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COLLINS,<br /> +254 PEARL STREET.</h4> + + + +<hr style='width: 65%;' /> +<p><i>Southern District of New-York, ss</i>.</p> + +<p>BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the 22d day of August, A.D. 1829, in the L. +S. 54th year of the Independence of the United States of America, Samuel +Kirkham, of the said district, hath deposited in this office the title +of a book, the right whereof he claims as author, in the words +following, to wit:</p> + +<p>"English Grammar in familiar Lectures, accompanied by a Compendium, +embracing a new systematic order of Parsing, a new system of +Punctuation, exercises in false Syntax, and a System of Philosophical +Grammar in notes: to which are added an Appendix, and a Key to the +Exercises: designed for the use of Schools and Private Learners. By +Samuel Kirkham. Eleventh Edition, enlarged and improved." In conformity +to the act of Congress of the United States, entitled "an act for the +encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and +books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the time +therein mentioned." And also to an act entitled "an act supplementary to +an act entitled an act for the encouragement of learning, by securing +the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of +such copies, during the times therein mentioned, and extending the +benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching +historical and other prints."</p> + +<p>FRED. J. BETTS, +<i>Clerk of the Southern District of New-York.</i></p> +<br /> + +<hr style='width: 65%;' /> + +<h2>AN ESSAY ON ELOCUTION,</h2> + +<h3>DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS</h3> + +<h2>BY SAMUEL KIRKHAM.</h2> + +<p>This work is mainly designed as a Reading-Book for Schools. In the first +part of it, the <i>principles</i> of reading are developed and explained in a +scientific and <i>practical</i> manner, and so familiarly illustrated in +their application to practical examples as to enable even the juvenile +mind very readily to comprehend their nature and character, their design +and use, and thus to acquire that high degree of excellence, both, in +reading and speaking, which all desire, but to which few attain.</p> + +<p>The last part of the work, contains <i>Selections</i> from the greatest +master-pieces of rhetorical and poetical composition, both ancient and +modern. Many of these selections are taken from the most elegant and +classical American authors—writers whose noble productions have already +shed an unfading lustre, and stamped immortality upon the literature of +our country.—In the select part of the work, <i>rhetorical marks</i> are +also employed to point out the application of the principles laid down +in the first part.—The very favorable reception of the work by the +public, and its astonishingly rapid introduction into schools, since its +first publication in 1833, excites in the author the most sanguine hopes +in regard to its future success.</p> + +<h3>NOTICES.</h3> + +<p>After a careful perusal of this work, we are decidedly of opinion, that +it is the only <i>successful</i> attempt of the kind. The rules are copious, +and the author's explanations and illustrations <i>are happily adapted to +the comprehension of learners</i>. No school should be without this book, +and it ought to find a place in the library of every gentleman who +values the attainment of a just and forcible elocution.—<i>Pittsburgh +Mer. April,</i> 1834.</p> + +<p>Mr. Kirkham has given rules for inflections and emphasis, and has +followed them by illustrative examples, and these by remarks upon the +inflection which he has adopted, and the reasons for his preference of +one inflection to another—a most admirable plan for such a work. +Copious examples occur in which all the various inflections and the +shades of emphasis are distinguished with great accuracy and clearness. +The catechetical appendages of each chapter, give the work new value in +a school, and the selections made for the exercise of scholars, evince +good taste and judgment. <i>U.S. Gazette, Philadelphia, Sept</i>. 17, 1834.</p> + +<p>The Essay now before us, needs not depend on any former work of its +author for a borrowed reputation; it has intrinsic merits of its own. It +lays down principles clearly and concisely. It presents the reader with +many new and judicious selections, both in prose and poetry; and +altogether evinces great industry combined with taste and +ingenuity.—<i>Courier of Upper Canada, York, Oct</i>. 12, 1833.</p> + +<p>Of the talent and judgment of Mr. Kirkham, we have already had occasion +to speak in terms of honest praise. His work on Elocution raises him +still higher in our estimation.—The book would be of great utility in +schools—such a one as has long been wanted; and we are glad to see it +forthcoming.—<i>Baltimore Visitor, July,</i> 1833.</p> + +<p>Every facility for teaching Elocution, which I have so often needed, but +never before found, is exactly furnished in this work:—principles are +clearly and concisely laid down, and <i>are very happily adapted to the +comprehension of the learner</i>. Thoroughly convinced of its utility, I +shall lose no time in introducing it into my school. <i>Hartford, Conn. +Aug.</i>. 20, 1834. NATHANIEL WEBB.</p> + + + +<hr style='width: 65%;' /> +<a name='RECOMMENDATIONS'></a><h2>RECOMMENDATIONS.</h2> + +<p>It is well known that the recommendations which generally accompany new +books have very little weight with the public. This is as it should be, +for that work which rests more on its written testimonials, than on its +intrinsic merits for support, asserts no claims to permanent patronage. +But recommendations which analyze the merits of a work, and which, by +exhibiting its prominent features in a striking light, are calculated to +carry conviction to the reader that the system recommended is +meritorious, the author is proud to have it in his power to present in +this volume. The following are <i>some</i> of the numerous testimonials which +he has received, and for which he tenders his grateful acknowledgments +to those literary gentlemen to whose liberality and politeness he is +indebted for them. More than <i>six hundred</i> others presented to the +author, and many of which are equally flattering with these, he has not +room to insert.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>The following notice of this work is extracted from the "Western +Review." This journal is ably conducted by the Rev. Timothy Flint, +author of "Francis Berrian," "History and Geography of the Miss. +Valley," and many other popular and valuable works.</p> + +<p>We had not, at that time, seen Mr. Kirkham's "Grammar in familiar +Lectures," but have since given it a cursory perusal. If we comprehend +the author's design, it is not so much to introduce new principles, as +to render more easy and intelligible those which have been long +established, and to furnish additional facilities to an accurate and +thorough knowledge of our language. In this we think he has been +successful.</p> + +<p>It is to be expected that a modest, unassuming writer, on presenting +himself before the public tribunal as an author, will, as far as is +consistent with his plan, avail himself of the authority of such as have +written well on the subject before him. Mr. Kirkham has accordingly +followed Mr. Murray in the old beaten track of English writers on +grammar, in the general principles of his science; endeavoring, at the +same time, to avoid whatever appeared to be erroneous or absurd in the +writings of that author, and adopting an entirely new arrangement. The +most useful matter contained in the treatise of Mr. Murray, is embraced +in this; but in the definitions and rules, it is simplified, and +rendered much more intelligible. Though our author follows Mr. Murray, +in the general principles of his work, he has, in numerous instances, +differed from him, pursuing a course that appears to be his own, and +introducing some valuable improvements.</p> + +<p>Among these may be mentioned some additional rules and explanatory notes +in syntax, the arrangement of the parts of speech, the mode of +explaining them, manner of parsing, manner of explaining some of the +pronouns, and the use of a synopsis which presents the essentials of the +science at one view, and is well calculated to afford assistance to +learners.</p> + +<p>In his arrangement of the parts of speech, Mr. Kirkham seems to have +endeavored to follow <i>the order of nature;</i> and we are not able to see +how he could have done better. The noun and verb, as being the most +important parts of speech, are first explained, and afterwards those +which are considered in a secondary and subordinate character. By +following this order, he has avoided the absurdity so common among +authors, of defining the minor parts before their principals, of which +they were designed to be the appendages, and has rationally prepared the +way for conducting the learner by easy advances to a correct view of the +science.</p> + +<p>In his illustrations of the various subjects contained in his work, our +author appears to have aimed, not at a flowery style, nor at the +appearance of being learned, but at being understood. The clearness and +perspicuity of his remarks, and their application to familiar objects, +are well calculated to arrest the attention, and aid the understanding +of the pupil, and thereby to lessen the labor of the instructor. The +principles of the science <i>are simplified, and rendered so perfectly +easy of comprehension,</i> we should think no ordinary mind, having such +help, could find them difficult. It is in this particular that the work +appears to possess its chief merit, and on this account it cannot fail +of being preferred to many others.</p> + +<p>It gives us pleasure to remark, in reference to the success of the +amiable and modest author whose work is before us, that we quote from +the fifth edition.</p> + +<p>Cincinnati, Aug. 24, 1827.</p> + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> + +<p>The following is from the pen of a gentleman of the Bar, formerly a +distinguished Classical teacher. [Extract from the "National Crisis."]</p> + +<p>As a friend to literature, and especially to genuine merit, it is with +peculiar pleasure I allude to a notice in a late paper of this city, in +which Mr. S. Kirkham proposes to deliver a course of Lectures on English +Grammar. To such as feel interested in acquiring a general and practical +knowledge of this useful science an opportunity is now presented which +ought not to be neglected. Having myself witnessed, in several +instances, within the last ten months, the practical results of Mr. +Kirkham's plan, I am enabled to give a decisive opinion of its merits. +The extensive knowledge acquired in one course by his class in +Pittsburgh, and the great proficiency evinced by his classes elsewhere, +are a demonstration of the utility and superiority of his method of +teaching, and a higher encomium on him than I am able to bestow.</p> + +<p>The principles on which Mr. Kirkham's "New system of Grammar" is +predicated, are judiciously compiled, and happily and briefly expressed; +but the great merit of his work consists in the lucid illustrations +accompanying the principles, and the simple and gradual manner in which +it conducts the learner along from step to step through the successive +stages of the science. The explanations blended with the theory, are +addressed to the understanding of the pupil in a manner so familiar, +that they cannot fail to excite in him a deep interest; and whatever +system is calculated to bring into requisition the mental powers, must, +I conceive, be productive of good results. In my humble opinion, the +system of teaching introduced into this work, will enable a diligent +pupil to acquire, without any other aid, a practical knowledge of +grammar, <i>in less than one-fourth</i> part of the time usually devoted.</p> + +<p>My views of Mr. Kirkham's system are thus publicly given, with the +greater pleasure, on account of the literary empiricisms which have been +so extensively practised in many parts of the western country.</p> + +<p>Cincinnati, April 26, 1826.</p> + + + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> +<p>From Mr. Blood, Principal of the Chambersburgh Academy, Pa.</p> + +<p>Mr. Kirkham,—It is now almost twenty years since I became a teacher of +youth, and, during this period, I have not only consulted all, but have +used many of the different systems of English grammar that have fallen +in my way; and, sir, I do assure you, without the least wish to flatter, +that yours far exceeds any I have yet seen.</p> + +<p>Your arrangement and systematic order of parsing are most excellent; and +experience has convinced me, (having used it, and it only, for the last +twelve or thirteen months), that a scholar will learn more of the nature +and principles of our language in <i>one quarter</i>, from your system, than +in a <i>whole year</i> from any other I had previously used. I do, therefore, +most cheerfully and earnestly recommend it to the public at large, and +especially to those who, anxious to acquire a knowledge of our language, +are destitute of the advantages of an instructer.</p> + +<p>Yours, very respectfully, SAMUEL BLOOD.</p> + +<p>Chambersburgh Academy, Feb. 12, 1825.</p> + + + + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> +<p>From Mr. N.R. Smith, editor of a valuable literary journal, styled "The +Hesperus."</p> + +<p>Mr. Kirkham,</p> + +<p>Sir, I have examined your Lectures on English Grammar with that degree +of minuteness which enables me to yield my unqualified approbation of +the work as a grammatical system. The engaging manner in which you have +explained the elements of grammar, and accommodated them to the +capacities of youth, is an ample illustration of the utility of your +plan. In addition to this, the critical attention you have paid to an +<i>analytical development</i> of grammatical principles, while it is +calculated to encourage the perseverance of young students in the march +of improvement, is sufficient, also, to employ the researches of the +literary connoisseur. I trust that your valuable compilation will be +speedily introduced into schools and academies.</p> + +<p>With respect, yours, N.R. SMITH, A.M.</p> + +<p>Pittsburgh, March 22, 1825.</p> + + + + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> +<p>From Mr. Jungmann, Principal of the Frederick Lutheran +Academy:—Extract.</p> + +<p>Having carefully examined Mr. S. Kirkham's new system of "English +Grammar in familiar Lectures," I am satisfied that the pre-eminent +advantages it possesses over our common systems, will soon convince the +public, that it is not one of those feeble efforts of quackery which +have so often obtruded upon our notice. Its decided <i>superiority over +all other systems</i>, consists in adapting the subject-matter to the +capacity of the young learner, and the happy mode adopted of +communicating it to his mind in a manner so clear and simple, that he +can easily comprehend the nature and the application of every principle +that comes before him.</p> + +<p>In short, all the intricacies of the science are <i>elucidated so +clearly</i>, I am confident that even a private learner, of common +docility, can, by perusing this system attentively acquire a better +practical knowledge of this important branch of literature in <i>three +months</i>, than is ordinarily obtained in <i>one year</i>.</p> + +<p>Frederick, Md. Sept 17, 1824. JOHN E. JUNGMANN.</p> + + + + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> +<p>Extract: from De Witt Clinton, late Gov. of New-York.</p> + +<p>I consider the Compendium of English Grammar, by Samuel Kirkham, a work +deserving encouragement, and well calculated to facilitate the +acquisition of this useful science. DE WITT CLINTON.</p> + +<p>Albany, Sept 25, 1824.</p> + + + + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> +<p>S. Kirkham, Esq.—I have examined your Grammar with attention, and with +a particular view to benefit the Institution under my charge. I am fully +satisfied, that it is the <i>best form</i> in which Murray's principles have +been given to the public. The lectures are ample, and given in so +familiar and easy language, as to be readily understood, even by a +<i>tyro</i> in grammar.</p> + +<p>I feel it due to you to say, that I commenced the examination of your +work, under <i>a strong prejudice against it,</i> in consequence of the +numerous "improved systems" with which the public has been inundated, of +late, most of which are by no means improvements on Murray, but the +productions of individuals whom a "<i>little grammar</i> has rendered +grammatically insane." My convictions, therefore, are the result of +<i>investigation</i>. I wish you, Sir, success in your publication.</p> + +<p>Respectfully, EBER. WHEATON,</p> + +<p>Pr. of Mechanics' Society School</p> + +<p>With the opinion of Mr. Wheaton respecting Mr. Kirkham's English Grammar, we heartily concur.</p> +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='0' cellspacing='10' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td></td><td>NATHAN STARK, Pr. Acad.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td></td><td>(Rev.) JOHN JOHNSTON,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Newburgh, Aug. 4, 1829.</td><td></td><td align='left'>(Rev.) WM. S. HEYER,</td></tr></table> + + + + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> +<p>From the Rev. C.P. McIlvaine, and others.</p> + +<p>So far as I have examined the plan of grammatical instruction by Samuel +Kirkham I am well satisfied that <i>it meets the wants</i> of elementary +schools in this branch, and deserves to be patronised. CHARLES P. +McILVAINE.</p> + +<p>Brooklyn, L.I. July 9, 1829.</p> + + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='0' cellspacing='10' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>We fully concur in the above,</td><td align='left'>ANDREW HAGEMAN,</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'>E.M. JOHNSON.</td></tr></table> + + + + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> +<p>EXTRACT.</p> + +<p>From the partial examination which I have given Mr. S. Kirkham's English +Grammar, I do not hesitate to recommend it to the public as the <i>best of +the class I have ever seen,</i> and as filling up an important and almost +impassable chasm in works on grammatical science. D.L. CARROLL.</p> + +<p>Brooklyn, L.I. June 29, 1829.</p> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='0' cellspacing='10' summary=''> +<tr><td align='center'>We fully concur in the foregoing recommendation. </td><td>B.B. HALLOCK,</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='center'>E. KINGSLEY,</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='center'>T.S. MAYBON.</td></tr> +</table> + + + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> +<p>From A.W. Dodge, Esq.</p> + +<p>New-York, July 15, 1829.</p> + +<p>The experience of every one at all acquainted with the business of +instruction, must have taught him that the study of grammar, important +as it is to every class of learners, is almost invariably a dry and +uninteresting study to young beginners, and for the very obvious reason, +that the systems in general use in the schools, are <i>far beyond</i> the +comprehension of youth, and ill adapted to their years. Hence it is, +that their lessons in this department of learning, are considered as +<i>tasks,</i> and if committed at all, committed to <i>the memory, without +enlightening their understandings;</i> so that many a pupil who has <i>been +through</i> the English grammar, is totally unacquainted with the nature +even of the simplest parts of speech.</p> + +<p>The work of Mr. Kirkham on grammar, is well calculated to remedy these +evils, and supply a deficiency which has been so long and so seriously +felt in the imperfect education of youth in the elementary knowledge of +their own language. By a simple, familiar, and lucid method of treating +the subject, he has rendered what was before irksome and unprofitable, +pleasing and instructive. In one word, the grammar of Mr. Kirkham +furnishes a <i>clew</i> by which the youthful mind is guided through the +intricate labyrinth of verbs, nouns and pronouns; and the path which has +been heretofore so difficult and uninviting, as to dampen the ardor of +youth, and waste their energies in fruitless attempts to surmount its +obstacles, is cleared of these obstructions by this <i>pioneer</i> to the +youthful mind, and planted, at every turn, with friendly <i>guide-boards +to direct them in the right road</i>. The slightest perusal of the work +alluded to, will convince even the most skeptical of the truth of these +remarks, and satisfy every one who is not wedded by prejudice to old +rules and forms, that it will meet the wants of the community.</p> + +<p>ALLEN W. DODGE.</p> + +<p>Philadelphia, Aug. 10, 1829</p> + + + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> +<p>Having, for several years, been engaged in lecturing on the science of +grammar and, during this period, having <i>thoroughly tested</i> the merits +of Mr. S. Kirkham's system of "English Grammar in Familiar Lectures" by +using it as a text-book for my classes, I take pleasure in giving this +testimonial of my cordial approbation of the work. Mr. Kirkham has +attempted to improve upon this branch of science, chiefly by unfolding +and explaining the principles of grammar in a manner so clear and +simple, as <i>to adapt them completely to the understanding</i> of the young +learner, and by adopting a new arrangement, which enables the pupil to +commit the principles by a simultaneous application of them to practical +examples. The public may rest assured, that he has been successful in +his attempt <i>in a pre-eminent degree</i>. I make this assertion under a +full conviction that it will be corroborated by every candid judge of +the science who becomes acquainted with the practical advantages of this +manual.</p> + +<p>The explicit brevity and accuracy of the rules and definitions, the +novel, the striking, the lucid, and critical illustrations accompanying +them, the peculiar and advantageous arrangement of the various parts of +the subject, the facilities proffered by the "systematic mode of +parsing" adopted, the convenient and judicious introduction and +adaptation of the exercises introduced, and the deep researches and +critical investigations displayed in the "Philosophical Notes," render +this system of grammar <i>so decidedly superior to all others extant</i>, +that, to receive general patronage, it needs but to be known.</p> + +<p>My knowledge of this system from experience in teaching it, and +witnessing its effects in the hands of private learners, warrants me in +saying, that a learner will, by studying this book <i>four months without +a teacher</i>, obtain a more clear conception of the nature and proper +construction of words and phrases, than is ordinarily obtained in common +schools and academies, <i>in five times four months</i>.</p> + +<p>It is highly gratifying to know, that wherever this system has been +circulated, it is very rapidly supplanting those works of dulness which +have so long paralyzed the energies of the youth of our country.</p> + +<p>I think the specimens of verbal criticism, additional corrections in +orthography and ortheopy, the leading principles of rhetoric, and the +improvements in the illustrations generally, which Mr. K. is about +introducing into his ELEVENTH EDITION, will render it quite <i>an +improvement on the former editions of this work</i>. H. WINCHESTER.</p> + +<p>From the Rev. S. Center, Principal of a Classical Academy.</p> + + + + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> +<p>I have examined the last edition of Kirkham's Grammar with peculiar +satisfaction. The improvements which appear in it, do, in my estimation, +give it a decided preference to any other system now in use. To point +out the peculiar qualities which secure to it claims of which no other +system can boast, would be, if required, perfectly easy. At present it +is sufficient to remark, that it imbodies all that is essentially +excellent and useful in other systems, while it is entirely free from +that tediousness of method and prolixity of definition which so much +perplex and embarrass the learner.</p> + +<p>The peculiar excellence of Mr. Kirkham's grammar is, <i>the simplicity of +its method</i>, and <i>the plainness of its illustrations</i>. Being conducted +by familiar lectures, the teacher and pupil are necessarily brought into +agreeable contact by each lesson. Both are improved by the same task, +without the slightest suspicion, on the part of the pupil, that there is +anything hard, difficult, or obscure in the subject: a conviction, this, +which must inevitably precede all efforts, or no proficiency will be +made. In a word, the treatise I am recommending, is a <i>practical</i> one; +and for that reason, if there were no others to be urged, it ought to be +introduced into all our schools and academies. From actual experiment I +can attest to the practicability of the plan which the author has +adopted. Of this fact any one may be convinced who will take the pains +to make the experiment. SAMUEL CENTER.</p> + +<p>Albany, July 10, 1829.</p> + + + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> +<p>From a communication addressed to S. Kirkham, by the Rev. J. Stockton, +author of the "Western Calculator" and "Western Spelling-Book."</p> + +<p>Dear Sir,—I am much pleased with both the <i>plan</i> and <i>execution</i> of +your "English Grammar in Familiar Lectures." In giving a <i>systematic +mode of parsing</i>, calculated alike to exercise the <i>understanding</i> and +<i>memory</i> of the pupil, and also free the teacher from the <i>drudgery</i> of +continued interrogation, you have made your grammar what every +<i>elementary</i> school book ought to be—<i>plain, systematic</i>, and <i>easy</i> to +be understood.</p> + +<p>This, with the copious definitions in every part of the work, and other +improvements so judiciously introduced, gives it <i>a decisive +superiority</i> over the imperfect grammar of Murray, now so generally +used. JOSEPH STOCKTON, A.M.</p> + +<p>Allegheny-Town, (near Pittsburgh,) March 18, 1825.</p> + + + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> +<h2>TO THE ELEVENTH EDITION.</h2> + +<p>The author is free to acknowledge, that since this treatise first +ventured on the wave of public opinion, the gales of patronage which +have waited it along, have been far more favorable than he had reason to +anticipate. Had any one, on its first appearance, predicted, that the +demand for it would call forth <i>twenty-two thousand</i> copies during the +past year, the author would have considered the prediction extravagant +and chimerical. In gratitude, therefore, to that public which has smiled +so propitiously on his humble efforts to advance the cause of learning, +he has endeavored, by unremitting attention to the improvement of his +work, to render it as useful and as unexceptionable as his time and +talents would permit.</p> + +<p>It is believed that the <i>tenth</i> and <i>eleventh</i> editions have been +greatly improved; but the author is apprehensive that his work is not +yet as accurate and as much simplified as it may be. If, however, the +disadvantages of lingering under a broken constitution, and of being +able to devote to this subject only a small portion of his time, +snatched from the active pursuits of a business life, (<i>active</i> as far +as his imperfect health permits him to be,) are any apology for its +defects, he hopes that the candid will set down the apology to his +credit. This personal allusion is hazarded with the additional hope, +that it will ward off some of the arrows of criticism which may be aimed +at him, and render less pointed and poisonous those that may fall upon +him. Not that he would beg a truce with the gentlemen critics and +reviewers. Any compromise with them would betray a want of +self-confidence and moral courage which he would, by no means, be +willing to avow. It would, moreover, be prejudicial to his interest; for +he is determined, if his life be preserved, to avail himself of the +advantages of any judicious and candid criticisms on his production, +that may appear, and, two or three years hence, <i>revise</i> his work, and +present to the public another and a better edition.</p> + +<p>The improvements in the <i>tenth</i> edition, consisted mainly in the +addition of many important principles; in rendering the illustrations +more critical, extensive, accurate, and lucid; in connecting more +closely with the genius and philosophy of our language, the general +principles adopted; and in adding a brief view of philosophical grammar +interspersed in notes. The introduction into the ELEVENTH EDITION, of +many verbal criticisms, of additional corrections in orthography and +orthoepy, of the leading principles of rhetoric, and of general +additions and improvements in various parts of the work, render <i>this +edition,</i> it is believed, <i>far preferable</i> to any of the former +editions of the work.</p> + +<p>Perhaps some will regard the philosophical notes as a useless exhibition +of pedantry. If so, the author's only apology is, that some +investigations of this nature seemed to be called for by a portion of +the community whose minds, of late, appear to be under the influence of +a kind of <i>philosophical mania;</i> and to such these notes are +respectfully submitted for just what <i>they</i> may deem their real value. +The author's own opinion on this point, is, that they proffer no +<i>material</i> advantages to common learners; but that they may profitably +engage the attention of the curious, and perhaps impart a degree of +interest to the literary connoisseur.</p> + +<p>New-York, August 22, 1820.</p> + + + +<hr style='width: 65%;' /> +<a name='CONTENTS'></a><h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<ul><li><a href='#TO_THE_YOUNG_LEARNER'>Address to the learner</a></li> +<li>A, an, one: <a href='#a_i'>i</a>, <a href='#a_ii'>ii</a></li> +<li><a href='#a_ii'>And</a></li> +<li>Adjectives: <a href='#adjectives_i'>i</a>, <a href='#adjectives_ii'>ii</a></li> +<li><a href='#adverbs'>Adverbs</a></li> +<li><a href='#agreement'>Agreement of words</a></li> +<li><a href='#anomalies'>Anomalies</a></li> +<li><a href='#articles'>Articles</a></li> +<li><a href='#Because'>Because</a></li> +<li>But, than, as: <a href='#as_i'>i</a>, <a href='#as_ii'>ii</a>, <a href='#as_iii'>iii</a></li> +<li><a href='#CASE'>Case</a></li> +<li><ul> +<li>Nominative: <a href='#nominative_i'>i</a>, <a href='#nominative_ii'>ii</a></li> +<li><a href="#POSSESSIVE">Possessive</a></li> +<li>Objective: <a href="#OBJECTIVE_i">i</a>, <a href="#objectiveii">ii</a></li> +<li>Nominative case independent: <a href="#nominative_case_independent_1">i</a>, <a href="#nominative_case_independent_ii">ii</a>, <a href="#nominative_case_independent_iii">iii</a>, <a href="#nominative_case_independent_iv">iv</a></li> +<li>Nominative case absolute: <a href="#NOMINATIVE_CASE_ABSOLUTE_i">i</a>, <a href="#nominative_case_absolute_ii">ii</a></li> +<li>Apposition of cases: <a href="#APPOSITION_i">i</a>, <a href="#apposition_ii">ii</a></li> +<li><a href="#to_be">Nominative and objective after the verb <i>to be</i></a></li> +<li><a href="#active_passive_and_neuter_nominatives">Active, passive, and neuter nominatives</a></li></ul></li> +<li><a href="#CONJUNCTIONS">Conjunctions</a></li> +<li><a href="#CONJUGATION_OF_VERBS">Conjugation of regular verbs</a></li> +<li>Derivation (all the philosophical notes treat of derivation): <a href="#derivation_i">i</a>, <a href="#derivation_ii">ii</a>, <a href="#derivation_iii">iii</a></li> +<li><a href="#ETYMOLOGY_AND_SYNTAX">Etymology</a></li> +<li><a href="#EXAMPLES_OF_FALSE_SYNTAX">Exercises in false syntax</a></li> +<li><ul> +<li><a href="#Exercises_in_Punctuation">In punctuation</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li><a href="#FIGURES_OF_SPEECH">Figures of speech</a></li> +<li><a href="#GENDER">Gender</a></li> +<li><a href="#Government">Government</a></li> +<li><a href="#GRAMMAR">Grammar, general division of</a></li> +<li><ul> +<li><a href="#PHILOSOPHICAL_GRAMMAR">Philosophical</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Have: <a href="#Have_i">i</a>, <a href="#Have_ii">ii</a></li> +<li><a href="#anomalies">Idioms</a></li> +<li><a href="#INTERJECTIONS">Interjections</a></li> +<li><a href="#IT">It</a></li> +<li><a href="#If">If</a></li> +<li><a href="#KEY">Key to the exercises</a></li> +<li><a href="#SOUNDS_OF_THE_LETTERS">Letters, sounds of</a></li> +<li><a href="#Like">Like</a></li> +<li>Manner of meaning of words: <a href="#manner_of_meaning_i">i</a>, <a href="#manner_of_meaning_ii">ii</a></li> +<li><ul> +<li><a href="#MOODS">Moods</a></li> +<li><a href="#SIGNS_OF_THE_MOODS">Signs of</a></li> +<li>Subjunctive: <a href="#SUBJUNCTIVE_i">i</a>, <a href="#SUBJUNCTIVE_ii">ii</a>, <a href="#SUBJUNCTIVE_iii">iii</a> </li> +</ul></li> +<li><a href="#NOUNS">Nouns</a></li> +<li><ul> +<li><a href="#GENDER">Gender of</a></li> +<li><a href="#PERSON">Person of</a></li> +<li><a href="#NUMBER">Number of</a></li> +<li>Case of: <a href="#CASE">i</a>, <a href="#OBJECTIVE_i">ii</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Orthography: <a href="#ORTHOGRAPHY_i">i</a>, <a href="#ORTHOGRAPHY_ii">ii</a></li> +<li><ul> +<li><a href="#RULES_FOR_SPELLING">Rules of</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li><a href="#parsing">Parsing</a></li> +<li><a href="#PARTICIPLES">Participles</a></li> +<li><a href="#poetry">Poetry transposed</a></li> +<li><a href="#PREPOSITIONS">Prepositions</a></li> +<li><a href="#PRONOUNS">Pronouns</a></li> +<li><ul> +<li><a href="#PERSONAL_PRONOUNS">Personal</a></li> +<li><a href="#compund_personal">Compound personal</a></li> +<li><a href="#ADJECTIVE_PRONOUNS">Adjective</a></li> +<li><a href="#RELATIVE_PRONOUNS">Relative</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li><a href="#ORTHOEPY">Pronunciation</a></li> +<li><a href="#PROSODY">Prosody</a></li> +<li><a href="#PROVINCIALISMS">Provincialisms</a></li> +<li><a href="#PUNCTUATION">Punctuation</a></li> +<li><a href="#RHETORIC">Rhetoric</a></li> +<li><a href="#RULES_OF_SYNTAX">Rules of syntax</a></li> +<li><a href="#SENTENCE">Sentences, definitions of simple and compound</a></li> +<li><ul> +<li>Transposition of: <a href="#transposition">i</a>, <a href="#poetry">ii</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Standard of grammatical accuracy: <a href="#grammatical_accuracy">i</a>, <a href="#grammatical_accuracy_ii">ii</a></li> +<li><a href="#ETYMOLOGY_AND_SYNTAX">Syntax</a></li> +<li><a href="#To">To</a></li> +<li>Tenses: <a href="#TENSES_i">i</a>, <a href="#TENSES_ii">ii</a></li> +<li><ul> +<li><a href="#SIGNS_OF_THE_TENSES">Signs of the</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>The: <a href="#a_i">i</a>, <a href="#the_ii">ii</a></li> +<li>That: <a href="#that_i">i</a>, <a href="#That_ii">ii</a></li> +<li>Terminations: <a href="#terminations_i">i</a>, <a href="#terminations_ii">ii</a>, +<a href="#terminations_iii">iii</a>, <a href="#terminations_iv">iv</a>, <a href="#terminations_v">v</a></li> +<li>Verbs: <a href="#VERBS_i">i</a>, <a href="#verbs_ii">ii</a></li> +<li><ul> +<li>Active-transitive: <a href="#OBJECTIVE_i">i</a>, <a href="#active_transitive_ii">ii</a></li> +<li><a href="#ACTIVE_INTRANSITIVE_VERBS">Active-intransitive</a></li> +<li><a href="#Passive_Verb">Passive</a></li> +<li><a href="#neuter_verb">Neuter</a></li> +<li><a href="#DEFECTIVE_VERBS">Defective</a></li> +<li>Auxiliary: <a href="#AUXILIARY_VERBS">i</a>, <a href="#auxiliary_verbs_ii">ii</a></li> +<li><a href="#Regular">Regular</a></li> +<li><a href="#IRREGULAR">Irregular</a></li> +<li>Compound: <a href="#compound">i</a>, <a href="#compound_ii">ii</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li><a href="#VERSIFICATION">Versification</a></li> +<li>Worth: <a href="#Like">i</a>, <a href="#worth">ii</a></li> +<li>What, which, who: <a href="#WHO_WHICH_and_THAT">i</a>, <a href="#WHAT">ii</a>, <a href="#What_iii">iii</a></li> +<li><a href="#You">You</a></li></ul> + + + + +<hr style='width: 65%;' /> +<a name='PREFACE'></a><h2>PREFACE</h2> + +<p>There appears to be something assuming in the act of writing, and +thrusting into public notice, a new work on a subject which has already +employed many able pens; for who would presume to do this, unless he +believed his production to be, in some respects, superior to every one +of the kind which had preceded it? Hence, in presenting to the public +this system of English Grammar, the author is aware that an apology will +be looked for, and that the arguments on which that apology is grounded, +must inevitably undergo a rigid scrutiny. Apprehensive, however, that no +explanatory effort, on his part, would shield him from the imputation of +arrogance by such as are blinded by self-interest, or by those who are +wedded to the doctrines mid opinions of his predecessors, with <i>them</i> he +will not attempt a compromise, being, in a great measure, indifferent +either to their praise or their censure. But with the candid, he is +willing to negotiate an amicable treaty, knowing that they are always +ready to enter into it on honorable terms. In this negotiation he asks +nothing more than merely to rest the merits of his work on its practical +utility, believing that, if it prove uncommonly successful in +facilitating the progress of youth in the march of mental improvement, +<i>that</i> will be its best apology.</p> + +<p>When we bring into consideration the numerous productions of those +learned philologists who have labored so long, and, as many suppose, so +successfully, in establishing the principles of our language; and, more +especially, when we view the labors of some of our modern compilers, who +have displayed so much ingenuity and acuteness in attempting to arrange +those principles in such a manner as to form a correct and an easy +medium of mental conference; it does, indeed, appear a little like +presumption for a young man to enter upon a subject which has so +frequently engaged the attention and talents of men distinguished for +their erudition. The author ventures forward, however, under the +conviction, that most of his predecessors are very deficient, at least, +in <i>manner,</i> if not in <i>matter</i>; and this conviction, he believes, will +be corroborated by a majority of the best judges in community. It is +admitted, that many valuable improvements have been made by some of our +late writers, who have endeavored to simplify and render this subject +intelligible to the young learner, but they have all overlooked what the +author considers a very important object, namely, <i>a systematic order of +parsing;</i> and nearly all have neglected to <i>develop and explain</i> the +principles in such a manner as to enable the learner, without great +difficulty, to comprehend their nature and use.</p> + +<p>By some this system will, no doubt, be discarded on account of its +<i>simplicity</i>; while to others its simplicity will prove its principal +recommendation. Its design is an humble one. It proffers no great +advantages to the recondite grammarian; it professes not to instruct the +literary connoisseur; it presents no attractive graces of style to +charm, no daring flights to astonish, no deep researches to gratify +him; but in the humblest simplicity of diction, it attempts to +accelerate the march of the juvenile mind in its advances in the path of +science, by dispersing those clouds that so often bewilder it, and +removing those obstacles that generally retard its progress. In this way +it endeavors to render interesting and delightful a study which has +hitherto been considered tedious, dry, and irksome. Its leading object +is to adopt a correct and an easy method, in which pleasure is blended +with the labors of the learner, and which is calculated to excite in him +a spirit of inquiry, that shall call forth into vigorous and useful +exercise, every latent energy of his mind; and thus enable him soon to +become thoroughly acquainted with the nature of the principles, and with +their practical utility and application.</p> + +<p>Content to be useful, instead of being brilliant, the writer of these +pages has endeavored to shun the path of those whose aim appears to have +been to dazzle, rather than to instruct. As he has aimed not so much at +originality as utility, he has adopted the thoughts of his predecessors +whose labors have become public stock, whenever he could not, in his +opinion, furnish better and brighter of his own. Aware that there is, in +the public mind, a strong predilection for the doctrines contained in +Mr. Murray's grammar, he has thought proper, not merely from motives of +policy, but from choice, to select his <i>principles</i> chiefly from that +work; and, moreover, to adopt, as far as consistent with his own views, +the language of that eminent philologist. In no instance has he varied +from him, unless he conceived that, in so doing, some practical +advantage would be gained. He hopes, therefore, to escape the censure so +frequently and so justly awarded to those unfortunate innovators who +have not scrupled to alter, mutilate, and torture the text of that able +writer, merely to gratify an itching propensity to figure in the world +as authors, and gain an ephemeral popularity by arrogating to themselves +the credit due to another.</p> + +<p>The author is not disposed, however, to disclaim all pretensions to +originality; for, although his principles are chiefly selected, (and who +would presume to make new ones?) the manner of arranging, illustrating, +and applying them, is principally his own. Let no one, therefore, if he +happen to find in other works, ideas and illustrations similar to <i>some</i> +contained in the following lectures, too hastily accuse him of +plagiarism. It is well known that similar investigations and pursuits +often elicit corresponding ideas in different minds: and hence it is not +uncommon for the same thought to be strictly <i>original</i> with many +writers. The author is not here attempting to manufacture a garment to +shield him from rebuke, should he unjustly claim the property of +another; but he wishes it to be understood, that a long course of +teaching and investigation, has often produced in his mind ideas and +arguments on the subject of grammar, exactly or nearly corresponding +with those which he afterwards found, had, under similar circumstances, +been produced in the minds of others. He hopes, therefore, to be +pardoned by the critic, even though he should not be willing to reject a +good idea <i>of his own,</i> merely because some one else has, at some time +or other, been blessed with the same thought.</p> + +<p>As the plan of this treatise is far more comprehensive than those of +ordinary grammars, the writer could not, without making his work +unreasonably voluminous, treat some topics as extensively as was +desirable. Its design is to embrace, not only all the most important +principles of the science, but also exercises in parsing, false syntax, +and punctuation, sufficiently extensive for all ordinary, practical +purposes, and a key to the exercises, and, moreover, a series of +illustrations so full and intelligible, as <i>completely to adapt the +principles to the capacities of common learners.</i> Whether this design +has been successfully or unsuccessfully executed, is left for the public +to decide. The general adoption of the work into schools, wherever it +has become known, and the ready sale of <i>forty thousand</i> copies, (though +<i>without hitherto affording the author any pecuniary profit,</i>) are +favorable omens.</p> + +<p>In the selection and arrangement of principles for his work, the author +has endeavored to pursue a course between the extremes, of taking +blindly on trust whatever has been sanctioned by prejudice and the +authority of venerable names, and of that arrogant, innovating spirit, +which sets at defiance all authority, and attempts to overthrow all +former systems, and convince the world that all true knowledge and +science are wrapped up in a crude system of vagaries of its own +invention. Notwithstanding the author is aware that public prejudice is +powerful, and that he who ventures much by way of innovation, will be +liable to defeat his own purpose by falling into neglect; yet he has +taken the liberty to think for himself, to investigate the subject +critically and dispassionately, and to adopt such principles only as he +deemed the least objectionable, and best calculated to effect the object +he had in view. But what his system claims as improvements on others, +consists not so much in bettering the principles themselves, as in the +<i>method adopted of communicating a knowledge of them to the mind of the +learner</i>. That the work is defective, the author is fully sensible: and +he is free to acknowledge, that its defects arise, in part, from his own +want of judgment and skill. But there is another and a more serious +cause of them, namely, the anomalies and imperfections with which the +language abounds. This latter circumstance is also the cause of the +existence of so widely different opinions on many important points; and, +moreover, the reason that the grammatical principles of our language can +never be indisputably settled. But principles ought not to be rejected +because they admit of exceptions.—He who is thoroughly acquainted with +the genius and structure of our language, can duly appreciate the truth +of these remarks.</p> + +<p>Should parents object to the Compendium, fearing it will soon be +destroyed by their children, they are informed that the pupil will not +have occasion to use it one-tenth part as much as he will the book which +it accompanies: and besides, if it be destroyed, he will find all the +definitions and rules which it contains, recapitulated in the series of +Lectures.</p> + +<h3><b>HINTS TO TEACHERS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS.