Belgium, and to sever at +one blow an alliance which he judged to be ill cemented. Thereafter he +would separate Austria from Russia, a task that was certainly possible +if victory crowned the French eagles.[472] + +His military position was far stronger than it had been since the +Moscow campaign. The loss of Germany and Spain had really added to his +power. No longer were his veterans shut up in the fortresses of Europe +from Danzig to Antwerp, from Hamburg to Ragusa; and the Peninsular War +no longer engulfed great armies of his choicest troops. In the eyes of +Frenchmen he was not beaten in 1814; he was only tripped up by a +traitor when on the point of crushing his foes. And, now that peace +had brought back garrisons and prisoners of war, as many as 180,000 +well-trained troops were ranged under the imperial eagles. He hoped by +the end of June to have half a million of devoted soldiers ready for +the field. + +The difficulties that beset him were enough to daunt any mind but his. +Some of the most experienced Marshals were no longer at his side. St. +Cyr, Macdonald, Oudinot, Victor, Marmont, and Augereau remained true +to Louis XVIII. Berthier, on hearing of Napoleon's return from Elba, +forthwith retired into Germany, and, in a fit of frenzy, threw himself +from the window of a house in Bamberg while a Russian corps was +passing through that town. Junot had lost his reason. Massena and +Moncey were too old for campaigning; Mortier fell ill before the first +shots were fired. Worst of all, the unending task of army organization +detained Davoust at Paris. Certainly he worked wonders there; but, as +in 1813 and 1814, Napoleon had cause to regret the absence of a +lieutenant equally remarkable for his acuteness of perception and +doggedness of purpose, for a good fortune that rarely failed, and a +devotion that never faltered. Doubtless it was this last priceless +quality, as well as his organizing gifts, that marked him out as the +ideal Minister of War and Governor of Paris. Besides him he left a +Council charged with the government during his absence, composed of +Princes Joseph and Lucien and the Ministers. + +But, though the French army of 1815 lacked some of the names far famed +in story, numbers of zealous and able officers were ready to take +their place. The first and second corps were respectively assigned to +Drouet, Count d'Erlon, and Reille, the former of whom was the son of +the postmaster of Varennes, who stopped Louis XVI.'s flight. Vandamme +commanded the third corps; Gerard, the fourth; Rapp, the fifth; while +the sixth fell to Mouton, better known as Count Lobau. Rapp's corps +was charged with the defence of Alsace; other forces, led by Brune, +Decaen, and Clausel, protected the southern borders, while Suchet +guarded the Alps; but the rest of these corps were gradually drawn +together towards the north of France, and the addition of the Guard, +20,800 strong, brought the total of this army to 125,000 men. + +There was one post which the Emperor found it most difficult to fill, +that of Chief of the Staff. There the loss of Berthier was +irreparable. While lacking powers of initiative, he had the faculty of +lucidly and quickly drafting Napoleon's orders, which insures the +smooth working of the military machine. Who should succeed this +skilful and methodical officer? After long hesitation Napoleon chose +Soult. In a military sense the choice was excellent. The Duke of +Dalmatia had a glorious military record; in his nature activity was +blended with caution, ardour with method; but he had little experience +of the special duties now required of him; and his orders were neither +drafted so clearly nor transmitted so promptly as those of Berthier. + +The concentration of this great force proceeded with surprising +swiftness; and, in order to lull his foes into confidence, the Emperor +delayed his departure from Paris to the last moment possible. As dawn +was flushing the eastern sky, on June 12th, he left his couch, after +four hours' sleep, entered his landau, and speedily left his +slumbering capital behind. In twelve hours he was at Laon. There he +found that Grouchy's four cavalry brigades were not sharing in the +general advance owing to Soult's neglect to send the necessary orders. +The horsemen were at once hurried on, several regiments covering +twenty leagues at a stretch and exhausting their steeds. On the 14th +the army was well in hand around Beaumont, within striking distance of +the Prussian vanguard, from which it was separated by a screen of +dense woods. There the Emperor mounted his charger and rode along the +ranks, raising such a storm of cheers that he vainly called out: "Not +so loud, my children, the enemy will hear you." There, too, on this +anniversary of Marengo and Friedland, he inspired his men by a +stirring appeal on behalf of the independence of Poles, Italians, the +smaller German States, and, above all, of France herself. "For every +Frenchman of spirit the time has come to conquer or die." + +What, meanwhile, was the position of the allies? An Austro-Sardinian +force threatened the south-east of France. Mighty armies of 170,000 +Russians and 250,000 Austrians were rolling slowly on towards Lorraine +and Alsace respectively; 120,000 Prussians, under Bluecher, were +cantoned between Liege and Charleroi; while Wellington's composite +array of British, German, and Dutch-Belgian troops, about 100,000 +strong, lay between Brussels and Mons.[473] The original plan of these +two famous leaders was to push on rapidly into France; but the +cautious influences of the Military Council sitting at Vienna +prevailed, and it was finally decided not to open the campaign until +the Austrians and Russians should approach the frontiers of France. +Even as late as June 15th we find Wellington writing to the Czar in +terms that assume a co-operation of all the allies in simultaneous +moves towards Paris--movements which Schwarzenberg had led him to +expect _would begin about the 20th of June_.[474] + +From this prolonged and methodical warfare Europe was saved by +Napoleon's vigorous offensive. His political instincts impelled him to +strike at Brussels, where he hoped that the populace would declare for +union with France and severance from the detested Dutch. In this war +he must not only conquer armies, he must win over public opinion; and +how could he gain it so well as in the guise of a popular liberator? + +But there were other advantages to be gained in Belgium. By flinging +himself on Wellington and the Prussians, and driving them asunder, he +would compel Louis XVIII. to another undignified flight; and he would +disorganize the best prepared armies of his foes, and gain the +material resources of the Low Countries. He seems even to have +cherished the hope that a victory over Wellington would dispirit the +British Government, unseat the Ministry, and install in power the +peace-loving Whigs. + +And this victory was almost within his grasp. While his host drew near +to the Prussian outposts south of Charleroi and Thuin, the allies were +still spread out in cantonments that extended over one hundred miles, +namely, from Liege on Bluecher's left to Audenarde on Wellington's +right. This wide dispersion of troops, when an enterprising foe was +known to be almost within striking distance, has been generally +condemned. Thus General Kennedy, in his admirable description of +Waterloo, admits that there was an "absurd extension" of the +cantonments. Wellington, however, was bound to wait and to watch the +three good high-roads, by any one of which Napoleon might advance, +namely, those of Tournay, Mons, and Charleroi. The Duke had other +causes for extending his lines far to the west: he desired to cover +the roads from Ostend, whence he was expecting reinforcements, and to +stretch a protecting wing over the King of France at Ghent. + +There are many proofs, however, that Wellington was surprised by +Napoleon. The narratives of Sir Hussey Vivian and Captain Mercer show +that the final orders for our advance were carried out with a haste +and flurry that would not have happened if the army had been well in +hand, or if Wellington had been fully informed of Napoleon's latest +moves.[475] There is a wild story that the Duke was duped by Fouche, +on whom he was relying for news from Paris. But it seems far more +likely that he was misled by the tidings sent to Louis XVIII. at Ghent +by zealous royalists in France, the general purport of which was that +Napoleon _would wage a defensive campaign_.[476] On the 13th June, +Wellington wrote: "I have accounts from Paris of the 10th, on which +day he [Bonaparte] was still there; and I judge from his speech to +the Legislature that his departure was not likely to be immediate. +I think we are now too strong for him here." And, in later years, he +told Earl Stanhope that Napoleon "was certainly wrong in attacking +at all"; for the allied armies must soon have been in great straits +for want of food if they had advanced into France, exhausted as she +was by the campaign of 1814. "But," he added, "the fact is, +Bonaparte never in his life had patience for a defensive war." + +[Illustration: PLAN OF THE WATERLOO +CAMPAIGN] + +The Duke's forces would, at the outset of the campaign, have been in +less danger, if the leaders at the Prussian outposts, Pirch II. and +Doernberg of the King's German Legion, had warned him of the enemy's +massing near the Sambre early on the 15th. By some mischance this was +not done; and our leader only heard from Hardinge, at the Prussian +headquarters, that the enemy seemed about to begin the offensive. He +therefore waited for more definite news before concentrating upon any +one line. + +About 6 p.m. on the 15th he ordered his divisions and brigades to +concentrate at Vilvorde, Brussels, Ninove, Grammont, Ath, +Braine-le-Comte, Hal, and Nivelles--the first four of which were +somewhat remote, while the others were chosen with a view to defending +the roads leading northwards from Mons. Not a single British brigade +was posted on the Waterloo-Charleroi road, which was at that time +guarded only by a Dutch-Belgian division, a fact which supports Mr. +Ropes's contention that no definite plan of co-operation had been +formed by the allied leaders. Or, if there was one, the Duke certainly +refused to act upon it until he had satisfied himself that the chief +attack was not by way of Mons or Ath. More definite news reached +Brussels near midnight of the 15th, whereupon he gave a general left +turn to his advance, namely, _towards Nivelles_. + +Clausewitz maintains that he should already have removed his +headquarters to Nivelles; had he done so and hurried up all available +troops towards the Soignies-Quatre Bras line, his Waterloo fame would +certainly have gained in solidity. A dash of romance was added by his +attending the Duchess of Richmond's ball at Brussels on the night of +the 15th-16th; lovers of the picturesque will always linger over the +scene that followed with its "hurrying to and fro and tremblings of +distress"; but the more prosaic inquirer may doubt whether Wellington +should not then have been more to the front, feeling every throb of +Bellona's pulse.[477] + +Bluecher's army, comprising 90,000 men, also covered a great stretch of +country. The first corps, that of Ziethen, held the bridges of the +Sambre at and near Charleroi; but the corps of Pirch I. and Thielmann +were at Namur and Ciney; while, owing to a lack of stringency in the +orders sent by Gneisenau, chief of the staff, to Buelow, his corps of +32,000 men was still at Liege. Early on the 15th, Pirch I. and +Thielmann began hastily to advance towards Sombref; and Ziethen, with +32,000 men, prepared to hold the line of the Sambre as long as +possible. His chief of staff, General Reiche, states that one-third of +the Prussians were new troops, drafted in from the Landwehr; but all +the corps gloried in their veteran Field-Marshal, and were eager to +fight. + +Such, then, was the general position. Wellington was unaware of his +danger; Bluecher was straining every nerve to get his army together; +while 32,000 Prussians were exposed to the attack of nearly four times +their number. It is clear that, had all gone well with the French +advance, the fortunes of Wellington and Bluecher must have been +desperate. But, though the concentration of 125,000 French troops near +Beaumont and Maubeuge had been effected with masterly skill (except +that Gerard's and D'Erlon's corps were late), the final moves did not +work quite smoothly. An accident to the officer who was to order +Vandamme's corps to march at 2 a.m. on the 15th caused a long delay to +that eager fighter.[478] The 4th corps, that of Gerard, was also +disturbed and delayed by an untoward event. General Bourmont, whose +old Vendean opinions seemed to have melted away completely before the +sun of Napoleon's glory, rewarded his master by deserting with several +officers to the Prussians, very early on that morning. The incident +was really of far less importance than is assigned to it in the St. +Helena Memoirs, which falsely ascribe it to the 14th: the Prussians +were already on the _qui vive_ before Bourmont's desertion; but it +clogged the advance of Gerard's corps and fostered distrust among the +rank and file. When, on the morrow, Gerard rejoined his chief at the +mill of Fleurus, the latter reminded him that he had answered for +Bourmont's fidelity with his own head; and, on the general protesting +that he had seen Bourmont fight with the utmost devotion, Napoleon +replied: "Bah! A man who has been a white will never become a blue: +and a blue will never be a white." Significant words, that show the +Emperor's belief in the ineradicable strength of instinct and early +training.[479] + +Despite these two mishaps, the French on the morning of the 15th +succeeded in driving Ziethen's men from the banks of the Sambre about +Thuin, while Napoleon in person broke through their line at Charleroi. +After suffering rather severely, the defenders fell back on Gilly, +whither Napoleon and his main force followed them; while the left wing +of the French advance, now intrusted to Ney, was swung forward against +the all-important position of Quatre Bras. + +We here approach one of the knotty questions of the campaign. Why did +not Ney occupy the cross-roads in force on the evening of the 15th? We +may note first that not till the 11th had Napoleon thought fit to +summon Ney to the army, so that the Marshal did not come up till the +afternoon of this very day. He at once had an interview with the +Emperor, who, according to General Gourgaud, gave the Marshal verbal +orders to take command of the corps of Reille and D'Erlon, to push on +northwards, take up a position at Quatre Bras, and throw out advanced +posts beyond on the Brussels and Namur roads; but it seems unlikely +that the Emperor would have given one of the most venturesome of his +Marshals an absolute order to push on so far in advance, unless the +French right wing had driven the Prussians back beyond the Sombref +position. Otherwise, Ney would have been dangerously far in advance of +the main body and exposed to blows either from the Prussians or the +British. + +However this may be, Ney certainly felt insecure, and did not push on +with his wonted dash; while, fortunately for the allies, an officer +was at hand Prince Bernard of Saxe-Weimar, who saw the need of holding +Quatre Bras at all costs.[480] The young leader imposed on the foe by +making the most of his men--they were but 4,500 all told, and had only +ten bullets apiece--and he succeeded. For once, Ney was prudent to a +fault, and did not push home the attack. In his excuse it may be said +that the men of Reille's corps, on whom he had to rely--for D'Erlon's +corps was still far to the rear--had been marching and fighting ever +since dawn, and were too weary for another battle. Moreover, the roar +of cannon on the south-east warned him that the right wing of the +French advance was hotly engaged between Gilly and Fleurus; until it +beat back the Prussians, his own position was dangerously "in the +air"; and, as but two hours of daylight remained, he drew back on +Frasnes. He is also said to have sent word to the Emperor that "he was +occupying Quatre Bras by an advanced guard, and that his main body was +close behind." If he deceived his chief by any such report, he +deserves the severest censure; but the words quoted above were written +later at St. Helena by General Gourgaud, when Ney had come to figure +as the scapegoat of the campaign.[481] Ney sent in a report on that +evening; but it has been lost.[482] Judging from the orders issued by +Napoleon and Soult early on the 16th, there was much uncertainty as to +Ney's position. The Emperor's letter bids him post his first division +"two leagues in front of les Quatres Chemins"; but Soult's letter to +Grouchy states that Ney is ordered _to advance to the cross-roads_. +Confusion was to be expected from the circumstances of the case. Ney +did not know his staff-officers, and he hastily took command of the +left wing when in the midst of operations whose success, as Janin +points out, largely depended on that of the right. He therefore played +a cautious game, when, as we now know, caution meant failure and +daring spelt safety. + +Meanwhile the French right wing, of which Grouchy had received the +command, though Napoleon in person was its moving force, had been +pressing the Prussians hard near Gilly. Yet here, too, the assailants +were weakened by the absence of the corps of Vandamme and Gerard. +Irritated by Ziethen's skilful withdrawal, the Emperor at last +launched his cavalry at the Prussian rear battalions, four of which +were severely handled before they reached the covert of a wood. With +the loss, on the whole, of nearly 2,000 men, the Prussians fell back +towards Ligny, while Grouchy's vanguard bivouacked near the village of +Fleurus. + +Napoleon might well be satisfied with the work done on June 15th: he +rode back to his headquarters at Charleroi, "exhausted with fatigue," +after spending wellnigh eighteen hours in the saddle, but confident +that he had sundered the allies. This was certainly his aim now, as it +had been in the campaign of 1796. After two decisive blows at their +points of connection, he purposed driving them on divergent lines of +retreat, just as he had driven the Austrians and Sardinians down the +roads that bifurcate near Montenotte. True, there were in Belgium no +mountain spurs to prevent their reunion; but the roads on which they +were operating were far more widely divergent.[483] He also thought +lightly of Wellington and Bluecher. The former he had pronounced +"incapable and unwise"; as for Bluecher, he told Campbell at Elba that +he was "no general"; but that he admired the pluck with which "the old +devil" came on again after a thrashing. + +Unclouded confidence is seen in every phrase of the letters that he +penned at Charleroi early on the 16th. He informs Ney that he intends +soon to attack the Prussians at Sombref, _if he finds them there_, to +clear the road as far as Gembloux, and then to decide on his further +actions as the case demands. Meanwhile Ney is to sweep the road in +front of Quatre Bras, placing his first division two leagues beyond +that position, if it seemed desirable, with a view to marching on +Brussels during the night with his whole force of about 50,000 men. +The Guard is to be kept in reserve as much as possible, so as to +support either Napoleon on the Gembloux road, or Ney on the Brussels +road; and "if any skirmish takes place with the English, it is +preferable that the work should fall on the Line rather than on the +Guard." As for the Prussian resistance, Napoleon rated it almost as +lightly as that of the English; for he regards it as probable that he +will in the evening _march on Brussels with his Guard_. + +While he pictured his enemies hopelessly scattered or in retreat, they +were beginning to muster at the very points which he believed to be +within his grasp. At 11 a.m. only Ziethen's corps, now but 28,000 +strong, was in position at Sombref, but the corps of Pirch I. and +Thielmann came up shortly after midday. Had Napoleon pushed on early +on the 16th, he must easily have gained the Ligny-Sombref position. +What, then, caused the delay in the French attack? It can be traced to +the slowness of Gerard's advance, to the Emperor's misconception of +the situation, and to his despatch to Grouchy. + +[Illustration: BATTLE OF LIGNY.] + +In this he reckoned the Prussians at +40,000 men, and ordered Grouchy to repair with the French right wing +to Sombref. + + " ... I shall be at Fleurus between 10 and 11 a.m.: I shall + proceed to Sombref, leaving my Guard, both infantry and cavalry, + at Fleurus: I would not take it to Sombref, unless it should be + necessary. If the enemy is at Sombref, I mean to attack him: I + mean to attack him even at Gembloux, and to gain this position + also, my aim being, after having known about these two positions, + to set out to-night, and to operate with my left wing, under the + command of Marshal Ney, against the English." + +The Emperor did not reach Fleurus until close on 11 a.m., and was +undoubtedly taken aback to find Grouchy still there, held in check by +the enemy strongly posted around Ligny. Grouchy has been blamed for +not having already attacked them; but surely his orders bound him to +wait for the Emperor before giving battle: besides, the corps of +Gerard, which had been assigned to him was still far away in the rear +towards Chatelet.[484] The absence of Gerard, and the uncertainty as +to the enemy's aims, annoyed the Emperor. He mounted the windmill +situated on the outskirts of Fleurus to survey the enemy's position. + +It was a fair scene that lay before him. Straight in front ran the +high-road which joined the Namur-Nivelles _chaussee_, some six miles +away to the north-east. On either side stretched cornfields, whose +richness bore witness alike to the toils and the warlike passions of +mankind. Further ahead might be seen the dark lines of the enemy +ranged along slopes that formed an irregular amphitheatre, dotted with +the villages of Bry and Sombref. In the middle distance, from out a +hollow that lay concealed, rose the steeples and a few of the higher +roofs of Ligny. Further to the left and on higher ground lay St. +Amand, with its outlying hamlets. All was bathed in the shimmering, +sultry heat of midsummer, the harbinger, as it proved, of a violent +thunderstorm. The Prussian position was really stronger than it +seemed. Napoleon could not fully see either the osier beds that +fringed the Ligny brook, or its steep banks, or the many strong +buildings of Ligny itself. He saw the Prussians on the slope behind +the village, and was at first puzzled by their exposed position. "The +old fox keeps to earth," he was heard to mutter. And so he waited +until matters should clear up, and Gerard's arrival should give him +strength to compass Bluecher's utter overthrow while in the act of +stretching a feeler towards Wellington. From the time when the Emperor +came on the scene to the first swell of the battle's roar, there was a +space of more than four hours. + +This delay was doubly precious to the allies. It gave Bluecher time to +bring up the corps of Pirch I. and Thielmann under cover of the high +ground near Sombref, thereby raising his total force to about 87,000 +men; and it enabled the two allied commanders to meet and hastily +confer on the situation. Wellington had left Brussels that morning at +8 o'clock, and thanks to Ney's inaction, was able to reach the crest +south of Quatre Bras a little after 10, long before the enemy showed +any signs of life. There he penned a note to Bluecher, asking for news +from him before deciding on his operations for the day.[485] He then +galloped over to the windmill of Bussy to meet Bluecher. + +It was an anxious meeting; the heads of the advancing French columns +were already in sight; and the Duke saw with dismay the position of +the Prussians on a slope that must expose them to the full force of +Napoleon's cannon--or, as he whispered to Hardinge, "they will be +damnably mauled if they fight here."[486] In more decorous terms, but +to the same effect, he warned Gneisenau, and said nothing to encourage +him to hold fast to his position. Neither did he lead him to expect +aid from Quatre Bras. The utmost that Gneisenau could get from him was +the promise, "Well! I will come provided I am not attacked myself." +Did these words induce the Prussians to accept battle at Ligny? It is +impossible to think so. Everything tends to show that Bluecher had +determined to fight there. The risk was great; for, as we learn from +General Reiche, the position was seen to admit of no vigorous +offensive blows against the French. But fortune smiled on the veteran +Field-Marshal, and averted what might have been an irretrievable +disaster.[487] + +It would seem that the inequalities of the ground hid the strength of +Pirch I. and Thielmann; for Napoleon still believed that he had ranged +against him at Ligny only a single corps. At 2 p.m. Soult informed Ney +that the enemy had united a _corps_ between Sombref and Bry, and that +in half an hour Grouchy would attack it. Ney was therefore to beat +back the foes at Quatre-Bras, and then turn to envelop the Prussians. +_But if these were driven in first, the Emperor would move towards Ney +to hasten his operations_.[488] Not until the battle was about to +begin does the Emperor seem to have realized that he was in presence +of superior forces.[489] But after 2 p.m. their masses drew down over +the slopes of Bry and Sombref, their foremost troops held the villages +of Ligny and St. Amand, while their left crowned the ridge of +Tongrines. Napoleon reformed his lines, which had hitherto been at +right angles to the main road through Fleurus. Vandamme's corps moved +off towards St. Amand; and Gerard, after ranging his corps parallel to +that road, began to descend towards Ligny, Grouchy meanwhile +marshalling the cavalry to protect their flank and rear. Behind all +stood the imposing mass of the Imperial Guard on the rising ground +near Fleurus. + +The fiercest shock of battle fell upon the corps of Vandamme and +Gerard. Three times were Gerard's men driven back by the volleys of +the Prussians holding Ligny. But the French cannon open fire with +terrific effect. Roofs crumble away, and buildings burst into flame. +Once more the French rush to the onset, and a furious hand-to-hand +scuffle ensues. Half stifled by heat, smoke, and dust, the rival +nations fight on, until the defenders give way and fall back on the +further part of the village behind the brook; but, when reinforced, +they rally as fiercely as ever, and drive the French over its banks; +lane, garden, and attic once more become the scene of struggles where +no man thinks of giving or taking quarter. + +Higher up the stream, at St. Amand, Vandamme's troops fared no better; +for Bluecher steadily fed that part of his array. In so doing, however, +he weakened his reserves behind Ligny, thereby unwittingly favouring +Napoleon's design of breaking the Prussian centre, and placing its +wreckage and the whole of their right wing between two fires. The +Emperor expected that, by 6 o'clock, Ney would have driven back the +Anglo-Dutch forces, and would be ready to envelop the Prussian right. +That was the purport of Soult's despatch of 3.15 p.m. to Ney: "This +army [the Prussian] is lost, if you act with vigour. The fate of +France is in your hands." + +But at 5.30, when part of the Imperial Guard was about to strengthen +Gerard for the decisive blow at the Prussian centre, Vandamme sent +word that a hostile force of some twenty or thirty thousand men was +marching towards Fleurus. This strange apparition not only unsteadied +the French left: it greatly perplexed the Emperor. As he had ordered +first Ney and then D'Erlon to march, not on Fleurus, but against the +rear of the Prussian right wing, he seems to have concluded that this +new force must be that of Wellington about to deal the like deadly +blow against the French rear.[490] Accordingly he checked the advance +of the Guard until the riddle could be solved. After the loss of +nearly two hours it was solved by an aide-de-camp, who found that the +force was D'Erlon's, and that it had retired. + +Meanwhile the battle had raged with scarcely a pause, the French guns +working frightful havoc among the dense masses on the opposite slope. +And yet, by withdrawing troops to his right, Bluecher had for a time +overborne Vandamme's corps and part of the Young Guard, unconscious +that his insistence on this side jeopardized the whole Prussian army. +His great adversary had long marked the immense extension of its +concave front, the massing of its troops against St. Amand, and the +remoteness of its left wing, which Grouchy's horsemen still held in +check; and he now planned that, while Bluecher assailed St. Amand and +its hamlets, the Imperial Guard should crush the Prussian centre at +Ligny, thrust its fragments back towards St. Amand, and finally shiver +the greater part of the Prussian army on the anvil which D'Erlon's +corps would provide further to the west. He now felt assured of +victory; for the corps of Lobau was nearing Fleurus to take the place +of the Imperial Guard; and the Prussians had no supports. "They have +no reserve," he remarked, as he swept the hostile position with his +glass. This was true: their centre consisted of troops that for four +hours had been either torn by artillery or exhausted by the fiendish +strife in Ligny. + +And now, as if the pent-up powers of Nature sought to cow rebellious +man into awe and penitence, the artillery of the sky pealed forth. +Crash after crash shook the ground; flash upon flash rent the +sulphur-laden rack; darkness as of night stole over the scene; and a +deluge of rain washed the blood-stained earth. The storm served but to +aid the assailants in their last and fiercest efforts. Amidst the +gloom the columns of the Imperial Guard crept swiftly down the slope +towards Ligny, gave new strength to Gerard's men, and together with +them broke through the defence. A little higher up the stream, +Milhaud's cuirassiers struggled across, and, animated by the Emperor's +presence, poured upon the shattered Prussian centre. No timely help +could it now receive either from Bluecher or Thielmann; for the +darkness of the storm had shrouded from view the beginnings of the +onset, and Thielmann had just suffered from a heedless assault on +Grouchy's wing. + +As the thunder-clouds rolled by, the gleams of the setting sun lit up +the field and revealed to Bluecher the full extent of his error.[491] +His army was cut in twain. In vain did he call in his troops from St. +Amand: in vain did he gallop back to his squadrons between Bry and +Sombref and lead them forward. Their dashing charge was suddenly +checked at the brink of a hollow way; steady volleys tore away their +front; and the cuirassiers completed their discomfiture. Bluecher's +charger was struck by a bullet, and in his fall badly bruised the +Field-Marshal; but his trusty adjutant, Nostitz, managed to hide him +in the twilight, while the cuirassiers swept onwards up the hill. +Other Prussian squadrons, struggling to save the day, now charged home +and drove back the steel-clad ranks. Some Uhlans and mounted Landwehr +reached the place where the hero lay; and Nostitz was able to save +that precious life. Sorely battered, but still defiant like their +chief, the Prussian cavalry covered the retreat at the centre; the +wings fell back in good order, the right holding on to the village of +Bry till past midnight; but several battalions of disaffected troops +broke up and did not rejoin their comrades. About 14,000 Prussians and +11,000 French lay dead or wounded on that fatal field.[492] + +Napoleon, as he rode back to Fleurus after nightfall, could claim that +he had won a great victory. Yet he had not achieved the results +portrayed in Soult's despatch of 3.15 to Ney. This was due partly to +Ney's failure to fulfil his part of the programme, and partly to the +apparition of D'Erlon's corps, which led to the postponement of +Napoleon's grand attack on Ligny. + +The mystery as to the movements of D'Erlon and his 20,000 men has +never been fully cleared up. The evidence collected by Houssaye leaves +little doubt that, as soon as the Emperor realized the serious nature +of the conflict at Ligny, he sent orders to D'Erlon, whose vanguard +was then near Frasnes, to diverge and attack Bluecher's exposed flank. +That is to say, D'Erlon was now called on to deal the decisive blow +which had before been assigned to Ney, who was now warned, though very +tardily, not to rely on the help of D'Erlon's corps. Misunderstanding +his order, D'Erlon made for Fleurus, and thus alarmed Napoleon and +delayed his final blow for wellnigh two hours. Moreover, at 6 p.m., +when D'Erlon might have assailed Bluecher's right with crushing effect, +he received an urgent command from Ney to return. Assuredly he should +not have hesitated now that St. Amand was almost within cannon-shot, +while Quatre Bras could scarcely be reached before nightfall; but he +was under Ney's command; and, taking a rather pedantic view of the +situation, he obeyed his immediate superior. Lastly, no one has +explained why the Emperor, as soon as he knew the errant corps to be +that of D'Erlon, did not recall him at once, bidding him fall on the +exposed wing of the Prussians. Doubtless he assumed that D'Erlon would +now fulfil his instructions and march against Bry; but he gave no +order to this effect, and the unlucky corps vanished. + +At that time a desperate conflict was drawing to a close at Quatre +Bras. Ney had delayed his attack until 2 p.m.; for, firstly, Reille's +corps alone was at hand--D'Erlon's rearguard early on that morning +being still near Thuin--and, secondly, the Marshal heard at 10 a.m. +that Prussian columns were marching westwards from Sombref, a move +that would endanger his rear behind Frasnes. Furthermore, the approach +to Quatre Bras was flanked by the extensive Bossu Wood, and by a +spinney to the right of the highway. Reille therefore counselled +caution, lest the affair should prove to be "a Spanish battle where +the English show themselves only when it is time." When, however, +Reille's corps pushed home the attack, the weakness of the defence was +speedily revealed. After a stout stand, the 7,000 Dutch-Belgians under +the Prince of Orange were driven from the farm of Gemioncourt, which +formed the key of the position, and many of them fled from the field. + +But at this crisis the Iron Duke himself rode up; and the arrival of a +Dutch-Belgian brigade and of Picton's division of British infantry, +about 3 p.m., sufficed to snatch victory from the Marshal's +grasp.[493] He now opened a destructive artillery fire on our front, +to which the weak Dutch-Belgian batteries could but feebly reply. +Nothing, however, could daunt the hardihood of Picton's men. Shaking +off the fatigue of a twelve hours' march from Brussels under a burning +sun, they steadily moved down through the tall crops of rye towards +the farm and beat off a fierce attack of Pire's horsemen. On the +allied left, the 95th Rifles (now the Rifle Brigade) and Brunswickers +kept a clutch on the Namur road which nothing could loosen. But our +danger was mainly at the centre. Under cover of the farmhouse, French +columns began to drive in our infantry, whose ammunition was already +running low. Wellington determined to crush this onset by a +counter-attack in line of Picton's division, the "fighting division" +of the Peninsula. With threatening shouts they advanced to the charge; +and before that moving wall the foe fell back in confusion beyond the +rivulet. + +Still, the French drove back the Dutch in the wood, and the +Brunswickers on its eastern fringe, killing the brave young Duke of +Brunswick as he attempted to rally his raw recruits. Into the gap thus +left the French horsemen pushed forward, making little impression upon +our footmen, but compelling them to keep in a close formation, which +exposed them in the intervals between the charges to heavy losses from +the French cannon. + +So the afternoon wore on. Between 5 and 6 o'clock our weary troops +were reinforced by Alten's division. A little later, a brigade of +Kellermann's heavy cavalry came up from the rear and renewed Ney's +striking power--but again too late. Already he was maddened by the +tidings that D'Erlon's corps had been ordered off towards Ligny, and +next by Napoleon's urgent despatch of 3.15 p.m. bidding him envelop +Bluecher's right. Blind with indignation at this seeming injustice, he +at once sent an imperative summons to D'Erlon to return towards Quatre +Bras, and launched a brigade of Kellermann's cuirassiers at those +stubborn squares. + +The attack nearly succeeded. The horsemen rushed upon our 69th +Regiment just when the Prince of Orange had foolishly ordered it back +into line, caught it in confusion, and cut it up badly. Another +regiment, the 33rd, fled into the wood, but afterwards re-formed; the +other squares beat off the onset. The torrent, however, only swerved +aside: on it rushed almost to the cross-roads, there to be stopped by +a flanking fire from the wood and from the 92nd (Gordon) Highlanders +lining the roadway in front.--"Ninety-second, don't fire till I tell +you," exclaimed the Duke. The volley rang out when the horsemen were +but thirty paces off. The effect was magical. Their front was torn +asunder, and the survivors made off in a panic that spread to Foy's +battalions of foot and disordered the whole array.[494] + +Ney still persisted in his isolated assaults; but reinforcements were +now at hand that brought up Wellington's total to 31,000 men, while +the French were less than 21,000. At nightfall the Marshal drew back +to Frasnes; and there D'Erlon's errant corps at last appeared. Thanks +to conflicting orders, it had oscillated between two battles and taken +part in neither of them. + +Such was the bloody fight of Quatre Bras. It cost Wellington 4,600 +killed and wounded, mainly from the flower of the British infantry, +three Highland regiments losing as many as 878 men. The French losses +were somewhat lighter. Few conflicts better deserve the name of +soldiers' battles. On neither side was the generalship brilliant. +Twilight set in before an adequate force of British cavalry and +artillery approached the field where their comrades on foot had for +five hours held up in unequal contest against cannon, sabre, and +lance. The victory was due to the strange power of the British soldier +to save the situation when it seems past hope. + +Still less did it redound to the glory of Ney. Once more he had +merited the name of bravest of the brave. At the crisis of the fight, +when the red squares in front defied his utmost efforts, he brandished +his sword in helpless wrath, praying that the bullets that flew by +might strike him down. The rage of battle had, in fact, partly +obscured his reason. He was now a fighter, scarcely a commander; and +to this cause we may attribute his neglect adequately to support +Kellermann's charge. Had this been done, Quatre Bras might have ended +like Marengo. Far more serious, however, was his action in +countermanding the Emperor's orders' by recalling D'Erlon to Quatre +Bras; for, as we have seen, it robbed his master of the decisive +victory that he had the right to expect at Ligny. Yet this error must +not be unduly magnified. It is true that Napoleon at 3.15 sent a +despatch to Ney bidding him envelop Bluecher's flank; but the order did +not reach him until some time after 5, when the allies were pressing +him hard, and when he had just heard of D'Erlon's deflection towards +the Emperor's battle.[495] He must have seen that his master misjudged +the situation at Quatre Bras; and in such circumstances a Marshal of +France was not without excuse when he corrected an order which he saw +to be based on a misunderstanding. Some part of the blame must surely +attach to the slow-paced D'Erlon and to the Emperor himself, who first +underrated the difficulties both at Ligny and Quatre Bras, and then +changed his plans when Ney was in the midst of a furious fight. + +Nevertheless, the general results obtained on June the 16th were +enormously in favour of Napoleon. He had inflicted losses on the +Prussians comparable with those of Jena-Auerstaedt; and he retired to +rest at Fleurus with the conviction that they must hastily fall back +on their immediate bases of supply, Namur and Liege, leaving +Wellington at his mercy. The rules of war and the dictates of humdrum +prudence certainly prescribed this course for a beaten army, +especially as Buelow's corps was known to be on the Liege road. + +Scarcely had the Prussian retreat begun in the darkness, when officers +pressed up to Gneisenau, on whom now devolved all responsibility, for +instructions as to the line of march. At once he gave the order to +push northwards to Tilly. General Reiche thereupon pointed out that +this village was not marked upon the smaller maps with which colonels +were provided; whereupon the command was given to march towards the +town of Wavre, farther distant on the same road. An officer was posted +at the junction of roads to prevent regiments straying towards Namur; +but some had already gone too far on this side to be recalled--a fact +which was to confuse the French pursuers on the morrow. The greater +part of Thielmann's corps had fallen back on Gembloux; but, with these +exceptions, the mass of the Prussians made for Tilly, near which place +they bivouacked. Early on the next morning their rearguard drew off +from Sombref; and, thanks to the inertness of their foes, the line of +retreat remained unknown. During the march to Wavre, their columns +were cheered by the sight of the dauntless old Field-Marshal, who was +able to sit a horse once more. Thielmann's corps did not leave +Gembloux till 2 p.m., but reached Wavre in safety. Meanwhile Buelow's +powerful corps was marching unmolested from the Roman road near Hannut +to a position two miles east of Wavre, where it arrived at nightfall. +Equally fortunate was the reserve ammunition train, which, unnoticed +by the French cavalry, wound northwards by cross-roads through +Gembloux, and reached the army by 5 p.m.[496] + +In his "Commentaries," written at St. Helena, Napoleon sharply +criticised the action of Gneisenau in retreating northwards to Wavre, +because that town is farther distant from Wellington's line of retreat +than Sombref is from Quatre Bras, and is connected with it only by +difficult cross-roads. He even asserted that the Prussians ought to +have made for Quatre Bras, a statement which presumes that Gneisenau +could have rallied his army sufficiently after Ligny to file away on +the Quatre Bras _chaussee_ in front of Napoleon's victorious legions. +But the Prussian army was virtually cut in half, and could not have +reunited so as to attempt the perilous flank march across Napoleon's +front. We shall, therefore, probably not be far wrong if we say of +this criticism that the wish was father to the thought. A march on +Quatre Bras would have been a safe means of throwing away the Prussian +army.[497] + +To the present writer it seems probable that Gneisenau's action, in +the first instance, was undertaken as the readiest means of reuniting +the Prussian wings. But Gneisenau cannot have been blind to the +advantages of a reunion with Wellington, which a northerly march would +open out. The report which he sent to his Sovereign from Wavre shows +that by that time he believed the Prussian position to be "not +disadvantageous"; while in a private letter written at noon on the +17th he expressly states that the Duke will accept battle at Waterloo +if the Prussians help him with two army corps. Gneisenau's only doubts +seem to have been whether Wellington would fight and whether his own +ammunition would be to hand in time. Until he was sure on these two +points caution was certainly necessary. + +The results of this prompt rally of the Prussians were infinitely +enhanced by the fact that Wellington soon found it out, while Napoleon +did not grasp its full import until he was in the thick of the battle +of Waterloo. To the final steps that led up to this dramatic finale we +must now briefly refer. + +It is strange that Gneisenau, on the night of the 16th, took no steps +to warn his allies of the Prussian retreat, and merely left them to +infer it from his last message, that he must do so if he were not +succoured. Mueffling, indeed, says that a Prussian officer was sent, +but was shot by the French on the British left wing. Seeing, however, +that Wellington had beaten back Ney's forces before the Prussian +retreat began, the story may be dismissed as a lame excuse of +Gneisenau's neglect.[498] + +From the risk of being crushed by Napoleon, the Anglo-Dutch forces +were saved by the vigilance of their leader and the supineness of the +enemy. After a brief rest at Genappe, the Duke was back at the front +at dawn, and despatched two cavalry patrols towards Sombref to find +out the results of the battle. The patrol, which was accompanied by +the Duke's aide-de-camp, Colonel Gordon, came into touch with the +Prussian rear. On his return soon after 10, the staff-officer, Basil +Jackson, was at once sent to bid Picton immediately prepare to fall +back on Waterloo, an order which that veteran received very +sulkily.[499] Shortly after Gordon's return, a Prussian orderly +galloped up and confirmed the news of their retreat, which drew from +the Duke the remark: "Bluecher has had a d---- d good licking and gone +back to Wavre.... As he has gone back, we must go too." The infantry +now began to file off by degrees behind hedges or under cover of a +screen of cavalry and skirmishers, these keeping Ney's men busy in +front, until the bulk of the army was well through the narrow and +crowded street of Genappe. + +And how came it that Napoleon and Ney missed this golden opportunity? +In the first case, it was due to their chiefs of staff, who had not +sent overnight any tidings as to the results of their respective +battles. Until Count Flahaut returned to the Imperial headquarters +about 8 a.m., Napoleon knew nothing as to the position of affairs at +Quatre Bras; while a similar carelessness on Soult's part left Ney +powerless to attempt anything against Wellington until somewhat later +in the morning. + +But Napoleon's inaction lasted nearly up to 11.30. How is this to be +accounted for? In reply, some attribute his conduct to illness of body +and torpor of mind--a topic that will engage our attention presently; +others assert that the army urgently needed rest; but the effective +cause was his belief that the Prussians were retreating eastwards away +from Wellington. This was the universal belief at headquarters. He had +ordered Grouchy to follow them at dawn; Grouchy's lieutenant, Pajol, +struck to the south-east, and by 4 a.m. reported that Bluecher was +heading for Namur. Such was the news that the Emperor heard from +Grouchy about 8 a.m.--he refused to grant him an audience earlier. +Forthwith he dictated a letter to Ney to the following effect: that +the Prussians had been routed and were being pursued towards Namur; +that the British could not attack him (Ney) at Quatre Bras, for the +Emperor would in that case march on their flank and destroy them in an +instant; that he heard with pain how isolated Ney's troops had been on +the 16th, and ordered him to close up his divisions and occupy Quatre +Bras. If he could not effect that task, he must warn the Emperor, who +would then come. Finally, he warned him that "the present day is +needed to finish this operation, to complete the munitions of war, to +rally stragglers and call in detachments." + +A singular day's programme this for the man who had trebled the +results of the victory of Jena by the remorseless energy of the +pursuit. After dictating this despatch, he ordered Lobau to take a +division of infantry for the support of Pajol on the Namur road. He +then set out for St. Amand in his carriage. On arriving at the place +of carnage he mounted his horse and rode slowly over the battle-field, +seeing to the needs of the wounded of both nations with kindly care, +and everywhere receiving the enthusiastic acclaim of his soldiery. +This done, he dismounted and talked long and earnestly with Grouchy, +Gerard, and others on the state of political parties at Paris. They +listened with ill-concealed restlessness. At Fleurus Grouchy asked for +definite orders, and received the brusque reply that he must wait. But +now, towards 11 o'clock, the Emperor hears that Wellington is still at +Quatre Bras, that Pajol has captured eight Prussian guns on the Namur +road, and that Excelmans has seen masses of the enemy at Gembloux. At +once he turns from politics to war. + +His plan is formed. While he himself falls on the British, Grouchy is +to pursue the Prussians with the corps of Gerard and Vandamme, the +division of Teste (from Lobau's command), and the cavalry corps of +Pajol, Excelmans, and Milhaud. The Marshal begged to be relieved of +the task, setting forth the danger of pursuing foes that were now +reunited and far away. It was in vain. About 11.30 the Emperor +developed his verbal instructions in a written order penned by +Bertrand. It bade Grouchy proceed to Gembloux with the forces stated +above (except Milhaud's corps and a division of Vandamme's corps, +which were to follow Napoleon) to reconnoitre on the roads leading to +Namur and Maestricht, to pursue the enemy, and inform the Emperor as +to their intentions. If they have evacuated Namur, it is to be +occupied by the National Guards. "It is important to know what Bluecher +and Wellington mean to do, and whether they propose reuniting their +armies in order to cover Brussels and Liege, by trying their fortune +in another battle...."[500] + +As Napoleon's fate was to depend largely on an intelligent carrying +out of this order, we may point out that it consisted of two chief +parts, the general aim and the means of carrying out that aim. The aim +was to find out the direction of the Prussians' retreat, and to +prevent them joining Wellington, whether for the defence of Brussels +or of Liege. The means were an advance to Gembloux and scouting along +the Namur and Maestricht roads. The chance that the allies might +reunite for the defence of Brussels was alluded to, but no measures +were prescribed as to scouting in that direction: these were left to +Grouchy's discretion. It must be confessed that the order was not +wholly clear. To name the towns of Brussels and Liege (which are sixty +miles apart) was sufficiently distracting; and to suggest that only +the eastern and south-eastern roads should be explored was certain to +limit Grouchy's immediate attention to those roads alone. For he +distrusted alike his own abilities and the power of the force placed +at his disposal; and an officer thus situated is sure to inclose +himself in the strict letter of his instructions. This was what he +did, with disastrous results. + +Grouchy had hitherto held no important command. As a cavalry general +he had done brilliant service; but now he was launched on a duty that +called for strategic insight. His force was scarcely equal to the +work. True, it was strong for scouting, having nearly 6,000 light +horse; but the 27,000 footmen of Vandamme's and Gerard's corps had +been exhausted by the deadly strife in the villages and were expecting +a day's rest. Their commanders also resented being placed under +Grouchy. In fact, leaders and men disliked the task, and set about it +in a questioning, grumbling way. The infantry did not start till about +3 o'clock and only reached Gembloux late that evening--nine miles in +six hours! The cavalry, too, was so badly handled by Excelmans around +Gembloux that Thielmann's corps slipped away northward. The rain fell +in torrents, obscuring the view; but it seems strange that the +direction of the Prussian retreat was not surmised until about +nightfall. + +Meanwhile, on the French left wing, Ney had been equally lax. He must +have received Napoleon's order to occupy Quatre Bras, "if there was +only a rearguard there," a little before 10 a.m.; but he took no steps +beyond futile skirmishing, and apparently knew not that the British +were slipping away. + +About 2 p.m., when the British cavalry was ready to turn rein, the +Duke and Sir H. Vivian saw the glint of cuirasses along the Sombref +road. It was the vanguard of the Emperor's advance. Furious that his +foes were escaping from his clutches, Napoleon had left his carriage +and was pressing on with the foremost horsemen. To Ney he sent an +imperative summons to advance, and when that Marshal came up, greeted +him with the words "You have ruined France." But it was time for +deeds, not words; and he now put forth all his strength. At once he +flung his powerful cavalry at the British rear; and even now it might +have gone hard with Wellington had not the lowering clouds burst in a +deluge of rain. Quickly the road was ploughed up; and the cornfields +became impassable for the French horsemen. + +While the pursuers struggled in the mire and aimed wildly through the +pelting haze, the British rearguard raced for safety. Says Captain +Mercer of the artillery: "We galloped for our lives through the storm, +striving to gain the hamlets, Lord Uxbridge urging us on, crying 'Make +haste; for God's sake gallop, or you will be taken.'"[501] Gaining on +the pursuit, they reached Genappe, and, filing over its bridge and up +the narrow street, prepared to check the French. At this time the +Emperor galloped up, drenched to the skin, his gray overcoat streaming +with rain, his hat bent out of all shape by the storm.[502] He was +once more the artillery officer of Toulon. "Fire on them," he shouted +to his gunners, "they are English." A sharp skirmish ensued, in which +our 7th Hussars, charging down into the village, were worsted by the +French lancers, "an arm," says Cotton, "with which we were quite +unacquainted." In their retreat they were saved by the Life Guards, +whose weight and strength carried all before them. + +At last, on the ridge of Waterloo, Wellington's force turned at bay. +Napoleon, coming up at 6.30 to the brow of the opposite slope, ordered +a strong force to advance into the sodden clay of the valley. It was +promptly torn by a heavy cannonade; and the truth was borne in on him +that the British had escaped him for that day. + + + + + + +NAPOLEON'S HEALTH IN THE WATERLOO CAMPAIGN + + +As many writers assert that Napoleon at this time was but the shadow +of his former self, we must briefly review the evidence of +contemporaries on this subject; for if the assertion be true, the +Battle of Waterloo deserves little notice. + +It seems that for some time past there had been a slight falling off +in his mental and bodily powers; but when it began and how far it +progressed is matter of doubt. Some observers, including Chaptal, date +it from the hardships of the retreat from Moscow. This is very +doubtful. He ended that campaign in a better state of health than he +had enjoyed during the advance. Besides, in none of his wars did he +show such vitality and fertility of resource as in the desperate +struggle of 1814, which Wellington pronounced his masterpiece. After +this there seems to have been a period of something like relapse at +Elba. In September, 1814, Sir Neil Campbell reported: "Napoleon seems +to have lost all habits of study and sedentary application. He +occasionally falls into a state of inactivity never known before, and +sometimes reposes in his bedroom of late for several hours in the day; +takes exercise in a carriage and not on horseback. His health +excellent and his spirits not at all depressed" ("F.O.," France, No. +114). During his ten months at Elba he became very stout and his +cheeks puffy. + +On his return to France he displayed his old activity; and the most +credible witnesses assert that his faculties showed no marked decline. +Guizot, who saw a good deal of him, writes: "I perceive in the +intellect and conduct of Napoleon during the Hundred Days no sign of +enfeebling: I find in his judgment and actions his accustomed +qualities." In a passage quoted above (p. 449) Mollien notes that his +master was a prey to lassitude after some hours of work, but he says +nothing on the subject of disease; and in a man of forty-six, who had +lived a hard life and a "fast" life, we should not expect to find the +capacity for the sustained intellectual efforts of the Consulate. +Meneval noticed nothing worse in his master's condition than a +tendency to "reverie": he detected no disease. The statement of +Pasquier that his genius and his physical powers were in a profound +decline is a manifest exaggeration, uttered by a man who did not once +see him before Waterloo, who was driven from Paris by him, and strove +to discourage his supporters. Still less can we accept the following +melodramatic description, by Thiebault, of Napoleon's appearance on +Sunday, June 11th: "His look, once so formidable and piercing, had +lost its strength and even its steadiness: his face had lost all +expression and all its force: his mouth, compressed, had none of its +former witchery: and his gait was as perplexed as his demeanour and +gestures were undecided: the ordinary pallor of his skin was replaced +by a strongly pronounced greenish tinge which struck me." + +Let us follow this wreck of a man to the war and see what he +accomplished. At dawn on June 12th he entered his landau and drove to +Laon, a distance of some seventy miles. On the next day he got through +an immense amount of work, and proceeded to Beaumont. On the 15th of +June he was up at dawn, mounted his horse, and remained on horseback, +directing the operations against the Prussians, for nearly eighteen +hours. This time was broken by one spell of rest. Near Charleroi, says +Baudus, an officer of Soult's staff, he was overcome by sleep and +heeded not the cheers of a passing column: at this Baudus was +indignant, but most unjustly so. Napoleon needed these snatches of +sleep as a relief to prolonged mental tension. At night he returned to +Charleroi, "overcome with fatigue." On the next day he was still very +weary, says Segur; he did not exert himself until the battle of Ligny +began at 2.30; but he then rode about till nightfall, through a time +of terrible heat. Fatigue showed itself again early on the morrow, +when he declined to see Grouchy before 8 a.m. Yet his review of the +troops and his long discussions on Parisian politics were clearly due, +not to torpor, but to the belief that he had sundered the allies, and +could occupy Brussels at will; for when he found out his mistake, he +showed all the old energy, riding with the vanguard from Quatre Bras +to La Belle Alliance through the violent rain. + +Whatever, then, were his ailments, they were not incompatible with +great and sustained activity. What were those ailments? He is said to +have suffered from intermittent affections of the lower bowel, of the +bladder, and of the skin, the two last resulting in ischury (Dorsey +Gardner's "Quatre Bras, Ligny, and Waterloo," pp. 31-37; O'Connor +Morris, pp. 164-166, note). The list is formidable; but it contains +its own refutation. A man suffering from these diseases, unless in +their earliest and mildest stages, could not have done what Napoleon +did. Ischury, if at all pronounced, is a bar to horse exercise. +Doubtless his long rides aggravated any trouble that he had in this +respect, for Petiet, who was attached to the staff, noticed that he +often dismounted and sat before a little table that was brought to him +for the convenience of examining maps; but Petiet thought this was +due, not to ill health (about which he says nothing), but to his +corpulence ("Souvenirs militaires," pp. 196 and 212). Prince Jerome +and a surgeon of the imperial staff assured Thiers that Napoleon was +suffering from a disease of the bladder; but this was contradicted by +the valet, Marchand; and if he really was suffering from all, or any +one, of the maladies named above, it is very strange that the surgeon +allowed him to expose himself to the torrential rain of the night of +the 17th-18th for a purpose which a few trusty officers could equally +well have discharged (see next chapter). Furthermore, Baron Larrey, +Chief Surgeon of the army, who saw Napoleon before the campaign began +and during its course, _says not a word about the Emperor's health_ +("Relation medicale des Campagnes, 1815-1840," pp. 5-11). + +Again, the intervals of drowsiness on the 15th and 18th of June, on +which the theory of physical collapse is largely based, may be +explained far more simply. Napoleon had long formed the habit of +working a good deal at night and of seeking repose during a busy day +by brief snatches of slumber. The habit grew on him at Elba; and this, +together with his activity since daybreak, accounts for his sleeping +near Charleroi. The same explanation probably holds good as to his +occasional drowsiness at Waterloo. He scarcely closed his eyes before +3.30 a.m.; and he cannot have been physically fit for the unexpectedly +long and severe strain of that Sunday. That he began the day well we +know from a French soldier named Barral (grandfather of the author of +"L'Epopee de Waterloo"), who looked at him carefully at 9.30 a.m., and +wrote: "He seemed to me in very good health, extraordinarily active +and preoccupied." Decoster, the peasant guide who was with Napoleon +the whole day, afterwards told Sir W. Scott that he was calm and +confident up to the crisis. Gourgaud, who clung to him during the +flight to Paris and thence to Rochefort, notes nothing more serious +than great fatigue; Captain Maitland, when he received him on board +the "Bellerophon," thought him "a remarkably strong, well-built man." +During the voyage to St. Helena he suffered from nothing worse than +_mal de mer_; he ate meat in exceptional quantity, even in the +tropics. + +Very noteworthy, too, is Lavalette's narrative. When he saw Napoleon +before his departure from Paris to the Belgian frontier, he found him +suffering from depression and a pain in the chest; but he avers that, +on the return from Waterloo, apart from one "frightful epileptic +laugh," Napoleon speedily settled down to his ordinary behaviour: not +a word is added as to his health. (Sir W. Scott, "Life of Napoleon," +vol. viii., p. 496; Gourgaud, "Campagne de 1815," and "Journal de St. +Helene," vol. ii., Appendix 32; "Narrative of Captain Maitland," p. +208; Lavalette, "Mems.," ch. xxxiii.; Houssaye ridicules the stories +of his ill-health.) + +What is the upshot of it all? The evidence seems to show that, +whatever was Napoleon's condition before the campaign, he was in his +usual health amidst the stern joys of war. And this is consonant with +his previous experience: he throve on events which wore ordinary +beings to the bone: the one thing that he could not endure was the +worry of parliamentary opposition, which aroused a nervous irritation +not to be controlled and concealed without infinite effort. During the +campaign we find very few trustworthy proofs of his decline and much +that points to energy of resolve and great rallying power after +exertion. If he was suffering from three illnesses, they were +assuredly of a highly intermittent nature. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XL + +WATERLOO + + +Would Wellington hold on to his position? This was the thought that +troubled the Emperor on the night after the wild chase from Quatre +Bras. Before retiring to rest at the Caillou farm, he went to the +front with Bertrand and a young officer, Gudin by name, and peered at +the enemy's fires dimly seen through the driving sheets of rain. +Satisfied that the allies were there, he returned to the farm, +dictated a few letters on odious parliamentary topics, and then sought +a brief repose. But the same question drove sleep from his eyes. At +one o'clock he was up again and with the faithful Bertrand plashed to +the front through long rows of drenched recumbent forms. Once more +they strained their ears to catch through the hiss of the rain some +sound of a muffled retirement. Strange thuds came now and again from +the depths of the wood of Hougoumont: all else was still. At last, +over the slope on the north-east crowned by the St. Lambert Wood there +stole the first glimmer of gray; little by little the murky void +bodied forth dim shapes, and the watch-fires burnt pale against the +orient gleams. It was enough. He turned back to the farm. Wellington +could scarcely escape him now. + +While the Emperor was making the round of his outposts, a somewhat +cryptic despatch from Grouchy reached headquarters. The Marshal +reported from Gembloux, at 10 p.m. of the 17th, that part of the +Prussians had retired towards Wavre, seemingly with a view to joining +Wellington; that their centre, led by Bluecher, had fallen back on +Perwez in the direction of Liege; while a column with artillery had +made for Namur; if he found the enemy's chief force to be on the Liege +_chaussee_, he would pursue them along that road; if towards Wavre, he +would follow them thither "in order that they may not gain Brussels, +and so as to separate them from Wellington." This last phrase ought +surely to have convinced Napoleon that Grouchy had not fully +understood his instructions; for to march on Wavre would not stop the +Prussians joining Wellington, if they were in force.[503] + +Moreover, Napoleon now knew, what Grouchy did not know, that the +Prussians were in force at Wavre. It seems strange that the Emperor +did not send this important news to his Marshal; but perhaps we may +explain this by his absence at the outposts. As it was, no clear +statement of the facts of the case was sent off to Grouchy _until 10 +a.m. of the 18th_. He then informed his Marshal that, according to all +the reports, three bodies of Prussians had made for Wavre. Grouchy +"must therefore move thither--in order to approach us, to put yourself +within the sphere of our operations, and to keep up your +communications with us, pushing before you those bodies of Prussians +which have taken this direction and which may have stopped at Wavre, +where you ought to arrive as soon as possible." Grouchy, however, was +not to neglect Bluecher's troops that were on his right, but must pick +up their stragglers and keep up his communications with Napoleon. + +Such was the letter; and again we must pronounce it far from clear. +Grouchy was not bidden to throw all his efforts on the side of Wavre; +and he was not told whether he must attack the enemy at that town, or +interpose a wedge between them and Wellington, or support Napoleon's +right. Now Napoleon would certainly have prescribed an immediate +concentration of Grouchy's force towards the north-west for one of the +last two objects, had he believed Bluecher about to attempt a flank +march against the chief French army. Obviously it had not yet entered +his thoughts that so daring a step would be taken by a foe whom he +pictured as scattered and demoralized by defeat.[504] + +As we have seen, the Prussians were not demoralized; they had not gone +off in three directions; and Bluecher was not making for Liege. He was +at Wavre and was planning a master-stroke. At midnight, he had sent to +Wellington, through Mueffling, a written promise that at dawn he would +set the corps of Buelow in motion against Napoleon's right; that of +Pirch I. was to follow; while the other two corps would also be ready +to set out. Wellington received this despatch about 3 a.m. of the +18th, and thereupon definitely resolved to offer battle. A similar +message was sent off from Wavre at 9.30 a.m., but with a postscript, +in which we may discern Gneisenau's distrust of Wellington, begging +Mueffling to find out accurately whether the Duke really had determined +to fight at Waterloo. Meanwhile Buelow's corps had begun its march from +the south-east of Wavre, but with extreme slowness, which was due to a +fire at Wavre, to the crowded state of the narrow road, and also to +the misgivings of Gneisenau. It certainly was not owing to fear of +Grouchy; for at that time the Prussian leaders believed that only +15,000 French were on their track. Not until midday, when the +cannonade on the west grew to a roar, did Gneisenau decide to send +forward Ziethen's corps towards Ohain, on Wellington's left; but +thereafter the defence of the Dyle against Grouchy was left solely to +Thielmann's corps.[505] + +While this storm was brewing in the east, everything in front of the +Emperor seemed to portend a prosperous day. High as he rated +Wellington's numbers, he had no doubt as to the result. "The enemy's +army," he remarked just after breakfast, "outnumbers ours by more than +a fourth; nevertheless we have ninety chances out of a hundred in our +favour." Ney, who then chanced to come in, quickly remarked: "No +doubt, sire, if Wellington were simple enough to wait for you; but I +come to inform you that he is retreating." "You have seen wrong," was +the retort, "the time is gone for that." Soult did not share his +master's assurance of victory, and once more begged him to recall some +of Grouchy's force; to which there came the brutal reply: "Because you +have been beaten by Wellington you think him a great general. And I +tell you that Wellington is a bad general, that the English are bad +troops, and that this will be the affair of a _dejeuner_." "I hope it +may," said Soult. Reille afterwards came in, and, finding how +confident the Emperor was, mentioned the matter to D'Erlon, who +advised his colleague to return and caution him. "What is the use," +rejoined Reille; "he would not listen to us." + +In truth, Napoleon was in no mood to receive advice. He admitted on +the voyage to St. Helena that "he had not exactly reconnoitred +Wellington's position."[506] And, indeed, there seemed to be nothing +much to reconnoitre. The Mont St. Jean, or Waterloo, position does not +impress the beholder with any sense of strength. The so-called valley, +separating the two arrays, is a very shallow depression, nowhere more +than fifty feet below the top of the northern slope. It is divided +about halfway across by an undulation that affords good cover to +assailants about to attack La Haye Sainte. Another slight rise crosses +the vale halfway between this farm and Hougoumont, and facilitates the +approach to that part of the ridge. In fact, only on their extreme +left could the defenders feel much security; for there the slope is +steeper, besides being protected in front by marshy ground, copses, +and the hamlets of Papelotte, La Haye, and Smohain. + +Napoleon paid little attention to the left wing of the allies. The +centre and right centre were evidently Wellington's weak points, and +there, especially near the transverse rise, our leader chiefly massed +his troops. Yet there, too, the defence had some advantages. The front +of the centre was protected by La Haye Sainte, "a strong stone and +brick building," says Cotton, "with a narrow orchard in front and a +small garden in the rear, both of which were hedged around, except on +the east side of the garden, where there was a strong wall running +along the high-road." It is generally admitted that Wellington gave +too little attention to this farm, which Napoleon saw to be the key of +the allied position. Loopholes were made in its south and east walls, +but none in the western wall, and half of the barn-door opening on the +fields had been torn off for firewood by soldiers overnight. The place +was held at first by 376 men of the King's German Legion, who threw up +a barricade at the barn-door, as also on the high-road outside the +orchard; but, as the sappers and carpenters were removed to +Hougoumont, little could be done. + +Far stronger was the chateau of Hougoumont, which had been built with +a view to defence. The outbuildings were now loopholed, and scaffolds +were erected to enable our men to fire over the garden walls which +commanded the orchard. The defence was intrusted to the light +companies of the second battalions of Coldstreams and Foot Guards (now +the Grenadier Guards); while the wood in front was held by Nassauers +and Hanoverians. Chasse's Dutch-Belgians were posted at the village of +Braine la Leud to give further security to Wellington's right.[507] +Napoleon's intention was to pierce the allied centre behind La Haye +Sainte, where their lines were thin. But he did not know that behind +the crest ran a sunken cross-road, which afforded excellent cover, and +that the ground, sloping away towards Wellington's rear, screened his +second line and reserves. + +It was this peculiarity of the ground, so different from that of the +exposed slope behind Ligny, that helped the great master of defensive +tactics secretly to meet and promptly to foil every onset of his +mighty antagonist. + +While under-estimating the strength of Wellington's position Napoleon +over-rated his numbers. As we have seen, he remarked that the allies +exceeded the French by more than a fourth. Now, as his own numbers +were fully 74,000, he credited the allies with upwards of 92,000. In +reality, they were not more than 67,000, as Wellington had left 17,000 +at Hal; but if this powerful detachment had been included, Napoleon's +estimate would not have been far wrong. At St. Helena he gave out that +his despatch of cavalry towards Hal had induced Wellington to weaken +his army to this extent; but Houssaye has shown that the statement is +an entire fabrication. The Emperor certainly believed that all +Wellington's troops were close at hand.[508] + +The Duke, on his side, would doubtless have retreated had he known +that the Prussian advance would be as slow as it was. His composite +forces, in which five languages were spoken, were unfit for a long +contest with Napoleon's army. The Dutch-Belgian troops, numbering +17,000, were known to be half-hearted; the 2,800 Nassauers, who had +served under Soult in 1813, were not above suspicion; the 11,000 +Hanoverians and 5,900 Brunswickers were certain to do their best, but +they were mostly raw troops. In fact, Wellington could thoroughly rely +only on his 23,990 British troops and the 5,800 men of the King's +German Legion; and among our men there was a large proportion of +recruits or drafts from militia battalions. Events were to prove that +this motley gathering could hold its own while at rest; but during the +subsequent march to Paris Wellington passed the scathing judgment +that, with the exception of his Peninsular men, it was "the worst +equipped army, with the worst staff, ever brought together."[509] This +was after he had lost De Lancey, Picton, Ponsonby, and many other able +officers; but on the morning of the 18th there was no lack of skill in +the placing of the troops, witness General Kennedy's arrangement of +Alten's division so that it might readily fall into the "chequer" +pattern, which proved so effective against the French horsemen. + +Napoleon's confidence seemed to be well founded: he had 246 cannon +against the allies' 156, and his preponderance in cavalry of the line +was equally great. Above all, there were the 13,000 footmen of the +Imperial Guard, flanked by 3,000 cavaliers. The effective strength of +the two armies has been reckoned by Kennedy as in the proportion of +four to seven. Why, then, did he not attack at once? There were two +good reasons: first that his men had scattered widely overnight in +search of food and shelter, and now assembled very slowly on the +plateau; second, that the rain did not abate until 8 a.m., and even +then slight drizzles came on, leaving the ground totally unfit for the +movements of horse and artillery. Leaving the troops time to form and +the ground to improve, the Emperor consulted his charts and took a +brief snatch of sleep. He then rode to the front; and, as the +gray-coated figure passed along those imposing lines, the enthusiasm +found vent in one rolling roar of "Vive l'Empereur," which was wafted +threateningly to the thinner array of the allies. There the leader +received no whole-hearted acclaim save from the men who knew him; but +among these there was no misgiving. "If," wrote Major Simmons of the +95th, "you could have seen the proud and fierce appearance of the +British at that tremendous moment, there was not one eye but gleamed +with joy."[510] + +The first shots were fired at 11.50 to cover the assault on the wood +of Hougoumont by Prince Jerome Bonaparte's division of Reille's corps. +The Nassauers and Hanoverians briskly replied, and Cleeve's German +battery opened fire with such effect that the leading column fell +back. Again the assailants came on in greater force under shelter of a +tremendous cannonade: this time they gained a lodgment, and step by +step drove the defenders back through the copse. Though checked for a +time by the Guards, they mastered the wood south of the house by about +one o'clock. There they should have stopped. Napoleon's orders were +for them to gain a hold only on the wood and throw out a good line of +skirmishers: all that he wanted on this side was to prevent any +turning movement from Wellington's advanced outposts. Reille also sent +orders not to attack the chateau; but the Prince and his men rushed on +at those massive walls, only to meet with a bloody repulse. A second +attack fared no better; and though some 12,000 of Reille's men +Finally attacked the mansion on three sides, yet our Guards, when +reinforced, beat off every onset of wellnigh ten times their numbers. + +For some time the Emperor paid little heed to this waste of energy; at +2 p.m. he recalled Jerome to his side. He now saw the need of +husbanding his resources; for a disaster had overtaken the French +right centre. He had fixed one o'clock for a great attack on La Haye +Sainte by D'Erlon's corps of nearly 20,000 men. But a delay occurred +owing to a cause that we must now describe. + +Before his great battery of eighty guns belched forth at the centre +and blotted out the view, he swept the horizon with his glass, and +discerned on the skirts of the St. Lambert wood, six miles away, a +dark object. Was it a spinney, or a body of troops? His staff officers +could not agree; but his experienced eye detected a military +formation. Thereupon some of the staff asserted that they must be +Bluecher's men, others that they were Grouchy's. Here he could scarcely +be in a doubt. Not long after 10 a.m. he received from Grouchy a +despatch, dated from Gembloux at 3 a.m., reporting that the Prussians +were retiring in force on Brussels to concentrate or to join +Wellington, and that he (Grouchy) was on the point of starting for +Sart-a-Walhain and Wavre. He said nothing as to preventing any flank +march that the enemy might make from Wavre with a view to joining +their allies straightway. Therefore he was not to be looked for on +this side of Wavre, and those troops must consequently be +Prussians.[511] + +All doubts were removed when a Prussian hussar officer, captured by +Marbot's vedettes near Lasne, was brought to Napoleon. He bore a +letter from Buelow to Mueffling, stating that the former was on the +march to attack the French right wing. In reply to Napoleon's +questions the captain stated that Buelow's whole corps was in motion, +but wisely said nothing about the other two corps that were following. +Such as it was, the news in no way alarmed the Emperor. As Buelow was +about to march against the French flank, Grouchy must march on his +flank and take his corps _en flagrant delit_. That is the purport of +the postscript added to a rather belated reply that was about to be +sent off to Grouchy at 1 p.m. It did not reach him till 5 p.m., too +late to influence the result, even had he desisted from his attack on +Wavre, which he did not.[512] + +We return to the Emperor's actions at half-past one. Dumont's and +Subervie's light horsemen were sent out towards Frischermont to +observe the Prussians; the great battery of eighty guns, placed on the +intermediate rise, now opened fire; and under cover of its deadly +blasts D'Erlon's four divisions dipped down into the valley. They were +ranged in closely packed battalions spread out in a front of some two +hundred men, a formation that Napoleon had not suggested, but did not +countermand. The left column, that of Alix, was supported by cavalry +on its flank. Part of this division gained the orchard of La Haye +Sainte, and attacked the farm buildings on all sides. From his +position hard by a great elm above the farm, Wellington had marked +this onset, and now sent down a Hanoverian battalion to succour their +compatriots; but in the cutting of the main road it was charged and +routed by Milhaud's cuirassiers, who pursued them up the slope until +the rally sounded. Farther to the east, the French seemed still surer +of victory. Bylandt's Dutch-Belgians, some 3,000 strong, after +suffering heavily in their cruelly exposed position, wavered at the +approach of Donzelot's column, and finally broke into utter rout, +pelted in their flight with undeserved gibes from the British in their +rear. These consisted of Picton's division, the heroes of Quatre Bras. +Here they had as yet sustained little loss, thanks to the shelter of +the hollow cross-road and a hedge. + +The French columns now topped the ridge, uttering shouts of triumph, +and began to deploy into line for the final charge. This was the time, +as Picton well knew, to pour in a volley and dash on with the cold +steel; but as he cheered on his men, a bullet struck him in the temple +and cut short his brilliant career. His tactics were successful at +some points while at others our thin lines barely held up against the +masses. Certainly no decisive result could have been gained but for +the timely onset of Ponsonby's Union Brigade--the 1st Royal Dragoons, +the Scots Greys, and the Inniskillings. + +At the time when Lord Uxbridge gave the order, "Royals and +Inniskillings charge, the Greys support," Alix's division was passing +the cross-road. But as the Royals dashed in, "the head of the column +was seized with a panic, gave us a fire which brought down about +twenty men, then went instantly about and endeavoured to regain the +opposite side of the hedges; but we were upon and amongst them, and +had nothing to do but press them down the slope." So wrote Captain +Clark Kennedy, who sabred the French colour-bearer and captured the +eagle. Equally brilliant was the charge of the Inniskillings, in the +centre of the brigade. They rode down Donzelot's division, jostled its +ranks into a helpless mass, and captured a great number of prisoners. +The Scots Greys, too, succouring the hard-pressed Gordons, fell +fiercely on Marcognet's division. "Both regiments," wrote Major +Winchester of the 92nd, "charged together, calling out 'Scotland for +ever'; the Scots Greys actually walked over this column, and in less +than three minutes it was totally destroyed. The grass field, which +was only an instant before as green and smooth as Phoenix Park, was +covered with killed and wounded, knapsacks, arms, and +accoutrements."[513] + +Meanwhile, on the left of the brigade, Vandeleur's horse and some +Dutch-Belgian dragoons drove back Durutte's men past Papelotte. On its +right, the 2nd Life Guards cut up the cuirassiers while disordered by +the sudden dip of the hollow cross-road; and further to the west, the +1st Dragoon Guards and 1st Life Guards met them at the edge of the +plateau, clashed furiously, burst through them, and joined in the wild +charge of Ponsonby's brigade up the opposite slope, cutting the traces +of forty French cannon and sabring the gunners. + +But Napoleon was awaiting the moment for revenge, and now sent forward +a solid force of lancers and dragoons, who fell on our disordered +bands with resistless force, stabbing the men and overthrowing their +wearied steeds. Here fell the gallant Ponsonby with hundreds of his +men, and, had not Vandeleur's horse checked the pursuit, very few +could have escaped. Still, this brigade had saved the day. Two of +D'Erlon's columns had gained a hold on the ridge, until the sudden +charge of our horsemen turned victory into a disastrous rout that cost +the French upwards of 5,000 men. + +As if exhausted by this eager strife, both armies relaxed their +efforts for a space and re-formed their lines. Wellington ordered +Lambert's brigade of 2,200 Peninsular veterans, who had only arrived +that morning, to fill the gaps on his left. The Emperor, too, was +uneasy, as he showed by taking copious pinches of snuff. He mounted +his horse and rode to the front, receiving there the cheers of his +blood-stained lancers and battered infantry. Having received another +despatch from Grouchy which gave no hope of his speedy arrival, he +ordered his cannon once more to waste the British lines and bombard +Hougoumont, while Ney led two of D'Erlon's brigades that were the +least shaken to resume the attack on La Haye Sainte. Once more they +were foiled at the farm buildings by the hardy Germans, to whom +Wellington had sent a timely reinforcement.[514] At Hougoumont also +the Guards held firm, despite the fierce conflagration in the barn and +part of the chapel. But while his best troops everywhere stood their +ground, the Duke saw with concern the gaps in his fighting line. Many +of the Dutch-Belgians had made off to the rear; and Jackson, when +carrying an order to a reserve Dutch battery to advance--an order that +was disobeyed--saw what had become of these malingerers. "I peeped +into the skirts of the forest and truly felt astonished: entire +companies seemed there with regularly piled arms, fires blazing under +cooking kettles, while the men lay about smoking!"[515] + +Far different was the scene at the front. There the third act of the +drama was beginning. After half an hour of the heaviest cannonade ever +known, Wellington's faithful troops were threatened by an avalanche of +cavalry, and promptly fell into the "chequer" disposition previously +arranged for the most exposed division, that of Alten. Napoleon +certainly hoped either to crush Wellington outright by a mighty onset +of horse, or to strip him bare for the _coup de grace_. At the Caillou +farm in the morning he said: "I will use my powerful artillery; my +cavalry shall charge; and I will advance with my Old Guard." The use +of cavalry on a grand scale was no new thing in his wars. By it he had +won notable advantages, above all at Dresden; and he believed that +footmen, when badly shaken by artillery, could not stand before his +squadrons. The French cavalry, 15,000 strong at the outset, had as yet +suffered little, and the way had been partly cleared by the last +assaults on Hougoumont and La Haye Sainte, where the defenders were +wholly occupied in self-defence. + +But Ney certainly pressed the first charge too soon. Doubtless he was +misled by the retirement of our first line a little way behind the +crest to gain some slight shelter from the iron storm. Looking on this +prudent move as a sign of retreat he led forward the cuirassiers of +Milhaud; and as these splendid brigades trotted forward, the +_chasseurs a cheval_ of the Guard and "red" lancers joined them. More +than 5,000 strong, these horsemen rode into the valley, formed at the +foot of the slope, and then, under cover of their artillery, began to +breast the slope. At its crest the guns of the allies opened on them +point-blank; but, despite their horrible losses, they swept on, +charged through the guns and down the reverse slope towards the +squares. Volley after volley now tore through with fearful effect, and +the survivors swerved to the intervals. Their second and third lines +fared little better; astonished at so stout a stand, where they looked +to find only a few last despairing efforts, they fell into faltering +groups. + + "As to the so-called charges," says Basil Jackson, "I do not think + that on a single occasion actual collision occurred. I many times + saw the cuirassiers come on with boldness to within some twenty or + thirty yards of a square, when, seeing the steady firmness of our + men, they invariably edged away and retired. Sometimes they would + halt and gaze at the triple row of bayonets, when two or three + brave officers would advance and strive to urge the attack, + raising their helmets aloft on their sabres--but all in vain, as + no efforts could make the men close with the terrible bayonets, + and meet certain destruction."[516] + +After the fire of the rear squares had done its work, our cavalry fell +on the wavering masses; and, as they rode off, the gunners ran forth +from the squares and plied them with shot. In a few minutes the +mounted host that seemed to have swallowed up the footmen was gone, +the red and blue chequers stood forth triumphant, and the guns that +should have been spiked dealt forth death. Down below, the confused +mass shaped itself for a new charge while its supports routed our +horsemen. + +In this second attack Ney received a powerful reinforcement. The +Emperor ordered the advance of Kellermann and of Guyot with the heavy +cavalry of the Guard, thus raising the number of horsemen to about +10,000. At the head of these imposing masses Ney again mounted the +slope. But Wellington had strengthened his line by fresh troops, +ordering up also Mercer's battery of six 9-pounders, to support two +Brunswick regiments that wavered ominously as the French cannon-balls +tore through them. Would these bewildered lads stand before the wave +of horsemen already topping the crest? It seemed impossible. But just +then Mercer's men thundered up between them with the guns, took post +behind the raised cross-road, and opened on the galloping horsemen +with case-shot. At once the front was strewn with steeds and men; and +gunners and infantry riddled the successive ranks, that rushed on only +to pile up writhing heaps and bar retreat to the survivors in front. +Some of these sought safety by a dash through the guns, while the +greater number struggled and even laid about with their sabres to hew +their way out of this _battue_. + +Elsewhere the British artillery was too exposed to be defended, and +the gunners again fled back to the squares. Once more the cavalry +surrounded our footmen, like "heavy surf breaking on a coast beset +with isolated rocks, against which the mountainous wave dashes with +furious uproar, breaks, divides, and runs hissing and boiling far +beyond." Yet, as before, it failed to break those stubborn blocks, and +a perplexing pause occurred, varied by partial and spasmodic rushes. +"Will those English never show us their backs"--exclaimed the Emperor, +as he strained his eyes to catch the first sign of rout "I fear," +replied Soult, "they will be cut to pieces first." For the present, it +was the cavalry that gave way. Foiled by that indomitable infantry, +they were again charged by British and German hussars and driven into +the valley. + +Once more Ney led on his riders, gathering up all his reserves. But +the Duke had now brought up Adam's brigade and Duplat's King's Germans +to the space behind Hougoumont; their fire took the horsemen in flank: +the blasts of grape and canister were as deadly as before: one and +all, the squares held firm, beating back onset after onset: and by 6 +o'clock the French cavalry fell away utterly exhausted.[517] + +Who is to be held responsible for these wasteful attacks, and why was +not French infantry at hand to hold the ground which the cavaliers +seemed to have won? Undoubtedly, Ney began the first attack somewhat +too early; but Napoleon himself strengthened the second great charge +by the addition of Kellermann's and Guyot's brigades, doubtless in the +belief that the British, of whose tenacity he had never had direct +personal proof, must give way before so mighty a mass. Moreover, time +after time it seemed that the attacks were triumphant; the allied guns +on the right centre, except Mercer's, were nine or ten times taken, +their front squares as often enveloped; and more than once the cry of +victory was raised by the Emperor's staff. + +Why, then, was not the attack clinched by infantry? To understand this +we must review the general situation. Hougoumont still defied the +attacks of nearly the whole of Reille's corps, and the effective part +of D'Erlon's corps was hotly engaged at and near La Haye Sainte. Above +all, the advent of the Prussians on the French right now made itself +felt. After ceaseless toil, in which the soldiers were cheered on by +Bluecher in person, their artillery was got across the valley of the +Lasne; and at 4.30 Buelow's vanguard debouched from the wood behind +Frischermont. Lobau's corps of 7,800 men, which, according to Janin, +was about to support Ney, now swung round to the right to check this +advance.[518] Towards 5 o'clock the Prussian cannon opened fire on the +horsemen of Domont and Subervie, who soon fell back on Lobau. + +Buelow pressed on with his 30,000 men, and, swinging forward his left +wing, gained a footing in the village of Planchenoit, while Lobau fell +back towards La Belle Alliance. This took place between 5.30 and 6 +o'clock, and accounts for Napoleon's lack of attention to the great +cavalry charges. To break the British squares was highly desirable; +but to ward off the Prussians from his rear was an imperative +necessity. He therefore ordered Duhesme with the 4,000 footmen of the +Young Guard to regain Planchenoit. Gallantly they advanced at the +charge, and drove their weary and half-famished opponents out into the +open. + +Satisfied with this advantage, the Emperor turned his thoughts to the +British and bade Ney capture La Haye Sainte at all costs. Never was +duty more welcome. Mistakes and failures could now be atoned by +triumph or a soldier's death. Both had as yet eluded his search. Three +horses had been struck to the ground under him, but, dauntless as +ever, he led Donzelot's men, with engineers, against the farm. +Begrimed with smoke, hoarse with shouting, he breathed the lust of +battle into those half-despondent ranks; and this time he succeeded. +For five hours the brave Germans had held out, beating off rush after +rush, until now they had but three or four bullets apiece left. The +ordinary British ammunition did not fit their rifles; and their own +reserve supply could not be found at the rear. Still, even when firing +ceased, bayonet-thrusts and missiles kept off the assailants for a +space, even from the half-destroyed barn-door, until Frenchmen mounted +the roof of the stables and burst through the chief gateway: then +Baring and his brave fellows fled through the house to the garden. "No +pardon to these green devils" was now the cry, and those who could not +make off to the ridge were bayoneted to a man.[519] + +This was a grave misfortune for the allies. French sharpshooters now +lined the walls of the farm and pushed up the ridge, pressing our +front very hard, so that, for a time, the space behind La Haye Sainte +was practically bare of defenders. This was the news that Kennedy took +to Wellington. He received it with the calm that bespoke a mighty +soul; for, as Sir A. Frazer observed, however indifferent or +apparently careless he might appear at the beginning of battles, as +the crisis came he rose superior to all that could be imagined. Such +was his demeanour now. Riding to the Brunswickers posted in reserve, +he led them to the post of danger; Kennedy rallied the wrecks of +Alten's division and brought up Germans from the left wing; the +cavalry of Vandeleur and Vivian, moving in from the extreme left, also +helped to steady the centre; and the approach of Chasse's +Dutch-Belgian brigade, lately called in from Braine-la-Leud, +strengthened our supports. + +Had Napoleon promptly launched his Old and Middle Guard at +Wellington's centre, victory might still have crowned the French +eagles. But to Ney's request for more troops he returned the petulant +answer: "Troops? where do you want me to get them from? Am I to make +them?" At this time the Prussians were again masters of Planchenoit. +Once more, then, he turned on them, and sent in two battalions, one of +the Old, the other of the Middle Guard. In a single rush with the +bayonet these veterans mastered the place and drove Buelow's men a +quarter of a mile beyond, while Lobau regained ground further north. +But the head of Pirch's corps was near at hand to strengthen Buelow; +while, after long delays caused by miry lanes and an order from +Bluecher to make for Planchenoit, Ziethen's corps began to menace the +French right at Smohain. Reiche soon opened fire with sixteen cannon, +somewhat relieving the pressure on Wellington's left.[520] + +Still the Emperor was full of hope. He did not know of the approach of +Pirch and Ziethen. Now and again the muttering of Grouchy's guns was +heard on the east, and despite that Marshal's last despatch, Napoleon +still believed that he would come up and catch the Prussians. +Satisfied, then, with holding off Buelow for a while, he staked all on +a last effort with the Old and Middle Guard. Leaving two battalions of +these in Planchenoit, and three near Rossomme as a last reserve, he +led forward nine battalions formed in hollow squares. A thrill ran +through the line regiments, some of whom were falling back, as they +saw the bearskins move forward; and, to revive their spirits, the +Emperor sent on Labedoyere with the news that Grouchy was at hand. + +Thus the tension of hope long deferred, which renders Waterloo unique +among battles, rose to its climax. Each side had striven furiously for +eight hours in the belief that the Prussians, or Grouchy, must come; +and now, at the last agony, came the assurance that final triumph was +at hand. The troops of D'Erlon and Reille once more clutched at +victory on the crest behind La Haye Sainte or beneath the walls of +Hougoumont, while the squares of the Guard struck obliquely across the +vale in the track of the great cavalry charges. On the rise south-west +of La Haye Sainte, Napoleon halted one battalion and handed over to +Ney the command of the remaining eight, that hailed him as they passed +with enthusiastic shouts. Two aides-de-camp just then galloped up from +the right to tell him of the Prussian advance, but he refused to +listen to them and bent his eyes on the Guards.[521] + +Under cover of a whirlwind of shot the veterans pressed on. Having +suffered very little at Ligny, they numbered fully 4,000, and formed +at first one column, some seventy men in width. The front battalions +headed for a point a little to the west of the present Belgian +monument, while for some unexplained reason the rear portion diverged +to the left, and breasted the slope later than the others and nearer +Hougoumont. Flanked by light guns that opened a brisk fire, and most +gallantly supported by Donzelot's division close on their right, the +leading column struggled on, despite the grape and canister which +poured from the batteries of Bolton and Bean, making it wave "like +corn blown by the wind." Friant, the Commander of the Old Guard, was +severely wounded; Ney's horse fell under him, but the gallant fighter +rose undaunted, and waved on his men anew. And now they streamed over +the ridge and through the British guns in full assurance of triumph. +Few troops seemed to be before them; for Maitland's men (2nd and 3rd +battalions of the 1st Foot Guards) had lain down behind the bank of +the cross-road to get some shelter from the awful cannonade. "Stand +up, Guards, and make ready," exclaimed the Duke when the French were +but sixty paces away. The volley that flashed from their lengthy front +staggered the column, and seemed to force it bodily back. In vain did +the French officers wave their swords and attempt to deploy into line. +Mangled in front by Maitland's brigade, on its flank by our 33rd and +69th Regiments drawn up in square, and by the deadly salvos of +Chasse's Dutch-Belgians,[522] that stately array shrank and shrivelled +up. "Now's the time, my boys," shouted Lord Saltoun; and the thin red +line, closing with the mass, drove it pell-mell down the slope. + +Near the foot the victors fell under the fire of the rear portion of +the Imperial Guards, who, undaunted by their comrades' repulse, rolled +majestically upwards. Colborne now wheeled the 52nd (Oxfordshire) +Regiment on the crest in a line nearly parallel to their advance, and +opened a deadly fire on their flank, which was hotly returned; +Maitland's men, re-forming on the crest, gave them a volley in front; +and some Hanoverians at the rear of Hougoumont also galled their rear. +Seizing the favourable moment when the column writhed in anguish, +Colborne cheered his men to the charge, and, aided by the second 95th +Rifles, utterly overthrew the last hope of France. Continuing his +advance, and now supported by the 71st Regiment, he swept our front +clear as far as the orchard of La Haye Sainte.[523] + +The Emperor had at first watched the charge with feelings of buoyant +hope; for Friant, who came back wounded, reported that success was +certain. As the truth forced itself on him, he turned pale as a +corpse. "Why! they are in confusion," he exclaimed; "all is lost for +the present." A thrill of agony also shot through the French lines. +Donzelot's onset had at one time staggered Halkett's brigade; but the +hopes aroused by the charge of the Guard and the rumour of Grouchy's +approach gave place to dismay when the veterans fell back and +Ziethen's Prussians debouched from Papelotte. To the cry of "The Guard +gives way," there succeeded shouts of "treason." The Duke, noting the +confusion, waved on his whole line to the longed-for advance. Menaced +in front by the thin red line, and in rear by Colborne's glorious +charge, D'Erlon's divisions broke up in general rout. For a time, +three rocks stood boldly forth above this disastrous ebb. They were +the battalions of the Guard previously repulsed, and that had rallied +around the Emperor on the rise south of La Haye Sainte. In front of +them the three regiments of Adam's brigade stopped to re-form; but at +the Duke's command--"Go on, go on: they will not stand"--Colborne +charged them, and they gave way. + +And now, as the sun shot its last gleams over the field, the swords of +the British horsemen were seen to flash and fall with relentless +vigour. The brigades of Vandeleur and Vivian, well husbanded during +the day, had been slipped upon the foe. The effect was electrical. The +retreat became a rout that surged wildly around the last squares of +the Guard. In one of them Napoleon took refuge for a space, still +hoping to effect a rally, while outside Ney rushed from band to band, +brandishing a broken sword, foaming with fury, and launching at the +runaways the taunt, "Cowards! have you forgotten how to die?"[524] + +But panic now reigned supreme. Adam's brigade was at hand to support +our horsemen; and shortly after nine there knelled from Planchenoit +the last stroke of doom, the shouts of Prussians at last victorious +over the stubborn defence. "The Guard dies and does not +surrender"--such are the words attributed by some to Michel, by others +to Cambronne before he was stretched senseless on the ground.[525] +Whether spoken or not, some such thought prompted whole companies to +die for the honour of their flag. And their chief, why did he not +share their glorious fate? Gourgaud says that Soult forced him from +the field. If so (and Houssaye discredits the story) Soult never +served his master worse. The only dignified course was to act up to +his recent proclamation that the time had come for every Frenchman of +spirit to conquer or die. To belie those words by an ignominious +flight was to court the worst of sins in French political life, +ridicule. + +And the flight was ignominious. Wellington's weary troops, after +several times mistaking friends for foes in the dusk, halted south of +Rossomme and handed over the pursuit to the Prussians, many of whom +had fought but little and now drank deep the draught of revenge. By +the light of the rising moon Gneisenau led on his horsemen in a +pursuit compared with which that of Jena was tame. At Genappe Napoleon +hoped to make a stand: but the place was packed with wagons and +thronged with men struggling to get at the narrow bridge. At the blare +of the Prussian trumpets, the panic became frightful; the Emperor left +his carriage and took to horse as the hurrahs drew near. Seven times +did the French form bivouacs, and seven times were they driven out and +away. At Quatre Bras he once more sought to gather a few troops; but +ere he could do so the Uhlans came on. With tears trickling down his +pallid cheeks, he resumed his flight over another field of carnage, +where ghastly forms glinted on all sides under the pale light of dawn. +After further futile efforts at Charleroi, he hurried on towards +Paris, followed at some distance by groups amounting to about 10,000 +men, the sorry remnant still under arms of the host that fought at +Waterloo: 25,000 lay dead or wounded there: some thousands were taken +prisoners: the rest were scattering to their homes. Wellington lost +10,360 killed and wounded, of whom 6,344 were British: the Prussian +loss was about 6,000 men. + +The causes of Napoleon's overthrow are not hard to find. The lack of +timely pursuit of Bluecher and Wellington on the 17th enabled those +leaders to secure posts of vantage and to form an incisive plan which +he did not fully fathom even at the crisis of the battle. Full of +overweening contempt of Wellington, he began the fight heedlessly and +wastefully. When the Prussians came on, he underrated their strength +and believed to the very end that Grouchy would come up and take them +between two fires. But, in the absence of prompt, clear, and detailed +instructions, that Marshal was left a prey to his fatal notion that +Wavre was the one point to be aimed at and attacked. Despite the heavy +cannonade on the west he persisted in this strange course; while +Napoleon staked everything on a supreme effort against Wellington. +This last was an act of appalling hardihood; but he explained to +Cockburn on the voyage to St. Helena that, still confiding in +Grouchy's approach, he felt no uneasiness at the Prussian movements, +"which were, in fact, already checked, and that he considered the +battle to have been, on the whole, rather in his favour than +otherwise." The explanation has every appearance of sincerity. But +would any other great commander have staked his last reserve and laid +bare his rear solely in reliance on the ability of an almost untried +leader who had sent not a single word that justified the hopes now +placed in him? + +We here touch the weak points in Napoleon's intellectual armour. +Gifted with almost superhuman insight and energy himself, he too often +credited his paladins with possessing the same divine afflatus. +Furthermore, he had a supreme contempt for his enemies. Victorious in +a hundred fights over second-rate opponents in his youth, he could not +now school his hardened faculties to the caution needed in a contest +with Wellington, Gneisenau, and Bluecher. Only after he had ruined +himself and France did he realize his own errors and the worth of the +allied leaders. During the voyage to England he confessed to Bertrand: +"The Duke of Wellington is fully equal to myself in the management of +an army, _with the advantage of possessing more prudence_."[526] + + NOTE ADDED TO THE FOURTH EDITION.--I have discussed several of the + vexed questions of the Waterloo Campaign in an Essay, "The + Prussian Co-operation at Waterloo," in my volume entitled + "Napoleonic Studies" (George Bell and Sons, 1904). In that Essay I + have pointed out the inaccuracy or exaggeration of the claims put + forward by some German writers to the effect that (1) Wellington + played Bluecher false at Ligny, (2) that he did not expect Prussian + help until late in the day at Waterloo, (3) that the share of + credit for the victory rested in overwhelming measure with Bluecher + and Gneisenau. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XLI + +FROM THE ELYSEE TO ST. HELENA + + +Napoleon was far from accepting Waterloo as a final blow. At +Philippeville on the day after the battle, he wrote to his brother +Joseph that he would speedily have 300,000 men ready to defend France: +he would harness his guns with carriage-horses, raise 100,000 +conscripts, and arm them with muskets taken from the royalists and +malcontent National Guards: he would arouse Dauphine, Lyonnais, and +Burgundy, and overwhelm the enemy. "But the people must help me and +not bewilder me.... Write to me what effect this horrible piece of bad +luck has had on the Chamber. I believe the deputies will feel +convinced that their duty in this crowning moment is to rally round me +and save France."[527] + +The tenacious will, then, is only bent, not broken. Waterloo is merely +a greater La Rothiere, calling for a mightier defensive effort than +that of 1814. Such are his intentions, even when he knows not that +Grouchy is escaping from the Prussians. The letter breathes a firm +resolve. He has no scruples as to the wickedness of spurring on a +wearied people to a conflict with Europe. As yet he forms no +magnanimous resolve to take leave of a nation whom his genius may once +more excite to a fatal frenzy. He still seems unable to conceive of +France happy and prosperous apart from himself. In indissoluble union +they will struggle on and defy the world. + +Such was the frame of mind in which he reached the Elysee Palace early +on the 21st of June. For a time he was much agitated. "Oh, my God!" he +exclaimed to Lavalette, raising his eyes to heaven and walking up and +down the room. But after taking a warm bath--his unfailing remedy for +fatigue--he became calm and discussed with the Ministers plans of a +national defence. The more daring advised the prorogation of the +Chambers and the declaration of a state of siege in Paris; but others +demurred to a step that would lead to civil war. The Council dragged +on at great length, the Emperor only once rousing himself from his +weariness to declare that all was not lost; that _he_, and not the +Chambers, could save France. If so, he should have gone to the +deputies, thrilled them with that commanding voice, or dissolved them +at once. Montholon states that this course was recommended by +Cambaceres, Carnot, and Maret, but that most of the Ministers urged +him not to expose his wearied frame to the storms of an excited +assembly. At St. Helena he told Gourgaud that, despite his fatigue, he +would have made the effort had he thought success possible, but he did +not.[528] + +The Chamber of Deputies meanwhile was acting with vigour. Agonized by +the tales of disaster already spread abroad by wounded soldiers, it +eagerly assented to Lafayette's proposal to sit in permanence and +declare any attempt at dissolution an act of high treason. So +unblenching a defiance, which recalled the Tennis Court Oath of +twenty-six years before, struck the Emperor almost dumb with +astonishment. Lucien bade him prepare for a _coup d'etat_: but +Napoleon saw that the days for such an act were passed. He had +squandered the physical and moral resources bequeathed by the +Revolution. Its armies were mouldering under the soil of Spain, +Russia, Germany, and Belgium; and a decade of reckless ambition had +worn to tatters Rousseau's serviceable theory of a military +dictatorship. Exhausted France was turning away from him to the prime +source of liberty, her representatives. + +These were doubtless the thoughts that coursed through his brain as he +paced with Lucien up and down the garden of the Elysee. A crowd of +_federes_ and workmen outside cheered him frantically. He saluted them +with a smile; but, says Pasquier, "the expression of his eyes showed +the sadness that filled his soul." True, he might have led that +unthinking rabble against the Chambers; but that would mean civil war, +and from this he shrank. Still Lucien bade him strike. "Dare," he +whispered with Dantonesque terseness. "Alas," replied his brother, "I +have dared only too much already." Davoust also opined that it was too +late now that the deputies had firmly seized the reins and were +protected by the National Guards of Paris. + +And so Napoleon let matters drift. In truth, he was "bewildered" by +the disunion of France. It was a France that he knew not, a land given +over to _idealogues_ and traitors. His own Minister, Fouche, was +working to sap his power, and yet he dared not have him shot! What +wonder that the helpless autocrat paced restlessly to and fro, or sat +as in a dream! In the evening Carnot went to the Peers, Lucien to the +Deputies, to appeal for a united national effort against the +Coalition, but the simple earnestness of the one and the fraternal +fervour of the other alike failed. When Lucien finally exclaimed +against any desertion of Napoleon, Lafayette fiercely shot at him the +long tale of costly sacrifices which France had offered up at the +shrine of Napoleon's glory, and concluded: "We have done enough for +him: our duty is to save _la patrie_." + +On the morrow came the news that Grouchy had escaped from the +Prussians; and that the relics of Napoleon's host were rallying at +Laon. But would not this encouragement embolden the Emperor to crush +the contumacious Chambers? Evidently the case was urgent. He must +abdicate, or they would dethrone him--such was the purport of their +message to the Elysee; but, as an act of grace, they allowed him _an +hour_ in which to forestall their action. Shortly after midday, on the +advice of his Ministers, he took the final step of his official +career. Lucien and Carnot begged him for some time to abdicate only in +favour of his son;[529] and he did so, but with the bitter remark: "My +son! What a chimera! No, it is for the Bourbons that I abdicate! They +at least are not prisoners at Vienna." + +The deputies were of his opinion. Despite frantic efforts of the +Bonapartists, they passed over Napoleon II. without any effective +recognition, and at once appointed an executive Commission of +five--Carnot, Caulaincourt, Fouche, Grenier, and Quinette. Three of +them were regicides, and Fouche was chosen their President. We can +gauge Napoleon's wrath at seeing matters thus promptly rolled back to +where they were before Brumaire by his biting comment that he had made +way for the King of Rome, not for a Directory which included one +traitor and two babies. His indignation was just. An abdication forced +on by _idealogues_ was hateful; to be succeeded by Fouche seemed an +unforgivable insult; but he touched the lowest depth of humiliation on +the 25th, when he received from that despicable schemer an order to +leave Paris. + +He obeyed on that first Sunday after Waterloo, driving off quietly to +Malmaison, there to be joined by Hortense Beauharnais and a few +faithful friends. At that ill-omened abode, where Josephine had +breathed her last shortly after his first abdication, he spent four +uneasy days. At times he was full of fight. He sent to the "Moniteur" +a proclamation urging the army to make "some efforts more, and the +Coalition will be dissolved." The manifesto was suppressed by Fouche's +orders. + +Meanwhile the invaders pressed on rapidly towards Compiegne. They met +with no attempts at a national rising, a fact which proves the welcome +accorded to Napoleon in March to have been mainly the outcome of +military devotion and of the dislike generally felt for the Bourbons. +It is a libel on the French people to suppose that a truly national +impulse in his favour would have vanished with a single defeat. In +vain did the Provisional Government sue for an armistice that would +stay the advance. Wellington refused outright; but Bluecher declared +that he would consider the matter if Napoleon were handed over to him, +_dead or alive_. On hearing of this, Wellington at once wrote his ally +a private remonstrance, which drew from Gneisenau a declaration that, +as the Duke was held back _by parliamentary considerations and by the +wish to prolong the life of the villain whose career had extended +England's power_, the Prussians would see to it that Napoleon was +handed over to them for execution conformably to the declaration of +the Congress of Vienna.[530] + +But the Provisional Government acted honestly towards Napoleon. On the +26th Fouche sent General Becker to watch over him and advise him to +set out for Rochefort, _en route_ to the United States, for which +purpose passports were being asked from Wellington. Becker found the +ex-Emperor a prey to quickly varying moods. At one time he seemed +"sunk into a kind of _mollesse_, and very careful about his ease and +comfort": he ate hugely at meals: or again he affected a rather coarse +joviality, showing his regard for Becker by pulling his ear. His plans +varied with his moods. He declared he would throw himself into the +middle of France and fight to the end, or that he would take ship at +Rochefort with Bertrand and Savary alone, and steal past the English +squadron; but when Mme. Bertrand exclaimed that this would be cruel to +her, he readily gave up the scheme.[531] + +It is not easy to gauge his feelings at this time. Apart from one +outburst to Lavalette of pity for France, he seems not to have +realized how unspeakably disastrous his influence had been on the land +which he found in a victoriously expansive phase, and now left +prostrate at the feet of the allies and the Bourbons. Hatred and +contempt of the upper classes for their "fickle" desertion of him, +these, if we may judge from his frequent allusions to the topic during +the voyage, were the feelings uppermost in his mind; and this may +explain why he wavered between the thought of staking all on a last +effort against the allies and the plan of renewing in America the +career now closed to him in Europe. + +He certainly was not a prey to torpor and dumb despair. His brain +still clutched eagerly at public affairs, as if unable to realize that +they had slipped beyond his control; and his behaviour showed that he +was still _un etre politique_, with whom power was all in all. He +evinced few signs of deep emotion on bidding farewell to his devoted +followers: but whether this resulted from inner hardness, or +resentment at his fall, or a sense of dignified prudence, it is +impossible to say. When Denon, the designer of his medals, sobbed on +bidding him adieu, he remarked: _Mon cher, ne nous attendrissons pas: +il faut dans les crises comme celle-ci se conduire avec froid_. This +surely was one source of his power over an emotional people: his +feelings were the servant, not the master, of his reason. + +Meanwhile the Prussians were drawing near to Paris. Early on the 29th +they were at Argenteuil, and Bluecher detached a flying column to seize +the bridge of Chatou over the Seine near Malmaison and carry off +Napoleon on the following night. But Davoust and Fouche warded off the +danger. While the Marshal had the nearest bridges of the Seine +barricaded or burnt, Fouche on the night of the 28th-29th sent an +order to Napoleon to leave at once for Rochefort and set sail with two +frigates, even though the English passports had not arrived. + +He received the news calmly, and then with unusual animation requested +Becker to submit to the Government a scheme for rapidly rallying the +troops around Paris, whereupon he, _as General Bonaparte_, would +surprise first Bluecher and then Wellington--they were two days' +marches apart: then, after routing the foe, he would resume his +journey to the coast. The Commission would have none of it. The +reports showed that the French troops were so demoralized that success +was not to be hoped for.[532] And if a second Montmirail were snatched +from Bluecher, would it bring more of glory to Napoleon or of useless +bloodshed to France? Those who look on the world as an arena for the +exploits of heroes at the cost of ordinary mortals may applaud the +scheme. But could men who were responsible to France regard it as +anything but a final proof of Napoleon's perverse optimism, or a flash +of his unquenchable ambition, or a last mad bid for power? He showed +signs of anger on hearing of their refusal, but set out for Rochefort +at 6 p.m.; and thus the Prussians were cheated of their prey by a few +hours. Bertrand, Savary, Gourgaud, and Becker accompanied him. + +The cheers of troops and people at Niort, and again at Rochefort, +where he arrived on July 3rd, re-awakened his fighting instincts; and +as the westerly winds precluded all hope of the two frigates slipping +quickly down either of the practicable outlets so as to elude the +British cruisers, he again sought permission to take command of the +French forces, now beginning to fall back from Paris behind the line +of the Loire. Again his offer was refused; and messages came thick and +fast bidding Becker get him away from the mainland. Such was the +desire of his best friends. Paris capitulated to the allies on July +4th, and both French royalists and Prussians were eager to get hold of +him. Thus, while he sat weaving plans of a campaign on the Loire, the +tottering Government at Paris pressed on his embarkation, hinting that +force would be used should further delays ensue. Sadly, then, on July +8th, he went on board the "Saale," moored near L'Ile d'Aix, opposite +the mouth of the Charente. + +He was now in sore straits. The orders from Paris expressly forbade +his setting foot again on the mainland, and most of the great towns +had already hoisted the white flag. In front of him was the Bay of +Biscay, swept by British cruisers, which the French naval officers had +scant hopes of escaping. There was talk among Napoleon's suite, which +now included Montholon, Las Cases, and Lallemand, of attempting flight +from the Gironde, or in the hold of a small Danish sloop then at +Rochefort, or on two fishing boats moored to the north of L'Ile de Re; +but these plans were given up in consequence of the close watch kept +by our cruisers at all points. The next day brought with it a despatch +from Paris ordering the ex-Emperor to set sail within twenty-four +hours. + +On the morrow Napoleon sent Savary and Las Cases with a letter to +H.M.S. "Bellerophon," then cruising off the main channel--that between +the islands of Oleron and Re--asking whether the permits for +Napoleon's voyage to America had arrived, or his departure would be +prevented. Savary also inquired whether his passage on a merchant-ship +would be stopped. The commander, Captain Maitland, had received strict +orders to intercept Napoleon; but, seeking to gain time and to bring +Admiral Hotham up with other ships, he replied that he would oppose +the frigates by force: neither could he permit Napoleon to set sail on +a merchant-ship until he had the warrant of his admiral for so doing. +The "Bellerophon," "Myrmidon," and "Slaney" now drew closer in to +guard the middle channel, while a corvette watched each of the +difficult outlets on the north and south.[533] + +Three days of sorrow and suspense now ensued. On the 12th came the +news of the entry of Louis XVIII. into Paris, the collapse of the +Provisional Government, and the general hoisting of the _fleur-de-lys_ +throughout France. On the 13th Joseph Bonaparte came for a last +interview with his brother on the Ile d'Aix. Montholon states that the +ex-King offered to change places with the ex-Emperor and thus allow +him the chance of escaping on a neutral ship from the Gironde. +Gourgaud does not refer to any such offer, nor does Bertrand in his +letter of July 14th to Joseph. In any case, it was not put to the +test; for royalism was rampant on the mainland, and two of our +cruisers hovered about the Gironde. Sadly the two brothers parted, and +for ever. Then the other schemes were again mooted only to be given up +once more; and late on the 13th Napoleon dictated the following +letter, to be taken by Gourgaud to the Prince Regent: + + "Exposed to the factions which distract my country and to the + enmity of the greatest Powers of Europe, I have closed my + political career, and I come, like Themistocles, to throw myself + upon the hospitality of the British people. I put myself under the + protection of their laws, which I claim from your Royal Highness, + as the most powerful, the most constant, and the most generous of + my enemies."