</b></h3> + +<p>As this work proposes a new mode of parsing, and pursues an arrangement +essentially different from that generally adopted, it may not be deemed +improper for the author to give some directions to those who may be +disposed to use it. Perhaps they who take only a slight view of the +order of parsing, will not consider it <i>new</i>, but blend it with those +long since adopted. Some writers have, indeed, attempted plans somewhat +similar; but in no instance have they reduced them to what the author +considers a <i>regular systematic order</i>.</p> + +<p>The methods which they have generally suggested, require the teacher to +<i>interrogate</i> the pupil as he proceeds; or else he is permitted to parse +without giving any explanations at all. Others hint that the learner +ought to apply definitions in a general way, but they lay down no +systematic arrangement of questions as his guide. The <i>systematic</i> order +laid down in this work, if pursued by the pupil, compels him to apply +every definition and every rule that appertains to each word he parses, +without having a question put to him by the teacher; and, in so doing, +he explains every word fully as he goes along. This course enables the +learner to proceed independently; and proves, at the same time, a great +relief to the instructer. The convenience and advantage of this method, +are far greater than can be easily conceived by one who is unacquainted +with it. The author is, therefore, anxious to have the absurd practice, +wherever it has been established, of causing learners to commit and +recite definitions and rules without any simultaneous application of +them to practical examples, immediately abolished. This system obviates +the necessity of pursuing such a stupid course of drudgery; for the +young beginner who pursues it, will have, in a few weeks, all the most +important definitions and rules perfectly committed, simply by applying +them in parsing.</p> + +<p>If this plan be once adopted, it is confidently believed that every +teacher who is desirous to consult, either his own convenience, or the +advantage of his pupils, will readily pursue it in preference to any +former method. This belief is founded on the advantages which the +author himself has experienced from it in the course of several years, +devoted to the instruction of youth and adults. By pursuing this system, +he can, with less labor, advance a pupil farther in a practical +knowledge of this abstruse science, in <i>two months</i>, than he could in +<i>one year</i> when he taught in the "old way." It is presumed that no +instructor, who once gives this system a fair trial, will doubt the +truth of this assertion.</p> + +<p>Perhaps some will, on a first view of the work, disapprove of the +transposition of many parts; but whoever examines it attentively, will +find that, although the author has not followed the common "artificial +and unnatural arrangement adopted by most of his predecessors," yet he +has endeavored to pursue a more judicious one, namely, "the order of the +understanding."</p> + +<p>The learner should commence, <i>not by committing and rehearsing</i>, but by +reading attentively the first <i>two</i> lectures several times over. He +ought then to parse, according to the <i>systematic order</i>, the examples +given for that purpose; in doing which, as previously stated, he has an +opportunity of committing all the definitions and rules belonging to the +parts of speech included in the examples.</p> + +<p>The COMPENDIUM, as it presents to the eye of the learner a condensed but +comprehensive view of the whole science, may be properly considered an +"Ocular Analysis of the English language." By referring to it, the young +student is enabled to apply all his definitions and rules from the very +commencement of his parsing. To some, this mode of procedure may seem +rather tedious; but it must appear obvious to every person of +discernment, that a pupil will learn more by parsing <i>five</i> words +critically, and explaining them fully, than he would by parsing <i>fifty</i> +words superficially, and without understanding their various properties. +The teacher who pursues this plan, is not under the necessity of hearing +his pupils recite a single lesson of <i>definitions</i> committed to memory, +for he has a fair opportunity of discovering their knowledge of these as +they evince it in parsing. All other directions necessary for the +learner in school, as well as for the <i>private learner</i>, will be given +in the succeeding pages of the work. Should these feeble efforts prove a +saving of much time and expense to those young persons who may be +disposed to pursue this science with avidity, by enabling them easily to +acquire a critical knowledge of a branch of education so important and +desirable, the author's fondest anticipations will be fully realized; +but should his work fall into the hands of any who are expecting, by the +acquisition, to become grammarians, and yet, have not sufficient +ambition and perseverance to make themselves acquainted with its +contents, it is hoped that the blame for their nonimprovement, will not +be thrown upon <i>him.</i></p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<div class="smalltext">To those enterprising and intelligent gentlemen who may be disposed to +lecture on this plan, the author takes the liberty to offer a few hints +by way of encouragement.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">Any judicious instructor of grammar, if he take the trouble to make +himself familiar with the contents of the following pages, will find it +an easy matter to pursue this system. One remark only to the lecturer, +is sufficient. Instead of causing his pupils to acquire a knowledge of +the nature and use of the principles by intense application, let him +communicate it verbally; that is, let him first take up one part of +speech, and, in an oral lecture, unfold and explain all its properties, +not only by adopting the illustrations given in the book, but also by +giving others that may occur to his mind as he proceeds. After a part of +speech has been thus elucidated, the class should be interrogated on it, +and then taught to parse it, and correct errors in composition under the +rules that apply to it. In the same manner he may proceed with the other +parts of speech, observing, however, to recapitulate occasionally, until +the learners become thoroughly acquainted with whatever principles may +have been presented. If this plan be faithfully pursued, rapid progress, +on the part of the learner, will be the inevitable result; and that +teacher who pursues it, cannot fail of acquiring distinction, and an +enviable popularity in his profession. S. KIRKHAM.</div> + + + +<hr style='width: 65%;' /> +<h3>FAMILIAR LECTURES</h3> + +<h4>ON</h4> + +<h2>ENGLISH GRAMMAR.</h2> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h3><b>LECTURE I</b></h3> + +<h3>DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR.—ORTHOGRAPHY.</h3> + +<p><a name='TO_THE_YOUNG_LEARNER'></a>TO THE YOUNG LEARNER.</p> + +<p>You are about to enter upon one of the most useful, and, when rightly +pursued, one of the most interesting studies in the whole circle of +science. If, however, you, like many a misguided youth, are under the +impression that the study of grammar is dry and irksome, and a matter of +little consequence, I trust I shall succeed in removing from your mind, +all such false notions and ungrounded prejudices; for I will endeavor to +convince you, before I close these lectures, that this is not only a +pleasing study, but one of real and substantial utility; a study that +directly tends to adorn and dignify human nature, and meliorate the +condition of man. Grammar is a leading branch of that learning which +alone is capable of unfolding and maturing the mental powers, and of +elevating man to his proper rank in the scale of intellectual +existence;—of that learning which lifts the soul from earth, and +enables it to hold converse with a thousand worlds. In pursuing any and +every other path of science, you will discover the truth of these +remarks, and feel its force; for you will find, that, as grammar opens +the door to every department of learning, a knowledge of it is +indispensable: and should you not aspire at distinction in the republic +of letters, this knowledge cannot fail of being serviceable to you, even +if you are destined to pass through the humblest walks of life. I think +it is clear, that, in one point of view, grammatical knowledge possesses +a decisive advantage over every other branch of learning. Penmanship, +arithmetic, geography, astronomy, botany, chemistry, and so on, are +highly useful in their respective places; but not one of them is so +universally applicable to practical purposes, as this. In every +situation, under all circumstances, on all occasions;—when you speak, +read, write, or think, a knowledge of grammar is of essential utility.</p> + +<p>Doubtless you have heard some persons assert, that they could detect and +correct any error in language by the ear, and speak and write accurately +without a knowledge of grammar. Now your own observation will soon +convince you, that this assertion is incorrect. A man of refined taste, +may, by perusing good authors, and conversing with the learned, acquire +that knowledge of language which will enable him to avoid those glaring +errors that offend the ear; but there are other errors equally gross, +which have not a harsh sound, and, consequently, which cannot be +detected without a knowledge of the rules that are violated. Believe me, +therefore, when I say, that without the knowledge and application of +grammar rules, it is impossible for any one to think, speak, read, or +write with accuracy. From a want of such knowledge, many often express +their ideas in a manner so improper and obscure as to render it +impossible for any one to <i>understand</i> them: their language frequently +amounts, not only to <i>bad</i> sense, but <i>non</i>-sense. In other instances +several different meanings may be affixed to the words they employ; and +what is still worse, is, that not unfrequently their sentences are so +constructed, as to convey a meaning quite the reverse of that which they +intended. Nothing of a secular nature can be more worthy of your +attention, then, than the acquisition of grammatical knowledge.</p> + +<p>The path which leads to grammatical excellence, is not all the way +smooth and flowery, but in it you will find some thorns interspersed, +and some obstacles to be surmounted; or, in simple language, you will +find, in the pursuit of this science, many intricacies which it is +rather difficult for the juvenile mind completely to unravel. I shall, +therefore, as I proceed, address you in plain language, and endeavor to +illustrate every principle in a manner so clear and simple, that you +will be able, <i>if you exercise your mind,</i> to understand its nature, and +apply it to practice as you go along; for I would rather give you one +useful idea, than fifty high-sounding words, the meaning of which you +would probably be unable to comprehend.</p> + +<p>Should you ever have any doubts concerning the meaning of a word, or the +sense of a sentence, you must not be discouraged, but persevere, either +by studying my explanations, or by asking some person competent to +inform you, till you obtain a clear conception of it, and till all +doubts are removed. By carefully examining, and frequently reviewing, +the following lectures, you will soon be able to discern the grammatical +construction of our language, and fix in your mind the principles by +which it is governed. Nothing delights youth so much, as a clear and +distinct knowledge of any branch of science which they are pursuing; +and, on the other hand, I know they are apt to be discouraged with any +branch of learning which requires much time and attention to be +understood. It is the evidence of a weak mind, however, to be +discouraged by the obstacles with which the young learner must expect to +meet; and the best means that you can adopt, in order to enable you to +overcome the difficulties that arise in the incipient stage of your +studies, is to cultivate the habit of <i>thinking methodically and +soundly</i> on all subjects of importance which may engage your attention. +Nothing will be more effectual in enabling you to think, as well as to +speak and write, correctly, than the study of English grammar, according +to the method of pursuing it as prescribed in the following pages. This +system is designed, and, I trust, well calculated, to expand and +strengthen the intellectual faculties, in as much as it involves a +process by which the mind is addressed, and a knowledge of grammar +communicated in an interesting and familiar manner.</p> + +<p>You are aware, my young friend, that you live in an age of light and +knowledge;—an age in which science and the arts are marching onward +with gigantic strides. You live, too, in a land of liberty;—a land on +which the smiles of Heaven beam with uncommon refulgence. The trump of +the warrior and the clangor of arms no longer echo on our mountains, or +in our valleys; "the garments dyed in blood have passed away;" the +mighty struggle for independence is over; and you live to enjoy the rich +boon of freedom and prosperity which was purchased with the blood of our +fathers. These considerations forbid that you should ever be so +unmindful of your duty to your country, to your Creator, to yourself, +and to succeeding generations, as to be content to grovel in ignorance. +Remember that "knowledge is power;" that an enlightened and a virtuous +people can never be enslaved; and that, on the intelligence of our +youth, rest the future liberty, the prosperity, the happiness, the +grandeur, and the glory of our beloved country. Go on then, with a +laudable ambition, and an unyielding perseverance, in the path which +leads to honor and renown. Press forward. Go, and gather laurels on the +hill of science; linger among her unfading beauties; "drink deep" of her +crystal fountain; and then join in "the march of fame." Become learned +and virtuous, and you will be great. Love God and serve him, and you +will be happy.</p> + +<hr style='width: 65%;' /> + +<h2><b>LANGUAGE.</b></h2> + +<p>Language, in its most extensive sense, implies those signs by which men +and brutes communicate to each other their thoughts, affections, and +desires.</p> + +<p>Language may be divided, 1. into natural and artificial; 2. into spoken +and written.</p> + +<p>NATURAL LANGUAGE, consists in the use of those natural signs which +different animals employ in communicating their feelings one to another. +The meaning of these signs all perfectly understand by the principles of +their nature. This language is common both to man and brute. The +elements of natural language in man, may be reduced to three kinds; +modulations of the voice, gestures, and features. By means of these, two +savages who have no common, artificial language, can communicate their +thoughts in a manner quite intelligible: they can ask and refuse, affirm +and deny, threaten and supplicate; they can traffick, enter into +contracts, and plight their faith. The language of brutes consists in +the use of those <i>inarticulate</i> sounds by which they express their +thoughts and affections. Thus, the chirping of a bird, the bleating of a +lamb, the neighing of a horse, and the growling, whining, and barking of +a dog, are the language of those animals, respectively.</p> + +<p>ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGE consists in the use of words, by means of which +mankind are enabled to communicate their thoughts to one another.—In +order to assist you in comprehending what is meant by the term <i>word,</i> I +will endeavor to illustrate the meaning of the term.</p> + +<p><i>Idea</i>. The <i>notices</i> which we gain by sensation and perception, and +which are treasured up in the mind to be the materials of thinking and +knowledge, are denominated ideas. For example, when you place your hand +upon a piece of ice, a sensation is excited which we call <i>coldness</i>. +That faculty which notices this sensation or change produced in the +mind, is called <i>perception;</i> and the abstract notice itself, or notion +you form of this sensation, is denominated an <i>idea</i>. This being +premised, we will now proceed to the consideration of words.</p> + +<p><i>Words</i> are <i>articulate</i> sounds, used by common consent, not as natural, +but as artificial, signs of our ideas. Words have no meaning in +themselves. They are merely the artificial representatives of those +ideas affixed to them by compact or agreement among those who use them. +In English, for instance, to a particular kind of metal we assign the +name <i>gold;</i> not because there is, in that sound, any peculiar aptness +which suggests the idea we wish to convey, but the application of that +sound to the idea signified, is an act altogether arbitrary. Were there +any natural connexion between the sound and the thing signified, the +word <i>gold</i> would convey the same idea to the people of other countries +as it does to ourselves. But such is not the fact. Other nations make +use of different sounds to signify the same thing. Thus, <i>aurum</i> denotes +the same idea in Latin, and <i>or</i> in French. Hence it follows, that it is +by custom only we learn to annex particular ideas to particular sounds.</p> + +<p>SPOKEN LANGUAGE or speech is made up of articulate sounds uttered by the +human voice.</p> + +<p><i>The voice</i> is formed by air which, after it passes through the glottis, +(a small aperture in the upper part of the wind-pipe,) is modulated by +the action of the throat, palate, teeth, tongue, lips, and nostrils.</p> + +<p>WRITTEN LANGUAGE. The elements of written language consist of letters or +characters, which, by common consent and general usage, are combined +into words, and thus made the ocular representatives of the articulate +sounds uttered by the voice.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h2><a name="GRAMMAR"></a>GRAMMAR.</h2> + +<div class="bigtext">GRAMMAR is the science of language.</div> + +<p>Grammar may be divided into two species, universal and particular.</p> + +<p>UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR explains the principles which are common to all +languages.</p> + +<p>PARTICULAR GRAMMAR applies those general principles to a particular +language, modifying them according to its genius, and the established +practice of the best speakers and writers by whom it is used. Hence,</p> + +<a name="grammatical_accuracy"></a> +<p><i>The established practice of the best speakers and writers</i> of any +language, is the standard of grammatical accuracy in the use of that +language.</p> + +<p>By the phrase, <i>established practice,</i> is implied reputable, national, +and present usage. A usage becomes <i>good</i> and <i>legal,</i> when it has been +long and generally adopted.</p> + +<p><i>The best speakers and writers,</i> or such as may be considered good +authority in the use of language, are those who are deservedly in high +estimation; speakers, distinguished for their elocution and other +literary attainments, and writers, eminent for correct taste, solid +matter, and refined manner.</p> + +<div class="smalltext">In the grammar of a <i>perfect</i> language, no rules should be admitted, but +such as are founded on fixed principles, arising out of the genius of +that language and the nature of things; but our language being +<i>im</i>-perfect, it becomes necessary, in a <i>practical</i> treatise, like +this, to adopt some rules to direct us in the use of speech as regulated +by <i>custom</i>. If we had a permanent and surer standard than capricious +custom to regulate us in the transmission of thought, great +inconvenience would be avoided. They, however, who introduce usages +which depart from the analogy and philosophy of a language, are +conspicuous among the number of those who form that language, and have +power to control it.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">Language is conventional, and not only invented, but, in its progressive +advancement, <i>varied</i> for purposes of practical convenience. Hence it +assumes any and every form which those who make use of it choose to give +it. We are, therefore, as <i>rational</i> and <i>practical</i> grammarians, +compelled to submit to the necessity of the case; to take the language +as it <i>is</i>, and not as it <i>should be</i>, and bow to custom.</div> + +<p><a name="PHILOSOPHICAL_GRAMMAR"></a>PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR investigates and develops the principles of +language, as founded in the nature of things and the original laws of +thought. It also discusses the grounds of the classification of words, +and explains those procedures which practical grammar lays down for our +observance.</p> + +<p>PRACTICAL GRAMMAR adopts the most convenient classification of the words +of a language, lays down a system of definitions and rules, founded on +scientific principles and good usage, illustrates their nature and +design, and enforces their application.</p> + +<p>PRINCIPLE. A principle in grammar is a peculiar construction of the +language, sanctioned by good usage.</p> + +<p>DEFINITION. A definition in grammar is a principle of language expressed +in a definite form.</p> + +<p>RULE. A rule describes the peculiar construction or circumstantial +relation of words, which custom has established for our observance.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h2><b>ENGLISH GRAMMAR.</b></h2> + +<div class="bigtext">ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and writing the English language +with propriety.</div> + +<p>GRAMMAR teaches us <i>how to use words in a proper manner.</i> The most +important use of that faculty called speech, is, to convey our thoughts +to others. If, therefore, we have a store of words, and even know what +they signify, they will be of no real use to us unless we can also apply +them to practice, and make them answer the purposes for which they were +invented. <i>Grammar</i>, well understood, enables us to express our +thoughts fully and clearly; and, consequently, in a manner which will +defy the ingenuity of man to give our words any other meaning than that +which we ourselves intend them to express. To be able to speak and write +our vernacular tongue with accuracy and elegance, is, certainly, a +consideration of the highest moment.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="ORTHOGRAPHY_i"></a> +<div class="bigtext">Grammar is divided into four parts;</div> + +<ol><li>ORTHOGRAPHY,</li> +<li>ETYMOLOGY,</li> +<li>SYNTAX,</li> +<li>PROSODY.</li></ol> + + +<div class="bigtext">ORTHOGRAPHY teaches the nature and powers of +letters, and the just method of spelling words.</div> + +<p>ORTHOGRAPHY means <i>word-making</i>, or <i>spelling</i>. It teaches us the +different kinds and sounds of letters, how to combine them into +syllables, and syllables into words.</p> + +<p>As this is one of the first steps in the path of literature, I presume +you already understand the nature and use of letters, and the just +method of spelling words. If you do, it is unnecessary for you to dwell +long on this part of grammar, which, though very important, is rather +dry and uninteresting, for it has nothing to do with parsing and +analyzing language. And, therefore, if you can <i>spell correctly</i>, you +may omit Orthography, and commence with Etymology and Syntax.</p> + +<div class="bigtext">Orthography treats, 1st, of <i>Letters</i>, 2ndly, of <i>Syllables</i>, and 3dly, +of <i>Words</i>.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">I. LETTERS. A letter is the first principle, or least part, of a word.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">The English Alphabet contains twenty-six letters.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">They are divided into vowels and consonants.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded by itself. The vowels +are <i>a, e, i, o, u,</i> and sometimes <i>w</i> and <i>y</i>. <i>W</i> and <i>y</i> are +consonants when they begin a word or syllable; but in every other +situation they are vowels.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded without the +help of a vowel; as, <i>b, d, f, l</i>. All letters except the vowels are +consonants.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">The mutes cannot be sounded <i>at all</i> without the aid of a vowel. They +are <i>b, p, t, d, k</i>, and <i>c</i> and <i>g</i> hard.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They are <i>f, l, +m, n, r, v, s, z, x</i>, and <i>c</i> and <i>g</i> soft.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">Four of the semi-vowels, namely, <i>l, m, n, r</i>, are called <i>liquids</i>, +because they readily unite with other consonants, and flow, as it were, +into their sounds.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">A diphthong is the union of <i>two</i> vowels, pronounced by a single impulse +of the voice; as <i>oi</i> in voice, <i>ou</i> in sound.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">A triphthong is the union of <i>three</i> vowels pronounced in like manner; +as, <i>eau</i> in beau, <i>iew</i> in view.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">A <i>proper</i> diphthong has <i>both</i> the vowels sounded; as, <i>ou</i> in ounce. +An <i>improper</i> diphthong has only <i>one</i> of the vowels sounded; as, <i>oa</i> +in boat.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">II. SYLLABLES. A Syllable is a distinct sound, uttered by a single +impulse of the voice; as, <i>a, an, ant</i>.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">A word of one syllable, is termed a Monosyllable; a word of two +syllables, a Dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a Trisyllable; a +word of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">III. WORDS. Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, as +signs of our ideas.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">Words are of two sorts, primitive and derivative.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">A <i>primitive</i> word is that which cannot be reduced to a simpler word in +the language; as, <i>man, good</i>.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">A <i>derivative</i> word is that which may be reduced to a simpler word; as, +<i>manful, goodness</i>.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">There is little or no difference between derivative and compound words. +The <a name="terminations_i"></a>terminations or added syllables, such as <i>ed, es, ess, est, an, ant, +en, ence, ent, dom, hood, ly, ous, ful, ness</i>, and the like, were, +originally, distinct and separate words, which, by long use, have been +contracted, and made to coalesce with other words.</div> + +<h2>OF THE <a name="SOUNDS_OF_THE_LETTERS"></a>SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.</h2> + +<p>A.—<i>A</i> has four sounds; the long; as in <i>name, basin</i>; the broad; as in +<i>ball, wall</i>; the short; as in <i>fagot, glass</i>; and the flat, Italian +sound; as in <i>bar, farther</i>. The improper diphthong, <i>aa</i>, has the +short sound of a in <i>Balaam, Canaan, Isaac</i>; and the long sound of <i>a</i> +in <i>Baal, Gaal, Aaron</i>.</p> + +<p>The Latin diphthong, <i>ae</i>, has the long sound of <i>e</i> in <i>aenigma, +Caesar</i>, and some other words. But many authors reject this useless +excrescence of antiquity, and write, <i>enigma, Cesar</i>.</p> + +<p>The diphthong, <i>ai</i>, has the long sound of <i>a</i>; as in <i>pail, sail</i>; +except in <i>plaid, said, again, raillery, fountain, Britain</i>, and some +others.</p> + +<p><i>Au</i> is sounded like broad <i>a</i> in <i>taught</i>, like flat <i>a</i> in <i>aunt</i>, +like long <i>o</i> in <i>hautboy</i>, and like short <i>o</i> in <i>laurel</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Aw</i> has always the sound of broad <i>a</i>; as in <i>bawl, crawl</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Ay</i> has the long sound of <i>a</i>; as in <i>pay, delay</i>.</p> + +<p>B.—<i>B</i> has only one sound; as in <i>baker, number, chub</i>.</p> + +<p><i>B</i> is silent when it follows <i>m</i> in the same syllable; as in <i>lamb</i>, +&c. except in <i>accumb, rhomb</i>, and <i>succumb</i>. It is also silent before +<i>t</i> in the same syllable; as in <i>doubt, debtor, subtle</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>C.—<i>C</i> sounds like <i>k</i> before <i>a, o, u, r, l, t</i>, and at the end of +syllables; as in <i>cart, cottage, curious, craft, tract, cloth; victim, +flaccid</i>. It has the sound of <i>s</i> before <i>e, i</i>, and <i>y</i>; as in <i>centre, +cigar, mercy. C</i> has the sound of <i>sh</i> when followed by a diphthong, and +is preceded by the accent, either primary or secondary; as in <i>social, +pronunciation</i>, &c.; and of <i>z</i> in <i>discern, sacrifice, sice, suffice</i>. +It is mute in <i>arbuscle, czar, czarina, endict, victuals, muscle</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Ch</i> is commonly sounded like <i>tsh</i>; as in <i>church, chin</i>; but in words +derived from the ancient languages, it has the sound of <i>k</i>; as in +<i>chemist, chorus</i>; and likewise in foreign names; as in <i>Achish, Enoch</i>. +In words from the French, <i>ch</i> sounds like <i>sh</i>; as in <i>chaise, +chevalier</i>; and also like <i>sh</i> when preceded by <i>l</i> or <i>n</i>; as in +<i>milch, bench, clinch</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Ch</i> in <i>arch</i>, before a vowel, sounds like <i>k</i>; as in <i>arch-angel</i>, +except in <i>arched, archery, archer; archenemy</i>; but before a consonant, +it sounds like <i>tsh</i>; as in <i>archbishop. Ch</i> is silent in <i>schedule, +schism, yacht, drachm</i>.</p> + +<p>D.—<i>D</i> has one uniform sound; as in <i>death, bandage</i>. It sounds like +<i>dj</i> or <i>j</i> when followed by long <i>u</i> preceded by the accent; as in +<i>educate, verdure</i>. It also sounds like <i>j</i> in <i>grandeur, soldier</i>.</p> + +<p>The termination, <i>ed</i>, in adjectives and participial adjectives, retains +its distinct sound; as, a <i>wick-ed</i> man, a <i>learn-ed</i> man, <i>bless-ed</i> +are the meek; but in verbs the <i>e</i> is generally dropped; as, <i>passed, +walked, flashed, aimed, rolled</i>, &c. which are pronounced, <i>past, walkt, +flasht, aimd, rold</i>.</p> + +<p>E.—<i>E</i> has a long sound; as in <i>scheme, severe</i>; a short sound; as in +<i>men, tent</i>; and sometimes the sound of flat <i>a</i>; as in <i>sergeant</i>; and +of short <i>i</i>; as in <i>yes, pretty, England</i>, and generally in the +unaccented terminations, <i>es, et, en</i>.</p> + +<p>F.—<i>F</i> has one unvaried sound; as in <i>fancy, muffin</i>; except in <i>of</i>, +which, when uncompounded, is pronounced <i>ov</i>. A wive's portion, a +calve's head, are improper. They should be, <i>wife's</i> portion, <i>calf's</i> +head.</p> + +<p>G.—<i>G</i> has two sounds. It is hard before <i>a, o, u, l</i>, and <i>r</i>, and at +the end of a word; as in <i>gay, go, gun, glory; bag, snug</i>. It is soft +before <i>e, i</i>, and <i>y</i>; as in <i>genius, ginger, Egypt</i>. Exceptions; <i>get, +gewgaw, gimlet</i>, and some others. G is silent before <i>n</i>, as in <i>gnash</i>.</p> + +<p>H.—<i>H</i> has an articulate sound; as in <i>hat, horse, hull</i>. It is silent +after <i>r</i>; as in <i>rhetoric, rhubarb</i>.</p> + +<p>I.—<i>I</i> has a long sound; as in <i>fine</i>; and a short one; as in <i>fin</i>. +Before <i>r</i> it is often sounded like <i>u</i> short; as in <i>first, third</i>; and +in other words, like short <i>e</i>; as in <i>birth, virtue</i>. In some words it +has the sound of long <i>e</i>; as in <i>machine, profile</i>.</p> + +<p>J.—<i>J</i> has the sound of soft <i>g</i>; except in <i>hallelujah</i>, in which it +is pronounced like <i>y</i>.</p> + +<p>K.—<i>K</i> has the sound of <i>c</i> hard, and is used before <i>e, i</i>, and <i>y</i>, +where <i>c</i> would be soft; as <i>kept, skirt, murky</i>. It is silent before +<i>n</i>; as in <i>knife, knell, knocker</i>.</p> + +<p>L.—<i>L</i> has always a soft liquid sound; as in <i>love, billow</i>. It is +often silent; as in <i>half, talk, almond</i>.</p> + +<p>M.—<i>M</i> has always the same sound; as in <i>murmur, monumental</i>; except in +<i>comptroller</i>, which is pronounced <i>controller</i>.</p> + +<p>N.—<i>N</i> has two sounds; the one pure; as in <i>man, net, noble</i>; the other +a compound sound; as in <i>ankle, banquet, distinct</i>, &c., pronounced +<i>angkl, bangkwet</i>. <i>N</i> final is silent when preceded by <i>m</i>; as in +<i>hymn, autumn</i>.</p> + +<p>O.—<i>O</i> has a long sound; as in <i>note, over</i>; and a short one; as in +<i>not, got</i>. It has the sound of <i>u</i> short; as in <i>son, attorney, doth, +does</i>; and generally in the terminations, <i>op, ot, or, on, om, ol, od</i>, +&c.</p> + +<p>P.—<i>P</i> has but one uniform sound; as in <i>pin, slipper</i>; except in +<i>cupboard, clapboard</i>, where it has the sound of <i>b</i>. It is mute in +<i>psalm, Ptolemy, tempt, empty, corps, raspberry, and receipt</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Ph</i> has the sound of <i>f</i> in <i>philosophy, Philip</i>; and of <i>v</i> in +<i>nephew, Stephen</i>.</p> + +<p>Q.—<i>Q</i> is sounded like <i>k</i>, and is always followed by <i>u</i> pronounced +like <i>w</i>; as in <i>quadrant, queen, conquest</i>.</p> + +<p>R.—<i>R</i> has a rough sound; as in <i>Rome, river, rage</i>; and a smooth one; +as in <i>bard, card, regard</i>. In the unaccented termination <i>re</i>, the <i>r</i> +is sounded after the e; as <i>in fibre, centre</i>.</p> + +<p>S.—<i>S</i> has a flat sound like <i>z</i>; as in <i>besom, nasal</i>; and, at the +beginning of words, a sharp, hissing sound; as in <i>saint, sister, +sample</i>. It has the sound of <i>sh</i> when preceded by the accent and +another s or a liquid, and followed by a diphthong or long <i>u</i>; as in +<i>expulsion, censure</i>. <i>S</i> sounds like <i>zh</i> when preceded by the accent +and a vowel, and followed by a diphthong or long <i>u</i> as in <i>brasier, +usual</i>. It is mute in <i>isle, corps, demesne, viscount</i>.</p> + +<p>T.—<i>T</i> is sounded in <i>take, temper</i>. <i>T</i> before <i>u</i>, when the accent +precedes, and generally before <i>eou</i>, sounds like <i>tsh</i>; as, <i>nature, +virtue, righteous</i>, are pronounced <i>natshure, virtshue, richeus</i>. <i>Ti</i> +before a vowel, preceded by the accent, has the sound of <i>sh</i>; as in +<i>salvation, negotiation</i>; except in such words as <i>tierce, tiara</i>, &c. +and unless an <i>s</i> goes before; as, <i>question</i>; and excepting also +derivatives from words ending in <i>ty</i>; as in <i>mighty, mightier</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Th</i>, at the beginning, <i>middle</i>, and end of words, is sharp; as in +<i>thick, panther, breath</i>. Exceptions; <i>then, booth, worthy</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>U.—<i>U</i> has three sounds; a long; as in <i>mule, cubic</i>; a short; as in +<i>dull, custard</i>; and an obtuse sound; as in <i>full, bushel</i>. It is +pronounced like short <i>e</i> in <i>bury</i>; and like short <i>i</i> in <i>busy, +business</i>.</p> + +<p>V.—<i>V</i> has uniformly the sound of flat <i>f</i>; as in <i>vanity, love</i>.</p> + +<p>W.—<i>W</i>, when a consonant, has its sound, which is heard in <i>wo, +beware</i>. <i>W</i> is silent before <i>r</i>; as in <i>wry, wrap, wrinkle</i>; and also +in <i>answer, sword</i>, &c. Before <i>h</i> it is pronounced as if written after +the <i>h</i>; as in <i>why, when, what</i>;—<i>hwy, hwen, hwat</i>. When heard as a +vowel, it takes the sound of <i>u</i>; as in <i>draw, crew, now</i>.</p> + +<p>X.—<i>X</i> has a sharp sound, like <i>ks</i>, when it ends a syllable with the +accent on it; as, <i>exit, exercise</i>; or when it precedes an accented +syllable which begins with any consonant except <i>h</i>; as, <i>excuse, +extent</i>; but when the following accented syllable begins with a vowel or +<i>h</i>, it has, generally, a flat sound, like <i>gz</i>; as in <i>exert, exhort</i>. +<i>X</i> has the sound of <i>Z</i> at the beginning of proper names of Greek +original; as in <i>Xanthus, Xenophon, Xerxes</i>.</p> + +<p>Y.—<i>Y</i>, when a consonant, has its proper sound; as in <i>youth, York, +yes, new-year</i>. When <i>y</i> is employed as a vowel, it has exactly the +sound that <i>i</i> would have in the same situation; as in <i>rhyme, system, +party, pyramid</i>.</p> + +<p>Z.—<i>Z</i> has the sound of flat <i>s</i>; as in <i>freeze, brazen</i>.</p> +<br /> + +<h2><a name="RULES_FOR_SPELLING"></a>RULES FOR SPELLING.</h2> + +<div class="bigtext">SPELLING is the art of expressing a word by its proper letters.</div> + +<p>The following rules are deemed important in practice, although they +assist us in spelling only a small portion of the words of our language. +This useful art is to be chiefly acquired by studying the spelling-book +and dictionary, and by strict attention in reading.</p> + +<p>RULE I. Monosyllables ending in <i>f, l</i>, or <i>s</i>, double the final or +ending consonant when it is preceded by a <i>single</i> vowel; as <i>staff, +mill, pass</i>. Exceptions; <i>of, if, is, as, lids, was, yes, his, this, +us</i>, and <i>thus</i>.</p> + +<div class="blkquot"><i>False Orthography for the learner to correct</i>.—Be thou like the +gale that moves the gras, to those who ask thy aid.—The aged hero +comes forth on his staf; his gray hair glitters in the beam.—Shal +mortal man be more just than God?—Few know the value of health til +they lose it.—Our manners should be neither gros, nor excessively +refined.</div> + +<div class="poem"> +<span class="poem.span">And that is not the lark, whose notes do beat</span> +<span class="poem.span">The vaulty heaven so high above our heads:</span> +<span class="poem.span">I have more care to stay, than wil to go.</span> +</div> + + +<p>RULE II. Monosyllables ending in any consonant but <i>f, l</i>, or <i>s</i>, never +double the final consonant when it is preceded by a <i>single</i> vowel; as, +<i>man, hat</i>. Exceptions; <i>add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, +purr</i>, and <i>buzz</i>.</p> + +<div class="blkquot"><i>False Orthography</i>.—None ever went sadd from Fingal.—He rejoiced +over his sonn.—Clonar lies bleeding on the bedd of death.—Many a +trapp is set to insnare the feet of youth.</div> + +<div class="poem"> +<span class="poem.span">The weary sunn has made a golden sett,</span> +<span class="poem.span">And, by the bright track of his golden carr,</span> +<span class="poem.span">Gives token of a goodly day to-morrow.</span> +</div> + + +<p>RULE III. Words ending in <i>y</i>, form the plural of nouns, the persons of +verbs, participial nouns, past participles, comparatives, and +superlatives, by changing <i>y</i> into <i>i</i>, when the <i>y</i> is preceded by a +<i>consonant</i>; as, <i>spy, spies; I carry, thou carriest, he carries; +carrier, carried; happy, happier, happiest</i>.</p> + +<p>The present participle in <i>ing</i>, retains the <i>y</i> that <i>i</i> may not be +doubled; as, <i>carry, carrying</i>.</p> + +<p>But when <i>y</i> is preceded by a <i>vowel</i>, in such instances as the above, +it is not changed into <i>i</i>; as, <i>boy, boys; I cloy, he cloys</i>; except +in the words <i>lay, pay</i>, and <i>say I</i> from which are formed <i>laid, paid</i>, +and <i>said</i>; and their compounds, <i>unpaid, unsaid</i>, &c.</p> + +<div class="blkquot"> +<i>False Orthography</i>.—Our fancys should be governed by reason.—Thou +wearyest thyself in vain.—He denyed himself all sinful pleasures.</div> + +<div class="poem"> +<span class="poem.span">Win straiing souls with modesty and love;</span> +<span class="poem.span">Cast none away.</span></div> +<div class="blkquot"> +The truly good man is not dismaied by poverty.<br /> +Ere fresh morning streak the east, we must be risen to reform yonder allies green.</div> + +<p>RULE IV. When words ending in <i>y</i>, assume an additional syllable +beginning with a consonant, the <i>y</i>, if it is preceded by a consonant, +is commonly changed to <i>i</i>; as, <i>happy, happily, happiness</i>.</p> + +<p>But when <i>y</i> is preceded by a vowel, in such instances, it is very +rarely changed to <i>i</i>; as, <i>coy, coyless; boy, boyish; boyhood; joy, +joyless, joyful</i>.</p> + +<div class="blkquot"><i>False Orthography</i>.—His mind is uninfluenced by fancyful +humors.—The vessel was heavyly laden.—When we act against +conscience, we become the destroiers of our own peace.</div> + +<div class="poem"> +<span class="poem.span">Christiana, mayden of heroic mien!</span> +<span class="poem.span">Star of the north! of northern stars the queen!</span> +</div> + + +<p>RULE V. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, +ending with a single consonant that is preceded by a single vowel, +double that consonant when they assume another syllable that begins +with a vowel; as, <i>wit, witty; thin, thinnish; to abet, an abetter</i>.</p> + +<p>But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is <i>not</i> on the last +syllable, the consonant remains single; as, <i>to toil, toiling; to offer, +an offering; maid, maiden</i>.</p> + +<div class="blkquot"><i>False Orthography</i>.—The business of to-day, should not be defered +till to-morrow.—That law is annuled.—When we have outstriped our +errors we have won the race.—By defering our repentance, we +accumulate our sorrows.—The Christian Lawgiver has prohibited many +things which the heathen philosophers allowed.</div> + +<div class="poem"> +<span class="poem.span">At summer eve, when heaven's aerial bow</span> +<span class="poem.span">Spans with bright arch the glitterring hills below.—</span> +<span class="poem.span">Thus mourned the hapless man; a thunderring sound</span> +<span class="poem.span">Rolled round the shudderring walls and shook the ground.</span> +</div> + +<p>RULE VI. Words ending in double <i>l</i>, in taking <i>ness, less, ly</i>, or +<i>ful</i>, after them, generally omit one <i>l</i>; as, <i>fulness, skilless, fully +skilful</i>.</p> + +<p>But words ending in any double letter but <i>l</i>, and taking <i>ness, less, +ly</i>, or <i>ful</i>, after them, preserve the letter double; as, +<i>harmlessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful</i>.</p> + +<div class="blkquot"><i>False Orthography</i>.—A chillness generally precedes a fever.—He is +wed to dullness.</div> + +<div class="poem"> +<span class="poem.span">The silent stranger stood amazed to see</span> +<span class="poem.span">Contempt of wealth and willful poverty.</span></div> + +<div class="blkquot">Restlesness of mind impairs our peace.—The road to the blisful +regions, is as open to the peasant as to the king.—The arrows of +calumny fall harmlesly at the feet of virtue.</div> + +<p>RULE VII. <i>Ness, less, ly</i>, or <i>ful</i>, added to words ending in silent +<i>e</i>, does not cut it off; as, <i>paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful</i>; +except in a few words; as, <i>duly, truly, awful</i>.</p> + +<div class="blkquot"><i>False Orthography</i>.—Sedatness is becoming.</div> + +<div class="poem"> +<span class="poem.span">All these with ceasless praise his works behold.</span> +<span class="poem.span">Stars rush: and final ruin fiercly drives</span> +<span class="poem.span">Her ploughshare o'er creation!</span> +<span class="poem.span">———Nature made a pause,</span> +<span class="poem.span">An aweful pause! prophetic of her end!</span></div> + +<p>RULE VIII. When words ending in silent <i>e</i>, assume the termination, +<i>ment</i>, the <i>e</i> should not be cut off; as, <i>abatement, chastisement</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Ment</i>, like other terminations, changes <i>y</i> into <i>i</i> when the <i>y</i> is +preceded by a consonant; as, <i>accompany, accompaniment; merry, +merriment</i>.</p> + +<div class="blkquot"><i>False Orthography</i>.—A judicious arrangment of studies facilitates +improvment.—Encouragment is greatest when we least need it.</div> + +<div class="poem"> +<span class="poem.span">To shun allurments is not hard,</span> +<span class="poem.span">To minds resolv'd, forwarn'd, and well prepared.</span></div> + +<p>RULE IX. When words ending in silent <i>e</i>, assume the termination, <i>able</i> +or <i>ible</i>, the <i>e</i> should generally be cut off; as, <i>blame, blamable; +cure, curable; sense, sensible</i>. But if <i>c</i> or <i>g</i> soft comes before <i>e</i> +in the original word, the <i>e</i> is preserved in words compounded with +<i>able</i>; as, <i>peace, peaceable; change, changeable</i>.</p> + +<div class="blkquot"><i>False Orthography</i>.—Knowledge is desireable.—Misconduct is +inexcuseable.—Our natural defects are not chargable upon us.—We +are made to be servicable to others as well as to ourselves.</div> + +<p>RULE X. When <i>ing</i> or <i>ish</i> is added to words ending in silent +<i>e</i>, the <i>e</i> is almost always omitted; as, <i>place, placing; lodge, +lodging; slave, slavish; prude, prudish</i>.</p> + +<div class="blkquot"><i>False Orthography</i>.—Labor and expense are lost upon a droneish +spirit.—An obligeing and humble disposition, is totally unconnected +with a servile and cringeing humor.</div> + +<div class="poem"> +<span class="poem.span">Conscience anticipateing time,</span> +<span class="poem.span">Already rues th' unacted crime.</span></div> +<div class="poem"> +<span class="poem.span">One self-approveing hour, whole years outweighs</span> +<span class="poem.span">Of stupid starers, and of loud huzzas.</span></div> + +<p>RULE XI. Compound words are generally spelled in the same manner as the +simple words of which they are compounded; as, <i>glasshouse, skylight, +thereby, hereafter</i>. Many words ending in double <i>l</i>, are exceptions to +this rule; as, <i>already, welfare, wilful, fulfil</i>; and also the words, +<i>wherever, christmas, lammas, &c</i>.