[534] + +On the 14th Gourgaud and Las Cases took this letter to the +"Bellerophon," whereupon Maitland assured them that he would convey +Napoleon to England, Gourgaud preceding them on the "Slaney"; but that +the ex-Emperor _would be entirely at the disposal of our Government_. +This last was made perfectly clear to Las Cases, who understood +English, though at first he feigned not to do so; but, unfortunately, +Maitland did not exact from him a written acknowledgment of this +understanding. Gourgaud was transferred to the "Slaney," which soon +set sail for Torbay, while Las Cases reported to Napoleon on L'Ile +d'Aix what had happened. Thereupon Bertrand wrote to Maitland that +Napoleon would come on board on the morrow: + + " ... If the Admiral, in consequence of the demand that you have + addressed to him, sends you the permits for the United States, His + Majesty will go there with pleasure; but in default of them, he + will go voluntarily to England as a private individual to enjoy + the protection of the laws of your country." + +Now, either Las Cases misinterpreted Maitland's words and acts, or +Napoleon hoped to impose on the captain by the statements just quoted. +Maitland had not sent to Hotham for permits; he held out no hopes of +Napoleon's going to America; he only promised to take him to England +_to be at the disposal of the Prince Regent_. Napoleon, taking no +notice of the last stipulation, now promised to go to England, not as +Emperor, but as a private individual. He took this step soon after +dawn on the 15th, when any lingering hopes of his escape were ended by +the sight of Admiral Hotham's ship, "Superb," in the offing. On +leaving the French brig, "Epervier," he was greeted with the last +cheers of _Vive l'Empereur_, cheers that died away almost in a wail as +his boat drew near to the "Bellerophon." There he was greeted +respectfully, but without a salute. He wore the green uniform, with +gold and scarlet facings, of a colonel of the Chasseurs a Cheval of +the Guard, with white waistcoat and military boots; and Maitland +thought him "a remarkably strong, well-built man." Keeping up a +cheerful demeanour, he asked a number of questions about the ship, and +requested to be shown round even thus early, while the men were +washing the decks. He inquired whether the "Bellerophon" would have +worsted the two French frigates and acquiesced in Maitland's +affirmative reply. He expressed admiration of all that he saw, +including the portrait of Maitland's wife hanging in the cabin; and +the captain felt the full force of that seductive gift of pleasing, +which was not the least important of the great man's powers. + +He was accompanied by General and Mme. Bertrand, the former a tall, +slim, good-looking man, of refined manners and domestic habits, though +of a sensitive and hasty temper; his wife, a lady of slight figure, +but stately carriage, the daughter of a Irishman named Dillon, who +lost his life in the Revolution. Her vivacious manners bespoke a warm +impulsive nature, that had revelled in the splendour of her high +ceremonial station and now seemed strained beyond endurance by the +trials threatening her and her three children. The Bertrands had been +with Napoleon at Elba, and enjoyed his complete confidence. Younger +than they were General (Count) Montholon and his wife--he, a short but +handsome man, his consort, a sweet unassuming woman--who showed their +devotion to the ex-Emperor by exchanging a life of luxury for exile in +his service. Count Las Cases, a small man, whose thin eager face and +furtive glances revealed his bent for intrigue, was the eldest of the +party. He had been a naval officer, had then lived in England as an +_emigre_, but after the Peace of Amiens took civil service under +Napoleon; he now brought with him his son, a lad of fifteen, fresh +from the Lycee. We need not notice the figures of Savary and +Lallemand, as they were soon to part company. Maingaud the surgeon, +Marchand the head valet, several servants, and the bright little boy +of the Montholons completed the list. + +The voyage passed without incident. Napoleon's health and appetite +were on the whole excellent, and he suffered less than the rest from +sea-sickness. The delicate Las Cases, who had donned his naval +uniform, was in such distress as to move the mirth of the crew, +whereupon Napoleon sharply bade him appear in plain clothes so as not +to disgrace the French navy. For the great man himself the crew soon +felt a very real regard, witness the final confession of one of them +to Maitland: "Well, they may abuse that man as much as they like, but +if the people of England knew him as well as we do, they would not +hurt a hair of his head."--What a tribute this to the mysterious power +of genius! + +On passing Ushant, he remained long upon deck, silent and abstracted, +casting melancholy looks at the land he was never more to see. As they +neared Torbay, the exile was loud in praise of the beauty of the +scene, which he compared with that of Porto Ferrajo. Whatever +misgivings he felt before embarking on the "Bellerophon" had +apparently disappeared. He had been treated with every courtesy and +had met with only one rebuff. He prompted Mme. Bertrand, who spoke +English well, to sound Maitland as to the acceptance of a box +containing his (Napoleon's) portrait set in diamonds. This the captain +very properly refused.[535] + +In Torbay troubles began to thicken upon the party. Gourgaud rejoined +them on the 24th: he had not been allowed to land. Orders came on the +26th for the "Bellerophon" to proceed to Plymouth; and the rumour +gained ground that St. Helena would be their destination. It was true. +On July 31st, Sir Henry Bunbury, Secretary to the Admiralty, and Lord +Keith, Admiral in command at Plymouth, laid before him in writing the +decision of our Government, that, in order to prevent any further +disturbance to the peace of Europe, it had been decided to restrain +his liberty--"to whatever extent may be necessary for securing that +first and paramount object"--and that St. Helena would be his place of +residence, as it was healthy, and would admit of a smaller degree of +restraint than might be necessary elsewhere. + +Against this he made a lengthy protest, declaring that he was not a +prisoner of war, that he came as a passenger on the "Bellerophon" +"after a previous negotiation with the commander," that he demanded +the rights of a British citizen, and wished to settle in a country +house far from the sea, where he would submit to the surveillance of a +commissioner over his actions and correspondence. St. Helena would +kill him in three months, for he was wont to ride twenty leagues a +day; he preferred death to St. Helena. Maitland's conduct had been a +deliberate snare. To deprive him (Napoleon) of his liberty would be an +eternal disgrace to England; for in coming to our shores he had +offered the Prince Regent the finest page of his history.--Our +officials then bowed and withdrew. He recalled Keith, and when the +latter remarked that to go to St. Helena was better than being sent to +Louis XVIII. or to Russia, the captive exclaimed "Russia! God keep me +from that."[536] + +It is unnecessary to traverse his statements at length. The foregoing +recital of facts will have shown that he was completely at the end of +his resources, and that Maitland had not made a single stipulation as +to his reception in England. Indeed, Napoleon never reproached +Maitland; he left that to Las Cases to do; and the captain easily +refuted these insinuations, with the approval of Montholon. If there +was any misunderstanding, it was certainly due to Las Cases.[537] + +Indeed, the thought of Napoleon settling dully down in the Midlands is +ludicrous. How could a man who revelled in vast schemes, whose mind +preyed on itself if there were no facts and figures to grind, or +difficulties to overcome, ever sink to the level of a Justice Shallow? +And if he longed for repose, would the Opposition in England and the +malcontents in France have let him rest? Inevitably he would become a +rallying point for all the malcontents of Europe. Besides, our +engagements to the allies bound us to guard him securely; and we were +under few personal obligations to a man who, during the Peace of +Amiens, persistently urged us to drive forth the Bourbons from our +land, who at its close forcibly detained 10,000 Britons in defiance of +the law of nations, and whose ambition added L600,000,000 to our +National Debt. + +Ministers had decided on St. Helena by July 28th. Their decision was +clinched by a Memorandum of General Beatson, late Governor of the +island, dated July 29th, recommending St. Helena, because all the +landing places were protected by batteries, and the semaphores +recently placed on the lofty cliffs would enable the approach of a +rescue squadron to be descried sixty miles off, and the news to be +speedily signalled to the Governor's House. Napoleon's appeal and +protests were accordingly passed over; and, in pursuance of advice +just to hand from Castlereagh at Paris, Ministers decided to treat +him, not as our prisoner, but as the prisoner of all the Powers. A +Convention was set in hand as to his detention; it was signed on +August 2nd at Paris, and bound the other Powers to send Commissioners +as witnesses to the safety of the custody.[538] + +His departure from Plymouth was hastened by curious incidents. Crowds +of people assembled there to see the great man, and shoals of +boats--Maitland says more than a thousand on fine days--struggled and +jostled to get as near the "Bellerophon" as the guard-boats would +allow. Two or three persons were drowned; but still the swarm pressed +on. Many of the men wore carnations--a hopeful sign this seemed to Las +Cases--and the women waved their handkerchiefs when he appeared on the +poop or at the open gangway. Maitland was warned that a rescue would +be attempted on the night of the 3rd-4th; and certainly the Frenchmen +were very restless at that time. They believed that if Napoleon could +only set foot on shore he must gain the rights of Habeas Corpus.[539] +And there seemed some chance of his gaining them. Very early on August +4th a man came down from London bringing a subpoena from the Court of +King's Bench to compel Lord Keith and Captain Maitland to produce the +person of Napoleon Bonaparte for attendance in London as witness in a +trial for libel then pending. It appears that some one was to be sued +for a libel on a naval officer, censuring his conduct in the West +Indies; and it was suggested that if he (the defendant) could get +Napoleon's evidence to prove that the French ships were at that time +unserviceable, his case would be strengthened. An attorney therefore +came down to Plymouth armed with a subpoena, with which he chased +Keith on land and chased him by sea, until his panting rowers were +foiled by the stout crew of the Admiral's barge. Keith also found +means to let Maitland know how matters stood early on the 4th, +whereupon the "Bellerophon" stood out to sea, her guard-boat keeping +at a distance the importunate man with the writ. + +The whole affair looks very suspicious. What defendant in a plain +straightforward case would ever have thought of so far-fetched a +device as that of getting the ex-Emperor to declare on oath that his +warships in the West Indies had been unseaworthy? The tempting thought +that it was a trick of some enterprising journalist in search of "copy +"must also be given up as a glaring anachronism. On the other hand, +it is certain that Napoleon's well-wishers in London and Plymouth were +moving heaven and earth to get him ashore, or delay his +departure.[540] In common with Sieyes, Lavalette, and Las Cases, he +had hoped much from the peculiarities of English law; and on July 28th +he dictated to Las Cases a paper, "suited to serve as a basis to +jurists," which the latter says he managed to send ashore.[541] If +this be true, Napoleon himself may have spurred on his friends to the +effort just described. Or else the plan may have occurred to some of +his English admirers who wished to embarrass the Ministry. If so, +their attempt met with the fate that usually befalls the efforts of +our anti-national cliques on behalf of their foreign heroes: it did +them harm: the authorities acted more promptly than they would +otherwise have done: the "Bellerophon" put to sea a few days before +the Frenchmen expected, with the result that they were exposed to a +disagreeable cruise until the "Northumberland" (the ship destined for +the voyage in place of the glorious old "Bellerophon") was ready to +receive them on board.[542] + +Dropping down from Portsmouth, the newer ship met the "Bellerophon" +and "Tonnant," Lord Keith's ship, off the Start. The transhipment took +place on the 7th, under the lee of Berry Head, Torbay. After dictating +a solemn protest against the compulsion put upon him, the ex-Emperor +thanked Maitland for his honourable conduct, spoke of his having hoped +to buy a small estate in England where he might end his days in peace, +and declaimed bitterly against the Government. + +Rear-Admiral Sir George Cockburn, of the "Northumberland," then came +by official order to search his baggage and that of his suite, so as +to withdraw any large sums of money that might be thereafter used for +effecting an escape. Savary and Marchand were present while this was +done by Cockburn's secretary with as much delicacy as possible: 4,000 +gold Napoleons (80,000 francs) were detained to provide a fund for +part maintenance of the illustrious exile. The diamond necklace which +Hortense had handed to him at Malmaison was at that time concealed on +Las Cases, who continued to keep it as a sacred trust. The +ex-Emperor's attendants were required to give up their swords during +the voyage. Montholon states that when the same request was made by +Keith to Napoleon, the only reply was a flash of anger from his eyes, +under which the Admiral's tall figure shrank away, and his head, white +with years, fell on his breast. Alas, for the attempt at melodrama! +_Maitland was expressly told by Lord Keith not to proffer any such +request to the fallen chief_. + +Apart from one or two exclamations that he would commit suicide rather +than go to St. Helena, Napoleon had behaved with a calm and serenity +that contrasted with the peevish gloom of his officers and the spasms +of Mme. Bertrand. This unhappy lady, on learning their fate, raved in +turn against Maitland, Gourgaud, Napoleon, and against her husband for +accompanying him, and ended by trying to throw herself from a window. +From this she was pulled back, whereupon she calmed down and secretly +urged Maitland to write to Lord Keith to prevent Bertrand accompanying +his master. The captain did so, but of course the Admiral declined to +interfere. Her shrill complaints against Napoleon had, however, been +heard on the other side of the thin partition, and fanned the dislike +which Montholon and Gourgaud had conceived for her, and in part for +her husband. These were the officers whom he selected as companions of +exile. Las Cases was to go as secretary, and his son as page. + +Savary, Lallemand, and Planat having been proscribed by Louis XVIII., +were detained by our Government, and subsequently interned at Malta. +On taking leave of Napoleon they showed deep emotion, while he +bestowed the farewell embrace with remarkable composure. The surgeon, +Maingaud, now declined to proceed to St. Helena, alleging that he had +wanted to go to America only because his uncle there was to leave him +a legacy! At the same time Bertrand asked that O'Meara, the surgeon of +the "Bellerophon," might accompany Napoleon to St. Helena. As +Maingaud's excuse was very lame, and O'Meara had had one or two talks +with Napoleon _in Italian_, Keith and Maitland should have seen that +there was some understanding between them; but the Admiral consented +to the proposed change. As to O'Meara's duplicity, we may quote from +Basil Jackson's "Waterloo and St. Helena": "I _know_ that he [O'Meara] +was _fully enlisted_ for Napoleon's service during the voyage from +Rochefort to England." The sequel will show how disastrous it was to +allow this man to go with the ex-Emperor. + +In the Admiral's barge that took him to the "Northumberland" the +ex-Emperor "appeared to be in perfect good humour," says Keith, +"talking of Egypt, St. Helena, of my former name being Elphinstone, +and many other subjects, and joking with the ladies about being +seasick."[543] In this firm matter-of-fact way did Napoleon accept the +extraordinary change in his fortunes. At no time of his life, perhaps, +was he so great as when, forgetting his own headlong fall, he sought +to dispel the smaller griefs of Mmes. Bertrand and Montholon. A hush +came over the crew as Napoleon mounted the side and set foot on the +deck of the ship that was to bear him away to a life of exile. It was +a sight that none could behold unmoved, as the great man uncovered, +received the salute, and said with a firm voice: "Here I am, General, +at your orders." + +The scene was rich, not only in personal interest and pathos, but also +in historic import. It marks the end of a cataclysmic epoch and the +dawn of a dreary and confused age. We may picture the Muse of History, +drawn distractedly from her abodes on the banks of the Seine, gazing +in wonder on that event taking place under the lee of Berry Head, her +thoughts flashing back, perchance, to the days when William of Orange +brought his fleet to shore at that same spot and baffled the designs +of the other great ruler of France. The glory of that land is now once +more to be shrouded in gloom. For a time, like an uneasy ghost, Clio +will hover above the scenes of Napoleon's exploits and will find +little to record but promises broken and development arrested by his +unteachable successors. + +But the march of Humanity is only clogged: it is not stayed. Ere long +it breaks away into untrodden paths amidst the busy hives of industry +or in the track of the colonizing peoples. The Muse follows in +perplexity: her course at first seems dull and purposeless: her story, +when it bids farewell to Napoleon, suffers a bewildering fall in +dramatic interest: but at length new and varied fields open out to +view. Democracy, embattled for seven sad years by Napoleon against her +sister, Nationality, little by little awakens to a consciousness of +the mistake that has blighted his fortune and hers, and begins to ally +herself with the ill-used champion of the Kings. Industry, starved by +War, regains her strength and goes forth on a career of conquest more +enduring than that of the great warrior. And the peoples that come to +the front are not those of the Latin race, whom his wars have stunted, +but those of the untamable Teutonic stock, the lords of the sea and +the leaders of Central Europe. + + * * * * * + +The treatment of the ex-Emperor henceforth differed widely from that +which had been hastily arranged by the Czar for his sojourn at Elba. +In that case he retained the title of Emperor; he reigned over the +island, and was free to undertake coasting trips. As these generous +arrangements had entailed on Europe the loss of more than 80,000 men +in killed and wounded, it is not surprising that the British Ministers +should now have insisted on far stricter rules, especially as they and +their Commissioner had been branded as accomplices in the former +escape. His comfort and dignity were now subordinated to security. As +the title of Emperor would enable him to claim privileges incompatible +with any measure of surveillance, it was firmly and consistently +denied to him; while he as persistently claimed it, and doubtless for +the same reason. He was now to rank as a General not on active +service; and Cockburn received orders, while treating him with +deference and assigning to him the place of honour at table, to +abstain from any acknowledgment of the imperial dignity. Napoleon soon +put this question to the test by rising from dinner before the others +had finished; but, with the exception of his suite, the others did not +accompany him on deck. At this he was much piqued, as also at seeing +that the officers did not uncover in his presence on the quarter-deck; +but when Cockburn's behaviour in this respect was found to be quietly +consistent, the anger of the exiles began to wear off--or rather it +was thrust down. + +One could wish that the conduct of our Government in this matter had +been more chivalrous. It is true that we had only on two occasions +acknowledged the imperial title, namely during the negotiations of +1806 and 1814; and to recognize it after his public outlawry would +have been rather illogical, besides feeding the Bonapartists with +hopes which, in the interests of France, it was well absolutely to +close. Ministers might also urge that he himself had offered to live +in England _as a private individual_, and that his transference to St. +Helena, which allowed of greater personal liberty than could be +accorded in England, did not alter the essential character of his +detention. Nevertheless, their decision is to be regretted. The zeal +of his partisans, far from being quenched, was inflamed by what they +conceived to be a gratuitous insult; and these feelings, artfully +worked upon by tales, medals, and pictures of the modern Prometheus +chained to the rock, had no small share in promoting unrest in France. + +Apart from this initial friction, Napoleon's relations to the Admiral +and officers were fairly cordial. He chatted with him at the +dinner-table and during the hour's walk that they afterwards usually +took on the quarter-deck. His conversations showed no signs of despair +or mental lethargy. They ranged over a great variety of topics, +general and personal. He discussed details of navigation and +shipbuilding with a minuteness of knowledge that surprised the men of +the sea. + +From his political conversations with Cockburn we may cull the +following remarks. He said that he really meant to invade England in +1803-5, and to dictate terms of peace at London. He stoutly defended +his execution of the Duc d'Enghien, and named none of the paltry +excuses that his admirers were later on to discover for that crime. +Referring to recent events, he inveighed against the French Liberals, +declared that he had humoured the Chambers far too much, and dilated +on the danger of representative institutions on the Continent. However +much a Parliament might suit England, it was, he declared, highly +perilous in Continental States. With respect to the future of France, +he expressed the conviction that, as soon as the armies of occupation +were withdrawn, there would be a general insurrection owing to the +strong military bias of the people and their hatred of the Bourbons, +now again brought back by devastating hordes of foreigners.[544] + +This last observation probably explains the general buoyancy of his +bearing. He did not consider the present settlement as final; and +doubtless it was his boundless fund of hope that enabled him to +triumph over the discomforts of the present, which left his companions +morose and snappish. "His spirits are even," wrote Glover, the +Admiral's secretary, at the equator, "and he appears perfectly +unconcerned about his fate."[545] His recreations were chess, which he +played with more vehemence than skill, and games of hazard, especially +_vingt-et-un_: he began to learn "le wisth" from our officers. +Sometimes he and Gourgaud amused themselves by extracting the square +and cube roots of numbers; he also began to learn English from Las +Cases. On some occasions he diverted his male companions with tales of +his adventures, both military and amorous. His interest in the ship +and in the events of the voyage did not flag. When a shark was caught +and hauled up, "Bonaparte with the eagerness of a schoolboy scrambled +on the poop to see it." + +His health continued excellent. Despite his avoidance of vegetables +and an excessive consumption of meat, he suffered little from +indigestion, except during a few days of fierce sirocco wind off +Madeira. He breakfasted about 10 on meat and wine, and remained in his +cabin reading, dictating, or learning English, until about 3 p.m., +when he played games and took exercise preparatory to dinner at 5. +After a full meal, in which he partook by preference of the most +highly dressed dishes of meat, he walked the deck for an hour or more. +On one evening, the Admiral begged to be excused owing to a heavy +equatorial rain-storm; but the ex-Emperor went up as usual, saying +that the rain would not hurt him any more than the sailors; and it did +not. The incident claims some notice: for it proves that, whatever +later writers may say as to his decline of vitality in 1815, he +himself was unaware of it, and braved with impunity a risk that a +vigorous naval officer preferred to avoid. Moreover, the mere fact +that he was able to keep up a heavy meat diet all through the tropics +bespeaks a constitution of exceptional strength, unimpaired as yet by +the internal malady which was to be his doom. + +That one element of conviviality was not wanting at meals will appear +from the official return of the consumption of wine at the Admiral's +table by his seven French guests and six British officers: Port, 20 +dozen; Claret, 45 dozen; Madeira, 22 dozen; Champagne, 13 dozen; +Sherry, 7 dozen; Malmsey, 5 dozen.[546] The "Peruvian" had been +detached from the squadron to Guernsey to lay in a stock of French +wines specially for the exiles; and 15 dozen of claret--Napoleon's +favourite beverage--were afterwards sent on shore at St. Helena for +his use. + +Doubtless the evenness of his health, which surprised Cockburn, +Warden, and O'Meara alike, was largely due to his iron will. He knew +that his exile must be disagreeable, but he had that useful faculty of +encasing himself in the present, which dulls the edge of care. +Besides, his tastes were not so exacting, or his temperament so +volatile, as to shroud him in the gloom that besets weaker natures in +time of trouble. Alas for him, it was far otherwise with his +companions. The impressionable young Gourgaud, the thought-wrinkled +Las Cases, the bright pleasure-loving Montholons, the gloomy Grand +Marshal, Bertrand, and his mercurial consort, over whose face there +often passed "a gleam of distraction"--these were not fashioned for a +life of adversity. Thence came the long spells of _ennui_, broken by +flashes of temper, that marked the voyage and the sojourn at St. +Helena. + +The storm-centre was generally Mme. Bertrand; her varying moods, that +proclaimed her Irish-Creole parentage, early brought on her the +hostility of the others, including Napoleon; and as the discovery of +her little plot to prevent Bertrand going to St. Helena gave them a +convenient weapon, the voyage was for her one long struggle against +covert intrigues, thinly veiled sarcasms, sea-sickness, and despair. +At last she has to keep to her cabin, owing to some nervous disorder. +On hearing of this Napoleon remarks that it is better she should +die--such is Gourgaud's report of his words. Unfortunately, she +recovers: after ten days she reappears, receives the congratulations +of the officers in the large cabin where Napoleon is playing chess +with Montholon. He receives her with a stolid stare and goes on with +the game. After a time the Admiral hands her to her seat at the +dinner-table, on the ex-Emperor's left. Still no recognition from her +chief! But the claret bottle that should be in front of him is not +there: she reaches over and hands it to him. Then come the looked-for +words: "Ah! comment se porte madame?"--That is all.[547] + +For Bertrand, even in his less amiable moods, Bonaparte ever had the +friendly word that feeds the well-spring of devotion. On the +"Bellerophon," when they hotly differed on a trivial subject, Bertrand +testily replied to his dogmatic statements: "Oh! if you reply in that +manner, there is an end of all argument." Far from taking offence at +this retort, Napoleon soothed him and speedily restored him to good +temper--a good instance of his forbearance to those whom he really +admired. + +Certainly the exiles were not happy among themselves. Even the amiable +Mme. Montholon was the cause of one quarrel at table. After leaving +Funchal, Cockburn states that a Roman Catholic priest there has +offered to accompany the ex-Emperor. Napoleon replies in a way that +proves his utter indifference; but the ladies launch out on the +subject of religion. The discussion waxes hot, until the impetuous +Gourgaud shoots out the remark that Montholon is wanting in respect +for his wife. Whereupon the Admiral ends the scene by rising from +table. Sir George Bingham, Colonel of the 53rd Regiment sailing in the +squadron, passes the comment in his diary: "It is not difficult to see +that envy, hatred, and all uncharitableness are firmly rooted in +Napoleon's family, and that their residence in St. Helena will be +rendered very uncomfortable by it."[548] + +Intrigues there are of kaleidoscopic complexity, either against the +superior Bertrands or the rising influence of Las Cases. This official +has but yesterday edged his way into the Emperor's inner circle, and +Gourgaud frankly reminds him of the fact: "'If I have come [with the +Emperor] it is because I have followed him for four years, except at +Elba. I have saved his life; and one loves those whom one has +obliged.... But you, sir, he did not know you even by sight: then, why +this great devotion of yours?'--I see around me," he continues, "many +intrigues and deceptions. Poor Gourgaud, _qu'allais-tu faire dans +cette galere_?"[549] + +The young aide-de-camp's influence is not allowed to wane for lack of +self-advertisement. Thus, when the battle of Waterloo is mentioned at +table, he at once gives his version of it, and stoutly maintains that, +_whatever Napoleon may say to the contrary_, he (Napoleon) did mistake +the Prussian army for Grouchy's force: and, waxing eloquent on this +theme, he exclaims to his neighbour, Glover, "that at one time he +[Gourgaud] might have taken the Duke of Wellington prisoner, but he +_desisted from it, knowing the effusion of blood it would have +occasioned_."[550]--It is charitable to assume that this utterance was +inspired by some liquid stronger than the alleged "stale water that +had been to India and back." + +On the whole, was there ever an odder company of shipmates since the +days of Noah? A cheery solid Admiral, a shadowy Captain Ross who can +navigate but does not open his lips, a talkative creature of the +secretary type, the soldierly Bingham, the graceful courtly +Montholons, the young General who out-gascons the Gascons, the +wire-drawn subtle Las Cases, the melancholy Grand Marshal and his +spasmodic consort--all of them there to guard or cheer that pathetic +central figure, the world's conqueror and world's exile. + +Meanwhile France was feeling the results of his recent enterprise. +Enormous armies began to hold her down until the Bourbons, whose +nullity was a pledge for peace, should be firmly re-established. +Bluecher, baulked of his wish to shoot Bonaparte, was with difficulty +dissuaded by the protests of Wellington and Louis XVIII. from blowing +up the Pont de Jena at Paris; and the fierce veteran voiced the +general opinion of Germans, including Metternich, that France must be +partitioned, or at least give back Alsace and Lorraine to the +Fatherland. Even Lord Liverpool, our cautious Premier, wrote on July +15th that, if Bonaparte remained at large, the allies ought to retain +all the northern fortresses as a security.[551] But the knowledge that +the warrior was in our power led our statesmen to bear less hardly on +France. From the outset Wellington sought to bring the allies to +reason, and on August 11th he wrote a despatch that deserves to rank +among his highest titles to fame. While granting that France was still +left "in too great strength for the rest of Europe," he pointed out +that "revolutionary France is more likely to distress the world, than +France, however strong in her frontier, under a regular Government; +and that is the situation in which we ought to endeavour to place +her." + +This generous and statesmanlike judgment, consorting with that of the +Czar, prevailed over the German policy of partition; and it was +finally arranged by the Treaty of Paris of November 20th, 1815, that +France should surrender only the frontier strips around Marienburg, +Saarbruecken, Landau, and Chambery, also paying war indemnities and +restoring to their lawful owners all the works of art of which +Napoleon had rifled the chief cities of the continent. In one respect +these terms were extraordinarily lenient. Great Britain, after bearing +the chief financial strain of the war, might have claimed some of the +French colonies which she restored in 1814, or at least have required +the surrender of the French claims on part of the Newfoundland coast. +Even this last was not done, and alone of the States that had suffered +loss of valuable lives, we exacted no territorial indemnity for the +war of 1815.[552] In truth, our Ministers were content with placing +France and her ancient dynasty in an honourable position, in the hope +that Europe would thus at last find peace; and the forty years of +almost unbroken rest that followed justified their magnanimity. + +But there was one condition fundamental to the Treaty of Paris and +essential to the peace of Europe, namely, that Napoleon should be +securely guarded at St. Helena. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHAPTER XLII + +CLOSING YEARS + + +After a voyage of sixty-seven days the exiles sighted St. +Helena--"that black wart rising out of the ocean," as Surgeon Henry +calls it. Blank dismay laid hold of the more sensitive as they gazed +at those frowning cliffs. What Napoleon's feelings were we know not. +Watchful curiosity seemed to be uppermost; for as they drew near to +Jamestown, he minutely scanned the forts through a glass. Arrangements +having been made for his reception, he landed in the evening of the +17th October, so as to elude the gaze of the inhabitants, and entered +a house prepared for him in the town. + +On the morrow he was up at dawn, and rode with Cockburn and Bertrand +to Longwood, the residence of the Lieutenant-Governor. The orders of +our East India Company, to which the island then belonged, forbade his +appropriation of Plantation House, the Governor's residence; and a +glance at the accompanying map will show the reason of this +prohibition. This house is situated not far from creeks that are +completely sheltered from the south-east trade winds, whence escape by +boat would be easy; whereas Longwood is nearer the surf-beaten side +and offers far more security. After conferring with Governor Wilks and +others, Cockburn decided on this residence. + + "At Longwood," wrote Cockburn, "an extent of level ground, easily + to be secured by sentries, presents itself, perfectly adapted for + horse exercise, carriage exercise, or for pleasant walking, which + is not to be met with in all the other parts of the island. The + house is certainly small; but ... I trust the carpenters of the + 'Northumberland' will in a little time be able to make such + additions to the house as will render it, if not as good as might + be wished, yet at least as commodious as necessary."[553] + +[Illustration: ST. HELENA] + +"Napoleon," wrote Glover, "seemed well satisfied with the situation of +Longwood, and expressed a desire to occupy it as soon as possible." As +he disliked the publicity of the house in Jamestown, Cockburn +suggested on their return that he should reside at a pretty little +bungalow, not far from the town, named "The Briars." He readily +assented, and took up his abode there for seven weeks, occupying a +small adjoining annexe, while Las Cases and his son established +themselves in the two garrets. A marquee was erected to serve as +dining-room. It was a narrow space for the lord of the Tuileries, but +he seems to have been not unhappy. There he dictated Memoranda to Las +Cases or Gourgaud in the mornings, and often joined the neighbouring +family of the Balcombes for dinner and the evening. Mr. Balcombe, an +elderly merchant, was appointed purveyor to the party; he and his wife +were most hospitable, and their two daughters, of fifteen and fourteen +years, frequently beguiled Napoleon's evening hours with games of +whist or naive questions. On one supreme occasion, in order to please +the younger girl, Napoleon played at blindman's buff; at such times +she ventured to call him "Boney"; and, far from taking offence at this +liberty, he delighted in her glee. It is such episodes as these that +reveal the softer traits of his character, which the dictates of +policy had stunted but not eradicated.[554] + +In other respects, the time at "The Briars" was dull and monotonous, +and he complained bitterly to Cockburn of the inadequate +accommodation. The most exciting times were on the arrival of +newspapers from Europe. The reports just to hand of riots in England +and royalist excesses in France fed his hopes of general disorders or +revolutions which might lead to his recall. He believed the Jacobins +would yet lord it over the Continent. "It is only I who can tame +them." + +Equally noteworthy are his comments on the trials of Labedoyere and +Ney for their treason to Louis XVIII. He has little pity for them. +"One ought never to break one's word," he remarked to Gourgaud, "and I +despise traitors." On hearing that Labedoyere was condemned to death, +he at first shows more feeling: but he comes round to the former view: +"Labedoyere acted like a man without honour," and "Ney dishonoured +himself."[555] + +We may hereby gauge the value which Napoleon laid on fidelity. For him +it is the one priceless virtue. He esteems those who staunchly oppose +him, and seeks to gain them over by generosity: for those who _come +over_ he ever has a secret contempt; for those who desert him, hatred. +Doubtless that is why he heard the news of Ney's execution unmoved. +Brilliantly brave as the Marshal was, he had abandoned him in 1814, +and Louis XVIII. in the Hundred Days. The tidings of Murat's miserable +fate, at the close of his mad expedition to Calabria, leave Napoleon +equally cold.--"I announce the fatal news," writes Gourgaud, "to His +Majesty, whose expression remains unchanged, and who says that Murat +must have been mad to attempt a venture like that."--Here again his +thoughts seem to fly back to Murat's defection in 1814. Later on, he +says he loved him for his brilliant bravery, and therefore pardoned +his numerous follies. But his present demeanour shows that he never +forgave that of 1814.[556] + +Meanwhile, thanks to the energy of Cockburn and his sailors, Longwood +was ready for the party (December 9th, 1815), and the Admiral hoped +that their complaints would cease. The new abode contained five rooms +for Napoleon's use, three for the Montholons, two for the Las Cases, +and one for Gourgaud: it was situated on a plateau 1,730 feet above +the sea: the air there was bracing, and on the farther side of the +plain dotted with gum trees stretched the race-course, a mile and a +half of excellent turf. The only obvious drawbacks were the occasional +mists, and the barren precipitous ravines that flank the plateau on +all sides. Seeing, however, that Napoleon disliked the publicity of +Jamestown, the isolation of Longwood could hardly be alleged as a +serious grievance. The Bertrands occupied Hutt's Gate, a small villa +about a mile distant. + +The limits within which Napoleon might take exercise unaccompanied by +a British officer formed a roughly triangular space having a +circumference of about twelve miles. Outside of those bounds he must +be so accompanied; and if a strange ship came in sight, he was to +return within bounds. The letters of the whole party must be +supervised by the acting Governor. This is the gist of the official +instructions. Napoleon's dislike of being accompanied by a British +officer led him nearly always to restrict himself to the limits and +generally to the grounds of Longwood. + +And where, we may ask, could a less unpleasant place of detention have +been found? In Europe he must inevitably have submitted to far closer +confinement. For what safeguards could there have been proof against a +subtle intellect and a personality whose charm fired thousands of +braves in both hemispheres with the longing to start him once more on +his adventures? The Tower of London, the eyrie of Dumbarton Castle, +even Fort William itself, were named as possible places of detention. +Were they suited to this child of the Mediterranean? He needed sun; he +needed exercise; he needed society. All these he could have on the +plateau of Longwood, in a singularly equable climate, where the heat +of the tropics is assuaged by the south-east trade wind, and plants of +the sub-tropical and temperate zones alike flourish.[557] + +But nothing pleased the exiles. They moped during the rains; they +shuddered at the yawning ravines; they groaned at the sight of the +red-coats; above all, they realized that escape was hopeless in face +of Cockburn's watchful care. His first steps on arriving at the island +were to send on to the Cape seventy-five foreigners whose presence was +undesirable. He also despatched the "Peruvian" to hoist the British +flag on the uninhabited island, Ascension, in order, as he wrote to +the Admiralty, "to prevent America or any other nation from planting +themselves [_sic_] there ... for the purpose of favouring sooner or +later the escape of General Bonaparte." Four ships of war were also +kept at St. Helena, and no merchantmen but those of the East India +Company were to touch there except under stress of weather or when in +need of water. + +These precautions early provoked protests from the exiles. Bertrand +had no wish to draw them up in the trenchant style that the ex-Emperor +desired; but Gourgaud's "Journal" shows that he was driven on to the +task (November 5th). It only led to a lofty rejoinder from Cockburn, +in which he declined to relax his system, but expressed the wish to +render their situation "as little disagreeable as possible." On +December 21st, Montholon returned to the charge with a letter dictated +by Napoleon, complaining that Longwood was the most barren spot on the +island, always deluged with rain or swathed in mist; that O'Meara was +not to count as a British officer when they went beyond the limits, +and had been reprimanded by the Admiral for thus acting; and that the +treatment of the exiles would excite the indignation of all times and +all people. To this the Admiral sent a crushing rejoinder, declining +to explain why he had censured O'Meara or any other British subject: +he asserted that Longwood was "the most pleasant as well as the most +healthy spot of this most healthful island," expressed the hope that, +when the rains had ceased, the party would change their opinion of +Longwood, and declared that the treatment of the party would "obtain +the admiration of future ages, as well as of every unprejudiced person +of the present." + +We now know that the Admiral's trust in the judicial impartiality of +future ages was a piece of touching credulity, and that the next +generation, like his own, was greedily to swallow sensational slander +and to neglect the prosaic truth. But, arguing from present signs, he +might well believe that Montholon's letter was a tissue of falsehoods; +for that officer soon confessed to him that "it was written in a +moment of petulance of the General [Bonaparte] ... and that he +[Montholon] considered the party to be in point of fact vastly well +off and to have everything necessary for them, though anxious that +there should be no restrictions as to the General going unattended by +an officer wherever he pleased throughout the island."[558] On the +last point Cockburn was inflexible. + +The Admiral's responsibility was now nearly at an end. On April 14th, +1816, there landed at St. Helena Sir Hudson Lowe, the new Governor, +who was to take over the powers wielded both by Cockburn and Wilks. +The new arrival, on whom the storms of calumny were thenceforth +persistently to beat, had served with distinction in many parts. Born +in 1769, within one month of Napoleon, he early entered our army, and +won his commission by service in Corsica and Elba, his linguistic and +military gifts soon raising him to the command of a corps of Corsican +exiles who after 1795 enlisted in our service. With these "Corsican +Rangers" Lowe campaigned in Egypt and finally at Capri, their devotion +to him nerving them to a gallant but unavailing defence of this islet +against a superior force of Murat's troops in 1808.[559] In 1810 Lowe +and his Corsicans captured the Isle of Santa Maura, which he +thereafter governed to the full satisfaction of the inhabitants. Early +in 1813 he was ordered to Russia, and thereafter served as _attache_ +on Bluecher's staff in the memorable advance to the Rhine and the +Seine. He brought the news of Napoleon's first abdication to England, +was knighted by the Prince Regent, and received Russian and Prussian +orders of distinction for his services. At the close of 1814 he was +appointed Quartermaster-General of our forces in the Netherlands and +received flattering letters of congratulation from Bluecher and +Gneisenau, the latter expressing his appreciation of "Your rare +military talents, your profound judgment on the great operations of +war, and your imperturbable _sang froid_ in the day of battle. These +rare qualities and your honourable character will link me to you +eternally." In 1822, when O'Meara was slandering Lowe's character, the +Czar Alexander met his step-daughter, the Countess Balmain, at Verona, +and in reference to Sir Hudson's painful duties at St. Helena, said of +him: "Je l'estime beaucoup. Je l'ai connu dans les temps +critiques."[560] + +Lowe's firmness of character, command of foreign languages, and +intimate acquaintance with Corsicans, seemed to mark him out as the +ideal Governor of St. Helena in place of the mild and scholarly Wilks. +And yet the appointment was in some ways unfortunate. Though a man of +sterling worth, Lowe was reserved, and had little acquaintance with +the ways of courtiers. Moreover, the superstitious might deem that all +the salient events of his career proclaimed him an evil genius dogging +the steps of Napoleon; and, as superstition laid increasing hold on +the great Corsican in his later years, we may reasonably infer that +this feeling intensified, if it did not create, the repugnance which +he ever manifested to _la figure sinistre_ of the Governor. Lowe also +at first shrank from an appointment that must bring on him the +intrigues of Napoleon and of his partisans in England. Only a man of +high rank and commanding influence could hope to live down such +attacks; and Lowe had neither rank nor influence. He was the son of an +army surgeon, and was almost unknown in the country which for +twenty-eight years he had served abroad. + +His first visits to Longwood were unfortunate. Cockburn and he +arranged to go at 9 a.m., the time when Napoleon frequently went for a +drive. On their arrival they were informed that the Emperor was +indisposed and could not see them until 4 p.m. of the next day, and it +soon appeared that the early hour of their call was taken as an act of +rudeness. On the following afternoon Lowe and Cockburn arranged to go +in together to the presence; but as Lowe advanced to the chamber, +Bertrand stepped forward, and a valet prevented the Admiral's +entrance, an act of incivility which Lowe did not observe. Proceeding +alone, the new Governor offered his respects in French; but on +Napoleon remarking that he must know Italian, for he had commanded a +regiment of Corsicans, they conversed in Napoleon's mother-tongue. The +ex-Emperor's first serious observation, which bore on the character of +the Corsicans, was accompanied by a quick searching glance: "They +carry the stiletto: are they not a bad people?"--Lowe saw the snare +and evaded it by the reply: "They do not carry the stiletto, having +abandoned that custom in our service: I was very well satisfied with +them." They then conversed a short time about Egypt and other topics. +Napoleon afterwards contrasted him favourably with Cockburn: "This new +Governor is a man of very few words, but he appears to be a polite +man: however, it is only from a man's conduct for some time that you +can judge of him."[561] + +Cockburn was indignant at the slight put upon him by Napoleon and +Bertrand, which succeeded owing to Lowe's want of ready perception; +but he knew that the cause of the exiles' annoyance was his recent +firm refusal to convey Napoleon's letter of complaint direct to the +Prince Regent, without the knowledge of the Ministry. Failing to bend +the Admiral, they then sought to cajole the retiring Governor, Wilks, +who, having borne little of the responsibility of their custody, was +proportionately better liked. First Bertrand, and then Napoleon, +requested him to take this letter _without the knowledge of the new +Governor_. Wilks at once repelled the request, remarking to Bertrand +that such attempts at evasion must lead to greater stringency in the +future. And this was the case.[562] The incident naturally increased +Lowe's suspicion of the ex-Emperor. + +At first there was an uneasy truce between them. Gourgaud, though cast +down at the departure of the "adorable" Miss Wilks, found strength +enough to chronicle in his "Journal" the results of a visit paid by +Las Cases to Lowe at Plantation House (April 26th): the Governor +received the secretary very well and put all his library at the +disposal of the party; but the diarist also notes that Napoleon took +amiss the reception of any of his people by the Governor. This had +been one of the unconscious crimes of the Admiral. With the hope of +brightening the sojourn of the exiles, he had given several balls, at +which Mmes. Bertrand and Montholon shone resplendent in dresses that +cast into the shade those of the officers' wives. Their triumph was +short-lived. When _la grande Marechale_ ventured to desert the +Emperor's table on these and other festive occasions, her growing +fondness for the English drew on her sharp rebukes from the ex-Emperor +and a request not to treat Longwood as if it were an inn.[563] Many +jottings in Gourgaud's diary show that the same policy was thenceforth +strictly maintained. Napoleon kept up the essentials of Tuileries +etiquette, required the attendance of his courtiers, and jealously +checked any familiarity with Plantation House or Jamestown. + +On some questions Lowe was more pliable than the home Government, +notably in the matter of the declarations signed by Napoleon's +followers. But in one matter he was proof against all requests from +Longwood: this was the extension of the twelve-mile limit. It +afterwards became the custom to speak as if Lowe could have granted +this. Even the Duke of Wellington declared to Stanhope that he +considered Lowe a stupid man, suspicious and jealous, who might very +well have let Napoleon go freely about the island provided that the +six or seven landing-places were well guarded and that Napoleon showed +himself to a British officer every night and morning. Now, it is +futile to discuss whether such liberty would have enabled Napoleon to +pass off as someone else and so escape. What is certain is that our +Government, believing he could so escape, _imposed rules which Lowe +was not free to relax_. + +Napoleon realized this perfectly well, but in the interview of April +30th, 1816, he pressed Lowe for an extension of the limits, saying +that he hated the sight of our soldiers and longed for closer +intercourse with the inhabitants. Other causes of friction occurred, +such as Lowe's withdrawal of the privilege, rather laxly granted by +Cockburn to Bertrand, of granting passes for interviews with Napoleon; +or again a tactless invitation that Lowe sent to "General Bonaparte" +to meet the wife of the Governor-General of India at dinner at +Plantation House. But in the midst of the diatribe which Napoleon +shortly afterwards shot forth at his would-be host--a diatribe +besprinkled with taunts that Lowe was sent to be his +_executioner_--there came a sentence which reveals the cause of his +fury: "If you cannot extend my limits, you can do nothing for +me."[564] + +Why this wish for wider limits? It did not spring from a desire for +longer drives; for the plateau offered nearly all the best ground in +the island for such exercise. Neither was it due to a craving for +wider social intercourse. There can be little doubt that he looked on +an extension of limits as a necessary prelude to attempts at escape +and as a means of influencing the slaves at the outlying plantations. +Gourgaud names several instances of gold pieces being given to slaves, +and records the glee shown by his master on once slipping away from +the sentries and the British officer. These feelings and attempts were +perfectly natural on Napoleon's part; but it was equally natural that +the Governor should regard them as part of a plan of escape or +rescue--a matter that will engage our closer attention presently. + +Napoleon had only two more interviews with Lowe namely, on July 17th +and August 18th. In the former of these he was more conciliatory; but +in the latter, at which Admiral Sir Pulteney Malcolm was present, he +assailed the Governor with the bitterest taunts. Lowe cut short the +painful scene by saying: "You make me smile, sir." "How smile, sir?" +"You force me to smile: your misconception of my character and the +rudeness of your manners excite my pity. I wish you good day." The +Admiral also retired.[565] + +Various causes have been assigned for the hatred that Napoleon felt +for Lowe. His frequents taunts that he was no general, but only a +leader of Corsican deserters, suggests one that has already been +referred to. It has also been suggested that Lowe was not a gentleman, +and references have been approvingly made to comparisons of his +physiognomy with that of the devil, and of his eye with "that of a +hyaena caught in a trap." As to this we will cite the opinion of +Lieutenant (later Colonel) Basil Jackson, who was unknown to Lowe +before 1816, and was on friendly terms with the inmates both of +Longwood and of Plantation House: + + "He [Lowe] stood five feet seven, spare in make, having good + features, fair hair, and eyebrows overhanging his eyes: his look + denoted penetration and firmness, his manner rather abrupt, his + gait quick, his look and general demeanour indicative of energy + and decision. He wrote or dictated rapidly, and was fond of + writing, was well read in military history, spoke French and + Italian with fluency, was warm and steady in his friendships, and + popular both with the inhabitants of the isle and the troops. His + portrait, prefixed to Mr. Forsyth's book, is a perfect + likeness."[566] + +If overhanging eyebrows, a penetrating glance, and rather abrupt +manners be thought to justify comparisons with the devil or a hyaena, +the art of historical portraiture will assuredly have to be learnt +over again in conformity with impressionist methods. That Lowe was a +gentleman is affirmed by Mrs. Smith (_nee_ Grant), who, in later +years, _when prejudiced against him by O'Meara's slanders_, met him at +Colombo without at first knowing his name: + + "I was taken in to dinner by a grave, particularly gentlemanly + man, in a General's uniform, whose conversation was as agreeable + as his manner. He had been over half the world, knew all + celebrities, and contrived without display to say a great deal one + was willing to hear.... Years before, with our Whig principles and + prejudices, we had cultivated in our Highland retirement a horror + of the great Napoleon's gaoler. The cry of party, the feeling for + the prisoner, the book of Surgeon O'Meara, had all worked my + woman's heart to such a pitch of indignation that this maligned + name [Lowe] was an offence. We were to hold the owner in + abhorrence. Speak to him, never! Look at him, sit in the same room + with him, never! None were louder than I, more vehement; yet here + was I beside my bugbear and perfectly satisfied with my position. + It was a good lesson."[567] + +The real cause of Napoleon's hatred of Lowe is hinted at by Sir George +Bingham in his Diary (April 19th). After mentioning Napoleon's +rudeness to Cockburn on parting with him, he proceeds: + + "You have no idea of the dirty little intrigues of himself + [Napoleon] and his set: if Sir H. Lowe has firmness enough not to + give way to them, he will in a short time treat him in the same + manner. For myself, it is said I am a favourite [of Napoleon], + though I do not understand the claim I have to such."[568] + + +Yes! Lowe's offence lay not in his manners, not even in his features, +but in his firmness. Napoleon soon saw that all his efforts to bend +him were in vain. Neither in regard to the Imperial title, nor the +limits, nor the transmission of letters to Europe, would the Governor +swerve a hair's breadth from his instructions. At the risk of giving a +surfeit of quotations, we must cite two more on this topic. Basil +Jackson, when at Paris in 1828, chanced to meet Montholon, and was +invited to his Chateau de Fremigny; during his stay the conversation +turned upon their sojourn at St. Helena, to the following effect: + + "He [Montholon] enlarged upon what he termed _la politique de + Longwood_, spoke not unkindly of Sir Hudson Lowe, allowing he had + a difficult task to execute, since an angel from Heaven, as + Governor, could not have pleased them. When I more than hinted + that nothing could justify detraction and departure from truth in + carrying out a policy, he merely shrugged his shoulders and + reiterated: '_C'etait notre politique; et que voulez-vous?_' That + he and the others respected Sir Hudson Lowe, I had not the shadow + of a doubt: nay, in a conversation with Montholon at St. Helena, + when speaking of the Governor, he observed that Sir Hudson was an + officer who would always have distinguished employment, as all + Governments were glad of the services of a man of his calibre. + + "Happening to mention that, owing to his inability to find an + officer who could understand and speak French, the Governor was + disposed to employ me as orderly officer at Longwood, Montholon + said it was well for me that I was not appointed to the post, as + they did not want a person in that capacity who could understand + them; in fact, he said, we should have found means to get rid of + you, and perhaps ruined you."[569] + + +Las Cases also, _in a passage that he found it desirable to suppress +when he published his "Journal"_ wrote as follows (November 30th, +1815): + + "We are possessed of moral arms only: and in order to make the + most advantageous use of these it was necessary to reduce into _a + system_ our demeanour, our words, our sentiments, _even our + privations_, in order that we might thereby excite a lively + interest in a large portion of the population of Europe, and that + the Opposition in England might not fail to attack the Ministry on + the violence of their conduct towards us."[570] + +We are now able to understand the real nature of the struggle that +went on between Longwood and Plantation House. Napoleon and his +followers sought by every means to bring odium upon Lowe, and to +furnish the Opposition at Westminster with toothsome details that +might lead to the disgrace of the Governor, the overthrow of the +Ministry, and the triumphant release of the ex-Emperor. On the other +hand, the knowledge of the presence of traitors on the island, and of +possible rescuers hovering about on the horizon, kept Lowe ever at +work "unravelling the intricate plotting constantly going on at +Longwood," until his face wore the preoccupied worried look that +Surgeon Henry describes. + +That both antagonists somewhat overacted their parts does not surprise +us when we think of the five years thus spent within a narrow space +and under a tropical sun. Lowe was at times pedantic, witness his +refusal to forward to Longwood books inscribed to the "Emperor +Napoleon," and his suspicions as to the political significance of +green and white beans offered by Montholon to the French Commissioner, +Montchenu. But such incidents can be paralleled from the lives of most +officials who bear a heavy burden of responsibility. And who has ever +borne a heavier burden?[571] + +Napoleon also, in his calmer moods, regretted the violence of his +language to the Governor. He remarked to Montholon: "This is the +second time in my life that I have spoilt my affairs with the English. +Their phlegm leads me on, and I say more than I ought. I should have +done better not to have replied to him." This reference to his attack +on Whitworth in 1803 flashes a ray of light on the diatribe against +Lowe. In both cases, doubtless, the hot southron would have bridled +his passion sooner, had it produced any visible effect on the colder +man of the north. Nevertheless, the scene of August 18th, 1816, had an +abiding influence on his relations with the Governor. For the rest of +that weary span of years they never exchanged a word. + +Lowe's official reports prove that he did not cease to consult the +comfort of the exiles as far as it was possible. The building of the +new house, however, remained in abeyance, as Napoleon refused to give +any directions on the subject: and the much-needed repairs to Longwood +were stopped owing to his complaints of the noise of the workmen. But +by ordering the claret that the ex-Emperor preferred, and by sending +occasional presents of game to Longwood, Lowe sought to keep up the +ordinary civilities of life; and when the home Government sought to +limit the annual cost of the Longwood household to L8,000, Lowe took +upon himself to increase that sum by one half. + +Napoleon's behaviour in this last affair is noteworthy. On hearing of +the need for greater economy, he readily assented, sent away seven +servants, and ordered a reduction in the consumption of wine. A day or +two later, however, he gave orders that some of his silver plate +should be sold in order "to provide those little comforts denied +them." Balcombe was accordingly sent for, and, on expressing regret to +Napoleon at the order for sale, received the reply: "_What is the use +of plate when you have nothing to eat off it?