</p> + +<div class="blkquot"><i>False Orthography</i>.—The Jew's pasover was instituted in A.M. +2513.—They salute one another by touching their forheads.—That +which is some times expedient, is not allways so.</div> + +<div class="poem"> +<span class="poem.span">Then, in the scale of reasoning life 'tis plain,</span> +<span class="poem.span">There must be, somwhere, such a rank as man.</span> +<span class="poem.span">Till hymen brought his lov-delighted hour,</span> +<span class="poem.span">There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower.</span> +<span class="poem.span">The head reclined, the loosened hair,</span> +<span class="poem.span">The limbs relaxed, the mournful air:—</span> +<span class="poem.span">See, he looks up; a wofull smile</span> +<span class="poem.span">Lightens his wo-worn cheek awhile.</span> +</div> + + +<p>You may now answer the following</p> + +<h3>QUESTIONS.</h3> + +<a name="grammatical_accuracy_ii"></a> +<p>What is language?—How is language divided?—What is natural +language?—What are the elements of natural language in man?—Wherein +consists the language of brutes?—What is artificial language?—What is +an idea?—What are words?—What is grammar?—What does Universal grammar +explain?—Wherein does Particular grammar differ from universal?—What +is the standard of grammatical accuracy?—What is Philosophical +grammar?—What is Practical grammar?—What is a principle of grammar?—A +definition?—A rule?—What is English grammar?—Into how many parts is +grammar divided?—What does Orthography teach?</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<a name="ETYMOLOGY_AND_SYNTAX"></a> +<h2>ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX</h2> + + +<h3>LECTURE II</h3> + +<h4>OF NOUNS AND VERBS.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext">ETYMOLOGY treats of the different sorts of words, their various +modifications, and their derivation.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">SYNTAX treats of the agreement and government of words, and of their +proper arrangement in a sentence.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">The word ETYMOLOGY signifies the <i>origin</i> or <i>pedigree of words</i>.</div> + +<div class="smalltext"><i>Syn</i>, a prefix from the Greek, signifies <i>together</i>. <i>Syn-tax</i>, means +<i>placing together</i>; or, as applied in grammar, <i>sentence making</i>.</div> + +<p>The rules of syntax, which direct to the proper choice of words, and +their judicious arrangement in a sentence, and thereby enable us to +correct and avoid errors in speech, are chiefly based on principles +unfolded and explained by Etymology. Etymological knowledge, then, is a +prerequisite to the study of Syntax; but, in parsing, under the head of +Etymology, you are required to apply the rules of Syntax. It becomes +necessary, therefore, in a practical work of this sort, to treat these +two parts of grammar in connexion.</p> + +<p>Conducted on scientific principles, Etymology would comprehend the +exposition of the origin and meaning of words, and, in short, their +whole history, including their application to things in accordance with +the laws of nature and of thought, and the caprice of those who apply +them; but to follow up the current of language to its various sources, +and analyze the springs from which it flows, would involve a process +altogether too arduous and extensive for an elementary work. It would +lead to the study of all those languages from which ours is immediately +derived, and even compel us to trace many words through those languages +to others more ancient, and so on, until the chain of research would +become, if not endless, at least, too extensive to be traced out by one +man. I shall, therefore, confine myself to the following, limited views +of this part of grammar.</p> + +<p>1. Etymology treats of the <i>classification</i> of words.</p> + +<p>2. Etymology explains the <i>accidents</i> or <i>properties</i> peculiar to each +class or sort of words, and their present <i>modifications</i>. By +modifications, I mean the changes produced on their <i>endings</i>, in +consequence of their assuming different relations in respect to one +another. These changes, such as fruit, fruit<i>s</i>, fruit'<i>s</i>; he, h<i>is</i>, +h<i>im</i>; write, write<i>st</i>, write<i>th</i>, write<i>s</i>, wr<i>ote</i>, writ<i>ten</i>, +writ<i>ing</i>, write<i>r</i>; a, a<i>n</i>; ample, ampl<i>y</i>, and the like, will be +explained in their appropriate places.</p> + +<a name="derivation_i"></a> +<p>3. Etymology treats of the <i>derivation</i> of words; that is, it teaches +you <i>how one word comes from</i>, or <i>grows out of</i> another. For example, +from the word speak, come the words speak<i>est</i>, speak<i>eth</i>, speak<i>s</i>, +speak<i>ing</i>, sp<i>oke</i>, spo<i>ken</i>, speak<i>er</i>, speak<i>er's</i>, speak<i>ers</i>. +These, you perceive, are all one and the same word, and all, except the +last three, express the same kind of action. They differ from each other +only in the termination. These changes in termination are produced on +the word in order to make it correspond with the various <i>persons</i> who +speak, the <i>number</i> of persons, or the <i>time</i> of speaking; as, <i>I</i> +speak, <i>thou</i> speak<i>est</i>, the <i>man</i> speak<i>eth</i>, or speak<i>s</i>, the <i>men</i> +speak, <i>I</i> sp<i>oke</i>; The speak<i>er</i> speak<i>s</i> another speak<i>er's</i> spe<i>ech</i>.</p> + +<p>The third part of Etymology, which is intimately connected with the +second, will be more amply expanded in Lecture XIV, and in the +Philosophical notes; but I shall not treat largely of that branch of +derivation which consists in tracing words to foreign languages. This is +the province of the lexicographer, rather than of the philologist. It is +not the business of him who writes a practical, English grammar, to +trace words to the Saxon, nor to the Celtic, the Greek, the Dutch, the +Mexican, nor the Persian; nor is it his province to explain their +meaning in Latin, French, or Hebrew, Italian, Mohegan, or Sanscrit; but +it is his duty to explain their properties, their powers, their +connexions, relations, dependancies, and, bearings, not at the period in +which the Danes made an irruption into the island of Great Britain, nor +in the year in which Lamech paid his addresses to Adah and Zillah, but +<i>at the particular period in which he writes</i>. His words are already +derived, formed, established, and furnished to his hand, and he is bound +to take them and explain them as he finds them <i>in his day</i>, without any +regard to their ancient construction and application.</p> + +<h3>CLASSIFICATION.</h3> + +<p>In arranging the parts of speech, I conceive it to be +the legitimate object of the practical grammarian, to consult <i>practical +convenience</i>. The true principle of classification seems to be, not a +reference to essential differences in the <i>primitive</i> meaning of words, +nor to their original combinations, but to the <i>manner in which they are +at present employed</i>. In the early and rude state of society, mankind +are quite limited in their knowledge, and having but few ideas to +communicate, a small number of words answers their purpose in the +transmission of thought. This leads them to express their ideas in +short, detached sentences, requiring few or none of those <i>connectives</i>, +or words of transition, which are afterwards introduced into language by +refinement, and which contribute so largely to its perspicuity and +elegance. The argument appears to be conclusive, then, that every +language must necessarily have more parts of speech in its refined, than +in its barbarous state.</p> + +<p>The part of speech to which any word belongs, is ascertained, not by the +<i>original</i> signification of that word, but by its present <i>manner</i> of +meaning, or, rather, <i>the office which it performs in a sentence</i>.</p> + +<a name="manner_of_meaning_i"></a> +<p>The various ways in which a word is applied to the idea which it +represents, are called its <i>manner of meaning</i>. Thus, The painter dips +his <i>paint</i> brush in <i>paint</i>, to <i>paint</i> the carriage. Here, the word +<i>paint</i>, is first employed to <i>describe</i> the brush which the painter +uses; in this situation it is, therefore, an <i>adjective</i>; secondly, to +<i>name</i> the mixture employed; for which reason it is a <i>noun</i>; and, +lastly, to <i>express the action</i> performed; it therefore, becomes a +<i>verb</i>; and yet, the meaning of the word is the same in all these +applications. This meaning, however, is applied in different ways; and +thus the same word becomes different parts of speech. Richard took +<i>water</i> from the <i>water</i> pot, to <i>water</i> the plants.</p> + +<h3>ETYMOLOGY.</h3> + +<p>Etymology treats, first, of the <i>classification</i> of words.</p> + +<p>THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE is derived chiefly from the Saxon, Danish, Celtic, +and Gothic; but in the progressive stages of its refinement, it has been +greatly enriched by accessions from the Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, +Italian, and German languages.</p> + +<p>The number of words in our language, after deducting proper names, and +words formed by the inflections of our verbs, nouns, and adjectives, may +be estimated at about <i>forty thousand</i>.</p> + + +<div class="bigtext">There are ten sorts of words, called parts of speech, namely, the NOUN +or SUBSTANTIVE, VERB, ARTICLE, ADJECTIVE, PARTICIPLE, ADVERB, +PREPOSITION, PRONOUN, CONJUNCTION, and INTERJECTION.</div> + +<p>Thus you perceive, that all the words in the English language are +included in these ten classes: and what you have to do in acquiring a +knowledge of English Grammar, is merely to become acquainted with these +ten parts of speech, and the rules of Syntax that apply to them. The +<i>Noun</i> and <i>Verb</i> are the most important and leading parts of speech; +therefore they are first presented: all the rest (except the +interjection) are either appendages or connectives of these two. As you +proceed, you will find that it will require more time, and cost you more +labor, to get a knowledge of the noun and verb, than it will to become +familiar with all the minor parts of speech.</p> + +<p>The principal use of words is, to <i>name</i> things, <i>compare</i> them with +each other, and <i>express their actions</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Nouns</i>, which are the names of entities or things, <i>adjectives</i> which +denote the comparisons and relations of things by describing them, and +expressing their qualities, and <i>verbs</i>, which express the actions and +being of things, are the only classes of words necessarily recognised +in a philosophical view of grammar. But in a treatise which consults, +mainly, the <i>practical</i> advantages of the learner, it is believed, that +no classification will be found more convenient or accurate than the +foregoing, which divides words into ten sorts. To attempt to prove, in +this place, that nothing would be gained by adopting either a less or a +greater number of the parts of speech, would be anticipating the +subject. I shall, therefore, give my reasons for adopting this +arrangement in preference to any other, as the different sorts of words +are respectively presented to you, for then you will be better prepared +to appreciate my arguments.</p> +<br /> + +<h3>OF <a name="NOUNS"></a>NOUNS.</h3> + +<div class="bigtext">A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing; as, <i>man, Charleston, +knowledge</i>.</div> + +<p>Nouns are often improperly called <i>substantives</i>. A substantive is the +name of a <i>substance</i> only; but a noun is the name either of a +<i>substance</i> or a <i>quality</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Noun</i>, derived from the Latin word <i>nomen</i>, signifies <i>name</i>. The name +of any thing<sup><a name='FN_anchor_1'></a><a href='#Footnote_1'>[1]</a></sup> that exists, whether animate or inanimate, or +which we can see, hear, feel, taste, smell, or think of, is a noun. +<i>Animal, bird, creature, paper, pen, apple, fold, house, modesty, +virtue, danger</i>, are all nouns. In order that you may easily distinguish +this part of speech from others, I will give you a <i>sign</i>, which will be +useful to you when you cannot tell it by the <i>sense</i>. Any word that will +make sense with <i>the</i> before it, is a noun. Try the following words by +this sign, and see if they are nouns: tree, mountain, soul, mind, +conscience, understanding. <i>The</i> tree, <i>the</i> mountain, <i>the</i> soul, and +so on. You perceive, that they will make sense with <i>the</i> prefixed; +therefore you know they are <i>nouns</i>. There are, however, exceptions to +this rule, for some nouns will not make sense with <i>the</i> prefixed. These +you will be able to distinguish, if you exercise your mind, by their +<i>making sense of themselves</i>; as, <i>goodness, sobriety, hope, +immortality</i>.</p> + + +<p>Nouns are used to denote the nonentity or absence of a thing, as well as +its reality; as, <i>nothing, naught, vacancy, non-existence, +invisibility</i>.</p> + +<p>Nouns are sometimes used as verbs, and verbs, as nouns, according to +their <i>manner</i> of meaning; and nouns are sometimes used as adjectives, +and adjectives, as nouns. This matter will be explained in the +concluding part of this lecture, where you will be better prepared to +comprehend it.</p> + +<div class="bigtext">NOUNS are of two kinds, common and proper.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">A <i>Common noun</i> is the name of a sort or species of things; as, <i>man, +tree, river</i>.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">A <i>Proper noun</i> is the name of an individual; as, <i>Charles, Ithaca, +Ganges</i>.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">A noun signifying many, is called a <i>collective noun</i>, or <i>noun of +multitude</i>; as, the <i>people</i>, the <i>army</i>.</div> + +<p>The distinction between a common and a proper noun, is very obvious. For +example: <i>boy</i> is a common noun, because it is a name applied to <i>all</i> +boys; but <i>Charles</i> is a proper noun, because it is the name of an +<i>individual</i> boy. Although many boys may have the same name, yet you +know it is not a common noun, for the name Charles is <i>not</i> given to all +boys. <i>Mississippi</i> is a proper noun, because it is the name of an +individual river; but <i>river</i> is a common noun, because it is the name +of a <i>species</i> of things, and the name <i>river</i> is common to <i>all</i> +rivers.</p> + +<p>Nouns which denote the genus, species, or variety of beings or things, +are always common; as, <i>tree</i>, the genus; <i>oak, ash, chestnut, poplar</i>, +different species; and red <i>oak</i>, white <i>oak</i>, black <i>oak</i>, varieties. +The word earth, when it signifies a kind or quantity of dirt, is a +common noun; but when it denotes the planet we inhabit, it is a proper +noun. The <i>words</i> person, place, river, mountain, lake, &c. are <i>common +nouns</i>, because they are the names of whole <i>species</i>, or classes of +things containing many sorts; but the <i>names</i> of persons, places, +rivers, mountains, lakes, &c. are <i>proper nouns</i>, because they denote +<i>individuals</i>; as, Augustus, Baltimore, Alps, Huron.</p> + +<p><i>Physician, lawyer, merchant</i>, and <i>shoemaker</i>, are common nouns, +because these names are common to classes of men. <i>God</i> and <i>Lord</i>, when +applied to Jehovah or Jesus Christ, are proper; but when employed to +denote heathen or false <i>gods</i>, or temporal <i>lords</i>, they are common. +The Notes and remarks throughout the work, though of minor importance, +demand your attentive and careful perusal.</p> + +<h4>NOTES.</h4> + +<div class="smalltext">1. When <i>proper</i> nouns have an article annexed to them, they are +used after the manner of <i>common</i> nouns; as, "Bolivar is styled +<i>the</i> Washington of South America."</div> + +<div class="smalltext">2. <i>Common</i> nouns are sometimes used to signify <i>individuals</i>, when +articles or pronouns are prefixed to them; as, "<i>The</i> boy is +studious; <i>That</i> girl is discreet." In such instances, they are +nearly equivalent to proper nouns.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">3. <i>Common</i> nouns are sometimes subdivided into the following +classes: <i>Nouns of Multitude</i>; as, The people, the parliament: +<i>Verbal or participial nouns</i>; as, The beginning, reading, writing; +and <i>Abstract nouns</i>, or the names of qualities abstracted from +their substances; as, knowledge, virtue, goodness. Lest the student +be led to blend the idea of abstract nouns with that of adjectives, +both of which denote qualities, a farther illustration appears to be +necessary, in order to mark the distinction between these two parts +of speech. An abstract noun denotes a quality considered <i>apart</i> +(that is, abstracted) <i>from</i> the substance or being to which it +belongs; but an adjective denotes a quality <i>joined</i> (adjected) <i>to</i> +the substance or being to which it belongs. Thus, <i>whiteness</i> and +<i>white</i> both denote the same quality; but we speak of whiteness as a +distinct object of thought, while we use the word <i>white</i> always in +reference to the noun to which it belongs; as, <i>white</i> paper, +<i>white</i> mouse.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">4. Some authors have proceeded to still more minute divisions and +sub-divisions of nouns; such, for example, as the following, which +appear to be more complex than useful: <i>Natural nouns</i>, or names of +things formed by nature; as, man, beast, water, air: 2. <i>Artificial</i> +<i>nouns</i>, or names of things formed by art; as, book, vessel, house: +3. <i>Personal nouns</i>, or those which stand for human beings; as, man, +woman, Edwin: 4. <i>Neuter nouns</i>, or those which denote things +inanimate; as, book, field, mountain, Cincinnati. The following, +however, is quite a rational division: <i>Material nouns</i> are the +names of things formed of matter; as, stone, book: <i>Immaterial</i> +<i>nouns</i> are the names of things having no substance; as, hope, +immortality.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">To nouns belong gender, person, number, and case.</div> + +<h3><a name="GENDER"></a>GENDER.</h3> + +<div class="bigtext">GENDER is the distinction of sex. Nouns have three genders, the +masculine, the feminine, and the neuter.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">The <i>masculine gender</i> denotes males; as, a <i>man</i>, a <i>boy</i>.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">The <i>feminine gender</i> denotes females; as, a <i>woman</i>, a <i>girl</i>.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">The <i>neuter gender</i> denotes things without sex; as, a <i>hat</i>, a <i>stick</i>.</div> + +<p><i>Neuter</i> means <i>neither:</i> therefore neuter gender signifies neither +gender; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence, neuter gender +means <i>no gender</i>. Strictly speaking, then, as there are but two sexes, +nouns have but <i>two</i> genders; but for the sake of practical convenience, +we apply to them three genders, by calling that a gender which is <i>no</i> +gender. The English and the pure Persian, appear to be the only +languages which observe, in the distinction of sex, the natural division +of nouns.—The genders of nouns are so easily known, that a farther +explanation of them is unnecessary, except what is given in the +following</p> + +<h4>NOTES.</h4> + +<div class="smalltext">1. The same noun is sometimes masculine <i>and</i> feminine, and +sometimes masculine <i>or</i> feminine. The noun <i>parents</i> is of the +masculine <i>and</i> feminine gender. The nouns <i>parent, associate, +neighbor, servant, friend, child, bird, fish, &c.</i> if doubtful, are +of the masculine <i>or</i> feminine gender.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">2. Some nouns naturally neuter, are, when used figuratively, or +<i>personified</i>, converted into the masculine or feminine gender. +Those nouns are generally rendered masculine, which are conspicuous +for the attributes of imparting or communicating, and which are by +nature strong and efficacious; as, the <i>sun, time, death, sleep,</i> +<i>winter, &c.</i> Those, again, are generally feminine, which are +conspicuous for the attributes of containing or bringing forth, or +which are very beautiful, mild, or amiable; as, the <i>earth, moon,</i> +<i>church, boat, vessel, city, country, nature, ship, soul, fortune,</i> +<i>virtue, hope, spring, peace, &c.</i> This principle for designating the +sex of a personified object, which is quite rational, is generally +adhered to in the English language; but, in some instances, the poet +applies the sex according to his fancy.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">The masculine and feminine genders are distinguished in three ways:</div> + + +<div class="smalltext">1. <i>By different words</i>; as,</div> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' class="smalltext"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Masculine</i>.</td><td align='left'> <i>Feminine</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bachelor</td><td align='left'>maid</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Boar</td><td align='left'>sow</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Boy</td><td align='left'>girl</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Brother</td><td align='left'>sister</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Buck</td><td align='left'> doe</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bull</td><td align='left'> cow</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cock</td><td align='left'> hen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dog</td><td align='left'> bitch</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Drake</td><td align='left'> duck</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Earl</td><td align='left'> countess</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Father</td><td align='left'>mother</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Friar</td><td align='left'> nun</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Gander</td><td align='left'> goose</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hart</td><td align='left'> roe</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Horse</td><td align='left'> mare</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Husband</td><td align='left'> wife</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>King</td><td align='left'> queen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lad</td><td align='left'> lass</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lord</td><td align='left'> lady</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Man</td><td align='left'> woman</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Master</td><td align='left'> mistress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Milter</td><td align='left'> spawner</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Nephew</td><td align='left'> niece</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ram</td><td align='left'> ewe</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Singer</td><td align='left'> songstress or singer</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sloven</td><td align='left'> slut</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Son</td><td align='left'> daughter</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Stag</td><td align='left'> hind</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Uncle</td><td align='left'> aunt</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wizard</td><td align='left'> witch</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sir</td><td align='left'> madam</td></tr></table> + + +<div class="smalltext">2. <i>By a difference in termination</i>; as,</div> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' class="smalltext"> +<tr><td align='left'>Actor</td><td align='left'> actress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Administrator</td><td align='left'> administratrix</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Adulterer</td><td align='left'> adulteress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ambassador</td><td align='left'> ambassadress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Arbiter</td><td align='left'> arbitress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Auditor</td><td align='left'> auditress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Author</td><td align='left'> authoress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Baron</td><td align='left'> baroness</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Benefactor</td><td align='left'> benefactress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bridegroom</td><td align='left'> bride</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Canon</td><td align='left'> canoness</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Caterer</td><td align='left'> cateress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Chanter</td><td align='left'> chantress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Conductor</td><td align='left'> conductress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Count</td><td align='left'> countess</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Czar</td><td align='left'> czarina</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Deacon</td><td align='left'> deaconess</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Detracter</td><td align='left'> detractress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Director</td><td align='left'> directress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Duke</td><td align='left'> dutchess</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Elector</td><td align='left'> electress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Embassador</td><td align='left'> embassadress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Emperor</td><td align='left'> emperess</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Enchanter</td><td align='left'> enchantress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Executor</td><td align='left'> executrix</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fornicator</td><td align='left'> fornicatress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>God</td><td align='left'> goddess</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Governor</td><td align='left'> governess</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Heir</td><td align='left'> heiress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hero</td><td align='left'> heroine</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Host</td><td align='left'> hostess</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hunter</td><td align='left'> huntress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Inheritor</td><td align='left'> inheritress or inheritrix</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Instructor</td><td align='left'> instructress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Jew</td><td align='left'> Jewess</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lion</td><td align='left'> lioness</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Marquis</td><td align='left'> marchioness</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mayor</td><td align='left'> mayoress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Patron</td><td align='left'> patroness</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Peer</td><td align='left'> peeress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Poet</td><td align='left'> poetess</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Priest</td><td align='left'> priestess</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Prince</td><td align='left'> princess</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Prior</td><td align='left'> prioress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Prophet</td><td align='left'> prophetess</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Proprietor</td><td align='left'> proprietress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Protector</td><td align='left'> protectress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shepherd</td><td align='left'> shepherdess</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Songster</td><td align='left'> songstress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sorcerer</td><td align='left'> sorceress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Suiter</td><td align='left'> suitress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sultan</td><td align='left'> sultaness or sultana</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tiger</td><td align='left'> tigress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Testator</td><td align='left'> testatrix</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Traitor</td><td align='left'> traitress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tutor</td><td align='left'> tutoress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tyrant</td><td align='left'> tyranness</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Victor</td><td align='left'> victress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Viscount</td><td align='left'> viscountess</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Votary</td><td align='left'> votaress</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Widower</td><td align='left'> widow</td></tr></table> + + +<div class="smalltext">3. <i>By prefixing another word</i>; as,</div> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' class="smalltext"> +<tr><td align='left'>A cock-sparrow</td><td align='left'> A hen-sparrow</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>A man-servant</td><td align='left'> A maid-servant</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>A he-goat</td><td align='left'> A she-goat</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>A he-bear</td><td align='left'> A she-bear</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>A male-child</td><td align='left'> A female-child</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Male-descendants</td><td align='left'> Female-descendants</td></tr></table> + + + +<h3><a name="PERSON"></a>PERSON.</h3> + +<div class="bigtext">PERSON is a property of the noun and pronoun which varies the verb.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">The <i>first person</i> denotes the speaker.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">The <i>second person</i> denotes the person or thing spoken to; as, "Listen, +<i>earth!"</i></div> + +<div class="bigtext">The <i>third person</i> denotes the person or thing spoken of; as, "The +<i>earth</i> thirsts."</div> + +<p>Nouns have but <i>two</i> persons, the second and third. When a man speaks, +the <i>pronoun I</i> or <i>we</i> is always used; therefore nouns can never be in +the <i>first</i> person. In examples like the following, some philologists +suppose the noun to be in the <i>first</i> person:—"This may certify, that +I, <i>Jonas Taylor</i>, do hereby give and grant," &c. But it is evident, +that the speaker or writer, in introducing his own name, speaks <i>of</i> +himself; consequently the noun is of the <i>third person</i>.</p> + +<p>If you wish to understand the persons of nouns, a little sober thought +is requisite; and, by exercising it, all difficulties will be removed. +If I say, my <i>son</i>, have you seen the young man? you perceive that the +noun <i>son</i> is of the <i>second</i> person, because I address myself <i>to</i> him; +that is, he is spoken <i>to;</i> but the noun <i>man</i> is of the <i>third</i> +person, because he is spoken <i>of</i>. Again, if I say, young <i>man</i>, have +you seen my son? <i>man</i> is of the <i>second</i> person, and <i>son</i> is of the +<i>third</i>.</p> + +<p>"Hast thou left thy blue course in the heavens, golden-haired <i>sun</i> of +the sky?"</p> + +<p>"<i>Father</i>, may the Great Spirit so brighten the chain of friendship +between us, that a child may find it, when the sun is asleep in his +wig-wam behind the western waters."</p> + +<span style='margin-left: 1em;'>"Lo, earth receives him from the bending skies!</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 1.5em;'>Sink down, ye <i>mountains</i>, and, ye <i>valleys</i>, rise!"</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 1em;'>"Eternal <i>Hope</i>, thy glittering wings explore</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 1.5em;'>Earth's loneliest bounds, and ocean's wildest shore."</span><br /> + +<a name="nominative_case_independent_1"></a> +<p>In these examples, the nouns, sun, father, mountains, valleys, and hope, +are of the <i>second</i> person, and, as you will hereafter learn, in the +nominative case independent. Course, heavens, sky, Spirit, chain, +friendship, child, sun, wig-wam, waters, earth, skies, wings, earth, +bounds, ocean, and shore, are all of the <i>third</i> person.</p> + +<h3><a name="NUMBER"></a>NUMBER.</h3> + +<div class="bigtext">Number is the distinction of objects, as one or more. Nouns are of two +numbers, the singular and the plural.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">The <i>singular</i> number implies but one; as, a <i>book</i>.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">The <i>plural</i> number implies more than one; as, <i>books</i>.</div> + +<h4>NOTES.</h4> + +<div class="smalltext">1. Some nouns are used only in the singular form; as, hemp, flax, +barley, wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, honesty, meekness, +compassion, &c.; others only in the plural form; as, bellows, +scissors, ashes, riches, snuffers, tongs, thanks, wages, embers, +ides, pains, vespers, &c.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">2. Some words are the same in both numbers; as, deer, sheep, swine; +and, also, hiatus, apparatus, series, species.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">3. The plural number of nouns is generally formed by adding <i>s</i> to +the singular; as, dove, doves; face, faces; but sometimes we add +<i>es</i> in the plural; as, box, boxes; church, churches; lash, lashes; +cargo, cargoes.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">4. Nouns ending in <i>f</i> or <i>fe</i>, are rendered plural by a change of +that termination into <i>ves</i>; as, half, halves; wife, wives: except +grief, relief, reproof, and several others, which form their plurals +by the addition of <i>s</i>. Those ending in <i>ff</i>, have the regular +plural; as, ruff, ruffs; except staff, staves.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">5. Nouns ending in <i>y</i> in the singular, with no other vowel in the +same syllable, change it into <i>ies</i> in the plural; as, beauty, +beauties; fly, flies. But the <i>y</i> is not changed, where there is +another vowel in the syllable; as, key, keys; delay, delays; +attorney, attorneys; valley, valleys; chimney, chimneys.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">6. <i>Mathematics, metaphysics, politics, optics, ethics, pneumatics,</i> +<i>hydraulics</i>, &c. are construed either as singular or plural nouns.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">7. The word <i>news</i> is always singular. The nouns <i>means, alms</i>, and +<i>amends</i>, though plural in form, may be either singular or plural in +signification. Antipodes, credenda, literati, and minutiæ are +always plural. <i>Bandit</i> is now used as the singular of Banditti.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">8. The following nouns form their plurals not according to any +general rule; thus, man, men; woman, women; child, children; ox, +oxen; tooth, teeth; goose, geese; foot, feet; mouse, mice; louse, +lice; brother, brothers or brethren; cow, cows or kine; penny, +pence, or pennies when the coin is meant; die, dice <i>for play,</i> +dies <i>for coining;</i> pea and fish, pease and fish when the species +is meant, but <i>peas</i> and <i>fishes</i> when we refer to the number; as, +six <i>peas</i>, ten <i>fishes</i>.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">9. The following compounds form their plurals thus: handful, +handfuls; cupful, cupfuls; spoonful, spoonfuls:—brother-in-law, +brothers-in-law; court-martial, courts-martial.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">The following words form their plurals according to the rules of the +languages from which they are adopted.</div> + + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary='' class='smalltext'> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Singular</i></td><td align='left'> <i>Plural.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Antithesis</td><td align='left'> antitheses</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Apex</td><td align='left'> apices</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Appendix</td><td align='left'>{appendixes <i>or</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='left'>{appendices</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Arcanum</td><td align='left'> arcana</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Automaton</td><td align='left'> automata</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Axis</td><td align='left'> axes</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Basis</td><td align='left'> bases</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Beau</td><td align='left'>{beaux <i>or</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='left'>{beaus</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Calx</td><td align='left'>{calces <i>or</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='left'>{calxes</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cherub</td><td align='left'>{cherubim <i>or</i> </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='left'>{cherubs</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Crisis</td><td align='left'> crises</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Criterion</td><td align='left'> criteria</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Datum</td><td align='left'> data</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Diæresis</td><td align='left'> diæreses</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Desideratum</td><td align='left'> desiderata</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Effluvium</td><td align='left'> effluvia</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ellipsis</td><td align='left'> ellipses</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Emphasis</td><td align='left'> emphases</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Encomium</td><td align='left'>{encomia <i>or</i> </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='left'>{encomiums</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Erratum</td><td align='left'> errata</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Genius</td><td align='left'> genii <sup><a name='FN_anchor_2'></a><a href='#Footnote_2'>[2]</a></sup></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Genus</td><td align='left'> genera</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hypothesis</td><td align='left'> hypotheses</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ignis fatuus</td><td align='left'> ignes fatui</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Index</td><td align='left'>{indices <i>or</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='left'>{indexes<sup><a name='FN_anchor_3'></a><a href='#Footnote_3'>[3]</a></sup></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lamina</td><td align='left'> laminae</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Magus</td><td align='left'> magi</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Memorandum</td><td align='left'>{memoranda <i>or</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='left'>{memorandums</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Metamorphosis</td><td align='left'> metamorphoses</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Parenthesis</td><td align='left'> parentheses</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Phenomenon</td><td align='left'> phenomena</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Radius</td><td align='left'>{radii <i>or</i> </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='left'>{radiuses</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Stamen</td><td align='left'> stamina</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Seraph</td><td align='left'>{seraphim <i>or</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='left'>{seraphs</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Stimulus</td><td align='left'> stimuli</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Stratum</td><td align='left'> strata</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Thesis</td><td align='left'> theses</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Vertex</td><td align='left'> vertices</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Vortex</td><td align='left'>{vortices <i>or</i> </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='left'>{vortexes</td></tr></table> + + + +<h3><a name='CASE'></a>CASE.</h3> + +<div class="bigtext">Case, when applied to nouns and pronouns, means the different state, +situation, or position they have in relation to other words. Nouns have +three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.</div> + +<p>I deem the essential qualities of <i>case</i>, in English, to consist, not in +the <i>changes</i> or <i>inflections</i> produced on nouns and pronouns, but in +the various offices which they perform in a sentence, by assuming +different positions in regard to other words. In accordance with this +definition, these cases can be easily explained on reasoning +principles, founded in the nature of things.</p> + +<p>Now, five grains of common sense will enable any one to comprehend what +is meant by case. Its real character is extremely simple; but in the +different grammars it assumes as many meanings as Proteus had shapes. +The most that has been written on it, however, is mere verbiage. What, +then, is meant by <i>case</i>? In speaking of a horse, for instance, we say +he is in a good <i>case</i>, when he is fat, and in a bad <i>case</i>, when he is +lean, and needs more oats; and in this sense we apply the term <i>case</i> to +denote the <i>state</i> or <i>condition</i> of the horse. So, when we place a noun +before a verb as actor or subject, we say it is in the <i>nominative +case</i>; but when it follows a transitive verb or preposition, we say it +has another <i>case</i>; that is, it assumes a new <i>position</i> or <i>situation</i> +in the sentence: and this we call the <i>objective</i> case. Thus, the <i>boy</i> +gathers fruit. Here the boy is represented as <i>acting</i>. He is, +therefore, in the <i>nominative</i> case. But when I say, Jane struck the +<i>boy</i>, I do not represent the boy as the <i>actor</i>, but as the <i>object</i> of +the action. He is, therefore, in a new <i>case</i> or <i>condition</i>. And when I +say, This is the <i>boy's</i> hat, I do not speak of the boy either as +<i>acting</i> or as <i>acted upon</i>; but as possessing something: for which +reason he is in the <i>possessive</i> case. Hence, it is clear, that nouns +have three cases or positions.</p> + +<p>As the nominative and objective cases of the noun are inseparably +connected with the verb, it is impossible for you to understand them +until you shall have acquired some knowledge of this part of speech. I +will, therefore, now give you a partial description of the verb in +connexion with the noun; which will enable me to illustrate the cases of +the noun so clearly, that you may easily comprehend their nature.</p> + +<p>In the formation of language, mankind, in order to hold converse with +each other, found it necessary, in the first place, to give <i>names</i> to +the various objects by which they were surrounded. Hence the origin of +the first part of speech, which we denominate the <i>noun</i>. But merely to +name the objects which they beheld or thought of, was not sufficient for +their purpose. They perceived that these objects existed, moved, acted, +or caused some action to be done. In looking at a man, for instance, +they perceived that he lived, walked, ate, smiled, talked, ran, and so +on. They perceived that plants grow, flowers bloom, and rivers flow. +Hence the necessity of another part of speech, whose office it should be +to express these existences and actions. This second class of words we +call</p> + +<h3><a name="VERBS_i"></a>VERBS.</h3> + +<div class="bigtext">A verb is a word which signifies to BE, to DO, or to SUFFER; as, I <i>am</i>; +I <i>rule</i>; I <i>am ruled</i>.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">Verbs are of three kinds, active, passive, and neuter. They are also +divided into regular, irregular, and defective.</div> + +<p>The term <i>verb</i> is derived from the Latin word <i>verbum</i>, which signifies +a <i>word</i>. This part of speech is called a <i>verb</i> or <i>word</i>, because it +is deemed the most important word in every sentence: and without a verb +and nominative, either expressed or implied, no sentence can exist. The +noun is the original and leading part of speech; the verb comes next in +order, and is far more complex than the noun. These two are the most +useful in the language, and form the basis of the science of grammar. +The other eight parts of speech are subordinate to these two, and, as +you will hereafter learn, of minor importance.</p> + +<p>For all practical purposes, the foregoing definition and division of the +verb, though, perhaps, not philosophically correct, will be found as +<i>convenient</i> as any other. I adopt them, therefore, to be consistent +with the principle, that, in arranging the materials of this treatise, I +shall not alter or reject any established definition, rule, or principle +of grammar, unless, in my humble judgment, some <i>practical advantage</i> to +the learner is thereby gained. The following, some consider a good +definition.</p> + +<div class="bigtext">A VERB is a word which <i>expresses affirmation</i>.</div> + +<a name='nominative_i'></a> +<div class="bigtext">An <i>active verb</i> expresses action; and<br /> +The <i>nominative case</i> is the actor, or subject of the verb; as, <i>John +writes</i>.</div> + +<p>In this example, which is the <i>verb?</i> You know it is the word <i>writes</i>, +because this word signifies to <i>do;</i> that is, it expresses <i>action</i>, +therefore, according to the definition, it is an <i>active verb</i>. And you +know, too, that the noun <i>John</i> is the <i>actor</i>, therefore John is in the +<i>nominative case</i> to the verb writes. In the expressions, The man +walks—The boy plays—Thunders roll—- Warriors fight—you perceive that +the words <i>walks, plays, roll</i>, and <i>fight</i>, are <i>active verbs;</i> and you +cannot be at a loss to know, that the nouns <i>man, boy, thunders</i>, and +<i>warriors</i>, are in the <i>nominative case.</i></p> + +<p>As no <i>action</i> can be produced without some agent or moving cause, it +follows, that every active verb must have some <i>actor</i> or <i>agent</i>. This +<i>actor, doer</i>, or <i>producer of the action</i>, is the nominative. +<i>Nominative</i>, from the Latin <i>nomino</i>, literally signifies to <i>name;</i> +but in the technical sense in which it is used in grammar, it means the +noun or pronoun which is the <i>subject</i> of affirmation. This subject or +nominative may be <i>active, passive</i>, or <i>neuter</i>, as hereafter +exemplified.</p> + +<div class="bigtext">A <i><a name="neuter_verb"></a>neuter verb</i> expresses neither action nor passion, but <i>being</i>, or <i>a +state of being</i>; as, <i>John sits</i>.</div> + +<p>Now, in this example, <i>John</i> is not represented as <i>an actor</i>, but, as +the <i>subject</i> of the verb <i>sits</i>, therefore John is in the <i>nominative +case</i> to the verb. And you know that the word <i>sits</i> does not express +<i>apparent action</i>, but a <i>condition of being;</i> that is, it represents +John in a particular <i>state of existence;</i> therefore <i>sits</i> is a <i>neuter +verb</i>. In speaking of the neuter gender of nouns, I informed you, that +<i>neuter</i> means <i>neither;</i> from which it follows, that neuter gender +implies neither gender; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence, +by an easy transition of thought, you learn, that <i>neuter</i>, when applied +to verbs, means neither of the other two classes; that is, a <i>neuter</i> +verb is one which is neither active nor passive. In these examples, The +man stands—The lady lives—The child sleeps—The world exists—the +words <i>stands, lives, sleeps</i>, and <i>exists</i>, are <i>neuter verbs;</i> and the +nouns, <i>man, lady, child</i>, and <i>world</i>, are all in the <i>nominative +case</i>, because each is the <i>subject</i> of a verb. Thus you perceive, that +when a noun is in the nominative case to an <i>active</i> verb, it is the +<i>actor;</i> and when it is nominative to a <i>neuter</i> verb, it is <i>not</i> an +actor, but the <i>subject</i> of the verb.</p> + +<p>Some neuter verbs express <i>being in general;</i> as, The man <i>is</i>; Kingdoms +<i>exist</i>. Others express <i>being in some particular state</i>; as, The man +<i>stands, sits, lies</i>, or <i>hangs</i>.</p> + +<p>I will now give you two <i>signs</i>, which will enable you to distinguish +the verb from other parts of speech, when you cannot tell it by its +signification. Any word that will make sense with <i>to</i> before it, is a +verb. Thus, to run, to write, to smile, to sing, to hear, to ponder, to +live, to breathe, are verbs. Or, any word that will <i>conjugate</i>, is a +verb. Thus, I run, thou runnest, he runs; I write, thou writest, he +writes; I smile, &c. But the words, boy, lady, child, and world, will +not make sense with <i>to</i> prefixed—<i>to</i> boy, <i>to</i> lady, <i>to</i> world, is +nonsense. Neither will they con<i>jugate</i>—I lady, thou ladiest, &c. is +worse than nonsense. Hence you perceive, that these words are <i>not</i> +verbs. There are some exceptions to these rules, for verbs are sometimes +used as nouns. This will be explained by and by.</p> + +<div class="bigtext">To verbs belong <i>number, person, mood</i>, and <i>tense</i>.</div> + +<p>At present I shall speak only of the number and person of verbs; but +hereafter I will give you a full explanation of all their properties. +And permit me to inform you, that I shall not lead you into the +<i>intricacies</i> of the science, until, by gradual and easy progressions, +you are enabled to comprehend the principles involved in them. Only such +principles will be elucidated, as you are prepared to understand at the +time they are unfolded before you. You must not be too anxious to get +along <i>rapidly</i>; but endeavor to become thoroughly acquainted with one +principle, before you undertake another. This lecture will qualify you +for the next.</p> + +<p>NUMBER AND PERSON OF VERBS. You recollect, that the nominative is the +<i>actor</i> or <i>subject</i>, and the active verb is the <i>action</i> performed by +the nominative. By this you perceive, that a very intimate connexion or +relation exists between the nominative case and the verb. If, therefore, +only <i>one</i> creature or thing acts, only <i>one</i> action, at the same +instant, can be done; as, The <i>girl writes</i>. The nominative <i>girl</i> is +here of the singular number, because it signifies but one person; and +the verb <i>writes</i> denotes but one action, which the girl performs; +therefore the verb <i>writes</i> is of the <i>singular</i> number, agreeing with +its nominative <i>girl</i>. When the nominative case is <i>plural</i>, the verb +must be <i>plural</i>; as, <i>girls write</i>. Take notice, the <i>singular</i> verb +ends in <i>s</i>, but the noun is generally <i>plural</i> when it ends in <i>s</i>; +thus, The girl <i>writes</i>—the <i>girls</i> write.</p> + +<p><i>Person</i>, strictly speaking, is a quality that belongs <i>not</i> to <i>verbs</i>, +but to nouns and pronouns. We say, however, that the verb must agree +with its nominative in <i>person</i>, as well as in number; that is, the verb +must be spelled and spoken in such a manner as to correspond with the +<i>first, second</i>, or <i>third</i> person of the noun or pronoun which is its +nominative.</p> + +<p>I will now show you how the verb is varied in order to agree with its +nominative in number and person. I, Thou, He, She, It; We, Ye or You, +They, are <i>personal pronouns</i>. <i>I</i> is of the <i>first</i> person, and +<i>singular</i> number; <i>Thou</i> is <i>second</i> person, <i>sing.</i>; <i>He, She</i>, or +<i>It</i>, is <i>third</i> per. <i>sing.</i>; <i>We</i> is <i>first</i> per. <i>plural</i>; <i>Ye</i> or +<i>You</i> is <i>second</i> per. <i>plural</i>; <i>They</i> is <i>third</i> per. <i>plural</i>. These +pronouns are the representatives of nouns, and perform the same office +that the nouns would for which they stand. When placed before the verb, +they are, therefore, the <i>nominatives</i> to the verb.</p> + +<p>Notice particularly, the different variations or endings of the verb, as +it is thus conjugated in the</p> + +<h4>INDICATIVE MOOD, PRESENT TENSE.</h4> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary=''> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular</i>.</td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>1. <i>Per</i>. I walk,</td><td align='left'>1. <i>Per</i>. We Walk,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. <i>Per</i>. Thou walk<i>est</i>,</td><td align='left'>2. <i>Per</i>. Ye <i>or</i> you walk,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. <i>Per</i>. He walk<i>s</i>, <i>or</i> the boy walk<i>s</i>, <i>or</i> walk<i>eth</i>.</td><td align='left'> 3. <i>Per</i>. They walk, or the boys walk.</td></tr> +</table> + + + +<p>This display of the verb shows you, that whenever it ends in <i>est</i>, it +is of the <i>second</i> person <i>singular</i>; but when the verb ends in <i>s</i>, or +<i>eth</i>, it is of the <i>third</i> person singular. <i>Walkest, ridest, +standest</i>, are of the second person singular; and <i>walks</i> or <i>walketh, +rides</i> or <i>rideth, stands</i> or <i>standeth</i>, are of the third person +singular.</p> + +<p>I have told you, that when the nominative is singular number, the verb +must be; when the nominative is plural, the verb must be; and when the +nominative is first, second, or third person, the verb must be of the +same person. If you look again at the foregoing conjugation of <i>walk</i>, +you will notice that the verb varies if its endings in the <i>singular</i>, +in order to agree in <i>form</i> with the first, second, and third person of +its nominative; but in the <i>plural</i> it does not vary its endings from +the first person singular. The verb, however, agrees in <i>sense</i> with its +nominative in the plural, as well as in the singular. Exercise a little +mind, and you will perceive that <i>agreement</i> and <i>government</i> in +language do not consist <i>merely</i> in the <i>form</i> of words. Now, is it not +clear, that when I say, I <i>walk</i>, the verb walk is <i>singular</i>, because +it expresses but <i>one</i> action? And when I say, Two men <i>walk</i>, is it not +equally apparent, that walk is <i>plural</i>, because it expresses <i>two</i> +actions? In the sentence, Ten men <i>walk</i>, the verb <i>walk</i> denotes <i>ten</i> +actions, for there are ten actors. Common sense teaches you, that there +must be as many <i>actions</i> as there are <i>actors</i>; and that the verb, when +it has <i>no form</i> or <i>ending</i> to show it, is as strictly plural, as when +it has.—So, in the phrase, <i>We</i> walk, the verb walk is <i>first</i> person, +because it expresses the actions performed by the <i>speakers: Ye</i> or +<i>you</i> walk, the verb is <i>second</i> person, denoting the actions of the +persons <i>spoken to;</i> third person, <i>They</i> walk. The verb, then, when +correctly written, always agrees, in <i>sense</i>, with its nominative in +number and person.</p> + +<p>At present you are learning two parts of speech, neither of which can be +understood without a knowledge of the other. It therefore becomes +necessary to explain them both, in the same lecture. You have been +already informed, that nouns have three cases; the nominative, the +possessive, and the objective.</p> + +<div class="bigtext"><a name="POSSESSIVE"></a>POSSESSIVE CASE. The <i>possessive case</i> denotes the possessor of +something; as, This is <i>John's</i> horse. This expression implies, that +<i>John</i> is the <i>owner</i> or <i>possessor</i> of the horse; and, that horse is +the <i>property</i> which he possesses.</div> + +<p>When I say, These are the <i>men's</i>, and those, the <i>boys'</i> hats, the two +words, "boys' hats," plainly convey the idea, if they have any meaning +at all, that the boys <i>own</i> or <i>possess</i> the hats. "Samuel Badger sells +<i>boys'</i> hats." Who <i>owns</i> the hats? Mr. Badger. How is that fact +ascertained? Not by the words, "boys' hats," which, taken by themselves, +imply, not that they are <i>Mr. Badger's</i> hats, nor that they are <i>for</i> +boys, but that they are hats <i>of</i>, or <i>belonging to</i>, or <i>possessed by</i> +boys. But we <i>infer</i> from the <i>words connected</i> with the phrase, "boys' +hats," that the boys are not yet, as the phrase literally denotes, in +the actual possession of the hats. The possession is anticipated.</p> + +<p>In the phrases, <i>fine</i> hats, <i>coarse</i> hats, <i>high-crowned</i> hats, +<i>broad-brimmed</i> hats, <i>woollen, new, ten, some, these, many</i> hats, the +words in italics, are adjectives, because they restrict, qualify, or +define the term <i>hats;</i> but the term <i>boys'</i> does not <i>describe</i> or +limit the meaning of <i>hats. Boys'</i>, therefore, is not, as some suppose, +an adjective.</p> + +<p>"The <i>slave's</i> master." Does the slave possess the master? Yes. The +slave <i>has</i> a master. If he <i>has</i> him, then, he <i>possesses</i> him;—he +sustains that relation to him which we call possession.</p> + +<p>A noun in the possessive case, is always known by its having an +apostrophe, and generally an <i>s</i> after it; thus, <i>John's</i>, hat; the +<i>boy's</i> coat. When a plural noun in the possessive case, ends in <i>s</i>, +the apostrophe is added, but no additional <i>s</i>; as, "<i>Boys'</i> hats; +<i>Eagles'</i> wings." When a singular noun ends in <i>ss</i>, the apostrophe +only is added; as, "For <i>goodness'</i> sake; for <i>righteousness'</i> sake;" +except the word witness; as, "The <i>witness's</i> testimony." When a noun in +the possessive case ends in <i>ence</i>, the <i>s</i> is omitted, but the +apostrophe is retained; as, "For <i>conscience'</i> sake."</p> + +<p>Now please to turn back, and read over this and the preceding lecture +<i>three</i> times, and endeavor, not only to understand, but, also, to +<i>remember</i>, what you read. In reading, proceed thus: read one sentence +over slowly, and then look off the book, and repeat it two or three +times over in your mind. After that, take another sentence and proceed +in the same manner, and so on through the whole lecture. Do not presume +to think, that these directions are of no real consequence to you; for, +unless you follow them strictly, you need not expect to make rapid +progress. On the other hand, if you proceed according to my +instructions, you will be sure to acquire a practical knowledge of +grammar in a short time.—When you shall have complied with this +requisition, you may commit the following <i>order of parsing a noun</i>, and +<i>the order of parsing a verb</i>; and then you will be prepared to parse or +analyze the following examples.</p> + +<h4><a name="parsing"></a>ANALYSIS, OR PARSING.</h4> + +<p>Do you recollect the meaning of the word <i>analysis?</i> If you do not, I +will explain if: and first, I wish you to remember, that analysis is the +reverse of synthesis. <i>Synthesis</i> is the act of combining simples so as +to form a whole or compound. Thus, in putting together letters so as to +form syllables, syllables so as to form words, words so as to form +sentences, and sentences so as to form a discourse, the process is +called synthetic. <i>Analysis</i>, on the contrary, is the act of +decomposition; that is, the act of separating any thing compounded into +its simple parts, and thereby exhibiting its elementary principles. +Etymology treats of the analysis of language. To analyze a sentence, is +to separate from one another and classify the different words of which +it is composed; and to analyze or <i>parse</i> a word, means to enumerate and +describe all its various properties, and its grammatical relations with +respect to other words in a sentence, and trace it through all its +inflections or changes. Perhaps, to you, this will, at first, appear to +be of little importance; but, if you persevere, you will hereafter find +it of great utility, for parsing will enable you to detect, and correct, +errors in composition.</p> + +<h3>SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.</h3> + +<div class="bigtext">The <i>order of parsing</i> a NOUN, is—a noun, and why?—common, proper, or +collective, and why?—gender, and why?—person, and why?—number, and +why?—case, and why?—RULE:—decline it.</div> + +<div class="bigtext"><i>The order of parsing</i> a VERB, is—a verb, and why?—active, passive, +or neuter, and why?—if <i>active</i>—transitive or intransitive, and +why?—if <i>passive</i>—how is it formed?—regular, irregular, or defective, +and why?—mood, and why?—tense, and why?—person and number, and +why?—with what does it agree?—RULE:—conjugate it.</div> + +<p>I will now parse two nouns according to the order, and, in so doing, by +applying the definitions and rules, I shall answer all those questions +given in the order. If you have <i>perfectly committed</i> the order of +parsing a noun and verb, you may proceed with me; but, recollect, you +cannot parse a verb <i>in full</i>, until you shall have had a more complete +explanation of it.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'><i>John's hand trembles</i>.</p> + +<p><i>John's</i> is a noun, [because it is] the name of a person—proper, the +name of an individual—masculine gender, it denotes a male—third +person, spoken of—singular number, it implies but one—and in the +possessive case, it denotes possession—it is governed by the noun +"hand," according to</p> + +<p>RULE 12. <i>A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the +noun it possesses</i>.</p> + +<p>Declined—Sing. nom. John, poss. John's, obj. John. Plural—nom. +Johns, poss. Johns', obj. Johns.</p> + +<p><i>Hand</i> is a noun, the name of a thing—common, the name of a sort or +species of things—neuter gender, it denotes a thing without sex—third +person, spoken of—sing. number, it implies but one—and in the +nominative case, it is the actor and subject of the verb "trembles," and +governs it agreeably to</p> + +<p>RULE 3. <i>The nominative case governs the verb:</i>—that is, the nominative +determines the number and person of the verb.</p> + +<p>Declined—Sing. nom. hand, poss. hand's, obj. hand. Plur. nom. hands, +poss. hands', obj. hands.</p> + +<p><i>Trembles</i> is a verb, a word which signifies to do—active, it expresses +action—third person, singular number, because the nominative "hand" is +with which it agrees, according to</p> + +<a name='agreement'></a> +<p>RULE 4. <i>The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person</i>.</p> + +<p>You must not say that the verb is of the third person because <i>it is +spoken of</i>. The verb is never spoken of; but it is of the third person, +and singular or plural number, because its nominative is.</p> + +<p>Conjugated—First pers. sing. I tremble, 2 pers. thou tremblest, 3 pers. +he trembles, or, the hand trembles. Plural, 1 pers. we tremble, 2 pers. +ye or you tremble, 3 pers. they or the hands tremble.</p> + +<div class="bigtext"><a name="Government"></a>Government, in language, consists in the power which one word has over +another, in causing that other word to be in some <i>particular case, +number, person, mood</i>, or <i>tense</i>.</div> + +<p style='text-align: center'>ILLUSTRATION.</p> + +<p>RULE 3. <i>The nominative case governs the verb</i>.</p> + +<p>If you employ the pronoun <i>I</i>, which is of the <i>first</i> person, singular +number, as the nominative to a verb, the verb must be of the first pers. +sing, thus, I <i>smile</i>; and when your nominative is <i>second</i> pers. sing, +your verb must be; as, thou smil<i>est</i>. Why, in the latter instance, does +the ending of the verb change to <i>est</i>? Because the nominative changes. +And if your nominative is <i>third</i> person, the verb will vary again; +thus, he smiles, the man smiles. How clear it is, then, that <i>the +nominative governs the verb</i>; that is, the nominative has power to +change the <i>form</i> and <i>meaning</i> of the verb, in respect to num. and +person. Government, thus far, is evinced in the <i>form</i> of the words, as +well as in the sense.</p> + +<p>RULE 4. <i>The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person</i>.</p> + +<p>It is improper to say, thou <i>hear</i>, the men <i>hears</i>. Why improper? +Because <i>hear</i> is <i>first</i> pers. and the nominative <i>thou</i> is <i>second</i> +pers. <i>Hears</i> is singular, and the nom. <i>men</i> is <i>plural</i>. Rule 4th +says, <i>The verb must agree with its nominative</i>. The expressions should, +therefore, be, thou hear<i>est</i>, the men <i>hear</i>; and then the verb would +<i>agree</i> with its nominatives. But <i>why</i> must the verb agree with its +nominative? Why must we say, thou talk<i>est</i>, the man talks, men <i>talk</i>? +Because the genius of our language, and the common consent of those who +speak it, <i>require</i> such a construction: and this <i>requisition</i> amounts +to a <i>law</i> or <i>rule</i>. This <i>rule</i>, then, is founded in <i>the nature of +things</i>, and sanctioned by <i>good usage</i>.</p> + +<p>RULE 12. <i>A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the +noun which it possesses</i>.</p> + +<p>It is correct to say, The <i>man</i> eats, <i>he</i> eats; but we cannot say, the +<i>man</i> dog eats, <i>he</i> dog eats. Why not? Because the man is here +represented as the <i>possessor</i>, and <i>dog</i>, the <i>property</i>, or <i>thing +possessed</i>; and the genius of our language requires, that when we add to +the possessor, the <i>thing</i> which he is represented as possessing, the +possessor shall take a particular form to show its <i>case</i>, or <i>relation +to the property</i>; thus, The <i>man's</i> dog eats, <i>his</i> dog eats. You +perceive, then, that the <i>added</i> noun, denoting the thing possessed, has +power <i>to change the form</i> of the noun or pronoun denoting the +possessor, according to RULE 12. thus, by adding dog in the preceding +examples, <i>man</i> is changed to <i>man's</i>, and <i>he</i>, to <i>his</i>.</p> + +<p>Now parse the sentence which I have parsed, until the manner is quite +familiar to you; and then you will be prepared to analyze correctly and +<i>systematically</i>, the following exercises. When you parse, you may +spread the Compendium before you; and, if you have not already committed +the definitions and rules, you may read them on that, as you apply them. +This mode of procedure will enable you to learn <i>all</i> the definitions +and rules by applying them to practice.</p> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>Rain descends—Rains descend—Snow falls—Snows fall—Thunder +rolls—Thunders roll—Man's works decay—Men's labors cease—John's dog +barks—Eliza's voice trembles—Julia's sister's child improves—Peter's +cousin's horse limps.</p> + +<p>In the next place, I will parse a noun and a <i>neuter</i> verb, which verb, +you will notice, differs from an active only in one respect.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'><i>"Birds repose</i> on the branches of trees."</p> + +<p><i>Birds</i> is a noun, the name of a thing or creature—common, the name of +a genus or class—masculine and feminine gender, it denotes both males +and females—third person, spoken of—plural number, it implies more +than one—and in the nominative case, it is the <i>subject</i> of the verb +"repose," and governs it according to RULE 3. <i>The nominative case +governs the verb</i>. Declined—Sing. nom. bird, poss. bird's, obj. bird. +Plural, nom. birds, poss. birds', obj. birds.</p> + +<p><i>Repose</i> is a verb, a word that signifies to <i>be</i>—neuter, it expresses +neither action nor passion, but a state of being—third person, plural +number, because the nominative "birds" is with which it agrees, +agreeably to RULE 4. <i>The verb must agree with its nominative in number +and person</i>.</p> + +<p>Declined—1. pers. sing. I repose, 2. pers. thou reposest, 3. pers. he +reposes, or the bird reposes. Plur. 1. pers. we repose, 2. pers. ye or +you repose, 3. pers. they repose, or birds repose.</p> + +<p>Now parse those nouns and neuter verbs that are distinguished by +<i>italics</i>, in the following</p> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>The <i>book lies</i> on the desk—The <i>cloak hangs</i> on the wall—<i>Man's days +are</i> few—<i>Cathmor's warriors sleep</i> in death—<i>Caltho reposes</i> in the +narrow house—Jocund <i>day stands</i> tiptoe on the misty mountain tops. The +<i>sunbeams rest</i> on the grave where her <i>beauty sleeps</i>.</p> + +<p>You may parse these and the preceding exercises, and all that follow, +<i>five or six times over</i>, if you please.</p> + +<a name="OBJECTIVE_i"></a> +<h4>OBJECTIVE CASE.—ACTIVE-TRANSITIVE VERBS.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext">The <i>objective</i> case expresses the object of an action or of a +relation. It generally follows a transitive verb, a participle, or a +preposition.</div> + +<p>A noun is in the objective case when it is the <i>object</i> of something. At +present I shall explain this case only as the object of an <i>action</i>; but +when we shall have advanced as far as to the preposition, I will also +illustrate it as the object of a <i>relation</i>.</p> + +<div class="bigtext">An active verb is <i>transitive</i> when the action passes over from the +subject or nominative to an object; as, Richard <i>strikes</i> John.</div> + +<p><i>Transitive</i> means <i>passing</i>. In this sentence the action of the verb +<i>strikes</i> is <i>transitive</i>, because it <i>passes over</i> from the nominative +Richard to the object John; and you know that the noun John is in the +<i>objective</i> case, because it is <i>the object of the action</i> expressed by +the active-transitive verb strikes. This matter is very plain. For +example: Gallileo invented the telescope. Now it is evident, that +Gallileo did not exert his powers of invention, without some object in +view. In order to ascertain that object, put the question, Gallileo +invented what? The telescope. <i>Telescope</i>, then, is the real object of +the action, denoted by the transitive verb invented; and, therefore, +telescope is in the objective case. If I say, The horse <i>kicks</i> the +servant—Carpenters <i>build</i> houses—Ossian <i>wrote</i> poems—Columbus +<i>discovered</i> America—you readily perceive, that the verbs <i>kick, build, +wrote</i>, and <i>discovered</i>, express transitive actions; and you cannot be +at a loss to tell which nouns are in the objective case:—they are +<i>servant, houses, poems</i>, and <i>America</i>.</p> + +<p>The nominative and objective cases of nouns are generally known by the +following rule: the nominative <i>does something</i>; the objective <i>has +something done to it</i>. The nominative generally comes <i>before</i> the verb; +and the objective, <i>after</i> it. When I say, George struck the servant, +<i>George</i> is in the nominative, and <i>servant</i> is in the objective case; +but, when I say, The servant struck George, <i>servant</i> is in the +nominative case, and <i>George</i> is in the objective. Thus you perceive, +that <i>Case</i> means the different state or situation of nouns with regard +to other words.</p> + +<p>It is sometimes very difficult to tell the case of a noun. I shall, +therefore, take up this subject again, when I come to give you an +explanation of the participle and preposition.</p> + +<p>Besides the three cases already explained, nouns are sometimes in the +nominative case <i>independent</i>, sometimes in the nominative case +absolute, sometimes in apposition in the same case, and sometimes in the +nominative or objective case after the neuter to <i>be</i>, or after an +active-intransitive or passive verb. These cases are illustrated in +Lecture X. and in the 21 and 22 rules of Syntax.</p> + + +<h4><a name="ACTIVE_INTRANSITIVE_VERBS"></a>ACTIVE-INTRANSITIVE VERBS.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext">An active verb is <i>transitive</i>, when the action terminates on an object: +but</div> + +<div class="bigtext">An active verb is <i>intransitive</i>, when the action does <i>not</i> terminate +on an object; as, John <i>walks</i>.</div> + +<p>You perceive that the verb <i>walks</i>, in this example, is <i>intransitive</i>, +because the action does not pass over to an object; that is, the action +is confined to the agent John. The following <i>sign</i> will generally +enable you to distinguish a <i>transitive</i> verb from an <i>intransitive</i>. +Any verb that will make sense with the words <i>a thing</i> or <i>a person</i>, +after it, is <i>transitive</i>. Try these verbs by the sign, <i>love, help, +conquer, reach, subdue, overcome</i>. Thus, you can say, I love <i>a person</i> +or <i>thing</i>—I can help <i>a person</i> or <i>thing</i>—and so on. Hence you know +that these verbs are transitive. But an intransitive verb will not make +sense with this sign, which fact will be shown by the following +examples: <i>smile, go, come, play, bark, walk, fly</i>. We cannot say, if we +mean to speak English, I smile a <i>person</i> or <i>thing</i>—I go <i>a person</i> or +<i>thing</i>:—hence you perceive that these verbs are not transitive, but +intransitive.</p> + +<p>If you reflect upon these examples for a few moments, you will have a +clear conception of the nature of transitive and intransitive verbs. +Before I close this subject, however, it is necessary farther to remark, +that some transitive and intransitive verbs express what is called a +<i>mental</i> or <i>moral</i> action; and others, a <i>corporeal</i> or <i>physical</i> +action. Verbs expressing the different affections or operations of the +mind, denote moral actions; as, Brutus <i>loved</i> his country; James +<i>hates</i> vice; We <i>believe</i> the tale:—to <i>repent</i>, to <i>relent</i>, to +<i>think</i>, to <i>reflect</i>, to <i>mourn</i>, to <i>muse</i>. Those expressing the +actions produced by matter, denote physical actions; as, The <i>dog hears</i> +the bell; Virgil <i>wrote</i> the Aenead; Columbus <i>discovered</i> America;—to +<i>see</i>, to <i>feel</i>, to <i>taste</i>, to <i>smell</i>, to <i>run</i>, to <i>talk</i>, to <i>fly</i>, +to <i>strike</i>. In the sentence, Charles <i>resembles</i> his father, the verb +<i>resembles</i> does not appear to express any action at all; yet the +construction of the sentence, and the office which the verb performs, +are such, that we are obliged to parse it as an <i>active-transitive</i> +verb, governing the noun <i>father</i> in the objective case. This you may +easily reconcile in your mind, by reflecting, that the verb has a +<i>direct reference</i> to its object. The following verbs are of this +character: <i>Have, own, retain</i>; as, I <i>have</i> a book.</p> + +<a name="active_transitive_ii"></a> +<p>Active <i>in</i>transitive verbs are frequently made <i>transitive</i>. When I +say, The birds <i>fly</i>, the verb <i>fly</i> is <i>in</i>transitive; but when I say, +The boy <i>flies</i> the kite, the verb <i>fly</i> is <i>transitive</i>, and governs +the noun <i>kite</i> in the objective case. Almost any active intransitive +verb, and sometimes even neuter verbs, are used as transitive. The horse +<i>walks</i> rapidly; The boy <i>runs</i> swiftly; My friend <i>lives</i> well; The man +<i>died</i> of a fever. In all these examples the verbs are <i>in</i>transitive; +in the following they are <i>transitive</i>: The man <i>walks</i> his horse; The +boy <i>ran</i> a race; My friend <i>lives</i> a holy life; Let me <i>die</i> the death +of the righteous.</p> + +<p>The foregoing development of the character of verbs, is deemed +sufficiently critical for practical purposes; but if we dip a little +deeper into the verbal fountain, we shall discover qualities which do +not appear on its surface. If we throw aside the veil which art has +drawn over the real structure of speech, we shall find, that almost +every verb has either a <i>personal</i> or a <i>verbal</i> object, expressed or +implied. Verbal objects, which are the <i>effects</i> or <i>productions</i> +resulting from the actions, being necessarily implied, are seldom +expressed.</p> + +<p>The fire <i>burns</i>. If the fire burns, it must burn <i>wood, coal, tallow</i>, +or some other combustible substance. The man <i>laughs</i>. Laughs what? +Laughs <i>laughter</i> or <i>laugh</i>. They <i>walk</i>; that is, They walk or take +<i>walks</i>. Rivers flow (move or roll <i>them-selves</i> or their <i>waters</i>) +into the ocean.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"I <i>sing</i> the shady <i>regions</i> of the west."</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"And <i>smile</i> the <i>wrinkles</i> from the brow of age."</p> + +<p>The child <i>wept itself</i> sick; and then, by taking (or <i>sleeping</i>) a +short <i>nap</i>, it <i>slept itself</i> quiet and well again. "He will soon +<i>sleep</i> his everlasting <i>sleep"</i>; that is, "He will <i>sleep</i> the <i>sleep</i> +of death."</p> + +<p>Thinkers think <i>thoughts</i>; Talkers talk or employ <i>words, talk,</i> or +<i>speeches</i>; The rain rains <i>rain</i>. "Upon Sodom and Gomorrah the Lord +<i>rained fire</i> and <i>brimstone</i>." "I must <i>go</i> the whole <i>length</i>." "I +shall soon <i>go</i> the <i>way</i> of all the earth."</p> + +<p>Now please to turn back again, and peruse this lecture attentively; +after which you may parse, systematically, the following exercises +containing nouns in the three cases, and active-transitive verbs.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>The printer <i>prints</i> books.</p> + +<p><i>Prints</i> is a verb, a word that signifies to do—active, it expresses +action—transitive, the action passes over from the nominative "printer" +to the object "books"—third pers. sing. numb. because the nominative +printer is with which it agrees.</p> + +<p>RULE 4. <i>The verb must agree with its nominative case in number and +person</i>.</p> + +<p>Declined—1. pers. sing. I print, 2. pers. thou printest, 3. pers. he +prints, or the printer prints, and so on.</p> + +<p><i>Books</i> is a noun, the name of a thing—common, the name of a sort of +things,—neut. gend. it denotes a thing without sex—third pers. spoken +of—plur. num. it implies more than one—and in the objective case, it +is the object of the action, expressed by the active-transitive verb +"prints," and is governed by it according to</p> + +<p>RULE 20. <i>Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case</i>.</p> + +<p>The noun <i>books</i> is thus declined—Sing. nom. book, poss. book's, obj. +book—Plur. nom. books, poss. books', obj. books.</p> + +<p>RULE 20. Transitive verbs <i>govern</i> the objective case; that is, they +<i>require</i> the noun or pronoun following them to be in that case; and +this requisition is government. Pronouns have a particular <i>form</i> to +suit each case; but nouns have not. We cannot say, She <i>struck he</i>; I +gave the book <i>to they</i>. Why not? Because the genius of our language +requires the pronoun following a transitive verb or preposition (<i>to</i> is +a preposition) to assume that <i>form</i> which we call the <i>objective</i> form +or case. Accordingly, the construction should be, She struck <i>him</i>; I +gave the book to <i>them</i>.—Read, again, the illustration of "government" +on page 52.</p> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='2' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Nom. case.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Trans. verb</i></td><td align='left'><i>Poss. case</i></td><td align='left'><i>Obj. case.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Julius</td><td align='left'> prints</td><td align='left'> childrens'</td><td align='left'> primers.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Harriet</td><td align='left'> makes </td><td align='left'>ladies'</td><td align='left'> bonnets.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>The servant</td><td align='left'> beats</td><td align='left'> the man's</td><td align='left'> horse.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>The horse</td><td align='left'> kicks </td><td align='left'>the servant's </td><td align='left'>master.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>The boy</td><td align='left'> struck</td><td align='left'> that man's</td><td align='left'> child.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>The child</td><td align='left'> lost</td><td align='left'> those boys'</td><td align='left'> ball.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>The tempest</td><td align='left'> sunk </td><td align='left'>those merchants' </td><td align='left'>vessels.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pope</td><td align='left'> translated</td><td align='left'> Homer's </td><td align='left'>Illiad.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cicero</td><td align='left'> procured</td><td align='left'> Milo's</td><td align='left'> release.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Alexander</td><td align='left'> conquered </td><td align='left'>Darius'</td><td align='left'> army.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Perry</td><td align='left'> met</td><td align='left'> the enemy's</td><td align='left'> fleet.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Washington</td><td align='left'> obtained</td><td align='left'> his country's</td><td align='left'> freedom.</td></tr></table> + + +<div class="smalltext">NOTE 1. The words <i>the, that, those</i>, and <i>his</i>, you need not parse.</div> +<div class="smalltext">2. A noun in the possessive case, is sometimes governed by a noun +understood; as, Julia's lesson is longer than John's [lesson.]</div> + +<p>As you have been analyzing nouns in their three cases, it becomes +necessary to present, in the next place, the declension of nouns, for +you must decline every noun you parse. <i>Declension</i> means putting a noun +through the different cases: and you will notice, that the possessive +case varies from the nominative in its termination, or ending, but the +<i>objective</i> case ends like the nominative. The nominative and objective +cases of nouns, must, therefore, be ascertained by their situation in +the sentence, or by considering the office they perform.</p> + +<h4>DECLENSION OF NOUNS.</h4> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td> </td><td align='left'>SING.</td><td align='left'> PLUR.</td><td> </td><td align='left'>SING.</td><td align='left'> PLUR.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td><td align='left'>king</td><td align='left'> kings </td><td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td><td align='left'> man</td><td align='left'> men</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Poss.</i></td><td align='left'> king's</td><td align='left'> kings'</td><td align='left'> <i>Poss.</i></td><td align='left'> man's</td><td align='left'>men's</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td><td align='left'> king.</td><td align='left'> kings. </td><td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td><td align='left'> man.</td><td align='left'>men.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Now, if you have parsed every word in the preceding examples, (except +<i>the, that, those</i>, and <i>his</i>) you may proceed with me and parse the +examples in the following exercises, in which are presented nouns and +active-intransitive verbs.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"My <i>flock increases</i> yearly."</p> + +<p><i>Flock</i> is a noun, a name denoting animals—a noun of multitude, it +signifies many in one collective body—masculine and feminine gender, +denoting both sexes—third person, spoken of—singular number, it +denotes but one flock—and in the nominative case, it is the active +agent of the verb "increases," and governs it, according to RULE 3, <i>The +nominative case governs the verb</i>. (Decline it.)</p> + +<p><i>Increases</i> is a verb, a word that signifies to do—active, it expresses +action—intransitive, the action does not pass over to an object—of the +third person, singular number, because its nominative "flock" conveys +<i>unity</i> of idea, and it agrees with "flock" agreeably to</p> + +<p>RULE 10. <i>A noun of multitude conveying</i> unity <i>of idea, must have a +verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the singular</i>.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"The divided <i>multitude</i> hastily <i>disperse</i>."</p> + +<p><i>Multitude</i> is a noun, a name that denotes persons—a collective noun, +or noun of multitude, it signifies many—masculine and feminine gender, +it implies both sexes—third person, spoken of—singular number, it +represents but one multitude, or collective body; (but in another sense, +it is plural, as it conveys plurality of idea, and, also, implies more +<i>individuals</i> than one;)—and in the nominative case, it is the actor +and subject of the verb "disperse," which it governs, according to RULE +3. <i>The nom. case governs the verb</i>.—Declined.—Sing. nom. multitude, +poss. multitude's, obj. multitude—Plur. nom. multitudes, poss. +multitudes', obj. multitudes.</p> + +<p><i>Disperse</i> is a verb, a word that signifies to do—active, it expresses +action—intransitive, the action does not terminate on an object—third +person, plural number, because its nominative "multitude" conveys +plurality of idea; and it agrees with "multitude" agreeably to RULE 11. +<i>A noun of multitude conveying plurality of idea, must have a verb or +pronoun agreeing with it in the plural.</i></p> + +<p>Rules 10, and 11, rest on a sandy foundation. They appear not to be +based on the principles of the language; and, therefore, it might, +perhaps, be better to reject than to retain them. Their application is +quite limited. In many instances, they will not apply to nouns of +multitude. The existence of such a thing as "unity or plurality of +idea," as applicable to nouns of this class, is <i>doubtful</i>. It is just +as correct to say, "The <i>meeting was</i> divided in <i>its</i> sentiments," as +to say, "The <i>meeting were</i> divided in <i>their</i> sentiments." Both are +equally supported by the genius of the language, and by the power of +custom. It is correct to say, either that, "The <i>fleet were</i> dispersed;" +"The <i>council were</i> unanimous;" "The <i>council were</i> divided;" or that, +"The <i>fleet was</i> dispersed;" "The <i>council was</i> unanimous;" "The +<i>council was</i> divided." But, perhaps for the sake of euphony, in some +instances, custom has decided in favor of a singular, and in others, of +a plural construction, connected with words of this class. For example; +custom gives a preference to the constructions, "My <i>people do</i> not +consider;" "The <i>peasantry go</i> barefoot;" "The <i>flock is</i> his object;" +instead of, "<i>My people doth</i> not consider;" "The <i>peasantry goes</i> +barefoot;" "The <i>flock are</i> his object." In instances like these, the +application of the foregoing rules <i>may</i> be of some use; but the +constructions in which they do not apply, are probably more numerous +than those in which they do.</p> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>Nom. case.</td><td align='left'>Intran. verb.</td><td align='left'>Nom. case.</td><td align='left'>Intran. verb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Men</td><td align='left'>labor.</td><td align='left'>The sun</td><td align='left'>sets.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Armies</td><td align='left'>march.</td><td align='left'>The moon</td><td align='left'>rises.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Vessels</td><td align='left'>sail.</td><td align='left'>The stars</td><td align='left'>twinkle.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Birds</td><td align='left'>fly.</td><td align='left'>The rain</td><td align='left'>descends.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Clouds</td><td align='left'>move.</td><td align='left'>The river</td><td align='left'>flows.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Multitudes</td><td align='left'>perish.</td><td align='left'>The nation</td><td align='left'>mourns.</td></tr></table> + + +<p>Your improvement in grammar depends, not on the number of words which +you parse, but on the <i>attention</i> which you give the subject. <i>You may +parse the same exercises several times over.</i></p> + +<p>For the gratification of those who prefer it, I here present another</p> + +<h5>DIVISION OF VERBS.</h5> + +<p>Verbs are of two kinds, transitive and intransitive.</p> + +<p>A verb is transitive when the action affects an object; as, "Earthquakes +<i>rock</i> kingdoms; thrones and palaces <i>are shaken</i> down; and potentates, +princes, and subjects, <i>are buried</i> in one common grave."</p> + +<div class="smalltext">The nominative to a passive verb, is the <i>object</i>, but not the <i>agent</i>, +of the action.</div> + +<p>A verb is intransitive when it has no object; as, "The waters <i>came</i> +upon me;" "I <i>am</i> he who <i>was</i>, and <i>is</i>, and <i>is</i> to <i>come</i>."</p> + +<p>As an exercise on what you have been studying, I will now put to you a +few questions, all of which you ought to be able to answer before you +proceed any farther.</p> + +<h4>QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>With what two general divisions of grammar does the second lecture +begin?—Of what does Etymology treat?—Of what does Syntax treat?—On +what is based the true principle of classification?—How do you +ascertain the part of speech to which a word belongs?—What is meant by +its <i>manner</i> of meaning?—Name the ten parts of speech.—Which of these +are considered the most important?—By what sign may a noun be +distinguished?—How many kinds of nouns are there?—What belong to +nouns?—What is gender?—How many genders have nouns?—What is +person?—How many persons have nouns?—What is number?—How many numbers +have nouns?—What is case?—How many cases have nouns?—Does case +consist in the <i>inflections</i> of a noun?—How many kinds of verbs are +there?—By what sign may a verb be known?—What belong to verbs?—What +is synthesis?—What is analysis?—What is parsing?—Repeat the order of +parsing the noun.—Repeat the order of parsing the verb.—What rule do +you apply in parsing a noun in the possessive case?—What rule, in +parsing a noun in the nominative case?—What rule applies in parsing a +verb?—What is meant by government?—Explain rules 3, 4, and 12.—By +what rule are the nominative and objective cases of nouns known?—By +what sign can you distinguish a transitive from an intransitive +verb?—Do transitive verbs ever express a <i>moral</i> action?—Are +intransitive and neuter verbs ever used as transitive?—Give some +examples of transitive verbs with <i>personal</i> and <i>verbal</i> objects.