_" Lowe quietly directed +Balcombe to seal up the plate sent to him, and to advance money up to +its value (L250); but other portions of the plate were broken and sold +later on. O'Meara reveals the reason for these proceedings in his +letter of October 10th: "In this he [Napoleon] has also a wish to +excite odium against the Governor by saying that he has been obliged +to sell his plate in order to provide against starvation, _as he +himself told me was his object_."[572] + +Another incident that embittered the relations between Napoleon and +the Governor was the arrival from England of more stringent +regulations for his custody. The chief changes thus brought about +(October 9th, 1816) were a restriction of the limits from a +twelve-mile to an eight-mile circumference and the posting of a ring +of sentries at a slight distance from Longwood at sunset instead of at +9 p.m.[573] The latter change is to be regretted; for it marred the +pleasure of Napoleon's evening strolls in his garden; but, as the +Governor pointed out, the three hours after sunset had been the +easiest time for escape. The restriction of limits was needful, not +only in order to save our troops the labour of watching a wide area +that was scarcely ever used for exercise, but also to prevent +underhand intercourse with slaves. + +Was there really any need for these "nation-degrading" rules, as +O'Meara called them? Or were they imposed in order to insult the great +man? A reference to the British archives will show that there was some +reason for them. Schemes of rescue were afoot that called for the +greatest vigilance. + +As we have seen (page 527, note), a letter had on August 2nd, 1815, +been directed to Mme. Bertrand (really for Napoleon) at Plymouth, +stating that the writer had placed sums of money with well-known firms +of Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charlestown on his behalf, and +that he (Napoleon) had only to make known his wishes "_avec le the de +la Chine ou les mousselines de l'Inde_": for the rest, the writer +hoped much from English merchantmen. This letter, after wide +wanderings, fell into our hands and caused our Government closely to +inspect all letters and merchandise that passed into, or out of, St. +Helena. Its attention was directed specially to the United States. +There the Napoleonic cult had early taken root, thanks to his +overthrow of the kings and his easy sale of Louisiana; the glorifying +haze of distance fostered its growth; and now the martyrdom of St. +Helena brought it to full maturity. Enthusiasm and money alike +favoured schemes of rescue. + +In our St. Helena Records (No. 4) are reports as to two of them. +Forwarded by the Spanish Ambassador at Washington, the first reached +Madrid on May 9th, 1816, and stated that a man named Carpenter had +offered to Joseph Bonaparte (then in the States) to rescue Napoleon, +and had set sail on a ship for that purpose. This was at once made +known to Lord Bathurst, our Minister for War and the Plantations, who +forwarded it to Lowe. In August of that year our Foreign Office also +received news that four schooners and other smaller vessels had set +sail from Baltimore on June 14th with 300 men under an old French +naval officer, named Fournier, ostensibly to help Bolivar, but really +to rescue Bonaparte. These fast-sailing craft were to lie out of sight +of the island by day, creep up at night to different points, and send +boats to shore; from each of these a man, _in English uniform_, was to +land and proceed to Longwood, warning Napoleon of the points where the +boats would be ready to receive him. The report concludes: +"Considerable sums in gold and diamonds will be put at his disposal to +bribe those who may be necessary to him. They seem to flatter +themselves of a certain co-operation on the part of certain +individuals domiciled or employed at St. Helena."[574] + +Bathurst sent on to Lowe a copy of this intelligence. Forsyth does not +name the affair, though he refers to other warnings, received at +various times by Bathurst and forwarded to the Governor, that there +were traitors in the island who had been won over by Napoleon's gold +to aid his escape.[575] I cannot find out that the plans described +above were put to the test, though suspicious vessels sometimes +appeared and were chased away by our cruisers. But when we are +considering the question whether Bathurst and Lowe were needlessly +strict or not, the point at issue is _whether plans of escape or +rescue existed, and if so, whether they knew of them_. As to this +there cannot be the shadow of doubt; and it is practically certain +that they were the cause of the new regulations of October 9th, 1816. + +We have now traced the course of events during the first critical +twelvemonth; we have seen how friction burst into a flame, how the +chafing of that masterful spirit against all restraint served but to +tighten the inclosing grasp, and how the attempts of his misguided +friends in America and Europe changed a fairly lax detention into +actual custody. It is a vain thing to toy with the "might-have-beens" +of history; but we can fancy a man less untamable than Napoleon +frankly recognizing that he had done with active life by assuming a +feigned name (_e.g._, that of Colonel Muiron, which he once thought +of) and settling down in that equable retreat to the congenial task of +compiling his personal and military Memoirs. If he ever intended to +live as a country squire in England, there were equal facilities for +such a life in St. Helena, with no temptations to stray back into +politics. The climate was better for him than that of England, and the +possibilities for exercise greater than could there have been allowed. +Books there were in abundance--2,700 of them at last: he had back +files of the "Moniteur" for his writings, and copies of "The Times" +came regularly from Plantation House: a piano had been bought in +England for L120. Finally there were the six courtiers whose jealous +devotion, varying moods, and frequent quarrels furnished a daily +comedietta that still charms posterity. + +What then was wanting? Unfortunately everything was wanting. He cared +not for music, or animals, or, in recent years, for the chase. He +himself divulged the secret, in words uttered to Gallois in the days +of his power: "_Je n'aime pas beaucoup les femmes, ni le jeu--enfin +rien: je suis tout a fait un etre politique!_"--He never ceased to +love politics and power. At St. Helena he pictured himself as winning +over the English, had he settled there. Ah! if I were in England, he +said, I should have conquered all hearts.[576] And assuredly he would +have done so. How could men so commonplace as the Prince Regent, +Liverpool, Castlereagh, and Bathurst have made head against the +influence of a truly great and enthralling personality? Or if he had +gone to the United States, who would have competed with him for the +Presidency? + +As it was, he chose to remain indoors, in order to figure as the +prisoner of Longwood,[577] and spent his time between intrigues +against Lowe and dictation of Memoirs. On the subject of Napoleon's +writings we cannot here enter, save to say that his critiques of +Caesar, Turenne, and Frederick the Great, are of great interest and +value; that the records of his own campaigns, though highly +suggestive, need to be closely checked by the original documents, +seeing that he had not all the needful facts and figures at hand; and +that his record of political events is in the main untrustworthy: it +is an elaborate device for enhancing the Napoleonic tradition and +assuring the crown to the King of Rome. + +We turn, then, to take a brief glance at his last years. The first +event that claims notice is the arrest of Las Cases. This subtle +intriguer had soon earned the hatred of Montholon and Gourgaud, who +detested "the little Jesuit" for his Malvolio-like airs of importance +and the hints of Napoleon that he would have ceremonial precedence +over them. His rapid rise into favour was due to his conversational +gifts, literary ability, and thorough knowledge of the English people +and language. This last was specially important. Napoleon very much +wished to learn our language, as he hoped that any mail might bring +news of the triumph of the Whigs and an order for his own departure +for England. His studies with Las Cases were more persevering than +successful, as will be seen from the following curious letter, written +apparently in the watches of the night: it has been recently +re-published by M. de Brotonne. + + "COUNT LASCASES, + + "Since sixt week y learn the English and y do not any progress. + Sixt week do fourty and two day. If might have learn fivty word, + for day, i could know it two thousands and two hundred. It is in + the dictionary more of fourty thousand: even he could most twenty; + bot much of tems. For know it or hundred and twenty week, which do + more two years. After this you shall agree that the study one + tongue is a great labour who it must do into the young aged." + +How much farther Napoleon progressed in his efforts to absorb our +language by these mathematical methods we do not know; for no other +English letter of his seems to be extant. The arrest and departure of +his tutor soon occurred, and there are good grounds for assigning this +ultimately to the jealousy of the less cultured Generals. Thus, we +find Gourgaud asserting that Las Cases has come to St. Helena solely +"in order to get talked about, write anecdotes, and make money." +Montholon also did his best to render the secretary's life miserable, +and on one occasion predicted to Gourgaud that Las Cases would soon +leave the island.[578] + +The forecast speedily came true. The secretary intrusted to his +servant, a dubious mulatto named Scott, two letters for Europe sewn up +in a waistcoat: one of them was a long letter to Lucien Bonaparte. The +servant showed the letters to his father, who in some alarm revealed +the matter to the Governor. It is curious as illustrating the state of +suspicion then prevalent at St. Helena, that Las Cases accused the +Scotts of being tools of the Governor; that Lowe saw in the affair the +frayed end of a Longwood scheme; while the residents there suspected +Las Cases of arranging matters as a means of departure from the +island. There was much to justify this last surmise. Las Cases and his +son were unwell; their position in the household was very +uncomfortable; and for a skilled intriguer to intrust an important +letter to a slave, who was already in the Governor's black books, was +truly a singular proceeding. Besides, after the arrest, when the +Governor searched Las Cases' papers in his presence, they were found +to be in good order, among them being parts of his "Journal." Napoleon +himself thought Las Cases guilty of a piece of extraordinary folly, +though he soon sought to make capital out of the arrest by comparing +the behaviour of our officers and their orderlies with "South Sea +savages dancing around a prisoner that they are about to devour."[579] +After a short detention at Ross Cottage, _when he declined the +Governor's offer that he should return to Longwood_, the secretary was +sent to the Cape, and thence made his way to France, where a judicious +editing of his "Memoirs" and "Journal" gained for their compiler a +rich reward. + +Gourgaud is the next to leave. The sensitive young man has long been +tormented by jealousy. His diary becomes the long-drawn sigh of a +generous but vain nature, when soured by real or fancied neglect. +Though often unfair to Napoleon, whose egotism the slighted devotee +often magnifies into colossal proportions, the writer unconsciously +bears witness to the wondrous fascination that held the little Court +in awe. The least attention shown to the Montholons costs "Gogo" a fit +of spleen or a sleepless night, scarcely to be atoned for on the +morrow by soothing words, by chess, or reversi, or help at the +manuscript of "Waterloo." Again and again Napoleon tries to prove to +him that the Montholons ought to have precedence: it is in vain. At +last the crisis comes: it is four years since the General saved the +Emperor from a Cossack's lance at Brienne, and the recollection +renders his present "humiliations" intolerable. He challenges +Montholon to a duel; Napoleon strictly forbids it; and the aggrieved +officer seeks permission to depart. + +Napoleon grants his request. It seems that the chief is weary of his +moody humours; he further owes him a grudge for writing home to his +mother frank statements of the way in which the Longwood exiles are +treated. These letters were read by Lowe and Bathurst, and their +general purport seems to have been known in French governmental +circles, where they served as an antidote to the poisonous stories +circulated by Napoleon and his more diplomatic followers. Clearly +nothing is to be made of Gourgaud; and so he departs (February 13th, +1818). Bidding a tearful adieu, he goes with Basil Jackson to spend +six weeks with him at a cottage near Plantation House, when he is +astonished at the delicate reserve shown by the Governor. He then sets +sail for England. The only money he has is _L100_ advanced by Lowe. +Napoleon's money he has refused to accept.[580] + +And yet he did not pass out of his master's life. Landing in England +on May 1st, he had a few interviews with our officials, in which he +warned them that Napoleon's escape would be quite easy, and gave a +hint as to O'Meara being the tool of Napoleon. But soon the young +General came into touch with the leaders of the Opposition. No change +in his sentiments is traceable until August 25th, when he indited a +letter to Marie Louise, asserting that Napoleon was dying "in the +torments of the longest and most frightful agony," a prey to the +cruelty of England! To what are we to attribute this change of front? +The editors of Gourgaud's "Journal" maintain that there was no change; +they hint that the "Journal" may have been an elaborate device for +throwing dust into Lowe's eyes; and they point to the fact that before +leaving the island Gourgaud received secret instructions from Napoleon +bidding him convey to Europe several small letters sewn into the soles +of his boots. Whether he acted on these instructions may be doubted; +for at his departure he gave his word of honour to Lowe that he was +not the bearer of any paper, pamphlet, or letter from Longwood. +Furthermore, we hear nothing of these secret letters afterwards; and +he allowed nearly four months to elapse in England before he wrote to +Marie Louise. The theory referred to above seems quite untenable in +face of these facts.[581] + +How, then, are we to explain Gourgaud's conduct at St. Helena and +afterwards? Now, in threading the mendacious labyrinths of St. Helena +literature it is hard ever to find a wholly satisfactory clue; but +Basil Jackson's "Waterloo and St. Helena" (p. 103) seems to supply it +in the following passage: + + "To finish about Gourgaud, I may add that on his reaching England, + after one or two interviews with the Under-Secretary of State, he + fell into the hands of certain Radicals of note, who represented + to him the folly of his conduct in turning against Napoleon; that, + as his adherent, he was really somebody, whereas he was only + ruining himself by appearing inimical. In short, they so worked + upon the poor weak man, that he was induced to try and make it + appear that he was still _l'homme de l'Empereur:_ this he did by + inditing a letter to Marie Louise, in which he inveighed against + the treatment of Napoleon at the hands of the Government and Sir + H. Lowe, which being duly published, Gourgaud fell to zero in the + opinion of all right-minded persons." + +This seems consonant with what we know of Gourgaud's character: frank, +volatile, and sensitive, he could never have long sustained a policy +of literary and diplomatic deceit. He was not a compound of Chatterton +and Fouche. His "Journal" is the artless outpouring of wounded vanity +and brings us close to the heart of the hero-worshipper and his hero. +At times the idol falls and is shivered but love places it on the +shrine again and again, until the fourth anniversary of Brienne finds +the spell broken. Even before he leaves St. Helena the old fascination +is upon him once more; and then Napoleon seeks to utilize his devotion +for the purpose of a political mission. Gourgaud declines the _role_ +of agent, pledges his word to the Governor, and keeps it; but, thanks +to British officialism or the seductions of the Opposition, +hero-worship once more gains the day and enrolls him beside Las Cases +and Montholon. This we believe to be the real Gourgaud, a genuine, +lovable, but flighty being, as every page of his "Journal" shows. + +One cannot but notice in passing the extraordinary richness of St. +Helena literature. Nearly all the exiles kept diaries or memoirs, or +wrote them when they returned to Europe. And, on the other hand, of +all the 10,000 Britons whom Napoleon detained in France for eleven +years, not one has left a record that is ever read to-day. +Consequently, while the woes of Napoleon have been set forth in every +civilized tongue, the world has forgotten the miseries causelessly +inflicted on 10,000 English families. The advantages possessed by a +memoir-writing nation over one that is but half articulate could not +be better illustrated. For the dumb Britons not a single tear is ever +shed; whereas the voluble inmates of Longwood used their pens to such +effect that half the world still believes them to have been bullied +twice a week by Lowe, plied with gifts of poisoned coffee, and nearly +eaten up by rats at night. On this last topic we are treated to tales +of part of a slave's leg being eaten off while he slept at +Longwood--nay, of a horse's leg also being gnawed away at night--so +that our feelings are divided between pity for the sufferers and envy +at the soundness of their slumbers. + +Longwood was certainly far from being a suitable abode; but a word +from Napoleon would have led to the erection of the new house on a +site that he chose to indicate. The materials had all been brought +from England; but the word was not spoken until a much later time; and +the inference is inevitable that he preferred to remain where he was +so that he could represent himself as lodged in _cette grange +insalubre._[582] The third of the Longwood household to depart was the +surgeon, O'Meara. The conduct of this British officer in facilitating +Napoleon's secret correspondence has been so fully exposed by Forsyth +and Seaton that we may refer our readers to their works for proofs of +his treachery. Gourgaud's "Journal" reveals the secret influence that +seduced him. Chancing once to refer to the power of money over +Englishmen, Napoleon remarked that that was why we did not want him to +draw sums from Europe, and continued: "_Le docteur n'est si bien pour +moi que depuis que je lui donne mon argent. Ah! j'en suis bien sur, de +celui-la!"_[583] This disclosure enables us to understand why the +surgeon, after being found out and dismissed from the service, sought +to blacken the character of Sir Hudson Lowe by every conceivable +device. The wonder is that he succeeded in imposing his version of +facts on a whole generation. + +The next physician who resided at Longwood, Dr. Stokoe, was speedily +cajoled into disobeying the British regulations and underwent official +disgrace. An attempt was then made, through Montholon, to bribe his +successor, Dr. Verling, who indignantly repelled it and withdrew from +his duty.[584] + +There can be no doubt that Napoleon found pleasure in these intrigues. +In his last interview with Stuermer, the Austrian Commissioner at St. +Helena, Gourgaud said, in reference to this topic: "However unhappy he +[Napoleon] is here, he secretly enjoys the importance attached to his +custody, the interest that the Powers take in it, and the care taken +to collect his least words." Napoleon also once remarked to Gourgaud +that it was better to be at St. Helena than as he was at Elba.[585] Of +the same general tenour are his striking remarks, reported by Las +Cases at the close of his first volume: + + "Our situation here may even have its attractions. The universe is + looking at us. We remain the martyrs of an immortal cause: + millions of men weep for us, the fatherland sighs, and Glory is in + mourning. We struggle here against the oppression of the gods, and + the longings of the nations are for us.... Adversity was wanting + to my career. If I had died on the throne amidst the clouds of my + omnipotence, I should have remained a problem for many men: + to-day, thanks to misfortune, they can judge of me naked as I am." + +In terseness of phrase, vividness of fancy, and keenness of insight +into the motives that sway mankind, this passage is worthy of +Napoleon. He knew that his exile at St. Helena would dull the memory +of the wrongs which he had done to the cause of liberty, and that from +that lonely peak would go forth the legend of the new Prometheus +chained to the rock by the kings and torn every day by the ravening +vulture. The world had rejected his gospel of force; but would it not +thrill responsive to the gospel of pity now to be enlisted in his +behalf? His surmise was amazingly true. The world was thrilled. The +story worked wonders, not directly for him, but for his fame and his +dynasty. The fortunes of his race began to revive from the time when +the popular imagination transfigured Napoleon the Conqueror into +Napoleon the Martyr. Viewed in this light, and thrown up into telling +relief against the sinister policy of the Holy Alliance of the +monarchs, the dreary years spent at St. Helena were not the least +successful of his career. Without them there could have been no second +Napoleonic Empire. + +Not that his life there was a "long-drawn agony." His health was +fairly good. There were seasons of something like enjoyment, when he +gave himself up to outdoor recreations. Such a time was the latter +part of 1819 and the first half of 1820: we may call it the Indian +summer of his life, for he was then possessed with a passion for +gardening. Lightly clad and protected by a broad-brimmed hat, he went +about, sometimes spade in hand, superintending various changes in the +grounds at Longwood and around the new house which was being erected +for him hard by. Or at other times he used the opportunity afforded by +the excavations to show how infantry might be so disposed on a hastily +raised slope as to bring a terrific fire to bear on attacking cavalry. +Marshalling his followers at dawn by the sound of a bell, he made them +all, counts, valets, and servants, dig trenches as if for the front +ranks, and throw up the earth for the rear ranks: then, taking his +stand in front, as the shortest man, and placing the tallest at the +rear (his Swiss valet, Noverraz), he triumphantly showed how the +horsemen might be laid low by the rolling volleys of ten ranks.[586] +In May or June he took once more to horse exercise, and for a time his +health benefited from all this activity. His relations with the +Governor were peaceful, if not cordial, and the limits were about this +time extended. + +Indoors there were recreations other than work at the Memoirs. He +often played chess and billiards, at the latter using his hand instead +of the cue! Dinner was generally at a very late hour, and afterwards +he took pleasure in reading aloud. Voltaire was the favourite author, +and Montholon afterwards confessed to Lord Holland that the same +plays, especially "Zaire," were read rather too often. + + "Napoleon slept himself when read to, but he was very observant + and jealous if others slept while he read. He watched his audience + vigilantly, and _'Mme. Montholon, vous dormez'_ was a frequent + ejaculation in the course of reading. He was animated with all + that he read, especially poetry, enthusiastic at beautiful + passages, impatient of faults, and full of ingenious and lively + remarks on style."[587] + +During this same halcyon season two priests, who had been selected by +the Bonapartes, arrived in the island, as also a Corsican doctor, +Antommarchi. Napoleon was disappointed with all three. The doctor, +though a learned anatomist, knew little of chemistry, and at an early +interview with Napoleon passed a catechism on this subject so badly +that he was all but chased from the room. The priests came off little +better. The elder of them, Buonavita by name, had lived in Mexico, and +could talk of little else: he soon fell ill, and his stay in St. +Helena was short. The other, a Corsican named Vignali, having neither +learning, culture, nor dialectical skill, was tolerated as a +respectable adjunct to the household, but had little or no influence +over the master. This is to be regretted on many grounds, and partly +because his testimony throws no light on Napoleon's religious views. + +Here we approach a problem that perhaps can never be cleared up. +Unfathomable on many sides of his nature, Napoleon is nowhere more so +than when he confronts the eternal verities. That he was a convinced +and orthodox Catholic few will venture to assert. At Elba he said to +Lord Ebrington: "_Nous ne savons d'ou nous venons, ce que nous +deviendrons_": the masses ought to have some "fixed point of faith +whereon to rest their thoughts."--"_Je suis Catholique parce que mon +pere l'etoit, et parce que c'etoit la religion de la France_." He also +once or twice expressed to Campbell scorn of the popular creed: and +during his last voyage, as we have seen, he showed not the slightest +interest in the offer of a priest at Funchal to accompany him. At St. +Helena the party seems to have limited the observances of religion to +occasional reading of the Bible. When Mme. Montholon presented her +babe to the Emperor, he teasingly remarked that Las Cases was the most +suitable person to christen the infant; to which the mother at once +replied that Las Cases was not a good enough Christian for that. + +Judging from the entries in Gourgaud's "Journal," this young General +pondered more than the rest on religious questions; and to him +Napoleon unbosomed his thoughts.--Matter, he says, is everywhere and +pervades everything; life, thought, and the soul itself are but +properties of matter, and death ends all. When Gourgaud points to the +majestic order of the universe as bearing witness to a Creator, +Napoleon admits that he believes in "superior intelligences": he avers +that he would believe in Christianity if it had been the original and +universal creed: but then the Mohammedans "follow a religion simpler +and more adapted to their morality than ours." In ten years their +founder conquered half the world, which Christianity took three +hundred years to accomplish. Or again, he refers to the fact that +Laplace, Monge, Berthollet, and Lagrange were all atheists, though +they did not proclaim the fact; as for himself, he finds the idea of +God to be natural; it has existed at all times and among all peoples. +But once or twice he ends this vague talk with the remarkable +confession that the sight of myriad deaths in war has made him a +materialist. "Matter is everything."--"Vanity of vanities!"[588] + +Mirrored as these dialogues are in the eddies of Gourgaud's moods, +they may tinge his master's theology with too much of gloom: but, +after all, they are by far the most lifelike record of Napoleon's +later years, and they show us a nature dominated by the tangible. As +for belief in the divine Christ, there seems not a trace. A report has +come down to us, enshrined in Newman's prose, that Napoleon once +discoursed of the ineffable greatness of Christ, contrasting His +enduring hold on the hearts of men with the evanescent rule of +Alexander and Caesar. One hopes that the words were uttered; but they +conflict with Napoleon's undoubted statements. Sometimes he spoke in +utter uncertainty; at others, as one who wished to believe in +Christianity and might perhaps be converted. But in the political +testament designed for his son, the only reference to religion is of +the diplomatic description that we should expect from the author of +the "Concordat": "Religious ideas have more influence than certain +narrow-minded philosophers are willing to believe: they are capable of +rendering great services to Humanity. By standing well with the Pope, +an influence is still maintained over the consciences of a hundred +millions of men." + +Equally vague was Napoleon's own behaviour as his end drew nigh. For +some time past a sharp internal pain--the stab of a penknife, he +called it--had warned him of his doom; in April, 1821, when vomiting +and prostration showed that the dread ancestral malady was drawing on +apace, he bade the Abbe Vignali prepare the large dining-room of +Longwood as a _chapelle ardente_; and, observing a smile on +Antommarchi's face, the sick man hotly rebuked his affectation of +superiority. Montholon, on his return to England, informed Lord +Holland that extreme unction was administered before the end came, +Napoleon having ordered that this should be done as if solely on +Montholon's responsibility, and that the priest, when questioned on +the subject, was to reply that he had acted on Montholon's orders, +without having any knowledge of the Emperor's wishes. It was +accordingly administered, but apparently he was insensible at the +time.[589] In his will, also, he declared that he died in communion +with the Apostolical Roman Church, in whose bosom he was born. There, +then, we must leave this question, shrouded in the mystery that hangs +around so much of his life. + +The decease of a great man is always affecting: but the death of the +hero who had soared to the zenith of military glory and civic +achievement seems to touch the very nadir of calamity. Outliving his +mighty Empire, girt around by a thousand miles of imprisoning ocean, +guarded by his most steadfast enemies, his son a captive at the Court +of the Hapsburgs, and his Empress openly faithless, he sinks from +sight like some battered derelict. And Nature is more pitiless than +man. The Governor urges on him the best medical advice: but he will +have none of it. He feels the grip of cancer, the disease which had +carried off his father and was to claim the gay Caroline and Pauline. +At times he surmises the truth: at others he calls out "_le foie_" +"_le foie_." Meara had alleged that his pains were due to a liver +complaint brought on by his detention at St. Helena; Antommarchi +described the illness as gastric fever (_febbre gastrica pituitosa_); +and not until Dr. Arnott was called in on the 1st of April was the +truth fully recognized. + +At the close of the month the symptoms became most distressing, +aggravated as they were by the refusal of the patient to take medicine +or food, or to let himself be moved. On May 4th, at Dr. Arnott's +insistence, some calomel was secretly administered and with beneficial +results, the patient sleeping and even taking some food. This was his +last rally: on the morrow, while a storm was sweeping over the island, +and tearing up large trees, his senses began to fail: Montholon +thought he heard the words _France, armee, tete d'armee, Josephine_: +he lingered on insensible for some hours: the storm died down: the sun +bathed the island in a flood of glory, and, as it dipped into the +ocean, the great man passed away. + +By the Governor's orders Dr. Arnott remained in the room until the +body could be medically examined--a precaution which, as Montchenu +pointed out, would prevent any malicious attempt on the part of the +Longwood servants to cause death to appear as the result of poisoning. +The examination, conducted in the presence of seven medical men and +others, proved that all the organs were sound except the ulcerated +stomach; the liver was rather large, but showed no signs of disease; +the heart, on the other hand, was rather under the normal size. Far +from showing the emaciation that usually results from prolonged +inability to take food, the body was remarkably stout--a fact which +shows that that tenacious will had its roots in an abnormally firm +vitality.[590] + +After being embalmed, the body was laid out in state, and all +beholders were struck with the serene and beautiful expression of the +face: the superfluous flesh sank away after death, leaving the +well-proportioned features that moved the admiration of men during the +Consulate. + +Clad in his favourite green uniform, he fared forth to his +resting-place under two large weeping willow trees in a secluded +valley: the coffin, surmounted by his sword and the cloak he had worn +at Marengo, was borne with full military honours by grenadiers of the +20th and 66th Regiments before a long line of red-coats; and their +banners, emblazoned with the names of "Talavera," "Albuera," +"Pyrenees," and "Orthez," were lowered in a last salute to our mighty +foe. Salvos of artillery and musketry were fired over the grave: the +echoes rattled upwards from ridge to ridge and leaped from the +splintery peaks far into the wastes of ocean to warn the world beyond +that the greatest warrior and administrator of all the ages had sunk +to rest. + +His ashes were not to remain in that desolate nook: in a clause of his +will he expressed the desire that they should rest by the banks of the +Seine among the people he had loved so well. In 1840 they were +disinterred in presence of Bertrand, Gourgaud, and Marchand, and borne +to France. Paris opened her arms to receive the mighty dead; and Louis +Philippe, on whom he had once prophesied that the crown of France +would one day rest, received the coffin in state under the dome of the +_Invalides_. There he reposes, among the devoted people whom by his +superhuman genius he raised to bewildering heights of glory, only to +dash them to the depths of disaster by his monstrous errors. + + * * * * * + +Viewing his career as a whole, it seems just and fair to assert that +the fundamental cause of his overthrow is to be found, not in the +failings of the French, for they served him with a fidelity that would +wring tears of pity from Rhadamanthus; not in the treachery of this or +that general or politician, for that is little when set against the +loyalty of forty millions of men; but in the character of the man and +of his age. Never had mortal man so grand an opportunity of ruling +over a chaotic Continent: never had any great leader antagonists so +feeble as the rulers who opposed his rush to supremacy. At the dawn of +the nineteenth century the old monarchies were effete: insanity +reigned in four dynasties, and weak or time-serving counsels swayed +the remainder. For several years their counsellors and generals were +little better. With the exception of Pitt and Nelson, who were carried +off by death, and of Wellington, who had but half an army, Napoleon +never came face to face with thoroughly able, well-equipped, and +stubborn opponents until the year 1812. + +It seems a paradox to say that this excess of good fortune largely +contributed to his ruin: yet it is true. His was one of those +thick-set combative natures that need timely restraint if their best +qualities are to be nurtured and their domineering instincts curbed. +Just as the strongest Ministry prances on to ruin if the Opposition +gives no effective check, so it was with Napoleon. Had he in his early +manhood taken to heart the lessons of adversity, would he have +ventured at the same time to fight Wellington in Spain and the Russian +climate in the heart of the steppes? Would he have spurned the offers +of an advantageous peace made to him from Prague in 1813? Would he +have let slip the chance of keeping the "natural frontiers" of France +after Leipzig, and her old boundaries, when brought to bay in +Champagne? Would he have dared the uttermost at all points at +Waterloo? In truth, after his fortieth year was past, the fervid +energies of youth hardened in the mould of triumph; and thence came +that fatal obstinacy which was his bane at all those crises of his +career. For in the meantime the cause of European independence had +found worthy champions--smaller men than Napoleon, it is true, but men +who knew that his determination to hold out everywhere and yield +nothing must work his ruin. Finally, the same clinging to unreal hopes +and the same love of fight characterized his life in St. Helena; so +that what might have been a time of calm and dignified repose was +marred by fictitious clamours and petty intrigues altogether unworthy +of his greatness. + +For, in spite of his prodigious failure, he was superlatively great in +all that pertains to government, the quickening of human energies, and +the art of war. His greatness lies, not only in the abiding importance +of his best undertakings, but still more in the Titanic force that he +threw into the inception and accomplishment of all of them--a force +which invests the storm-blasted monoliths strewn along the latter +portion of his career with a majesty unapproachable by a tamer race of +toilers. After all, the verdict of mankind awards the highest +distinction, not to prudent mediocrity that shuns the chance of +failure and leaves no lasting mark behind, but to the eager soul that +grandly dares, mightily achieves, and holds the hearts of millions +even amidst his ruin and theirs. Such a wonder-worker was Napoleon. +The man who bridled the Revolution and remoulded the life of France, +who laid broad and deep the foundations of a new life in Italy, +Switzerland, and Germany, who rolled the West in on the East in the +greatest movement known since the Crusades and finally drew the +yearning thoughts of myriads to that solitary rock in the South +Atlantic, must ever stand in the very forefront of the immortals of +human story. + + + + + + + +APPENDIX I + +LIST OF THE CHIEF APPOINTMENTS AND DIGNITIES BESTOWED BY NAPOLEON + +[_An asterisk is affixed to the names of his Marshals_.] + + + Arrighi. Duc de Padua. + *Augereau. Duc de Castiglione. + *Bernadotte. Prince de Ponte Corvo. + *Berthier. Chief of the Staff. Prince de Neufchatel. Prince + de Wagram. + *Bessieres. Duc d'Istria. Commander of the Old Guard. + Bonaparte, Joseph. (King of Naples.) King of Spain. + " Louis. King of Holland. + " Jerome. King of Westphalia. + *Brune. + Cambaceres. Arch-Chancellor. Duc de Parma. + Caulaincourt. Duc de Vicenza. Master of the Horse. Minister + of Foreign Affairs (1814). + Champagny. Duc de Cadore. Minister of Foreign Affairs + (1807-11). + Chaptal. Minister of the Interior. Comte de Chanteloupe. + Clarke. Minister of War. Duc de Feltre. + Daru. Comte. + *Davoust. Duc d'Auerstaedt. Prince d'Eckmuehl. + Drouet. Comte d'Erlon. + Drouot. Comte. Aide-Major of the Guard. + Duroc. Grand Marshal of the Palace. Duc de Friuli. + Eugene (Beauharnais). Viceroy of Italy. + Fesch (Cardinal). Grand Almoner. + Fouche. Minister of Police (1804-10). Duc d'Otranto. + *Grouchy. Comte. + Jomini. Baron. + *Jourdan. Comte. + Junot. Duc d'Abrantes. + *Kellermann. Duc de Valmy. + *Lannes. Duc de Montebello. + Larrey. Baron. + Latour-Maubourg. Baron. + Lauriston. Comte. + Lavalette. Comte. Minister of Posts. + *Lefebvre. Duc de Danzig. + *Macdonald. Duc de Taranto. + Maret. Minister of Foreign Affairs (1811-14.) Duc de Bassano. + *Marmont. Duc de Ragusa. + *Massena. (Duc de Rivoli.) Prince d'Essling. + Miot. Comte de Melito. + Meneval. Baron. + Mollien. Comte. Minister of the Treasury. + *Moncey. Duc de Conegliano. + Montholon. Comte. + *Mortier. Duc de Treviso. + Mouton. Comte de Lobau. + *Murat. (Grand Duc de Berg.) King of Naples. + *Ney. (Duc d'Elchingen.) Prince de la Moskwa. + *Oudinot. Duc de Reggio. + Pajol. Baron. + Pasquier, Duc de. Prefect of Police. + *Perignon. + *Poniatowski. + Rapp. Comte. + Reynier. Duc de Massa. + Remusat. Chamberlain. + Savary. Duc de Rovigo. Minister of Police (1810-14). + Sebastiani. Comte. + *Serurier. + *Soult. Duc de Dalmatia. + *St. Cyr, Marquis de. + *Suchet. Duc d'Albufera. + Talleyrand. Minister of Foreign Affairs (1799-1807). Grand + Chamberlain (1804-8). Prince de Benevento. + Vandamme. Comte. + *Victor. Duc de Belluno. + + + + + +APPENDIX II + +THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO + + +Some critics have blamed me for underrating the _role_ of the +Prussians at Waterloo; but after careful study I have concluded that +it has been overrated by some recent German writers. We now know that +the Prussian advance was retarded by Gneisenau's deep-rooted suspicion +of Wellington, and that no direct aid was given to the British left +until nearly the end of the battle. Napoleon always held that he could +readily have kept off the Prussians at Planchenoit, that the main +battle throughout was against Wellington, and that it was decided by +the final charge of British cavalry. The Prussians did not wholly +capture Planchenoit until the French opposing Wellington were in full +flight. But, of course, Bluecher's advance and onset made the victory +the overwhelming triumph that it was. + +An able critic in the "Saturday Review" of May 10, 1902, has charged +me with neglecting to say that the French left wing (Foy's and +Bachelu's divisions) supported the French cavalry at the close of the +great charges. I stated (p. 502) that French infantry was not "at hand +to hold the ground which the cavaliers seemed to have won." Let me +cite the exact words of General Foy, written in his Journal a few days +after the battle (M. Girod de L'Ain's "Vie militaire du General Foy," +p. 278): "Alors que la cavalerie francaise faisait cette longue et +terrible charge, le feu de notre artillerie etait deja moins nourri, +et notre infanterie ne fit aucun mouvement. Quand la cavalerie fut +rentree, et que l'artillerie anglaise, qui avait cesse de tirer +pendant une demi-heure, eut recommence son feu, on donna ordre aux +divisions Foy et Bachelu d'avancer droit aux carres qui s'y etaient +avances pendant la charge de cavalerie et qui ne s'etaient pas +replies. L'attaque fut formee en colonnes par echelons de regiment, +Bachelu formant les echelons les plus avances. Je tenis par ma gauche +a la haie [de Hougoumont]: j'avais sur mon front un bataillon en +tirailleurs. Pres de joindre les Anglais, nous avons recu un feu tres +vif de mitraille et de mousqueterie. C'etait une grele de mort. Les +carres ennemis avaient le premier rang genoux en terre et presentaient +une haie de baionettes. Les colonnes de la 1're division ont pris la +fuite les premieres: leur mouvement a entraine celui de mes colonnes. +En ce moment j'ai ete blesse...." + +This shows that the advance of the French infantry was far too late to +be of the slightest use to the cavalry. The British lines had been +completely re-formed. + + + + + + + + +FOOTNOTES TO VOLUME I: + +[Footnote 1: From a French work, "Moeurs et Coutumes des Corses" +(Paris, 1802), I take the following incident. A priest, charged with +the duty of avenging a relative for some fourteen years, met his enemy +at the gate of Ajaccio and forthwith shot him, under the eyes of an +official--who did nothing. A relative of the murdered man, happening +to be near, shot the priest. Both victims were quickly buried, the +priest being interred under the altar of the church, "because of his +sacred character." See too Miot de Melito, "Memoires," vol. i., ch. +xiii., as to the utter collapse of the jury system in 1800-1, because +no Corsican would "deny his party or desert his blood."] + +[Footnote 2: As to the tenacity of Corsican devotion, I may cite a +curious proof from the unpublished portion of the "Memoirs of Sir +Hudson Lowe." He was colonel in command of the Royal Corsican Rangers, +enrolled during the British occupation of Corsica, and gained the +affections of his men during several years of fighting in Egypt and +elsewhere. When stationed at Capri in 1808 he relied on his Corsican +levies to defend that island against Murat's attacks; and he did not +rely in vain. Though confronted by a French Corsican regiment, they +remained true to their salt, even during a truce, when they could +recognize their compatriots. The partisan instinct was proof against +the promises of Murat's envoys and the shouts even of kith and kin.] + +[Footnote 3: The facts as to the family of Napoleon's mother are given +in full detail by M. Masson in his "Napoleon Inconnu," ch. i. They +correct the statement often made as to her "lowly," "peasant" origin. +Masson also proves that the house at Ajaccio, which is shown as +Napoleon's birthplace, is of later construction, though on the same +site.] + +[Footnote 4: See Jacobi, "Hist. de la Corse," vol. ii., ch. viii. The +whole story is told with prudent brevity by French historians, even by +Masson and Chuquet. The few words in which Thiers dismisses this +subject are altogether misleading.] + +[Footnote 5: Much has been written to prove that Napoleon was born in +1768, and was really the eldest surviving son. The reasons, stated +briefly, are: (1) that the first baptismal name of Joseph Buonaparte +was merely _Nabulione_ (Italian for _Napoleon_), and that _Joseph_ was +a later addition to his name on the baptismal register of January 7th, +1768, at Corte; (2) certain statements that Joseph was born at +Ajaccio; (3) Napoleon's own statement at his marriage that he was born +in 1768. To this it maybe replied that: (_a_) other letters and +statements, still more decisive, prove that Joseph was born at Corte +in 1768 and Napoleon at Ajaccio in 1769; (_b_) Napoleon's entry in the +marriage register was obviously designed to lessen the disparity of +years of his bride, who, on her side, subtracted four years from her +age. See Chuquet, "La Jeunesse de Napoleon," p. 65.] + +[Footnote 6: Nasica, "Memoires," p. 192.] + +[Footnote 7: Both letters are accepted as authentic by Jung, +"Bonaparte et son Temps," vol. i., pp. 84, 92; but Masson, "Napoleon +Inconnu," vol. i., p. 55, tracking them to their source, discredits +them, as also from internal evidence.] + +[Footnote 8: Chaptal, "Mes Souvenirs sur Napoleon," p. 177.] + +[Footnote 9: Joseph Buonaparte, "Mems.," vol. i., p. 29. So too Miot +de Melito, "Mems.," vol. i., ch. x.] + +[Footnote 10: Chaptal, "Souvenirs sur Napoleon," p. 237. See too +Masson, "Napoleon Inconnu," vol. i., p. 158, note.] + +[Footnote 11: In an after-dinner conversation on January 11th, 1803, +with Roederer, Buonaparte exalted Voltaire at the expense of Rousseau +in these significant words: "The more I read Voltaire, the more I like +him: he is always reasonable, never a charlatan, never a fanatic: he +is made for mature minds. Up to sixteen years of age I would have +fought for Rousseau against all the friends of Voltaire. Now it is the +contrary. _I have been especially disgusted with Rousseau since I +have seen the East. Savage man is a dog._" ("Oeuvres de Roederer," +vol. iii., p. 461.) + +In 1804 he even denied his indebtedness to Rousseau. During a family +discussion, wherein he also belittled Corsica, he called Rousseau "a +babbler, or, if you prefer it, an eloquent enough _idealogue_. I never +liked him, nor indeed well understood him: truly I had not the courage +to read him all, because I thought him for the most part tedious." +(Lucien Buonaparte, "Memoires," vol. ii., ch. xi.) + +His later views on Rousseau are strikingly set forth by Stanislas +Girardin, who, in his "Memoirs," relates that Buonaparte, on his visit +to the tomb of Rousseau, said: "'It would have been better for the +repose of France that this man had never been born.' 'Why, First +Consul?' said I. 'He prepared the French Revolution.' 'I thought it +was not for you to complain of the Revolution.' 'Well,' he replied, +'the future will show whether it would not have been better for the +repose of the world that neither I nor Rousseau had existed.'" Meneval +confirms this remarkable statement.] + +[Footnote 12: Masson, "Napoleon Inconnu," vol. ii., p. 53.] + +[Footnote 13: Joseph Buonaparte, "Memoires," vol. i, p. 44.] + +[Footnote 14: M. Chuquet, in his work "La Jeunesse de Napoleon" +(Paris, 1898), gives a different opinion: but I think this passage +shows a veiled hostility to Paoli. Probably we may refer to this time +an incident stated by Napoleon at St. Helena to Lady Malcolm ("Diary," +p. 88), namely, that Paoli urged on him the acceptance of a commission +in the British army: "But I preferred the French, because I spoke the +language, was of their religion, understood and liked their manners, +and I thought the Revolution a fine time for an enterprising young +man. Paoli was angry--we did not speak afterwards." It is hard to +reconcile all these statements. + +Lucien Buonaparte states that his brother seriously thought for a time +of taking a commission in the forces of the British East India +Company; but I am assured by our officials that no record of any +application now exists.] + +[Footnote 15: The whole essay is evidently influenced by the works of +the democrat Raynal, to whom Buonaparte dedicated his "Lettres sur la +Corse." To the "Discours de Lyons" he prefixed as motto the words +"Morality will exist when governments are free," which he modelled on +a similar phrase of Raynal. The following sentences are also +noteworthy: "Notre organisation animale a des besoins indispensables: +manger, dormir, engendrer. Une nourriture, une cabane, des vetements, +une femme, sont donc une stricte necessite pour le bonheur. Notre +organisation intellectuelle a des appetits non moins imperieux et dont +la satisfaction est beaucoup plus precieuse. C'est dans leur entier +developpement que consiste vraiment le bonheur. Sentir et raisonner, +voila proprement le fait de l'homme."] + +[Footnote 16: Nasica; Chuquet, p. 248.] + +[Footnote 17: His recantation of Jacobinism was so complete that some +persons have doubted whether he ever sincerely held it. The doubt +argues a singular _naivete_ it is laid to rest by Buonaparte's own +writings, by his eagerness to disown or destroy them, by the testimony +of everyone who knew his early career, and by his own confession: +"There have been good Jacobins. At one time every man of spirit was +bound to be one. I was one myself." (Thibaudeau, "Memoires sur le +Consulat," p. 59.)] + +[Footnote 18: I use the term _commissioner_ as equivalent to the +French _representant en mission,_ whose powers were almost limitless.] + +[Footnote 19: See this curious document in Jung, "Bonaparte et son +Temps," vol. ii., p. 249. Masson ignores it, but admits that the +Paolists and partisans of France were only seeking to dupe one +another.] + +[Footnote 20: Buonaparte, when First Consul, was dunned for payment by +the widow of the Avignon bookseller who published the "Souper de +Beaucaire." He paid her well for having all the remaining copies +destroyed. Yet Panckoucke in 1818 procured one copy, which preserved +the memory of Buonaparte's early Jacobinism.] + +[Footnote 21: I have chiefly followed the careful account of the siege +given by Cottin in his "Toulon et les Anglais en 1793" (Paris, 1898). + +The following official figures show the weakness of the British army. +In December, 1792, the parliamentary vote was for 17,344 men as +"guards and garrisons," besides a few at Gibraltar and Sydney. In +February, 1793, 9,945 additional men were voted and 100 "independent +companies": Hanoverians were also embodied. In February, 1794, the +number of British regulars was raised to 60,244. For the navy the +figures were: December, 1792, 20,000 sailors and 5,000 marines; +February, 1793, 20,000 _additional_ seamen; for 1794, 73,000 seamen +and 12,000 marines. ("Ann. Reg.")] + +[Footnote 22: Barras' "Memoires" are not by any means wholly his. They +are a compilation by Rousselin de Saint-Albin from the Barras papers.] + +[Footnote 23: Jung, "Bonaparte et son Temps," vol. ii.] + +[Footnote 24: M.G. Duruy's elaborate plea (Barras, "Mems.," +Introduction, pp. 69-79) rests on the supposition that his hero +arrived at Toulon on September 7th. But M. Chuquet has shown +("Cosmopolis," January, 1897) that he arrived there not earlier than +September 16th. So too Cottin, ch, xi.] + +[Footnote 25: As the burning of the French ships and stores has been +said to be solely due to the English, we may note that, _as early as +October 3rd_, the Spanish Foreign Minister, the Duc d'Alcuida, +suggested it to our ambassador, Lord St. Helens: "If it becomes +necessary to abandon the harbour, these vessels shall be sunk or set +on fire in order that the enemy may not make use of them; for which +purpose preparations shall be made beforehand."] + +[Footnote 26: Thiers, ch. xxx.; Cottin, "L'Angleterre et les +Princes."] + +[Footnote 27: See Lord Grenville's despatch of August 9th, 1793, to +Lord St. Helens ("F.O. Records, Spain," No. 28), printed by M. Cottin, +p. 428. He does not print the more important despatch of October 22nd, +where Grenville asserts that the admission of the French princes would +tend to invalidate the constitution of 1791, for which the allies were +working.] + +[Footnote 28: A letter of Lord Mulgrave to Mr. Trevor, at Turin ("F. +O. Records, Sardinia," No. 13), states that he had the greatest +difficulty in getting on with the French royalists: "You must not send +us one _emigre_ of any sort--they would be a nuisance: they are all so +various and so violent, whether for despotism, constitution, or +republic, that we should be distracted with their quarrels; and they +are so assuming, forward, dictatorial, and full of complaints, that +no business could go on with them. Lord Hood is averse to receiving +any of them." + +NOTE TO THE THIRD EDITION.--From the information which Mr. Spenser +Wilkinson has recently supplied in his article in "The Owens College +Hist. Essays" (1902), it would seem that Buonaparte's share in +deciding the fate of Toulon was somewhat larger than has here been +stated; for though the Commissioners saw the supreme need of attacking +the fleet, they do not seem, as far as we know, to have perceived that +the hill behind Fort L'Eguillette was the key of the position. +Buonaparte's skill and tenacity certainly led to the capture of this +height.] + +[Footnote 29: Jung, "Bonaparte et son Temps," vol. ii., p. 430.] + +[Footnote 30: "Memorial," ch. ii., November, 1815. See also +Thibaudeau, "Memoires sur le Consulat," vol. i., p. 59.] + +[Footnote 31: Marmont (1774-1852) became sub-lieutenant in 1789, +served with Buonaparte in Italy, Egypt, etc., received the title Duc +de Ragusa in 1808, Marshal in 1809; was defeated by Wellington at +Salamanca in 1812, deserted to the allies in 1814. Junot (1771-1813) +entered the army in 1791; was famed as a cavalry general in the wars +1796-1807; conquered Portugal in 1808, and received the title Duc +d'Abrantes; died mad.] + +[Footnote 32: M. Zivy, "Le treize Vendemiaire," pp.60-62, quotes the +decree assigning the different commands. A MS. written by Buonaparte, +now in the French War Office Archives, proves also that it was Barras +who gave the order to fetch the cannon from the Sablons camp.] + +[Footnote 33: Buonaparte afterwards asserted that it was he who had +given the order to fire, and certainly delay was all in favour of his +opponents.] + +[Footnote 34: I caution readers against accepting the statement of +Carlyle ("French Revolution," vol. iii. _ad fin_.) that "the thing we +specifically call French Revolution is blown into space by the whiff +of grapeshot." On the contrary, it was perpetuated, though in a more +organic and more orderly governmental form.] + +[Footnote 35: Chaptal, "Mes Souvenirs sur Napoleon," p. 198.] + +[Footntoe 36: Koch, "Memoires de Massena," vol. ii., p. 13, credits +the French with only 37,775 men present with the colours, the +Austrians with 32,000, and the Sardinians with 20,000. All these +figures omit the troops in garrison or guarding communications.] + +[Footnote 37: Napoleon's "Correspondence," March 28th, 1796.] + +[Footnote 38: See my articles on Colonel Graham's despatches from +Italy in the "Eng. Hist. Review" of January and April, 1899.] + +[Footnote 39: Thus Mr. Sargent ("Bonaparte's First Campaign") says +that Bonaparte was expecting Beaulieu to move on Genoa, and saw herein +a chance of crushing the Austrian centre. But Bonaparte, in his +despatch of April 6th to the Directory, referring to the French +advance towards Genoa, writes: "J'ai ete tres fache et extremement +mecontent de ce mouvement sur Genes, d'autant plus deplace qu'il a +oblige cette republique a prendre une attitude hostile, et a reveille +l'ennemi que j'aurais pris tranquille: ce sont des hommes de plus +qu'il nous en coutera." For the question how far Napoleon was indebted +to Marshal Maillebois' campaign of 1745 for his general design, see +the brochure of M. Pierron. His indebtedness has been proved by M. +Bouvier ("Bonaparte en Italie," p. 197) and by Mr. Wilkinson ("Owens +Coll. Hist. Essays").] + +[Footnote 40: Nelson was then endeavouring to cut off the vessels +conveying stores from Toulon to the French forces. The following +extracts from his despatches are noteworthy. January 6th, 1796: "If +the French mean to carry on the war, they must penetrate into Italy. +Holland and Flanders, with their own country, they have entirely +stripped: Italy is the gold mine, and if once entered, is without the +means of resistance." Then on April 28th, after Piedmont was +overpowered by the French: "We English have to regret that we cannot +always decide the fate of Empires on the Sea." Again, on May 16th: "I +very much believe that England, who commenced the war with all Europe +for her allies, will finish it by having nearly all Europe for her +enemies."] + +[Footnote 41: The picturesque story of the commander (who was not +Rampon, but Fornesy) summoning the defenders of the central redoubt to +swear on their colours and on the cannon that they would defend it to +the death has been endlessly repeated by historians. But the documents +which furnish the only authentic details show that there was in the +redoubt no cannon and no flag. Fornesy's words simply were: "C'est +ici, mes amis, qu'il faut vaincre ou mourir"--surely much grander than +the histrionic oath. (See "Memoires de Massena," Vol. ii.;" Pieces +Just.," No. 3; also Bouvier, _op. cit._)] + +[Footnote 42: Jomini, vol. viii., p. 340; "Pieces Justifs."] + +[Footnote 43: "Un Homme d'autrefois," par Costa de Beauregard.] + +[Footnote 44: These were General Beaulieu's words to Colonel Graham on +May 22nd.] + +[Footnote 45: Periods of ten days, which, in the revolutionary +calendar, superseded the week.] + +[Footnote 46: I have followed the accounts given by Jomini, vol. +viii., pp. 120-130; that by Schels in the "Oest. Milit. Zeitschrift" +for 1825, vol. ii.; also Bouvier "Bonaparte en Italie," ch. xiii.; and +J.G.'s "Etudes sur la Campagne de 1796-97." Most French accounts, +being based on Napoleon's "Memoires," vol. iii., p. 212 _et seq_., are +a tissue of inaccuracies. Bonaparte affected to believe that at Lodi +he defeated an army of sixteen thousand men. Thiers states that the +French cavalry, after fording the river at Montanasso, influenced the +result: but the official report of May 11th, 1796, expressly states +that the French horse could not cross the river at that place till the +fight was over. See too Desvernois, "Mems.," ch, vii.] + +[Footnote 47: Bouvier (p. 533) traces this story to Las Cases and +discredits it.] + +[Footnote: 48 Directorial despatch of May 7th, 1796. The date rebuts +the statement of M. Aulard, in M. Lavisse's recent volume, "La +Revolution Francaise," p. 435, that Bonaparte suggested to the +Directory the pillage of Lombardy.] + +[Footnote 49: "Corresp.," June 6th, 1797.] + +[Footnote 50: "Corresp.," June 1st, 1796.] + +[Footnote 51: Gaffarel, "Bonaparte et les Republiques Italiennes," p. +22.] + +[Footnote 52: "Corresp.," May 17th, 1796.] + +[Footnote 53: Virgil, Aeneid, x. 200.] + +[Footnote 54: Colonel Graham's despatches.] + +[Footnote 55: "Corresp.," June 26th, 1796.] + +[Footnote 56: Despatch of Francis to Wuermser, July 14th, 1796.] + +[Footnote 57: Jomini (vol. viii., p. 305) blames Weyrother, the chief +of Wuermser's staff, for the plan. Jomini gives the precise figures of +the French on July 25th: Massena had 15,000 men on the upper Adige; +Augereau, 5,000 near Legnago; Sauret, 4,000 at Salo; Serurier, 10,500 +near Mantua; and with others at and near Peschiera the total fighting +strength was 45,000. So "J.G.," p. 103.] + +[Footnote 58: See Thiebault's amusing account ("Memoirs," vol. i., ch. +xvi.) of Bonaparte's contempt for any officer who could not give him +definite information, and of the devices by which his orderlies played +on this foible. See too Bourrienne for Bonaparte's dislike of new +faces.] + +[Footnote 59: Marbot, "Memoires," ch. xvi. J.G., in his recent work, +"Etudes sur la Campagne de 1796-97," p. 115, also defends Augereau.] + +[Footnote 60: Jomini, vol. viii., p. 321.] + +[Footnote 61: "English Hist. Review," January, 1899] + +[Footnote 62: Such is the judgment of Clausewitz ("Werke," vol. iv.), +and it is partly endorsed by J.G. in his "Etudes sur la Campagne de +1796-97." St. Cyr, in his "Memoirs" on the Rhenish campaigns, also +blames Bonaparte for not having _earlier_ sent away his siege-train to +a place of safety. Its loss made the resumed siege of Mantua little +more than a blockade.] + +[Footnote 63: Koch, "Memoires de Massena," vol. i., p. 199.] + +[Footnote 64: "Corresp.," October 21st, 1796.] + +[Footnote 65: "Corresp.," October 24th, 1796. The same policy was +employed towards Genoa. This republic was to be lulled into security +until it could easily be overthrown or absorbed.] + +[Footnote 66: "Ordre du Jour," November 7th, 1796.] + +[Footnote 67: Marmont, "Memoires," vol. i., p. 237. I have followed +Marmont's narrative, as that of the chief actor in this strange scene. +It is less dramatic than the usual account, as found in Thiers, and +therefore is more probable. The incident illustrates the folly of a +commander doing the work of a sergeant. Marmont points out that the +best tactics would have been to send one division to cross the Adige +at Albaredo, and so take Arcola in the rear. Thiers' criticism, that +this would have involved too great a diffusion of the French line, is +refuted by the fact that on the third day a move on that side induced +the Austrians to evacuate Arcola.] + +[Footnote 68: Koch, "Memoires de Massena," vol. i., p. 255, in his +very complete account of the battle, gives the enemy's losses as +upwards of 2,000 killed or wounded, and 4,000 prisoners with 11 +cannon. Thiers gives 40,000 as Alvintzy's force before the battle--an +impossible number. See _ante_.] + +[Footnote 69: The Austrian official figures for the loss in the three +days at Arcola give 2,046 killed and wounded, 4,090 prisoners, and 11 +cannon. Napoleon put it down as 13,000 in all! See Schels in "Oest. +Milit. Zeitschrift" for 1829.] + +[Footnote 70: A forecast of the plan realized in 1801-2, whereby +Bonaparte gained Louisiana for a time.] + +[Footnote 71: Estimates of the Austrian force differ widely. Bonaparte +guessed it at 45,000, which is accepted by Thiers; Alison says 40,000; +Thiebault opines that it was 75,000; Marmont gives the total as +26,217. The Austrian official figures are 28,022 _before_ the fighting +north of Monte Baldo. See my article in the "Eng. Hist. Review" for +April, 1899. I have largely followed the despatches of Colonel Graham, +who was present at this battle. As "J.G." points out (_op.cit. _, p. +237), the French had 1,500 horse and some forty cannon, which gave +them a great advantage over foes who could make no effective use of +these arms.] + +[Footnote 72: This was doubtless facilitated by the death of the +Czarina, Catherine II., in November, 1796. She had been on the point +of entering the Coalition against France. The new Czar Paul was at +that time for peace. The Austrian Minister Thugut, on hearing of her +death, exclaimed, "This is the climax of our disasters."] + +[Footnote 73: Hueffer, "Oesterreich und Preussen," p. 263.] + +[Footnote 74: "Moniteur," 20 Floreal, Year V.; Sciout, "Le +Directoire," vol. ii., ch. vii.] + +[Footnote 75: See Landrieux's letter on the subject in Koch's +"Memoires de Massena," vol. ii.; "Pieces Justif.," _ad fin._; and +Bonaparte's "Corresp.," letter of March 24th, 1797. The evidence of +this letter, as also of those of April 9th and 19th, is ignored by +Thiers, whose account of Venetian affairs is misleading. It is clear +that Bonaparte contemplated partition long before the revolt of +Brescia.] + +[Footnote 76: Botta, "Storia d'Italia," vol. ii., chs. x., etc.; Daru, +"Hist. de Venise," vol. v.; Gaffarel, "Bonaparte et les Republiques +Italiennes," pp. 137-139; and Sciout, "Le Directoire," vol ii., chs. +v. and vii.] + +[Footnote 77: Sorel, "Bonaparte et Hoche en 1797," p. 65.] + +[Footnote 78: Letter of April 30th, 1797.] + +[Footnote 79: Letter of May 13th, 1797.] + +[Footnote 80: It would even seem, from Bonaparte's letter of July +12th, 1797, that not till then did he deign to send on to Paris the +terms of the treaty with Venice. He accompanied it with the cynical +suggestion that they could do what they liked with the treaty, and +even annul it!] + +[Footnote 81: The name _Italian_ was rejected by Bonaparte as too +aggressively nationalist; but the prefix _Cis_--applied to a State +which stretched southward to the Rubicon--was a concession to Italian +nationality. It implied that Florence or Rome was the natural capital +of the new State.] + +[Footnote 82: See Arnault's "Souvenirs d'un sexagenaire" (vol. iii., +p. 31) and Levy's "Napoleon intime," p. 131.] + +[Footnote 83: For the subjoined version of the accompanying new letter +of Bonaparte (referred to in my Preface) I am indebted to Mr. H.A.L. +Fisher, in the "Eng. Hist. Rev.," July, 1900: + + "Milan, 29 Thermidor [l'an IV.] + + "A LA CITOYENNE TALLIEN + + "Je vous dois des remerciements, belle citoyenne, pour le souvenir + que vous me conservez et pour les choses aimables contenues dans + votre apostille. Je sais bien qu'en vous disant que je regrette les + moments heureux que j'ai passe dans votre societe je ne vous repete + que ce que tout le monde vous dit. Vous connaitre c'est ne plus + pouvoir vous oublier: etre loin de votre aimable personne lorsque + l'on a goute les charmes de votre societe c'est desirer vivement de + s'en rapprocher; mais l'on dit que vous allez en Espagne. Fi! c'est + tres vilain a moins que vous ne soyez de retour avant trois mois, + enfin que cet hiver nous ayons le bonheur de vous voir a Paris. + Allez donc en Espagne visiter la caverne de Gil Blas. Moi je crois + aussi visiter toutes les antiquites possibles, enfin que dans le + cours de novembre jusqu'a fevrier nous puissions raconter sans + cesse. Croyez-moi avec toute la consideration, je voulais dire le + respect, mais je sais qu'en general les jolies femmes n'aiment pas + ce mot-la. + + "BONAPARTE. + + "Mille e mille chose a Tallien."] + +[Footnote 84: Lavalette, "Mems.," ch. xiii.; Barras, "Mems.," vol. +ii., pp. 511-512; and Duchesse d'Abrantes, "Mems.," vol. i., ch. +xxviii.] + +[Footnote 85: Barras, "Mems.," vol. ii., ch, xxxi.; Madame de Stael, +"Directoire," ch. viii.] + +[Footnote 86: "Memoires de Gohier"; Roederer, "Oeuvres," tome iii., p. +294.] + +[Footnote 87: Brougham, "Sketches of Statesmen"; Ste. Beuve, +"Talleyrand"; Lady Blennerhasset, "Talleyrand."] + +[Footnote 88: Instructions of Talleyrand to the French envoys +(September 11th); also Ernouf's "Maret, Duc de Bassano," chs. xxvii. +and xxviii., for the _bona fides_ of Pitt in these negotiations. + +It seems strange that Baron du Casse, in his generally fair treatment +of the English case, in his "Negociations relatives aux Traites de +Luneville et d'Amiens," should have prejudiced his readers at the +outset by referring to a letter which he attributes to Lord +Malmesbury. It bears no date, no name, and purports to be "Une Lettre +de Lord Malmesbury, oubliee a Lille." How could the following +sentences have been penned by Malmesbury, and written to Lord +Grenville?--"Mais enfin, outre les regrets sinceres de Meot et des +danseuses de l'Opera, j'eus la consolation de voir en quittant Paris, +que des Francais et une multitude de nouveaux convertis a la religion +catholique m'accompagnaient de leurs voeux, de leurs prieres, et +presque de leurs larmes.... L'evenement de Fructidor porta la +desolation dans le coeur de tous les bons ennemis de la France. Pour +ma part, j'en fut consterne: _je ne l'avais point prevu_." It is +obviously the clumsy fabrication of a Fructidorian, designed for +Parisian consumption: it was translated by a Whig pamphleteer under +the title "The Voice of Truth!"--a fit sample of that partisan +malevolence which distorted a great part of our political literature +in that age.] + +[Footnote 89: Bonaparte's letters of September 28th and October 7th to +Talleyrand.] + +[Footnote 90: See too Marsh's "Politicks of Great Britain and France," +ch. xiii.; "Correspondence of W.A. Miles on the French Revolution," +letters of January 7th and January 18th, 1793; also Sybel's "Europe +during the French Revolution," vol. ii.] + +[Footnote 91: Pallain, "Le Ministere de Talleyrand sous le +Directoire," p. 42.] + +[Footnote 92: Bourrienne, "Memoirs," vol. i., ch. xii. See too the +despatch of Sandoz-Rollin to Berlin of February 28th, 1798, in +Bailleu's "Preussen und Frankreich," vol. i., No. 150.] + +[Footnote 93: The italics are my own. I wish to call attention to the +statement in view of the much-debated question whether in 1804-5 +Napoleon intended to invade our land, _unless he gained maritime +supremacy_. See Desbriere's "Projets de Debarquement aux Iles +Britanniques," vol. i., _ad fin_.] + +[Footnote 94: Letter of October 10th, 1797; see too those of August +16th and September 13th.] + +[Footnote 95: The plan of menacing diverse parts of our coasts was kept +up by Bonaparte as late as April 13th, 1798. In his letter of this +date he still speaks of the invasion of England and Scotland, and +promises to return from Egypt in three or four months, so as to +proceed with the invasion of the United Kingdom. Boulay de la Meurthe, +in his work, "Le Directoire et l'Expedition d'Egypte," ch. i., seems +to take this promise seriously. In any case the Directors' hopes for +the invasion of Ireland were dashed by the premature rising of the +Irish malcontents in May, 1798. For Poussielgue's mission to Malta, +see Lavalette's "Mems.," ch. xiv.] + +[Footnote 96: Mallet du Pan states that three thousand Vaudois came to +Berne to join in the national defence: "Les cantons democratiques sont +les plus fanatises contre les Francais"--a suggestive remark.] + +[Footnote 97: Daendliker, "Geschichte der Schweiz," vol. iii., p. 350 +(edition of 1895); also Lavisse, "La Rev. Franc.," p. 821.] + +[Footnote 98: "Correspondance," No. 2676.] + +[Footnote 99: "Foreign Office Records," Malta (No. 1). Mr. Williams +states in his despatch of June 30th, 1798, that Bonaparte knew there +were four thousand Maltese in his favour, and that most of the French +knights were publicly known to be so; but he adds: "I do believe the +Maltees [_sic_] have given the island to the French in order to get +rid of the knighthood."] + +[Footnote 100: I am indebted for this fact to the Librarian of the +Priory of the Knights of St. John, Clerkenwell.] + +[Footnote 101: See, for a curious instance, Chaptal, "Mes Souvenirs," +p. 243.] + +[Footnote 102: The Arab accounts of these events, drawn up by Nakoula +and Abdurrahman, are of much interest. They have been well used by M. +Dufourcq, editor of Desvernois' "Memoirs," for many suggestive +footnotes.] + +[Footnote 103: Desgenettes, "Histoire medicale de l'Armee d'Orient" +(Paris, 1802); Belliard, "Memoires," vol. i.] + +[Footnote 104: I have followed chiefly the account of Savary, Duc de +Rovigo, "Mems.," ch. iv. See too Desvernois, "Mems.," ch. iv.] + +[Footnote 105: See his orders published in the "Correspondance +officielle et confid. de Nap. Bonaparte, Egypte," vol. i. (Paris, +1819, p. 270). They rebut Captain Mahan's statement ("Influence of Sea +Power upon the Fr. Rev. and Emp.," vol. i., p. 263) as to Brueys' +"delusion and lethargy" at Aboukir. On the contrary, though enfeebled +by dysentery and worried by lack of provisions and the insubordination +of his marines, he certainly did what he could under the +circumstances. See his letters in the Appendix of Jurien de la +Graviere, "Guerres Maritimes," vol. i.] + +[Footnote 106: Desvernois, "Mems.," ch. v.] + +[Footnote 107: _Ib._, ch. vi.] + +[Footnote 108: Order of July 27th, 1798.] + +[Footnote 109: Ducasse, "Les Rois, Freres de Napoleon," p. 8.] + +[Footnote 110: "Memoires de Napoleon," vol. ii.; Bourrienne, "Mems.," +vol. i., ch. xvii.] + +[Footnote 111: "Mems. de Berthier."] + +[Footnote 112: On November 4th, 1798, the French Government forwarded +to Bonaparte, in triplicate copies, a despatch which, after setting +forth the failure of their designs on Ireland, urged him either (1) to +remain in Egypt, of which they evidently disapproved, or (2) to march +towards India and co-operate with Tippoo Sahib, or (3) to advance on +Constantinople in order that France might have a share in the +partition of Turkey, which was then being discussed between the Courts +of Petersburg and Vienna. No copy of this despatch seems to have +reached Bonaparte before he set out for Syria (February 10th). This +curious and perhaps guileful despatch is given in full by Boulay de la +Meurthe, "Le Directoire et l'Expedition d'Egypte," Appendix, No. 5. + +On the whole, I am compelled to dissent from Captain Mahan ("Influence +of Sea Power," vol. i., pp. 324-326), and to regard the larger schemes +of Bonaparte in this Syrian enterprise as visionary.] + +[Footnote 113: Berthier, "Memoires"; Belliard, "Bourrienne et ses +Erreurs," also corrects Bourrienne. As to the dearth of food, denied +by Lanfrey, see Captain Krettly, "Souvenirs historiques."] + +[Footnote 114: Emouf, "Le General Kleber," p. 201.] + +[Footnote 115: "Admiralty Records," Mediterranean, No. 19.] + +[Footnote 116: "Corresp.," No. 4124; Lavalette, "Mems.," ch. xxi.] + +[Footnote 117: Sidney Smith's "Despatch to Nelson" of May 30th, 1799.] + +[Footnote 118: J. Miot's words are: "Mais s'il en faut croire cette +voix publique, trop souvent organe de la verite tardive, qu'en vain +les grands esperent enchainer, c'est un fait trop avere que quelques +blesses du Mont Carmel et une grande partie des malades a l'hopital de +Jaffa ont peri par les medicaments qui leur ont ete administres." Can +this be called evidence?] + +[Footnote 119: Larrey, "Relation historique"; Lavalette, "Mems.," ch. +xxi.] + +[Footnote 120: See Belliard, "Bourrienne et ses Erreurs"; also a +letter of d'Aure, formerly Intendant General of this army, to the +"Journal des Debats" of April 16th, 1829, in reply to Bourrienne.] + +[Footnote 121: "On disait tout haut qu'il se sauvait lachement," Merme +in Guitry's "L'Armee en Egypte." But Bonaparte had prepared for this +discouragement and worse eventualities by warning Kleber in the letter +of August 22nd, 1799, that if he lost 1,500 men by the plague he was +free to treat for the evacuation of Egypt.] + +[Footnote 122: Lucien Bonaparte, "Memoires," vol. ii., ch. xiv.] + +[Footnote 123: In our "Admiralty Records" (Mediterranean, No. 21) are +documents which prove the reality of Russian designs on Corsica.] + +[Footnote 124: "Consid. sur la Rev. Francaise," bk. iii., ch. xiii. +See too Sciout, "Le Directoire," vol. iv., chs. xiii.-xiv.] + +[Footnote 125: La Reveilliere-Lepeaux, "Mems.," vol. ii., ch. xliv.; +Hyde de Neuville, vol. i., chs. vi.-vii.; Lavisse, "Rev. Francaise," +p. 394.] + +[Footnote 126: Barras, "Mems.," vol. iv., ch. ii.] + +[Footnote 127: "Hist. of the United States" (1801-1813), by H. Adams, +vol. i., ch. xiv., and Ste. Beuve's "Talleyrand."] + +[Footnote 128: Gohier, "Mems.," vol. i.; Lavalette's "Mems.," ch. +xxii.; Roederer, "OEuvres," vol. iii., p. 301; Madelin's "Fouche," p. +267.] + +[Footnote 129: For the story about Arena's dagger, raised against +Bonaparte see Sciout, vol. iv., p. 652. It seems due to Lucien +Bonaparte. I take the curious details about Bonaparte's sudden pallor +from Roederer ("Oeuvres," vol. iii., p. 302), who heard it from +Montrond, Talleyrand's secretary. So Aulard, "Hist, de la Rev. Fr.," +p. 699.] + +[Footnote 130: Napoleon explained to Metternich in 1812 why he wished +to silence the _Corps Legislatif_; "In France everyone runs after +applause: they want to be noticed and applauded.... Silence an +Assembly, which, if it is anything, must be deliberative, and you +discredit it."--Metternich's "Memoirs," vol. i., p. 151.] + +[Footnote 131: This was still further assured by the first elections +under the new system being postponed till 1801; the functionaries +chosen by the Consuls were then placed on the lists of notabilities of +the nation without vote. The constitution was put in force Dec. 25th, +1799.] + +[Footnote 132: Roederer, "Oeuvres," vol. iii., p. 303. He was the +go-between for Bonaparte and Sieyes.] + +[Footnote 133: See the "Souvenirs" of Mathieu Dumas for the skilful +manner in which Bonaparte gained over the services of this +constitutional royalist and employed him to raise a body of volunteer +horse.] + +[Footnote 134: "Lettres inedites de Napoleon," February 21st, 1800; +"Memoires du General d'Andigne," ch. xv.; Madelin's "Fouche," p. 306.] + +[Footnote 135: "Georges Cadoudal," par son neveu, G. de Cadoudal; Hyde +de Neuville, vol. i., p. 305.] + +[Footnote 136: Talleyrand, "Mems.," vol. i., part ii.; Marmont, bk. +v.] + +[Footnote 137: "F.O.," Austria, No. 58; "Castlereagh's Despatches," v. +_ad init._ Bowman, in his excellent monograph, "Preliminary Stages of +the Peace of Amiens" (Toronto, 1899), has not noted this.] + +[Footnote 138: "Nap. Correspond.," February 27th 1800; Thugut, +"Briefe" vol. ii., pp. 444-446; Oncken, "Zeitalter," vol. ii. p. 45.] + +[Footnote 139: A Foreign Office despatch, dated Downing Street, +February 8th, 1800, to Vienna, promised a loan and that 15,000 or +20,000 British troops should be employed in the Mediterranean to act +in concert with the Austrians there, and to give "support to the +royalist insurrections in the southern provinces of France." No +differences of opinion respecting Piedmont can be held a sufficient +excuse for the failure of the British Government to fulfil this +promise--a failure which contributed to the disaster at Marengo.] + +[Footnote 140: Thiers attributes this device to Bonaparte; but the +First Consul's bulletin of May 24th ascribes it to Marmont and +Gassendi.] + +[Footnote 141: Marbot, "Mems.," ch. ix.; Allardyce, "Memoir of Lord +Keith," ch. xiii.; Thiebault's "Journal of the Blockade of Genoa."] + +[Footnote 142: That Melas expected such a march is clear from a letter +of his of May 23rd, dated from Savillan, to Lord Keith, which I have +found in the "Brit. Admiralty Records" (Mediterranean, No. 22), where +he says: "L'ennemi a cerne le fort de Bard et s'est avance jusque sous +le chateau d'Ivree. Il est clair que son but est de delivrer +Massena."] + +[Footnote 143: Bonaparte did not leave Milan till June 9th: see +"Correspondance" and the bulletin of June 10th. Jomini places his +departure for the 7th, and thereby confuses his description for these +two days. Thiers dates it on June 8th.] + +[Footnote 144: Lord W. Bentinck reported to the Brit. Admiralty +("Records," Meditn., No. 22), from Alessandria, on June 15th: "I am +sorry to say that General Elsnitz's corps, which was composed of the +grenadiers of the finest regiments in the (Austrian) army, arrived +here in the most deplorable condition. His men had already suffered +much from want of provisions and other hardships. He was pursued in +his retreat by Genl. Suchet, who had with him about 7,000 men. There +was an action at Ponte di Nava, in which the French failed; and it +will appear scarcely credible, when I tell your Lordship, that the +Austrians lost in this retreat, from fatigue only, near 5,000 men; and +I have no doubt that Genl. Suchet will notify this to the world as a +great victory."] + +[Footnote 145: The inaccuracy of Marbot's "Memoires" is nowhere more +glaring than in his statement that Marengo must have gone against the +French if Ott's 25,000 Austrians from Genoa had joined their comrades. +As a matter of fact, Ott, with 16,000 men, had _already_ fought with +Lannes at Montebello; and played a great part in the battle of +Marengo.] + +[Footnote 146: "Corresp.," vol. vi., p. 365. Fournier, "Hist. Studien +und Skizzen," p. 189, argues that the letter was written from Milan, +and dated from Marengo for effect.] + +[Footnote 147: See Czartoryski's "Memoirs," ch. xi., and Driault's "La +Question d'Orient," ch. iii. The British Foreign Office was informed +of the plan. In its records (No. 614) is a memoir (pencilled on the +back January 31st, 1801) from a M. Leclerc to Mr. Flint, referring the +present proposal back to that offered by M. de St. Genie to Catherine +II., and proposing that the first French step should be the seizure of +Socotra and Perim.] + +[Footnote 148: Garden, "Traites," vol. vi., ch. xxx.; Captain Mahan's +"Life of Nelson," vol. ii., ch. xvi.; Thiers, "Consulate," bk. ix. For +the assassination of the Czar Paul see "Kaiser Paul's Ende," von R.R. +(Stuttgart, 1897); also Czartoryski's "Memoirs," chs. xiii.-xiv. For +Bonaparte's offer of a naval truce to us and his overture of December, +1800, see Bowman, _op. cit_.] + +[Footnote 149: Pasquier, " Mems.," vol. i., ch. ii., p. 299. So too +Mollien, "Mems.": "With an insatiable activity in details, a +restlessness of mind always eager for new cares, he not only reigned +and governed, he continued to administer not only as Prime Minister, +but more minutely than each Minister."] + +[Footnote 150: Lack of space prevents any account of French finances +and the establishment of the Bank of France. But we may note here that +the collection of the national taxes was now carried out by a +State-appointed director and his subordinates in every Department--a +plan which yielded better results than former slipshod methods. The +_conseil general_ of the Department assessed the direct taxes among +the smaller areas. "Mems." de Gaudin, Duc de Gaete.] + +[Footnote 151: Edmond Blanc, "Napoleon I; ses Institutions," p. 27.] + +[Footnote 152: Theiner, "Hist. des deux Concordats," vol. i., p. 21.] + +[Footnote 153: Thibaudeau estimated that of the population of +35,000,000 the following assortment might be made: Protestants, Jews, +and Theophilanthropists, 3,000,000; Catholics, 15,000,000, equally +divided between orthodox and constitutionals; and as many as +17,000,000 professing no belief whatever.] + +[Footnote 154: See Roederer, "Oeuvres," vol. iii., p. 475. On the +discontent of the officers, see Pasquier's "Mems.," vol. i., ch. vii.; +also Marmont's "Mems.," bk. vi.] + +[Footnote 155: See the drafts in Count Boulay de la Meurthe's +"Negociation du Concordat," vol. ii., pp. 58 and 268.] + +[Footnote 156: Theiner, vol. i., pp. 193 and 196.] + +[Footnote 157: Meneval, "Mems.," vol. i., p. 81.] + +[Footnote 158: Thiers omits any notice of this strange transaction. +Lanfrey describes it, but unfortunately relies on the melodramatic +version given in Consalvi's "Memoirs," which were written many years +later and are far less trustworthy than the Cardinal's letters written +at the time. In his careful review of all the documentary evidence, +Count Boulay de la Meurthe (vol. iii., p. 201, note) concludes that +the new project of the Concordat (No. VIII.) was drawn up by +Hauterive, was "submitted immediately to the approbation of the +First Consul," and thereupon formed the basis of the long and +heated discussion of July 14th between the Papal and French +plenipotentiaries. A facsimile of this interesting document, with all +the erasures, is appended at the end of his volume.] + +[Footnote 159: Pasquier, "Mems.," vol. i., ch. vii. Two of the organic +articles portended the abolition of the revolutionary calendar. The +first restored the old names of the days of the week; the second +ordered that Sunday should be the day of rest for all public +functionaries. The observance of _decadis_ thenceforth ceased; but the +months of the revolutionary calendar were observed until the close of +the year 1805. Theophilanthropy was similarly treated: when its +votaries applied for a building, their request was refused on the +ground that their cult came within the domain of philosophy, not of +any actual religion! A small number of priests and of their +parishioners refused to recognize the Concordat; and even to-day there +are a few of these _anti-concordataires_.] + +[Footnote 160: Chaptal, "Souvenirs," pp. 237-239. Lucien Bonaparte, +"Mems.," vol. ii., p. 201, quotes his brother Joseph's opinion of the +Concordat: "Un pas retrograde et irreflechi de la nation qui s'y +soumettait."] + +[Footnote 161: Thibaudeau, "Consulat," ch. xxvi.] + +[Footnote 162: "Code Napoleon," art. 148.] + +[Footnote 163: In other respects also Bonaparte's influence was used +to depress the legal status of woman, which the men of 1789 had done +so much to raise. In his curious letter of May 15th, 1807, on the +Institution at Ecouen, we have his ideas on a sound, useful education +for girls: "... We must begin with religion in all its severity. Do +not admit any modification of this. Religion is very important in a +girls' public school: it is the surest guarantee for mothers and +husbands. We must train up believers, not reasoners. The weakness of +women's brains, the unsteadiness of their ideas, their function in the +social order, their need of constant resignation and of a kind of +indulgent and easy charity--all can only be attained by religion." +They were to learn a little geography and history, but no foreign +language; above all, to do plenty of needlework.] + +[Footnote 164: Sagnac, "Legislation civile de la Rev. Fr.," p. 293.] + +[Footnote 165: Divorce was suppressed in 1816, but was re-established +in 1884.] + +[Footnote 166: Sagnac, _op. cit._, p. 352.] + +[Footnote 167: "The Life of Sir S. Romilly," vol. i., p. 408.] + +[Footnote 168: Madelin in his "Fouche," ch. xi., shows how Bonaparte's +private police managed the affair. Harel was afterwards promoted to +the governorship of the Castle of Vincennes: the four talkers, whom he +and the police had lured on, were executed after the affair of Nivose. +That dextrous literary flatterer, the poet Fontanes, celebrated the +"discovery" of the Arena plot by publishing anonymously a pamphlet ("A +Parallel between Caesar, Cromwell, Monk, and Bonaparte") in which he +decided that no one but Caesar deserved the honour of a comparison +with Bonaparte, and that certain destinies were summoning him to a yet +higher title. The pamphlet appeared under the patronage of Lucien +Bonaparte, and so annoyed his brother that he soon despatched him on a +diplomatic mission to Madrid as a punishment for his ill-timed +suggestions.] + +[Footnote 169: Thibaudeau, _op. cit_., vol. ii., p. 55. Miot de +Melito, ch. xii.] + +[Footnote 170: It seems clear, from the evidence so frankly given by +Cadoudal in his trial in 1804, as well as from his expressions when he +heard of the affair of Nivose, that the hero of the Chouans had no +part in the bomb affair. He had returned to France, had empowered St. +Rejant to buy arms and horses, "dont je me servirai plus tard"; and it +seems certain that he intended to form a band of desperate men who +were to waylay, kidnap, or kill the First Consul in open fight. This +plan was deferred by the bomb explosion for three years. As soon as he +heard of this event, he exclaimed: "I'll bet that it was that---- St. +Rejant. He has upset all my plans." (See "Georges Cadoudal," par G. de +Cadoudal.)] + +[Footnote 171: Roederer, "Oeuvres," vol. iii., p. 352. For these +negotiations see Bowman's "Preliminary Stages of the Peace of Amiens" +(Toronto, 1899).] + +[Footnote 172: Porter, "Progress of the Nation," ch. xiv.] + +[Footnote 173: "New Letters of Napoleon I." See too his letter of June +17th.] + +[Footnote 174: "Cornwallis Correspondence," vol. iii., pp. 380-382. +Few records exist of the negotiations between Lord Hawkesbury and M. +Otto at London. I have found none in the Foreign Office archives. The +general facts are given by Garden, "Traites," vol. vii., ch. xxxi.; +only a few of the discussions were reduced to writing. This seriously +prejudiced our interests at Amiens.] + +[Footnote 175: Lefebvre, "Cabinets de l'Europe," ch. iv] + +[Footnote 176: Chaptal. "Mes Souvenirs," pp. 287, 291, and 359.] + +[Footnote 177: See Chapter XIV. of this work.] + +[Footnote 178: Thibaudeau, _op. cit_., ch. xxvi.; Lavisse, "Napoleon," +ch. i.] + +[Footnote 179: "A Diary of St. Helena," by Lady Malcolm, p. 97.] + +[Footnote 180: "The Two Duchesses," edited by Vere Foster, p. 172. +Lord Malmesbury ("Diaries," vol. iv., p. 257) is less favourable: +"When B. is out of his ceremonious habits, his language is often +coarse and vulgar."] + +[Footnote 181: Jurien de la Graviere, "Guerres Maritimes," vol. ii., +chap. vii.] + +[Footnote 182: These facts were fully acknowledged later by Otto: see +his despatch of January 6th, 1802, to Talleyrand, published by Du +Casse in his "Negociations relatives au Traite d'Amiens," vol. iii.] + +[Footnote 183: "F.O.," France, No. 59. The memoir is dated October +19th, 1801.] + +[Footnote 184: "F.O.," France, No. 59.] + +[Footnote 185: Castlereagh, "Letters and Despatches," Second Series, +vol. i., p. 62, and the speeches of Ministers on November 3rd, 1801.] + +[Footnote 186: Cornwallis, "Correspondence," vol. iii., despatch of +December 3rd, 1801. The feelings of the native Maltese were strongly +for annexation to Britain, and against the return of the Order at all. +They sent a deputation to London (February, 1802), which was shabbily +treated by our Government so as to avoid offending Bonaparte. (See +"Correspondence of W.A. Miles," vol. ii., pp. 323-329, who drew up +their memorial.)] + +[Footnote 187: Cornwallis's despatches of January 10th and 23rd, +1802.] + +[Footnote 188: Project of a treaty forwarded by Cornwallis to London +on December 27th, 1801, in the Public Record Office, No. 615.] + +[Footnote 189: See the "Paget Papers," vol. ii. France gained the +right of admission to the Black Sea: the despatches of Mr. Merry from +Paris in May, 1802, show that France and Russia were planning schemes +of partition of Turkey. ("F.O.," France, No. 62.)] + +[Footnote 190: The despatches of March 14th and 22nd, 1802, show how +strong was the repugnance of our Government to this shabby treatment +of the Prince of Orange; and it is clear that Cornwallis exceeded his +instructions in signing peace on those terms. (See Garden, vol. vii., +p. 142.) By a secret treaty with Prussia (May, 1802), France procured +Fulda for the House of Orange.] + +[Footnote 191: Pasolini, "Memorie," _ad init_.] + +[Footnote 192: "Lettres inedites de Talleyrand a Napoleon" (Paris, +1889).] + +[Footnote 193: Mr. Jackson's despatch of February 17th, 1802, from +Paris. According to Miot de Melito ("Mems.," ch. xiv.), Bonaparte had +offered the post of President to his brother Joseph, but fettered it +by so many restrictions that Joseph declined the honour.] + +[Footnote 194: Roederer tells us ("OEuvres," vol. iii., p. 428) that +he had drawn up two plans of a constitution for the Cisalpine; the one +very short and leaving much to the President, the other precise and +detailed. He told Talleyrand to advise Bonaparte to adopt the former +as it was "_short and_"--he was about to add "_clear_" when the +diplomatist cut him short with the words, "_Yes: short and obscure!_"] + +[Footnote 195: Napoleon's letter of February 2nd, 1802, to Joseph +Bonaparte; see too Cornwallis's memorandum of February 18th.] + +[Footnote 196: It is only fair to Cornwallis to quote the letter, +marked "Private," which he received from Hawkesbury at the same time +that he was bidden to stand firm: + +"DOWNING STREET, _March 22nd_, 1802. + +"I think it right to inform you that I have had a confidential +communication with Otto, who will use his utmost endeavours to induce +his Government to agree to the articles respecting the Prince of +Orange and the prisoners in the shape in which they are now proposed. +I have very little doubt of his success, and I should hope therefore +that you will soon be released. I need not remind you of the +importance of sending your most expeditious messenger the moment our +fate is determined. The Treasury is almost exhausted, and Mr. +Addington cannot well make his loan in the present state of +uncertainty."] + +[Footnote 197: See the British notes of November 6th-16th, 1801, in +the "Cornwallis Correspondence," vol. iii. In his speech in the House +of Lords, May 13th, 1802, Lord Grenville complained that we had had to +send to the West Indies in time of peace a fleet double as large as +that kept there during the late war.] + +[Footnote 198: For these and the following negotiations see Lucien +Bonaparte's "Memoires," vol. ii., and Garden's "Traites de Paix," vol. +iii., ch. xxxiv. The Hon. H. Taylor, in "The North American Review" of +November, 1898, has computed that the New World was thus divided in +1801: + + Spain 7,028,000 square miles. + Great Britain 3,719,000 " " + Portugal 3,209,000 " " + United States 827,000 " " + Russia 577,000 " " + France 29,000 " " + +[Footnote 199: "History of the United States, 1801-1813," by H. Adams, +vol. i, p. 409.] + +[Footnote 200: Napoleon's letter of November 2nd, 1802.] + +[Footnote 201: Merry's despatch of October 21st, 1802.] + +[Footnote 202: The instructions which he sent to Victor supply an +interesting commentary on French colonial policy: "The system of this, +as of all our other colonies, should be to concentrate its commerce in +the national commerce: it should especially aim at establishing its +relations with our Antilles, so as to take the place in those colonies +of the American commerce.... The captain-general should abstain from +every innovation favourable to strangers, who should be restricted to +such communications as are absolutely indispensable to the prosperity +of Louisiana."] + +[Footnote 203: Lucien Bonaparte, "Memoires," vol. ii., ch. ix. He +describes Josephine's alarm at this ill omen at a time when rumours of +a divorce were rife.] + +[Footnote 204: Harbe-Marbois, "Hist. de Louisiana," quoted by H. +Adams, _op. cit._, vol. ii., p. 27; Roloff, "Napoleon's Colonial +Politik."] + +[Footnote 205: Garden, "Traites," vol. viii., ch. xxxiv. See too +Roederer, "Oeuvres," vol. iii., p. 461, for Napoleon's expressions +after dinner on January 11th, 1803: "Maudit sucre, maudit cafe, +maudites colonies."] + +[Footnote 206: Cornwallis, "Correspondence," vol. iii., despatch of +December 3rd, 1801.] + +[Footnote 207: See the valuable articles on General Decaen's papers in +the "Revue historique" of 1879 and of 1881.] + +[Footnote 208: Dumas' "Precis des Evenements Militaires," vol. xi., p. +189. The version of these instructions presented by Thiers, book xvi., +is utterly misleading.] + +[Footnote 209: Lord Whitworth, our ambassador in Paris, stated +(despatch of March 24th, 1803) that Decaen was to be quietly +reinforced by troops in French pay sent out by every French, Spanish, +or Dutch ship going to India, so as to avoid attracting notice. +("England and Napoleon," edited by Oscar Browning, p. 137.)] + +[Footnote 210: See my article, "The French East India Expedition at +the Cape," and unpublished documents in the "Eng. Hist. Rev." of +January, 1900. French designs on the Cape strengthened our resolve to +acquire it, as we prepared to do in the summer of 1805.] + +[Footnote 211: Wellesley, "Despatches," vol. iii., Appendix, despatch +of August 1st, 1803. See too Castlereagh's "Letters and Despatches," +Second Series, vol. i., pp. 166-176, for Lord Elgin's papers and +others, all of 1802, describing the utter weakness of Turkey, the +probability of Egypt falling to any invader, of Caucasia and Persia +being menaced by Russia, and the need of occupying Aden as a check to +any French designs on India from Suez.] + +[Footnote 212: Wellesley's despatch of July 13th, 1804: with it he +inclosed an intercepted despatch, dated Pondicherry, August 6th, 1803, +a "Memoire sur l'Importance actuelle de l'Inde et les moyens les plus +efficaces d'y retablir la Nation Francaise dans son ancienne +splendeur." The writer, Lieutenant Lefebvre, set forth the +unpopularity of the British in India and the immense wealth which +France could gain from its conquest.] + +[Footnote 213: The report of the Imaum is given in Castlereagh's +"Letters," Second Series, vol. i., p. 203.] + +[Footnote 214: "Voyage de Decouverte aux Terres Australes sur les +Corvettes, le Geographe et le Naturaliste," redige par M.F. Peron +(Paris, 1807-15). From the Atlas the accompanying map has been +copied.] + +[Footnote 215: His later mishaps may here be briefly recounted. Being +compelled to touch at the Ile de France for repairs to his ship, he +was there seized and detained as a spy by General Decaen, until the +chivalrous intercession of the French explorer, Bougainville, finally +availed to procure his release in the year 1810. The conduct of Decaen +was the more odious, as the French crews during their stay at Sydney +in the autumn of 1802, when the news of the Peace of Amiens was as yet +unknown, had received not only much help in the repair of their ships, +but most generous personal attentions, officials and private persons +at Sydney agreeing to put themselves on short rations in that season +of dearth in order that the explorers might have food. Though this +fact was brought to Decaen's knowledge by the brother of Commodore +Baudin, he none the less refused to acknowledge the validity of the +passport which Flinders, as a geographical explorer, had received from +the French authorities, but detained him in captivity for seven years. +For the details see "A Voyage of Discovery to the Australian Isles," +by Captain Flinders (London, 1814), vol. ii., chs. vii.-ix. The names +given by Flinders on the coasts of Western and South Australia have +been retained owing to the priority of his investigation: but the +French names have been kept on the coast between the mouth of the +Murray and Bass Strait for the same reason.] + +[Footnote 216: See Baudin's letter to King of December 23rd, 1803, in +vol. v. (Appendix) of "Historical Records of New South Wales," and the +other important letters and despatches contained there, as also +_ibid_., pp. 133 and 376.] + +[Footnote 217: Mr. Merry's ciphered despatch from Paris, May 7th, +1802.] + +[Footnote 218: It is impossible to enter into the complicated question +of the reconstruction of Germany effected in 1802-3. A general +agreement had been made at Rastadt that, as an indemnity for the +losses of German States in the conquest of the Rhineland by France, +they should receive the ecclesiastical lands of the old Empire. The +Imperial Diet appointed a delegation to consider the whole question; +but before this body assembled (on August 24th, 1802), a number of +treaties had been secretly made at Paris, with the approval of Russia, +which favoured Prussia and depressed Austria. Austria received the +archbishoprics of Trent and Brixen: while her Archdukes (formerly of +Tuscany and Modena) were installed in Salzburg and Breisgau. Prussia, +as the _protege_ of France, gained Hildesheim, Paderborn, Erfurt, the +city of Muenster, etc. Bavaria received Wuerzburg, Bamberg, Augsburg, +Passau, etc. See Garden, "Traites," vol. vii., ch. xxxii.; "Annual +Register" of 1802, pp. 648-665; Oncken, "Consulat und Kaiserthum," +vol. ii.; and Beer's "Zehn Jahre Oesterreichischer Politik."] + +[Footnote 219: The British notes of April 28th and May 8th, 1803, +again demanded a suitable indemnity for the King of Sardinia.] + +[Footnote 220: See his letters of January 28th, 1801, February 27th, +March 10th, March 25th, April 10th, and May 16th, published in a work, +"Bonaparte, Talleyrand et Stapfer" (Zuerich, 1869).] + +[Footnote 221: Daendliker, "Geschichte der Schweiz," vol. iii., p. +418; Muralt's "Reinhard," p. 55; and Stapfer's letter of April 28th: +"Malgre cette apparente neutralite que le gouvernement francais +declare vouloir observer pour le moment, differentes circonstances me +persuadent qu'il a vu avec plaisir passer la direction des affaires +des mains de la majorite du Senat [helvetique] dans celles de la +minorite du Petit Conseil."] + +[Footnote 222: Garden, "Traites," vol. viii., p. 10. Mr. Merry, our +_charge d'affaires_ at Paris, reported July 21st; "M. Stapfer makes a +boast of having obtained the First Consul's consent to withdraw the +French troops entirely from Switzerland. I learn from some +well-disposed Swiss who are here that such a consent has been given; +but they consider it only as a measure calculated to increase the +disturbances in their country and to furnish a pretext for the French +to enter it again."] + +[Footnote 223: Reding, in a pamphlet published shortly after this +time, gave full particulars of his interviews with Bonaparte at Paris, +and stated that he had fully approved of his (Reding's) federal plans. +Neither Bonaparte nor Talleyrand ever denied this.] + +[Footnote 224: See "Paget Papers," vol. ii., despatches of October +29th, 1802, and January 28th, 1803.] + +[Footnote 225: Napoleon avowed this in his speech to the Swiss +deputies at St. Cloud, December 12th, 1802.] + +[Footnote 226: Lord Hawkesbury's note of October 10th, 1802, the +appeal of the Swiss, and the reply of Mr. Moore from Constance, are +printed in full in the papers presented to Parliament, May 18th, 1803. + +The Duke of Orleans wrote from Twickenham a remarkable letter to Pitt, +dated October 18th, 1802, offering to go as leader to the Swiss in the +cause of Swiss and of European independence: "I am a natural enemy to +Bonaparte and to all similar Governments....England and Austria can +find in me all the advantages of my being a French prince. Dispose of +me, Sir, and show me the way. I will follow it." See Stanhope's "Life +of Pitt," vol. iii., ch. xxxiii.] + +[Footnote 227: See Roederer, "oeuvres," vol. iii., p. 454, for the +curious changes which Napoleon prescribed in the published reports of +these speeches; also Stapfer's despatch of February 3rd, 1803, which +is more trustworthy than the official version in Napoleon's +"Correspondance." This, however, contains the menacing sentence: "It +is recognized by Europe that Italy and Holland, as well as +Switzerland, are at the disposition of France."] + +[Footnote 228: It is only fair to say that they had recognized their +mistake and had recently promised equality of rights to the formerly +subject districts and to all classes. See Muralt's "Reinhard," p. +113.] + +[Footnote 229: See, _inter alia_, the "Moniteur" of August 8th, +October 9th, November 6th, 1802; of January 1st and 9th, February +19th, 1803.] + +[Footnote 230: Lord Whitworth's despatches of February 28th and March +3rd, 1803, in Browning's "England and Napoleon."] + +[Footnote 231: Secret instructions to Lord Whitworth, November 14th, +1802.] + +[Footnote 232: "Foreign Office Records," Russia, No. 50.] + +[Footnote 233: In his usually accurate "Manuel historique de Politique +Etrangere" (vol. ii., p. 238), M. Bourgeois states that in May, 1802, +Lord St. Helens succeeded in persuading the Czar _not_ to give his +guarantee to the clause respecting Malta. Every despatch that I have +read runs exactly counter to this statement: the fact is that the Czar +took umbrage at the treaty and refused to listen to our repeated +requests for his guarantee. Thiers rightly states that the British +Ministry pressed the Czar to give his guarantee, but that France long +neglected to send her application. Why this neglect if she wished to +settle matters?] + +[Footnote 234: Castlereagh's "Letters and Despatches," Second Series, +vol. i., pp. 56 and 69; Dumas' "Evenements," ix. 91.] + +[Footnote 235: Memoire of Francis II. to Cobenzl (March 31st, 1801), +in Beer, "Die Orientalische Politik Oesterreichs," Appendix.] + +[Footnote 236: "Memoirs," vol. i., ch. xiii.] + +[Footnote 237: Ulmann's "Russisch-Preussische Politik, 1801-1806," pp. +10-12.] + +[Footnote 238: Warren reported (December 10th, 1802) that Vorontzoff +warned him to be very careful as to the giving up of Malta; and, on +January 19th, Czartoryski told him that "the Emperor wished the +English to keep Malta." Bonaparte had put in a claim for the Morea to +indemnify the Bourbons and the House of Savoy. ("F.O.," Russia, No. +51.)] + +[Footnote 239: Browning's "England and Napoleon," pp. 88-91.] + +[Footnote 240: "F.O.," France, No. 72.] + +[Footnote 241: We were undertaking that mediation. Lord Elgin's +despatch from Constantinople, January 15th, 1803, states that he had +induced the Porte to allow the Mamelukes to hold the province of +Assouan. (Turkey, No. 38.)] + +[Footnote 242: Papers presented to Parliament on May 18th, 1803. I +pass over the insults to General Stuart, as Sebastiani on February 2nd +recanted to Lord Whitworth everything he had said, or had been made to +say, on that topic, and mentioned Stuart "in terms of great esteem." +According to Meneval ("Mems.," vol i., ch. iii.), Jaubert, who had +been with Sebastiani, saw a proof of the report, as printed for the +"Moniteur," and advised the omission of the most irritating passages; +but Maret dared not take the responsibility for making such omissions. +Lucien Bonaparte ("Mems.," vol. ii., ch. ix.) has another +version--less credible, I think--that Napoleon himself dictated the +final draft of the report to Sebastiani; and when the latter showed +some hesitation, the First Consul muttered, as the most irritating +passages were read out: "Parbleu, nous verrons si ceci--si cela--ne +decidera pas John Bull a guerroyer." Joseph was much distressed about +it, and exclaimed: "Ah, mon pauvre traite d'Amiens! Il ne tient plus +qu'a un fil."] + +[Footnote 243: So Adams's "Hist, of the U.S.," vol. ii., pp. 12-21.] + +[Footnote 244: Miot de Melito, "Mems.," vol. i, ch. xv., quotes the +words of Joseph Bonaparte to him: "Let him [Napoleon] once more drench +Europe with blood in a war that he could have avoided, and which, but +for the outrageous mission on which he sent his Sebastiani, would +never have occurred." + +Talleyrand laboured hard to persuade Lord Whitworth that Sebastiani's +mission was "solely commercial": Napoleon, in his long conversation +with our ambassador, "did not affect to attribute it to commercial +motives only," but represented it as necessitated by our infraction of +the Treaty of Amiens. This excuse is as insincere as the former. The +instructions to Sebastiani were drawn up on September 5th, 1802, when +the British Ministry was about to fulfil the terms of the treaty +relative to Malta and was vainly pressing Russia and Prussia for the +guarantee of its independence] + +[Footnote 245: Despatch of February 21st.] + +[Footnote 246: "View of the State of the Republic," read to the Corps +Legislatif on February 21st, 1803.] + +[Footnote 247: Papers presented to Parliament May 18th, 1803. See too +Pitt's speech, May 23rd, 1803.] + +[Footnote 248: See Russell's proclamation of July 22nd to the men of +Antrim that "he doubted not but the French were then fighting in +Scotland." ("Ann. Reg.," 1803, p. 246.) This document is ignored by +Plowden ("Hist. of Ireland, 1801-1810").] + +[Footnote249: Despatch of March 14th, 1803. Compare it with the very +mild version in Napoleon's "Corresp.," No. 6636.] + +[Footnote 250: Lord Hawkesbury to General Andreossy, March 10th.] + +[Footnote 251: Lord Hawkesbury to Lord Whitworth, April 4th, 1803.] + +[Footnote 252: Despatches of April 11th and 18th, 1803.] + +[Footnote 253: Whitworth to Hawkesbury, April 23rd.] + +[Footnote 254: Czartoryski ("Mems.," vol. i., ch. xiii.) calls him "an +excellent admiral but an indifferent diplomatist--a perfect +representative of the nullity and incapacity of the Addington Ministry +which had appointed him. The English Government was seldom happy in +its ambassadors." So Earl Minto's "Letters," vol. iii., p. 279.] + +[Footnote 255: See Lord Malmesbury's "Diaries" (vol. iv., p. 253) as +to the bad results of Whitworth's delay.] + +[Footnote 256: Note of May 12th, 1803: see "England and Napoleon," p. +249.] + +[Footnote 257: "Corresp.," vol. viii., No. 6743.] + +[Footnote 258: See Romilly's letter to Dumont, May 31st, 1803 +("Memoirs," vol. i.).] + +[Footnote 259: "Lettres inedites de Talleyrand," November 3rd, 1802. +In his letter of May 3rd, 1803, to Lord Whitworth, M. Huber reports +Fouche's outspoken warning in the Senate to Bonaparte: "Vous etes +vous-meme, ainsi que nous, un resultat de la revolution, et la guerre +remet tout en probleme. On vous flatte en vous faisant compter sur les +principes revolutionnaires des autres nations: _le resultat de notre +revolution les a aneantis partout._"] + +[Footnote 260: A copy of this letter, with the detailed proposals, is +in our Foreign Office archives (Russia, No. 52).] + +[Footnote 261: Bourgeois, "Manuel de Politique Etrangere," vol. ii., +p. 243.] + +[Footnote 262: See Castlereagh's "Letters and Despatches," Second +Series, vol. i., pp. 75-82, as to the need of conciliating public +opinion, even by accepting Corfu as a set-off for Malta, provided a +durable peace could thus be secured.] + +[Footnote 263: "Lettres inedites de Talleyrand," August 21st, 1803.] + +[Footnote 264: Garden, "Traites," vol. viii., p. 191.] + +[Footnote 265: Holland was required to furnish 16,000 troops and +maintain 18,000 French, to provide 10 ships of war and 350 gunboats.] + +[Footnote 266: "Corresp.," May 23rd, 1803.] + +[Footnote 267: Nelson's letters of July 2nd. See too Mahan's "Life of +Nelson," vol. ii., pp. 180-188, and Napoleon's letters of November +24th, 1803, encouraging the Mamelukes to look to France.] + +[Footnote 268: "Foreign Office Records," Sicily and Naples, No. 55, +July 25th.] + +[Footnote 269: Letter of July 28th, 1803.] + +[Footnote 270: "Nap. Corresp.," August 23rd, 1803, and Oncken, ch. v.] + +[Footnote 271: "Corresp.," vol. viii., No. 6627.] + +[Footnote 272: Lefebvre, "Cabinets de l'Europe," ch. viii.; "Nap. +Corresp.," vol. viii., Nos. 6979, 6985, 7007, 7098, 7113.] + +[Footnote 273: The French and Dutch ships in commission were: ships of +the line, 48; frigates, 37; corvettes, 22; gun-brigs, etc., 124; +flotilla, 2,115. (See "Mems. of the Earl of St. Vincent," vol. ii., p. +218.)] + +[Footnote 274: Pellew's "Life of Lord Sidmouth," vol. ii., p. 239.] + +[Footnote 275: Stanhope's "Life of Pitt," vol. iv., p. 213.] + +[Footnote 276: Roederer, " OEuvres," vol. iii., p. 348; Meneval, vol. +i., ch. iv.] + +[Footnote 277: Lucien ("Mems.," vol. iii., pp. 315-320) says at +Malmaison; but Napoleon's "Correspondance" shows that it was at St. +Cloud. Masson (" Nap. et sa Famille," ch. xii.) throws doubt on the +story.] + +[Footnote 278:_Ibid_., p. 318. The scene was described by Murat: the +real phrase was _coquine_, but it was softened down by Murat to +_maitresse_.] + +[Footnote 279: Miot de Melito, "Mems.," vol. 1., ch. xv. Lucien +settled in the Papal States, where he, the quondam Jacobin and proven +libertine, later on received from the Pope the title of Prince de +Canino.] + +[Footnote 280: "Lettres inedites de Napoleon," April 22nd, 1805.] + +[Footnote 281: Pasquier, "Mems.," vol. i., p. 167, and Boulay de la +Meurthe, "Les dernieres Annees du duc d'Enghien," p. 299. An +intriguing royalist of Neufchatel, Fauche-Borel, had been to England +in 1802 to get the help of the Addington Ministry, but failed. See +Caudrillier's articles in the "Revue Historique," Nov., 1900--March, +1901.] + +[Footnote 282: Madelin's "Fouche," vol. i., p. 368, minimizes Fouche's +_role_ here.] + +[Footnote 283: Desmarest, "Temoignages historiques," pp. 78-82.] + +[Footnote 284: "Alliance des Jacobins de France avec le Ministere +Anglais."] + +[Footnote 285: Brit. Mus., "Add. MSS.," Nos. 7976 _et seq_.] + +[Footnote 286: In our Records (France, No. 71) is a letter of Count +Descars, dated London, March 25th, 1805, to Lord Mulgrave, Minister +for War, rendering an account for various sums advanced by our +Government for the royalist "army."] + +[Footnote 287: "Paget Papers," vol. ii., p. 96.] + +[Footnote 288: "Parl. Debates," April, 1804 (esp. April 16th). The +official denial is, of course, accepted by Alison, ch. xxxviii.] + +[Footnote 289: The expression is that of George III., who further +remarked that all the ambassadors despised Hawkesbury. (Rose, +"Diaries," vol. ii., p. 157.) Windham's letter, dated Beaconsfield, +August 16th, 1803, in the Puisaye Papers, warned the French _emigres_ +that they must not count on any aid from Ministers, who had "at all +times shown such feebleness of spirit, that they can scarcely dare to +lift their eyes to such aims as you indicate. ("Add. MSS.," No. +7976.)] + +[Footnote 290: See in chapter xxi., p. 488. Our envoy, Spencer Smith, +at Stuttgart, was also taken in by a French spy, Captain Rosey, whose +actions were directed by Napoleon. See his letter (No. 7669).] + +[Footnote 291: "F.O.," Austria, No. 68 (October 31st, 1803).] + +[Footnote 292: Lavalette, "Mems.," ch. xxiii.; "Georges Cadoudal," by +Georges de Cadoudal (Paris, 1887).] + +[Footnote 293: See his letter of January 24th, 1804, to Real, +instructing him to tell Mehee what falsehoods are to find a place in +Mehee's next bulletin to Drake! "Keep on continually with the affair +of my portfolio."] + +[Footnote 294: Miot de Melito, vol. i., ch. xvi.; Pasquier, vol. i., +ch. vii. See also Desmarest, "Quinze ans de la haute police": his +claim that the police previously knew nothing of the plot is refuted +by Napoleon's letters (e.g., that of November 1st, 1803); as also by +Guilhermy, "Papiers d'un Emigre," p. 122.] + +[Footnote 295: Segur, "Mems.," ch. x. Bonaparte to Murat and Harel, +March 20th.] + +[Footnote 296: Letter to Real, "Corresp.," No. 7639.] + +[Footnote 297: The original is in "F.O." (Austria, No. 68).] + +[Footnote 298: Pasquier, "Memoires," vol. i., p. 187.] + +[Footnote 299: The Comte de Mosbourg's notes in Count Murat's "Murat" +(Paris, 1897), pp. 437-445, prove that Savary did not draw his +instructions for the execution of the duke merely from Murat, but from +Bonaparte himself, who must therefore be held solely responsible for +the composition and conduct of that court. Masson's attempt ("Nap. et +sa Famille," ch. xiv.) to inculpate Murat is very weak.] + +[Footnote 300: Hulin in "Catastrophe du duc d'Enghien," p. 118.] + +[Footnote 301: Dupin in "Catastrophe du duc d'Enghien," pp. 101, 123.] + +[Footnote 302: The only excuse which calls for notice here is that +Napoleon at the last moment, when urged by Joseph to be merciful, gave +way, and despatched orders late at night to Real to repair to +Vincennes. Real received some order, the exact purport of which is +unknown: it was late at night and he postponed going till the morrow. +On his way he met Savary, who came towards Paris bringing the news of +the duke's execution. Real's first words, on hearing this unexpected +news, were: "How is that possible? I had so many questions to put to +the duke: his examination might disclose so much. Another thing gone +wrong; the First Consul will be furious." These words were afterwards +repeated to Pasquier both by Savary and by Real: and, unless Pasquier +lied, the belated order sent to Real was not a pardon (and Napoleon on +his last voyage said to Cockburn it was not), but merely an order to +extract such information from the duke as would compromise other +Frenchmen. Besides, if Napoleon had despatched an order for the duke's +_pardon_, why was not that order produced as a sign of his innocence +and Real's blundering? Why did he shut himself up in his private room +on March 20th, so that even Josephine had difficulty in gaining +entrance? And if he really desired to pardon the duke, how came it +that when, at noon of March 21st, Real explained that he arrived at +Vincennes too late, the only words that escaped Napoleon's lips were +"C'est bien"? (See Meneval, vol. i, p. 296.) Why also was his +countenance the only one that afterwards showed no remorse or grief? +Caulaincourt, when he heard the results of his raid into Baden, +fainted with horror, and when brought to by Bonaparte, overwhelmed him +with reproaches. Why also had the grave been dug beforehand? Why, +finally, were Savary and Real not disgraced? No satisfactory answer to +these questions has ever been given. The "Catastrophe du duc +d'Enghien" and Count Boulay de la Meurthe's "Les dernieres Annees du +duc d'Enghien" and Napoleon's "Correspondance" give all the documents +needed for forming a judgment on this case. The evidence is examined +by Mr. Fay in "The American Hist. Rev.," July and Oct., 1898. For the +rewards to the murderers see Masson, "Nap. et sa Famille," chap. +xiii.] + +[Footnote 303: Ducasse, "Les Rois Freres de Nap.," p. 9.] + +[Footnote 304: Miot de Melito; vol. ii., ch. i.; Pasquier, vol. i., +ch. ix.] + +[Footnote 305: I cannot agree with M. Lanfrey, vol. ii., ch. xi., that +the Empire was not desired by the nation. It seems to me that this +writer here attributes to the apathetic masses his own unrivalled +acuteness of vision and enthusiasm for democracy. Lafayette well sums +up the situation in the remark that he was more shocked at the +submission of all than at the usurpation of one man ("Mems.," vol. v., +p. 239).] + +[Footnote 306: See Aulard, "Rev. Francaise," p. 772, for the +opposition.] + +[Footnote 307: Roederer, "oeuvres," vol. iii., p. 513.] + +[Footnote 308: Macdonald, "Souvenirs," ch. xii.; Segur, "Mems.," ch. +vii. When Thiebault congratulated Massena on his new title, the +veteran scoffingly replied: "Oh, there are fourteen of us." +(Thiebault, "Mems.," ch. vii., Eng. edit.) See too Marmont ("Mems.," +vol. ii., p. 227) on his own exclusion and the inclusion of +Bessieres.] + +[Footnote 309: Chaptal, "Souvenirs," p. 262. For Moreau's popularity +see Madelin's "Fouche," vol. i., p. 422.] + +[Footnote 310: At the next public audience Napoleon upbraided one of +the judges, Lecourbe, who had maintained that Moreau was innocent, and +thereafter deprived him of his judgeship. He also disgraced his +brother, General Lecourbe, and forbade his coming within forty leagues +of Paris. ("Lettres inedites de Napoleon," August 22nd and 29th, +1805.)] + +[Footnote 311: Miot de Melito, vol ii., ch. i.] + +[Footnote 312: Napoleon to Roederer, "oeuvres," vol. iii., p. 514.] + +[Footnote 313: Lafayette, "Mems.," vol. v., p. 182.] + +[Footnote 314: "Memoires de Savary, Duc de Rovigo." So Bourrienne, who +was informed by Rapp, who was present (vol. ii., ch. xxxiii.). The +"Moniteur" (4th Frimaire, Year XIII.) asserted that the Pope took the +right-hand seat; but I distrust its version.] + +[Footnote 315: Mme. de Remusat, vol. i., ch. x. As the _cure_ of the +parish was not present, even as witness, this new contract was held by +the Bonapartes to lack full validity. It is certain, however, that +Fesch always maintained that the marriage could only be annulled by an +act of arbitrary authority. For Napoleon's refusal to receive the +communion on the morning of the coronation, lest he, being what he +was, should be guilty of sacrilege and hypocrisy, see Segur.] + +[Footnote 316: Segur, ch. xi.] + +[Footnote 317: F. Masson's "Josephine, Imperatrice et Reine," p. 229. +For the Pitt diamond, see Yule's pamphlet and Sir M. Grant Duff's +"Diary," June 30, 1888.] + +[Footnote 318: De Bausset, "Court de Napoleon," ch. ii.] + +[Footnote 319: "Foreign Office Records," Intelligences, No. 426.] + +[Footnote 320: "Life of Fulton," by Colden(1817); also one by Reigart +(1856).] + +[Footnote 321: Jurien de la Graviere, "Guerres Maritimes," vol. ii., +p. 75; Chevalier, "Hist. de la Marine Francaise," p. 105; Capt. +Desbriere's "Projets de Debarquement aux Iles Britanniques," vol. i. +The accompanying engraving shows how fantastic were some of the +earlier French schemes of invasion.] + +[Footnote 322: "Memoires du Marechal Ney," bk. vii., ch. i.; so too +Marmont, vol. ii., p. 213; Mahan, "Sea Power," ch. xv.] + +[Footnote 323: Roederer, "OEuvres," vol. iii., p. 494.] + +[Footnote 324: Colonel Campbell, our Commissioner at Elba, noted in +his diary (December 5th, 1814): "As I have perceived in many +conversations, Napoleon has no idea of the difficulties occasioned by +winds and tides, but judges of changes of position in the case of +ships as he would with regard to troops on land."] + +[Footnote 325: Jurien de la Graviere, vol. ii., p. 88, who says: "His +mild and melancholy disposition, his sad and modest behaviour, ill +suited the Emperor's ambitious plans."] + +[Footnote 326: "Corresp.," No. 8063. See too No. 7996 for Napoleon's +plan of carrying a howitzer in the bows of his gun vessels so that his +projectiles might _burst in the wood_. Already at Boulogne he had +uttered the prophetic words: "We must have shells that will shiver the +wooden sides of ships."] + +[Footnote 327: James, "Naval History," vol. iii., p. 213, and +Chevalier, p. 115, imply that Villeneuve's fleet from Toulon, after +scouring the West Indies, was to rally the Rochefort force and cover +the Boulogne flotilla: but this finds no place in Napoleon's September +plan, which required Gantheaume first to land troops in Ireland and +then convoy the flotilla across if the weather were favourable, or if +it were stormy to beat down the Channel with the troops from Holland. +See O'Connor Morris, "Campaigns of Nelson," p. 121.] + +[Footnote 328: Colomb, "Naval Warfare," p. 18.] + +[Footnote 329: Jurien de la Graviere, vol. ii., p. 100. Nelson was +aware of the fallacies that crowded Napoleon's brain: "Bonaparte has +often made his boast that our fleet would be worn out by keeping the +sea, and that his was kept in order and increasing by staying in port; +but he now finds, I fancy, if emperors hear truth, that his fleet +suffers more in a night than ours in one year."--Nelson to +Collingwood, March 13th, 1805.] + +[Footnote 330: Garden, "Traites," vol. viii., pp. 276-290; also Capt. +Mahan, "Influence of Sea Power, etc.," vol. ii., ch. xv. _ad fin_. He +quotes the opinion of a Spanish historian, Don Jose de Couto: "If all +the circumstances are properly weighed ... we shall see that all the +charges made against England for the seizure of the frigates may be +reduced to want of proper foresight in the strength of the force +detailed to effect it."