—What +rule do you apply in parsing a noun in the objective case?—Explain rule +20.—In parsing a verb agreeing with a noun of multitude conveying +<i>plurality</i> of idea, what rule do you apply?</p> + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> + +<h4>QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES.</h4> + +<div class="smalltext">Whether the learner be required to answer the following questions, or +not, is, of course, left <i>discretionary</i> with the teacher. The author +takes the liberty to suggest the expediency of <i>not</i>, generally, +enforcing such a requisition, <i>until the pupil goes through the book a +second time.</i></div> + +<div class="smalltext">Name some participial nouns.—What are abstract nouns?—What is the +distinction between abstract nouns and adjectives?—What are natural +nouns?—Artificial nouns?—What is the distinction between <i>material</i> +and <i>immaterial</i> nouns?—Are nouns ever of the masculine and feminine +gender?—Give examples.—When are nouns, naturally neuter, converted +into the masculine or feminine gender?—Give examples.—Speak some nouns +that are always in the singular number.—Some that are always +plural.—Speak some that are in the same form in both numbers.—Name +<i>all</i> the various ways of forming the plural number of nouns.—Of what +number are the nouns <i>news, means, alms</i>, and <i>amends</i>?—Name the +plurals to the following compound nouns, <i>handful, cupful, spoonful, +brother-in-law, court-martial</i>.</div> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + + +<h4>NOTES ON PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR.</h4> + +<div class="smalltext">Perhaps no subject has, in this age, elicited more patient research, +and critical investigation of original, constituent principles, +formations, and combinations, than the English language. The +legitimate province of philology, however, as I humbly conceive, +has, in some instances, been made to yield to that of philosophy, so +far as to divert the attention from the combinations of our language +which refinement has introduced, to radical elements and +associations which no way concern the progress of literature, or the +essential use for which language was intended. Were this +retrogressive mode of investigating and applying principles, to +obtain, among philologists, the ascendency over that which +accommodates the use of language to progressive refinement, it is +easy to conceive the state of barbarism to which society would, in a +short time, be reduced. Moreover, if what some call the philosophy +of language, were to supersede, altogether, the province of +philology as it applies to the present, progressive and refined +state of English literature, the great object contemplated by the +learned, in all ages, namely, the approximation of language, in +common with every thing else, to that point of perfection at which +it is the object of correct philology to arrive, would be +frustrated.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">The dubious and wildering track struck out by those innovators and +visionaries who absurdly endeavor to teach modern English, by +rejecting the authority and sanction of custom, and by conducting +the learner back to the original combinations, and the detached, +disjointed, and barbarous constructions of our progenitors, both +prudence and reason, as well as a due regard for correct philology, +impel me to shun. Those modest writers who, by bringing to their aid +a little sophistry, much duplicity, and a wholesale traffic in the +swelling phrases, "philosophy, reason, and common sense," attempt to +overthrow the wisdom of former ages, and show that the result of all +the labors of those distinguished philologists who had previously +occupied the field of grammatical science, is nothing but error and +folly, will doubtless meet the neglect and contempt justly merited +by such consummate vanity and unblushing pedantry. Fortunately for +those who employ our language as their vehicle of mental conference, +custom will not yield to the speculative theories of the visionary. +If it would, improvement in English literature would soon be at an +end, and we should be tamely conducted back to the Vandalic age.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">As the use of what is commonly called the philosophy of language, is +evidently misapplied by those who make it the test of <i>grammatical</i> +<i>certainty</i>, it may not be amiss to offer a few considerations with a +view to expose the fallacy of so vague a criterion.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">All reasoning and investigation which depend on the philosophy of +language for an ultimate result, must be conducted <i>a posteriori</i>. +Its office, according to the ordinary mode of treating the subject, +is to trace language to its origin, not for the purpose of +determining and fixing grammatical associations and dependances, +such as the agreement, government, and mutual relations of words, +but in order to analyze combinations with a view to develop the +first principles of the language, and arrive at the primitive +meaning of words. Now, it is presumed, that no one who has paid +critical attention to the subject, will contend, that the original +import of single words, has any relation to the syntactical +dependances and connexions of words in general;—to gain a knowledge +of which, is the leading object of the student in grammar. And, +furthermore, I challenge those who have indulged in such useless +vagaries, to show by what process, with their own systems, they can +communicate a practical knowledge of grammar. I venture to predict, +that, if they make the attempt, they will find their systems more +splendid in theory, than useful in practice.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">Again, it cannot rationally be contended, that the radical meaning +has any efficiency in controlling the signification which, by the +power of association, custom has assigned to many words;—a +signification <i>essentially different</i> from the original import. Were +this the case, and were the language now to be taught and understood +in compliance with the original import of words, it would have to +undergo a thorough change; to be analyzed, divided, and sub-divided, +almost <i>ad infinitum</i>. Indeed, there is the same propriety in +asserting that the Gothic, Danish, and Anglo-Saxon elements in our +language, ought to be pronounced separately, to enable us to +understand our vernacular tongue, that there is in contending, that +their primitive meaning has an ascendency over the influence of the +principle of association in changing, and the power of custom in +determining, the import of words. Many of our words are derived from +the Greek, Roman, French, Spanish, Italian, and German languages; +and the only use we can make of their originals, is to render them +subservient to the force of custom in cases in which general usage +has not varied from the primitive signification. Moreover, let the +advocates of a mere philosophical investigation of the language, +extend their system as far as a radical analysis will warrant them, +and, with Horne Tooke, not only consider adverbs, prepositions, +conjunctions, and interjections, as abbreviations of nouns and +verbs, but, on their own responsibility, apply them, in teaching the +language, <i>in compliance with their radical import</i>, and what would +such a course avail them against the power of custom, and the +influence of association and refinement? Let them show me one +grammarian, produced by such a course of instruction, and they will +exhibit a "philosophical" miracle. They might as well undertake to +teach architecture, by having recourse to its origin, as +represented by booths and tents. In addition to this, when we +consider the great number of obsolete words, from which many now in +use are derived, the original meaning of which cannot be +ascertained, and, also, the multitude whose signification has been +changed by the principle of association, it is preposterous to +think, that a mere philosophical mode of investigating and teaching +the language, is the one by which its significancy can be enforced, +its correctness determined, its use comprehended, and its +improvement extended. Before what commonly passes for a +philosophical manner of developing the language can successfully be +made the medium through which it can be comprehended, in all its +present combinations, relations, and dependances, it must undergo a +thorough retrogressive change, in all those combinations, relations, +and dependances, even to the last letter of the alphabet. And before +we can consent to this radical modification and retrograde ratio of +the English language, we must agree to revive the customs, the +habits, and the precise language of our progenitors, the Goths and +Vandals. Were all the advocates for the introduction of such +philosophical grammars into common schools, at once to enter on +their pilgrimage, and recede into the native obscurity and barbarity +of the ancient Britons, Picts, and Vandals, it is believed, that the +cause of learning and refinement would not suffer greatly by their +loss, and that the good sense of the present age, would not allow +many of our best teachers to be of the party.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">The last consideration which I shall give a philosophical manner of +investigating and enforcing the English language, is, that by this +mode of analyzing and reducing it to practice, <i>it cannot, in this</i> +<i>age, be comprehended</i> as the medium of thought. Were this method to +prevail, our present literal language would become a dead letter. Of +what avail is language, if it can not be understood? And how can it +be accommodated to the understanding, unless it receive the sanction +of common consent? Even if we admit that such a manner of unfolding +the principles of our language, is more rational and correct than +the ordinary, practical method, I think it is clear that such a mode +of investigation and development, does not meet the necessities and +convenience of ordinary learners in school. To be consistent, that +system which instructs by tracing a few of our words to their +origin, must unfold the whole in the same manner. But the student in +common schools and academies, cannot afford time to stem the tide of +language up to its source, and there dive to the bottom of the +fountain for knowledge. Such labor ought not to be required of him. +His object is to become, not a philosophical antiquarian, but a +practical grammarian. If I comprehend the design (if they have any) +of our modern philosophical writers on this subject, it is to make +grammarians by inculcating a few general principles, arising out of +the genius of the language, and the nature of things, which the +learner, by the exercise of his <i>reasoning powers</i>, must reduce to +practice. His own judgment, <i>independent of grammar rules</i>, is to be +his guide in speaking and writing correctly. Hence, many of them +exclude from their systems, all exercises in what is called <i>false</i> +<i>Syntax</i>. But these profound philological dictators appear to have +overlooked the important consideration, that the great mass of +mankind, and especially of boys and girls in common schools, <i>can</i> +<i>never become philosophers;</i> and, consequently, can never comprehend +and reduce to practice their metaphysical and obscure systems of +grammar. I wish to see children treated as <i>reasoning</i> beings. But +there should be a medium in all things. It is, therefore, absurd to +instruct children as if they were already profound philosophers and +logicians.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">To demonstrate the utility, and enforce the necessity, of exercising +the learner in correcting <i>false Syntax</i>, I need no other argument +than the interesting and undeniable fact, that Mr. Murray's labors, +in this department, have effected a complete revolution in the +English language, in point of verbal accuracy. Who does not know, +that the best writers of this day, are not guilty of <i>one</i> +grammatical inaccuracy, where those authors who wrote before Mr. +Murray flourished, are guilty of <i>five</i>? And what has produced this +important change for the better? Ask the hundreds of thousands who +have studied "Mr. Murray's exercises in FALSE SYNTAX." If, then, +this view of the subject is correct, it follows, that the greater +portion of our philosophical grammars, are far more worthy the +attention of literary connoisseurs, than of the great mass of +learners.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">Knowing that a strong predilection for philosophical grammars, +exists in the minds of some teachers of this science, I have thought +proper, for the gratification of such, to intersperse through the +pages of this work under the head of "PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES," an +entire system of grammatical principles as deduced from what appears +to me to be the most rational and consistent philosophical +investigations. They who prefer this theory to that exhibited in the +body of the work, are, of course, at liberty to adopt it.</div> + +<div class="smalltext"><i>In general, a philosophical theory of grammar will be found to +accord with the practical theory embraced in the body of this work. +Wherever such agreement exists, the system contained in these NOTES +will be deficient, and this deficiency may be supplied by adopting +the principles contained in the other parts of the work</i>.</div> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<a name="derivation_ii"></a> +<h4>OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.</h4> + +<div class="smalltext">According to the method in which philosophical investigations of +language have generally been conducted, all our words should be +reduced to two classes; for it can be easily shown, that from the +noun and verb, all the other parts of speech have sprung. Nay, more. +They may even be reduced to one. Verbs do not, in reality, <i>express</i> +actions; but they are intrinsically the mere <i>names</i> of actions. The +idea of action or being communicated by them, as well as the +<i>meaning</i> of words in general, is merely <i>inferential</i>. The +principle of reasoning assumed by the celebrated Horne Tooke, if +carried to its full extent, would result, it is believed, in proving +that we have but one part of speech.</div> + +<a name='adjectives_i'></a> +<div class="smalltext"><i>Adnouns</i> or <i>adjectives</i> were originally nouns. <i>Sweet, red, +white</i>, are the <i>names</i> of qualities, as well as <i>sweetness, +redness, whiteness</i>. The former differ from the latter only in their +<i>manner</i> of signification. To denote that the name of some quality +or substance is to be used in connexion with some other name, or, +that this quality is to be <i>attributed</i> to some other name, we +sometimes affix to it the <a name="terminations_ii"></a>termination <i>en, ed</i>, or <i>y;</i> which +signifies <i>give, add,</i> or <i>join</i>. When we employ the words wood<i>en</i>, +wooll<i>en</i>, wealth<i>y</i>, grass<i>y</i>, the terminations <i>en</i> and <i>y</i>, by +their own intrinsic meaning, give notice that we intend to <i>give,</i> +<i>add, or join</i>, the names of some other substances in which are found +the properties or qualities of <i>wood, wool, wealth</i>, or <i>grass</i>.</div> + +<div class="smalltext"><i>Pronouns</i> are a class of nouns, used instead of others to prevent +their disagreeable repetition. Participles are certain forms of the +verb. Articles, interjections, adverbs, prepositions, and +conjunctions, are contractions of abbreviations of nouns and verbs. +<i>An</i> (<i>a, one</i>, or <i>one</i>) comes from <i>ananad</i>, to add, to heap. +<i>The</i> and <i>that</i>, from the Anglo-Saxon verb <i>thean</i>, to get, assume. +<i>Lo</i> is the imperative of <i>look</i>; <i>fy</i>, of <i>fian</i>, to hate; and +<i>welcome</i> means, it is <i>well</i> that you are <i>come. In</i> comes from the +Gothic noun <i>inna</i>, the interior of the body; and <i>about</i>, from +<i>boda</i>, the first outward boundary. <i>Through</i> or <i>thorough</i> is the +Teutonic noun <i>thuruh</i>, meaning passage, gate, door. <i>From</i> is the +Anglo-Saxon noun <i>frum</i>, beginning, source, author. He came <i>from +(beginning)</i> Batavia. <i>If</i> (formerly written <i>gif, give, gin</i>) is +the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb <i>gifan</i>, to give. I will +remain <i>if</i> (<i>give</i> or <i>grant that fact</i>) he will (<i>remain</i>.) <i>But</i> +comes from the Saxon verb <i>beon-utan</i>, to be-out. I informed no one +<i>but (be-out, leave-out)</i> my brother.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">This brief view of the subject, is sufficient to elucidate the +manner in which, according to Horne Tooke's principles, the ten +parts of speech are reduced to one. But I am, by no means, disposed +to concede, that this is the <i>true</i> principle of classification; nor +that it is any more <i>philosophical</i> or <i>rational</i> than one which +allows a more practical division and arrangement of words. What has +been generally received as "philosophical grammar," appears to +possess no stronger claims to that imposing appellation than our +common, practical grammars. Query. Is not Mr. Murray's octavo +grammar more worthy the dignified title of a "Philosophical +Grammar," than Horne Tooke's "Diversions of Purley," or William S. +Cardell's treatises on language? What constitutes a <i>philosophical</i> +treatise, on this, or on any other subject? <i>Wherein</i> is there a +display of philosophy in a speculative, etymological performance, +which attempts to develop and explain the elements and primitive +meaning of words by tracing them to their origin, <i>superior</i> to the +philosophy employed in the development and illustration of the +principles by which we are governed in applying those words to their +legitimate purpose, namely, that of forming a correct and convenient +medium by means of which we can communicate our thoughts? Does +philosophy consist in ransacking the mouldy records of antiquity, in +order to <i>guess</i> at the ancient construction and signification of +single words? or have such investigations, in reality, any thing to +do with <i>grammar</i>?</div> + +<div class="smalltext">Admitting that all the words of our language include, in their +<i>original</i> signification, the import of nouns or names, and yet, it +does not follow, that they <i>now</i> possess no other powers, and, in +their combinations and connexions in sentences, are employed for no +other purpose, than <i>barely</i> to <i>name objects</i>. The <i>fact</i> of the +case is, that words are variously combined and applied, to answer +the distinct and diversified purposes of <i>naming</i> objects, +<i>asserting</i> truths, <i>pointing out</i> and <i>limiting</i> objects, +<i>attributing qualities</i> to objects, <i>connecting</i> objects, and so on; +and on this <i>fact</i> is founded the <i>true philosophical principle of +the classification of words</i>. Hence, an arrangement of words into +classes according to this principle, followed by a development and +illustration of the principles and rules that regulate us in the +proper use and application of words in oral and written discourse, +appears to approximate as near to a true definition <i>of</i> +<i>philosophical grammar</i>, as any I am capable of giving.</div> + +<div class="smalltext"><i>Nouns</i>, or the names of the objects of our perceptions, doubtless +constituted the original class of words; (if I may be allowed to +assume such a hypothesis as an <i>original</i> class of words;) but the +ever-active principle of association, soon transformed nouns into +verbs, by making them, when employed in a particular manner, +expressive of affirmation. This same principle also operated in +appropriating names to the purpose of attributing qualities to other +names of objects; and in this way was constituted the class of words +called <i>adjectives</i> or <i>attributes</i>. By the same principle were +formed all the other classes.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">In the following exposition of English grammar on scientific +principles, I shall divide words into seven classes; <i>Nouns</i> or +<i>Names, Verbs, Adjectives, Adnouns</i>, or <i>Attributes, Adverbs, +Propositions, Pronouns</i>, and <i>Conjunctions</i> or <i>Connectives</i>.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">For an explanation of the noun, refer to the body of the work.</div> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + + +<h4>PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.</h4> + +<div class="smalltext">Plausible arguments may be <i>advanced</i>, for rejecting <i>neuter</i> and +passive verbs; but they have been found to be so convenient in +practice, that the theory which recognises them, has stood the test +of ages. If you tell the young learner, that, in the following +expressions, The church <i>rests</i> on its foundation; The book <i>lies</i> +on the desk; The boys <i>remain (are)</i> idle, the nouns <i>church, book</i>, +and <i>boys</i>, are represented as acting, and, therefore, the verbs +<i>rests, lies, remain</i>, and <i>are</i>, are <i>active</i>, he will not believe +you, because there is no action that is apparent to his senses. And +should you proceed further, and, by a labored and metaphysical +investigation and development of the laws of motion, attempt to +prove to him that "every portion of matter is influenced by +different, active principles, tending to produce change," and, +therefore, every thing in universal nature is <i>always</i> acting, it is +not at all probable, that you could convince his <i>understanding</i>, in +opposition to the dearer testimony of his senses. Of what avail to +learners is a theory which they cannot comprehend?</div> + +<div class="smalltext">Among the various theorists and speculative writers on philosophical +grammar, the ingenious Horne Tooke stands pre-eminent; but, +unfortunately, his principal speculations on the verb, have never +met the public eye. William S. Cardell has also rendered himself +conspicuous in the philological field, by taking a bolder stand than +any of his predecessors. His view of the verb is novel, and +ingeniously supported. The following is the substance of his theory</div> + +<h5>OF THE VERB.</h5> + +<div class="smalltext">A verb is a word which expresses <i>action;</i> as, Man <i>exists</i>; Trees +<i>grow</i>; Waters<i>flow</i>; Mountains <i>stand</i>; I <i>am</i>.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">All verbs are active, and have one object or more than one, +expressed or implied. The pillar <i>stands</i>; that is, it <i>keeps +itself</i> in an erect or standing posture; it <i>upholds</i> or <i>sustains +itself</i> in that position. They <i>are</i>; i.e. they <i>air</i> themselves, or +<i>breathe</i> air; they <i>inspirit, vivify</i>, or <i>uphold</i> themselves by +inhaling air.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">Many verbs whose objects are seldom expressed, always have a persona +or verbal one implied. The clouds <i>move</i>; i.e. move <i>themselves</i> +along. The troops <i>marched</i> twenty miles a day; i.e. marched +<i>themselves</i>. The moon <i>shines</i>:—The moon <i>shines</i> or <i>sheds</i> a +<i>shining, sheen, lustre</i>, or <i>brightness</i>. The sparrow +<i>flies:—flies</i> or <i>takes</i> a <i>flight</i>. Talkers talk or speak <i>words</i> +or <i>talk</i>; Walkers walk <i>walkings</i> or <i>walks</i>; The rain rains +<i>rain</i>; Sitters sit or hold <i>sittings</i> or <i>sessions</i>.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">To prove that there is no such thing as a neuter verb, the following +appear to be the strongest arguments adduced.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">1. No portion of matter is ever in a state of perfect quiescence; +but the component parts of every thing are at all times "influenced +by different, active principles, tending to produce change." Hence, +it follows, that no being or thing can be represented in a <i>neuter</i> +or <i>non-acting state</i>.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">This argument supposes the essential character of the verb to be +identified with the primary laws of action, as unfolded by the +principles of physical science. The correctness of this position may +be doubted; but if it can be clearly demonstrated, that every +particle of matter is always in motion, it does not, by any means, +follow, that we cannot <i>speak of</i> things in a state of quiescence. +What is <i>false</i> in fact may be <i>correct</i> in grammar. <i>The point +contested, is not whether things always</i> act, <i>but whether, when we +assert or affirm something respecting them, we always</i> represent +<i>them as acting</i>.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">2. Verbs were <i>originally</i> used to express the motions or changes of +things which produced obvious actions, and, by an easy transition, +were afterward applied, in the same way, to things whose actions +were not apparent. This assumption is untenable, and altogether +gratuitous.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">3. Verbs called neuter are used in the imperative mood; and, as this +mood commands some one to <i>do</i> something, any verb which adopts it, +must be active. Thus, in the common place phrases, "<i>Be</i> there +quickly; <i>Stand</i> out of my way; <i>Sit</i> or <i>lie</i> farther."</div> + +<div class="smalltext">It is admitted that these verbs are here employed in an <i>active</i> +sense; but it is certain, that they are not used according to their +proper, <i>literal</i> meaning. When I tell a man, <i>literally</i>, to +<i>stand, sit</i>, or <i>lie</i>, by <i>moving</i> he would disobey me; but when I +say, "<i>Stand</i> out of my way," I employ the neuter verb <i>stand</i>, +instead of the active verb <i>move</i> or <i>go</i>, and in a correspondent +sense. My meaning is, <i>Move</i> yourself out of my way; or <i>take</i> your +<i>stand</i> somewhere else. This, however, does not prove that <i>stand</i> +is properly used. If we choose to overstep the bounds of custom, we +can employ any <i>word</i> in the language as an active-transitive verb. +<i>Be, sit</i>, and <i>lie</i>, may be explained in the same manner.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">4. Neuter verbs are used in connexion with adverbs which express the +manner of <i>action</i>. They must, therefore, be considered active +verbs. The child <i>sleeps soundly</i>; He <i>sits genteelly</i>; They <i>live +contentedly</i> and <i>happily</i> together.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">The class of verbs that are never employed as active, is small. By +using adverbs in connexion with verbs, we can fairly prove that some +verbs are <i>not</i> active. It is incorrect to say, I am <i>happily</i>; They +were <i>peacefully</i>; She remains <i>quietly</i>; The fields appear +<i>greenly</i>. These verbs in their common acceptation, do not express +<i>action</i>; for which reason we say, I am <i>happy</i>; They are +<i>peaceful</i>; &c. But in the expressions, The child sleeps <i>soundly</i>; +She sits <i>gracefully</i>; They live <i>happily</i> and <i>contentedly</i>; we +employ the verbs <i>sleeps, sits</i>, and <i>live</i>, in an active sense. +When no action is intended, we say, They live <i>happy</i> and +<i>contented</i>.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">If, on scientific principles, it can be proved that those verbs +generally denominated neuter, <i>originally</i> expressed action, their +present, accepted meaning will still oppose the theory, for the +generality of mankind do not attach to them the idea of <i>action</i>.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">Thus I have endeavored to present a brief but impartial abstract of +the <i>modern</i> theory of the verb, leaving it with the reader to +estimate it according to its value.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">To give a satisfactory definition of the <a name="verbs_ii"></a>verb, or such a one as +shall be found scientifically correct and unexceptionable, has +hitherto baffled the skill, and transcended the learning, of our +philosophical writers. If its essential quality, as is generally +supposed, is made to consist in <i>expressing affirmation</i>, it remains +still to be defined <i>when</i> a verb <i>expresses</i> affirmation. In +English, and in other languages, words appropriated to express +affirmation, are often used without any such force; our idea of +affirmation, in such instances, being the mere <i>inference of</i> +<i>custom</i>.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">In the sentence,—"<i>Think, love</i>, and <i>hate</i>, denote moral actions," +the words <i>think, love</i>, and <i>hate</i>, are nouns, because they are +mere <i>names</i> of actions. So, when I say, "John, <i>write</i>—is an +irregular verb," the word <i>write</i> is a noun; but when I say, "John, +<i>write</i>—your copy," <i>write</i> is called a verb.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">Why is this word considered a noun in one construction, and a verb +in the other, when both constructions, until you pass beyond the +word write, are exactly alike? If write does not <i>express</i> action in +the former sentence, neither does it in the latter, for, in both, it +is introduced in the same manner. On scientific principles, <i>write</i> +must be considered a noun in the latter sentence, for it does not +<i>express</i> action, or make an affirmation; but it merely <i>names</i> the +action which I wish John to perform, and affirmation is the +<i>inferential</i> meaning.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">The verb in the infinitive, as well as in the imperative mood, is +divested of its affirmative or verbal force. In both these moods, it +is always presented in its <i>noun-state</i>.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">If, after dinner, I say to a servant, "<i>Wine,"</i> he infers, that I +wish him to bring me wine; but all this is not said. If I say, +<i>Bring</i> some <i>wine</i>, he, in like manner, understands, that I wish +him to bring me wine; but all that is expressed, is the <i>name</i> of +the action, and of the object of the action. In fact, as much is +done by <i>inference</i>, as by actual expression, in every branch of +language, for thought is too quick to be wholly transmitted by +words.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">It is generally conceded, that the <a name="terminations_iii"></a>termination of our verbs, <i>est,</i> +<i>eth, s, ed</i>, and, also, of the other parts of speech, were +originally separate words of distinct meaning; and that, although +they have been contracted, and, by the refinement of language, have +been made to coalesce with the words in connexion with which they +are employed, yet, in their present character of terminations, they +retain their primitive meaning and force. To denote that a verbal +name was employed as a verb, the Saxons affixed to it a verbalizing +adjunct; thus, <i>the</i> (to take, hold) was the noun-state of the verb; +and when they used it as a verb, they added the termination <i>an</i>; +thus, the<i>an</i>. The termination added, was a sign that <i>affirmation</i> +was intended. The same procedure has been adopted, and, in many +instances, is still practised, in our language. <i>An</i>, originally +affixed to our verbs, in the progress of refinement, was changed to +en, and finally dropped. A few centuries ago, the plural number of +our verbs was denoted by the termination, <i>en</i>; thus, they <i>weren</i>, +they <i>loven</i>; but, as these terminations do not supersede the +necessity of expressing the <i>subject</i> of affirmation, as is the case +in the Latin and Greek verbs, they have been laid aside, as +unnecessary excrescences. For the same reason, we might, without any +disparagement to the language, dispense with the terminations of our +verbs in the singular.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">In support of the position, that these terminations were once +separate words, we can trace many of them to their origin. To denote +the feminine gender of some nouns, we affix <i>ess</i>; as, heir<i>ess</i>, +instructr<i>ess. Ess</i> is a contraction of the Hebrew noun <i>essa</i>, a +female. Of our verbs, the termination <i>est</i> is a contraction of +<i>doest, eth</i>, of <i>doeth</i>, <i>s</i> of <i>does</i>. We say, thou <i>dost</i> or +<i>doest</i> love; or thou <i>lovest</i>; i.e. <i>love-dost</i>, or <i>love-doest</i>. +Some believe these terminations to be contractions of <i>havest, +haveth, has</i>. We affix <i>ed</i>, a contraction of <i>dede</i>, to the present +tense of verbs to denote that the action named is <i>dede, did, doed</i>, +or <i>done</i>.</div> + +<div class="smalltext"><i><a name="To"></a>To</i> and <i>do</i> from the Gothic noun <i>taui</i>, signifying <i>act</i> or +<i>effect</i>, are, according to Horne Tooke, nearly alike in meaning and +<i>force; and when the custom of affixing some more ancient verbalizing</i> +<i>adjunct, began to be dropped, its place and meaning were generally</i> +supplied by prefixing one of these. When I say, "I am going <i>to +walk,"</i> the verbal or affirmative force is conveyed by the use of +<i>to</i>, meaning the same as <i>do</i>; and <i>walk</i> is employed merely as a +verbal name; that is, I assert that I shall <i>do</i> the act which I +name by the word <i>walk</i>, or the act of <i>walking</i>.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">Perhaps such speculations as these will prove to be more curious +than profitable. If it be made clearly to appear, that, on +scientific principles, whenever the verbal name is unaccompanied by +a verbalizing adjunct, it is in the <i>noun-state</i>, and does not +express affirmation, still this theory would be very inconvenient in +practice.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">I shall resume this subject in Lecture XI.</div> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h4>QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.</h4> + +<div class="smalltext">What has usually been the object of philosophical investigations of +language? (page 32.)—Do the syntactical dependances and connexions of +words depend on their <i>original</i> import?—Is the power of association +and custom efficient in changing the radical meaning of some +words?—Have words intrinsically a signification of their own; or is +their meaning <i>inferential</i>; i.e. such as <i>custom</i> has assigned to them? +(page 38.)—On what <i>fact</i> is based the true, philosophical principle of +classification?—Define philosophical grammar.—Which is supposed to be +the original part of speech?—How were the others formed from that?—How +many parts of speech may be recognised in a scientific development and +arrangement of the principles of our language?—Name them.—What +testimony have we that many things do not act? (page 43.)—Repeat some +of the arguments in favor of, and against, the principle which regards +all verbs as <i>active</i>.—In what moods are verbs used in their +<i>noun-state?</i> (page 48.)—Give examples.—What is said of the +terminations <i>est, eth, s,</i> and <i>en</i>, and of the words <i>to</i> and <i>do?</i></div> + +<h4>REMARKS ON VERBS AND NOUNS.</h4> + +<div class="smalltext">You have already been informed, that verbs are the most important part +of speech in our language; and to convince you of their importance, I +now tell you, that you cannot express a <i>thought</i>, or communicate an +<i>idea</i>, without making use of a verb, either expressed or implied. Verbs +express, not only <i>the state</i> or <i>manner of being</i>, but, likewise, all +the different <i>actions</i> and <i>movements</i> of all creatures and things, +whether animate or inanimate. As yet I have given you only a partial +description of this sort of words; but when you are better prepared to +comprehend the subject, I will explain all their properties, and show +you the proper manner of using them.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">A word that is generally a <i>noun</i>, sometimes becomes a <i>verb</i>; and a +verb is frequently used as a <i>noun</i>. These changes depend on the sense +which the word conveys; or, rather, on the office it performs in the +sentence; that is the <i>manner</i> in which it is applied to things. For +instance, <i>glory</i> is generally a noun; as "The <i>glory</i> of God's throne." +But if I say, I <i>glory</i> in religion; or, He <i>glories</i> in wickedness, the +word <i>glory</i> becomes a verb. The <i>love</i> of man is inconstant. In this +sentence, <i>love</i> is a <i>noun</i>; in the next, it is a <i>verb</i>: They <i>love</i> +virtue. He <i>walks</i> swiftly; Scavengers <i>sweep</i> the streets; The ship +<i>sails</i> well. In these phrases, the words <i>walks, sweep</i>, and <i>sails</i>, +are verbs; in the following they are nouns: Those are pleasant <i>walks</i>; +He takes a broad <i>sweep</i>; The ship lowered her <i>sails</i>.</div> + +<p>Thus you see, it is impossible for you to become a grammarian without +exercising your judgment. If you have sufficient resolution to do this, +you will, in a short time, perfectly understand the nature and office of +the different parts of speech, their various properties and relations, +and the rules of syntax that apply to them; and, in a few weeks, be able +to speak and write accurately. But you must not take things for granted, +without examining their propriety and correctness. No. You are not a +mere <i>automaton</i>, or <i>boy-machine</i>; but a rational being. You ought, +therefore, to <i>think</i> methodically, to <i>reason</i> soundly, and to +<i>investigate</i> every principle critically. Don't be afraid to <i>think for +yourself</i>. You know not the high destiny that awaits you. You know not +the height to which you may soar in the scale of intellectual existence. +Go on, then, boldly, and with unyielding perseverance; and if you do not +gain admittance into the temple of fame, strive, at all hazards, to +drink of the fountain which gurgles from its base.</p> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>NOTE 1, TO RULE 12. A noun in the possessive case, should always be +distinguished by the apostrophe, or mark of elision; as, The <i>nation's</i> +glory.</p> + +<p>That girls book is cleaner than those boys books.</p> + +<div class="smalltext">Not correct, because the nouns <i>girls</i> and <i>boys</i> are both in the +possessive case, and, therefore, require the apostrophe, by which they +should be distinguished; thus, "<i>girl's, boys'"</i> according to the +preceding NOTE. [Repeat the note.]</div> + +<p>Thy ancestors virtue is not thine.</p> + +<div class="smalltext">If the writer of this sentence meant <i>one</i> ancestor, he should have +inserted the apostrophe after <i>r</i>, thus, "<i>ancestor's"</i>; if more than +one, after <i>s</i>, thus, <i>"ancestors'</i> virtue;" but, by neglecting to place +the apostrophe, he has left his meaning ambiguous, and we cannot +ascertain it. This, and a thousand other mistakes you will often meet +with, demonstrate the truth of my declaration, namely, that "without the +knowledge and application of grammar rules, you will often speak and +write in such a manner as not to be <i>understood."</i> You may now turn back +and re-examine the "illustration" of Rules 3, 4, and 12, on page 52, and +then correct the following examples about <i>five</i> times over.</div> + +<p>A mothers tenderness and a fathers care, are natures gift's for mans +advantage. Wisdoms precept's form the good mans interest and happiness. +They suffer for conscience's sake. He is reading Cowpers poems. James +bought Johnsons Dictionary.</p> + +<p>RULE 4. A verb must agree with its nominative in number and person.</p> + +<p>Those boys improves rapidly. The men labors in the field. Nothing +delight some persons. Thou shuns the light. He dare not do it. They +reads well.</p> + +<div class="smalltext">I know you can correct these sentences without a rule, for they all have +a harsh sound, which offends the ear. I wish you, however, to adopt the +habit of correcting errors by applying rules; for, by-and-by, you will +meet with errors in composition which you cannot correct, if you are +ignorant of the application of grammar rules.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">Now let us clearly understand this 4th Rule. Recollect, it applies to +the <i>verb</i> and not to the noun; therefore, in these examples the verb is +ungrammatical. The noun <i>boys</i>, in the first sentence, is of the third +person <i>plural</i>, and the verb <i>improves</i> is of the third person +<i>singular</i>; therefore, Rule 4th is violated, because the verb dues not +agree with its nominative in <i>number</i>. It should be, "boys <i>improve</i>." +The verb would then be <i>plural</i>, and agree with its nominative according +to the Rule. In the fourth sentence, the verb does not agree in <i>person</i> +with its nominative. <i>Thou</i> is of the <i>second</i> person, and <i>shuns</i> is of +the <i>third</i>. It should be, "thou <i>shunnest</i>," &c. You may correct the +other sentences, and, likewise, the following exercises in</div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. The number of inhabitants +of the United States exceed nine millions. Nothing but vain and foolish +pursuits delight some persons.</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<span class='poem.span'>In vain our flocks and fields increase our store,</span><br /> +<span class='poem.span'>When our abundance make us wish for more.</span><br /> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<span class='poem.span'>While ever and anon, there falls</span><br /> +<span class='poem.span'>Huge heaps of hoary, moulder'd walls.</span><br /> +</div> + + +<hr style='width: 65%;' /> +<a name='LECTURE_III'></a><h2>LECTURE III.</h2> +<a name='articles'></a> +<h3>OF ARTICLES.</h3> + +<div class="bigtext">An article is a word prefixed to nouns to limit their signification; as, +<i>a</i> man, <i>the</i> woman.</div> + +<div class="bigtext"><a name='a_i'></a>There are only two articles, <i>a</i> or <i>an</i>, and <i>the. A</i> or <i>an</i> is called +the indefinite article. <i>The</i> is called the definite article.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">The <i>indefinite article</i> limits the noun to one of a kind, but to no +particular one; as, <i>a</i> house.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">The <i>definite article</i> generally limits the noun to a particular object, +or collection of objects; as, <i>the</i> house, <i>the</i> men.</div> + +<p>The small claims of the article to a separate rank as a distinct part of +speech, ought not to be admitted in a scientific classification of +words. <i>A</i> and <i>the, this</i> and <i>that, ten, few</i>, and <i>fourth</i>, and many +other words, are used to restrict, vary, or define the signification of +the nouns to which they are joined. They might, therefore, with +propriety, be ranked under the general head of <i>Restrictives, Indexes</i>, +or <i>Defining Adjectives</i>. But, as there is a marked distinction in their +particular meaning and application, each class requires a separate +explanation. Hence, no practical advantage would be gained, by rejecting +their established classification, as articles, numerals, and +demonstratives, and by giving them <i>new</i> names. The character and +application of <i>a</i> and <i>the</i> can be learned as soon when they are styled +<i>articles</i>, as when they are denominated <i>specifying</i> or <i>defining +adjectives</i>.</p> + +<p>The history of this part of speech is very brief. As there are but two +articles, <i>a</i> or <i>an</i> and <i>the</i>, you will know them wherever they occur.</p> + +<p>A noun used without an article, or any other restrictive, is taken in +its <i>general</i> sense; as, <i>"Fruit</i> is abundant;" "<i>Gold</i> is heavy;" +"<i>Man</i> is born to trouble" Here we mean, fruit and gold <i>in general;</i> +and <i>all men</i>, or <i>mankind</i>.</p> + +<a name="the_ii"></a> +<p>When we wish to limit the meaning of the noun to <i>one</i> object, but to no +<i>particular</i> one, we employ <i>a</i> or <i>an</i>. If I say, "Give me <i>a</i> pen;" +"Bring me <i>an</i> apple;" you are at liberty to fetch <i>any</i> pen or <i>any</i> +apple you please. <i>A</i> or <i>an</i>, then, is <i>indefinite</i>, because it leaves +the meaning of the noun to which it is applied, as far as regards the +person spoken to, <i>vague</i>, or <i>indeterminate</i>; that is, <i>not definite</i>. +But when reference is made to a <i>particular</i> object, we employ <i>the</i>, +as, "Give me <i>the</i> pen;" "Bring me <i>the</i> apple, or <i>the</i> apple." When +such a requisition is made, you are not at liberty to bring any pen or +apple you please, but you must fetch the <i>particular</i> pen or apple to +which you know me to refer. <i>The</i> is, therefore, called the <i>definite</i> +article.</p> + +<p>"<i>A</i> star appears." Here, the star referred to, may be known as a +<i>particular</i> star, <i>definite</i>, and distinguished from all others, in the +mind of the <i>speaker</i>; but to the <i>hearer</i>, it is left, among the +thousands that bedeck the vault of heaven, <i>undistinguished</i> and +<i>indefinite</i>. But when the star has previously been made the subject of +discourse, it becomes, in the minds of both speaker and hearer a +<i>definite</i> object, and he says, "<i>The</i> star appears;" that is, that +<i>particular</i> star about which we were discoursing.</p> + +<p>"Solomon built <i>a</i> temple." Did he build <i>any</i> temple, <i>undetermined +which?