--In the Admiralty secret letters (1804-16) I +have found the instructions to Sir J. Orde, with the Swiftsure, +Polyphemus, Agamemnon, Ruby, Defence, Lively, and two sloops, to seize +the treasure-ships. No fight seems to have been expected.] + +[Footnote 331: "Corresp.," No. 8379; Mahan, _ibid_., vol. ii., p. +149.] + +[Footnote 332: Letter of April 29th, 1805. I cannot agree with Mahan +(p. 155) that this was intended only to distract us.] + +[Footnote 333: "Lettres inedites de Talleyrand," p. 121.] + +[Footnote 334: Jurien de la Graviere, vol. ii., p. 367.] + +[Footnote 335: Thiers writes, most disingenuously, as though +Napoleon's letters of August 13th and 22nd could have influenced +Villeneuve.] + +[Footnote 336: Dupin, "Voyages dans la Grande Bretagne" (tome i., p. +244), who had the facts from Daru. But, as Meneval sensibly says +("Mems.," vol. i., ch. v.), it was not Napoleon's habit dramatically +to dictate his plans so far in advance. Certainly, _in military +matters,_ he always kept his imagination subservient to facts. Not +until September 22nd, did he make any written official notes on the +final moves of his chief corps; besides, the Austrians did not cross +the Inn till September 8th.] + +[Footnote 337: Diary of General Bingham, in "Blackwood's Magazine," +October, 1896. The accompanying medal, on the reverse of which are the +words "frappee a Londres, en 1804," affords another proof of his +intentions.] + +[Footnote 338: Marbot, "Mems.," ch. xix; Fouche, "Mems.," part 1; Miot +de Melito, "Mems.," vol. ii., ch. i.] + +[Footnote 339: See Nelson's letters of August 25th, 1803, and May 1st, +1804; also Collingwood's of July 21st, 1805.] + +[Footnote 340: In "F.O.," France, No. 71, is a report of a spy on the +interview of Napoleon with O'Connor, whom he made General of Division. +See Appendix, p. 510.] + + * * * * * + + + + + +FOOTNOTES TO VOLUME II: + + +[Footnote 1: Armfeldt to Drake, December 24th, 1803 ("F.O.," Bavaria, +No. 27).] + +[Footnote 2: Drake's despatch of December 15th, 1803, _ib_.] + +[Footnote 3: Czartoryski, "Memoirs," vol. ii., ch. ii.] + +[Footnote 4: The Czar's complaints were: the exile of the King of +Sardinia, the re-occupation of S. Italy by the French, the changes in +Italy, the violation of the neutrality of Baden, the occupation of +Cuxhaven by the French, and the levying of ransom from the Hanse Towns +to escape the same fate ("F.O.," Russia, No. 56).] + +[Footnote 5: Lord Harrowby to Admiral Warren ("F.O.," Russia, No. +56).] + +[Footnote 6: Garden, "Traites" vol. viii., p. 302; Ulmann, +"Russisch-Preussische Politik," p. 117] + +[Footnote 7: See the letter in the "Paget Papers," vol. ii., p. 170.] + +[Footnote 8: "F.O.," Russia, No. 55. See note on p. 28.] + +[Footnote 9: Czartoryski's "Mems.," vol. ii., chs. ii.-iv.] + +[Footnote 10: "Lettres inedites de Napoleon" (May 30th, 1805).] + +[Footnote 11: See Novossiltzoff's Report in Czartoryski's "Memoirs," +vol. ii., ch. iv., and Pitt's note developing the Russian proposals in +Garden's "Traites," vol. viii., pp. 317-323, or Alison, App. to ch. +xxxix. A comparison of these two memoranda will show that on +Continental questions there was no difference such as Thiers affected +to see between the generous policy of Russia and the "cold egotism" of +Pitt. As Czartoryski has proved in his "Memoirs" (vol. ii., ch. x.) +Thiers has erred in assigning importance to a mere first draft of a +conversation which Czartoryski had with that ingenious schemer, the +Abbe Piatoli. The official proposals sent from St. Petersburg to +London were very different; _e.g._, the proposal of Alexander with +regard to the French frontiers was this: "The first object is to bring +back France into its ancient limits or such other ones as might appear +most suitable to the general tranquillity of Europe." It is, +therefore, futile to state that this was solely the policy of Pitt +after he had "remodelled" the Russian proposals.] + +[Footnote 12: "Corresp.," No. 8231. See too Bourrienne, Miot de +Melito, vol. ii., ch. iv., and Thiers, bk. xxi.] + +[Footnote 13: This refusal has been severely criticised. But the +knowledge of the British Government that Napoleon was still +persevering with his schemes against Turkey, and that the Russians +themselves, from their station at Corfu, were working to gain a +foothold on the Albanian coast, surely prescribed caution ("F.O.," +Russia, Nos. 55 and 56, despatches of June 26th and October 10th, +1804). It was further known that the Austrian Government had proposed +to the Czar plans that were hostile to Turkey, and were not decisively +rejected at St. Petersburg; and it is clear from the notes left by +Czartoryski that the prospect of gaining Corfu, Moldavia, parts of +Albania, and the precious prize of Constantinople was kept in view. +Pitt agreed to restore the conquests made from France (Despatch of +April 22nd).] + +[Footnote 14: Garden, "Traites," vol. viii., pp. 328-333. It is clear +that Gustavus IV. was the ruler who insisted on making the restoration +of the Bourbons the chief aim of the Third Coalition. In our "F.O. +Records" (Sweden, No. 177) is an account (August 20th, 1804) of a +conversation of Lord Harrowby with the Swedish ambassador, who stated +that such a declaration would "palsy the arms of France." Our Foreign +Minister replied that it would "much more certainly palsy the arms of +England: that we made war because France was become too powerful for +the peace of Europe."] + +[Footnote 15: "Corresp.," No. 8329.] + +[Footnote 16: Bailleu, "Preussen und Frankreich," vol. ii., p. 354.] + +[Footnote 17: Thiers (bk. xxi.) gives the whole text.] + +[Footnote 18: The annexation of the Ligurian or Genoese Republic took +place on June 4th, the way having been prepared there by Napoleon's +former patron, Salicetti, who liberally dispensed bribes. A little +later the Republic of Lucca was bestowed on Elisa Bonaparte and her +spouse, now named Prince Bacciochi. Parma, hitherto administered by a +French governor, was incorporated in the French Empire about the same +time.] + +[Footnote 19: Paget to Lord Mulgrave (March 19th, 1805).] + +[Footnote 20: Beer, "Zehn Jahre oesterreich. Politik (1801-1810)." The +notes of Novossiltzoff and Hardenberg are printed in Sir G. Jackson's +"Diaries," vol i., App.] + +[Footnote 21: See Bignon, vol. iv., pp. 271 and 334. Probably Napoleon +knew through Laforest and Talleyrand that Russia had recently urged +that George III. should offer Hanover to Prussia. Pitt rejected the +proposal. Prussia paid more heed to the offer of Hanover from Napoleon +than to the suggestions of Czartoryski that she might receive it from +its rightful owner, George III. Yet Duroc did not succeed in gaining +more from Frederick William than the promise of his neutrality (see +Garden, "Traites," vol. viii., pp. 339-346). Sweden was not a member +of the Coalition, but made treaties with Russia and England. + +The high hopes nursed by the Pitt Ministry are seen in the following +estimate of the forces that would be launched against France: Austria, +250,000; Russia, 180,000; Prussia, 100,000 (Pitt then refused to +subsidize more than 100,000); Sweden, 16,000; Saxony, 16,000; Hesse +and Brunswick, 16,000; Mecklenburg, 3,000; King of Sardinia, 25,000; +Bavaria, Wuertemberg, and Baden, 25,000; Naples, 20,000. In a P.S. he +adds that the support of the King of Sardinia would not be needed, and +that England had private arrangements with Naples as to subsidies. +This Memoir is not dated, but it must belong to the beginning of +September, before the defection of Bavaria was known ("F.O.," Prussia, +No. 70).] + +[Footnote 22: "F.O.," Russia, No. 57; Gower's note of July 22nd, +1805.] + +[Footnote 23: Colonel Graham's despatches, which undoubtedly +influenced the Pitt Ministry in favouring the appointment of Mack to +the present command. Paget ("Papers," vol. ii., p. 238) states that +the Iller position was decided on by Francis. The best analysis of +Mack's character is in Bernhardi's "Memoirs of Count Toll" (vol. i., +p. 121). The State Papers are in Burke's "Campaign of 1805," App.] + +[Footnote 24: Marmont, "Mems.," vol. ii., p. 310.] + +[Footnote 25: See "Paget Papers," vol. ii., p. 224; also Schoenhals +"Der Krieg 1805 in Deutschland," p. 67.] + +[Footnote 26: "Corresp.," No. 9249. See too No. 9254 for the details +of the enveloping moves which Napoleon then (September 22nd) +accurately planned twenty-five days before the final blows were dealt: +yet No. 9299 shows that, even on September 30th, he believed Mack +would hurry back to the Inn. Beer, p. 145.] + +[Footnote 27: Ruestow, "Der Krieg 1805." Hormayr, "Geschichte Hofers" +(vol. i., p. 96), states that, in framing with Russia the plan of +campaign, the Austrians forgot to allow for the difference (twelve +days) between the Russian and Gregorian calendars. The Russians +certainly were eleven days late.] + +[Footnote 28: "Corresp.," No 9319; Sir G. Jackson's "Diaries," vol. +i., p. 334.] + +[Footnote 29: _Ibid_.; also Metternich, "Mems.," vol. i., ch. iii. For +Prussia's protest to Napoleon, which pulverized the French excuses, +see Garden, vol. ix., p. 69.] + +[Footnote 30: Schoenhals; Segur, ch. xvi., exculpates Murat and Ney.] + +[Footnote 31: Schoenhals, p. 73. Thiers states that Dupont's 6,000 +gained a victory over 25,000 Austrians detached from the 60,000 who +occupied Ulm!] + +[Footnote 32: Marmont, vol. ii., p. 320; Lejeune, "Memoirs," vol. i., +ch. iii.] + +[Footnote 33: Thiers, bk. xxii. During Mack's interview with Napoleon +(see "Paget Papers," vol. ii., p. 235), when the Emperor asked him why +he did not cut his way through to Ansbach, he replied, "Prussia would +have declared against us." To which the Emperor retorted: "Ah! the +Prussians do not declare so quickly."] + +[Footnote 34: "Alexandre I et Czartoryski," pp. 32-34.] + +[Footnote 35: See these terms compared with the Anglo-Russian treaty +of April 11th, 1805, in the Appendix of Dr. Hansing's "Hardenberg und +die dritte Coalition" (Berlin, 1899).] + +[Footnote 36: Haeusser, vol. ii., p. 617 (4th. edit.); Lettow-Vorbeck, +"Der Krieg von 1806-1807," vol. i., _ad init_.] + +[Footnote 37: For the much more venial stratagem which Kutusoff played +on Murat at Hollabrunn, see Thiers, bk. xxiii.] + +[Footnote 38: Lord Harrowby, then on a special mission to Berlin, +reports (November 24th) that this appeal of the Czar had been "coolly +received," and no Prussian troops would enter Bohemia until it was +known how Prussia's envoy to Napoleon, Count Haugwitz, had been +received.] + +[Footnote 39: Thiers says December 1st, which is corrected by +Napoleon's letter of November 30th to Talleyrand.] + +[Footnote 40: Thiebault, vol. ii., ch. viii.; Segur, ch. xviii.; York +von Wartenburg, "Nap. als Feldherr," vol. i., p. 230.] + +[Footnote 41: Davoust's reports of December 2nd and 5th in his +"Corresp."] + +[Footnote 42: Segur, Thiebault, and Lejeune all state that Napoleon in +the previous advance northwards had foretold that a great battle would +soon be fought opposite Austerlitz, and explained how he would fight +it.] + +[Footnote 43: Thiebault wrongly attributes this succour to Lannes: for +that Marshal, who had just insulted and challenged Soult, Thiebault +had a manifest partiality. Savary, though hostile to Bernadotte, gives +him bare justice on this move.] + +[Footnote 44: Harrowby evidently thought that Prussia's conduct would +depend on events. Just before the news of Austerlitz arrived, he wrote +to Downing Street: "The eyes of this Government are turned almost +exclusively on Moravia. It is there the fate of this negotiation must +be decided." Yet he reports that 192,000 Prussians are under arms +("F.O.," Prussia, No. 70).] + +[Footnote 45: Jackson, "Diaries," vol. i., p. 137.] + +[Footnote 46: "Lettres inedites de Talleyrand," pp. 205-208.] + +[Footnote 47: Metternich, "Mems.," vol. i., ch. iii.] + +[Footnote 48: Hanover, along with a few districts of Bavarian +Franconia, would bring to Prussia a gain of 989,000 inhabitants, while +she would lose only 375,000. Neufchatel had offered itself to +Frederick I. of Prussia in 1688, and its proposed barter to France +troubled Hardenberg ("Mems.," vol. ii., p. 421).] + +[Footnote 49: Gower to Lord Harrowby from Olmuetz, November 25th, in +"F.O. Records," Russia, No. 59.] + +[Footnote 50: "Lettres inedites de Tall.," p. 216.] + +[Footnote 51: Printed for the first time in full in "Lettres inedites +de Tall.," pp. 156-174. On December 5th Talleyrand again begged +Napoleon to strengthen Austria as "a needful bulwark against the +barbarians, the Russians."] + +[Footnote 52: I dissent, though with much diffidence, from M. Vandal +("Napoleon et Alexandre," vol. i., p. 9) in regard to Talleyrand's +proposal.] + +[Footnote 53: Napoleon to Talleyrand (December 14th, 1805): "Sur de la +Prusse, l'Autriche en passera par ou je voudrai. Je ferai egalement +prononcer la Prusse contre l'Angleterre."] + +[Footnote 54: Report of M. Otto, August, 1799.] + +[Footnote 55: Czartoryski ("Mems.," vol. ii., ch. xii.) states that +England offered Holland to Prussia. I find no proof of this in our +Records. The districts between Antwerp and Cleves are Belgian, not +Dutch; and we never wavered in our support of the House of Orange.] + +[Footnote 56: These proposals, dated October 27th, 1805, were modified +somewhat on the news of Mack's disaster and the Treaty of Potsdam. +Hardenberg assured Harrowby (November 24th) that, despite England's +liberal pecuniary help, Frederick William felt great difficulty in +assenting to the proposed territorial arrangements ("F.O.," Prussia, +No. 70).] + +[Footnote 57: Hardenberg's "Memoirs," vol. ii., pp. 377, 382.] + +[Footnote 58: Ompteda, p. 188. The army returned in February, 1806.] + +[Footnote 59: "F.O.," Prussia, No. 70 (November 23rd).] + +[Footnote 60: "Diaries of Right Hon. G. Rose," vol. ii., pp. 223-224.] + +[Footnote 61: _Ib._, pp. 233-283; Rosebery, "Life of Pitt," p. 258.] + +[Footnote 62: Lord Malmesbury's "Diary," vol. iv., p. 114.] + +[Footnote 63: Letter of December 27th, 1805; Jackson, "Diaries," vol. +ii., p. 387.] + +[Footnote 64: Mollien, "Mems.," vol. i. _ad fin_., and vol. ii., p. +80, for the budget of 1806; also, Fievee, "Mes Relations avec +Bonaparte," vol. ii., pp. 180-203.] + +[Footnote 65: The Court of Naples asserted that in the Convention with +France its ambassador, the Comte de Gallo, exceeded his powers in +promising neutrality. See Lucchesini's conversation with Gentz, quoted +by Garden, "Traites," vol. x., p. 129.] + +[Footnote 66: See my article in the "Eng. Hist. Rev.," April, 1900.] + +[Footnote 67: Ducasse, "Les Rois Freres de Napoleon," p. 11.] + +[Footnote 68: Letter of February 7th, 1806. On the same day he blames +Junot, then commander of Parma, for too great lenience to some rebels +near that city. The Italians were a false people, who only respected a +strong Government. Let him, then, burn two large villages so that no +trace remained, shoot the priest of one village, and send three or +four hundred of the guilty to the galleys. "Trust my old experience of +the Italians."] + +[Footnote 69: For a list of the chief Napoleonic titles, see Appendix, +_ad fin_.] + +[Footnote 70: January 2nd, 1802; so too Fievee, "Mes Relations avec +Bonaparte," vol. ii., p. 210, who notes that, by founding an order of +nobility, Napoleon ended his own isolation and attached to his +interests a powerful landed caste.] + +[Footnote 71: Hardenberg's "Memoirs," vol. ii., p. 390-394.] + +[Footnote 72: Hardenberg to Harrowby on January 7th, "Prussia," No. +70.] + +[Footnote 73: I have not found a copy of this project; but in +"Prussia," No. 70 (forwarded by Jackson on January 27th, 1806), there +is a detailed "Memoire explicatif," whence I extract these details, as +yet unpublished, I believe. Neither Hardenberg, Garden, Jackson, nor +Paget mentions them.] + +[Footnote 74: Records, "Prussia," No. 70, dated February 21st.] + +[Footnote 75: Hardenberg, "Mems.," vol. ii., pp. 463-469; "Nap. +Corresp.," No. 9742, for Napoleon's thoughts as to peace, when he +heard of Fox being our Foreign Minister.] + +[Footnote 76: See "Nap. Corresp.," Nos. 9742, 9773, 9777, for his +views as to the weakness of England and Prussia. This treaty of +February 15th, 1806, confirmed the cession of Neufchatel and Cleves to +France, and of Ansbach to Bavaria; but did not cede any Franconian +districts to Prussia's Baireuth lands. See Hardenberg, "Memoires," +vol. ii., p. 483, for the text of the treaty.] + +[Footnote 77: The strange perversity of Haugwitz is nowhere more shown +than in his self-congratulation at the omission of the adjectives +_offensive et defensive_ from the new treaty of alliance between +France and Prussia (Hardenberg, vol. ii., p. 481). Napoleon was now +not pledged to help Prussia in the war which George III. declared +against her on April 20th.] + +[Footnote 78: It is noteworthy that in all the negotiations that +followed, Napoleon never raised any question about our exacting +maritime code, which proves how hollow were his diatribes against the +tyrant of the seas at other times.] + +[Footnote 79: Despatch of April 20th, 1806, in Papers presented to +Parliament on December 22nd, 1806.] + +[Footnote 80: Czartoryski's "Mems.," vol. ii., ch. xiii.] + +[Footnote 81: "I do not intend the Court of Rome to mix any more in +politics" (Nap. to the Pope, February 13th, 1806).] + +[Footnote 82: I translate literally these N.B.'s as pasted in at the +end of Yarmouth's Memoir of July 8th ("France," No. 73). As Oubril's +instructions have never, I believe, been published, the passage given +above is somewhat important as proving how completely he exceeded his +powers in bartering away Sicily. The text of the Oubril Treaty is +given by De Clercq, vol. ii., p. 180. The secret articles required +Russia to help France in inducing the Court of Madrid to cede the +Balearic Isles to the Prince Royal of Naples; the dethroned King and +Queen were not to reside there, and Russia was to recognize Joseph +Bonaparte as King of the Two Sicilies.] + +[Footnote 83: In conversing with our ambassador, Mr. Stuart, Baron +Budberg excused Oubril's conduct on the ground of his nervousness +under the threats of the French plenipotentiary, General Clarke, who +scarcely let him speak, and darkly hinted at many other changes that +must ensue if Russia did not make peace; Switzerland was to be +annexed, Germany overrun, and Turkey partitioned. That Clarke was a +master in diplomatic hectoring is well known; but, from private +inquiries, Stuart discovered that the Czar, in his private conference +with Oubril, seemed more inclined towards peace than Czartoryski: when +therefore the latter resigned, Oubril might well give way before +Clarke's bluster. (Stuart's Despatch of August 9th, 1806, F.O., +Russia, No. 63; also see Czartoryski's "Mems.," vol. ii., ch. xiv.; +and Martens, "Traites," Suppl. vol. iv.)] + +[Footnote 84: "Memoirs of Karl Heinrich, Knight of Lang."] + +[Footnote 85: Garden, vol. ix., pp. 157, 189, 255.] + +[Footnote 86: "Corresp.," Nos. 10522 and 10544. For a French account +see the "Mems." of Baron Desvernois, p. 288.] + +[Footnote 87: "F.O. Records," Naples, No. 73.] + +[Footnote 88: This was on Napoleon's advice. He wrote to Talleyrand +from Rambouillet on August 18th, to give as an excuse for the delay, +"The Emperor is hunting and will not be back before the end of the +week."] + +[Footnote 89: So too Napoleon said at St. Helena to Las Cases: "Fox's +death was one of the fatalities of my career."] + +[Footnote 90: Despatches of September 26th and October 6th.] + +[Footnote 91: Bailleu, "Frankreich und Preussen," Introd.] + +[Footnote 92: Decree of July 26th.] + +[Footnote 93: See "Corresp." No. 10604, note; also Talleyrand's letter +of August 4th ("Lettres inedites," p. 245), showing the indemnities +that might be offered to Prussia after the loss of Hanover: they +included, of course, little States, Anhalt, Lippe, Waldeck, etc.] + +[Footnote 94: Gentz, "Ausgew. Schriften," vol. v., p. 252. +Conversation with Lucchesini.] + +[Footnote 95: "Corresp.," Nos. 10575, 10587, 10633.] + +[Footnote 96: "Mems.," vol. iii., pp. 115, _et seq._ The +Prusso-Russian convention of July, by which these Powers mutually +guaranteed the integrity of their States, was mainly the work of +Hardenberg.] + +[Footnote 97: Bailleu, pp. 540-552. See too Fournier's "Napoleon," +vol. ii., p. 106.] + +[Footnote 98: Bailleu, pp. 556-557. So too Napoleon's letter of +September 5th to Berthier is the first hint of his thought of a +Continental war.] + +[Footnote 99: Queen Louisa said to Gentz (October 9th) that war had +been decided on, not owing to selfish calculations, but the sentiment +of honour (Garden, "Traites," vol. x., p. 133).] + +[Footnote 100: A memorial was handed in to him on September 2nd. It +was signed by the King's brothers, Henry and William, also by the +leader of the warlike party, Prince Louis Ferdinand, by Generals +Ruechel and Phull, and by the future dictator, Stein. The King rebuked +all of them. See Pertz, "Stein," vol. i., p. 347.] + +[Footnote 101: "F.O.," Russia, No. 64. Stuart's despatches of +September 30th and October 21st.] + +[Footnote 102: Mueffling, "Aus meinem Leben."] + +[Footnote 103: Lettow-Vorbeck, "Der Krieg von 1806-7," p. 163.] + +[Footnote 104: See Prince Hohenlohe's "Letters on Strategy" (p. 62, +Eng. ed.) for the effect of this rapid marching; Foucart's "Campagne +de Prusse," vol. i., pp. 323-343; also Lord Fitzmaurice's "Duke of +Brunswick."] + +[Footnote 105: Hoepfner, vol. i.p. 383; and Lettow-Vorbeck, vol. i., p. +345.] + +[Footnote 106: Foucart, _op. cit._, pp. 606-623.] + +[Footnote 107: Marbot says Ruechel was killed: but he recovered from +his wound, and did good service the next spring. + +Vernet's picture of Napoleon inspecting his Guards at Jena before +their charge seems to represent the well-known incident of a soldier +calling out "_en avant_"; whereupon Napoleon sharply turned and bade +the man wait till he had commanded in twenty battles before he gave +him advice.] + +[Footnote 108: Foucart, p. 671.] + +[Footnote 109: Lang thus describes four French Marshals whom he saw at +Ansbach: "Bernadotte, a very tall dark man, with fiery eyes under +thick brows; Mortier, still taller, with a stupid sentinel look; +Lefebvre, an old Alsatian camp-boy, with his wife, former washerwoman +to the regiment; and Davoust, a little smooth-pated, unpretending man, +who was never tired of waltzing."] + +[Footnote 110: Davoust, "Operations du 3eme Corps," pp. 31-32. French +writers reduce their force to 24,000, and raise Brunswick's total to +60,000. Lehmann's "Scharnhorst," vol. i., p. 433, gives the details.] + +[Footnote 111: Foucart, pp. 604-606, 670, and 694-697, who only blames +him for slowness. But he set out from Naumburg before dawn, and, +though delayed by difficult tracks, was near Apolda at 4 p.m., and +took 1,000 prisoners.] + +[Footnote 112: For this service, as for his exploits at Austerlitz, +Napoleon gave few words of praise. Lannes' remonstrance is printed by +General Thoumas, "Le Marechal Lannes," p. 169. The Emperor secretly +disliked Lannes for his very independent bearing.] + +[Footnote 113: "Nap. Corresp.," November 21st, 1807; Baron Lumbroso's +"Napoleone I e l'Inghilterra," p. 103; Garden, vol. x., p. 307.] + +[Footnote 114: This decree, of 10 Brumaire, an V, is printed in full, +and commented on by Lumbroso, _op. cit._, p. 49. See too Sorel, +"L'Europe et la Rev. Fr.," vol. iii., p. 389; and my article, +"Napoleon and English Commerce," in the "Eng. Hist. Rev." of October, +1893.] + +[Footnote 115: This phrase occurs, I believe, first in the +conversation of Napoleon on May 1st, 1803: "We will form a more +complete coast-system, and England shall end by shedding tears of +blood" (Miot de Melito, "Mems.," vol. i., chap. xiv.).] + +[Footnote 116: _E.g._, Fauchille, "Du Blocus maritime," pp. 93 _et +seq._] + +[Footnote 117: See especially the pamphlet "War in Disguise, or the +Frauds of the Neutral Flags" (1805), by J. Stephen. It has been said +that this pamphlet was a cause of the Orders in Council. The whole +question is discussed by Manning, "Commentaries on the Law of Nations" +(1875); Lawrence, "International Law"; Mahan, "Infl. of Sea Power," +vol. ii., pp. 274-277; Mollien, vol. iii., p. 289 (first edit.); and +Chaptal, p. 275.] + +[Footnote 118: Hausser, vol. iii., p. 61 (4th edit.). The Saxon +federal contingent was fixed at 20,000 men.] + +[Footnote 119: Papers presented to Parliament, December 22nd, 1806.] + +[Footnote 120: After the interview of November 28th, 1801, Cornwallis +reports that Napoleon "expressed a wish that we could agree to remove +disaffected persons from either country ... and declared his +willingness to send away United Irishmen" ("F.O. Records," No. 615).] + +[Footnote 121: Czartoryski, "Mems.," vol. ii., ch. xv.] + +[Footnote 122: In our "F.O. Records," Prussia, No. 74, is a report of +Napoleon's reply to a deputation at Warsaw (January, 1807): "I warn +you that neither I nor any French prince cares for your Polish throne: +I have crowns to give and don't know what to do with them. You must +first of all think of giving bread to my soldiers--'Bread, bread, +bread.' ... I cannot support my troops in this country, where there is +no one besides nobles and miserable peasants. Where are your great +families? They are all sold to Russia. It is Czartoryski who wrote to +Kosciusko not to come back to Poland." And when a Galician deputy +asked him of the fate of his province, he turned on him: "Do you think +that I will draw on myself new foes for one province." Nevertheless, +the enthusiasm of the Poles was not wholly chilled. Their contingents +did good service for him. Somewhat later, female devotion brought a +beautiful young Polish lady to act as his mistress, primarily with the +hope of helping on the liberation of her land, and then as a willing +captive to the charm which he exerted on all who approached him. Their +son was Count Walewska] + +[Footnote 123: Marbot, ch. xxviii.] + +[Footnote 124: Lettow-Vorbeck estimates the French loss at more than +24,000; that of the Russians as still heavier, but largely owing to +the bad commissariat and wholesale straggling. On this see Sir R. +Wilson's "Campaign in Poland," ch. i.] + +[Footnote 125: Napoleon on February 13th charged Bertrand to offer +_verbally, but not in writing_, to the King of Prussia a separate +peace, without respect to the Czar. Frederick William was to be +restored to his States east of the Elbe. He rejected the offer, which +would have broken his engagements to the Czar. Napoleon repeated the +offer on February 20th, which shows that, at this crisis, he did wish +for peace with Prussia. See "Nap. Corresp.," No. 11810; and Hausser, +vol. iii., p. 74.] + +[Footnote 126: "I have been repeatedly pressed by the Prussian and +Russian Governments," wrote Lord Hutchinson, our envoy at Memel, March +9th, 1807, "on the subject of a diversion to be made by British troops +against Mortier.... Stettin is a large place with a small garrison and +in a bad state of defence" ("F.O.," Prussia, No. 74). in 1805 Pitt +promised to send a British force to Stralsund (see p. 17).] + +[Footnote 127: Lord Cathcart's secret report to the War Office, dated +April 22nd, 1807, dealt with the appeal made by Lord Hutchinson, and +with a _Projet_ of Dumouriez, both of whom strongly urged the +expedition to Stralsund. On May 30th Castlereagh received a report +from a Hanoverian officer, Kuckuck, stating that Hanover and Hesse +were ripe for revolt, and that Hameln might easily be seized if the +North Germans were encouraged by an English force ("Castlereagh +Letters," vol. vi., pp. 169 and 211).] + +[Footnote 128: "F.O.," Russia, No. 69.] + +[Footnote 129: "Correspond.," No. 12563; also "La Mission du Gen. +Gardane en Perse," par le comte de Gardane. Napoleon in his +proclamation of December 2nd, 1806, told the troops that their +victories had won for France her Indian possessions and the Cape of +Good Hope.] + +[Footnote 130: Wilson, "Campaign in Poland"; "Operations du 3'me Corps +[Davoust's], 1806-1807," p. 199.] + +[Footnote 131: "Corresp.," Nos. 12749 and 12751. Lejeune, in his +"Memoirs," also shows that Napoleon's chief aim was to seize +Koenigsberg.] + +[Footnote 132: "Memoirs of Oudinot," ch. i] + +[Footnote 133: The report is dated Memel, June 21st, 1807, in "F.O.," +Prussia, No. 74. Hutchinson thinks the Russians had not more than +45,000 men engaged at Friedland, and that their losses did not exceed +15,000: but there were "multitudes of stragglers." Lettow-Vorbeck +gives about the same estimates. Those given in the French bulletin are +grossly exaggerated.] + +[Footnote 134: On June 17th, 1807, Queen Louisa wrote to her father:" +... we fall with honour. The King has proved that he prefers honour to +shameful submission." On June 23rd Bennigsen professed a wish to +fight, while secretly advising surrender (Hardenberg, "Mems.," vol. +iii., p. 469).] + +[Footnote 135: "F.O.," Russia, No. 69. Soult told Lord Holland +("Foreign Reminiscences," p. 185) that Bennigsen was plotting to +murder the Czar, and he (S.) warned him of it.] + +[Footnote 136: "Lettres inedites de Talleyrand," p. 468; also Garden, +vol. x., pp. 205-210; and "Ann. Reg." (1807), pp. 710-724, for the +British replies to Austria.] + +[Footnote 137: Canning to Paget ("Paget Papers," vol. ii., p. 324). So +too Canning's despatch of July 21st to Gower (Russia, No. 69).] + + +[Footnote 138: Stadion saw through it. See Beer, p. 243.] + +[Footnote 139: "Nap. Corresp.," No. 11918.] + +[Footnote 140: _Ib._, No. 12028. This very important letter seems to +me to refute M. Vandal's theory ("Nap. et Alexandre," ch. i.), that +Napoleon was throughout seeking for an alliance with _Austria_, or +Prussia, or Russia.] + +[Footnote 141: Canning to Paget, May 16th, 1807 ("Paget Papers," vol. +ii., p. 290).] + +[Footnote 142: Garden, vol. x., pp. 214-218; and Gower's despatch of +June 17th. 1807 (Russia, No. 69).] + +[Footnote 143: All references to the story rest ultimately on Bignon, +"Hist. de France" (vol. vi., p. 316), who gives no voucher for it. For +the reasons given above I must regard the story as suspect. Among a +witty, phrase-loving people like the French, a good _mot_ is almost +certain to gain credence and so pass into history.] + +[Footnote 144: Tatischeff, "Alexandre I et Napoleon" (pp. 144-148).] + +[Footnote 145: Reports of Savary and Lesseps, quoted by Vandal, _op. +cit._, p. 61; "Corresp.," No. 12825.] + +[Footnote 146: Vandal, p. 73, says that the news reached Napoleon at a +review when Alexander was by his side. If so, the occasion was +carefully selected with a view to effect; for the news reached him on, +or before, June 24th (see "Corresp.," No. 12819). Gower states that +the news reached Tilsit as early as the 15th; and Hardenberg secretly +proposed a policy of partition of Turkey on June 23rd ("Mems.," vol. +iii., p. 463). Hardenberg resigned office on July 4th, as Napoleon +refused to treat through him.] + +[Footnote 147: "Corresp.," No. 12862, letter of July 6th.] + +[Footnote 148: Tatischeff (pp. 146-148 and 163-168) proves from the +Russian archives that these schemes were Alexander's, and were in the +main opposed by Napoleon. This disproves Vandal's assertion (p. 101) +that Napoleon pressed Alexander to take the Memel and Polish +districts.] + +[Footnote 149: "Erinnerungen der Graefin von Voss."] + +[Footnote 150: Probably this refers not to the restitution of Silesia, +which he politely offered to her (though he had previously granted it +on the Czar's request), but to Madgeburg and its environs west of the +Elbe. On July 7th he said to Goltz, the Prussian negotiator, "I am +sorry if the Queen took as positive assurances the _phrases de_ +_politesse_ that one speaks to ladies" (Hardenberg's "Mems.," vol. +iii., p. 512).] + +[Footnote 151: See the new facts published by Bailleu in the +"Hohenzollern Jahrbuch" (1899). The "rose" story is not in any German +source.] + +[Footnote 152: In his "Memoirs" (vol. i., pt. iii.) Talleyrand says +that he repeated this story several times at the Tuileries, until +Napoleon rebuked him for it.] + +[Footnote 153: Before Tilsit Prussia had 9,744,000 subjects; +afterwards only 4,938,000. See her frontiers in map on p. 215.] + +[Footnote 154: The exact terms of the secret articles and of the +secret treaty have only been known since 1890, when, owing to the +labours of MM. Fournier, Tatischeff, and Vandal, they saw the light.] + +[Footnote 155: Gower's despatch of July 12th. "F.O.," Russia, No. 69.] + +[Footnote 156: De Clercq, "Traites," vol. ii., pp. 223-225; Garden, +vol. x., p. 233 and 277-290. Our envoy, Jackson, reported from Memel +on July 28th: "Nothing can exceed the insolence and extortions of the +French. No sooner is one demand complied with than a fresh one is +brought forward."] + +[Footnote 157: That he seriously thought in November, 1807, of leaving +to Prussia less than half of her already cramped territories, is clear +from his instructions to Caulaincourt, his ambassador to the Czar: "Is +it not to Prussia's interest for her to place herself, at once, and +with entire resignation, among the inferior Powers?" A new treaty was +to be framed, under the guise of _interpreting_ that of Tilsit, Russia +keeping the Danubian Provinces, and Napoleon more than half of Prussia +(Vandal, vol. i., p. 509).] + +[Footnote 158: Lucchesini to Gentz in October, 1806, in Gentz's +"Ausgewaehlte Schriften," vol. v., p. 257.] + +[Footnote 159: See Canning's reply to Stahremberg's Note, on April +25th, 1807, in the "Ann. Reg.," p. 724.] + +[Footnote 160: For Mackenzie's report and other details gleaned from +our archives, see my article "A British Agent at Tilsit," in the "Eng. +Hist. Rev." of October, 1901.] + +[Footnote 161: James, "Naval History," vol. iv., p. 408.] + +[Footnote 162: "F.O.," Denmark, No. 53.] + +[Footnote 163: Garden, vol. x., p. 408.] + +[Footnote 164: "Corresp.," No. 12962; see too No. 12936, ordering the +15,000 Spanish troops now serving him near Hamburg to form the nucleus +of Bernadotte's army of observation, which, "in case of events," was +to be strengthened by as many Dutch.] + +[Footnote 165: "F.O.," Denmark, No. 53. I published this Memorandum of +Canning and other unpublished papers in an article, "Canning and +Denmark," in the "Eng. Hist. Rev." of January, 1896. The terms of the +capitulation were, it seems, mainly decided on by Sir Arthur +Wellesley, who wrote to Canning (September 8th): "I might have carried +our terms higher ... had not our troops been needed at home" ("Well. +Despatches," vol. iii., p. 7).] + +[Footnote 166: Castlereagh's "Corresp.," vol. vi. So too Gower +reported from St. Petersburg on October 1st that public opinion was +"decidedly averse to war with England, ... and it appears to me that +the English name was scarcely ever more popular in Russia than at the +present time."] + +[Footnote 167: Letters of July 19th and 29th.] + +[Footnote 168: The phrase is that of Viscount Strangford, our +ambassador at Lisbon ("F.O.," Portugal, No. 55). So Baumgarten, +"Geschichte Spaniens," vol. i., p. 136.] + +[Footnote 169: Report of the Portuguese ambassador, Lourenco de Lima, +dated August 7th, 1807, inclosed by Viscount Strangford ("F.O.," +Portugal, No. 55).] + +[Footnote 170: This statement as to the date of the summons to +Portugal is false: it was July 19th when he ordered it to be sent, +that is, long before the Copenhagen news reached him.] + +[Footnote 171: "Corresp.," No. 12839.] + +[Footnote 172: See Lady Blennerhasset's "Talleyrand," vol. ii., ch. +xvi., for a discussion of Talleyrand's share in the new policy. This +question, together with many others, cannot be solved, owing to +Talleyrand's destruction of most of his papers. In June, 1806, he +advised a partition of Portugal; and in the autumn he is said to have +favoured the overthrow of the Spanish Bourbons. But there must surely +be some connection between Napoleon's letter to him of July 19th, +1807, on Portuguese affairs and the resignation which he persistently +offered on their return to Paris. On August 10th he wrote to the +Emperor that that letter would be the last act of his Ministry +("Lettres inedites de Tall.," p. 476). He was succeeded by Champagny.] + +[Footnote 173: "Corresp.," Nos. 13235, 37, 43.] + +[Footnote 174: "Corresp.," Nos. 13314 and 13327. So too, to General +Clarke, his new Minister of War, he wrote: "Junot may say anything he +pleases, so long as he gets hold of the fleet" ("New Letters of Nap.," +October 28th, 1807).] + +[Footnote 175: Strangford's despatches quite refute Thiers' confident +statement that the Portuguese answers to Napoleon were planned in +concert with us. I cannot find in our archives a copy of the +Anglo-Portuguese Convention signed by Canning on October 22nd, 1807; +but there are many references to it in his despatches. It empowered us +to occupy Madeira; and our fleet did so at the close of the year. In +April next we exchanged it for the Azores and Goa.] + +[Footnote 176: "Corresp.," July 22nd, 1807.] + +[Footnote 177: Between September 1st, 1807, and November 23rd, 1807, +he wrote eighteen letters on the subject of Corfu, which he designed +to be his base of operations as soon as the Eastern Question could be +advantageously reopened. On February 8th, 1808, he wrote to Joseph +that Corfu was more important than Sicily, and that "_in the present +state of Europe, the loss of Corfu would be the greatest of +disasters_." This points to his proposed partition of Turkey.] + +[Footnote 178: Letter of October 13th, 1807.] + +[Footnote 179: "Ann. Register" for 1807, pp. 227, 747.] + +[Footnote 180: _Ibid._, pp. 749-750. Another Order in Council +(November 25th) allowed neutral ships a few more facilities for +colonial trade, and Prussian merchantmen were set free (_ibid._, pp. +755-759). In April, 1809, we further favoured the carrying of British +goods on neutral ships, especially to or from the United States.] + +[Footnote 181: Bourrienne, "Memoirs." The case against the Orders in +Council is fairly stated by Lumbroso, and by Alison, ch. 50.] + +[Footnote 182: Gower reported (on September 22nd) that the Spanish +ambassador at St. Petersburg had been pleading for help there, so as +to avenge this insult.] + +[Footnote 183: Baumgarten, "Geschichte Spaniens," vol. i., p. 138.] + +[Footnote 184: "Nap. Corresp." of October 17th and 31st, November +13th, December 23rd, 1807, and February 20th, 1808; also Napier, +"Peninsular War," bk. i., ch. ii.] + +[Footnote 185: Letter of January 10th, 1808.] + +[Footnote 186: Letter of Charles IV. to Napoleon of October 29th, +1807, published in "Murat, Lieutenant de l'Empereur en Espagne," +Appendix viii.] + +[Footnote 187: "New Letters of Napoleon."] + +[Footnote 188: "Corresp.," letter of February 25th.] + +[Footnote 189: Murat in 1814 told Lord Holland ("Foreign +Reminiscences," p. 131) he had had no instructions from Napoleon.] + +[Footnote 190: Thiers, notes to bk. xxix.] + +[Footnote 191: "Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de la Revolution +d'Espagne, par Nellerto"; also "The Journey of Ferdinand VII. to +Bayonne," by Escoiquiz.] + +[Footnote 192: "Corresp.," No. 13696. A careful comparison of this +laboured, halting effusion, with the curt military syle*style of the +genuine letters--and especially with Nos. 93, 94, and 100 of the "New +Letters"--must demonstrate its non-authenticity. Thiers' argument to +the contrary effect is rambling and weak. Count Murat in his recent +monograph on his father pronounces the letter a fabrication of St. +Helena or later. It was first published in the "Memorial de St. +Helene," an untrustworthy compilation made by Las Cases after +Napoleon's death from notes taken at St. Helena.] + +[Footnote 193: Napoleon had at first intended the Spanish crown for +Louis, to whom he wrote on March 27th: "The climate of Holland does +not suit you. Besides, Holland can never rise from her ruins." Louis +declined, on the ground that his call to Holland had been from heaven, +and not from Napoleon!] + +[Footnote 194: Memoirs of Thiebault and De Broglie; so, too, De Rocca, +"La Guerre en Espagne."] + +[Footnote 195: See the letter of an Englishman from Buenos Ayres of +September 27th, 1809, in "Cobbett's Register" for 1810 (p. 256), +stating that the new popular Government there was driven by want of +funds, "not from their good wishes to England," to open their ports to +all foreign commerce on moderate duties.] + +[Footnote 196: Vandal, "Napoleon et Alexandre," ch. vii. It is not +published in the "Correspondence" or in the "New Letters."] + +[Footnote 197: Vandal, "Napoleon et Alexandre," vol. i., ch. iv., and +App. II.] + +[Footnote 198: In the conversations which Metternich had with Napoleon +and Talleyrand on and after January 22nd, 1808, he was convinced that +the French Emperor intended to partition Turkey as soon as it suited +him to do so, which would be after he had subjected Spain. Napoleon +said to him: "When the Russians are at Constantinople you will need +France to help you against them."--"Metternich Memoirs," vol. ii., p. +188.] + +[Footnote 199: So Soult told Lord Holland ("Foreign Reminiscences," p. +171).] + +[Footnote 200: Vandal, vol. i., p. 384.] + +[Footnote 201: Metternich, "Mems.," vol. ii. p. 298 (Eng. edit.).] + +[Footnote 202: I think that Beer (pp. 330-340) errs somewhat in +ranking Talleyrand's work at Erfurt at that statesman's own very high +valuation, which he enhanced in later years: see Greville's "Mems.," +Second Part, vol. ii., p. 193.] + +[Footnote 203: Vandal, vol. i., p. 307.] + +[Footnote 204: Sklower, "L'Entrevue de Napoleon avec Goethe"; Mrs. +Austin's "Germany from 1760 to 1814"; Oncken, bk. vii., ch. i. For +Napoleon's dispute with Wieland about Tacitus see Talleyrand, "Mems.," +vol. i., pt. 5. When the Emperors' carriages were ready for departure, +Talleyrand whispered to Alexander: "Ah! si Votre Majeste pouvait se +tromper de voiture."] + +[Footnote 205: "F.O.," Russia, No. 74, despatch of December 9th, 1808. +On January 14th, 1809, Canning signed a treaty of alliance with the +Spanish people, both sides agreeing never to make peace with Napoleon +except by common consent. It was signed when the Spanish cause seemed +desperate; but it was religiously observed.] + +[Footnote 206: Madelin's "Fouche," vol. ii., p. 80; Pasquier, vol. i., +pp. 353-360.] + +[Footnote 207: Seeley, "Life and Times of Stein," vol. ii., p. 316; +Hausser, vol. iii., p. 219 (4th edition).] + +[Footnote 208: Our F.O. Records show that we wanted to help Austria; +but a long delay was caused by George III.'s insisting that she should +make peace with us first. Canning meanwhile sent L250,000 in silver +bars to Trieste. But in his note of April 20th he assured the Court of +Vienna that our treasury had been "nearly exhausted" by the drain of +the Peninsular War. (Austria, No. 90.)] + +[Footnote 209: For the campaign see the memoirs of Macdonald, Marbot, +Lejeune, Pelet and Marmont. The last (vol. iii., p. 216) says that, +had the Austrians pressed home their final attacks at Aspern, a +disaster was inevitable; or had Charles later on cut the French +communications near Vienna, the same result must have followed. But +the investigations of military historians leave no doubt that the +Austrian troops were too exhausted by their heroic exertions, and +their supplies of ammunition too much depleted, to warrant any risky +moves for several days; and by that time reinforcements had reached +Napoleon. See too Angelis' "Der Erz-Herzog Karl."] + +[Footnote 210: Thoumas, "Le Marechal Lannes," pp. 205, 323 _et seq._ +Desvernois ("Mems.," ch. xii.) notes that after Austerlitz none of +Napoleon's wars had the approval of France.] + +[Footnote 211: For the Walcheren expedition see Alison, vol. viii.; +James, vol. iv.; as also for Gambier's failure at Rochefort. The +letters of Sir Byam Martin, then cruising off Danzig, show how our +officers wished to give timely aid to Schill ("Navy Records," vol. +xii.).] + +[Footnote 212: Captain Boothby's "A Prisoner of France," ch. iii.] + +[Footnote 213: For Charles's desire to sue for peace after the first +battles on the Upper Danube, see Haeusser, vol. iii., p. 341; also, +after Wagram, _ib._, pp. 412-413.] + +[Footnote 214: Napier, bk. viii., chs. ii. and iii. In the App. of +vol. iii. of "Wellington's Despatches" is Napoleon's criticism on the +movements of Joseph and the French marshals. He blames them for their +want of _ensemble_, and for the precipitate attack which Victor +advised at Talavera. He concluded: "As long as you attack good troops +like the English in good positions, without reconnoitring them, you +will lead men to death _en pure perte_."] + +[Footnote 215: An Austrian envoy had been urging promptitude at +Downing Street. On June 1st he wrote to Canning: "The promptitude of +the enemy has always been the key to his success. A long experience +has proved this to the world, which seems hitherto not to have +profited by this knowledge." On July 29th Canning acknowledged the +receipt of the Austrian ratification of peace with us, "accompanied by +the afflicting intelligence of the armistice concluded on the 12th +instant between the Austrian and French armies." + +Napoleon at St. Helena said to Montholon that, had 6,000 British +troops pushed rapidly up the banks of the Scheldt on the day that the +expedition reached Flushing, they could easily have taken Antwerp, +which was then very weakly held. See, too, other opinions quoted by +Alison, ch. lx.] + +[Footnote 216: Beer, p. 441.] + +[Footnote 217: Vandal, vol. ii., p. 161; Metternich, vol. i., p. 114.] + +[Footnote 218: Letter of February 10th, 1810, quoted by Lanfrey. See, +too, the "Mems." of Prince Eugene, vol. vi., p. 277.] + +[Footnote 219: "Memoirs," vol. ii., p. 365 (Eng. ed.).] + +[Footnote 220: Bausset, "Mems.," ch. xix.] + +[Footnote 221: Mme. de Remusat, "Mems.," ch. xxvii.] + +[Footnote 222: Tatischeff, "Alexandre et Napoleon," p. 519. +Welschinger, "Le Divorce de Napoleon," ch. ii.; he also examines the +alleged irregularities of the religious marriage with Josephine; Fesch +and most impartial authorities brushed them aside as a flimsy excuse.] + +[Footnote 223: Metternich's despatch of December 25th, 1809, in his +"Mems.," vol. ii., Sec. 150. The first hints were dropped by him to +Laborde on November 29th (Vandal, vol. ii., pp. 204, 543): they +reached Napoleon's ears about December 15th. For the influence of +these marriage negotiations in preparing for Napoleon's rupture with +the Czar, see chap, xxxii. of this work.] + +[Footnote 224: "Conversations with the Duke of Wellington," p. 9. The +disobedience of Ney and Soult did much to ruin Massena's campaign, and +he lost the battle of Fuentes d'Onoro mainly through that of +Bessieres. Still, as he failed to satisfy Napoleon's maxim, "Succeed: +I judge men only by results," he was disgraced.] + +[Footnote 225: Decree of February 5th, 1810. See Welschinger, "La +Censure sous le premier Empire," p. 31. For the seizure of Madame de +Stael's "Allemagne" and her exile, see her preface to "Dix Annees +d'Exil."] + +[Footnote 226: Mollien, "Mems.," vol. iii., p. 183.] + +[Footnote 227: Fouche retired to Italy, and finally settled at Aix. +His place at the Ministry of Police was taken by Savary, Duc de +Rovigo. See Madelin's "Fouche," chap. xx.] + +[Footnote 228: Porter, "Progress of the Nation," p. 388.] + +[Footnote 229: Letters of August 6th, 7th, 29th. The United States had +just repealed their Non-Intercourse Act of 1807. For their relations +with Napoleon and England, see Channing's "The United States of +America," chs. vi. and vii.; also the Anglo-American correspondence in +Cobbett's "Register for 1809 and 1810."] + +[Footnote 230: Mollien, "Mems." vol. i., p. 316.] + +[Footnote 231: Tooke, "Hist. of Prices," vol. i., p. 311; Mollien, +vol. iii., pp. 135, 289; Pasquier, vol. i., p. 295; Chaptal, p. 275.] + +[Footnote 232: Letter of August 6th, 1810, to Eugene.] + +[Footnote 233: "Progress of the Nation," p. 148.] + +[Footnote 234: So Mollien, vol. iii., p. 135: "One knows that his +powerful imagination was fertile in illusions: as soon as they had +seduced him, he sought with a kind of good faith to enhance their +prestige, and he succeeded easily in persuading many others of what he +had convinced himself. He braved business difficulties as he braved +dangers in war."] [Footnote 235: Miot de Melito, vol. ii., ch. xv. For +some favourable symptoms in French industry, see Lumbroso, pp. +165-226, and Chaptal, p. 287. They have been credited to the +Continental System; but surely they resulted from the internal free +trade and intelligent administration which France had enjoyed since +the Revolution.] + +[Footnote 236: "Nap. Corresp.," May 8th, 1811.] + +[Footnote 237: Goethe published the first part of "Faust," _in full_, +early in 1808.] + +[Footnote 238: Baur, "Stein und Perthes," p. 85.] + +[Footnote 239: Lavalette, "Mems.," ch. xxv.] + +[Footnote 240: Letters of October 10th and 13th, 1810, and January +1st, 1811.] + +[Footnote 241: Letter of September 17th, 1810.] + +[Footnote 242: Letter of March 8th, 1811. For a fuller treatment of +the commercial struggle between Great Britain and Napoleon see my +articles, "Napoleon and British Commerce" and "Britain's Food Supply +during the French War," in a volume entitled "Napoleonic Studies" +(George Bell and Sons, 1904).] + +[Footnote 243: Czartoryski, "Mems.," vol. ii., ch. xvii. At this time +he was taken back to the Czar's favour, and was bidden to hope for the +re-establishment of Poland by the Czar as soon as Napoleon made a +blunder.] + +[Footnote 244: Tatischeff, p. 526; Vandal, vol. ii., ch. vii.] + +[Footnote 245: "Corresp.," No. 16178; Vandal, vol. ii., ch. vii. The +_expose_ of December 1st, 1809, had affirmed that Napoleon did not +intend to re-establish Poland. But this did not satisfy Alexander.] + +[Footnote 246: Letters of October 23rd and December 2nd, 1810.] + +[Footnote 247: Vandal, vol. ii., p. 529.] + +[Footnote 248: Tatischeff, p. 555.] + +[Footnote 249: Vandal, vol. ii., p. 535, admits that we had no hand in +it. But the Czar naturally became more favourable to us, and at the +close of 1811 secretly gave entry to our goods.] + +[Footnote 250: Quoted by Garden, vol. xiii., p. 171.] + +[Footnote 251: Bernhardi's "Denkwuerdigkeiten des Grafen von Toll," +vol. i. p. 223.] + +[Footnote 252: Czartoryski, vol. ii., ch. xvii. At Dresden, in May, +1812, Napoleon admitted to De Pradt, his envoy at Warsaw that Russia's +lapse from the Continental System was the chief cause of war; "Without +Russia, the Continental System is absurdity."] + +[Footnote 253: For the overtures of Russia and Sweden to us and their +exorbitant requests for loans, see Mr. Hereford George's account in +his careful and systematic study, "Napoleon's Invasion of Russia," ch. +iv. It was not till July, 1812, that we formally made peace with +Russia and Sweden, and sent them pecuniary aid. We may note here that +Napoleon, in April, 1812, sent us overtures for peace, if we would +acknowledge Joseph as King of Spain and Murat as King of Naples, and +withdraw our troops from the Peninsula and Sicily: Napoleon would then +evacuate Spain. Castlereagh at once refused an offer which would have +left Napoleon free to throw his whole strength against Russia (Garden, +vol. xiii., pp. 215, 254).] + +[Footnote 254: Garden, vol. xiii., p. 329.] + +[Footnote 255: Hereford George, _op. cit._, pp. 34-37. Metternich +("Memoirs," vol. ii., p. 517, Eng. ed.) shows that Napoleon had also +been holding out to Austria the hope of gaining Servia, Wallachia and +Moldavia (the latter of which were then overrun by Russian troops), if +she would furnish 60,000 troops: but Metternich resisted +successfully.] + +[Footnote 256: See his words to Metternich at Dresden, Metternich's +"Mems.," vol. i., p. 152; as also that he would not advance beyond +Smolensk in 1812.] + +[Footnote 257: Bernhardi's "Toll," vol. i., p. 226; Stern, +"Abhandlungen," pp. 350-366; Mueffling, "Aus meinem Leben"; L'Abbe de +Pradt, "L'histoire de l'Ambassade de Varsovie."] + +[Footnote 258: "Erinnerungen des Gen. von Boyen," vol. ii., p. 254. +This, and other facts that will later be set forth, explode the story +foisted by the Prussian General von dem Knesebeck in his old age on +Mueffling. Knesebeck declared that his mission early in 1812 to the +Czar, which was to persuade him to a peaceful compromise with +Napoleon, was directly controverted by the secret instructions which +he bore from Frederick William to Alexander. He described several +midnight interviews with the Czar at the Winter Palace, in which he +convinced him that by war with Napoleon, and by enticing him into the +heart of Russia, Europe would be saved. Lehmann has shown ("Knesebeck +und Schoen") that this story is contradicted by all the documentary +evidence. It may be dismissed as the offspring of senile vanity.] + +[Footnote 259: "Toll," vol. i., pp. 256 _et seq._ Mueffling was assured +by Phull in 1819 that the Drissa plan was only part of a grander +design which had never had a fair[*Scanner's note: fair is correct] +chance!] + +[Footnote 260: Bernhardi's "Toll" (vol. i., p. 231) gives Barclay's +chief "army of the west" as really mustering only 127,000 strong, +along with 9,000 Cossacks; Bagration, with the second "army of the +west," numbered at first only 35,000, with 4,000 Cossacks; while +Tormasov's corps observing Galicia was about as strong. Clausewitz +gives rather higher estimates.] + +[Footnote 261: Labaume, "Narrative of 1812," and Segur.] + +[Footnote 262: See the long letter of May 28th, 1812, to De Pradt; +also the Duc de Broglie's "Memoirs" (vol. i., ch. iv.) for the +hollowness of Napoleon's Polish policy. Bignon, "Souvenirs d'un +Diplomate" (ch. xx.), errs in saying that Napoleon charged De +Pradt--"Tout agiter, tout enflammer." At St. Helena, Napoleon said to +Montholon ("Captivity," vol. iii., ch. iii.): "Poland and its +resources were but poetry in the first months of the year 1812."] + +[Footnote 263: "Toll," vol. i., p. 239; Wilson, "Invasion of Russia," +p. 384.] + +[Footnote 264: We may here also clear aside the statements of some +writers who aver that Napoleon intended to strike at St. Petersburg. +Perhaps he did so for a time. On July 9th he wrote at Vilna that he +proposed to march _both on Moscow and St. Petersburg_. But that was +while he still hoped that Davoust would entrap Bagration, and while +Barclay's retreat on Drissa seemed likely to carry the war into the +north. Napoleon always aimed first at the enemy's army; and Barclay's +retreat from Drissa to Vitepsk, and thence to Smolensk, finally +decided Napoleon's move towards Moscow. If he had any preconceived +scheme--and he always regulated his moves by events rather than by a +cast-iron plan--it was to strike at Moscow. At Dresden he said to De +Pradt: "I must finish the war by the end of September.... I am going +to Moscow: one or two battles will settle the business. I will burn +Tula, and Russia will be at my feet. Moscow is the heart of that +Empire. I will wage war with Polish blood." De Pradt's evidence is not +wholly to be trusted; but I am convinced that Napoleon never seriously +thought of taking 200,000 men to the barren tracts of North Russia +late in the summer, while the English, Swedish, and Russian fleets +were ready to worry his flank and stop supplies.] + +[Footnote 265: Letter of August 24th to Maret; so too Labaume's +"Narrative," and Garden, vol. xiii., p. 418. Mr. George thinks that +Napoleon decided on August 21st to strike at Moscow on grounds of +general policy.] + +[Footnote 266: Labaume, "Narrative"; Lejeune's "Mems.," vol. ii., ch. +vi.] + +[Footnote 267: Marbot's "Mems." Bausset, a devoted servant to +Napoleon, refutes the oft-told story that he was ill at Borodino. He +had nothing worse than a bad cold. It is curious that such stories are +told about Napoleon after every battle when his genius did not shine. +In this case, it rests on the frothy narrative of Segur, and is out of +harmony with those of Gourgaud and Pelet. Clausewitz justifies +Napoleon's caution in withholding his Guard.] + +[Footnote 268: Bausset, "Cour de Napoleon." Tolstoi ("War and +Liberty") asserts that the fires were the work of tipsy pillagers. So +too Arndt, "Mems.," p. 204. Dr. Tzenoff, in a scholarly monograph +(Berlin, 1900), comes to the same conclusion. Lejeune and Bourgogne +admit both causes.] + +[Footnote 269: Garden, vol. xiii., p. 452; vol. xiv., pp. 17-19.] + +[Footnote 270: Cathcart, p. 41; see too the Czar's letters in Sir Byam +Martin's "Despatches," vol. ii., p. 311. This fact shows the +frothiness of the talk indulged in by Russians in 1807 as to "our +rapacity and perfidy" in seizing the Danish fleet.] + +[Footnote 271: _E.g._, the migration of Rostopchin's serfs _en masse_ +from their village, near Moscow, rather than come under French +dominion (Wilson, "French Invasion of Russia," p. 179).] + +[Footnote 272: Letter of October 16th; see too his undated notes +("Corresp.," No. 19237). Bausset and many others thought the best plan +would be to winter at Moscow. He also says that the Emperor's +favourite book while at Moscow was Voltaire's "History of Charles +XII."] + +[Footnote 273: Lejeune, vol. ii., chap. vi. As it chanced, Kutusoff +had resolved on retreat, if Napoleon attacked him. This is perhaps the +only time when Napoleon erred through excess of prudence. Fezensac +noted at Moscow that he would not see or hear the truth.] + +[Footnote 274: It has been constantly stated by Napoleon, and by most +French historians of this campaign, that his losses were mainly due to +an exceptionally severe and early winter. The statement will not bear +examination. Sharp cold usually sets in before November 6th in Russia +at latitude 55 deg.; the severe weather which he then suffered was +succeeded by alternate thaws and slighter frosts until the beginning +of December, when intense cold is always expected. Moreover, the bulk +of the losses occurred before the first snowstorm. The Grand Army +which marched on Smolensk and Moscow may be estimated at 400,000 +(including reinforcements). At Viasma, _before severe cold set in_, it +had dwindled to 55,000. We may note here the curious fact, +substantiated by Alison, that the French troops stood the cold better +than the Poles and North Germans. See too N. Senior's "Conversations," +vol. i., p. 239.] + +[Footnote 275: Bausset, "Cour de Napoleon"; Wilson, pp. 271-277.] + +[Footnote 276: Oudinot, "Memoires."] + +[Footnote 277: Hereford George, pp. 349-350.] + +[Footnote 278: Bourgogne, ch. viii.] + +[Footnote 279: Pasquier, vol. ii., _ad init._] + +[Footnote 280: Colonel Desprez, who accompanied the retreat, thus +described to King Joseph its closing scenes: "The truth is best +expressed by saying that _the army is dead_. The Young Guard was 8,000 +strong when we left Moscow: at Vilna it scarcely numbered 400.... The +corps of Victor and Oudinot numbered 30,000 men when they crossed the +Beresina: two days afterwards they had melted away like the rest of +the army. Sending reinforcements only increased the losses." + +The following French official report, a copy of which I have found in +our F.O. Records (Russia, No. 84), shows how frightful were the losses +after Smolensk. But it should be noted that the rank and file in this +case numbered only 300 at Smolensk, and had therefore lost more than +half their numbers--and this in a regiment of the Guard. + + GARDE IMPERIALE: 6eme REGIMENT DE TIRAILLEURS. + _lere Division. Situation a l'epoque du 19 Decembre, 1812_. + + |---------------------------------------------------------------------------------| + | | Perte depuis le depart de Smolensk | + | |------------|-----------|-----------|-----------|---------|--------| + |Presents sous|Restes sur |Blesses qui|Morts de |Restes en |Total des|Reste | + |les armes au |le champ |n'ont pu |froid ou de|en arriere |Pertes |presents| + |depart de |de bataille |suivre, |misere |geles, ou | |sous les| + |Smolensk | |restes au | |pour cause | |armes | + | | |pouvoir de | |de maladie | | | + | | |l'ennemi | |au pouvoir | | | + | | | | |de l'ennemi| | | + |-----|-------|------------|------|--- |------|----|------|----|-----|---|----|---| + | Off.|Tr. | Off. |Tr. | Off. |Tr. | Off. |Tr. | Off. |Tr. | Off.|Tr.|Off.|Tr.| + | 31 |300 | -- |13 | 4 | 52 | -- | 24 | 13 |201 | 17 |290| 14 |10 | + |-----|-------|------|-----|------|----|------|----|------|----|-----|---|----|---| + _Signe_ le Colonel Major Commandant + le dit Regiment. CARRE. + + Les autres regiments sont plus + ou moins dans le meme etat.] + +[Footnote 281: "Corresp.," December 20th, 1812. For the so-called +Concordat of 1813, concluded with the captive Pius VII. at +Fontainebleau, see "Corresp." of January 25th, 1813. The Pope +repudiated it at the first opportunity. Napoleon wanted him to settle +at Avignon as a docile subject of the Empire.] + +[Footnote 282: Mollien, vol. iii., _ad fin._ For his vague offers to +mitigate the harsh terms of Tilsit for Prussia, and to grant her a +political existence if she would fight for him, see Hardenberg, +"Mems.," vol. iv., p. 350.] + +[Footnote 283: Walpole reports (December 19th and 22nd, 1812) +Metternich's envy of the Russian successes and of their occupation of +the left bank of the Danube. Walpole said he believed Alexander would +grant Austria a set-off against this; but Metternich seemed entirely +Bonapartist ("F.O.," Russia, No. 84). See too the full account, based +on documentary evidence, in Luckwaldt's "Oesterreich und die Anfange +des Befreiungskrieges" (Berlin, 1898).] + +[Footnote 284: Hardenberg, "Mems.," vol. iv., p. 366.] + +[Footnote 285: Oncken, "Oesterreich und Preussen," vol. ii.; Garden, +vol. xiv., p. 167; Seeley's "Stein," vol. ii., ch. iii.] + +[Footnote 286: Arndt, "Wanderungen"; Steffens, "Was ich erlebte."] + +[Footnote 287: At this time she had only 61,500 men ready for the +fighting line; but she had 28,000 in garrison and 32,000 in Pomerania +and Prussia (Proper), according to Scharnhorst's report contained in +"F.O.," Russia, No. 85.] + +[Footnote 288: Letters of March 2nd and 11th.] + +[Footnote 289: Metternich's "Memoirs," vol. i., p. 159; Luckwaldt, +_op. cit._, ch. vi.] + +[Footnote 290: See the whole note in Luckwaldt, Append. No. 4.] + +[Footnote 291: Oncken, _op. cit._, vol. ii., p. 205. So too +Metternich's letter to Nesselrode of April 21st ("Memoirs," vol. i., +p. 405, Eng. ed.): "I beg of you to continue to confide in me. If +Napoleon will be foolish enough to fight, let us endeavour not to meet +with a reverse, which I feel to be only too possible. One battle lost +for Napoleon, and all Germany will be under arms."] + +[Footnote 292: "F.O.," Austria, No. 105. Doubtless, as Oncken has +pointed out with much acerbity, Castlereagh's knowledge that Austria +would suggest the modification of our maritime claims contributed to +his refusal to consider her proposal for a general peace: but I am +convinced, from the tone of our records, that his chief motive was his +experience of Napoleon's intractability and a sense of loyalty to our +Spanish allies: we were also pledged to help Sweden and Russia.] + +[Footnote 293: Letters of April 24th.] + +[Footnote 294: Napoleon's troops in Thorn surrendered on April 17th; +those in Spandau on April 24th (Fain, "Manuscrit de 1813," vol. ii., +ch. i.).] + +[Footnote 295: Oncken, vol. ii., p. 272.] + +[Footnote 296: Cathcart's report in "F.O.," Russia, No. 85. Mueffling +("Aus meinem Leben") regards the delay in the arrival of +Miloradovitch, and the preparations for defence which the French had +had time to make at Gross Goerschen, as the causes of the allies' +failure. The chief victim on the French side was Bessieres, commander +of the Guard.] + +[Footnote 297: "Corresp.," Nos. 20017-20031. For his interview with +Bubna, see Luckwaldt, p. 257.] + +[Footnote 298: Bernhardi's "Toll," vol. iii., pp. 490-492. Marmont +gives the French 150,000; Thiers says 160,000.] + +[Footnote 299: In his bulletin Napoleon admitted having lost 11,000 to +12,000 killed and wounded in the two days at Bautzen; his actual +losses were probably over 20,000. He described the allies as having +150,000 to 160,000 men, nearly double their actual numbers.] + +[Footnote 300: Mueffling, "Aus meinem Leben."] + +[Footnote 301: "Lettres inedites." So too his letters to Eugene of +June 11th and July 1st; and of June 11th, 17th, July 6th and 29th, to +Augereau, who was to threaten Austria from Bavaria.] + +[Footnote 302: See his conversation with our envoy, Thornton, reported +by the latter in the "Castlereagh Letters," 2nd series, vol. iv., p. +314.] + +[Footnote 303: "Castlereagh Letters," 2nd series, vol. iv., p. 344.] + +[Footnote 304: Garden, vol. xiv., p. 356. We also stipulated that +Sweden should not import slaves into Guadeloupe, and should repress +the slave trade. When, at the Congress of Vienna, that island was +given back to France, we paid Bernadotte a money indemnity.] + +[Footnote 305: "Lettres inedites de Napoleon," June 18th, 1813. See +too that of July 16th, _ibid._] + +[Footnote 306: Letters of F. Perthes.] + +[Footnote 307: Joseph to Marmont, July 21st, 1812.] + +[Footnote 308: "Mems. du Roi Joseph," vols. viii. and ix.; Napier, +book xix., ch. v.] + +[Footnote 309: "Memoires du Roi Joseph," vol. ix., p. 195.] + +[Footnote 310: Napier and Alison say March 18th, which is refuted by +the "Mems. du Roi Joseph," vol. ix., p. 131.] + +[Footnote 311: _Ibid._, vol. ix., p. 464.] + +[Footnote 312: As a matter of fact he had 50,000 there for three +months, and did not succeed. See Clarke's letter to Clausel, "Mems. du +Roi Joseph," vol. ix., p. 251.] + +[Footnote 313: Stanhope's "Conversations with Wellington," p. 20.] + +[Footnote 314: "Memoires du Roi Joseph," vol. ix., p. 60.] + +[Footnote 315: Thiers, bk. xlix.; "Nap. Corresp.," No. 20019; +Baumgarten vol i., p. 577.] + +[Footnote 316: "Memoires du Roi Joseph," vol. ix., pp. 284, 294. +Joseph's first order to Clausel was sent under protection of _an +escort of 1,500 men_.] + +[Footnote 317: See Lord Melville's complaint as to Wellington's +unreasonable charges on this head in the "Letters of Sir B. Martin" +("Navy Records," 1898).] + +[Footnote 318: Miot de Melito, vol. ii., ch. xviii.] + +[Footnote 319: Clausel afterwards complained that if he had received +any order to that effect he could have pushed on so as to be at +Vittoria ("Mems. du Roi Joseph," vol. ix., p. 454). The muster-rolls +of the French were lost at Vittoria. Napier puts their force at +70,000; Thiers at 54,000; Jourdan at 50,000.] + +[Footnote 320: Wellington's official account of the fight states that +the French got away only two of their cannon; and Simmons, "A British +Rifleman," asserts that the last of these was taken near Pamplona on +the 24th. Wellington generously assigned much credit to the Spanish +troops--far more than Napier will allow.] + +[Footnote 321: Ducasse, "Les rois, freres de Napoleon."] + +[Footnote 322: "Lettres inedites de Napoleon," July 1st, 3rd, 15th, +and 20th.] + +[Footnote 323: Stadion to Metternich, May 30th, June 2nd and 8th; in +Luckwaldt, p. 382.] + +[Footnote 324: Cathcart's "most secret" despatch of June 4/16* from +Reichenbach. Just a month earlier he reported that the Czar's +proposals to Austria included all these terms in an absolute form, and +also the separation of Holland from France, the restoration of the +Bourbons to Spain, and "L'Italie libre dans toutes ses parties du +Gouvernement et de l'influence de la France." Such were also +Metternich's _private_ wishes, with the frontier of the Oglio on the +S.W. for Austria. See Oncken, vol. ii., p. 644. The official terms +were in part due to the direct influence of the Emperor Francis.] + +[Footnote 325: In a secret article of the Treaty we promised to +advance to Austria a subsidy of L500,000 as soon as she should join +the allies.] + +[Footnote 326: Martens, vol. ix., pp. 568-575. Our suspicion of +Prussia reappears (as was almost inevitable after her seizure of +Hanover), not only in the smallness of the sum accorded to her--for we +granted L2,000,000 in all to the Swedish, Hanseatic, and Hanoverian +contingents--but also in the stipulation that she should assent to the +eventual annexation of the formerly Prussian districts of East Frisia +and Hildesheim to Hanover. We also refused to sign the Treaty of +Reichenbach until she, most unwillingly, assented to this prospective +cession. This has always been thought in Germany a mean transaction; +but, as Castlereagh pointed out, those districts were greatly in the +way of the development of Hanover. Prussia was to have an indemnity +for the sacrifice; and we bore the chief burden in the issue of +"federative paper notes," which enabled the allies to prepare for the +campaign ("Castlereagh Papers," 2nd series, vol. iv., p. 355; 3rd +series, vol. i., pp. 7-17; and "Bath Archives," vol. ii., p. 86). +Moreover, we were then sending 30,000 muskets to Stralsund and Colberg +for the use of Prussian troops (Despatch from "F.O.," July 28th, to +Thornton, "Sweden," No. 79). On July 6th we agreed to pay the cost of +a German Legion of 10,000 men under the Czar's orders. Its Commissary +was Colonel Lowe.] + +[Footnote 327: For the official reports see Garden, vol. xiv., pp. +486-499; also Bausset's account, "Cour de Napoleon."] + +[Footnote 328: Any account of a private interview between two astute +schemers must be accepted with caution; and we may well doubt whether +Metternich really was as firm, not to say provocative, as he +afterwards represented in his "Memoirs." But, on the whole, his +account is more trustworthy than that of Fain, Napoleon's secretary, +in his "Manuscrit de 1813," vol. ii., ch. ii. Fain places the +interview on June 28th; in "Napoleon's Corresp." it is reprinted, but +assigned to June 23rd. The correct date is shown by Oncken to have +been June 26th. Bignon's account of it (vol. xii., ch. iv.) is marked +by his usual bias.] + +[Footnote 329: Cathcart reported, on July 8th, that Schwarzenberg had +urged an extension of the armistice, so that Austria might meet the +"vast and unexpected" preparations of France ("Russia," No. 86).] + +[Footnote 330: "Russia," No. 86.] + +[Footnote 331: Thornton's despatch of July 12th ("Castlereagh Papers," +2nd Series, vol. iv., _ad fin._).] + +[Footnote 332: _Ibid._, pp. 383 and 405.] + +[Footnote 333: For details see Oncken, Luckwaldt, Thiers, Fain, and +the "Mems." of the Duc de Broglie; also Gentz, "Briefe an Pilat," of +July 16th-22nd, 1813. Humboldt, the Prussian ambassador, reported on +July 13th to Berlin that Metternich looked on war as quite +unavoidable, and on the Congress merely as a means of convincing the +Emperor Francis of the impossibility of gaining a lasting peace.] + +[Footnote 334: Thiers; Ernouf's "Maret, Duc de Bassano," p. 571.] + +[Footnote 335: Bignon "Hist. de France," vol. xii., p. 199; Lefebvre, +"Cabinets de l'Europe," vol. v., p. 555.] + +[Footnote 336: Letter of July 29th.] + +[Footnote 337: Gentz to Sir G. Jackson, August 4th ("Bath Archives," +vol. ii., p. 199). For a version flattering to Napoleon, see Ernouf's +"Maret" (pp. 579-587), which certainly exculpates the Minister.] + +[Footnote 338: Metternich, "Memoirs," vol. ii., p. 546 (Eng. ed.).] + +[Footnote 339: "F.O.," Russia, No. 86. A letter of General Nugent +(July 27th), from Prague, is inclosed. When he (N.) expressed to +Metternich the fear that Caulaincourt's arrival there portended peace, +M. replied that this would make no alteration, "as the proposals were +such that they certainly would not be accepted, and they would even be +augmented."] + +[Footnote 340: "Souvenirs du Duc de Broglie," vol. i., ch. v.] + +[Footnote 341: British aims at this time are well set forth in the +instructions and the accompanying note to Lord Aberdeen, our +ambassador designate at Vienna, dated Foreign Office, August 6th, +1813: " ... Your Lordship will collect from these instructions that a +general peace, in order to provide adequately for the tranquillity and +independence of Europe, ought, in the judgment of His Majesty's +Government, to confine France at least within the Pyrenees, the Alps, +and the Rhine: and if the other Great Powers of Europe should feel +themselves enabled to contend for such a Peace, Great Britain is fully +prepared to concur with them in such a line of policy. If, however, +the Powers most immediately concerned should determine, rather than +encounter the risks of a more protracted struggle, to trust for their +own security to a more imperfect arrangement, it never has been the +policy of the British Government to attempt to dictate to other States +a perseverance in war, which they did not themselves recognize to be +essential to their own as well as to the common safety." As regards +details, we desired to see the restoration of Venetia to Austria, of +the Papal States to the Pope, of the north-west of Italy to the King +of Sardinia, but trusted that "a liberal establishment" might be found +for Murat in the centre of Italy. Napoleon knew that we desired to +limit France to the "natural frontiers" and that we were resolved to +insist on our maritime claims. As our Government took this unpopular +line, and went further than Austria in its plans for restricting +French influence, he had an excellent opportunity for separating the +Continental Powers from us. But he gave out that those Powers were +bought by England, and that we were bent on humiliating France.] + +[Footnote 342: Boyen, "Erinnerungen," Pt. III., p. 66.] + +[Footnote 343: Fain, vol. ii., p. 27. The italicized words are given +thus by him; but they read like a later excuse for Napoleon's +failures.] + +[Footnote 344: "Commentaries on the War in Russia and Germany," p. +195.] + +[Footnote 345: In his letters of August 16th to Macdonald and Ney he +assumed that the allies might strike at Dresden, or even as far west +as Zwickau: but meanwhile he would march "pour enlever Bluecher."] + +[Footnote 346: "Lettres inedites de Napoleon." The Emperor forwarded +this suggestion to Savary (August 11th): it doubtless meant an issue +of false paper notes, such as had been circulated in Russia the year +before.] + +[Footnote 347: Cathcart, "Commentaries," p. 206.] + +[Footnote 348: "Extrait d'un Memoire sur la Campagne de 1813." With +characteristic inaccuracy Marbot remarks that the defection of Jomini, +_with Napoleon's plans_, was "a disastrous blow." The same is said by +Dedem de Gelder, p. 328.] + +[Footnote 349: The Emperor's eagerness is seen by the fact that on +August 21st he began dictating despatches, at Lauban, at 3 a.m. On the +previous day he had dictated seventeen despatches; twelve at Zittau, +four after his ride to Goerlitz, and one more on his arrival at Lauban +at midnight.] + +[Footnote 350: Letters of August 23rd to Berthier.] + +[Footnote 351: Boyen, vol. iii., p. 85. But see Wiehr, "Nap. und +Bernadotte in 1813," who proves how risky was B.'s position, with the +Oder fortresses, held by the French, on one flank, and Davoust and the +Danes on the other. He disposes of many of the German slanders against +Bernadotte.] + +[Footnote 352: Hausser, pp. 260-267. Oudinot's "Memoirs" throw the +blame on the slowness of Bertrand in effecting the concentration on +Grossbeeren and on the heedless impetuosity of Reynier. Wiehr (pp. +74-116) proves from despatches that Bernadotte meant to attack the +French _south of Berlin_: he discredits the "bones" anecdote.] + +[Footnote 353: Letters of August 23rd.] + +[Footnote 354: So called to distinguish it from the two other Neisses +in Silesia.] + +[Footnote 355: Blasendorfs "Bluecher"; Mueffling's "Aus meinem Leben" +and "Campaigns of the Silesian Army in 1813 and 1814"; Bertin's "La +Campagne de 1813." Hausser assigns to the French close on 60,000 at +the battle; to the allies about 70,000.] + +[Footnote 356: Jomini, "Vie de Napoleon," vol. iv., p. 380; "Toll," +vol. iii., p. 124.] + +[Footnote 357: "Toll," vol. iii., p. 144. Cathcart reports (p. 216) +that Moreau remarked to him: "We are already on Napoleon's +communications; the possession of the town [Dresden] is no object; it +will fall of itself at a future time." If Moreau said this seriously +it can only be called a piece of imbecility. The allies were far from +safe until they had wrested from Napoleon one of his strong places on +the Elbe; it was certainly not enough to have seized Pirna.] + +[Footnote 358: "Corresp." No. 20461.] + +[Footnote 359: Cathcart's "Commentaries," p. 230: Bertin, "La Campagne +de 1813," p. 109; Marmont, "Mems.," bk. xvii.; Sir Evelyn Wood's +"Achievements of Cavalry."] + +[Footnote 360: It is clear from Napoleon's letters of the evening of +the 27th that he was not quite pleased with the day's work, and +thought the enemy would hold firm, or even renew the attack on the +morrow. They disprove Thiers' wild statements about a general pursuit +on that evening, thousands of prisoners swept up, etc.] + +[Footnote 361: Vandamme on the 28th received a reinforcement of +eighteen battalions, and thenceforth had in all sixty-four; yet Marbot +credits him with only 20,000 men.] + +[Footnote 362: Thiers gives Berthier's despatch in full. See also map, +p. 336.] + +[Footnote 363: Marmont, bk. xvii., p. 158. He and St. Cyr ("Mems.," +vol. iv., pp. 120-123) agree as to the confusion of their corps when +crowded together on this road. Napoleon's aim was to insure the +capture of all the enemy's cannon and stores; but his hasty orders had +the effect of blocking the pursuit on the middle road. St. Cyr sent to +headquarters for instruction; but these were now removed to Dresden; +hence the fatal delay.] + +[Footnote 364: Thiers has shown that Mortier did not get the order +from Berthier to support Vandamme _until August 30th_. The same is +true of St. Cyr, who did not get it till 11.30 a.m. on that day. St. +Cyr's best defence is Napoleon's letter of September 1st to him +("Lettres inedites de Napoleon"): "That unhappy Vandamme, who seems to +have killed himself, had not a sentinel on the mountains, nor a +reserve anywhere.... I had given him positive orders to intrench +himself on the heights, to encamp his troops on them, and only to send +isolated parties of men into Bohemia to worry the enemy and collect +news." With this compare Napoleon's approving statement of August 29th +to Murat ("Corresp.," No. 20486): "Vandamme was marching on Teplitz +_with all his corps_."] + +[Footnote 365: "Lettres inedites de Napoleon," September 3rd.] + +[Footnote 366: Haeusser, vol. iv., p. 343, and Boyen, "Erinnerungen," +vol. ii., pp. 345-357, for Bernadotte's suspicious delays on this day; +also Marmont, bk. xviii., for a critique on Ney. Napoleon sent for +Lejeune, then leading a division of Ney's army, to explain the +disaster; but when Lejeune reached the headquarters at Dohna, south of +Dresden, the Emperor bade him instantly return--a proof of his +impatience and anger at these reverses.] + +[Footnote 367: Thornton, our envoy at Bernadotte's headquarters, wrote +to Castlereagh that that leader's desire was to spare the Swedish +corps; he expected that Bernadotte would aim at the French crown +("Castlereagh Papers," 3rd series, vol. i., pp. 48-59). See too Boyen, +vol. ii., p. 378.] + +[Footnote 368: Letter of October 10th to Reynier. This and his letter +to Maret seem to me to refute Bernhardi's contention ("Toll," vol. +iii., pp. 385-388) that Napoleon only meant to drive the northern +allies across the Elbe, and then to turn on Schwarzenberg. The +Emperor's plans shifted every few hours: but the plan of crossing the +Elbe in great force was distinctly prepared for.] + +[Footnote 369: Thiers asserts that he had. But if so, how could the +Emperor have written to Macdonald (October 2nd) that the Silesian army +had made a move on Grossenhain: "It appears that this is so as to +attack the intrenched camp [at Dresden] by the side of the plain, by +the roads of Berlin and Meissen."? On the same day he scoffs at +Lefebre-Desnoettes for writing that Bernadotte had crossed the Elbe, +and retorts that if he had, it would be so much the worse for him: the +war would soon be over.} + +[Footnote 370: Letter of October 10th to Reynier. This and his letter +to Maret seem to me to refute Bernhardi's contention ("Toll," vol. +iii., pp. 385-388) that Napoleon only meant to drive the northern +allies across the Elbe, and then to turn on Schwarzenberg. The +Emperor's plans shifted every few hours: but the plan of crossing the +Elbe in great force was distinctly prepared for.] + +[Footnote 371: Martens, "Traites," vol. ix., p. 610. This secret +bargain cut the ground from under the German unionists, like Stein, +who desired to make away with the secondary princes, or strictly to +limit their powers.] + +[Footnote 372: Thiers and Bernhardi ("Toll," vol. iii., p. 388) have +disposed of this fiction.] + +[Footnote 373: Sir E. Wood, "Achievements of Cavalry."] + +[Footnote 374: "Corresp.," No. 20814. Marmont, vol. v., p. 281, +acutely remarks that Napoleon now regarded as true only that which +entered into his combinations and his thoughts.] + +[Footnote 375: Bernadotte was only hindered from retreat across the +Elbe by the remonstrances of his officers, by the forward move of +Bluecher, and by the fact that the Elbe bridges were now held by the +French. For the council of war at Koethen on October 14th, see Boyen, +vol. ii., p. 377.] + +[Footnote 376: Mueffling, "Campaign of 1813."] + +[Footnote 377: Colonel Lowe, who was present, says it was won and lost +five times (unpublished "Memoirs").] + +[Footnote 378: Napoleon's bulletin of October 16th, 1813, blames Ney +for this waste of a great corps; but it is clear, from the official +orders published by Marmont (vol. v., pp. 373-378), that Napoleon did +not expect any pitched battle on the north side on the 16th. He +thought Bertrand's corps would suffice to defend the north and west, +and left the defence on that side in a singularly vague state.] + +[Footnote 379: Dedem de Gelder, "Mems.," p. 345, severely blames +Napoleon's inaction on the 17th; either he should have attacked the +allies before Bennigsen and Bernadotte came up, or have retreated +while there was time.] + +[Footnote 380: Lord Burghersh, Sir George Jackson, Odeleben, and Fain +all assign this conversation to the night of the 16th; but Merveldt's +official account of it (inclosed with Lord Cathcart's despatches), +gives it as on October 17th, at 2 p.m. ("F.O.," Russia, No. 86). I +follow this version rather than that given by Fain.] + +[Footnote 381: That the British Ministers did not intend anything of +the kind, even in the hour of triumph, is seen by Castlereagh's +despatch of November 13th, 1813, to Lord Aberdeen, our envoy at the +Austrian Court: "We don't wish to impose any dishonourable condition +upon France, which limiting the number of her ships would be: but she +must not be left in possession of this point [Antwerp]" ("Castlereagh +Papers," 3rd series, vol. i., p. 76).] + +[Footnote 382: Boyen describes the surprising effects of the fire of +the British rocket battery that served in Bernadotte's army. Captain +Bogue brought it forward to check the charge of a French column +against the Swedes. He was shot down, but Lieutenant Strangways poured +in so hot a fire that the column was "blown asunder like an ant-heap," +the men rushing back to cover amidst the loud laughter of the allies.] + +[Footnote 383: The premature explosion was of course due, not to +Napoleon, but to the flurry of a serjeant and the skilful flanking +move of Sacken's light troops, for which see Cathcart and Marmont. The +losses at Leipzig were rendered heavier by Napoleon's humane refusal +to set fire to the suburbs so as to keep off the allies. He rightly +said he could have saved many thousand French had he done so. This is +true. But it is strange that he had given no order for the +construction of other bridges. Pelet and Fain affirm that he gave a +verbal order; but, as Marbot explains, Berthier, the Chief of the +Staff, had adopted the pedantic custom of never acting on anything +less than _a written order_, which was not given. The neglect to +secure means for retreat is all the stranger as the final miseries at +the Beresina were largely due to official blundering of the same kind. +Wellington's criticism on Napoleon's tactics at Leipzig is severe +(despatch of January 10th, 1814): "If Bonaparte had not placed himself +in a position that every other officer would have avoided, and +remained in it longer than was consistent with any ideas of prudence, +he would have retired in such a state that the allies could not have +ventured to approach the Rhine."] + +[Footnote 384: Sir Charles Stewart wrote (March 22nd, 1814): "On the +Elbe Napoleon was quite insane, and his lengthened stay there was the +cause of the Battle of Leipzig and all his subsequent misfortunes" +("Castlereagh Papers," vol. ix., p. 373).] + +[Footnote 385: Napier, vol. v., pp. 368-378.] + +[Footnote 386: On November 10th Lord Aberdeen, our ambassador at the +Austrian Court, wrote to Castlereagh: " ... As soon as he [Murat] +received the last communication addressed to him by Prince Metternich +and myself at Prague, he wrote to Napoleon and stated that the affairs +of his kingdom absolutely demanded his presence. Without waiting for +any answer, he immediately began his journey, and did not halt a +moment till he arrived at Basle. While on the road he sent a cyphered +dispatch to Prince Cariati, his Minister at Vienna, in which he +informs him that he hopes to be at Naples on the 4th of this month: +that he burns with desire to revenge himself of [_sic_] all the +injuries he has received from Bonaparte, and to connect himself with +the cause of the allies in contending for a just and stable peace. He +proposes to declare war on the instant of his arrival." Again, on +December 19th, Aberdeen writes: "You may consider the affair of Murat +as settled.... It will probably end in Austria agreeing to his having +a change of frontier on the Papal territory, just enough to satisfy +his vanity and enable him to show something to his people. I doubt +much if it will be possible, with the claims of Sicily, Sardinia, and +Austria herself in the north of Italy, to restore to him the three +Legations: but something adequate must be done" ("Austria," No. 102). +The disputes between Murat and Napoleon will be cleared up in Baron +Lumbroso's forthcoming work, "Murat." Meanwhile see Bignon, vol. +xiii., pp. 181 _et seq._; Desvernois, "Mems.," ch. xx.; and Chaptal +(p. 305), for Fouche's treacherous advice to Murat.] + +[Footnote 387: Lady Burghersh's "Journal," p. 182.] + +[Footnote 388: Fain, "Manuscrit de 1814," pp. 48-63. Ernouf, "Vie de +Maret," p. 606, states that Napoleon touched up Maret's note; the +sentence quoted above is doubtless the Emperor's. The same author +proves that Maret's advice had always been more pacific than was +supposed, and that now, in his old position of Secretary of State, he +gave Caulaincourt valuable help during the negotiations at Chatillon.] + +[Footnote 389: "Castlereagh Papers," 3rd series, vol. i., p. 74. This +was written, of course, before he heard of the Frankfurt proposals; +but it anticipates them in a remarkable way. Thiers states that +Castlereagh, after hearing of them, sent Aberdeen new instructions. I +cannot find any in our archives. This letter warned Aberdeen against +any compromise on the subject of Antwerp; but it is clear that +Castlereagh, when he came to the allied headquarters, was a partisan +of peace, as compared with the Czar and the Prussian patriots. +Schwarzenberg wrote (January 26th) at Langres: "We ought to make peace +here: our Kaiser, also Stadion, Metternich, even Castlereagh, are +fully of this opinion--but Kaiser Alexander!"] + +[Footnote 390: Fournier, "Der Congress von Chatillon," p. 242.] + +[Footnote 391: "Castlereagh Papers," _loc. cit._, p. 112.] + +[Footnote 392: Metternich. "Memoirs," vol. i., p. 214.] + +[Footnote 393: "F.O.," Austria, No. 102.] + +[Footnote 394: "Lettres inedites" (November 6th, 1813).] + +[Footnote 395: The memorandum is endorsed, "Extract of Instructions +delivered to me by Gen. Pozzo di Borgo, 18 Dec, 1813" ("Russia," No. +92).] + +[Footnote 396: Metternich's letter to Hudelist, in Fournier, p. 242.] + +[Footnote 397: Houssaye's "1814," p. 14; Metternich, "Memoirs," vol. +i., p. 308.] + +[Footnote 398: "Our success and everything depend upon our moderation +and justice," he wrote to Lord Bathurst (Napier, bk. xxiii., ch. +ii.).] + +[Footnote 399: "Lettres inedites" (November 12th). The date is +important: it refutes Napier's statement (bk. xxiii., ch. iv.) that +the Emperor had planned that Ferdinand should enter Spain early in +November when the disputes between Wellington and the Cortes at Madrid +were at their height. Bignon (vol. xiii., p. 88 _et seq._) says that +Talleyrand's indiscretion revealed the negotiations to the Spanish +Cortes and Wellington; but our general's despatches show that he did +not hear of them before January 9th or 10th. He then wrote: "I have +long suspected that Bonaparte would adopt this expedient; and if he +had had less pride and more common sense, it would have succeeded."] + +[Footnote 400: On January 14th the Emperor ordered Soult, as soon as +the ratification of the treaty*treatry was known, to set out +northwards from Bayonne "with all his army, only leaving what is +necessary to form a screen." Suchet was likewise to hurry with 10,000 +foot, _en poste_, and two-thirds of his horse, to Lyons. On the 22nd +the Emperor blames both Marshals for not sending off the infantry, +though the Spanish treaty had _not_ been ratified. After long delays +Ferdinand set out for Spain on March 13th, when the war was almost +over.] + +[Footnote 401: Houssaye's "1814," ch. ii.; Mueffling's "Campaign of +1814."] + +[Footnote 402: Letter of January 31st to Joseph.] + +[Footnote 403: "Mems. de Langeron" in Houssaye, p. 62; but see +Mueffling.] + +[Footnote 404: Letter of February 2nd to Clarke.] + +[Footnote 405: Metternich said of Castlereagh, "I can't praise him +enough: his views are most peaceful, in our sense" (Fournier, p. +252).] + +[Footnote 406: Castlereagh to Lord Liverpool, January 22nd and 30th, +1814.] + +[Footnote 407: Letter to Hudelist (February 3rd), in Fournier, p. +255.] + +[Footnote 408: Stewart's Mem. of January 27th, 1814, in "Castlereagh +Papers," vol. ix., p. 535. On that day Hardenberg noted in his diary: +"Discussion on the plan of operations, and misunderstandings. Intrigue +of Stein to get the army straight to Paris, as the Czar wants. The +Austrians oppose this: others don't know what they want" (Fournier, p. +361).] + +[Footnote 409: Stewart's notes in "Castlereagh Papers," pp. 541-548. +On February 17th Castlereagh promised to give back all our conquests +in the West Indies, except Tobago, and to try to regain for France +Guadaloupe and Cayenne from Sweden and Portugal; also to restore all +the French possessions east of the Cape of Good Hope except the Iles +de France (Mauritius) and de Bourbon (Fournier, p. 381).] + +[Footnote 410: Letters of January 31st and February 2nd to Joseph.] + +[Footnote 411: Printed in Napoleon's "Corresp." of February 17th. I +cannot agree with Ernouf, "Vie de Maret," and Fournier, that +Caulaincourt could have signed peace merely on Maret's "carte blanche" +despatch. The man who had been cruelly duped by Napoleon in the +D'Enghien affair naturally wanted an explicit order now.] + +[Footnote 412: Given by Ducasse, "Les Rois Freres de Napoleon," p. +64.] + +[Footnote 413: Hausser, p. 503. According to Napoleon, 6,000 men and +forty cannon were captured!] + +[Footnote 414: Letter of February 18th, 1814.] + +[Footnote 415: At Elba Napoleon told Colonel Campbell that he would +have made peace at Chatillon had not England insisted on his giving up +Antwerp, and that England was therefore the cause of the war +continuing. This letter, however, proves that he was as set on +retaining Mainz as Antwerp. Caulaincourt then wished him to make peace +while he could do so with credit ("Castlereagh Papers," vol. ix., p. +287).] + +[Footnote 416: Fournier, pp. 132-137, 284-294, 299.] + +[Footnote 417: See Metternich's letter to Stadion of February 15th in +Fournier, pp. 319, 327.] + +[Footnote 418: Houssaye, p. 102.] + +[Footnote 419: Instructions of February 24th to Flahaut, "Corresp.," +No. 21359; Hardenberg's "Diary," in Fournier, pp. 363-364.] + +[Footnote 420: Fournier, pp. 170, 385.] + +[Footnote 421: _Ibid._, pp. 178-181, 304; Martens, vol. ix., p. 683. +Castlereagh, vol. ix., p. 336, calls it "my treaty," and adds that +England was practically supplying 300,000 men to the Coalition. One +secret article invited Spain and Sweden to accede to the treaty; +another stated that Germany was to consist of a federation of +sovereign princes, that Holland must receive a "suitable" military +frontier, and that Italy, Spain, and Switzerland must be independent, +that is, of France; a third bound the allies to keep their armies on a +war footing for a suitable time after the peace.] + +[Footnote 422: See his instructions of March 2nd to Caulaincourt: +"Nothing will bring France to do anything that degrades her national +character and deposes her from the rank she has held in the world for +centuries." But it was precisely that rank which the allies were +resolved to assign to her, neither more nor less. The joint allied +note of February 29th to the negotiators at Chatillon bade them +"announce to the French negotiator that you are ready to discuss, in a +spirit of conciliation, every modification that he might be authorized +to propose"; but that any essential departure from the terms already +proposed by them must lead to a rupture of the negotiations.] + +[Footnote 423: Letters of March 2nd, 3rd, 4th, to Clarke.] + +[Footnote 424: Houssaye, p. 156, note. So too Mueffling, "Aus meinem +Leben," shows that Bluecher could have crossed the Aisne there or at +Pontavaire or Berry-au-Bac.] + +[Footnote 425: See Napoleon's letters to Clarke of March 4th-6th.] + +[Footnote 426: Houssaye, pp. 176-188.] + +[Footnote 427: Mueffling says that Bluecher and Gneisenau feared an +attack by _Bernadotte_ on their rear. Napoleon on February 25th +advised Joseph to try and gain over that prince, who had some very +suspicious relations with the French General Maison in Belgium. +Probably Gneisenau wished to spare his men for political reasons.] + +[Footnote 428: Bernhardi's "Toll," vol. iv., p. 697. Lord Burghersh +wrote from Troyes (March 12th): "I am convinced this army will not be +risked in a general action.... S. would almost wish to be back upon +the Rhine." So again on the 19th he wrote to Colonel Hudson Lowe from +Pougy: "I cannot say much for our activity; I am unable to explain the +causes of our apathy--the facts are too evident to be disputed. We +have been ten days at Troyes, one at Pont-sur-Seine, two at Arcis, and +are now at this place. We go tomorrow to Brienne" ("Unpublished Mems. +of Sir H. Lowe"). Stewart wittily said that Napoleon came to Arcis to +feel Schwarzenberg's pulse.] + +[Footnote 428: Letters of March 20th to Clarke.] + +[Footnote 430: "Castlereagh Papers," vol. ix., pp. 325, 332.] + +[Footnote 431: These letters were written in pairs--the one being +official, the other confidential. Caulaincourt's replies show that he +appreciated them highly (see Fain, Appendix).] + +[Footnote 432: From Caulaincourt's letter of March 3rd to Napoleon; +Bignon, vol. xiii., p. 379.] + +[Footnote 433: "Castlereagh Papers," vol. ix., p. 555.] + +[Footnote 434: "Castlereagh Papers," vol. ix., pp. 335, 559. +Caulaincourt's project of March 15th much resembled that dictated by +Napoleon three days later; Austria was to have Venetia as far as the +Adige, the kingdom of Italy to go to Eugene, and the duchy of Warsaw +to the King of Saxony, etc. The allies rejected it (Fain, p. 388).] + +[Footnote 435: Fournier, p. 232, rebuts, and I think successfully, +Houssaye's objections (p. 287) to its genuineness. Besides, the letter +is on the same moral level with the instructions of January 4th to +Caulaincourt, and resembles them in many respects. No forger could +have known of those instructions. At Elba, Napoleon admitted that he +was wrong in not making peace at this time. "_Mais je me croyais assez +fort pour ne pas la faire, et je me suis trompe_" (Lord Holland's +"Foreign Rem.," p. 319). The same writer states (p. 296) that he saw +the official correspondence about Chatillon: it gave him the highest +opinion of Caulaincourt, but N.'s conduct was "full of subterfuge and +artifice."] + +[Footnote 436: Castlereagh to Clancarty, March 18th.] + +[Footnote 437: Napier, bk. xxiv., ch. iii. Wellington seems to have +thought that the allies would probably make peace with Napoleon.] + +[Footnote 438: Broglie, "Mems.," bk. iii., ch. i.] + +[Footnote 439: Letter of February 25th to Joseph. Thiebault gives us +an odd story that Bernadotte sent an agent, Rainville, to persuade +Davoust to join him in attacking the rear of the allies; but that +Rainville's nerve so forsook him in Davoust's presence that he turned +and bolted for his life!] + +[Footnote 440: Caulaincourt to Metternich on March 25th: "Arrived only +this [last] night near the Emperor, His Majesty has ... given me all +the powers necessary to sign peace with the Ministers of the allied +Courts" (Fain, p. 345; Ernouf, "Vie de Maret," p. 634). + +Thiers does not mention these overtures of Napoleon, which are surely +most characteristic. His whole eastward move was motived by them. +Efforts have been made (_e.g._, by M. de Bacourt in Talleyrand's +"Mems.," pt. vii., app. 4) to prove that on the 25th Napoleon was +ready to agree to all the allied terms, and thus concede more than was +done by Louis XVIII. But there is no proof that he meant to do +anything of the sort. The terms of Caulaincourt's note were perfectly +vague. Moreover, even on the 28th, when Napoleon was getting alarmed, +he had an interview with a captured Austrian diplomatist, Wessenberg, +whom he set free in order that he might confer with the Emperor +Francis. He told the envoy that France would yet give him support: he +wanted the natural frontiers, but would probably make peace on less +favourable terms, as he wished to end the war: "I am ready to renounce +all the French colonies if I can thereby keep the mouth of the Scheldt +for France. England will not insist on my sacrificing Antwerp if +Austria does not support her" (Arneth's "Wessenberg," vol. i., p. +188). This extract shows no great desire to meet the allied terms, but +rather to separate Austria from her allies. According to Lady +Burghersh ("Journals," p. 216), Napoleon admitted to Wessenberg that +his position was desperate. I think this was a pleasing fiction of +that envoy. There is no proof that Napoleon was wholly cast down till +the 29th, when he heard of La Fere Champenoise (Macdonald's +"Souvenirs").] + +[Footnote 441: Bignon, vol. xiii., pp. 436, 437.] + +[Footnote 442: On hearing of their withdrawal Stein was radiant with +joy: "Now, he said, the Czar will go on to Paris, and all will soon be +at an end" (Tourgueneff quoted by Haeusser, vol. iv., p. 553).] + +[Footnote 443: Bernhardi's "Toll," vol. iv., pp. 737 _et seq._; +Houssaye, pp. 354-362; also Nesselrode's communication published in +Talleyrand's "Mems." Thielen and Radetzky have claimed that the +initiative in this matter was Schwarzenberg's; and Lord Burghersh, in +his despatch of March 25th ("Austria," No. 110), agrees with them. +Stein supports Toll's claim. I cannot agree with Houssaye (p. 407) +that "Napoleon had resigned himself to the sacrifice of Paris." His +intercepted letter, and also the official letters, Nos. 21508, 21513, +21516, 21526, 21538, show that he believed the allies would retreat +and that his communications with Paris would be safe.] + +[Footnote 444: I take this account largely from Sir Hudson Lowe's +unpublished memoirs. Napoleon blamed Marmont for not marching to +Rheims as he was ordered to do. At Elba, Napoleon told Colonel +Campbell that Marmont's disobedience spoilt the eastern movement, and +ruined the campaign. But had Marmont and Mortier joined Napoleon at +Vitry, Paris would have been absolutely open to the allies.] + +[Footnote 445: Houssaye, pp. 485 _et seq._; Napoleon's letters of +February 8th and March 16th; Mollien, vol. iv., p. 128. In Napoleon's +letter of April 2nd to Joseph ("New Letters") there is not a word of +reproach to Joseph for leaving Paris.] + +[Footnote 446: "Castlereagh Papers," vol. ix., p. 420; Pasquier, vol. +iii., ch. xiii.] + +[Footnote 447: We do not know definitely why Alexander dropped +Bernadotte so suddenly. On March 17th he had assured the royalist +agent, Baron de Vitrolles, that he would not hear of the Bourbons, and +that he had first thought of establishing Bernadotte in France, and +then Eugene. We do know, however, that Bernadotte had made suspicious +overtures to the French General Maison in Belgium ("Castlereagh +Papers," vol. ix., pp. 383, 445, 512).] + +[Footnote 448: De Pradt, "Restauration de la Royaute, le 31 Mars, +1814"; Pasquier, vol. iii., ch. xiii. Vitrolles ("Mems.," vol. i., pp. +95-101) says that Metternich assured him on March 15th that Austria +would not insist on the Regency of Marie Louise, but would listen to +the wishes of France.] + +[Footnote 449: For the first draft of this Declaration, see +"Corresp.," No. 21555 (note).] + +[Footnote 450: Pasquier, vol. iii., ch. xv.; Macdonald, "Souvenirs."] + +[Footnote 451: Houssaye, pp. 593-623; Marmont, vol. vi., pp. 254-272; +Macdonald, chs. xxvii.-xxviii. At Elba, Napoleon told Lord Ebrington +that Marmont's troops were among the best, and his treachery ruined +everything ("Macmillan's Mag.," Dec, 1894).] + +[Footnote 452: Pasquier, vol. iii., ch. xvi.; "Castlereagh Papers," +vol. ix., p. 442. Alison wrongly says that _Napoleon_ chose Elba.] + +[Footnote 453: Martens, vol. ix., p. 696.] + +[Footnote 454: Thiers and Constant assign this event to the night of +11th-12th. I follow Fain and Macdonald in referring it to the next +night.] + +[Footnote 455: Bausset, "Cour de Napoleon."] + +[Footnote 456: Sir Neil Campbell's "Journal," p. 192.] + +[Footnote 457: Ussher, "Napoleon's Last Voyages," p. 29.] + +[Footnote 458: A quondam Jacobin, Pons (de l'Herault), Commissioner of +Mines at Elba, has left "Souvenirs de l'Ile d'Elbe," which are of +colossal credulity. In chap. xi. he gives tales of plots to murder +Napoleon--some of them very silly. In part ii., chap, i., he styles +him "essentiellement religieux," and a most tender-hearted man, who +was compelled by prudence to hide his sensibility! Yet Campbell's +official reports show that Pons, _at that time_, was far from admiring +Napoleon.] + +[Footnote 459: "F.O.," Austria, No. 117. Talleyrand, in his letters to +Louis XVIII., claims to have broken up the compact of the Powers. But +it is clear that fear of Russia was more potent than Talleyrand's +_finesse_. Before the Congress began Castlereagh and Wellington +advised friendship with France so as to check "undue pretensions" +elsewhere.] + +[Footnote 460: Stanhope's "Conversations," p. 26. In our archives +("Russia," No. 95) is a suspicious letter of Pozzo di Borgo, dated +Paris, July 10/22, 1814, to Castlereagh (it is not in his Letters) +containing this sentence: "_L'existence de Napoleon_, comme il etait +aise a prevoir, est un inconvenient qui se rencontre partout." For +Fouche's letter to Napoleon, begging him voluntarily to retire to the +New World, see Talleyrand's "Mems.," pt. vii., app. iv. Lafayette +("Mems.," vol. v., p. 345) asserts that French royalists were plotting +his assassination. Brulart, Governor of Corsica, was suspected by +Napoleon, but, it seems, wrongly (Houssaye's "1815," p. 172).] + +[Footnote 461: Pallain, "Correspondance de Louis XVIII avec +Talleyrand," pp. 307, 316.] + +[Footnote 462: "Recollections," p. 16; "F.O.," France, No. 114. The +facts given above seem to me to refute the statements often made that +the allies violated the Elba arrangement and so justified his escape. +The facts prove that the allies sought to compel Louis XVIII. to pay +Napoleon the stipulated sum, and that the Emperor welcomed the +non-payment. His words to Lord Ebrington on December 6th breathe the +conviction that France would soon rise.] + +[Footnote 463: Fleury de Chaboulon's "Mems.," vol. i., pp. 105-140; +Lafayette, vol. v., p. 355.] + +[Footnote 464: Campbell's "Journal"; Peyrusse, "Memorial," p. 275.] + +[Footnote 465: Houssaye's "1815," p. 277.] + +[Footnote 466: Guizot, "Mems.," ch. iii.; De Broglie, "Mems.," bk. +ii., ch. ii.; Fleury, vol. i., p. 259.] + +[Footnote 467: Peyrusse, "Memorial," p. 277.] + +[Footnote 468: As Wellington pointed out ("Despatches," May 5th, +1815), the phrase "il s'est livre a la vindicte publique" denotes +public justice, _not_ public vengeance. At St. Helena, Napoleon told +Gourgaud that he came back _too soon_ from Elba, _believing that the +Congress had dissolved!_ (Gourgaud's "Journals," vol. ii., p. 323.)] + +[Footnote 469: "Diary," April 15th and 18th, 1815.] + +[Footnote 470: "Parl. Debates"; Romilly's "Diary," vol. ii., p. 360.] + +[Footnote 471: Napoleon told Cockburn during his last voyage that he +bestowed this constitution, not because it was a wise measure, but as +a needful concession to popular feeling. The continental peoples were +not fit for representative government as England was ("Last Voyages of +Nap.," pp. 115, 137). So, too, he said to Gourgaud he was wrong in +summoning the Chambers at all "_especially as I meant to dismiss them +as soon as I was a conqueror_" (Gourgaud, "Journal," vol. i., p. 93).] + +[Footnote 472: Mercer's "Waterloo Campaign," vol. i., p. 352. For +Fleury de Chaboulon's mission to sound Austria, see his "Mems.," vol. +ii., and Madelin's "Fouche," ch. xxv.] + +[Footnote 473: In the "English Hist. Review" for July, 1901, I have +published the correspondence between Sir Hudson Lowe +(Quartermaster-General of our forces in Belgium up to May, 1815) and +Gneisenau, Mueffling, and Kleist. These two last were _most reluctant_ +to send forward Prussian troops into Belgium to guard the weak +frontier fortresses from a _coup de main_: but Lowe's arguments +prevailed, thus deciding the main features of the war.] + +[Footnote 474: "F.O.," France, No. 116. On June 9th the Duke charged +Stuart, our envoy at Ghent, to defend this course, on the ground that +Bluecher and he had many raw troops, and could not advance into France +with safety and invest fortresses until the Russians and Austrians +co-operated.] + +[Footnote 475: Sir H. Vivian states ("Waterloo Letters," No. 70) that +the Duke intended to give a ball on June 21st, the anniversary of +Vittoria. See too Sir E. Wood's "Cavalry in the Waterloo Campaign," +ch. ii.] + +[Footnote 476: "F.O.," France, No. 115. A French royalist sent a +report, dated June 1st, recommending "point d'engagement avec +Bonaparte.... Il faut user l'armee de Bonaparte: elle ne peut plus se +recruter."] + +[Footnote 477: Ropes's "Campaign of Waterloo," ch. v.; Chesney, +"Waterloo Lectures," p. 100; Sir H. Maxwell's "Wellington" (vol. ii., +p. 14); and O'Connor Morris, "Campaign of 1815," p. 97.] + +[Footnote 478: Janin, "Campagne de Waterloo," p. 7.] + +[Footnote 479: Petiet, "Souvenirs militaires," p. 195.] + +[Footnote 480: Credit is primarily due to Constant de Rebecque, a +Belgian, chief of staff to the Prince of Orange, for altering the +point of concentration from Nivelles, as ordered by Wellington, to +Quatre Bras; also to General Perponcher for supporting the new +movement. The Belgian side of the campaign has been well set forth by +Boulger in "The Belgians at Waterloo" (1901).] + +[Footnote 481: Gourgaud, "Campagne de 1815," ch. iv.] + +[Footnote 482: Houssaye, "1815," pp. 133-138, 186, notes.] + +[Footnote 483: Hamley, "Operations of War," p. 187.] + +[Footnote 484: For Gerard's delays see Houssaye, p. 158, and +Horsburgh, "Waterloo," p. 36. Napoleon's tardiness is scarcely noticed +by Houssaye or by Gourgaud; but it has been censured by Jomini, +Charras, Clausewitz, and Lord Wolseley.] + +[Footnote 485: Ollech (p. 125) sees in it a conditional offer of help +to Bluecher. But on what ground? It states that the Prince of Orange +has one division at Quatre Bras and other troops at Nivelles: that the +British reserve would reach Genappe at noon, and their cavalry +Nivelles at the same hour. How could Bluecher hope for help from forces +so weak and scattered? See too Ropes (note to ch. x.). Horsburgh (ch. +v.) shows that Wellington believed his forces to be more to the front +than they were: he traces the error to De Lancey, chief of the staff. +But it is fair to add that Wellington thought very highly of De +Lancey, and after his death at Waterloo severely blamed subordinates.] + +[Footnote 486: Stanhope, "Conversations," p. 109.] + +[Footnote 487: Reiche, "Memoiren," vol. ii., p. 183.] + +[Footnote 488: The term _corps_ is significant. Not till 3.15 did +Soult use the term _armee_ in speaking of Bluecher's forces. The last +important sentence of the 2 p.m. despatch is not given by Houssaye (p. +159), but is printed by Ropes (p. 383), Siborne (vol. i., p. 453), +Charras (vol. i., p. 136), and Ollech (p. 131). It proves that _as +late as 2 p.m._ Napoleon expected an easy victory over the Prussians.] + +[Footnote 489: The best authorities give the Prussians 87,000 men, and +the French 78,000; but the latter estimate includes the corps of +Lobau, 10,000 strong, which did not reach Fleurus till dark.] + +[Footnote 490: I follow Houssaye's solution of this puzzle as the +least unsatisfacty, but it does not show why Napoleon should have been +so perplexed. D'Erlon debouched from the wood of Villers Perwin +_exactly where he might have been expected_. Was Napoleon puzzled +because the corps was heading south-east instead of east?] + +[Footnote 491: Delbrueck ("Gneisenau," vol. ii., p. 190) shows how the +storm favoured the attack.] + +[Footnote 492: I here follow Delbrueck's "Gneisenau" (vol. ii., p. 194) +and Charras (vol. i., p. 163). Reiche ("Mems.," vol ii., p. 193) says +that his corps of 30,800 men lost 12,480 on the 15th and 16th: he +notes that Bluecher and Nostitz probably owed their escape to the +plainness of their uniforms and headgear.] + +[Footnote 493: "Waterloo Letters," Nos. 163 and 169, prove that the +time was 3 p.m. and not 3.30; see also Kincaid's account in Fitchett's +"Wellington's Men" (p. 120).] + +[Footnote 494: "Waterloo Letters," No. 169.] + +[Footnote 495: See Houssaye, p. 205, for the sequence of these +events.] + +[Footnote 496: Ollech, pp. 167-171. Colonel Basil Jackson, in his +"Waterloo and St. Helena" (printed for private circulation), p. 64, +states that he had been employed in examining and reporting on the +Belgian roads, and did so on the road leading south from Wavre. This +report had been sent to Gneisenau, and must have given him greater +confidence on the night of the 16th.] + +[Footnote 497: O'Connor Morris, p. 176, approves Napoleon's criticism, +and censures Gneisenau's move on Wavre: but surely Wavre combined more +advantages than any other position. It was accessible for the whole +Prussian army (including Buelow); it was easily defensible (as the +event proved); and it promised a reunion with Wellington for the +defence of Brussels. Houssaye says (p. 233) that Gneisenau did not at +once foresee the immense consequences of his action. Of course he did +not, because he was not sure of Wellington; but he took all the steps +that might lead to immense consequences, if all went well.] + +[Footnote 498: Mueffling, "Passages," p. 238: Charras, vol. i., p. 226, +discredits it.] + +[Footnote 499: Basil Jackson, _op. cit._, p. 24; Cotton, "A Voice from +Waterloo," p. 20.] + +[Footnote 500: Grouchy suppressed this despatch, but it was published +in 1842.] + +[Footnote 501: Mercer, vol. i., p. 270.] + +[Footnote 502: Petiet, "Souvenirs militaires," p. 204.] + +[Footnote 503: Ropes, pp. 212, 246, 359. I follow the "received" +version of this despatch. For a comparison of it with the "Grouchy" +version see Horsburgh, p. 155, note.] + +[Footnote 504: Ropes, pp. 266, 288; Houssaye, p. 316, with a good +note.] + +[Footnote 505: Ollech, pp. 187-192; Delbrueck's "Gneisenau," vol. ii., +p. 205. I cannot credit the story told by Hardinge in 1837 to Earl +Stanhope ("Conversations," p. 110), that, on the night of the 16th +June, Gneisenau sought to dissuade Bluecher from joining Wellington. +Hardinge only had the story at second hand, and wrongly assigns it to +Wavre. On the afternoon of the 17th Gneisenau ordered Ziethen _to keep +open communications with Wellington_ (Ollech, p. 170). The story that +Wellington rode over to Wavre on the night of the 18th on his horse +"Copenhagen" is of course a myth.] + +[Footnote 506: "Blackwood's Magazine," October, 1896; "Cornhill," +January, 1901.] + +[Footnote 507: Beamish's "King's German Legion," vol. ii., p. 352. Sir +Hussey Vivian asserts that the allied position was by no means strong; +but General Kennedy, in his "Notes on Waterloo" (p. 68), pronounces it +"good and well occupied." A year previously Wellington noted it as a +good position. Sir Hudson Lowe then suggested that it should be +fortified: "Query, in respect to the construction of a work at Mt. +Jean, being the commanding point at the junction of two principal +chaussees" ("Unpublished Memoirs").] + +[Footnote 508: Wellington has been censured by Clausewitz, Kennedy and +Chesney for leaving so large a force at Hal. Perhaps he desired to +protect the King of France at Ghent, though he was surely relieved of +responsibility by his despatch of June 18th, 3 a.m., begging the Duc +de Berri to retire with the King to Antwerp. It seems to me more +likely that he was so confident of an early advance of the Prussians +(see his other despatch of the same hour and Sir A. Frazer's +statement--"Letters," p. 553--"We expected the Prussian co-operation +early in the day") as to assume that Napoleon would stake all on an +effort against his right; and in that case the Hal force would have +crushed the French rear, though it was very far off.] + +[Footnote 509: Wellington to Earl Bathurst, June 25th, 1815. The Earl +of Ellesmere, who wrote under the Duke's influence, stated that not +more than 7,000 of the British troops had seen a shot fired. This is +incorrect. Picton's division, still 5,000 strong, was almost wholly +composed of tried troops; and Lambert's brigade counted 2,200 +veterans; many of the Guards had seen fire, and the 52nd was a +seasoned regiment. Tomkinson (p. 296) reckons all the 5,220 British +and 1,730 King's German troopers as "efficient," and Wellington +himself, so Mercer affirms, told Bluecher he had 6,000 of the finest +cavalry in the world.] + +[Footnote 510: "A British Rifleman," p. 367.] + +[Footnote 511: I distrust the story told by Zenowicz, and given by +Thiers, that Napoleon at 10 a.m. was awaiting Grouchy with impatience; +also Marbot's letter referred to in his "Memoirs," _ad fin._, in which +he says the Emperor bade him push on boldly towards Wavre, as the +troops near St. Lambert "could be nothing else than the corps of +Grouchy." Grouchy's despatch and the official reply show that Napoleon +knew Grouchy to be somewhere between Gembloux and Wavre. Besides, +Buelow's report (Ollech, p. 192) states that, while at St. Lambert, he +sent out two strong patrols to the S.W., and was not observed by the +French, "who appeared to have no idea of our existence." This +completely disposes of Marbot's story.] + +[Footnote 512: Houssaye, ch. vii. In the "Eng. Hist. Rev." for +October, 1900, p. 815, Mr. H. George gives a proof of this, citing the +time it took him to pace the roads by which Grouchy might have +advanced.] + +[Footnote 513 "Waterloo Letters," pp. 60-63, 70-77, 81-84, 383. The +whole brigade was hardly 1,000 sabres strong. Sir E. Wood, pp. +126-146; Siborne, vol. ii., pp. 20-45.] + +[Footnote 514: Houssaye, pp. 354, 499, admits the repulse.] + +[Footnote 515 B. Jackson, p. 34. Mueffling says the defaulters numbered +10,000! While sympathizing with the efforts of Dutch-Belgian writers +on behalf of their kin, I must accept Jackson's evidence as conclusive +here. See also Mr. Oman's article in "Nineteenth Century," Oct., +1900.] + +[Footnote 516: B. Jackson, p. 35; "Waterloo Letters," pp. 129-144, +296; Cotton, p. 79.] + +[Footnote 517: Houssaye, pp. 365, 371-376; Kennedy, pp. 117-120; +Mercer, vol. i., pp. 311-324.] + +[Footnote 518: Gourgaud (ch. vi.) states that the time of Lobau's move +was 4.30, though he had reconnoitred on his right earlier. Napoleon's +statements on this head at St. Helena are conflicting. One says that +Lobau moved at 1.30, another at 4.30. Perhaps Janin's statement +explains why Lobau did nothing definite till the later hour.] + +[Footnote 519: Baring's account ("King's German Legion," App. xxi.) +shows that the farm was taken about the time of the last great cavalry +charge. Kennedy (p. 122) and Ompteda (_ad fin._) are equally explicit; +and the evidence of the French archives adduced by Houssaye (p. 378) +places the matter beyond doubt.] + +[Footnote 520: Ollech, pp. 243-246. Reiche's exorbitant claims (vol. +ii., pp. 209-215) are refuted by "Waterloo Letters," p. 22.] + +[Footnote 521: Lacoste (Decoster), Napoleon's Flemish guide, told this +to Sir W. Scott, "Life of Napoleon," vol. viii., p. 496.] + +[Footnote 522: See Boulger's "The Belgians at Waterloo" (1901), p. +33.] + +[Footnote 523: The formation and force of the French Guards in this +attack have been much discussed. Thiers omits all notice of the second +column; Houssaye limits its force to a single battalion, but his +account is not convincing. On p. 385 he says nine battalions of the +Guard advanced into the valley, but, on p. 389, he accounts only for +six. Other authorities agree that eight joined in the attack. As to +their formation, Houssaye advances many proofs that it was in hollow +squares. Here is one more. On the 19th Basil Jackson rode along the +slope and ridge near the back of Hougoumont and talked with some of +the wounded of the Imperial Guard. "As they lay they formed large +squares, of which the centres were hollow" (p. 57). Maitland +("Waterloo Letters," p. 244.) says: "There was one great column at +first, which separated into two parts." Gawler (p. 292) adds that: +"The second column was subdivided in two parts, close together, and +that _its whole flank was much longer than the front of our 52nd +regiment_." It is difficult to reconcile all this with the attack in +hollow squares; but probably the squares (or oblongs?) followed each +other so closely as to seem like a serried column. None of our men +could see whether the masses were solid or hollow, but naturally +assumed them to be solid, and hence greatly over-estimated their +strength. A column made up of hollow squares is certainly an odd +formation, but perhaps is not unsuitable to withstand cavalry and +overthrow infantry. + +I cannot accept Houssaye's statement (p. 393) that the French squares +attacked our front at four different places, from the 52nd regiment on +our right to the Brunswickers in our centre, a quarter of a mile to +the east. The only evidence that favours this is Macready's ("Waterloo +Letters," p. 330); he says that the men who attacked his square (30th +and 73rd regiments) were of the Middle Guard; for their wounded said +so; but Kelly, of the same square, thought they were Donzelot's men, +who certainly attacked there. Siborne, seemingly on the strength of +Macready's statement, says that part of the Guards' column diverged +thither: but this is unlikely. Is it credible that the Guards, less +than 4,000 strong, should have spread their attacks over a quarter of +a mile of front? Was not the column the usual method of attack? I +submit, then, that my explanation of the Guard attacking in hollow +oblongs, formed in two chief columns, harmonizes the known facts. See +Petit's "Relation" in "Eng. Hist. Rev.," April, 1903.] + +[Footnote 524: Janin, p. 45.] + +[Footnote 525: Bertrand at St. Helena said he _heard_ Michel utter +these words (Montholon, vol. iii., ch. iv.).] + +[Footnote 526: Maitland's "Narrative," p. 222. Basil Jackson, who knew +Gourgaud well at St. Helena, learnt from him that he could not finish +his account of Waterloo, "as Napoleon could never decide on the best +way of ending the great battle: that he (Gourgaud) had suggested no +less than six different ways, but none were satisfactory" ("Waterloo +and St. Helena," p, 102). Gourgaud's "Journal" shows that Napoleon +blamed in turn the rain, Ney, Grouchy, Vandamme, Guyot, and Soult; but +he ends--"it was a fatality; for in spite of all, I should have won +that battle."] + +[Footnote 527: "Lettres inedites de Napoleon."] + +[Footnote 528: Gourgaud, "Journal inedit de Ste. Helene," vol. ii., p. +321, small edit.] + +[Footnote 529: Lucien, "Mems.," vol. iii., p. 327.] + +[Footnote 530: Stuart's despatch of June 28th, "F.O.," France, No. +117; Gneisenau to Mueffling, June 27th, "Passages," App.] + +[Footnote 531: Croker ("Papers," vol. iii., p. 67) had this account +from Jaucourt, who had it from Becker.] + +[Footnote 532: Ollech, pp. 350-360. The French cavalry success near +Versailles was due to exceptional circumstances.] + +[Footnote 533: Maitland's "Narrative," pp. 23-39, disproves Thiers' +assertion that Napoleon was not expected there. Maitland's letter of +July 10th to Hotham ("F.O.," France, No. 126, not in the "Narrative") +ends: "It appears to me from the anxiety the bearers express to get +away, that they are very hard pressed by the Government at Paris." +Hotham's instructions of July 8th to Maitland were most stringent. See +my Essay in "Napoleonic Studies" (1904).] + +[Footnote 534: The date of the letter disproves Las Cases' statement +that it was written _after_ his second interview with Maitland, and +_in consequence of_ the offers Maitland had made! + +Napoleon's reference to Themistocles has been much admired. But why? +The Athenian statesman was found to have intrigued with Persia against +Athens in time of peace; he fled to the Persian monarch and was richly +rewarded _as a renegade_. No simile could have been less felicitous.] + +[Footnote 535: "Narrative," p. 244. [This work has been republished by +Messrs. Blackwood, 1904.]] + +[Footnote 536: "F.O.," France, No. 126; Allardyce, "Mems. of Lord +Keith."] + +[Footnote 537: Maitland, pp. 206, 239-242; Montholon, vol. i., ch. +iii.] + +[Footnote 538: "Castlereagh Papers," 3rd series, vol. ii., pp. +434,438. Beatson's Mem. is in "F.O.," France, No. 123. This and other +facts refute Lord Holland's statement ("Foreign Reminiscences," p. +196) that the Government was treating for the transfer of St. Helena +from the East India Company _early in_ 1815.--Why does Lord Rosebery, +"Napoleon: last Phase," p. 58, write that Lord Liverpool thought that +Napoleon should either (1) be handed over to Louis XVIII. to be +treated as a rebel; or (2) treated as vermin; or (3) that we would +(regretfully) detain him? In his letters to Castlereagh at Paris, +Liverpool expressly says it would be better for us, rather than any +other Power, to detain him, and writes not a word about treating him +as vermin. Lord Rosebery is surely aware that our Government and +Wellington did their best _to preclude the possibility of the +Prussians treating him as vermin_.] + +[Footnote 539: Keith's letter of August 1st, in "F.O.," France, No. +123: "The General and many of his suite have an idea that if they +could but put foot on shore, no power could remove them, and they are +determined to make the attempt if at all possible: they are becoming +most refractory."] + +[Footnote 540: In our Colonial Office archives, St. Helena, No. 1, is +a letter of August 2nd, 1815, from an Italian subject of Napoleon +(addressed] to Mme. Bertrand, but really for him), stating that +L16,000 had been placed in good hands for his service, one-fourth of +which would be at once intrusted to firms at New York, Boston, +"Philadelfi," and Charlestown, to provide means for effecting his +escape, and claiming again "le plus beau trone de l'univers." It begs +him to get his departure from Plymouth put off, for a plot had been +formed by discontented British officers to get rid of the Premier and +one other Minister. Napoleon must not build any hopes on the Prince +Regent: "Le Silene de cette isle.... Je fonds donc mon espoir avant +tout sur les navires marchands, Anglais comme autres, par l'apas du +gain." The writer's name is illegible: so is the original postmark: +the letter probably came from London: it missed Mme. Bertrand at +Plymouth, followed her to St. Helena, and was opened by Sir G. +Cockburn, who sent it back to our Government. I have published it _in +extenso_ in my volume, "Napoleonic Studies " (1904), as also an +accompanying letter from Miss McKinnon of Binfield, Berks, to +Napoleon, stating that her mother, still living, had known him and +given him hospitality when a lieutenant at Valence.] + +[Footnote 541: Las Cases, "Memorial," vol, i., pp. 55, 65.] + +[Footnote 542: I wish I had space to give a whole chapter to the +relations between Napoleon and the Whigs, and to show how their +championship of him worked mischief on both sides in 1803-21, enticing +him on to many risky ventures, and ruining the cause of Reform in +England for a generation.] + +[Footnote 543: "F.O.," France, No. 123. Keith adds: "I accompanied him +to look at the accommodation on board the 'Northumberland,' with which +he appeared to be well satisfied, saying, 'the apartments are +convenient, and you see I carry my little tent-bed with me.'" The +volume also contains the letter of Maingaud, etc. Bertrand requested +permission from our Government to return in a year; Gourgaud, when his +duty to his aged mother recalled him; O'Meara stipulated that he +should still be a British surgeon on full pay and active service.] + +[Footnote 544: "Extract from a Diary of Sir G. Cockburn," pp. 21, 51, +94.] + +[Footnote 545: "Napoleon's last Voyages," p. 163.] + +[Footnote 546: I found this return in "Admiralty Secret Letters," +1804-16. + +Lord Rosebery, in his desire to apologize for our treatment of +Napoleon at every point, says ("Nap.: last Phase," p. 64): "They [the +exiles] were packed like herrings in a barrel. The 'Northumberland,' +it was said, had been arrested on her way back from India in order to +convey Napoleon: all the water on board, it was alleged, had also been +to India, was discoloured and tainted, as well as short in +quantity."