</i> No; it was a <i>particular</i> temple, pre-eminently distinguished +from all others. But <i>how</i> does it become a definite object in the mind +of the <i>hearer</i>? Certainly, not by the phrase, "<i>a</i> temple," which +indicates <i>any</i> temple, leaving it altogether <i>undetermined</i> which; but +supposing the person addressed was totally unacquainted with the fact +asserted, and it becomes to him, <i>in one respect only</i>, a definite and +particular temple, by means of the associated words, "Solomon built;" +that is, by the use of these words in connexion with the others, the +hearer gets the idea of a temple distinguished as <i>the one erected by +Solomon</i>. If the speaker were addressing one whom he supposed to be +unacquainted with the fact related, he might make the temple referred to +a still more definite object in the mind of the hearer by a farther +explanation of it; thus, "Solomon built <i>a</i> temple <i>on mount Zion</i>; and +that was <i>the</i> temple <i>to which the Jews resorted to worship</i>."</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"<i>The</i> lunatic, <i>the</i> poet, and <i>the</i> lover,<br /> +"Are of imagination all compact."</p> + +<p>"<i>The</i> horse is a noble animal;" "<i>The</i> dog is a faithful creature;" +"<i>The</i> wind blows;" "<i>The</i> wolves were howling in <i>the</i> woods." In these +examples, we do not refer to any particular lunatics, poets, lovers, +horses, dogs, winds, wolves, and woods, but we refer to these +<i>particular classes</i> of things, in contradistinction to other objects or +classes. The phrase, "Neither <i>the</i> one nor <i>the</i> other," is an idiom of +the language.</p> + +<div class="smalltext">REMARKS.—This method of elucidating the articles, which is popular +with Blair, Priestley, Lowth, Johnson, Harris, Beattie, Coote, +Murray, and many other distinguished philologists, is discarded by +some of our modern writers. But, by proving that this theory is +exceptionable, they by no means make it appear, that it ought, +therefore, to be rejected.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">Exceptionable or not, they have not been able to supply its place +with one that is more <i>convenient in practice</i>. Neither have they +adopted one <i>less</i> exceptionable. The truth is, after all which can +be done to render the definitions and rules of grammar comprehensive +and accurate, they will still be found, when critically examined by +men of learning and science, more or less exceptionable. These +exceptions and imperfections are the unavoidable consequence of the +imperfections of the language. Language, as well as every thing else +of human invention, will always be <i>imperfect</i>. Consequently, a +<i>perfect</i> system of grammatical principles, would not suit it. A +<i>perfect</i> grammar will not be produced, until some <i>perfect</i> being +writes it for a <i>perfect</i> language; and a perfect language will not +be constructed, until some <i>super-human</i> agency is employed in its +production. All grammatical principles and systems which are not +<i>perfect</i>, are <i>exceptionable</i>.</div> + +<h4>NOTES.</h4> + +<div class="smalltext">1. The article is <i>omitted</i> before nouns implying the different +virtues, vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, +&c.; as, "<i>Modesty</i> is becoming; <i>Falsehood</i> is odious; <i>Grammar</i> is +useful," &c.</div> + +<div class="smalltext">2. The article is not prefixed to proper nouns; as, <i>Barron</i> killed +<i>Decatur</i>; except by way of eminence, or for the sake of +distinguishing a particular family, or when some noun is understood; +as, "He is not <i>a</i> Franklin; He is <i>a</i> Lee, or of the family of +<i>the</i> Lees; We sailed down <i>the</i> (river) Missouri."</div> + +<div class="smalltext">3. An <i>adjective</i> is frequently placed between the article and the +noun with which the article agrees; as, "A <i>good</i> boy; an +<i>industrious</i> man." Sometimes the adjective precedes the article; +as, "As <i>great</i> a man as Alexander; <i>Such</i> a shame."</div> + +<div class="smalltext">4. In referring to many individuals, when we wish to bring each +separately under consideration, the indefinite article is sometimes +placed between the adjective <i>many</i> and a singular noun; as, "Where +<i>many a rosebud</i> rears its blushing head;" "Full <i>many a flower</i> is +born to blush unseen."</div> + +<div class="smalltext">5. The definite article <i>the</i> is frequently applied to <i>adverbs</i> in +the comparative or superlative degree; as, "<i>The more</i> I examine it, +<i>the better</i> I like it," "I like this <i>the least</i> of any."</div> + +<p>You may proceed and parse the following articles, when you shall have +committed this</p> + +<h4>SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"><i>The order of parsing an</i> Article, is—an article, and why?—definite or +indefinite, and why?—with what noun does it agree?—RULE.</div> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"He is <i>the</i> son of <i>a</i> king."</p> + +<p><i>The</i> is an article, a word prefixed to a noun to limit its +signification—definite, it limits the noun to a particular object—it +belongs to the noun "son," according to</p> + +<p>RULE 2. <i>The definite article</i> the <i>belongs to nouns in the singular or +plural number</i>.</p> + +<p><i>A</i> is an article, a word placed before a noun to limit its +signification—indefinite, it limits the noun to one of a kind, but to +no particular one—it agrees with "king," agreeably to</p> + +<p>RULE 1. <i>The article</i> a <i>or</i> an <i>agrees with nouns in the singular +number only</i>.</p> + +<div class="smalltext">NOTE. By considering the original meaning of this article, the +propriety of Rule 1, will appear. <i>A</i> or <i>an</i>, (formerly written +<i>ane,)</i> being equivalent to <i>one, any one</i>, or <i>some one</i>, cannot be +prefixed to nouns in the plural number. There is, however, an +exception to this rule. <i>A</i> is placed before a plural noun when any +of the following adjectives come between the article and the noun: +<i>few, great, many, dozen, hundred, thousand, million</i>; as, <i>a</i> few +<i>men, a</i> thousand <i>houses</i>, &c.</div> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>A bird sings. An eagle flies. Mountains stand. The multitude pursue +pleasure. The reaper reaps the farmer's grain. Farmers mow the grass. +Farmers' boys spread the hay. The clerk sells the merchant's goods. An +ostrich outruns an Arab's horse. Cecrops founded Athens. Gallileo +invented the telescope. James Macpherson translated Ossian's poems. Sir +Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe. Doctor Benjamin Franklin +invented the lightning-rod. Washington Irving wrote the Sketch-Book.</p> + +<p>I will now offer a few remarks on the misapplication of the articles, +which, with the exercise of your own discriminating powers, will enable +you to use them with propriety. But, before you proceed, please to +answer the following</p> + +<h4>QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>How many articles are there?—In what sense is a noun taken, when it has +no article to limit it?—Repeat the <i>order</i> of parsing an article.—What +rule applies in parsing the <i>definite</i> article?—What rule in parsing +the <i>indefinite</i>?</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h4>PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.</h4> + +<h5>A, AN, THE.</h5> + +<div class="smalltext">In a scientific arrangement of grammatical principles, <i>a</i> and <i>the</i> +belong to that class of adjectives denominated <i>definitives</i> or +<i>restrictives</i>.</div> + +<div class="smalltext"><i>A, an, ane</i>, or <i>one</i>, is the past participle of <i>ananad</i>, to add, +to join. It denotes that the thing to which it is prefixed, is +<i>added, united, aned, an-d, oned, (woned,)</i> or made <i>one</i>.</div> + +<div class="smalltext"><i>The</i> and <i><a name="that_i"></a>that</i>. According to Horne Tooke, <i>the</i> is the imperative, +and <i>that</i>, the past participle, of the Anglo-Saxon verb <i>thean</i>, to +get, take, assume. <i>The</i> and <i>that</i> had, originally, the same +meaning. The difference in their present application, is a modern +refinement. Hence, <i>that</i>, as well as <i>the</i>, was formerly used, +indifferently, before either a singular or a plural noun.</div> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h4>QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES.</h4> + +<div class="smalltext">Before what nouns is the article omitted?—Is the article <i>the</i> ever +applied to adverbs?—Give examples.—What is the meaning of <i>a</i> or <i>an</i>? +—When is <i>a</i> or <i>an</i> placed before a plural noun?—From what are <i>a, +the</i>, and <i>that</i> derived?</div> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>NOTE TO RULE 1. <i>An</i> is used before a vowel or silent <i>h</i>, and <i>a</i> +before a consonant or <i>u</i> long, and also before the word <i>one</i>.</p> + +<div class="smalltext">It is not only disagreeable to the ear, but, according to this note, +improper to say, <i>a</i> apple, <i>a</i> humble suppliant, <i>an</i> hero, <i>an</i> +university, because the word <i>apple</i> begins with a vowel, and <i>h</i> is not +sounded in the word <i>humble</i>, for which reasons <i>a</i> should be <i>an</i> in +the first two examples; but, as the <i>h</i> is sounded in <i>hero</i>, and the +<i>u</i> is long in <i>university, a</i> ought to be prefixed to these words: +thus, <i>an</i> apple, <i>an</i> humble suppliant: <i>a</i> hero, <i>a</i> university. You +may correct the following</div> + + +<h4>EXAMPLES.</h4> + +<p>A enemy, a inkstand, a hour, an horse, an herald, an heart, an heathen, +an union, a umbrella, an useful book, many an one. This is an hard +saying. They met with an heavy loss. He would not give an hat for an +horse.</p> + +<p>NOTE 1, TO RULE 2. The articles are often properly omitted: when used +they should be justly applied, according to their distinct character; +as, "Gold is corrupting; <i>The</i> sea is green; <i>A</i> lion is bold." It would +be improper to say, <i>The</i> gold is corrupting; Sea is green; Lion is +bold.</p> + +<p>The grass is good for horses, and the wheat for men. Grass is good for +the horses, and wheat for the men. Grass looks well. Wheat is blighted.</p> + +<div class="smalltext">In the first of these sentences, we are not speaking of any particular +kind of <i>grass</i> or <i>wheat</i>, neither do we wish to limit the meaning to +any particular crop or field of grass, or quantity of wheat; but we are +speaking of grass and wheat generally, therefore the article <i>the</i> +should be omitted. In the second sentence, we do not refer to any +definite kind, quality, or number of <i>horses</i> or <i>men</i>; but to horses +and men generally; that is, the terms are here used to denote <i>whole +species</i>, therefore, the article should be omitted, and the sentence +should read thus, "Grass is good for horses, and wheat for men."</div> + +<div class="smalltext">In the third and fourth examples, we wish to limit our meaning to the +crops of <i>grass</i> and <i>wheat</i> now on the ground, which, in +contradistinction to the crops heretofore raised, are considered as +<i>particular</i> objects; therefore we should say, "<i>The</i> grass looks +well; <i>The</i> wheat is blighted."</div> + +<p>NOTE 2. When a noun is used in its <i>general</i> sense, the article should +be omitted; as, "<i>Poetry</i> is a pleasing art;" "<i>Oranges</i> grow in New +Orleans."</p> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>Corn in the garden, grows well; but corn in the field, does not. How +does the tobacco sell? The tobacco is dear. How do you like the study of +the grammar? The grammar is a pleasing study. A candid temper is proper +for the man. World is wide. The man is mortal. And I persecuted this way +unto the death. The earth, the air, the fire, and the water, are the +four elements of the old philosophers.</p> + + + +<hr style='width: 65%;' /> +<a name='LECTURE_IV'></a><h2>LECTURE IV.</h2> + +<a name='adjectives_ii'></a> +<h3>OF ADJECTIVES.</h3> + +<div class="bigtext">An ADJECTIVE is a word added to a noun to express its quality or kind, +or to restrict its meaning; as, a <i>good</i> man, a <i>bad</i> man, <i>a free</i> man, +an <i>unfortunate</i> man, <i>one</i> man, <i>forty</i> men.</div> + +<p>In the phrases, a <i>good</i> apple, a <i>bad</i> apple, a <i>large</i> apple, a +<i>small</i> apple, a <i>red</i> apple, a <i>white</i> apple, a <i>green</i> apple, a +<i>sweet</i> apple, a <i>sour</i> apple, a <i>bitter</i> apple, a <i>round</i> apple, a +<i>hard</i> apple, a <i>soft</i> apple, a <i>mellow</i> apple, a <i>fair</i> apple, a <i>May</i> +apple, an <i>early</i> apple, a <i>late</i> apple, a <i>winter</i> apple, a <i>crab</i> +apple, a <i>thorn</i> apple, a <i>well-tasted</i> apple, an <i>ill-looking</i> apple, a +<i>water-cored</i> apple, you perceive that all those words in <i>italics</i> are +adjectives, because each expresses some quality or property of the noun +apple, or it shows what <i>kind</i> of an apple it is of which we are +speaking.</p> + +<p>The distinction between a <i>noun</i> and an <i>adjective</i> is very clear. A +noun is the <i>name</i> of a thing; but an adjective denotes simply the +<i>quality</i> or <i>property</i> of a thing. This is <i>fine cloth</i>. In this +example, the difference between the word denoting the <i>thing</i>, and that +denoting the <i>quality</i> of it, is easily perceived. You certainly cannot +be at a loss to know, that the word <i>cloth</i> expresses the <i>name</i>, and +<i>fine</i>, the <i>quality</i>, of the <i>thing</i>; consequently <i>fine</i> must be an +<i>adjective</i>. If I say, He is a <i>wise</i> man, a <i>prudent</i> man, a <i>wicked</i> +man, or an <i>ungrateful</i> man, the words in <i>italics</i> are adjectives, +because each expresses a <i>quality</i> of the noun man. And, if I say, He is +a <i>tall</i> man, a <i>short</i> man, a <i>white</i> man, a <i>black</i> man, or a +<i>persecuted</i> man, the words, <i>tall, short, white, black</i>, and +<i>persecuted</i>, are also adjectives, because they tell what <i>kind</i> of a +man he is of whom I am speaking, or they attribute to him some +particular property.</p> + +<p>Some adjectives <i>restrict</i> or <i>limit</i> the signification of the nouns to +which they are joined, and are, therefore, sometimes called +<i>definitives</i>; as, <i>one</i> era, <i>seven</i> ages, the <i>first</i> man, the <i>whole</i> +mass, <i>no</i> trouble, <i>those</i> men, <i>that</i> book, <i>all</i> regions.</p> + +<p>Other adjectives <i>define</i> or <i>describe</i> nouns, or do both; as, <i>fine</i> +silk, <i>blue</i> paper, a <i>heavy</i> shower, <i>pure</i> water, <i>green</i> mountains, +<i>bland</i> breezes, <i>gurgling</i> rills, <i>glass</i> window, <i>window</i> glass, +<i>beaver</i> hats, <i>chip</i> bonnets, <i>blackberry</i> ridge, <i>Monroe</i> garden, +<i>Juniata</i> iron, <i>Cincinnati</i> steam-mill.</p> + +<p>Some adjectives are <i>secondary</i>, and qualify other adjectives; as, +<i>pale</i> red lining, <i>dark</i> blue silk, <i>deep sea</i> green sash, <i>soft</i> iron +blooms, <i>red hot</i> iron plate.</p> + +<p>You will frequently find the adjective placed after the noun; as, "Those +<i>men</i> are <i>tall</i>; A <i>lion</i> is <i>bold</i>; The <i>weather</i> is <i>calm</i>; The +<i>tree</i> is three feet <i>thick</i>."</p> + +<p>Should you ever be at a loss to distinguish an adjective from the other +parts of speech, the following sign will enable you to tell it. Any word +that will make sense with the word <i>thing</i> added, or with any other noun +following it, is an adjective; as, a <i>high</i> thing, a <i>low</i> thing, a +<i>hot</i> thing, a <i>cold</i> thing, an <i>unfinished</i> thing, a <i>new-fashioned</i> +thing:—or, a <i>pleasant</i> prospect, a <i>long-deserted</i> dwelling, an +<i>American</i> soldier, a <i>Greek</i> Testament. Are these words adjectives, +<i>distant, yonder, peaceful, long-sided, double-headed?</i> A distant +<i>object</i> or <i>thing</i>, yonder <i>hill</i>, &c. They are. They will make sense +with a noun after them. Adjectives sometimes become adverbs. This matter +will be explained in Lecture VI. In parsing, you may generally know an +adjective by its <i>qualifying a noun or pronoun</i>.</p> + +<p>Most words ending in <i>ing</i> are <i>present participles</i>. These are +frequently used as adjectives; therefore, most participles will make +sense with the addition of the word thing, or any other noun, after +them; as, a <i>pleasing</i> thing, a <i>moving</i> spectacle, <i>mouldering</i> ruins.</p> + +<p>In the Latin language, and many others, adjectives, like nouns, have +gender, number, and case; but in the English language, they have neither +gender, person, number, nor case. These properties belong to <i>creatures</i> +and <i>things</i>, and not to their <i>qualities</i>; therefore gender, person, +number, and case, are the properties of <i>nouns</i>, and <i>not</i> of +adjectives.</p> + +<div class="bigtext">Adjectives are varied only to express the degrees of comparison. They +have three degrees of comparison, the Positive, the Comparative, and the +Superlative.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">The <i>positive degree</i> expresses the quality of an object without any +increase or diminution; as, <i>good, wise, great</i>.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">The <i>comparative degree</i> increases or lessens the positive in +signification; as, <i>better, wiser, greater, less wise</i>.</div> + +<div class="bigtext">The <i>superlative degree</i> increases or lessens the positive to the +highest or lowest degree; as, <i>best, wisest, greatest, least wise</i>.</div> + +<h4>COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.</h4> + +<p><i>More</i> and <i>most</i> form the comparative and superlative degrees by +increasing the positive; and <i>less</i> and <i>least</i>, by diminishing it.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>Comparison by increasing the positive</p> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary='' class='bigtext'> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Pos.</i></td><td align='center'><i>Comp.</i></td><td align='center'><i>Sup.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>great,</td><td align='left'>greater,</td><td align='left'>greatest.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wise,</td><td align='left'>wiser,</td><td align='left'>wisest.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>holy,</td><td align='left'>more holy</td><td align='left'>most holy.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>frugal,</td><td align='left'>more frugal</td><td align='left'>most frugal.</td></tr></table> + + +<p style='text-align: center'>Comparison by diminishing the positive.</p> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary='' class='bigtext'> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Pos.</i></td><td align='center'><i>Comp.</i></td><td align='center'><i>Sup.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wise,</td><td align='left'>less wise</td><td align='left'>least wise.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>holy,</td><td align='left'>less holy,</td><td align='left'>least holy.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>frugal,</td><td align='left'>less frugal,</td><td align='left'>least frugal.</td></tr></table> + + +<h4>NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>Words used in counting, are called <i>numeral adjectives</i> of the +<i>cardinal</i> kind; as, <i>one, two, three, four, twenty, fifty,</i> &c.</p> + +<p>Words used in numbering, are called <i>numeral adjectives</i> of the +<i>ordinal</i> kind; as, <i>first, second, third, fourth, twentieth, fiftieth,</i> +&c.</p> +</div> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>NOTE. The words <i>many, few</i>, and <i>several</i>, as they always refer to +an indefinite number, may be properly called <i>numeral adjectives</i> of +the indefinite kind.</p> + +<h5>NOTES.</h5> + +<p>1. The simple word, or Positive, becomes the Comparative by adding +<i>r</i>, or <i>er</i>; and the Positive becomes the Superlative, by adding +<i>st</i>, or <i>est</i>, to the end of it; as, Pos. wise, Com. wise<i>r</i>, Sup. +wise<i>st</i>; rich, rich<i>er</i>, rich<i>est</i>; bold, bold<i>er</i>, bold<i>est</i>. The +adverbs, <i>more</i> and <i>most, less</i> and <i>least</i>, when placed before the +adjective, have the same effect; as, Pos. wise, Com. <i>more</i> wise, +Sup. <i>most</i> wise; Pos. wise, Com. <i>less</i> wise, Sup. <i>least</i> wise.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Monosyllables</i> are generally compared by adding <i>er</i> and <i>est; +dissyllables, trisyllables</i>, &c. by <i>more</i> and <i>most</i>; as, mild, +milder, mildest; frugal, more frugal, most frugal; virtuous, more +virtuous, most virtuous. Dissyllables ending in <i>y</i>; as, happy, +lovely; and in <i>le</i> after a mute; as, able, ample; and dissyllables +accented on the last syllable; as, discreet, polite; easily admit of +<i>er</i> and <i>est</i>; as, happi<i>er</i>, happi<i>est</i>; polit<i>er</i>, polit<i>est</i>. +Words of more than two syllables very seldom admit of these +terminations.</p> + +<p>3. When the positive ends in <i>d</i>, or <i>t</i>, preceded by a <i>single</i> +vowel, the consonant is doubled in forming the comparative and +superlative degrees; as red, <i>redder, reddest</i>; hot, <i>hotter, +hottest</i>.</p> + +<p>4. In some words the superlative is formed by adding <i>most</i> to the +end of them; as, nethermost, uttermost or utmost, undermost, +uppermost, foremost.</p> + +<p>5. In English, as in most languages, there are some words of very +common use, (in which the caprice of custom is apt to get the better +of analogy,) that are irregular in forming the degrees of +comparison; as, "Good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; little, +less, least; much or many, more, most; near, nearer, nearest or +next; late, later, latest or last; old, older or elder, oldest or +eldest;" and a few others.</p> + +<p>6. The following adjectives, and many others, are always in the +<i>superlative</i> degree, because, by expressing a quality in the +highest degree, they carry in themselves a superlative +signification: <i>chief, extreme, perfect, right, wrong, honest, just,</i> +<i>true, correct, sincere, vast, immense, ceaseless, infinite, endless,</i> +<i>unparalleled, universal, supreme, unlimited, omnipotent, all-wise,</i> +<i>eternal</i>.</p> + +<p>7. Compound adjectives, and adjectives denoting qualities arising +from the figure of bodies, do not admit of comparison; such as, +<i>well-formed, frost-bitten, round, square, oblong, circular,</i> +<i>quadrangular, conical</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>8. The termination <i>ish</i> added to adjectives, expresses a slight +degree of quality below the comparative; as, <i>black, blackish; salt,</i> +<i>saltish. Very</i>, prefixed to the comparative, expresses a degree of +quality, but not always a superlative degree.</p> +</div> + +<p>Read this Lecture carefully, particularly the NOTES; after which you may +parse the following adjectives and neuter verb, and, likewise, the +examples that follow. If you cannot repeat all the definitions and +rules, spread the Compendium when you parse. But before you proceed, +please to commit the</p> + +<h4>SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p><i>The order of parsing an</i> ADJECTIVE, is—an adjective, and why?—compare +it—degree of comparison, and why?—to what noun does it belong?—RULE.</p> +</div> + +<p style='text-align: center'>That <i>great</i> nation <i>was</i> once <i>powerful</i>; but now it is <i>feeble</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Great</i> is an adjective, a word added to a noun to express its +quality—pos. great, com. greater, sup. greatest—it is in the positive +degree, it expresses the quality of an object without any increase or +diminution, and belongs to the noun "nation," according to</p> + +<p>RULE 18. <i>Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed or +understood</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Was</i> is a verb, a word that signifies to be—neuter, it expresses +neither action nor passion, but being or a state of being—third person +singular, because its nominative "nation" is a noun of multitude +conveying <i>unity</i> of idea—it agrees with "nation," agreeably to RULE +10. <i>A noun of multitude conveying</i> unity <i>of idea, may have a verb or +pronoun agreeing with it in the</i> singular.</p> + +<p><i>Powerful</i> is an adjective belonging to "nation," according to Rule 18. +<i>Feeble</i> belongs to "it," according to Note 1, under Rule 18. <i>Is</i> is a +neuter verb agreeing with "it," agreeably to Rule 4.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"Bonaparte entered Russia with 400,000 men."</p> + +<p><i>Four-hundred-thousand</i> is a numeral adjective of the cardinal kind, it +is a word used in counting, and belongs to the noun "men," according to +Note 2, under Rule 18. <i>Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns +must agree in number with their adjectives</i>.</p> + +<p>If, in parsing the following examples, you find any words about which +you are at a loss, you will please to turn back, and parse all the +foregoing examples again. This course will enable you to proceed without +any difficulty.</p> + +<p><i>More</i> is an adverb. <i>Of</i> and <i>to</i> are prepositions, governing the nouns +that follow them in the objective case.</p> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>A benevolent man helps indigent beggars. +Studious scholars learn many long lessons. Wealthy merchants own large +ships. The heavy ships bear large burdens; the lighter ships carry less +burdens. Just poets use figurative language. Ungrammatical expressions +offend a true critic's ear. Weak critics magnify trifling errors. No +composition is perfect. The rabble was tumultuous. The late-washed grass +looks green. Shady trees form a delightful arbor. The setting sun makes +a beautiful appearance; the variegated rainbow appears more beautiful. +Epaminondas was the greatest of the Theban generals; Pelopidas was next +to Epaminondas.</p> + +<p>The first fleet contained three hundred men; the second contained four +thousand. The earth contains one thousand million inhabitants. Many a +cheering ray brightens the good man's pathway.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>NOTE. <i><a name="Like"></a>Like, Worth</i>. The adjective <i>like</i> is a contraction of the +participle <i>likened</i>, and generally has the preposition <i>unto</i> +understood after it. "She is <i>like</i> [<i>unto</i>] her brother." "They are +<i>unlike</i> [<i>to</i>] him." "The kingdom of heaven is <i>like</i> [<i>likened</i> or +made <i>like</i>] <i>unto</i> a householder."</p> + +<p>The noun <i>worth</i> has altogether dropped its associated words. "The +cloth is <i>worth</i> ten dollars <i>a</i> yard;" that is, The cloth is <i>of +the</i> worth <i>of</i> ten dollars <i>by the</i> yard, or <i>for a, one</i>, or +<i>every yard</i>.</p> + +<p>Some eminent philologists do not admit the propriety of supplying an +ellipsis after <i>like, worth, ere, but, except</i>, and <i>than</i>, but +consider them prepositions. See Anomalies, in the latter part of +this work.</p> +</div> + +<h5>REMARKS ON ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.</h5> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>A critical analysis requires that the adjective when used without its +noun, should be parsed as an adjective belonging to its noun understood; +as, "The <i>virtuous</i> [<i>persons</i>] and the <i>sincere</i> [<i>persons</i>] are always +respected;" "Providence rewards the <i>good</i> [<i>people,</i>] and punishes the +<i>bad</i> [<i>people.</i>]"</p> + +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>"The <i>evil</i> [<i>deed</i> or <i>deeds</i>] that men do, lives after them;</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>"The <i>good</i> [<i>deed</i> or <i>deeds</i>] is oft-interred with their bones."</span><br /> + +<p>But sometimes the adjective, by its <i>manner</i> of meaning, becomes a noun, +and has another adjective joined to it; as, "the chief <i>good</i>;" "The +vast <i>immense</i> [<i>immensity</i>] of space."</p> + +<p>Various nouns placed before other nouns, assume the character of +adjectives, according to their <i>manner</i> of meaning; as, "<i>Sea</i> fish, +<i>iron</i> mortar, <i>wine</i> vessel, <i>gold</i> watch, <i>corn</i> field, <i>meadow</i> +ground, <i>mountain</i> height."</p> + +<p>The principle which recognises <i>custom</i> as the standard of grammatical +accuracy, might rest for its support on the usage of only <i>six</i> words, +and defy all the subtleties of innovating skeptics to gainsay it. If the +genius and analogy of our language were the standard, it would be +correct to observe this analogy, and say, "Good, good<i>er</i>, good<i>est</i>; +bad, bad<i>der</i>, bad<i>dest</i>; little, littl<i>er</i>, littl<i>est</i>; much, +much<i>er</i>; much<i>est</i>." "By <i>this mean</i>;" "What <i>are</i> the <i>news</i>." But such +a criterion betrays only the weakness of those who attempt to establish +it. Regardless of the dogmas and edicts of the philosophical umpire, the +good sense of the people will cause them, in this instance, as well as +in a thousand others, to yield to <i>custom</i>, and say, "Good, <i>better, +best</i>; bad, <i>worse, worst</i>; little, <i>less, least</i>; much, <i>more, most</i>;" +"By <i>this means</i>;" "What <i>is</i> the <i>news</i>?"</p> + +<p>With regard to the using of adjectives and other qualifying words, care +must be taken, or your language will frequently amount to absurdity or +nonsense. Let the following general remark, which is better than a dozen +rules, put you on your guard. Whenever you utter a sentence, or put your +pen on paper to write, weigh well in your mind <i>the meaning of the +words</i> which you are about to employ. See that they convey precisely the +ideas which you wish to express by them, and thus you will avoid +innumerable errors. In speaking of a man, we may say, with propriety, he +is <i>very</i> wicked, or <i>exceedingly</i> lavish, because the terms <i>wicked</i> and +<i>lavish</i> are adjectives that admit of comparison; but, if we take the +words in their literal acceptation, there is a solecism in calling a man +<i>very</i> honest, or <i>exceedingly</i> just, for the words <i>honest</i> and <i>just</i>, +literally admit of no comparison. In point of fact, a man is <i>honest</i> or +<i>dishonest, just</i> or <i>unjust</i>: there can be no medium or excess in this +respect. <i>Very</i> correct, <i>very</i> incorrect, <i>very</i> right, <i>very</i> wrong, +are common expressions; but they are not <i>literally</i> proper. What is not +<i>correct</i>, must be <i>incorrect</i>; and that which is not <i>incorrect</i>, must +be <i>correct</i>: what is not <i>right</i>, must be <i>wrong</i>; and that which is +not <i>wrong</i>, must be <i>right</i>. To avoid that circumlocution which must +otherwise take place, our best speakers and writers, however, frequently +compare adjectives which do not literally admit of comparison: "The +<i>most established</i> practice;" "The <i>most uncertain</i> method;" "Irving, as +a writer, <i>is far more accurate</i> than Addison;" "The metaphysical +investigations of our philosophical grammars, are <i>still more +incomprehensible</i> to the learner." Comparisons like these, should +generally be avoided; but sometimes they are so convenient in practice, +as to render them admissible. Such expressions can be reconciled with +the principles of grammar, only by considering them as figurative.</p> + +<p>Comparative members of sentences, should be set in <i>direct opposition</i> +to each other; as, "Pope was <i>rich</i>, but Goldsmith was <i>poor</i>." The +following sentences are inaccurate: "Solomon was <i>wiser</i> than Cicero was +<i>eloquent</i>." "The principles of the reformation were <i>deeper</i> in the +prince's mind than to be <i>easily eradicated</i>." This latter sentence +contains <i>no comparison</i> at all; neither does it literally convey <i>any +meaning</i>. Again, if the Psalmist had said, "I am the wisest of my +teachers," he would have spoken absurdly, because the phrase would +imply, that he was one of his teachers. But in saying, "I am wiser +<i>than</i> my teachers," he does not consider himself one of them, but +places himself in contradistinction to them.</p> +</div> + +<p>Before you proceed any farther, you may answer the following</p> + +<h4>QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>What is the distinction between a noun and an adjective?—By what sign +may an adjective be known?—Are participles ever used as +adjectives?—Does gender, person, number, or case, belong to +adjectives?—How are they varied?—Name the three degrees of +comparison.—What effect have <i>less</i> and <i>least</i> in comparing +adjectives?—Repeat the order of parsing an adjective.—What rule +applies in parsing an adjective?—What rule in parsing a verb agreeing +with a noun of multitude conveying <i>unity</i> of idea?—What Note should be +applied in parsing an adjective which belongs to a pronoun?—What Note +in parsing <i>numeral</i> adjectives?</p> + +<h4>QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES.</h4> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>Repeat all the various ways of forming the +degrees of comparison, mentioned in the first five NOTES.—Compare these +adjectives; <i>ripe, frugal, mischievous, happy, able, good, little, much</i> +or <i>many, near, late, old</i>.—Name some adjectives that are always in the +superlative, and never compared.—Are compound adjectives +compared?—What is said of the termination <i>ish</i>, and of the adverb +<i>very?</i>—When does an adjective become a noun?—What character does a +noun assume when placed before another noun?—How can you prove that +<i>custom</i> is the standard of grammatical accuracy?</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h4>PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.</h4> + +<h5>ADNOUNS.</h5> + +<p><i>Adnoun</i> or <i>Adjective</i>, comes from the Latin, <i>ad</i> and <i>jicio</i>, to +<i>add to</i>.</p> + +<p>Adnouns are a class of words added to nouns to vary their +comprehension, or to determine their extension. Those which effect +the former object, are called <i>adjectives</i>, or <i>attributes;</i> and +those which effect the latter, <i>restrictives</i>. It is not, in all +cases, easy to determine to which of these classes an adnoun should +be referred. Words which express simply the <i>qualities</i> of nouns, +are adjectives; and such as denote their <i>situation</i> or <i>number</i>, +are restrictives.</p> + +<p>Adjectives were originally nouns or verbs.</p> + +<p>Some consider the adjective, in its present application, <i>exactly</i> +equivalent to a noun connected to another noun by means of +juxtaposition, of a preposition, or of a corresponding flexion. "A +<i>golden</i> cup," say they, "is the same as a <i>gold</i> cup, or a cup <i>of +gold</i>." But this principle appears to be exceptionable. "A cup <i>of +gold</i>," may mean either a cup-<i>full</i> of gold, or a cup <i>made</i> of +gold. "An <i>oaken</i> cask," signifies an <i>oak</i> cask, or a cask <i>of +oak</i>; i.e. a cask <i>made</i> of oak; but a <i>beer</i> cask, and a cask <i>of +beer</i>, are two different things. A <i>virtuous</i> son; a son <i>of +virtue</i>.</p> + +<p>The distinguishing characteristic of the adjective, appears to +consist in its both <i>naming</i> a quality, and <i>attributing</i> that +quality to some object.</p> + +<p>The terminations <i>en, ed</i>, and <i>ig</i> (our modern <i>y</i>,) signifying +<i>give, add, join</i>, denote that the names of qualities to which they +are postfixed, are to be attributed to other nouns possessing such +qualities: wood-<i>en</i>, wood-<i>y</i>. See page 37.</p> + +<p><i>Left</i> is the past participle of the verb <i>leave</i>. Horne Tooke +defines <i>right</i> to be that which is <i>ordered</i> or <i>directed</i>. The +<i>right</i> hand is that which your parents and custom direct you to use +in preference to the other. And when you employ that in preference, +the other is the <i>leaved, leav'd</i>, or <i>left</i> hand; i.e. the one +<i>leaved</i> or <i>left</i>. "The one shall be taken, and the other <i>(leaved) +left</i>."</p> + +<p><i>Own</i>. Formerly a man's <i>own</i> was what he <i>worked for, own</i> being a +past participle of a verb signifying to <i>work</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Restrictive</i>. Some restrictives, in modern times, are applied only +to singular nouns; such as <i>a</i> or <i>an, another, one, this, that, +each, every, either</i>. Others, only to plural nouns; as, <i>these, +those, two, three, few, several, all</i>. But most restrictives, like +adjectives, are applied to both singular and plural nouns: <i>first, +second, last, the, former, latter, any, such, same, some, which, +what</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Numerals</i>. All numeration was, doubtless, originally performed by +the fingers; for the number of the fingers is still the utmost +extent of its signification. <i>Ten</i> is the past participle of +<i>tynan</i>, to close, to shut in. The hands <i>tyned, tened</i>, closed, or +shut in, signified <i>ten</i>; for there numeration <i>closed</i>. To denote a +number greater than ten, we must begin again, <i>ten</i> and <i>one, ten</i> +and <i>two</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Twain, twa-in, twa-ain, twa-ane</i>, is a compound of <i>two (twa, twae, +twee, twi, two</i> or <i>dwo</i> or <i>duo)</i> and <i>one (ane, ain, an.)</i> It +signifies <i>two</i> units <i>joined, united, aned,</i> or <i>oned. Twenty +(twa-ane-ten)</i> signifies <i>two tens aned, oned</i>, or <i>united</i>. Things +<i>separated</i> into parcels of twenty each, are called <i>scores. Score</i> +is the past participle of <i>shear</i>, to <i>separate</i>.</p> + +<p><i>The Ordinals</i> are formed like abstract nouns in <i>eth. Fifth, +sixth</i>, or <i>tenth</i> is the number which <i>fiv-eth, six-eth, ten-eth</i>, +or mak-<i>eth</i> up the number <i>five, six</i>, or <i>ten</i>. +</p> +<a name="manner_of_meaning_ii"></a> +<p>Philosophical writers who limit our acceptation of words to that in +which they were <i>originally</i> employed, and suppose that all the +complicated, yet often definable, associations which the gradual +progress of language and intellect has connected with words, are to +be reduced to <i>the standard of our forefathers</i>; appear not to have +sufficiently attended to the <i>changes</i> which this principle of +association actually produces. As language is transmitted from +generation to generation, many words become the representatives of +ideas with which they were not originally associated; and thus they +undergo a change, not only in the <i>mode</i> of their application, but +also in their meaning. Words being the signs of things, their +meaning must necessarily change as much, <i>at least</i>, as things +themselves change; but this variation in their import more +frequently depends on accidental circumstances. Among the ideas +connected with a word that which was once of primary, becomes only +of secondary importance; and sometimes, by degrees, it loses +altogether its connexion with the word, giving place to others with +which, from some accidental causes, it has been associated.</p> + +<p>Two or three instances will illustrate the truth of these remarks. +In an ancient English version of the New Testament, we find the +following language: "I, Paul, a <i>rascal</i> of Jesus Christ, unto you +Gentiles," &c. But who, in the present acceptation of the word, +would dare to call "the great apostle of the Gentiles" a <i>rascal? +Rascal</i> formerly meant a <i>servant:</i> one devoted to the interest of +another; but now it is nearly synonymous with <i>villain. Villain</i> +<i>once had none of the odium which is now associated with the term;</i> +<i>but it signified one who, under the feudal system, rented or held</i> +<i>lands of another. Thus, Henry the VIII. says to a vassal or tenant,</i> +"As you are an accomplished <i>villain</i>, I order that you receive £700 +out of the public treasury." The word <i>villain</i>, then, has given up +<i>its original idea, and become the representative of a new one, the</i> +word <i>tenant</i> having supplanted it. To prove that the meaning of +words <i>changes</i>, a thousand examples could be adduced; but with the +<i>intelligent reader, proof is unnecessary.</i></p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h4>QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.</h4> + +<p>How are adnouns divided?—What constitutes the true character of an +adjective?—What are the signification and denotement of the +terminations, <i>en, ed</i>, and <i>ig?</i>—What do <i>left</i> and <i>own</i> +signify?—Name the three ways in which restrictives are applied.—How +was numeration originally performed?—What is said of <i>twain, twenty, +score</i>, and the ordinal numbers?—What is said of the changes produced +in the meaning of words, by the principle of association?</p> +</div> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>NOTE 9, under RULE 18. Double <i>Comparatives</i> +and <i>Superlatives</i> should be avoided; such as, <i>worser, lesser, more</i> +deeper, <i>more</i> wickeder, &c.: <i>chiefest, supremest, perfectest, +rightest</i>; or <i>more</i> perfect, <i>most</i> perfect, <i>most</i> supreme, &c.</p> + +<p>Virtue confers the most supreme dignity on man, and it should be his +chiefest desire.</p> + +<p>He made the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to +rule the night.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>The phrases "most supreme," and "chiefest," in the first sentence, are +incorrect, because <i>supreme</i> and <i>chief</i> are in the superlative degree +without having the superlative form superadded, which addition makes +them double superlatives. They should be written, "confers supreme +dignity," and, "his chief desire."</p> + +<p>We can say, one thing is <i>less</i> than another, or <i>smaller</i> than another, +because the adjectives <i>less</i> and <i>smaller</i> are in the comparative +degree; but the phrase "<i>lesser</i> light," in the second sentence, is +inaccurate. <i>Lesser</i> is a double comparative, which, according to the +preceding Note, should be avoided. <i>Lesser</i> is as incorrect as <i>badder, +gooder, worser</i>. "The <i>smaller</i> light," would be less exceptionable. You +can correct the following without my assistance. Correct them <i>four</i> +times over.</p> +</div> + +<p>The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable than those of +imagination or sense. The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the +faster the lesser weight it carries. The nightingale's voice is the most +sweetest in the grove. The Most Highest hath created us for his glory, +He was admitted to the chiefest offices. The first witness gave a strong +proof of the fact; the next more stronger still; but the last witness, +the most stronger of all. He gave the fullest and the most sincere proof +of the truer friendship.</p> + + + +<hr style='width: 65%;' /> +<a name='LECTURE_V'></a><h2>LECTURE V.</h2> + +<h3>OF <a name="PARTICIPLES"></a>PARTICIPLES.</h3> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>A PARTICIPLE is a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature +of a verb, and also of an adjective.</p> + +<p>Verbs have three participles, the present or imperfect, the perfect, and +the compound.</p> + +<p>The <i>present</i> or <i>imperfect</i> participle denotes action or being +continued, but not perfected. It always ends in <i>ing</i>; as, <i>ruling, +being</i>: "I am <i>writing</i> a letter."</p> + +<p>The <i>perfect</i> participle denotes action or being perfected or finished. +When derived from a regular verb, it ends in <i>ed</i>, and corresponds with +the imperfect tense; as, <i>ruled, smiled:</i> "The letter is <i>written</i>."</p> + +<p>The <i>compound</i> participle implies action or being completed before the +time referred to. It is formed by placing <i>having</i> before the perfect +participle; as, <i>having ruled, having been ruled: "Having written</i> the +letter, he mailed it."</p> +</div> + +<p>The term <i>Participle</i> comes from the Latin word <i>participio</i>, which +signifies to <i>partake</i>: and this name is given to this part of speech, +because it <i>partakes</i> of the nature of the verb and of the adjective.</p> + +<p>By many writers, the participle is classed with the verb, and treated as +a part of it; but, as it has no nominative, partakes of the nature of an +adjective, requires many syntactical rules which apply not to the verb, +and, in some other respects, has properties peculiar to itself, it is +believed that its character is sufficiently distinct from the verb, to +entitle it to the rank of a separate part of speech. It is, in fact, the +connecting link between, not only the adjective and the verb, but also +the noun and the verb.</p> + +<p>All participles are compound in their meaning and office. Like verbs, +they express action and being, and denote time; and, like adjectives, +they describe the nouns of which they denote the action or being. In the +sentences, The boatman is <i>crossing</i> the river; I see a man <i>laboring</i> +in the field; Charles is <i>standing</i>; you perceive that the participles +<i>crossing</i> and <i>laboring</i> express the actions of the boatman and the +man, and <i>standing</i> the state of being of Charles. In these respects, +then, they partake of the nature of verbs. You also notice, that they +<i>describe</i> the several nouns associated with them, like describing +adjectives; and that, in this respect, they participate the properties +of adjectives. And, furthermore, you observe they denote actions which +are still going on; that is, <i>incomplete</i> or <i>unfinished</i> actions; for +which reason we call them <i>imperfect</i> participles.</p> + +<p>Perhaps I can illustrate their character more clearly. When the +imperfect or present and perfect participles are placed before nouns, +they become defining or describing adjectives, and are denominated +<i>participial adjectives</i>; as, A <i>loving</i> companion; The <i>rippling</i> +stream; <i>Roaring</i> winds; A <i>wilted</i> leaf; An <i>accomplished</i> scholar. +Here the words <i>loving, rippling, roaring, wilted</i>, and <i>accomplished</i>, +describe or define the nouns with which they are associated. And where +the participles are placed after their nouns, they have, also, this +descriptive quality. If I say, I see the moon <i>rising</i>; The horse is +<i>running</i> a race; The dog is <i>beaten</i>; I describe the several objects, +as a <i>rising</i> moon, a <i>running</i> horse, and a <i>beaten</i> dog, as well as +when I place these participles before the nouns. The same word is a +participle or a participial adjective, according to its manner of +meaning. The preceding illustration, however, shows that this +distinction is founded on a very slight shade of difference in the +meaning of the two. The following examples will enable you to +distinguish the one from the other.</p> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Participles</i>.</td><td align='center'><i>Participial adjectives</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>See the sun <i>setting</i>.</td><td align='left'>See the <i>setting</i> sun.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>See the moon <i>rising</i>.</td><td align='left'>See the <i>rising</i> moon.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>The wind is <i>roaring</i>.</td><td align='left'>Hear the <i>roaring</i> wind.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>The twig is <i>broken</i>.</td><td align='left'>The <i>broken</i> twig fell.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>The vessel <i>anchored</i> in the bay, lost her mast.</td><td align='left'> The <i>anchored</i> vessel spreads her sail.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The <i>present</i> or <i>imperfect</i> participle is known by its ending in <i>ing</i>; +as, float<i>ing</i>, rid<i>ing</i>, hear<i>ing</i>, see<i>ing</i>. These are derived from +the verbs, <i>float, ride, hear</i>, and <i>see</i>. But some words ending in +<i>ing</i> are not participles; such as <i>evening, morning, hireling, sapling, +uninteresting, unbelieving, uncontrolling</i>. When you parse a word ending +in <i>ing</i>, you should always consider whether it comes from a verb or +not. There is such a verb as <i>interest</i>, hence you know that the word +<i>interesting</i> is a participle; but there is no such verb as +<i>un</i>interest, consequently, <i>un</i>interesting can <i>not</i> be a participle: +but it is an adjective; as, an <i>uninteresting</i> story. You will be able +very easily to distinguish the participle from the other parts of +speech, when you shall have acquired a more extensive knowledge of the +verb.</p> + +<p>Speak the participles from each of these verbs, learn, walk, shun, +smile, sail, conquer, manage, reduce, relate, discover, overrate, +disengage. Thus, Pres. <i>learning</i>, Perf. <i>learned</i>, Comp. <i>having +learned</i>. Pres. <i>walking</i>, Perf. <i>walked</i>, Compound, <i>having walked</i>, +and so on.</p> + +<p>You may now commit the <i>order</i> of parsing a participle, and then proceed +with me.</p> + +<h4>SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>The <i>order of parsing</i> a PARTICIPLE, is—a participle, and why?—from +what verb is it derived?—speak the three—present, perfect, or +compound, and why?—to what does it refer or belong?—RULE.</p> +</div> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"I saw a vessel <i>sailing"</i></p> + +<p><i>Sailing</i> is a participle, a word derived from a verb, and partakes of +the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective—it comes from the verb +to sail—pres. sailing, perf. sailed, comp. having sailed—it is a +present or imperfect participle, because it denotes the continuance of +an unfinished action—and refers to the noun "vessel" for its subject, +according to</p> + +<p>RULE 27. <i>The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun denoting +the subject or actor</i>.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"Not a breath disturbs the <i>sleeping</i> billow."</p> + +<p><i>Sleeping</i> is a participial adjective, a word added to a noun to express +its quality—it cannot, with propriety, be compared—- it belongs to the +noun "billow," agreeably to</p> + +<p>RULE 18. <i>Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed or +understood</i>.</p> + +<p>You will please to parse these two words several times over, and, by a +little reflection, you will perfectly understand the 27th RULE. +Recollect, the participle never varies its termination to <i>agree</i> with a +noun or pronoun, for, as it has no <i>nominative</i>, it has no agreement; +but it simply <i>refers to</i> an actor. Examples: I see a <i>vessel</i> sailing; +or, I see three <i>vessels</i> sailing. You perceive that the participle +<i>sailing</i> refers to a singular noun in the first example, and to a +plural noun in the second; and yet the participle is in the same form in +both examples. The noun <i>vessel</i> is in the objective case, and governed +by the transitive verb <i>see</i>. But when a verb follows a noun, the ending +of the verb generally varies in order to agree with the noun which is +its nominative; as, the vessel <i>sails;</i> the vessels <i>sail</i>.</p> + +<p>In this place it may not be improper to notice another Rule that relates +to the participle. In the sentence, "The man is <i>beating</i> his horse," +the noun <i>horse</i> is in the objective case, because it is the object of +the action expressed by the active-transitive participle "beating," and +it is governed by the participle beating, according to</p> + +<p>RULE 26. <i>Participles have the same government as the verbs have from +which they are derived</i>.</p> + +<p>The principle upon which this rule is founded, is quite apparent. As a +participle derived from a transitive verb, expresses the same kind of +action as its verb, it necessarily follows, that the participle must +govern the same case as the verb from which it is derived.</p> + +<p>When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, you may proceed +and parse the following exercises, containing five parts of speech. If, +in analyzing these examples, you find any words which you cannot parse +correctly and <i>systematically</i> by referring to your Compend for +definitions and rules, you will please to turn back and read over again +the whole <i>five</i> lectures. You must exercise a little patience; and, for +your encouragement, permit me to remind you, that when you shall have +acquired a thorough knowledge of these five parts of speech, only <i>five</i> +more will remain for you to learn. Be ambitious to excel. Be thorough in +your investigations. Give your reasoning powers free scope. By studying +these lectures with attention, you will acquire more grammatical +knowledge in <i>three</i> months, than is commonly obtained in <i>two</i> years.</p> + +<p>In the following examples, the words <i>purling, crusted, slumbering</i>, and +<i>twinkling</i>, are participial adjectives. <i>There</i> and <i>its</i> you may omit.</p> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>Orlando left the herd grazing. The hunters heard the young dog barking. +The old fox heard the sportsman's horn sounding. Deep rivers float long +rafts. Purling streams moisten the earth's surface. The sun approaching, +melts the crusted snow. The slumbering seas calmed the grave old +hermit's mind. Pale Cynthia declining, clips the horizon. Man beholds +the twinkling stars adorning night's blue arch. The stranger saw the +desert thistle bending there its lowly head.</p> + +<h4>REMARKS ON PARTICIPLES.</h4> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>Participles frequently become nouns; as, "A good <i>understanding</i>; +Excellent <i>writing</i>; He made a good <i>beginning</i>, but a bad <i>ending</i>."</p> + +<p>Constructions like the following, have long been sanctioned by the best +authorities: "The goods are <i>selling</i>;" "The house is <i>building</i>;" "The +work is now <i>publishing</i>." A modern innovation, however, is likely to +supersede this mode of expression: thus, "The goods are <i>being sold</i>;" +"The house is <i>being built</i>;" "The work is now <i>being published</i>."</p> +</div> + +<p>You may now answer these</p> + +<h4>QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>How many kinds of participles are there?—What is the ending of a +present participle?—What does a perfect participle denote?—With what +does the perfect participle of a regular verb correspond?—What is a +compound participle?—From what word is the term participle +derived?—Why is this part of speech thus named?—Wherein does this part +of speech partake of the nature of a verb?—Do all participles +participate the properties of adjectives?—In what respect?—When are +participles called <i>participial adjectives</i>?—Give examples.—How may a +present participle be known?—Repeat the order of parsing a +participle.—What rule applies in parsing a <i>present</i> participle?—What +Rule in parsing a participial adjective?—Do participles vary in their +terminations in order to agree with their subject or actor?—What Rule +applies in parsing a noun in the <i>objective case</i>, governed by a +participle?—Do participles ever become nouns?—Give examples.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h4>PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.</h4> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>Participles are formed by adding to the verb the <a name="terminations_iv"></a>termination <i>ing, +ed</i>, or <i>en</i>. <i>Ing</i> signifies the same as the noun <i>being</i>. When +<i>postfixed to the noun-state of the verb, the compound word thus</i> +<i>formed, expresses a continued state of the verbal denotement. It</i> +implies that what is meant by the verb, is <i>being</i> continued. <i>En</i> +is an alteration of <i>an</i>, the Saxon verbalizing adjunct; <i>ed</i> is a +contraction of <i>dede</i>; and the terminations <i>d</i> and <i>t</i>, are a +contraction of <i>ed</i>. Participles ending in <i>ed</i> or <i>en</i>, usually +denote the <i>dodo, dede, doed, did, done</i>, or <i>finished</i> state of +what is meant by the verb. The book is <i>printed</i>. It is a <i>print-ed</i> +or <i>print-done</i> book, or such a one as the <i>done</i> act of <i>printing</i> +has made it. The book is <i>written</i>; i.e. it has received the <i>done</i> +or <i>finish-ed</i> act of <i>writ-ing</i> it.</p> + +<p><i>Participles bear the same relation to verbs, that adnouns do to</i> +nouns. They might, therefore, be styled <i>verbal adjectives</i>. But +<i>that theory which ranks them with adnouns, appears to rest on a</i> +<i>sandy foundation. In classifying words, we ought to be guided more</i> +by their <i>manner</i> of meaning, and their <i>inferential</i> meaning, than +by their primitive, essential signification. "I have a <i>broken</i> +plate;" i.e. I have a plate—<i>broken</i>; "I have <i>broken</i> a plate." If +there is no difference in the <i>essential</i> meaning of the word +<i>broken</i>, in these two constructions, it cannot be denied, that +there is a wide difference in the meaning—<i>inferred</i> by custom; +which difference depends on the <i>manner</i> in which the term is +applied. The former construction denotes, that I <i>possess</i> a plate +which was <i>broken</i>, (whether with or without my agency, is not +<i>intimated,) perhaps, one hundred or one thousand years ago; whereas,</i> +the meaning of the latter is, that I <i>performed the act</i> of reducing +the plate from a whole to a <i>broken</i> state; and it is not intimated +<i>whether I possess it, or some one else. It appears reasonable, that,</i> +<i>in a practical grammar, at least, any word which occurs in</i> +<i>constructions differing so widely, may properly be classed with</i> +<i>different parts of speech. This illustration likewise establishes</i> +the propriety of retaining what we call the <i>perfect tense</i> of the +<i>verb.</i></p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h4>QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.</h4> + +<p>How are participles formed?—What does the imperfect part express?— +What do perfect participles denote?</p> +</div> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + + +<a name='LECTURE_VI'></a><h2>LECTURE VI.</h2> +<br /> +<a name='adverbs'></a> +<h3>OF ADVERBS.</h3> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>An ADVERB is a word used to modify the sense of a <i>verb</i>, a<i>participle</i>, +an <i>adjective</i>, or another <i>adverb</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>Recollect, an adverb never qualifies a <i>noun</i>. It qualifies any of the +four parts of speech abovenamed, and none others.</p> + +<p>To <i>modify</i> or <i>qualify</i>, you know, means to produce some <i>change</i>. The +adverb modifies. If I say, Wirt's style <i>excels</i> Irving's, the +proposition is affirmative, and the verb <i>excels</i> expresses the +affirmation. But when I say, Wirt's style <i>excels not</i> Irving's, the +assertion is changed to a negative. What is it that thus modifies or +changes the meaning of the verb <i>excels</i>? You perceive that it is the +little word <i>not</i>. This word has power to reverse the meaning of the +sentence. <i>Not</i>, then, is a modifier, qualifier, or negative adverb.</p> + +<p>When an adverb is used to modify the sense of a verb or participle, it +generally expresses the manner, time, or place, in which the action is +performed, or some accidental circumstance respecting it. In the +phrases, The man rides <i>gracefully, awkwardly</i>, <i>badly, swiftly, +slowly</i>, &c.; or, I saw the man riding <i>swiftly, slowly, leisurely, very +fast</i>, &c., you perceive that the words <i>gracefully, awkwardly, very +fast</i>, &c., are adverbs, qualifying the verb <i>rides</i>, or the participle +<i>riding</i>, because they express the <i>manner</i> in which the action denoted +by the verb and participle, is done.</p> + +<p>In the phrases, The man rides <i>daily, weekly, seldom, frequently, often, +sometimes, never</i>; or, The man rode <i>yesterday, heretofore, long since, +long ago, recently, lately, just now</i> or, The man will ride <i>soon, +presently, directly, immediately, by and by, to-day, hereafter</i>, you +perceive that all these words in <i>italics</i>, are adverbs, qualifying the +meaning of the verb, rides, because they express the <i>time</i> of the +action denoted by the verb.</p> + +<p>Again, if I say, The man lives <i>here, near by, yonder, remote, far off, +somewhere, nowhere, everywhere</i>, &c., the words in <i>italics</i> are adverbs +of <i>place</i>, because they tell where he lives.</p> + +<p>Adverbs likewise qualify adjectives, and sometimes other adverbs; as, +<i>more</i> wise, <i>most</i> wise; or <i>more wisely, most wisely</i>. When an adverb +is joined to an adjective or adverb, it generally expresses <i>the degree</i> +of comparison; for adverbs, like adjectives, have degrees of comparison. +Thus, in the phrase, A skilful artist, you know the adjective <i>skilful</i> +is in the positive degree; but, by placing the adverb <i>more</i> before the +adjective, we increase the degree of quality denoted by the adjective to +the comparative; as, A <i>more</i> skilful artist: and <i>most</i> renders it +superlative; as, A <i>most</i> skilful artist. And if we place more and most +before other adverbs, the effect is the same; as, skilfully, <i>more</i> +skilfully, <i>most</i> skilfully.</p> + +<h5>COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.</h5> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Positive.</i></td><td align='left'> <i>Comparative.</i></td><td align='left'><i> Superlative</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>soon,</td><td align='left'> sooner,</td><td align='left'> soonest.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>often,</td><td align='left'> oftener,</td><td align='left'> oftenest.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>much,</td><td align='left'> more,</td><td align='left'>most.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>well,</td><td align='left'> better,</td><td align='left'> best.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>far,</td><td align='left'> farther,</td><td align='left'> farthest.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wisely,</td><td align='left'> more wisely,</td><td align='left'> most wisely.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>justly,</td><td align='left'>more justly,</td><td align='left'> most justly.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>justly,</td><td align='left'> less justly,</td><td align='left'> least justly.</td></tr></table> + + +<p>You will generally know an adverb at sight; but sometimes you will find +it more difficult to be distinguished, than any other part of speech in +the English language. I will, therefore, give you some <i>signs</i> which +will assist you a little.</p> + +<p>Most words ending in <i>ly</i> are adverbs; such as, <i>politely, gracefully, +judiciously</i>. Any word or short phrase that will answer to any one of +the questions, <i>how? how much? when?</i> or <i>where?</i> is an adverb; as, The +river flows <i>rapidly</i>; He walks <i>very fast</i>; He has gone <i>far away;</i> but +he will <i>soon</i> return; She sings <i>sweetly</i>; They learn <i>none at all</i>. +How, or in what manner does the river flow? <i>Rapidly</i>. How does he walk? +<i>Very fast</i>. Where has he gone? <i>Far away</i>. When will he return? <i>Soon</i>. +How does she sing? <i>Sweetly</i>. How much do they learn? <i>None at all</i>. +From this illustration, you perceive, that, if you could not tell these +adverbs by the sense, you would know them by their answering to the +questions. However, your better way will be to distinguish adverbs by +considering the office they perform in the sentence; or by noticing +their grammatical relation, or their situation, with respect to other +words. To gain a thorough knowledge of their real character, is highly +important. <i>Rapidly, fast, far away, soon, sweetly</i>, &c. are known to be +adverbs by their qualifying the sense of verbs. "A <i>very</i> good pen +writes <i>extremely well." Well</i>, in this sentence, is known to be an +adverb by its qualifying the sense of the verb <i>writes; extremely</i>, by +its ending in <i>ly</i>, or by its being joined to the adverb <i>well</i> to +qualify it; and <i>very</i> is known as an adverb by its joining the +adjective <i>good</i>.</p> + +<p>Expressions like these, <i>none at all, a great deal, a few days ago, long +since, at length, in vain</i>, when they are used to denote the <i>manner</i> or +<i>time</i> of the action of verbs or participles, are generally termed +<i>adverbial phrases</i>.</p> + +<p>Adverbs, though very numerous, may, for the sake of practical +convenience, be reduced to particular classes.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Of Number;</i> as, Once, twice, thrice, &c.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Of Order;</i> as, First, secondly, lastly, finally, &c.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Of Place;</i> as, Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere, +nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, downward, forward, +backward, whence, thence, whithersoever, &c.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Of Time</i>. <i>Present</i>; as, Now, to-day, &c. <i>Past</i>; as, Already, +before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long since, long ago, +&c. <i>Future</i>; as, To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth, +henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, ere long, +straightways, &c. <i>Time indefinite</i>; as, Oft, often, oft-times, +often-times, sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, +always, when, then, ever, never, again, &c.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Of Quantity</i>; as, Much, little, sufficiently, how much, how great, +enough, abundantly, &c.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Of Manner</i> or <i>quality</i>; as, Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly, +quickly, slowly, &c. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind; and +they are generally formed by adding the termination <i>ly</i> to an adjective +or a participle, or by changing <i>le</i> into <i>ly;</i> as, Bad, badly; +cheerful, cheerfully; able, ably; admirable, admirably.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Of Doubt</i>; as, Haply, perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Of Affirmation</i>; as, Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, +certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really, &c.</p> + +<p>9. <i>Of Negation</i>; as, Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise, +&c.</p> + +<p>10. <i>Of Interrogation</i>; as, How, why, wherefore, whither, &c., and +sometimes when, whence, where.</p> + +<p>11. <i>Of Comparison</i>; as, More, most, better, best, worse, worst, less, +least, very, almost, little, alike, &c.</p> + +<h4>NOTES.</h4> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>1. This catalogue contains but a small portion of the adverbs in our +language. Many adverbs are formed by a combination of prepositions +with the adverbs of place, <i>here, there, where</i>; as, <i>Hereof, +thereof, whereof; hereto, thereto, whereto; hereby, thereby, +whereby; herewith, therewith, wherewith; herein, therein, wherein; +therefore, (i.e. there-for,) wherefore, (i.e. where-for,) hereupon, +hereon, thereupon, thereon, whereupon, whereon, &c.</i></p> + +<p>2. Some adverbs are composed of nouns or verbs and the letter <i>a</i>, +used instead of <i>at, an</i>, &c.; as, Aside, athirst, afoot, asleep, +<i>aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat, adrift, aghast, ago, askance,</i> +<i>away, asunder, astray, &c.</i></p> +</div> + +<p>You will now please to read this lecture <i>four</i> times over, and read +slowly and carefully, for unless you understand well the nature and +character of this part of speech, you will be frequently at a loss to +distinguish it from others in composition. Now do you notice, that, in +this sentence which you have just read, the words <i>slowly, carefully, +well</i>, and <i>frequently</i>, are adverbs? And do you again observe, that, in +the question I have just put to you, the words <i>now</i> and <i>just</i> are +adverbs? Exercise a little sober thought. Fifteen minutes spent in +reflection, are worth whole days occupied in careless reading.</p> + +<p>In the following exercises six parts of speech are presented, namely, +Nouns, Verbs, Articles, Adjectives, Participles, and Adverbs; and I +believe you are now prepared to parse them all agreeably to the +systematic order, <i>four</i> times over. Those words in <i>italics</i> are +adverbs.</p> + +<h4>SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p><i>The order of parsing an</i> ADVERB, is—an adverb, and why?—what +sort?—what does it qualify?—RULE.</p> +</div> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"My friend has returned <i>again</i>; but his health is <i>not very</i> good."</p> +<p><i>Again</i>, is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of a verb—of +time indefinite, it expresses a period of time not precisely defined—it +qualifies the verb "has returned," according to</p> + +<p>Rule 29. <i>Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other +adverbs</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Not</i> is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of an adverb—of +negation, it makes the assertion negative; that is, it changes the +proposition from an affirmative to a negative—and it qualifies the +adverb "very," agreeably to Rule 29. <i>Adverbs qualify verbs, &c</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Very</i> is an adverb, a word used to qualify the sense of an +adjective—of comparison, it compares the adjective "good," and +qualifies it according to Rule 29. <i>Adverbs qualify adjectives, &c</i>.</p> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>The traveller described a lofty castle decaying <i>gradually. Very</i> few +literary men <i>ever</i> became distinguished poets. The great Milton excels +<i>not</i> Homer. The Roman women, <i>once voluntarily</i> contributed their +<i>most</i> precious jewels to save the city.</p> + +<p>Many small streams uniting, form <i>very</i> large rivers. The river Funza +falling <i>perpendicularly</i> forms a vast cataract. Attentive servants +<i>always</i> drive horses <i>very carefully</i>; negligent servants <i>often</i> drive +horses <i>very carelessly</i>. Assiduous scholars improve <i>very fast</i>; idle +scholars learn <i>none at all</i>. Friendship <i>often</i> ends in love; but love +in friendship, <i>never</i>.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>NOTE. Several adverbs frequently qualify one verb. Have you walked? <i>Not +yet quite far enough, perhaps. Not, yet, far</i>, and <i>enough</i>, qualify +"have walked" understood; <i>perhaps</i> qualifies <i>not</i>; and <i>quite</i> +qualifies <i>far</i>. The adverbs <i>always</i> and <i>carefully</i> both qualify the +verb "drive:" the former expresses <i>time</i>, and the latter, <i>manner. +Once</i> and <i>voluntarily</i> qualify the verb "contributed;" the former +expresses <i>number</i>, and the latter, <i>manner</i>. The word <i>their</i> you need +not parse. The active verb <i>to save</i> has no nominative. The nouns <i>love</i> +and <i>friendship</i>, following <i>in</i>, are in the objective case, and +governed by that preposition.</p> + +<h4>REMARKS ON ADVERBS.</h4> + +<p>When the words <i>therefore, consequently, accordingly</i>, and the like, +are used in connexion with other conjunctions, they are <i>adverbs</i>; but +when they appear single, they are commonly considered <i>conjunctions</i>.</p> + +<p>The words <i>when</i> and <i>where</i>, and all others of the same nature, such as +<i>whence, whither, whenever, wherever, till, until, before, otherwise, +while, wherefore</i>, &c. may be properly called <i>adverbial conjunctions</i>, +because they participate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions; of +adverbs, as they denote the attributes either of <i>time</i> or <i>place</i>; of +conjunctions, as they <i>conjoin sentences</i>.</p> + +<p>There are many words that are sometimes used as adjectives, and, +sometimes as adverbs; as, "<i>More</i> men than women were there; I am <i>more</i> +diligent than he." In the former sentence <i>more</i> is evidently an +adjective, for it is joined to a noun to qualify it; in the latter it is +an adverb, because it qualifies an adjective. There are others that are +sometimes used as nouns, and sometimes as adverbs; as, "<i>to-day's</i> +lesson is longer than <i>yesterday's</i>." In this example, <i>to-day</i> and +<i>yesterday</i> are nouns in the possessive case; but in phrases like the +following, they are generally considered adverbs of time; "He came [<i>to +his] home yesterday</i>, and will set out again <i>to-day</i>." Here they are +nouns, if we supply <i>on</i> before them.</p> + +<p>"Where <i>much [wealth, talent</i>, or something else] is given, <i>much +[increase, improvement</i>] will be required; <i>Much</i> money has been +expended; It is <i>much</i> better to write than starve." In the first two of +these examples, <i>much</i> is an adjective, because it qualifies a noun; in +the last, an adverb, because it qualifies the adjective <i>better</i>. In +short, you must determine to what part of speech a word belongs, by its +<i>sense</i>, or by considering the <i>manner</i> in which it is associated with +other words.</p> + +<p>An adjective may, in general, be distinguished from an <i>adverb</i> by this +rule: when a word qualifies a <i>noun</i> or <i>pronoun</i>, it is an adjective, +but when it qualifies a <i>verb, participle, adjective</i>, or <i>adverb</i>, it +is an adverb.</p> + +<p>Prepositions are sometimes erroneously called adverbs, when their nouns +are understood. "He rides <i>about</i>;" that is, about the <i>town, country</i>, +or some-<i>thing</i> else. "She was <i>near</i> [the <i>act</i> or <i>misfortune of</i>] +falling;" "But do not <i>after</i> [that <i>time</i> or <i>event</i>] lay the blame on +me." "He came <i>down</i> [the <i>ascent</i>] from the hill;" "They lifted him +<i>up</i> [the <i>ascent</i>] out of the pit." "The angels <i>above</i>;"—above +<i>us</i>—"Above these lower <i>heavens</i>, to us invisible, or dimly seen."</p> +</div> + +<p>Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false Syntax, +you may answer these</p> + +<h4>QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>Does an adverb ever qualify a noun?—What parts of speech does it +qualify?—When an adverb qualifies a verb or participle, what does it +express?—When an adverb qualifies an adjective or adverb, what does it +generally express?—Compare some adverbs.—By what signs may an adverb +be known?—Give examples.—Repeat some <i>adverbial phrases</i>.—Name the +different classes of adverbs.—Repeat some of each class.—Repeat the +order of parsing an adverb.—What rule do you apply in parsing an +adverb?</p> + +<h4>QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES.</h4> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>Repeat some adverbs that are formed by combining prepositions with +adverbs of place.—Repeat some that are composed of the article <i>a</i> and +nouns.—What part of speech are the words, <i>therefore, consequently</i>, +&c.?—What words are styled <i>adverbial conjunctions</i>?—Why are they so +called?—Is the same word sometimes used as an adjective, and sometimes +as an adverb?—Give examples.—What is said of <i>much</i>?—By what rule can +you distinguish an adjective from an adverb?—Do prepositions ever +become adverbs?</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h4>PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.</h4> + +<p>As the happiness and increasing prosperity of a people essentially +depend on their advancement in science and the arts, and as +language, in all its sublime purposes and legitimate bearings, is +strictly identified with these, it may naturally be supposed, that +that nation which continues, through successive generations, +steadily to progress in the former, will not be neglectful of the +cultivation and refinement of the latter. The truth of this remark +is illustrated by those who have, for many ages, employed the +English language as their medium for the transmission of thought. +Among its refinements may be ranked those procedures by which verbs +and nouns have been so modified and contracted as to form what we +call adverbs, distributives, conjunctions, and prepositions; for I +presume it will be readily conceded, that conciseness, as well as +copiousness and perspicuity in language, is the offspring of +refinement. That an immense amount of time and breath is saved by +the use of adverbs, the following development will clearly +demonstrate. He who is successful in contracting one mode of +expression that is daily used by thirty millions, doubtless does +much for their benefit.</p> + +<p>Most adverbs express in one word what would otherwise require two or +more words; as, "He did it <i>here</i>," for, He did it <i>in this place; +there</i>, for, <i>in that place; where</i>, for, <i>in what place; now</i>, for, +<i>at this time. Why</i> means <i>for what reason; how—in what mind, mood, +mode</i>, or <i>manner; exceedingly—to a great degree; very—in an +eminent degree; often</i> and <i>seldom</i> signify <i>many times, few times</i>.</p> + +<p>The procedures by which words have been contracted, modified and +combined, to form this class of words, have been various. The most +prolific family of this illegitimate race, are those in <i>ly</i>, a +contraction of <i>like. Gentleman-ly</i>, means <i>gentleman-like, like</i> a +gentleman. We do not yet say, <i>ladily</i>, but <i>lady-like</i>. The north +Britons still say, <i>wiselike, manlike</i>, instead of, <i>wisely, manly</i>. +</p> +<p><i>Quick</i> comes from <i>gwick</i>, the past part. of the Anglo-Saxon verb +<i>gwiccian</i>, to vivify, give life. <i>Quick-ly</i> or <i>live-ly</i>, means, in +a <i>quick-like</i> or <i>life-like</i> manner; in the manner of a creature +that has <i>life. Rapid-ly—rapid-like, like a rapid</i>; a <i>quick-ly</i> or +<i>swift-ly</i> running place in a stream.</p> + +<p><i>Al-ways</i>, contraction of <i>in all ways</i>. By a slight transition, it +means <i>in</i> or <i>at all times. Al-one</i>, contraction of <i>all-one. +On-ly—one-like. Al-so—all the same</i> (thing.) <i>Ever</i>—an <i>age</i>. For +<i>ever</i> and <i>ever</i>—for <i>ages</i> and <i>ages</i>. Ever is not synonymous +with always. <i>Never</i>—<i>ne ever</i>. It signifies <i>no age, no period of +time. No</i>, contraction of <i>not. Not</i>, a modification of <i>no-thing, +noth-ing, naught</i>. "He is <i>not</i> greater"—is greater <i>in +naught</i>—<i>in no thing</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Adrift</i> is the past part. <i>adrifed, adrif'd, adrift</i>; from the +Saxon <i>drifan</i>, or <i>adrifan</i>, to drive. <i>Ago</i>, formerly written +<i>ygo, gon, agon, gone, agone</i>, is the past part. of the verb <i>to +go</i>. It refers to time <i>gone by. Asunder</i>, the Saxon past part. +<i>asundren</i>, from the verb <i>sondrian</i> or <i>asondrian</i>, to separate. +<i>Aloft—on the loft, on luft, on lyft; lyft</i> being the Anglo-Saxon +word for <i>air</i> or <i>clouds. Astray</i>, the part. of <i>straegan</i>, to +stray. <i>Awry</i>, part. of <i>wry than</i>, to writhe. +</p> +<p><i>Needs</i>—<i>need-is</i>; anciently, <i>nedes</i>, nede is. +To-<i>wit</i>, the infinitive of <i>witan</i>, to know. It means, <i>to be +known</i>. <i>Ay</i> or <i>yea</i> signifies <i>have it, enjoy it. Yes</i> is <i>ay-es</i>, +have, possess, enjoy <i>that</i>. Our corrupt <i>o-yes</i> of the crier, is +the French imperative, <i>oyez</i>, hear, listen. <i>Straight way</i>—by a +straight way. <i>While—wheel</i>; period in which some thing <i>whiles</i> or +<i>wheels</i> itself round. <i>Till</i>—to while. <i>Per</i>, Latin,—the English +<i>by</i>. Perhaps—per haps, per chance.</p> + +<p>These examples of derivation +are given with the view to invite the attention of the intelligent +pupil to the "Diversions of Purley, by John Horne Tooke."</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h4>QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.</h4> + +<p>How does the use of adverbs contribute to the conciseness of +language?—Illustrate the fact.—What is said of <i>ly, like</i>, and +<i>quick</i>?—How are the following words composed, <i>always, alone, only, +also</i>?—What is the meaning of <i>ever, never, not, adrift, ago, asunder, +aloft, astray, awry</i>?—Give the signification of <i>needs, to-wit, ye, +yes, o-yes, straightway, while, till</i>, and <i>per</i>.</p> + +<p>NOTE. Learners need not answer the questions on the Philosophical Notes, +in this or any other Lecture, unless the teacher deem it expedient.</p> +</div> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>NOTE 3, TO RULE 29, Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as +adverbs; as, indifferent honest; excellent well; miserable poor:—She +writes elegant; He is walking slow.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>The adjectives <i>indifferent, excellent</i>, and <i>miserable</i>, are here +improperly used, because adjectives do not express the degree of +adjectives or adverbs, but such modifications are denoted by adverbs. +The phrases should, therefore, be, "<i>indifferently</i> honest, +<i>excellently</i> well, <i>miserably</i> poor." <i>Elegant</i> and <i>slow</i> are also +inaccurate, for it is not the office of the adjective to express the +manner, time, or place of the action of verbs and participles, but it is +<i>the office</i> of the adverb. The constructions should be, "She writes +<i>elegantly</i>; He is walking <i>slowly</i>."</p> +</div> + +<p>You may correct the following examples several times over, and explain +the principles that are violated.</p> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>He speaks fluent, and reasons coherent.</p> + +<p>She reads proper, and writes very neat.</p> + +<p>They once lived tolerable well, but now they are miserable poor.</p> + +<p>The lowering clouds are moving slow.</p> + +<p>He behaved himself submissive, and was exceeding careful not to give +offence.</p> + +<p>NOTE 4, TO RULE 29. Adverbs are sometimes improperly used instead of +adjectives; as, "The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, but +<i>suitably</i> to his offence."</p> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>The adverb <i>suitably</i> is incorrect. It does not express the manner of +the action of the verb "addressed," but it denotes the <i>quality</i> of the +noun <i>terms</i> understood; for which reason it should be an adjective, +<i>suitable</i>.</p> +</div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>The man was slowly wandering about, <i>solitarily</i> and distressed.</p> + +<p>He lived in a manner <i>agreeably</i> to his condition.</p> + +<p>The study of Syntax should be <i>previously</i> to that of Punctuation.</p> + +<p>He introduced himself in a manner very <i>abruptly</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Conformably</i> to their vehemence of thought, was their vehemence of +gesture.</p> + +<p>I saw him <i>previously</i> to his arrival.</p> + +<hr style='width: 65%;' /> +<a name="PREPOSITIONS"></a> +<h2>LECTURE VII +</h2> + +<h3>OF PREPOSITIONS.</h3> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>A PREPOSITION is a word which serves to connect words, and show the +relation between them.</p> +</div> + +<p>The term <i>preposition</i> is derived from the two Latin words, <i>pre</i>, which +signifies <i>before</i>, and <i>pono, to place</i>. Prepositions are so called, +because they are mostly placed before the nouns and pronouns which they +govern in the objective case.</p> + +<p>The principal prepositions are presented in the following list, which +you may now commit to memory, and thus you will be enabled to +distinguish them from other parts of speech whenever you see them in +composition.</p> + +<h5>A LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS.</h5> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>of</td><td align='left'> over</td><td align='left'> at</td><td align='left'> after</td><td align='left'> betwixt</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>to</td><td align='left'> under</td><td align='left'> near</td><td align='left'> about</td><td align='left'> beside</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>for</td><td align='left'> through</td><td align='left'> up</td><td align='left'> against</td><td align='left'> athwart</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>by</td><td align='left'> above</td><td align='left'> down</td><td align='left'> unto</td><td align='left'> towards</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>with</td><td align='left'> below</td><td align='left'> before</td><td align='left'> across</td><td align='left'> notwithstanding</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>in</td><td align='left'> between</td><td align='left'> behind</td><td align='left'> around</td><td align='left'>out of</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>into</td><td align='left'> beneath</td><td align='left'> off</td><td align='left'> amidst</td><td align='left'> instead of</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>within</td><td align='left'> from</td><td align='left'> on upon</td><td align='left'> throughout</td><td align='left'> over against</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>without</td><td align='left'> beyond</td><td align='left'> among</td><td align='left'> underneath</td><td align='left'> according to.</td></tr></table> + + +<p>This list contains many words that are sometimes used as conjunctions, +and sometimes as adverbs; but when you shall have become acquainted with +the <i>nature</i> of the preposition, and of the conjunction and adverb too, +you will find no difficulty in ascertaining to which of these classes +any word belongs.</p> + +<p>By looking at the definition of a preposition, you will notice, that it +performs a <i>double</i> office in a sentence, namely, it <i>connects</i> words, +and also shows a <i>relation</i> between them. I will first show you the use +and importance of this part of speech as a connective. When corn is +ripe—October, it is gathered—the field—men—who +go—hill—hill—baskets,—which they put the ears. You perceive, that in +this sentence there is a total want of connexion and meaning; but let us +fill up each vacancy with a preposition, and the sense will be clear. +"When corn is ripe, <i>in</i> October, it is gathered <i>in</i> the field <i>by</i> +men, who go <i>from</i> hill <i>to</i> hill <i>with</i> baskets, <i>into</i> which they put +the ears."</p> + +<p>From this illustration you are convinced, no doubt, that our language +would be very deficient without prepositions to connect the various +words of which it is composed. It would, in fact, amount to nothing but +nonsense. There is, however, another part of speech that performs this +office, namely, the conjunction. This will be explained in Lecture IX.; +in which lecture you will learn, that the nature of a preposition, as a +connective particle, is nearly allied to that of a conjunction. In the +next place I will show you how prepositions express a <i>relation</i> between +words.</p> + +<p>The boy's hat is <i>under</i> his arm. In this expression, what relation does +the preposition <i>under</i> show? You know that <i>hat</i> and <i>arm</i> are words +used as signs of two objects, or ideas; but <i>under</i> is <i>not</i> the sign of +a thing you can think of: it is merely the sign of the <i>relation</i> +existing between the two objects. Hence you may perceive, that since the +word <i>under</i> is the sign of the <i>relation</i> existing between particular +<i>ideas</i>, it also expresses a relation existing between the words <i>hat</i> +and <i>arm</i>, which words are the representatives of those ideas.</p> + +<p>The boy holds his hat <i>in</i> his hand. In this sentence the preposition +<i>in</i> shows the relation existing between <i>hat</i> and <i>hand</i>, or the +situation, or relative position, each has in regard to the other. And, +if I say, The boy's hat is <i>on</i> his head, you perceive that <i>on</i> shows +the relation between <i>hat</i> and <i>head</i>. Again, in the expressions, The +boy threw his hat <i>up stairs</i>—<i>under</i> the bed—<i>behind</i> the +table—<i>through</i> the window—<i>over</i> the house—<i>across</i> the +street—<i>into</i> the water—and so on, you perceive that the several +prepositions express the different relations existing between the <i>hat</i> +and the other nouns, <i>stairs, bed, table, window, house, street</i>, and +<i>water</i>.</p> + +<p>A preposition tells <i>where</i> a thing is: thus, "The pear is on the +ground, <i>under</i> the tree."</p> + +<p>Prepositions govern the objective case, but they do <i>not</i> express an +action done to some object, as an active-transitive verb or participle +does. When a noun or pronoun follows a preposition, it is in the +objective case, because it is the object of the <i>relation</i> expressed by +the preposition, and <i>not</i> the object of an <i>action</i>.</p> + +<a name="objectiveii"></a> +<p>I can now give you a more extensive explanation of the <i>objective case</i>, +than that which was given in a former lecture. I have already informed +you, that the objective case expresses the object of an action <i>or</i> of a +relation; and, also, that there are <i>three</i> parts of speech which govern +nouns and pronouns in the objective case, namely, <i>active-transitive +verbs, participles derived from transitive verbs</i>, and <i>prepositions</i>. A +noun or pronoun in the objective case, cannot be, at the same time, the +object of an action <i>and</i> of a relation. It must be either the object of +an action <i>or</i> of a relation. And I wish you particularly to remember, +that whenever a noun or pronoun is governed by a transitive verb or +participle, it is the object of an <i>action</i>; as, The tutor <i>instructs</i> +his <i>pupils</i>; or, The tutor is <i>instructing</i> his <i>pupils</i>; but whenever +a noun or pronoun is governed by a preposition, it is the object of a +<i>relation</i>; as, The tutor gives good instruction <i>to</i> his <i>pupils</i>.</p> + +<p>Before you proceed to parse the following examples, please to review +this lecture, and then the whole seven in the manner previously +recommended, namely, read one or two sentences, and then look off your +book and repeat them two or three times over in your mind. This course +will enable you to retain the most important ideas advanced. If you wish +to proceed with ease and advantage, you must have the subject-matter of +the preceding lectures stored in your mind. Do not consider it an +unpleasant task to comply with my requisitions, for when you shall have +learned thus far, you will understand <i>seven</i> parts of speech; and only +<i>three</i> more will remain to be learned.</p> + +<p>If you have complied with the foregoing request, you may commit the +following <i>order</i>, and then proceed in parsing.</p> + +<h4>SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p><i>The order of parsing a</i> PREPOSITION, is—a preposition, and why?—what +does it connect?—what relation does it show?</p> +</div> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"He saw an antelope <i>in</i> the <i>wilderness."