--On the contrary, the diary of Glover, in "Last Voyages of +Nap.," p. 91, shows that the ship was in the Medway in July, and was +fitted out at Portsmouth (where it was usual to keep supplies of +water): also (p. 99) that Captain Ross gave up his cabin to the +Bertrands, and Glover his to the Montholons: Gourgaud and Las Cases +slept in the after cabin until cabins could be built for them. We have +already seen (p. 529) that Napoleon was well satisfied with his own +room. Water, wine, cattle, and fruit were taken in at Funchal in spite +of the storm.] + +[Footnote 547: Gourgaud, "Journal," vol. i., pp. 47, 59 (small +edition); "Last Voyages of Nap.," p. 198.] + +[Footnote 548: Sir G. Bingham's Diary in "Blackwood's Mag.," October, +1896, and "Cornhill," January, 1901.] + +[Footnote 549: Gourgaud, "Journal," vol. i., p. 64.] + +[Footnote 550: "Last Voyages," p. 130.] + +[Footnote 551: "Castlereagh Papers," 3rd series, vol. ii., pp. 423, +433, 505; Seeley's "Stein," vol. iii., pp. 333-344.] + +[Footnote 552: See Gourgaud's "Journal," vol. ii., p. 315, for +Napoleon's view as to our stupidity then: "In their place I would have +stipulated that I alone could sail and trade in the eastern seas. It +is ridiculous for them to leave Batavia (Java) to the Dutch and L'Ile +de Bourbon to the French."] + +[Footnote 553: Forsyth, "Captivity of Napoleon," vol. i., p. 218. +Plantation House was also the centre of the semaphores of the island.] + +[Footnote 554: Mrs. Abell ("Betsy" Balcombe), "Recollections," ch. +vii. These were compiled twenty-five years later, and are not, as a +rule, trustworthy, but the "blindman's buff" is named by Glover. +Balcombe later on infringed the British regulations, along with +O'Meara.] + +[Footnote 555: Gourgaud, "Journal," vol. i., pp. 77, 94, 136, 491.] + +[Footnote 556: Gourgaud, "Journal," vol. i., pp. 135, 298. See too +"Cornhill" for January, 1901.] + +[Footnote 557: Surgeon Henry of the 66th, in "Events of a Military +Life," ch. xxviii., writes that he found side by side at Plantation +House the tea shrub and the English golden-pippin, the bread-fruit +tree and the peach and plum, the nutmeg overshadowing the gooseberry. +In ch. xxxi. he notes the humidity of the uplands as a drawback, "but +the inconvenience is as nothing compared with the comfort, fertility, +and salubrity which the clouds bestow." He found that the soldiers +enjoyed far better health at Deadwood Camp, behind Longwood, than down +in Jamestown.] + +[Footnote 558: Despatch of Jan. 12th, 1816, in Colonial Office, St. +Helena, No. 1.] + +[Footnote 559: Lord Rosebery ("Napoleon: last Phase," p. 67), +following French sources, assigns the superiority of force to Lowe; +but the official papers published by Forsyth, vol. i., pp. 397-416, +show that the reverse was the case. Lowe had 1,362 men; the French, +about 3,000.] + +[Footnote 560: From a letter in the possession of Miss Lowe.] + +[Footnote 561: Forsyth, vol. i., pp. 139-147.] + +[Footnote 562: See the interview in "Monthly Rev.," Jan., 1901.] + +[Footnote 563: Bingham's Diary in "Cornhill" for Jan., 1901; Gourgaud, +vol. i., pp. 152, 168.] + +[Footnote 564: Forsyth, vol. i., pp. 171-177.] + +[Footnote 565: Lowe's version (Forsyth, vol. i., pp. 247-251) is fully +borne out by Admiral Malcolm's in Lady Malcolm's "Diary of St. +Helena," pp. 55-65; Gourgaud was not present.] + +[Footnote 566: B. Jackson's "Waterloo and St. Helena," pp. 90-91. The +assertion in the article on B. Jackson, in the "Dict. of Nat. +Biography," that he was related to Lowe, and therefore partial to him, +is incorrect. Miss Lowe assures me that he did not see her father +before the year 1815.] + +[Footnote 567: "Mems. of a Highland Lady," p. 459.] + +[Footnote 568: In "Blackwood's," Oct., 1896, and "Cornhill," Jan., +1901. I cannot accept Stuermer's hostile verdict on Lowe as that of an +impartial witness. The St. Helena Records show that Stuermer persisted +in evading the Governor's regulations by secretly meeting the French +Generals. He was afterwards recalled for his irregularities. Balmain, +the Russian, and Montchenu, the French Commissioner, are fair to him. +The latter constantly pressed Lowe _to be stricter with Napoleon_! See +M. Firmin-Didot's edition of Montchenu's reports in "La Captivite de +Ste. Helene," especially App. iii. and viii.] + +[Footnote 569: "Waterloo and St. Helena," p. 104.] + +[Footnote 570: Lowe had the "Journal" copied out when it came into his +hands in Dec., 1816. This passage is given by Forsyth, vol. i., p. 5, +and by Seaton, "Sir H. Lowe and Napoleon," p. 52.] + +[Footnote 571: An incident narrated to the present writer by Sir +Hudson Lowe's daughter will serve to show how anxious was his +supervision of all details and all individuals on the island. A +British soldier was missed from the garrison; and as this occurred at +the time when Napoleon remained in strict seclusion, fear was felt +that treachery had enabled him to make off in the soldier's uniform. +The mystery was solved a few days after, when a large shark was caught +near the shore, and on its being cut open the remains of the soldier +were found! + +It should be remembered that Lowe prevailed on the slave-owners of the +island to set free the children of slaves born there on and after +Christmas Day, 1818.] + +[Footnote 572: Quoted by Forsyth, vol. i., p. 289. This letter of +course finds no place in O'Meara's later malicious production, "A +Voice from St. Helena"; the starvation story is there repeated _as if +it were true_!--That Napoleon was fastidious to the last is proved by +the archives of our India Office, which contain the entry (Dec. 11th, +1820): "The storekeeper paid in the sum of L105 on account of 48 dozen +of champagne rejected by General Bonaparte" (Sir G. Birdwood's "Report +on the Old Records of the India Office," p. 97).] + +[Footnote 573: Forsyth, vol. i., pp. 330-343, 466-475.] + +[Footnote 574: I have quoted this _in extenso_ in "The Owens College +Historical Essays." May not the words "domiciled" and "employed" have +aroused Lowe's suspicions of Balcombe and O'Meara? Napoleon always +said that he did not wish to escape, and hoped only for a change of +Ministry in England. But what responsible person could trust his words +after Elba, where he repeatedly told Campbell that he had done with +the world and was a dead man?] + +[Footnote 575: Forsyth, vol. i., p. 310, vol. ii., p. 142, vol. iii., +pp. 151, 250; Montholon, "Captivity of Napoleon," vol. iii., ch. v.; +Firmin-Didot, App. vi. The schemes named by Forsyth are ridiculed by +Lord Rosebery ("Last Phase," p. 103). But would he have ignored them, +had he been in Bathurst's place?] + +[Footnote 576: Gourgaud, "Journal," vol. i., p. 105.] + +[Footnote 577: He said to Gourgaud that, _if he had the whole island +for exercise he would not go out_ (Gourgaud's "Journal," vol. ii., p. +299).] + +[Footnote 578: Gourgaud's "Journal," vol. i., pp. 262-270, 316. Yet +Montholon ("Captivity of Napoleon," vol. i., ch. xiii.), afterwards +wrote of Las Cases' departure: "_We all loved the well-informed and +good man, whom we had pleasure in venerating as a Mentor.... He was an +immense loss to us!_"] + +[Footnote 579: Gourgaud, vol. i., p. 278; Forsyth, vol. i., pp. +381-384, vol. ii., p. 74. Bonaparte wanted this "Journal" to be given +back to him: but Las Cases would not hear of this, as it contained +"_ses pensees_." It was kept under seal until Napoleon's death, and +then restored to the compiler.] + +[Footnote 580: Henry, vol. ii., p. 48; B. Jackson, pp. 99-101; quoted +by Seaton, pp. 159-162.] + +[Footnote 581: Forsyth, vol. iii., p. 40; Gourgaud's "Journal," vol. +ii., pp. 531-537.] + +[Footnote 582: "Apostille" of April 27th, 1818. As to the new house, +see Forsyth, vol. i., pp. 212, 270; vol. iii., pp. 51,257; it was +ready when Napoleon's illness became severe (Jan., 1821). + +If the plague of rats was really very bad, why is it that Gourgaud +made so little of it?] + +[Footnote 583: "Journal" of Oct. 4th, 1817. On the return voyage to +England Mme. Bertrand told Surgeon Henry that secret letters had +constantly passed between Longwood and England, through two military +officers; but the passage above quoted shows who was the culprit.] + +[Footnote 584: Forsyth, vol. iii., pp. 153, 178-181.] + +[Footnote 585: Stuermer's "Report" of March 14th, 1818; Gourgaud's +"Journal" of Sept. 11th and 14th, 1817.] + +[Footnote 586: Described by Bertrand to Lowe on May 12th, 1821 ("St. +Helena Records," No. 32).] + +[Footnote 587: Lord Holland, "Foreign Reminiscences," p. 305.] + +[Footnote 588: Gourgaud, vol. i., pp. 297, 540, 546; vol. ii., pp. 78, +130, 409, 425. See Las Cases, "Memorial," vol. iv., p. 124, for +Napoleon's defence of polygamy. See an Essay on Napoleon's religion in +my "Napoleonic Studies" (1904).] + +[Footnote 589: Lord Holland's "Foreign Reminiscences," p. 316; Colonel +Gorrequer's report in "Cornhill" of Feb., 1901.] + +[Footnote 590: "Colonial Office Records," St. Helena, No. 32; Henry, +"Events of a Military Life," vol. ii., pp. 80-84: h also states that +Antommarchi, when about to sign the report agreed on by the English +doctors, was called aside by Bertrand and Montholon, and thereafter +declined to sign it: Antommarchi afterwards issued one of his own, +laying stress on cancer _and enlarged liver_, thus keeping up +O'Meara's theory that the illness was due to the climate of St. Helena +and want of exercise. In our records is a letter of Montholon to his +wife of May 6th, 1821, which admits the contrary: "C'est dans notre +malheur une grande consolation pour nous d'avoir acquis la preuve que +sa mort n'est, et n'a pu etre, en aucune maniere le resultat de sa +captivite." Yet, on his return to Europe, Montholon stoutly maintained +that the liver complaint endemic to St. Helena had been the death of +his master. It is, however, noteworthy that on his death-bed Napoleon +urged Bertrand to be reconciled to Lowe. He and Montholon accordingly +went to Plantation House, where, according to all appearance, the dead +past was buried.] + + * * * * * + + + + +INDEX + + + Abdication, the Second, ii. 515. + + Abell, Mrs., ii. 541. + + Aberdeen, Lord, ii. 361, 369, 371, 372, 374-375. 390, 410. + + Aboukir, i. 192-193, 201. + + Aboukir, battle of, i. 213. + + Abrantes, Duchesse d', i. 426. + + Acre, i. 201, 204-210, 413. + + Acton, Gen., i. 435. + + Adams, Gen., ii. 502, 508. + + Adda River, i. 93. + + Addington, i. 310, 321, 402, 420-427, 452. + + Additional Act, the, ii. 450-451. + + Adige, i. 101, 107, 122, 123, 124, 132; + River, i. 263. + + Adye, Capt., ii. 441-442. + + Ajaccio, i. 4-6, 12, 30-32, 34, 36, 38-41, 215. + + Alessandria, i. 88, 250-258, 259. + + Alexander I., i. 339. + + Alexander, Czar, i. 263, 333, 338-340, 387-388, 395, 406-408, 419-425, + 430-432; ii. 1-3, 5-11, 20, 29-31, 33-36, 42, 58, 63, + 81, 82, 86-87, 90, 108, 110, 114-116, 125-132, 134-137, + 144-145, 175, 179-183, 185-186, 202, 205-207, 209, 229, + 231-236, 241-243, 258-259, 273-276, 285, 290, 296-297, + 316-318, 321-322, 335, 344-345, 347, 372, 374, 381, + 386-388, 400, 408, 415-420, 423-424, 426-430, 433, 437, + 447, 448, 538, 546. + + Alexander the Great, i. 33, 202, 213. + + Alexandria, i. 187-189, 192, 214. + + Algesiras, i. 313. + + Alix, Gen., ii. 496, 497. + + Alkmaar, i. 217. + + Alps, the, i. 92. + + Alten, Gen., ii. 474, 499, 504. + + Alvintzy, i. 121, 131-136. + + Amiens, Treaty of, i. 331, 336-354, 405. + + _Ancien regime, L'_, i. 25, 27, 31. + + Andreossi, i. 215. + + Angouleme, Duc d', ii. 414-415. + + Ansbach, ii. 20, 30, 44. + + Antibes, i. 60; ii. 442. + + Antigua, i. 498. + + Antommarchi, ii. 568, 570. + + Antwerp, i. 439; ii. 399. + + Apennines, i. 90, 91, 92. + + Arcis, battle of, ii. 409. + + Arcola, i. 123-128. + + Arena, i. 303-304, 307. + + Argaum, i. 377. + + Arisch, El, i. 203-204. + + Armed Neutrality League, i. 263, 331. + + Armenia, i. 201. + + Arndt, ii. 274, 278, 373. + + Arnott, Dr., ii. 571. + + Arrighi, ii. 404. + + Arrondissements, i. 268, 269, 323-324. + + Artois, Comte d', i. 54-55, 451, 456, 462; ii. 414, 416, 437, 443. + + Aspern-Essling, battle of, ii. 192. + + Assaye, i. 377. + + Assignats, i. 62. + + Astrakan, i. 262. + + Auerstaedt, battle of, ii. 97, 98. + + Augereau, i. 82, 85, 101, 108-115, 124, 138, 161, 162, + 168, 449, 469-470, 491, 511 (App.); ii. 18, 91, 96, 97, + 101, 112, 295, 355-356, 408, 415, 422, 454. + + Aulic Council, i. 106, 121, 131. + + Austerlitz, battle of, 37-42. + + Australia, i. 379-385, 428; ii. 107, 174. + + Austria,i. 35, 37, 52, 56, 57, 77, 79, 87, 89, 96, 100, 101, + 105, 120, 128, 129, 137, 163, 164, 166-170, 183, 216, + 219, 240, 263, 265, 352, 395, 414, 500; ii. 1-3, 5-6, + 9-11, 12, 13-14, 18-26, 30-31, 42, 45-50, 58, 90-91, + 110-111, 114-115, 126-128, 155, 177-182, 187, 189-202, + 206-207, 271-272, 281-284, 289-290, 294-296, 315-317, + 324-328, 331, 354-355, 365, 380, 385-389, 399-400, + 402-403, 438, 453. + + Austrian Netherlands, i. 141. + + Auxonne, i. 22, 32-33. + + Avignon, i. 137. + + + Babeuf, i. 157, 305. + + Bacciocchi, i. 153. + + Badajoz, Treaty of, i. 311. + + Baden, ii. 46, 60. + + Bagration, ii. 244, 248-249, 251-252. + + Balcombe, Mr., ii. 541, 555. + + Balearic Isles, ii. 74 + + Balmain, ii. 552. + + Barbe-Marbois, ii. 60. + + Barclay, Gen., ii. 244, 248-254, 291-292, 294, 335, 419. + + Barras, i. 49, 50, 69, 70, 71, 74, 158, 159, 160, 167, 173, + 180-181, 220-221, 223, 451. + + Barrere, i. 59. + + Bartenstein, Treaty of, ii. 141. + + Barthelemy, i. 158, 162. + + Bassano, i. 117. + + Bastia, i. 30, 41. + + Batavian Republic. _See_ Holland. + + Bathurst, Earl, ii. 493, 556, 557, 558, 562. + + Baudin, Commodore, ii. 380-382. + + Baudus, Col., ii. 485. + + Bausset, i. 483; ii. 204, 255, 257, 433. + + Bautzen, battle of, ii. 291-293. + + Bavaria, ii. 46, 59, 65, 69, 189-191, 201, 354-355. + + Baylen, ii. 177. + + Baylen, battle of, ii. 170. + + Bayonne, Conventions of, ii. 166, 379 (battles of). + + + Beatson, Gen., ii. 525. + + Beauharnais,Eugene, i. 215, 468, 501; ii. 10, 12, 85, 154, 195, + 216, 254-255, 260, 279-281, 284-285, 287, 294, 369, + 375, 380, 397, 411. + + Beauharnais, Hortense, i. 215, 442; ii. 515. + + Beaulieu, i. 82, 83, 85, 86, 92, 93, 101, 102. + + Becker, Gen., ii. 516-518. + + Beethoven, i. 481. + + Beet-root, ii. 223. + + Belgium, i. 141, 308; ii. 35, 54, 373, 387, 392, 399, + 402, 412, 436, 438, 441, 456-457. + + Belliard, Gen., ii. 423. + + Bennigsen, Gen., ii. 111, 114, 118-120, 123-124, 126, 140, 250, 359, 362. + + Beresford, ii. 414-415. + + Beresina, crossing of, ii. 264. + + Berg, Grand Duchy of, ii. 64. + + Berlier, i. 302. + + Berlin, + decree of, ii. 103-105; + University of, ii. 226, 275. + + Bernadotte,i. 220, 222, 246, 449, 451, 469-470; ii. 18-21, 36, 38, + 40, 63, 91, 94, 99-100, 111, 142, 229, 238, 296-298, + 321-323, 332-333, 335, 337-338, 350, 352, 353-354, + 357-360, 362, 369, 380, 387, 401, 416, 424. + + Bernard, Prince, ii. 462. + + Berne, i. 180, 391-395, 398-399. + + Bernier, i. 236, 274. + + Berthier, i. 76, 95, 109, 134, 135, 158, 179, 194, 214, + 234, 246, 249, 276, 468-470; ii. 64, 113, 200, 207, + 260, 335, 348, 363, 364, 392, 416, 427, 431, 432, 454, + 455. + + Berthollet, i. 182, 195, 215, 285, 487; ii. 569. + + Bertrand, ii. 18, 32, 113, 280, 292, 332-333, 337-338, + 354, 358, 359, 433, 434, 441, 481, 487, 516, 520-524, + 529-530, 535-537, 539, 542, 544, 547, 567, 572. + + Bertrand, Mme., ii. 522, 523, 527, 528, 529-530, 535-537, 542, 548. + + Bessarabia, ii. 238. + + Bessieres, i. 194, 215, 258, 469-470; ii. 18, 41, 169, + 211, 255, 260, 288. + + Beyme, ii. 90. + + Bialystock, ii. 134. + + Bingham, Sir George, ii. 536, 548, 551. + + Black Forest, ii. 14-16. + + Bluecher, ii. 83, 92, 98, 100, 285-286, 288, 292, + 332-333, 335-336, 338-34O, 350-352, 353-354, 356, 358, + 360, 361, 362, 364, 366, 381-384, 389, 392-396, 401, + 404-407, 414, 416-419, 423, 456-457, 460, 467-473, + 476-477, 479, 480, 481, 489, 502, 510, 516-518, 537, + 545, 546. + + Bologna, i. 78, 103, 119, 128, 131. + + Bon, i. 182, 209. + + Bonaparte, Caroline, ii. 571. + + Bonaparte, Charles, i. 5-10. + + Bonaparte, Elise, i. 37, 153; ii. 10. + + Bonaparte family, the, i. 2-12, 17. + + Bonaparte, Jerome, i. 444-445, 473-474; ii. 135, 154, + 194, 216, 248-249, 352. 423, 485, 494-495. + + Bonaparte, Joseph, i. 7, 10, 13, 23, 30, 32, 73, 153, + 341, 351-354, 369-371, 424-426, 443-444, 465, 468, + 473-475; ii. 9-10, 62, 63, 85, 135, 168, 169-171, 181, + 185, 198, 201, 210, 269, 300-304, 305-313, 382, 393, + 396, 412, 416, 421-422, 423, 454, 512, 520. + + Bonaparte, Josephine, i. 73-74, 153-156, 215, 221, 304, + 327, 329, 459, 462, 472-474, 477-480; ii. 129, 133, + 182, 204-207, 515, 571. + + Bonaparte, Letizia (Madame Mere), i. 5-7, 23, 41, 468; ii. 440. + + Bonaparte, Louis, i. 32, 61, 125, 153, 442, 468, 473-475; ii. 10, + 168, 212-214, 393, 423. + + Bonaparte, Lucien, i. 21, 31, 39, 40, 179, 214, + 223-226, 228, 234, 295, 311, 369-371, 442-444, 473-475; + ii. 162, 452, 454, 513, 514, 560. + + Bonaparte, Pauline, i. 153, 360, 363, 442; ii. 436, 440, 571. + + Borghese, Prince, i. 442. + + Borodino, battle of, ii. 254-256. + + Boulay de la Meurthe, i. 229, 234, 302, 305. + + Boulogne, i. 313, 485-503. + + Bourbon, Ile de, i. 358, 372; ii. 390, 538. + + Bourgogne, Serg., ii. 257, 261. + + Bourmont, Gen., i. 237; ii. 461. + + Bourrienne, i. 12, 13, 72, 175, 180-181, 215, 245, 303; + ii. 157, 222. + + Boyen, Gen. von, ii. 330. + + Breisgau, i. 170, 263. + + Brescia, i. 101, 107, 108, 109, 113, 143, 144, 259. + + Breslau, Convention of, ii. 277. + + Brest, i. 160, 375. + + Brienne, battle of, ii. 383. + + Brienne, Napoleon at, i. 10-14. + + Broglie, Duc de, i. 162; ii. 246, 327, 450. + + Brueys, Admiral, i. 182-183, 192, 229. + + Bruix, i. 214, 487. + + Brulart, ii. 439. + + Brumaire, _coup d'etat_ of, i. 222-228. + + Brune, Marshal, i. 70, 180, 237, 469; ii. 144, 454. + + Brunswick, Duke of, ii. 31, 91-94, 97-98, 100. + + Brunswick-Oels, Duke of, ii. 194, 474. + + Bubna, Count, ii. 289-290, 314, 321, 328. + + Budberg, Baron, ii. 74. + + Buelow, Gen. von, ii. 338, 350, 352, 381, 392, 401, 405, + 414, 460, 489, 495, 496, 502, 503, 504. + + Buonavita, ii. 568. + + Burghersh, Lady, ii. 370, 417. + + Burghersh, Lord, ii. 360, 419. + + Busaco, battle of, ii. 209. + + Buttafuoco, Comte de, i. 31. + + Bylandt, Gen., ii. 496. + + + Cadiz, i. 499-502, 507. + + Cadoudal, Georges, i. 236-238, 446, 453-456, 458, 471-472. + + Caesar, i. 187. + + Caffarelli, i. 183-184, 190, 195, 209. + + Cairo, i. 189-191, 197-199. + + Calder, i. 499, 502-504. + + Caldiero, i. 122, 123. + + Cambaceres, i. 222, 234, 289, 302, 321-322, 458, + 467-468; ii. 312, 370, 395. 513. + + Cambronne, Gen., ii. 509. + + Camel corps, i. 197. + + Campbell, Col., i. 489; ii. 420, 434, 435, 440-442. + + Campbell, Sir Neil, ii. 484, 485. + + Camperdown, i. 175. + + Campo Formio, Treaty of, i. 170-172, 263. + + Canning, ii. 116, 126, 141-143, 145, 148, 152, 169, + 185-186, 190, 199, 208. + + Cape of Good Hope, i. 166, 311-312, 314, 333, 375, 396, + 405-406, 420, 428; ii. 54, 73, 81, 82, 221, 229, 436. + + Caprara, i. 274. + + Capri, i. 4; ii. 80, 545. + + Carmel, Mount, i. 206. + + Carnot, i. 74, 75, 162, 234, 322, 451, 467, 471; ii. 446, 513, 515. + + Carteaux, i. 47, 49, 52, 70. + + Castiglione, i. 110. + + Castlereagh, i. 336; ii. 56, 116, 145, 208, 283, 296, + 322, 361, 369, 372, 386-389, 390, 400, 403, 410-411, + 426, 436, 437, 439-440, 525, 558. + + Catalonia, annexation of, ii. 210. + + Cathcart, Lord, ii. 116, 144-145, 277, 287-288, + 316-317, 321, 326, 332, 334, 364. 390. + + Catherine II., i. 138; ii. 273. + + Cattaro, i. 170. + + Caulaincourt, i. 458, 462, 468; ii. 34, 182-183, 205, + 290, 295, 323-324, 327, 354, 370-371, 374-375, 389-392, + 401, 410-413, 416-418, 422, 423, 426-428, 431-432, 444, + 515. + + Certificates of origin, ii. 104, 156, 233. + + Cervoni, i. 95. + + Ceva, i. 85, 86, 87. + + Ceylon, i. 311-312, 314-315, 333, 343. + + Chaboulon, Fleury de, ii. 441. + + Chamber of Peers, ii. 451. + + Chamber of Representatives, ii. 451. + + Champ de Mai. ii. 444, 450, 452. + + Champagny, ii. 149, 181, 185, 213. + + Champaubert, battle of, ii. 393. + + Channel Islands, the, i. 166, 175. + + Chaptal, i. 234, 285, 304-306, 316; ii. 216, 219, 224, 484. + + Charlemagne, i. 478-479; ii. 191, 227-228. + + Charles, Archduke, i. 121, 137, 196; ii. 11, 13-14, 22, + 26, 31-33, 35, 189-192, 194-195, 201. + + Charles IV., ii. 159, 161-166. + + Charles XIII., ii. 202, 238. + + Charlotte, Queen, i. 435. + + Chasse, Gen., ii. 491, 504, 506. + + Chastel, ii. 255. + + Chateaubriand, i. 282, 298, 463. + + Chatham, Earl, ii. 199. + + Chatillon, Congress of, ii. 389-392, 400, 409-412. + + Chaumont, Treaty of, ii. 402-403, 448. + + Chenier, i. 451. + + Cherasco, i. 88, 89. + + Chouans, i. 305-307. + + Cintra, Convention of, ii. 172. + + Cisalpine Republic, i. 142, 151-152, 166, 168-170, + 251-252, 264, 319, 345-349. + + Cispadane Republic, i. 119-120, 131, 142, 149, 152. + + Ciudad Rodrigo, ii. 302. + + Clarke, Gen., i. 128, 129, 130, 140, 158, 164; ii. 74, + 295, 302-303, 325, 363, 404, 421. + + Clausel, ii. 303-304, 306-307, 309, 313, 454. + + Clausewitz, ii. 244, 250, 255 _n._, 459, 466, 492. + + Clichy Club, i. 158, 161. + + Cleves, ii. 44. + + Coalition, Second, 209, 213, 216, 240-243. + + Coalition, Third, i. 500; ii. 1, 5-12, 42, 58. + + Cobenzl, Count, i. 162, 263; ii. 1, 3, 45. + + Cockburn, Admiral, ii. 451, 510, 527, 528, 531-532, + 534-535, 539-549, 545, 547. + + Code Napoleon, i. 287-294, 466; ii. 77. + + Coffee, price of, ii. 218, 223. + + Collingwood, i. 488. Colloredo, ii. 359. + + Commercial prohibition, i. 401-402; ii. 104-106, + 156-157, 217-220, 224. + + Committee of Public Safety, i. 44, 65, 67, 162. + + Concordat, the (of 1802), i. 21, 271-284, 476; ii. 570. + + Condorcet, i. 295. + + Confederation of the Rhine, ii. 75-78, 83-84, 91, 103, + 135, 195, 229, 240, 277, 316, 324, 329-330. + + Coni, i. 88. + + Consalvi, Cardinal, i. 274-279. + + Constant, Benjamin, i. 163, 238, 320; ii. 450. + + Constant (the Valet), ii. 432. + + Constantine, Grand Duke, ii. 250. + + Constantinople, i. 182, 201-203, 210; ii. 128, 136, 175. + + Constitution of 1795, i. 66, 159, 218, 221. + + Constitution of 1799 (Year VIII.), i. 229-233, 238. + + Constitutional priests, i. 28, 164, 272, 273-277, 282. + + Consul, First, powers of, i. 231-233. + + Consulate for life, i. 321-324, 326. + + Continental System, i. 176, 436; ii. 28, 48, 49, 77, + 103-107, 144, 153-158, 174, 189-190, 193, 211-223, + 233-235, 236-237. + + "Contrat Social, Le," i. 17, 20, 26, 43, 466. + + Convention, the, i. 37, 40, 54, 57, 58, 66, 67, 68, 69, 72, 289. + + Copenhagen, bombardment of, ii. 142. + + Corbineau, Gen., ii. 263. + + Corfu, i. 168, 192-193, 413, 420-422, 434, 488; ii. 17, + 62, 82, 154, 430. + + Cornwallis, Lord, i. 337, 341, 343, 350-354, 372. + + Cornwallis, Admiral, i. 440, 491-492, 499, 502-504. + + Coronation, i. 476-477, 479-480. + + Corps Legislatif, i. 230, 270, 305, 320, 321-324; ii. 377. + + Corsica, i. 1, 3-11, 14, 16, 17, 22, 23, 28-32, 34-35, + 37, 38-43, 56, 60, 61, 217, 241; ii. 430. + + Cortes, ii. 301, 379, 380. + + Corvisart, ii. 205. + + Cotton, ii. 483, 491. + + Cotton, price of, ii. 218. + + Council of Ancients, i. 66, 223-224. + + Council of Five Hundred, i. 67, 158, 162, 217, 223-226. + + Council of State, i. 230, 234, 238, 266, 269, 287, + 304-306, 320, 467, 475; ii. 451. + + Court, Mr. a, i. 435. + + Craonne, battle of, ii. 406-407, 411. + + Croatia, ii. 201. + + Croker, ii. 516. + + Cromwell, i. 33. + + Cuesta, ii. 198. + + Curacoa, i. 311-312, 333; ii. 436. + + Cyprus, i. 215. + + Czartoryski, i. 262, 409-410, 423; ii. 5-9, 29, 54, 71, + 74, 110, 232. + + + Dalberg, ii. 424-425. + + Dallemagne, i. 95. + + Dalmatia, i. 142, 168-170; ii. 45-48, 201. + + Dandolo, i. 170-172. + + Danton, i. 63. + + Dantzig, siege of, ii. 284. + + Danubian provinces, ii. 47, 135, 138, 185. + + Daru, i. 503. + + David, i. 248. + + Davidovich, i. 107, 121, 122, 127. + + Davoust, i. 182, 438, 469-470; ii. 18, 38, 91, 94, + 98-101, 112, 113, 119, 122, 193, 195, 248-249, 251-252, + 280, 296, 298-299, 325, 332, 337-338, 350, 352, 360, + 369, 408, 416, 432, 446, 454, 514, 5I7. + + Decaen, Gen., i. 373-375, 378, 381, 419, 433; ii. 454. + + Decoster, ii. 486. + + Decres, i. 358, 363, 487, 497; ii. 176, 446. + + Dedem de Gelder, ii. 360. + + Defermon, i. 234. + + Dego, i. 85, 86. + + Delhi, i. 201. + + Demerara, i. 311-312, 333, 439; ii. 436. + + D'Enghien, Duc, i. 446, 457-463; ii. 532. + + Denmark, i. 64, 263; ii. 114, 136, 140-144, 152-153, 221, + 296-297, 380. + + Dennewitz, battle of, ii. 350. + + Denon, i. 215; ii. 517. + + Departments, French, i. 27. + + D'Erlon, Count, ii. 454, 460, 462, 470, 472-473, + 474-476, 490, 495, 498, 502, 505, 508. + + + Desaix, i. 181, 182, 191, 199, 214-215, 254, 259. + + Desgenettes, i. 212. + + Desprez, Col., ii. 305. + + Diebitsch, ii. 419. + + Dijon, i. 246. + + Directors, the, i. 97, 104, 146, 218-224, 226. + + Directory, the, i. 67, 68, 75, 87, 97, 98, 99, 119, + 129, 130, 140, 143, 148, 157-160, 167-172, 177-181, + 214, 228, 300, 326. + + Divorce, i. 292. + + Divorce, the Imperial, ii. 204-205, 327. + + Dolder, i. 393. + + Dommartin, i. 47, 87, 183. + + Domont, Gen., ii. 496, 503. + + Donzelot, ii. 497, 503, 506, 507, 508. + + Doppet, i. 49, 52. + + Doernberg, ii. 459. + + Douglas, Col., i. 208. + + Drake, Francis, i. 55, 453-454; ii. 2, 62. + + Dresden, battle of, ii. 342-347. + + Drissa, camp of, ii. 243, 249-250. + + Drouot, ii. 395, 422, 434. + + Ducos, Roger, i. 220, 223, 228, 233, 239. + + Dugommier, i. 52, 53. + + Duhesme, ii. 503. + + Dumas, Gen., i. 115, 182, 194, 285. + + Dumouriez, Gen., i. 90, 457-459, 486. + + Dundas, i. 441. + + Dunkirk, i. 175. + + Duphot, i. 179. + + Dupont, Gen., i. 70; ii. 22-23, 123, 169-170, 173. + + Duroc, i. 76, 172, 215, 327, 409, 443, 468; ii. 12, 20, + 40, 59, 101, 134, 150, 293. + + + Eastern Question, i. 340, 406, 408-410, 428; ii. 47-48, 108. + + East Indies, i. 497-499. + + Ebrington, Lord, ii. 568. + + Eckmuehl, battle of, ii. 191. + + Economists, i. 174. + + Education, national, i. 295-298. + + Egypt, i. 168, 175-200, 201-203, 261, 312-313, 314, + 355, 369, 411-416, 420-422, 434, 488; ii. 139, 174, + 176, 229, 529. + + + Elba, i. 264, 314, 389; ii. 430, 435-442. + + Elchingen, ii. 24. + + Ellesmere, Earl of, ii. 493. + + Emmett, i. 510 (App.). + + England, i. 22, 25, 39, 41, 42, 46, 48, 54-56, 166-167, + 174, 178, 200, 216, 240, 261, 265, 307-315, 321, + 331-338, 350-354, 358, 361-363, 364, 372-378, 387-388, + 401-408, 413-438, 436-441, 450-454, 460-461, 509-510 + (App.); ii. 2, 4-9, 48, 55-58, 65-67, 69-74, 81-83, + 87-89, 90, 104-107, 114-115, 125-128, 136, 138-148, + 155-158, 185-186, 190, 199-200, 208, 211-212, 216-223, + 229, 233, 283, 317, 322, 327-328, 334, 361, 372, + 386-387, 389, 399, 402-403, 417, 432, 436-438, 447, + 453, 532, 538-539. + + + England, invasion of, i. 175-178, 438-441, 482, 485-499. + + Ense, Varnhagen von, ii. 101, 177, 225. + + Erfurt, meeting at, ii. 179-185, 189, 231, 235. + + Escoiquiz, ii. 165. + + Esterhazy, Prince, ii. 410. + + Etruria, kingdom of, i. 264, 334, 389, 420; ii. 150, 153-158. + + Eugene, Prince, of Wurtemberg, ii. 347-348. + + Eylau, battle of, ii. 111-114. + + Excelmans, Gen., ii. 481-482. + + + Fain, ii. 360, 364, 371. + + Faypoult, i. 148. + + Ferdinand, Archduke, ii. 14-16, 19, 21, 24, 35. + + Ferdinand, Prince Louis, ii. 93. + + Ferdinand IV., i. 77. + + Ferdinand VII. (Spain), ii. 161-166, 379-380. + + Ferrara, i. 78, 119. + + Fesch, Cardinal, i. 468, 477; ii. 206. + + Feudalism, i. 120, 288; ii. 77-78, 178, 187. + + Fichte, ii. 177, 184, 226, 237, 286. + + Finland, ii. 175, 176, 185, 235-236. + + Fiorella, i. 114. + + Flahaut, Count, ii. 422, 479. + + Flinders, Capt., i. 380-381. + + Florence, i. 77, 104. + + Florence, Buonapartes at, i. 2, 6. + + Florence, Treaty of, i. 264. + + Florida, i. 364, 368. + + Flotilla, the Boulogne, i. 483-499. + + Fombio, i. 92, 93. + + Fontainebleau, Convention of, ii. 150, 160. + + Fontainebleau, decree of, ii. 217. + + Fontanes, i. 481. + + Forfait, i. 234. + + Forsyth, ii. 540, 550, 555, 557. + + Fouche, i. 227, 234, 302, 304, 427, 449, 451, 463, + 466-467, 472, 504; ii. 6, 182, 187-188, 213, 334, 439, + 446, 448, 514, 515, 517. + + Fox, i. 294, 414, 441; ii. 59, 70-72, 81, 83, 105, 330. + + Foy, Gen., ii. 307. + + France, i. 314. + + France, Ile de, i. 358, 372, 380; ii. 390, 412. + + France, Protestantism in, i. 283-284. + + France, University of, i. 296-297. + + Francis II., Emperor, i. 105, 117, 120, 121, 140-142, + 170, 263, 264, 406, 482; ii. 3, 9-10, 14-16, 34, 42, + 76, 197, 200-203, 239, 272-273, 283, 289, 314-315, 321, + 326, 335, 386-388, 399, 410, 417, 422, 426, 433, 436. + + Frazer, Sir A., ii. 492. + + Frederick William III., ii. 4, 30-32, 33, 42-45, 51-55, + 65, 83-87, 89-94, 98-100, 108, 127, 129-131, 177-178, + 237, 270-271, 273-277, 285, 316-317, 335, 344-345, 347, + 373, 386-388, 433. + + French Colonies, i. 357-383. + + French Republic, the, i. 38, 42, 45, 48. + + Frejus, i. 215-217. + + Freron, i. 54. + + Friant, ii. 36, 38, 350, 506. + + Friedland, battle of, ii. 119-124. + + Frotte, i. 235, 237. + + Fructidor, _coup d'etat_, i. 157, 161-164, 217, 272. + + Fulton, i. 483-484. + + + Gallican Church, i. 274. + + Gallois, M., ii. 558. + + Gantheaume, Admiral, i. 215, 234, 372, 485, 487, 489, 491-492, + 495-498. + + Garda, Lake, i. 100, 101, 106, 108, 112. + + Gardane, Gen., i. 254; ii. 117-118. + + Gaudin, i. 234, 270; ii. 446. + + Geneva, i. 180, 246, 390. + + Genoa, i. 5, 7, 55, 59, 60, 75, 82, 83, 121, 147, 182, 216, + 241, 243, 250, 334, 504; ii. 11-12. + + Gentz, ii. 91, 314, 323. + + Gerard, ii. 454, 460-461, 463, 466, 469-471, 480-482. + + Gezzar, i. 204-209. + + Gibraltar, i. 167, 175; ii. 150. + + Girard, Gen., ii. 338. + + Girondins, i. 44-46, 63, 218, 301. + + Glover, ii. 533, 534, 540, 541. + + Gneisenau, ii. 92, 125, 237, 286, 351, 366, 456, 460, 468, 476-479, + 481, 509, 516, 546. + + Godoy, i. 365-368, 437; ii. 146, 149-150, 159-161, 163-166. + + Goethe, ii. 3, 183-184, 278. + + Gohier, i. 220, 221, 223-224. + + Gourgaud, Gen., ii. 451, 461, 463, 486, 503, 509, 513, + 518, 520-524, 528, 529, 533, 535-537, 541, 542, 544, + 548, 549, 560, 561-564, 569, 572. + + Government, local, i. 267-271. + + Gower, Lord Leveson, ii. 45, 126, 128, 130, 145, 160. + + Graham, i. 83, 111, 114; ii. 310, 381. + + Great Britain. _See_ England. + + Great St. Bernard, i. 245-248. + + Gregoire, i. 467. + + Grenoble, Napoleon at, ii. 443. + + Grenville, Lord, i. 55, 166, 242, 414; ii. 59. + + Gross Goerschen, ii. 287-289. + + Grossbeeren, battle of, ii. 338. + + Grouchy, ii. 120, 124, 255-256, 395, 407, 455, 463, + 464, 466, 469, 470, 480, 481, 482, 485, 487-489, 495, + 496, 505, 508, 510, 514. + + Guadeloupe, i. 358; ii. 296-297. + + Guards, National, i. 62, 69, 71. + + Gudin, ii. 487. + + Guiana, French, i. 358. + + Guizot, ii. 484. + + Gustavus IV., ii. 2, 4, 5, 144, 202, 238. + + Guyot, ii. 501, 502. + + + Hagelberg, battle of, ii. 338. + + Hainau, ambush at, ii. 294. + + Hal, Wellington's force at, ii. 492. + + Halkett, ii. 508. + + Hamburg. _See_ Hanse Towns. + + Hameln, ii. 34. + + Hammond, Lord, i. 450. + + Hanau, battle of, ii. 365. + + Hanover, i. 64, 176, 436; ii. 9, 17, 30, 34, 44, 45-48, 53-57, + 65-69, 82-85, 88, 91, 135, 199, 277, 317, 361, 386. + + Hanse Towns, i. 176; ii. 73-74, 213, 214 (annexation of); 226, + 280-281, 297-299, 316, 361, 369. + + Hardenberg, ii. 11, 55, 65, 68, 89, 129, 270, 274, 276, 373, 400. + + Hardinge, ii. 459, 468, 489. + + Harel, i. 459. + + Harrowby, Earl of, ii. 5, 42, 53, 56, 57. + + Hasslach, ii. 22. + + Hatzfeld, Prince, ii. 271. + + Haugwitz, i. 432; ii. 20, 30-31, 34, 43-46, 53-55, 65-69, 83-84, 86, + 89-90. + + Hauterive, i. 278-279; ii. 149. + + Hawkesbury, Lord, i. 310, 312-314, 333-334, 338-340, 350-354, 396, + 405, 422, 431, 450, 452; ii. 56. + + Hayti. _See_ Domingo. + + Hazlitt, ii. 447. + + Heilsberg, battle of, ii. 118-119. + + Heligoland, ii. 380. + + Helvetic Republic. _See_ Switzerland. + + Henry, Surgeon, ii. 539, 543, 553, 571. + + Hesse-Cassel, i. 64; ii. 84. + + Hill, Gen., ii. 309. + + Hobart, Lord, i. 377, 382. + + Hoche, i. 63, 65, 160, 168. + + Hofer, ii. 193, 201-202. + + Hohenlinden, i. 260. + + Hohenlohe, ii. 93-97, 97-100. + + Holkar, i. 374, 377. + + Holland, i. 39, 166, 178, 242, 265, 293, 308, 314-315, + 327, 334-338, 344, 345, 376-377, 403, 405, 416, 420, + 425, 428, 433, 438, 485-486, 493, 503, ii. 1, 6, 8, 18, + 30, 35, 54, 55, 69, 103, 134, 135-137, 212-214, 361, + 369, 373, 375-376, 381, 403, 412, 436-438. + + Holland, Lord, ii. 126, 413, 567, 570. + + Holy Alliance, ii. 566. + + Holy Roman Empire, i. 141, 170, 264, 387, 478; ii. 75-76. + + Hood, Admiral, i. 50, 54-55. + + Hostages, law of, i. 220, 229. + + Hotham, Admiral, ii. 519-521. + + Hougoumont, ii. 490-491, 499, 500-505. + + Howick, Earl, ii. 116. + + Hulin, Gen., i. 460-461. + + Humbert, Gen., i. 511 (App.). + + Humboldt, ii. 226, 323. + + Hutchinson, Lord, ii. 124. + + Hyde de Neuville, i. 220, 236-237. + + + Ibrahim, i. 188-191. + + Illyria, ii. 315-316, 320, 324, 326, 328. + + Imam of Muscat, i. 200. + + India, i. 176, 189, 194, 200, 210, 262, 342, 372-379, + 396, 419-420, 428-429, 431, 434; ii. 117-118, 139, + 174-176, 230. + + Ionian Isles, the, i. 168-170, 177, 314, 428, 432; ii. 9, 74, 135. + + Ireland, i. 160, 202-203, 309, 331-332, 417, 488-489, 491, + 505-506, 510-512 (App.); ii. 229. + + Iron Cross, Order of the, ii. 277. + + Istria, i. 142, 168-170; ii. 46-47. + + Italian Republic, i. 388, 420. + Italy, i. 77, 79, 96, 100, 213, 263, 265, 345-349, 388, + 433-435, 438, 493, 497; ii. 1, 6, 10-11, 17, 46-48, 69, + 88, 103, 150, 154, 202, 324, 361, 373, 375, 380, 397, + 411, 438-439, 440. + + + Italy, army of, i. 57, 61, 64, 74, 75, 76, 80, 82, 122. + + Izquierdo, Don, ii. 150, 163. + + + Jackson, Col. Basil, ii. 477, 479, 499, 500, 507, 529, + 550, 552, 563. + + Jackson, Sir G., ii. 43, 314, 360, 447. + + Jacobins, the, i. 31, 35, 37, 42, 45, 47, 49, 53, 59, + 63, 64, 69, 149, 161, 218, 223, 226-228, 260, 267, 281, + 301, 302-306, 401, 427, 465-466; ii. 449. + + + Jaffa, i. 201, 203-204, 211-213. + + Jamaica, i. 361. + + Janin, Count, ii. 502. + + Jaubert, i. 412. + + Java, ii. 538. + + Jefferson, i. 367, 369. + + Jena, battle of, ii. 94-97. + + Jews, the, i. 284. + + John, Archduke, ii. 195-196. + + Jomini, ii. 335, 340, 342, 466. + + Jonan, Golfe de, ii. 442. + + Joubert, i. 131, 135, 138, 219. + + Jouberthon, Madame, i. 443. + + Jourdan, i. 222, 469-470; ii. 198, 305, 307, 308-310. + + _Juges de paix_, i. 270, 323; ii. 451. + + Junot, i. 60, 61, 76, 112, 136, 138, 207, 426; ii. 151, + 160, 162, 172, 454. + + Junot, Madame, i. 64, 181, 426. + + + Kalckreuth, ii. 91, 137. + + Kalisch, Treaty of, ii. 276-277. + + Katzbach, battle of the, ii. 339. + + Keith, Lord, i. 250-251, 440; ii. 526, 528, 529-530. + + Kellermann, i. 89, 90, 256, 258-259, 469; ii. 40, 474, 501, 502. + + Kennedy, Gen., ii. 457, 492, 493, 504. + + Kilmaine, i. 143. + + King's German Legion, ii. 493, 502. + + Kleber, i. 63, 182, 189, 204, 207-208, 213, 215. + + Kleist, ii. 292, 347-348, 456. + + Knesebeck, Gen., ii. 242, 275, 276, 335. + + Koran, i. 185. + + Koerner, ii. 278. + + Krasnoe, battle of, ii. 262. + + Kray, Gen., i. 244. + + Krudener, Madame de, ii. 450. + + Kulm, battle of, ii. 347-349. + + Kurakin, Prince, ii. 239. + + Kutusoff, ii. 33, 36, 38, 39, 254-255, 258-262, 274, 285. + + + Labaume, ii. 245, 253, 260. + + Labedoyere, ii. 505, 541. + + Laborde, ii. 206. + + Labouchere, ii. 213. + + Labrador, ii. 165. + + Lafayette, i. 476; ii. 439, 513, 514. + + La Fere Champenoise, battle of, ii. 419-420, 422. + + La Fere regiment, the, i. 15-17. + + Laffray, defile of, ii. 443. + + Laforest, ii. 65, 66, 84, 87. + + Lagrange, i. 285; ii. 569. + + Laharpe, i. 395, 408, 512 (App.); ii. 231, 400. + + La Haye Sainte, ii. 490-491, 495, 496, 499, 500-505, 507, 508. + + Laine, ii. 377. + + Lajolais, Gen., i. 455. + + Lake, Gen., i. 377. + + Lallemand, Count, ii. 519, 529. + + Lambert, Gen., ii. 493, 498. + + Lampedusa, i. 422, 425. + + Lancey, De, ii. 467, 493. + + Landrieux, i. 110, 111, 115, 143, 144. + + Langeron, Gen. ii. 339. + + Lanjuinais, i. 321, 467; ii. 452. + + Lannes, i. 92, 95, 102, 138, 183, 194, 209, 213, 215, + 249, 252, 256, 451, 469; ii. 18, 21, 24, 26,32, 40, 91, + 94-97, 100, 118-124, 192-193. + + Laplace, i. 285, 484; ii. 569. + + Larochejacquelein, ii. 449. + + La Rothiere, battle of, ii. 383. + + Larrey, i. 212; ii. 485. + + Las Cases, Count, i. 212; ii. 519, 520-524, 527, 528, + 529, 533, 535-537, 541, 542, 548, 553, 559-561, + 564, 566, 568. + + + Latouche-Treville, i. 489-490. + + Latour-Maubourg, ii. 123, 337, 342, 345, 358. + + Lauderdale, Earl of, ii. 81-82. + + Lauriston, ii. 235, 258, 281, 291, 332, 340, 364. + + Lavalette, i. 148, 159, 161, 163, 168, 215; ii. 415, + 445, 450, 451, 486, 513, 516, 526. + + Lebanon, i. 201, 211. + + Lebrun, i. 234, 302, 458, 468. + + Leclerc, i. 135, 182, 225, 360-363. + + Lefebvre, i. 469; ii. 422. + + Lefebvre-Desnoettes, ii. 353, 422, 427, 431. + + Legations, i. 78, 142, 145, 169, 275, 346; ii. 54. + + Leghorn, i. 103. + + Legion of Honour, i. 284-287, 327, 449; ii. 184. + + Legislatif Corps, i. 467, 481. + + Legnago, i. 107, 114, 126, 131. + + Leipzig, battle of, ii. 356-363. + + Lejeune, ii. 37, 192, 257, 351. + + Leoben, i. 138, 140, 145. + + Lepeaux-Reveilliere, La, i. 74, 158, 178, 220, 274. + + Lestocq, Gen., ii. 113. + + Letourneur, i. 74. + + Liberty of the press, i. 239; ii. 211, 451. + + Licences, commercial, ii. 220, 222-223. + + Lichtenstein, ii. 424. + + Ligny, battle of, ii. 468-473. + + Ligurian Republic, i. 148, 264, 345, 420, 504; ii. 6, 10. + + Lille, i. 164, 166-167. + + Lindet, i. 220. + + Linois, Admiral, i. 313, 376; ii. 81. + + Liptay, i. 92, 93. + + Lithuania, ii. 244-246, 248. + + Liverpool, Earl of, ii. 447, 525, 537, 538. + + Lobau, ii. 469, 480-482, 502, 503, 504. + + Lobau, Isle of, ii. 192-193, 195. + + Lodi, battle of, i. 93-95, 97. + + Loison, i. 70. + + Lombardy, i. 90, 91, 96, 142, 436; ii. 21, 55. + + Lonato, i. 110, 112, 113. + + London, Preliminaries of, i. 314, 331-336. + + Louis, Baron, ii. 424. + + Louis XIV., i. 24, 283. + + Louis XV., i. 283, 364. + + Louis XVI., i. 26, 29, 35-36, 42, 71, 283. + + Louis XVII, i. 54-55, 65. + + Louis XVIII., ii. 415, 424-425, 439-440, 457-458, 537, 541, 542. + + Louisa, Queen, ii. 85-86, 125, 132-134, 226. + + Louisiana, i. 264, 334, 364-372, 414, 421, 509-510; ii. 153. + + Lowe, Sir Hudson, i. 4; ii. 291, 359, 395, 409, 419-420, 456, 492, + 545, 561-566, 570, 572. + + Lucca, i. 77. + + Lucchesini, ii. 83-85, 87, 138. + + Lucerne, i. 180. + + Luddite riot, ii. 220. + + Luneville, Treaty of, i. 263. + + Luetzen, battle of, ii. 285, 287-289. + + Luetzow, ii. 278, 318. + + Luxemburg, i. 141. + + Lycees, i. 295-297. + + Lyons, i. 16, 46, 48, 319. + + Lyons, Consulta of, i. 346-348. + + + Macdonald, i. 260, 449, 469, 471; ii. 192, 195, 197, + 270, 288, 332, 335-336, 338-340, 357, 362, 381, 392, + 393-394, 408, 409, 418, 427, 428, 443, 454. + + Mack, ii. 14-16, 18-26, 365. + + Mackenzie, Mr., ii. 140. + + Madalena Isles, the, i. 38-39. + + Madras, i. 376. + + Mahrattas, the, i. 374, 377-378, 416; ii. 117. + + Maida, battle of, ii. 79-80. + + Maingaud, ii. 529. + + Maitland, Capt., ii. 486, 519, 520-524, 525, 526, 529-530. + + Maitland, Gen., ii. 506, 507. + + Malcolm, Sir Pulteney, ii. 550. + + Malet Conspiracy, the, ii. 265, 267. + + Mallet du Pan, i. 180. + + Malmaison, Napoleon at, ii. 515-518. + + Malmesbury, Lord, i. 166-167. + + Malo-Jaroslavitz, battle of, ii. 260. + + Malta, i. 168, 181, 217, 260-263, 307, 311-12, 314, + 333, 338-341, 351-353, 404, 406-408, 415-416, 419-425, + 430-431, 434; ii. 7-9, 17, 54, 62, 73, 225. + + Mamelukes, i. 188-191, 199, 412. + + Manin, i. 169. + + Mantua, i. 77, 79, 89, 90, 95, 100, 101, 102, 105-118, + 124, 130, 131, 136, 216, 259. + + + Marbot, i. 254, 504; ii. 41, 192, 335, 364, 495, 496. + + Marchand (the valet), ii. 485, 572. + + Marchand, Gen., ii. 443, 528. + + Marengo, battle of, i. 254-260. + + Maret, i. 166-167, 278-279; ii. 235, 259, 265, 271, + 295, 370, 371, 391-392, 401, 411, 412, 446, 513. + + Marie Louise, ii. 206-207, 227, 370, 382, 388, 418, + 426, 431, 432-433, 436, 562-563. + + Marmont, i. 60, 61, 64, 76, 99, 114, 124, 126, 138, + 153, 215, 247, 257, 483, 484; ii. 18, 115, 192, 256, + 259, 292, 300, 332-333, 348-349, 351, 356, 357, + 358-359, 362, 364, 381, 383, 393-394, 404, 406, + 407-408, 418, 420-421, 423, 427, 429-430, 454. + + Marseilles, i. 35, 45, 49, 57, 182. + + Martinique, i. 311-312, 314, 333, 496-497. + + Massena, i. 57, 82, 84, 85, 95, 102, 107, 110, 112, + 114, 117, 118, 122, 124, 134, 135, 138, 217, 243-244, + 250, 451, 469, 471; ii. 17, 26, 31, 61, 80, 192-193, + 195, 209, 304, 432, 454. + + Mauritius, ii. 436. + + Mediatization, ii. 77. + + Mehee de la Touche, i. 449-450, 453-455, 457. + + Melas, i. 244-245, 249-259. + + Melito, Miot de, i. 103, 130, 150, 187, 468; ii. 62, 451. + + Melzi, i. 150, 456; ii. 378. + + Memel, decrees of, ii. 178. + + Memmingen, ii. 14, 18, 23-24. + + Memphis, i. 195. + + Mercer, Capt., ii. 453, 457, 483, 501, 502. + + Merlin, i. 302. + + Merry, Mr., i. 337, 393, 406, 411-412. + + Menou, Gen., i. 70, 182, 189, 313. + + Merveldt, Gen., ii. 360-361, 375. + + Metternich, ii. 177, 200, 202-203, 206, 241, 253, + 271-272, 273, 281-283, 289-290, 314-316, 318-320, 323, + 325-327, 368, 370-371, 374-376, 386-389, 391, 400, 410, + 413, 417-418, 422, 426, 438-439, 446, 448, 537. + + Milan, i. 77, 79, 93, 96, 105, 107, 108, 143, 146, 151, 172. + + Milan decrees, ii. 157. + + Milhaud, Count, ii. 471, 481-482, 496, 500. + + Miller, Capt., i. 206. + + Millesimo, i. 85. + + Miloradovitch, ii. 287. + + Mina, ii. 301, 303. + + Mincio, i. 100, 101, 105, 107, 108, 109, 110. + + Minto, Earl, i. 423. + + Miquelon, i. 342. + + Mirabeau, i. 29. + + Missiessy, i. 490, 492; ii. 7. + + Moeckern, battle of, ii. 359. + + Modena, i. 77, 118, 119, 145, 170, 264, 346. + + Modena, Duke of, i. 100. + + Mollien, i. 267; ii. 60, 88, 217, 269, 421, 445, 449, 484. + + Moltke, Von, i. 106. + + Moncey, i. 250, 469; ii. 421-422, 454. + + Mondovi, i. 87. + + Monge, i. 150, 182, 195, 215, 285, 484; ii. 569. + + Monroe, i. 369. + + Montagu, Admiral, i. 485. + + Montchenu, ii. 552, 553, 571. + + Montebello, Castle of, i. 148, 158, 252. + + Montechiaro, i. 107, 110. + + Montenotte, i. 79, 83, 84, 85. + + Montereau, battle of, ii. 397. + + Montesquieu, i. 25, 27, 42, 185. + + Montholon, ii. 513, 519-529, 535-537, 542, 544, 545, + 552, 553, 557, 560, 561, 564, 567, 570, 572. + + Montholon, Mme., ii. 530, 536, 542, 548. + + Montmirail, battle of, ii. 394. + + Morea, the, i. 410, 422, 488-489. + + Moreau, i. 63, 102, 105, 141, 219, 244-245, 449-452, 470-472; + ii. 298, 335, 341, 345. + + Morfontaine, i. 264. + + Morillo, Gen., ii. 309. + + Mortier, i. 469; ii. 115, 117, 120, 345, 349, 394, 404, 406, 408, + 420-421, 422-423, 454. + + Moscow, burning of, ii. 256-257. + + Moulin, i. 220, 223-224. + + Mouton, i. 482; ii. 192. _See_ Lobau. + + Mueffling, Gen. von, ii. 92, 241, 243, 294, 339, 456, 479, 489, + 496, 499. + + Muiron, i. 53, 124, 125; ii. 558. + + Murad, i. 188-191. + + Murat, i. 71, 76, 138, 182, 194, 213, 215, 225, 252, + 276, 422, 458, 460, 468-469; ii. 19, 21, 22, 24, 26, + 32, 40, 64, 83, 85, 97, 100, 112, 119, 122, 135, + 162-164, 166-168, 176, 187, 216, 252-256, 259, 260, + 265, 328, 331, 345-346, 348, 353, 355, 358, 362, + 369-370, 380, 438, 448, 449, 542, 545. + + Muscat, i. 378-379. + + + Nablus, i. 204. + + Nansouty, ii. 345. + + Naples, i. 128, 196, 216, 264, 308, 314, 433; ii. 30, + 59, 60, 61, 63, 115, 134. + + Napoleon, first abdication of, ii. 430. + + Narbonne, ii. 323-324. + + National Assembly, i. 27, 28, 29, 36. + + National Guard, i. 28-29, 34-35, 39, 62, 71. + + Nazareth, i. 207. + + Necker, i. 159. + + Neipperg, Count de, ii. 382, 433, 436. + + Nelson, i. 84, 187, 192-194, 196, 202, 206, 263, 310, + 313, 333, 434, 440, 453, 484, 488; ii. 573. + + Nepean, i. 451. + + Nesselrode, Count, ii. 371, 372, 424. + + Neufchatel, ii. 44. + + Newfoundland, i. 175, 314, 342; ii. 538. + + Ney, i. 396, 438, 469-470, 487; ii. 18, 21, 24, 91, 96, + 97, 113, 120-122, 194, 211, 245, 252-256, 262-263, 287, + 289, 291-292, 322, 335, 350, 353, 354, 356, 359, 362, + 381, 404, 407, 408, 427, 428, 431, 444, 461-463, 466, + 467, 469, 472, 473-479, 482-483, 490, 498, + 500-505, 541, 542. + + Nisas, ii. 318. + + Nice, i. 48, 57, 60, 76, 78, 80, 87, 232, 243, 244-245, 312. + + Nile, battle of the, i. 192-194. + + Nivelle, battle of the, ii. 369. + + Nivose, affair of, i. 303-306. + + Non-intercourse Act, ii. 156. + + Non-jurors, i. 28, 272. + + Norway, ii. 2, 238, 296-297, 380. + + Noverraz, ii. 567. + + Novi, i. 216, 219. + + Novossiltzoff, ii. 5, 7, 11. + + + O'Connor, i. 510-512 (App.). Odeleben, Col. von, ii. 288, 353, + 360. + + Oglio, i. 142. O'Hara, i. 52, 54. + + Oldenburg, ii. 134-135. + + Oldenburg, annexation of, ii. 214, 234-236. + + Oldenburg, Duchy of, ii. 183, 206. + + Old Guard, ii. 471, 504-507. + + Olivenza, i. 311, 314. + + O'Meara, ii. 529-530, 534, 541, 544, 546, 551, 555, + 562, 565, 571, 572. + + Ompteda, ii. 55. + + Oporto, ii. 194. + + Orange, Prince of, ii. 467, 473. + + Ordener, Gen., i. 458. + + Orders in Council, ii. 105-107, 155-157, 222. + + "Organic" articles, i. 281. + + Orleans, New, i. 364, 368-369, 510 (App.). + + Orthez, battle of, ii. 414. + + Ossian, i. 185. + + Ostermann, ii. 347. + + Otto, i. 256, 310, 313, 314, 333, 341. + + Oubril, ii. 71-75, 81. + + Oudinot, i. 243; ii. 32, 38-39, 120, 124, 195, 231, + 250, 253, 263-264, 266, 292, 332-333, 337-338, 350, + 408, 409, 427, 431, 454. + + Ouvrard, ii. 60, 213. + + + Pacthod, Gen., ii. 420. + + Pahlen, ii. 358. + + Pajol, ii. 358, 397, 480, 481. + + Palais Royal, the, i. 16. + + Palm, ii. 89, 184. + + Paoli, i. 5, 18, 29, 30, 31, 34, 35, 38-42, 59. + + Papal States, i. 78; ii. 154, 228. + + Paris, i. 13-16, 35-36, 44-47, 62, 64, 66, 172, 260. + + Paris, Treaties of (1814), ii. 436. + + Paris, Treaty of (1815), ii. 538. + + Parlements, i. 27, 268, 269. + + Parma, i. 78, 366-369, 389. + + Parma, Duke of, i. 100, 129, 264. + + Parthenopaean Republic, i. 216. + + Pasquier, i. 267; ii. 149, 279, 484, 514. + + Passeriano, i. 156, 169-170. + + Paterson, Miss, i. 414-415; ii. 154. + + Paul, Czar, i. 183, 217, 260-263, 310. + + Pavia, i. 92, 96, 98. + + Pelet, ii. 364. + + Peltier, i. 402. + + Peninsular War, ii. 171-173, 186-188, 194, 197-199, + 209-211, 300-313, 368-369. + + Perim, i. 262. + + Permoa, Madame, i. 64, 73. + + Perponcher, Gen., ii. 462. + + Perron, i. 364, 377. + + Persia, i. 262; ii. 9, 110. + + Persia, Shah of, ii. 117-118. + + Perthes, ii. 299. + + Peschiera, i. 101, 112, 113. + + Petiet, ii. 485. + + Petit, Gen., ii. 433. + + Phelippeaux, i. 207-208. + + Phillip, Port, i. 380, 382. + + Phull, Gen. von, ii. 242-243, 248-250. + + Piacenza, i. 92, 93. + + Pichegru, i. 63, 158, 162, 451, 456-457, 463-464, 471. + + Picton, Gen., ii. 311, 473, 479, 490, 493, 497. + + Piedmont, i. 47, 64, 241, 245. + + Piombino, i. 264. + + Pirch I., ii. 460, 464, 467, 468, 489, 504, 505. + + Pirch II., ii. 459. + + Pitt, i. 54-56, 166-167, 243, 310, 414, 441, 452; ii. + 5, 7, 13, 14, 53, 55-58, 573. + + Pope Pius VI., i. 78, 102, 103, 120, 121, 137, 179, + 261. + + Pope Pius VII., i. 274-277, 280-281, 476-467, 480; ii. + 72, 88, 153-154, 191, 211, 227-228, 380. + + Pizzighetone, i. 93. + + Plague, the, i. 204, 209-212. + + Po, River, i. 79, 88, 92, 100. + + Poischwitz, Armistice of, ii. 296, 320. + + Poland, ii. 109-111, 131-132, 193, 201, 232-233, 236, 244-246, 272, + 273-274, 294, 330, 387-388, 437. + + Polignacs, i. 456, 458, 472. + + Pondicherry, i. 372. + + Poniatowski, ii. 252, 254, 284, 332, 362, 364. + + Pons (de l'Herault), ii. 436. + + Ponsonby, ii. 490, 493, 497, 498. + + Portalis, i. 289. + + Portland, Duke of, ii. 116, 208. + + Porto Ferrajo, ii. 435, 441-442. + + Portugal, i. 216, 308, 311-312, 437-438; ii. 106, 145-153, 160, 170-171, + 209-210, 306. + + Potsdam, Treaty of, ii. 30, 44. + + Poussielgue, i. 178. + + Power-looms, ii. 220. + + Pozzo di Borgo, ii. 376, 424, 428, 439. + + _Praams_, i. 485-486. + + Pradt, Abbe de, ii. 246, 253, 258, 267, 424. + + Prague, Congress of, ii. 323-324, 326, 329, 435. + + Prefect, office of, i. 268, 269. + + Press, the, i. 319. + + Press, liberty of the, i. 239; ii. 211, 451. + + Pressburg, Treaty of, ii. 46-48. + + Priests, orthodox, i. 272, 273-277, 282. + + Provence, i. 32, 44, 244. + + Provence, Comte de, i. 54-55, 66, 143. + + Provera, i. 85, 131, 136. + + Prussia, i. 37, 64, 219, 263, 352, 422, 436; ii. 1, + 4-5, 9, 11, 20, 29-30, 34, 42-45, 48, 49, 51-55, 64-69, + 83-101, 110, 114-115, 126-127, 131-132, 134-137, + 177-178, 182, 193, 221, 226, 237-240, 241, 269-271, + 273-278, 280, 282, 316-317, 385-389, 402-403, + 423-424, 437, 448. + + + Public works, i. 316-317. + + Puisaye Papers, i. 450, 452. + + Pyrenees, battle of the, ii. 368. + + Pyramids, battle of the, i. 190-191. + + + + Quatre Bras, battle of, ii. 473-475, 509. + + Quosdanovich, i. 107, 109, 110, 114, 115, 116. + + + + Rapp, ii. 41, 454. + + Rastadt, Congress of, i. 170, 176. + + Ratisbon, battle of, ii. 191. + + Raynal, M., i. 34. + + Real, i. 222, 302, 449, 458, 460, 462-463. + + Rebecque, Constant de, ii. 462. + + Reding, i. 392-394. + + Red Sea, i. 181, 200. + + Reggio, i. 118. + + Regnier, i. 449, 454. + + Reiche, Gen., ii. 460, 468, 476, 505. + + Reichenbach, Treaty of, ii. 317. + + Reille, Gen., ii. 309-311, 454, 462, 473, 490, 494, 495, 505. + + Religion, Napoleon's, i. 19-21. + + Remusat, Madame de, i. 329-330, 459. + + Revolution, French, i. 465-466. + + Rewbell, i. 74, 158, 181, 219, 451. + + Reynier, i. 182, 191; ii. 79-80, 332-333, 337-338, 354, 356, 360, + 362, 364. + + Richter, Jean Paul, ii. 177. + + Riviere, Marquis de, i. 456, 458. + + Rivoli, battle of, i. 131-136. + + Robespierre, i. 57, 59, 60, 62, 63, 70, 82, 174. + + Robespierre, the younger, i. 57, 58, 59, 60. + + Roederer, i. 222, 233-234, 304-305, 308, 399, 473; ii. 375. + + Rohan, Charlotte de, i. 457. + + Roland, Mme., i. 46. + + Roll, Baron de, i. 450. + + Roman Catholic Church, i. 271. + + Romantzoff, ii. 144, 180, 269, 274. + + Rome, i. 100, 129, 179, 275-277. + + Rome, King of, ii. 227, 382, 421. + + Romilly, i. 294, 318. + + Rose, George, ii. 56. + + Rosetta, i. 189. + + Rossbach, battle of, ii. 282. + + Rousseau, i. 17-21, 25, 26-27, 42-43. + + Ruechel, Gen., ii. 91-92, 94, 97. + + Rue St. Honore, i. 72. + + Rumbold, Sir George, ii. 4. + + Russell, Lord John, ii. 440. + + Russia, i. 183, 216, 243, 260-263, 315, 333, 339-340, + 352, 387, 422, 425, 430-432, 458, 500, 511 (App.); ii. + 1, 4-13, 29-30, 47-48, 54, 86, 87, 90, 110, 114-115, + 130-132, 134-137, 185, 221, 223, 233, 269, 270-272, + 273, 275-276, 282, 317, 385-389, 402-403, 448. + + + + + Saalfeld, battle of, ii. 93. + + Sacken, Gen., ii. 339, 364, 393-394. + + St. Aignan, Baron, ii. 370, 374. + + St. Cloud, i. 223-227, 225. + + St. Cyr, i. 469; ii. 17, 61-62, 253, 332-334, 337, + 340-349, 353, 360, 408, 454. + + + St. Domingo, i. 312, 358-364, 368, 440, 490, 509 (App.); ii. 81. + + St. Gotthard, i. 245-250. + + + St. Helena, ii. 439, 539-574. + + St, Ildefonso, Convention of, i. 366. + + St. John, Knights of. _See_ Malta. + + St. Just, i. 59, 174. + + St. Lucia, i. 439; ii. 436. + + St. Marsan, ii. 241, 270, 276. + + St. Pierre, i. 342. + + Salamanca, battle of, ii. 256, 300. + + Salicetti, i. 39-40, 47, 49, 57, 60, 104, 121, 147, 148; ii. 10. + + Salo, i. 110. + + Salvatori, i. 144. + + Salzburg, i. 129, 170; ii. 46, 54, 201. + + Saragossa, ii. 170, 177. + + Sardinia, i. 38-39, 54-57, 78, 83, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, + 167-168, 216, 241, 245, 261, 312, 388, 430; ii. 6, + 8, 30, 115. + + + Sarzana, i. 2, 3. + + Savary, i. 200, 258, 456, 458, 460-463; ii. 35, 41, 96, 144, 165, + 170-171, 298, 313, 334, 380, 415, 426, 446, 516, 519, 528, 529. + + Savona, i. 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 243, 259. + + Savoy, i. 37, 78, 89, 244-245. + + Savoy, House of, i. 87, 90, 338, 344, 388. + + Saxony, i. 64; ii. 84, 88, 91, 93, 108, 134-135, 194, 207, 275, + 284-285, 289, 295, 355, 366, 385, 387-388, 411, 437. + + Scharnhorst, ii. 92, 178, 237, 242, 250, 280, 286. + + Scherer, i. 61, 75. + + Schill, ii. 193. + + Schiller, ii. 184. + + Schleiermacher, ii. 286. + + Schoenbrunn, Treaty of, ii. 43-45, 201. + + Schwarzenberg, Prince, ii. 24, 281-282, 321, 335-336, + 341-346, 351, 354, 356, 366, 368, 373, 381, 383, 384, + 386-389, 396, 402, 404-405, 408-409, 413-414, 417, 418, + 423-424, 429, 456. + + Scindiah, i. 374, 377-378. + + Sebastiani, Gen., i. 411-413; ii. 339. + + Sebottendorf, i. 94. + + Secularizations, i. 387-388; ii. 52. + + Segur, Count, ii. 37, 245, 252, 485. + + Segur, Mme. de, i. 479. + + Senarmont, ii. 123. + + Senate, i. 230-232, 287, 305-306, 320, 321-325, 466-468, 475; ii. + 377, 425, 444. + + _Senatus Consultum_, i. 306, 322, 324-325, 468. + + Senegal, i. 358. + + Serurier, i. 87, 108, 114, 469. + + Servan, i. 36. + + Sicily, i. 77; ii. 72-74, 79-83, 85, 88, 135, 176, 213. + + Sieyes, i. 219-226, 228-233, 451, 467; ii. 526. + + Silesia, ii. 282, 284, 291, 294. + + Silesia, army of, ii. 332, 338-340, 381, 395. + + Silk industry, ii. 224. + + Simmons, Major, ii. 307, 494. + + Simplon, i. 245, 246, 316. + + Sinai, Mount, i. 200. + + Slavery, in French colonies, i. 360-363. + + Smith, Sir Sidney, i. 202, 204-215; ii. 80. + + Smolensk, ii. 251-252. + + Smorgoni, ii. 265. + + Socotra, i. 262. + + Soissons, surrender of, ii. 405-406. + + Sommepuis, council at, ii. 419. + + Somosierra, battle of, ii. 186. + + Souham, Gen., ii. 287, 339. + + Soult, i. 243, 469-470; ii. 18, 21, 38-41, 91, 96, 97, + 100, 122, 126, 180, 194, 198, 209, 256, 300-301, + 304-306, 312-313, 325, 368, 379, 384, 408, 414, 432, + 455, 469, 472, 479, 490, 501, 509. + + + "Souper de Beaucaire, Le," i. 45-46. + + Spain, i. 46-47, 54-56, 64, 129, 166, 178, 214, 264, + 265, 294, 308, 311-312, 314-315, 334, 352, 364-370, + 422, 437-438, 493-496; ii. 69, 74, 106, 146, 149-151, + 153, 176, 177, 181-182, 186-187, 209-211, 215, 300, + 361, 368, 379, 403. + + Spina, Monseigneur, i. 274-276. + + Stadion, Count, ii. 197, 202, 289, 315, 326, 410. + + + Stael, Madame de, i. 73, 163-164, 180, 217, 298. + + Stapfer, i. 391-395, 400. + + Staps, ii. 200. + + Steffens, ii. 274-275, 276. + + Stein, ii. 130, 177, 190, 237, 273-274, 276-277, 373, 387. + + Stewart, Sir Charles, ii. 358, 366, 390, 410, 423, 437. + + Stockholm, Treaty of, ii. 297. + + Stokoe, Dr., ii. 565. + + Stradella, i. 252. + + Stralsund, battle at, ii. 193. + + Strangford, Viscount, ii. 146-148, 152. + + Stuart, Sir John, i. 412; ii. 79-80. + + Stuermer, ii. 565. + + Subervie, Gen., ii. 496, 502. + + Suchet, Marshal, i. 243-244, 250-257, 469; + ii. 300-301, 305-306, 313, 379-380, 408, 414, 415, 455. + + Suez, i. 181, 194, 197, 199. + + Sugar, price of, ii. 218. + + Suvoroff, i. 216. + + Swabia, i. 244, 246; ii. 45-48. + + Sweden, i. 263; ii. 1-2, 5-6, 13, 114, + 136, 140-141, 143-144, 208, 223, + 237-239, 296-298, 322, 380. + + Swiss Guards, the, i. 36. + + Switzerland, i. 64, 179, 243, 244, 265, 294, 308, 334, + 336, 377, 389-400, 403, 405, 416, 420; + ii. 1, 6, 8, 103, 215, 381, 403. + + Sydney, i. 379-382. + + Syria, i. 201-215; ii. 229. + + + Tabor, Mount, i. 207. + + Talavera, battle of, ii. 198-199. + + Talleyrand, i. 150, 163-166, 168, 175, 177, 222, 234, + 278, 294, 304, 306, 337, 341-343, 357, 361, 365-371, + 395, 417, 423-426, 432, 458, 459, 463, 468, 500; ii. + 18, 35, 44, 46, 47-49, 63, 66-67, 70-72, 79, 82-84, 87, + 127, 141, 146, 149, 166, 180-182, 187, 205, 368, 415, + 424-426, 437, 439-440, 446-447. + + + Tallien, i. 156, 451. + + Tallien, Madame, i. 73, 155, 443. + + Tauenzien, ii. 350. + + Terror, the, i. 58, 59, 62, 68, 267. + + Tettenborn, ii. 280. + + Theo-philanthropie, i. 179, 272, 273-277. + + Thibaudeau, i. 290, 305, 467. + + Thiebault, i. 71, 111; ii. 37, 39, 40, 416, 484. + + Thielmann, Gen., ii. 460, 467, 468, 471, 477, 482, 489. + + Thornton, Mr., ii. 318, 321-322, 352. + + Thugut, i. 142. + + Ticino, i, 92. + + Tilsit, ii. 123, 126-128. + + Tilsit, Treaty of, ii. 134-137, 145, 155. + + Tippoo Sahib, i. 200, 373. + + Tobago, i. 311-312, 314, 333, 341, 439; ii. 390, 436. + + Tolentino, i. 137. + + Toll, ii. 335, 340, 341, 419. + + Tomkinson, Col., ii. 307, 493. + + Tormassov, ii. 244. + + Torres Vedras, ii. 209. + + Tortona, i. 88, 252. + + Toulon, i. 39, 40, 44, 46-56, 70, 80, 180-182. + + Toussaint l'Ouverture, i. 359-362, 367. + + Trachenberg, compact of, ii. 321-323, 332. + + Trafalgar, battle of, ii. 26-28. + + Treves, i. 141. + + Trianon Decree, the, ii. 214, 216. + + Tribunate, i. 230, 238, 270, 286-287, 305, 319-324, 467. + + Trieste, i. 121; ii. 201. + + Trinidad, i. 166, 311-312, 314-315, 333, 343, 495; ii. 150. + + Tronchet, i. 289, 321. + + Tugendbund, ii. 184, 237. + + Tuileries, i. 71, 162. + + Turin, i. 79, 85, 87, 89, 250. + + Turkey, i. 65, 183, 188, 201, 216, + 261, 343, 389, 408-410, 420, 428, 431-432; + ii. 44, 72-73, 108, 110, + 114, 130-131, 135-137, 175-176, + 181, 182, 207, 208, 236, 238, 272. + + Tuscany, i. 64, 103, 129, 263, 264, 312, 366-369. + + Tyrol, i. 101; ii. 45-48, 193. + + Tyrolese, ii. 189, 201. + + + Ulm, ii. 14-16, 18-20. + + United States, i. 264, 365-372, 509-510 (App.); + ii. 156, 212-213, 221, 269. + + Uxbridge, Lord, ii. 483. + + + Valais, i. 392; ii. 214. + + Valeggio, i. 101. + + Valencay, Treaty of, ii. 379. + + Valence, i. 14-16, 18. + + Valenza, i. 88, 89, 92. + + Valetta, i. 110. + + Valteline, i. 152. + + Valutino, battle of, ii. 253. + + Vandamme, ii. 39-40, 41, 296, 332-333, + 342, 344, 346-349, 408, 454, 460, 463, 469, 470. + + Vandeleur, ii. 498, 504, 508. + + Van Diemen's Land, i. 379-382. + + Vaubois, i. 122, 127. + + Vauchamps, battle of, ii. 394. + + Vaud, i. 180, 397. + + Vendee, La, i. 47, 61, 64, 65; ii. 268, 449. + + Vendemiaire, the affair of, i. 68-73. + + Vendetta, i. 3, 4. + + Venetia, ii. 45-48, 438. + + Venice, i. 101, 142, 168-172. + + Verdier, i. 111, 115; ii. 120. + + Verling, Dr., ii. 565. + + Verona, i. 122, 124, 144, 145. + + Viasma, battle of, ii. 260. + + Vicenza, i. 126. + + Victor, Gen., i. 52, 138, 369; + ii. 120-122, 198, 254, 264, 266, 332, 345, + 362, 381, 396, 397, 404, 407, 408, 431, 454. + + Victor Amadeus III., i. 78. + + Vienna, Congress of, ii. 437-439, 453. + + Villeneuve, i. 490-493, 495-503, 506; ii. 12, 26-27. + + Vimiero, battle of, ii. 172. + + Vincent, Baron, ii. 181. + + Visconti, i. 151. + + Vitrolles, Count de; ii. 413, 419. + + Vittoria, battle of, ii. 308-313. + + Vivian, Sir Hussey, ii. 457, 482, 491, 508. + + Volney, i. 75, 182, 206, 484. + + Voltaire, i. 21, 25-27; ii. 179, 567. + + Voltri, i. 82, 83. + + Voss, Countess von, ii. 132-133. + + + Wagram, battle of, ii. 195-197. + + Walcheren, expedition of, ii. 200. + + Walewska, Countess of, ii. 111, 436. + + Walmoden, Gen., ii. 352. + + Walpole, Lord, ii. 272, 283. + + Warden, Surgeon, ii. 534. + + Warren, Admiral, i. 406, 410, 423; ii. 81. + + Warsaw, Duchy of, ii. 134, 411. + + Waterloo, the position at, ii. 490-492. + + Wavre, movement on, ii. 488. + + Wellesley, Marquis, i. 373, 377-379, 440. + + Wellesley, Sir Arthur. _See_ Wellington. + + Wellington, i. 332; ii. 143, 171-172, + 194-197, 209, 229, 256, 299, 301-304 + 306, 364, 368, 378-379, 414-415, + 418, 429, 437, 439, 446, 456, + 460, 464, 473-475, 481, 489, 499, + 501, 504, 506-511, 516, 537-538, 548, 573. + + Wertingen, ii. 21. + + Wessenberg, Count, ii. 283, 417. + + West Indies, i. 490-492, 496-499; ii. 229, 390. + + West Indies, French, ii. 56. + + Westphalia, ii. 134, 194. + + Weyrother, ii. 36. + + Whigs, the, i. 22, 167, 427, 452, 494; + ii. 209, 447, 457, 527, 559. + + Whitbread, Mr., M.P., ii. 447. + + Whitworth, Lord, i. 403-404, 415-416, 418-425. + + Wieland, ii. 183-184. + + Wilks, Governor, 539, 545, 546, 547. + + Wilson, Sir R., ii. 258, 262. + + Windham, i. 452. + + Winzingerode, ii. 401, 405-406. + + Wittgenstein, ii. 250, 254, 287-288, 294, 335, 341, 345. + + Wrede, ii. 419. + + Wright, Capt, i. 451-452, 456. + + Wuermser, i. 105-107, 110-117, 127, 136. + + + Wuertemberg, ii. 46, 59-60. + + Wuerzburg, ii. 46. + + + + Yarmouth, Lord, ii. 72, 79, 81-83, 85. + + Yorck, Gen., ii. 270, 339, 358-359, 392, 393-394, 407. + + York, Duke of, i. 217, 261. + + Yorke, i. 450. + + Young Guard, ii. 503. + + + + Zach, i. 257. + + Ziethen, Gen., ii. 460, 461, 463, 464, 505, 508. + + Znaim, Armistice of, ii. 197. + + Zuerich, battle of, i. 180, 217. + + * * * * * + + +CHISWICK PRESS: PRINTED BY CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO. + +TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Life of Napoleon I (Volumes, 1 and +2), by John Holland Rose + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF NAPOLEON I *** + +***** This file should be named 14300.txt or 14300.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/4/3/0/14300/ + +Produced by Paul Murray, and the PG Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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