</i></p> + +<p><i>In</i> is a preposition, a word which serves to connect words, and show +the relation between them—it connects the words "antelope" and +"wilderness"—and shows the relation between them.</p> + +<p><i>Wilderness</i> is a noun, the name of a place—com. the name of a sort or +species—neut. gend. it denotes a thing without sex—third pers. spoken +of—sing. num. it implies but one—and in the objective case, it is the +object of a <i>relation</i> expressed by the preposition "in," and governed +by it, according to</p> + +<p>RULE 31. <i>Prepositions govern the objective case</i>.</p> + +<p>The genius of our language will not allow us to say, Stand before <i>he</i>; +Hand the paper to <i>they</i>. Prepositions <i>require</i> the pronoun following +them to be in the objective form, position, or case; and this +requisition amounts to <i>government</i>. Hence we say, "Stand before <i>him</i>;" +"Hand the paper to <i>them</i>." Every preposition expresses a relation, and +every relation must have an <i>object</i>: consequently, every preposition +must be followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case.</p> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>The all-wise Creator bestowed the power of speech upon man, for the most +excellent uses. Augustus heard the orator pleading the client's cause, +in a flow of most powerful eloquence. Fair Cynthia smiles serenely over +nature's soft repose. Life's varying schemes no more distract the +laboring mind of man. Septimius stabbed Pompey standing on the shore of +Egypt.</p> + +<p>A beam of tranquillity often plays round the heart of the truly pious +man. The thoughts of former years glide over my soul, like +swift-shooting meteors over Ardven's gloomy vales.</p> + +<p>At the approach of day, night's swift dragons cut the clouds full fast; +and ghosts, wandering here and there, troop home to church-yards.</p> + +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Love still pursues an ever devious race,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>True to the winding lineaments of grace.</span><br /> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>NOTE.—The words <i>my</i> and <i>and</i> you need not parse. The noun "meteors," +following the adverb "like," is in the objective case, and governed by +<i>unto</i> understood, according to NOTE 2, under Rule 32. The noun "home" +is governed by <i>to</i> understood, according to Rule 32.</p> + +<h4>REMARKS ON PREPOSITIONS AND VERBS.</h4> + +<p>A noun or pronoun in the objective case, is often governed by a +preposition understood; as, "Give <i>him</i> that book;" that is, "Give that +book <i>to</i> him;" "Ortugrul was one <i>day</i> wandering," &c. that is, <i>on</i> +one day. "Mercy gives <i>affliction</i> a grace;" that is, Mercy gives a +grace <i>to</i> affliction. See Note 1, under Rule 32.</p> + +<p>To be able to make a proper use of prepositions, particular attention is +requisite. There is a peculiar propriety to be observed in the use of +<i>by</i> and <i>with;</i> as, "He walks <i>with</i> a staff <i>by</i> moonlight;" "He was +taken <i>by</i> stratagem, and killed <i>with</i> a sword." Put the one +preposition for the other, and say, "He walks <i>by</i> a staff <i>with</i> +moonlight;" "He was taken <i>with</i> stratagem, and killed <i>by</i> a sword;" +and it will appear, that the latter expressions differ from the former +in signification, more than one, at first view, would be apt to imagine.</p> + +<a name="compound"></a> +<p>Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a <i>preposition;</i> as, to +<i>up</i>hold, to <i>with</i>stand, to <i>over</i>look; and this composition gives a +new meaning to the verb; as, to <i>under</i>stand, to <i>with</i>draw, to +<i>for</i>give. But the preposition is more frequently placed after the verb, +and separately from it, like an adverb; in which situation it does not +less affect the sense of the verb, and give it a new meaning; and in all +instances, whether the preposition is placed either before or after the +verb, if it gives a new meaning to the verb, it may be considered as <i>a +part of the verb</i>. Thus, <i>to cast</i> means <i>to throw</i>; but <i>to cast up</i> an +account, signifies <i>to compute</i> it; therefore <i>up</i> is a part of the +verb. The phrases, <i>to fall on, to bear out, to give over</i>, convey very +different meanings from what they would if the prepositions <i>on, out</i> +and <i>over</i>, were not used. Verbs of this kind are called <i>compound</i> +verbs.</p> +</div> + +<p>You may now answer the following</p> + +<h4>QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>From what words is the term <i>preposition</i> derived?—Why is it thus +named?—Repeat the list of prepositions.—Name the three parts of speech +that govern nouns and pronouns in the objective case.—When is a noun or +pronoun in the objective case, the object of an action?—When is it the +object of a relation?—Repeat the order of parsing a preposition.—What +rule do you apply in parsing a noun or pronoun governed by a +preposition?—Does every preposition require an objective case after +it?—Is a noun or pronoun ever governed by a preposition +understood?—Give examples.—What is said of verbs compounded of a verb +and preposition?—Give the origin and meaning of the prepositions +explained in the Philosophical Notes.</p> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + + +<h4>PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.</h4> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p><i>From</i>, according to H. Tooke, is the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic noun +<i>frum</i>, beginning, source, author. "He came <i>from (beginning</i>) +Rochester." <i>Of</i>, he supposes to be a fragment of the Gothic and +Saxon noun <i>afora</i>, consequence, offspring, follower. "Solomon, the +son <i>of (offspring</i>) David." <i>Of</i> or <i>off</i>, in its modern +acceptation, signifies <i>disjoined, sundered</i>: A piece <i>of (off</i>) the +loaf, is, a piece <i>disjoined</i>, or <i>separated</i> from the loaf. The +fragrance <i>of</i> or <i>off</i> the rose.</p> + +<p><i>For</i> signifies <i>cause</i>. "I write <i>for</i> your satisfaction;" i.e. +your satisfaction being the <i>cause. By</i> or <i>be</i> is the imperative +<i>byth</i>, of the Saxon <i>beon</i>, to be. <i>With</i>, the imperative of +<i>withan</i>, to join; or, when equivalent to <i>by</i>, of <i>wyr-than</i>, to +be. "I will go <i>with</i> him." "I, <i>join</i> him, will go." <i>In</i> comes +from the Gothic noun <i>inna</i>, the interior of the body; a cave or +cell. <i>About</i>, from <i>boda</i>, the first outward boundary. <i>Among</i> is +the past part. of <i>gamaengan</i>, to mingle. <i>Through</i> or <i>thorough</i> is +the Gothic substantive <i>dauro</i>, or the Teutonic <i>thuruh</i>. It means +<i>passage, gate, door.</i></p> + +<p><i>Before</i>—<i>be-fore, be-hind, be-low, be-side, be-sides, be-neath</i> +are formed by combining the imperative, <i>be</i>, with the nouns <i>fore, +hind, low, side, neath. Neath</i>—Saxon <i>neothan, neothe</i>, has the +same signification as <i>nadir. Be-tween, be-twixt</i>—<i>be</i> and <i>twain</i>. +A dual preposition. <i>Be-yond</i>—<i>be-passed. Beyond</i> a place, means, +<i>be passed</i> that place. +<i>Notwithstanding—not-stand-ing-with, not-withstanding</i>. "Any order +to the contrary not-withstanding," (this order;) i.e. <i>not</i> +effectually <i>withstanding</i> or <i>opposing</i> it.</p> +</div> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> +<a name="PRONOUNS"></a> +<h2>LECTURE VIII.</h2> + +<h3>OF PRONOUNS.</h3> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a noun, and generally to avoid the +too frequent repetition of the same word. A pronoun is, likewise, +sometimes a substitute for a sentence, or member of a sentence.</p> +</div> + +<p>The word <i>pronoun</i> comes from the two Latin words, <i>pro</i>, which means +<i>for</i>, or <i>instead of</i>, and <i>nomen</i>, a <i>name</i>, or <i>noun.</i> Hence you +perceive, that <i>pronoun</i> means <i>for a noun</i>, or <i>instead of a noun</i>.</p> + +<p>In the sentence, "The man is happy; <i>he</i> is benevolent; <i>he</i> is useful;" +you perceive, that the word <i>he</i> is used instead of the noun <i>man;</i> +consequently <i>he</i> must be a <i>pronoun</i>. You observe, too, that, by making +use of the pronoun <i>he</i> in this sentence, we avoid the <i>repetition</i> of +the <i>noun</i> man, for without the pronoun, the sentence would be rendered +thus, "The man is happy; <i>the man</i> is benevolent; <i>the man</i> is useful."</p> + +<p>By looking again at the definition, you will notice, that pronouns +always <i>stand for</i> nouns, but they do not always <i>avoid the repetition</i> +of nouns. <i>Repetition</i> means <i>repeating</i> or mentioning the same thing +again. In the sentence, "I come to die for my country," the pronouns, +<i>I</i> and <i>my, stand</i> for the name of the person who speaks; but they do +not <i>avoid the repetition</i> of that name, because the name or noun for +which the pronouns are used, is not mentioned at all. Pronouns of the +<i>third</i> person, generally avoid the repetition of the nouns for which +they stand; but pronouns of the <i>first</i> and <i>second</i> person, sometimes +avoid the repetition of nouns, and sometimes they do not.</p> + +<p>A little farther illustration of the pronoun will show you its +importance, and, also, that its nature is very easily comprehended. If +we had no pronouns in our language, we should be obliged to express +ourselves in this manner: "A woman went to a man, and told the man that +the man was in danger of being murdered by a gang of robbers; as a gang +of robbers had made preparations for attacking the man. The man thanked +the woman for the woman's kindness, and, as the man was unable to defend +the man's self, the man left the man's house, and went to a neighbor's."</p> + +<p>This would be a laborious style indeed; but, by the help of pronouns, we +can express the same ideas with far greater ease and conciseness: "A +woman went to a man, and told <i>him</i>, that <i>he</i> was in great danger of +being murdered by a gang of robbers, <i>who</i> had made preparations for +attacking <i>him. He</i> thanked <i>her</i> for <i>her</i> kindness, and, as <i>he</i> was +unable to defend <i>himself</i>, <i>he</i> left <i>his</i> house and went to a +neighbor's."</p> + +<p>If you look at these examples a few moments, you cannot be at a loss to +tell which words are pronouns; and you will observe too, that they all +stand for nouns.</p> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>Pronouns are generally divided into three kinds, the <i>Personal</i>, the +<i>Adjective</i>, and the <i>Relative</i> pronouns. They are all known by the +<i>lists</i>.</p> + + +<h4>1. OF <a name="PERSONAL_PRONOUNS"></a>PERSONAL PRONOUNS.</h4> + +<p>Personal Pronouns are distinguished from the +relative, by their denoting the <i>person</i> of the nouns for which they +stand. There are five of them; <i>I</i>, <i>thou, he, she, it</i>; with their +plurals, <i>We, ye</i> or <i>you, they</i>.</p> + +<p>To pronouns belong gender, person, number, and case.</p> +</div> + +<p>GENDER. When we speak of a <i>man</i>, we say, <i>he, his, him</i>; when we speak +of a <i>woman</i>, we say, <i>she, hers, her</i>; and when we speak of a <i>thing</i>, +we say <i>it</i>. Hence you perceive, that gender belongs to pronouns as well +as to nouns. Example; "The general, in gratitude to the lady, offered +<i>her his</i> hand; but <i>she</i>, not knowing <i>him</i>, declined accepting <i>it</i>." +The pronouns <i>his</i> and <i>him</i>, in this sentence, personate or represent +the noun <i>general</i>; they are, therefore, of the masculine gender: <i>her</i> +and <i>she</i> personate the <i>lady</i>; therefore, they are feminine: and <i>it</i> +represents <i>hand</i>; for which reason it is of the neuter gender. This +illustration shows you, then, that pronouns must be of the same gender +as the nouns are for which they stand. But, as it relates to the +variation of the pronouns to express the sex,</p> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns, +<i>he, she, it. He</i> is masculine; <i>she</i> is feminine; <i>it</i> is neuter.</p> +</div> + +<p>You may naturally inquire, why pronouns of the first and second persons +are not varied to denote the gender of their nouns, as well as of the +third. The reason is obvious. The first person, that is, the person +speaking, and the second person, or the person spoken to, being at the +same time the subjects of the discourse, are supposed to be present; +from which, and other circumstances, their sex is commonly known, and, +therefore, the pronouns that represent these persons, need not be marked +by a distinction of gender; but the third person, that is, the person or +thing spoken of, being absent, and in many respects unknown, necessarily +requires the pronoun that stands for it, to be marked by a distinction +of gender.</p> + +<p>In parsing, we sometimes apply gender to pronouns of the first and +second person, and also to the plural number of the third person; but +these have no peculiar form to denote their gender; therefore they have +no agreement, in this respect, with the nouns which they represent.</p> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>PERSON. Pronouns have three persons in each number.</p> +</div> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='2' summary='' class='bigtext'> +<tr><td align='left'><i>I</i>, is the first person</td><td align='left'>{</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Thou</i>, is the second person</td><td align='left'>{Singular.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>He, she</i>, or <i>it</i>, is the third person</td><td align='left'>{</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>We</i>, is the first person</td><td align='left'>{</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Ye</i> or <i>you</i>, is the second person</td><td align='left'>{Plural.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>They</i>, is the third person</td><td align='left'>{</td></tr></table> + + +<p>This account of persons will be very intelligible, when you reflect, +that there are three persons who may be the subject of any discourse: +first, the person who speaks, may speak of himself; secondly, he may +speak of the person to whom he addresses himself; thirdly, he may speak +of some other person; and as the speakers, the persons spoken to, and +the persons spoken of, may be many, so each of these persons must have a +plural number.</p> + +<p>Pronouns of the second and third person, always agree, in person with +the nouns they represent; but pronouns of the first person, do not. +Whenever a pronoun of the first person is used, it represents a noun; +but nouns are <i>never</i> of the first person, therefore these pronouns +cannot agree in person with their nouns.</p> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>NUMBER. Pronouns, like nouns, have two numbers, the singular and the +plural; as, <i>I, thou, he</i>; <i>we, ye</i> or <i>you, they</i>.</p> + +<p>CASE. Pronouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the +objective.</p> +</div> + +<p>In the next place I will present to you the <i>declension</i> of the personal +pronouns, which declension you must commit to memory before you proceed +any farther.</p> + +<p>The advantages resulting from the committing of the following +declension, are so great and diversified, that you cannot be too +particular in your attention to it. You recollect, that it is sometimes +very difficult to distinguish the nominative case of a noun from the +objective, because these cases of nouns are not marked by a difference +in termination; but this difficulty is removed in regard to the personal +pronouns, for their cases are always known by their termination. By +studying the declension you will learn, not only the cases of the +pronouns, but, also, their genders, persons, and numbers.</p> + +<h4>DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS.</h4> + +<h5><i>FIRST PERSON.</i></h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary=''> +<tr><td> </td><td align='left'><i>Sing.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Nom</i>.</td><td align='left'> I,</td><td align='left'>we,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Poss</i>.</td><td align='left'> my <i>or</i> mine,</td><td align='left'>our <i>or</i> ours,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Obj</i>.</td><td align='left'> me.</td><td align='left'>us.</td></tr></table> + + +<h5>SECOND PERSON.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary=''> +<tr><td> </td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Nom</i>.</td><td align='left'> thou,</td><td align='left'>ye <i>or</i> you,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Poss</i>.</td><td align='left'> thy <i>or</i> thine,</td><td align='left'>your <i>or</i> yours,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Obj</i>.</td><td align='left'> thee.</td><td align='left'>you.</td></tr></table> + + +<h5>THIRD PERSON.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary=''> +<tr><td> </td><td align='left'><i>Mas. Sing.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Nom</i>.</td><td align='left'> he,</td><td align='left'>they,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Poss</i>.</td><td align='left'> his,</td><td align='left'>their <i>or</i> theirs,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Obj</i>.</td><td align='left'> him.</td><td align='left'>them.</td></tr></table> + + +<h5>THIRD PERSON.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary=''> +<tr><td> </td><td align='left'><i>Fem. Sing.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Nom</i>.</td><td align='left'> she,</td><td align='left'>they,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Poss</i>.</td><td align='left'> her <i>or</i> hers,</td><td align='left'>their <i>or</i> theirs.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Obj</i>.</td><td align='left'> her.</td><td align='left'>them.</td></tr></table> + + +<h5>THIRD PERSON.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='0' summary=''> +<tr><td> </td><td align='left'><i>Neut. Sing.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Nom</i>.</td><td align='left'> it,</td><td align='left'>they,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Poss</i>. </td><td align='left'>its,</td><td align='left'>their <i>or</i> theirs,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td><td align='left'> it.</td><td align='left'>them.</td></tr></table> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h4>NOTES.</h4> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>1. When <i>self</i> is added to the personal pronouns, as himself, +myself, itself, themselves, &c. they are called <i>compound personal +pronouns</i>, and are used in the nominative or objective case, but not +in the possessive.</p> + +<p>2. In order to avoid the disagreeable harshness of sound, occasioned +by the frequent recurrence of the terminations <i>est, edst</i>, in the +adaptation of our verbs to the nominative <i>thou</i>, a modern +innovation which substitutes <i>you</i> for <i>thou</i>, in familiar style, +has generally been adopted. This innovation contributes greatly to +the harmony of our colloquial style. <i><a name="You"></a>You</i> was formerly restricted +to the plural number; but now it is employed to represent either a +singular or a plural noun. It ought to be recollected, however, that +when used as the representative of a singular noun, this word +retains its original <i>plural form</i>; and, therefore, the verb +connected with it, should always be plural. Inattention to this +peculiarity, has betrayed some writers into the erroneous +conclusion, that, because <i>you</i> implies unity when it represents a +singular noun, it ought, when thus employed, to be followed by a +singular verb; as, "When <i>was you</i> there?" "How far <i>was you</i> from +the parties?" Such a construction, however, is not supported by +<i>good</i> usage, nor by analogy. It is as manifest a solecism as to +say, We <i>am</i>, or we <i>is</i>. Were it, in any case, admissible to +connect a singular verb with <i>you</i>, the use of <i>was</i> would still be +ungrammatical, for this form of the verb is confined to the first and +third persons, and <i>you</i> is second person. <i>Wast</i> being second +person, it would approximate nearer to correctness to say, you +<i>wast</i>. We never use the singular of the present tense with +you:—you <i>art</i>, you <i>is</i>; you <i>walkest</i>, you <i>walks</i>. Why, then, +should any attempt be made to force a usage so unnatural and +gratuitous as the connecting of the singular verb in the past tense +with this pronoun? In every point of view, the construction, "When +<i>were</i> you there?" "How far <i>were</i> you from the parties?" is +preferable to the other.</p> + +<a name="compund_personal"></a> +<p>3. The words <i>my, thy, his, her, our, your, their</i>, are, by many, +denominated <i>possessive adjective pronouns</i>; but they always <i>stand +for</i> nouns in the possessive case. They ought, therefore, to be +classed with the <i>personal</i> pronouns. That principle of +classification which ranks them with the adjective pronouns, would +also throw all nouns in the possessive case among the adjectives. +Example: "The lady gave the gentleman <i>her</i> watch for <i>his</i> horse." +In this sentence <i>her</i> personates, or stands for, the noun "lady," +and <i>his</i> represents "gentleman." This fact is clearly shown by +rendering the sentence thus, "The lady gave the gentleman the +<i>lady's</i> watch for the <i>gentleman's</i> horse." If <i>lady's</i> and +<i>gentleman's</i> are nouns, <i>her</i> and <i>his</i> must be personal pronouns. +The same remarks apply to <i>my, thy, our, your, their</i> and <i>its</i>. +This view of these words may be objected to by those who speculate +and refine upon the principles of grammar until they prove their +non-existence, but it is believed, nevertheless, to be based on +sound reason and common sense.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs</i>, have, by many +respectable grammarians, been considered merely the possessive cases +of personal pronouns, whilst, by others, they have been denominated +pronouns or nouns in the nominative or objective case. It is +believed, however, that a little attention to the meaning and office +of these words, will clearly show the impropriety of both these +classifications. Those who pursue the former arrangement, allege, +that, in the examples, "You may imagine what kind of faith <i>theirs</i> +was; My pleasures are past; <i>hers</i> and <i>yours</i> are to come; they +applauded his conduct, but condemned <i>hers</i> and <i>yours</i>," the words +<i>theirs, hers</i>, and <i>yours</i>, are personal pronouns in the possessive +case, and governed by their respective nouns understood. To prove +this, they construct the sentence thus, "You may imagine what kind +of faith <i>their faith</i> was;—<i>her pleasures</i> and <i>your pleasures</i> +are to come;—but condemned <i>her conduct</i> and <i>your conduct</i>;" or +thus, "You may imagine what kind of faith the faith of them +was;—the pleasures of her and the pleasures of you, are to come;— +but condemned the conduct of her and the conduct of you." But these +constructions, (both of which are correct,) prove too much for their +purpose; for, as soon as we supply the nouns after these words, they +are resolved into personal pronouns of kindred meaning, and the +nouns which we supply: thus, <i>theirs</i> becomes, their faith: <i>hers</i>, +her pleasures; and <i>yours</i>, your pleasures. This evidently gives us +two words instead of, and altogether distinct from, the first; so +that, in parsing, <i>their faith</i>, we are not, in reality, analyzing +<i>theirs</i>, but two other words of which <i>theirs</i> is the proper +representative. These remarks also prove, with equal force, the +impropriety of calling these words merely simple pronouns or nouns +in the nominative or objective case. Without attempting to develop +the original or intrinsic meaning of these pluralizing adjuncts, +<i>ne</i> and <i>s</i>, which were, no doubt, formerly detached from the +pronouns with which they now coalesce, for all practical purposes, +it is sufficient for us to know, that, in the present application of +these pronouns, they invariably stand for, not only the person +possessing, but, also the thing possessed, which gives them a +<i>compound</i> character. They may, therefore, be properly denominated +COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS; and, as they always perform a double +office in a sentence by representing two other words, and, +consequently, including two cases, they should, like the compound +relative <i>what</i>, be parsed as two words. Thus, in the example, "You +may imagine what kind of faith theirs was," <i>theirs</i> is a compound +personal pronoun, equivalent to <i>their faith. Their</i> is a pronoun, a +word used instead of a noun; personal, it personates the persons +spoken of, understood; third pers. plur. numb., &c.—and in the +possessive case, and governed by "faith," according to Rule 12. +<i>Faith</i> is a noun, the name of a thing, &c. &c.—and in the +nominative case to "was," and governs it; Rule 3. Or, if we render +the sentence thus, "You may imagine what kind of faith <i>the faith of</i> +them<sup><a name='FN_anchor_4'></a><a href='#Footnote_4'>[4]</a></sup> was," <i>faith</i> would be in the nominative case to "was," and +<i>them</i> would be in the objective case, and governed by "of:" Rule +<i>31.</i></p> + +<p><i>Objections to this method of treating these pronouns, will doubtless</i> +<i>be preferred by those who assert, that a noun is understood after</i> +<i>these words, and not represented by them. But this is assertion</i> +<i>without proof; for, if a noun were understood, it might be supplied.</i> +If the question be put, whose book? and the answer be, <i>mine, ours, +hers</i>, or <i>theirs</i>, the word book is included in such answer. Were +it not included, we might supply it, thus, mine <i>book</i>, ours <i>book</i>, +hers <i>book</i>, and so on. This, however, we cannot do, for it would be +giving a <i>double</i> answer: but when the question is answered by a +<i>noun in the possessive case, the word book is not included, but</i> +implied; as, Whose book? John's, Richard's; that is, John's <i>book</i>; +Richard's <i>book</i>.</p> + +<p><i>This view of the subject, without a parallel, except in the</i> +compounds <i>what, whoever</i>, and <i>others</i>, is respectfully submitted +<i>to the public; believing, that those who approve of a critical</i> +<i>analysis of words, will coincide with me. Should any still be</i> +<i>disposed to treat these words so superficially as to rank them among</i> +<i>the simple pronouns, let them answer the following interrogatory: If</i> +<i>what</i>, when compound, should be parsed as two words, why not <i>mine, +thine, his, hers, ours, yours</i>, and <i>theirs</i>?</p> + +<p>5. <i>Mine</i> and <i>thine</i>, instead of <i>my</i> and <i>thy</i>, are used in solemn +style, before a word beginning with a vowel or silent <i>h</i>; as, "Blot +out all <i>mine</i> iniquities;" and when thus used, they are not +compound. <i>His</i> always has the same form, whether simple or +compound; as, "Give John <i>his</i> book; That desk is <i>his." Her</i>, when +placed before a noun, is in the possessive case; as, Take <i>her</i> hat: +<i>when standing alone, it is in the objective case; as, Give the hat</i> +to <i>her</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, and committed the +<i>declension</i> of the personal pronouns, you may commit the following</p> +<h4>SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p><i>The order of parsing a</i> PERSONAL PRONOUN, is—a pronoun, and +why?—personal, and why?—person, and why?—gender and number, and +why?—RULE: case, and why?—RULE.—Decline it.</p> +</div> + +<p>There are many peculiarities to be observed in parsing personal pronouns +in their different persons; therefore, if you wish ever to parse them +correctly, you must pay particular attention to the manner in which the +following are analyzed. Now notice, particularly, and you will perceive +that we apply only <i>one</i> rule in parsing <i>I</i> and <i>my</i>, and <i>two</i> in +parsing <i>thou, him</i>, and <i>they</i>.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"<i>I</i> saw <i>my</i> friend."</p> + +<p><i>I</i> is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—personal, it represents +the person speaking, understood—first person, it denotes the +speaker—singular number, it implies but one—and in the nominative +case, it represents the actor and subject of the verb "saw," and governs +it, agreeably to RULE 3. <i>The nom. case gov. the verb</i>. Declined—first +pers. sing. num. nom. I, poss. my or mine, obj. me. Plur. nom. we, poss. +our or ours, obj. us.</p> + +<p><i>My</i> is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—personal, it +personates the person speaking, understood—first pers. it denotes the +speaker—sing. num. it implies but one—and in the possessive case, it +denotes possession; it is governed by the noun "friend", agreeably to +RULE 12. <i>A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the +noun it possesses</i>. Declined—first pers. sing. nom. I, poss. my or +mine, obj. me. Plur. nom. we, poss. our or ours, obj. us.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"Young man, <i>thou</i> hast deserted thy companion, and left <i>him</i> in +<i>distress."</i></p> + +<p><i>Thou</i> is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—personal, it +personates "man"—second person, it represents the person spoken +to—mas. gend. sing. num. because the noun "man" is for which it stands, +according to RULE 13. <i>Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for +which they stand in gender and number</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Thou</i> is in the nom. case, it represents the actor and subject of the +verb "hast deserted," and governs it agreeably to RULE 3. <i>The nom. case +governs the verb.</i> Declined—sec. pers. sing. num. nom. thou, poss. thy +or thine, obj. thee. Plur. nom. ye or you, poss. your or yours, obj. +you.</p> + +<p><i>Him</i> is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—personal, it +personates "companion"—third pers. it represents the person spoken +of—mas. gend. sing. num. because the noun "companion" is for which it +stands: RULE 13. <i>Pers. pro. &c</i>. (Repeat the Rule.)—<i>Him</i> is in the +objective case, the object of the action expressed by the +active-transitive verb "hast left," and gov. by it: RULE 20. +<i>Active-trans. verbs gov. the obj. case</i>. Declined—third pers. mas. +gend. sing. num. nom. he, poss. his, obj. him. Plur. nom. they, poss. +their or theirs, obj. them.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"Thrice I raised my voice, and called the chiefs to combat, but +<i>they</i> dreaded the force of my arm." +</p> +<p><i>They</i> is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—personal, it +represents "chiefs"—third pers. it denotes the persons spoken of—mas. +gend. plur. num. because the noun "chiefs" is for which it stands: RULE +13. <i>Pers. Pron. &c</i>. (Repeat the Rule.) It is the nom. case, it +represents the actors and subject of the verb "dreaded," and governs it: +RULE 3. <i>The nom. case, gov. the verb</i>. Declined—third pers. mas. gend. +sing. num. nom. he, poss. his, obj. him. Plur. nom. they, poss. their or +theirs, obj. them.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>NOTE. We do not apply gender in parsing the personal pronouns, +(excepting the third person singular,) if the nouns they represent are +understood; and therefore we do not, in such instances, apply Rule 13. +But when the noun is expressed, gender should be applied, and <i>two</i> +Rules.</p> +</div> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>I saw a man leading his horse slowly over the new bridge. My friends +visit me very often at my father's office. We improve ourselves by close +application. Horace, thou learnest many lessons. Charles, you, by your +diligence, make easy work of the task given you by your preceptor. Young +ladies, you run over your lessons very carelessly. The stranger drove +his horses too far into the water, and, in so doing, he drowned them.</p> + +<p>Gray morning rose in the east. A green narrow vale appeared before us: +its winding stream murmured through the grove. The dark host of Rothmar +stood on its banks, with their glittering spears. We fought along the +vale. They fled. Rothmar sunk beneath my sword. Day was descending in +the west, when I brought his arms to Crothar. The aged hero felt them +with his hands: joy brightened his thoughts.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>NOTE. <i>Horace, Charles</i>, and <i>ladies</i>, are of the second person, and +nom. case <i>independent</i>: see RULE 5, and NOTE. The first <i>you</i> is used +in the nom. poss. and obj. case.—It represents Charles, therefore it is +<i>singular</i> in sense, although plural in form. In the next example, <i>you</i> +personifies <i>ladies</i>, therefore it is <i>plural. Given</i> is a perfect +participle. <i>You</i> following given, is governed by <i>to</i> understood, +according to NOTE 1, under Rule 32. <i>Run over</i> is a compound verb. <i>And</i> +is a conjunction. The first <i>its</i> personates vale; the second <i>its</i> +represents stream.</p> +</div> + +<p>You may now parse the following examples three times over.</p> + +<h5>COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.</h5> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"Juliet, retain her paper, and present <i>yours</i>."</p> + +<p><i>Yours</i> is a compound personal pronoun, representing both the possessor +and the thing possessed, and is equivalent to <i>your paper</i>. <i>Your</i> is a +pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—personal, it personates +"Juliet"—second person, it represents the person spoken to—fem. +gender, sing. number, (singular in sense, but <i>plural</i> in form,) because +the noun Juliet is for which it stands: Rule 13. <i>Pers. Pron. +&c</i>.—<i>Your</i> is in the possessive case, it denotes possession, and is +governed by "paper," according to Rule 12. <i>A noun or pron. &c.</i> (Repeat +the Rule, and decline the pronoun.) <i>Paper</i> is a noun, the name of a +thing—common, the name of a sort of things—neuter gender, it denotes a +thing without sex—third person, spoken of—sing. number, it implies but +one—and in the obj. case, it is the object of the action expressed by +the transitive verb "present," and governed by it: Rule 20. +<i>Active-transitive verbs govern the obj. case</i>.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>NOTE. Should it be objected, that <i>yours</i> does not mean <i>your paper</i>, +any more than it means <i>your book, your house, your</i> any thing, let it +be borne in mind, that pronouns have no <i>definite</i> meaning, like other +words; but their <i>particular</i> signification is always determined by the +nouns they represent.</p> +</div> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>Julia injured her book, and soiled mine: hers is better than mine. My +friend sacrificed his fortune to secure yours: his deeds deserve reward; +yours merit disgrace. Henry's labors are past; thine are to come. We +leave your forests of beasts for ours of men. My sword and yours are +kin.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>NOTE. <i>She</i> understood, is nominative to <i>soiled</i>, in the first example; +and the substantive part of <i>mine</i>, after than, is nom. to <i>is</i>, +understood: Rule 35. The verbs <i>to secure</i> and <i>to come</i> have no +nominative. The pronouns <i>mine, my, yours, thine, we, your, ours, my</i>, +and <i>yours</i>, personate nouns understood.</p> + +<a name="IT"></a> +<h4>REMARKS ON <i>IT</i>.</h4> + +<p>For the want of a proper knowledge of this little pronoun <i>it</i>, many +grammarians have been greatly puzzled how to dispose of it, or how to +account for its multiform, and, seemingly, contradictory characters. It +is in great demand by writers of every description. They use it without +ceremony; either in the nominative or objective case; either to +represent one person or thing, or more than one. It is applied to nouns +in the masculine, feminine, or neuter gender, and, very frequently, it +represents a member of a sentence, a whole sentence, or a number of +sentences taken in a mass.</p> + +<p>A little attention to its true character, will, at once, strip it of all +its mystery. <i>It</i>, formerly written <i>hit</i>, according to H. Tooke, is the +past participle of the Moeso-Gothic verb <i>haitan</i>. It means, <i>the said</i>, +and, therefore, like its near relative <i>that</i>, meaning, <i>the assumed</i>, +originally had no respect, in its application, to number, person, or +gender. "<i>It</i> is a wholesome law;" i.e. <i>the</i> <i>said</i> (law) is a +wholesome law; or, <i>that</i> (law) is a wholesome law;—<i>the assumed</i> (law) +is a wholesome law. "<i>It</i> is the man; I believe <i>it</i> to be them:"—<i>the +said</i> (man) is the man; <i>that</i> (man) is the man: I believe <i>the said</i> +(persons) to be them; I believe <i>that</i> persons (according to the ancient +application of <i>that</i>) to be them. "<i>It</i> happened on a summer's day, +that many people were assembled," &c.—Many people were assembled: <i>it, +that</i>, or <i>the said</i> (fact or circumstance) happened on a summer's day.</p> + +<p><i>It</i>, according to its accepted meaning in modern times, is not referred +to a noun understood after it, but is considered a substitute. "How is +<i>it</i> with you?" that is, "How is your <i>state</i> or <i>condition</i>?" "<i>It</i> +rains; <i>It</i> freezes; <i>It</i> is a hard winter;"—<i>The rain</i> rains; <i>The +frost</i> frosts or freezes; <i>The said</i> (winter) is a hard winter. "<i>It</i> is +delightful to see brothers and sisters living in uninterrupted love to +the end of their days." What is delightful? <i>To see brothers and sisters +living in uninterrupted love to the end of their days. It, this thing</i>, +is delightful. <i>It</i>, then, stands for all that part of the sentence +expressed in italics; and the sentence will admit of the following +construction; "To see brothers living in uninterrupted love to the end +of their days, is delightful."</p> +</div> + + +<h4>OF <a name="ADJECTIVE_PRONOUNS"></a>ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES, or, more properly, SPECIFYING +ADJECTIVES, are a kind of adjectives which point out nouns by some +distinct specification.</p> +</div> + +<p>Pronouns and adjectives are totally distinct in their character. The +former <i>stand for</i> nouns, and never belong to them; the latter <i>belong +to</i> nouns, and never stand for them. Hence, such a thing as an +<i>adjective-pronoun</i> cannot exist. <i>Each, every, either, this, that, +some, other</i>, and the residue, are pure adjectives.</p> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>Those specifying adjectives commonly called Adjective Pronouns, may be +divided into three sorts; the <i>distributive</i>, the <i>demonstrative</i>, and +the <i>indefinite</i>. They are all known by the <i>lists</i>.</p> + +<p>I. The <i>distributive adjectives</i> are those that denote the persons or +things that make up a number, each taken separately and singly. <i>List: +each, every, either</i>, and sometimes <i>neither</i>; as, "<i>Each</i> of his +brothers is in a favorable situation;" "<i>Every</i> man must account for +himself;" "<i>Neither</i> of them is industrious."</p> +</div> + +<p>These distributives are words which are introduced into language in its +refined state, in order to express the nicest shades and colors of +thought. "<i>Man</i> must account for himself;" "<i>Mankind</i> must account for +themselves;" "<i>All men</i> must account for themselves;" "<i>All men, women,</i> +and <i>children,</i> must account for themselves;" "<i>Every man</i> must account +for himself." Each of these assertions conveys the same fact or truth. +But the last, instead of presenting the whole human family for the mind +to contemplate in a mass, by the peculiar force of <i>every, distributes</i> +them, and presents each separately and singly; and whatever is affirmed +of one individual, the mind instantaneously transfers to the whole human +race.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p><i>Each</i> relates to two or more persons or things, and signifies either of +the two, or every one of any number taken separately.</p> + +<p><i>Every</i> relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one of +them all taken separately.</p> + +<p><i>Either</i> relates to <i>two</i> persons or things taken separately, and +signifies the one or the other. "<i>Either</i> of the <i>three</i>," is an +improper expression. It should be, "any of the three."</p> + +<p><i>Neither</i> imports <i>not either</i>; that is, not one nor the other; as, +"<i>Neither</i> of my friends was there." When an allusion is made to more +than <i>two, none</i> should be used instead of <i>neither</i>; as, "<i>None</i> of my +friends was there."</p> +</div> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>II. The <i>demonstrative</i> are those which precisely point out the subject +to which they relate. <i>List: this</i> and <i>that</i>, and their plurals, +<i>these</i> and <i>those</i>, and <i>former</i> and <i>latter</i>; as, "<i>This</i> is true +charity; "<i>that</i> is only its image."</p> +</div> + +<p>There is but a slight shade of difference in the meaning and application +of <i>the</i> and <i>that</i>. When reference is made to a particular book, we +say, "Take <i>the</i> book;" but when we wish to be very pointed and precise, +we say, "Take <i>that</i> book;" or, if it be near by, "Take <i>this</i> book." +You perceive, then, that these demonstratives have all the force of the +definite article, and a little more.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p><i>This</i> and <i>these</i> refer to the nearest persons or things, <i>that</i> and +<i>those</i> to the most distant; as, "<i>These</i> goods are superior to those." +<i>This</i> and <i>these</i> indicate the latter, or last mentioned; <i>that</i> and +<i>those</i>, the former, or first mentioned; as, "Both <i>wealth</i> and +<i>poverty</i> are temptations; <i>that</i> tends to excite pride, <i>this</i>, +discontent."</p> + +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>"<i>Some</i> place the bliss in action, <i>some</i> in ease;</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'><i>Those</i> call it pleasure, and contentment, <i>these</i>."</span><br /> + +<p><i>They, those</i>. As it is the office of the personal <i>they</i> to represent a +noun previously introduced to our notice, there appears to be a slight +departure from analogy in the following application of it: "<i>They</i> who +seek after wisdom, are sure to find her: <i>They</i> that sow in tears, +sometimes reap in joy." This usage, however, is well established, and +<i>they</i>, in such constructions, is generally employed in preference to +<i>those</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>III. The <i>indefinite</i> are those which express their subjects in an +indefinite or general manner. <i>List: some, other, any, one, all, such, +both, same, another none</i>. Of these, <i>one</i> and <i>other</i> are declined like +nouns. <i>Another</i> is declined, but wants the plural.</p> +</div> + +<p>The indefinite adjectives, like the indefinite article, leave the +meaning unfixed, or, in some degree, vague. With a slight shade of +difference in meaning, we say, Give me <i>a</i> paper, <i>one</i> paper, <i>any</i> +paper, <i>some</i> paper, and so on. Though these words restrict the meaning +of the noun, they do not fix it to a <i>particular</i> object. We therefore +call them indefinite.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>These adjectives, or adjective pronouns, frequently belong to nouns +understood, in which situation they should be parsed accordingly; as +"You may take <i>either</i>; He is pleased with <i>this</i> book, but dislikes +<i>that</i> (book;) <i>All</i> (men) have sinned, but <i>some</i> (men) have repented."</p> +</div> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>The words, <i>one, other</i>, and <i>none</i>, are used in both numbers; and, when +they <i>stand for</i> nouns, they are not adjectives, but indefinite +<i>pronouns</i>; as, "The great <i>ones</i> of the world have their failings;" +"Some men increase in wealth, while <i>others</i> decrease;" "<i>None</i> escape."</p> +</div> + +<p>The word "ones," in the preceding example, does not belong to a noun +understood. If it did, we could supply the noun. The meaning is not "the +great one men, nor ones men," therefore <i>one</i> is not an adjective +pronoun; but the meaning is, "The great <i>men</i> of the world," therefore +<i>ones</i> is a pronoun of the indefinite kind, representing the noun <i>men</i> +understood, and it ought to be parsed like a personal pronoun. The word +<i>others</i>, in the next example, is a compound pronoun, equivalent to +<i>other men</i>; and should be parsed like <i>mine, thine</i>, &c. See Note 4th, +page 100.</p> + +<p>I will now parse two pronouns, and then present some examples for you to +analyze. If, in parsing the following exercises, you should be at a loss +for definitions and rules, please to refer to the compendium. But before +you proceed, you may commit the following</p> + +<h4>SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>The order of parsing an ADJECTIVE PRONOUN, is—an adjective pronoun, and +why?—distributive, demonstrative, or indefinite, and why?—to what +noun does it belong, or with what does it agree?—RULE.</p> +</div> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"<i>One</i> man instructs many <i>others</i>."</p> + +<p><i>One</i> is an adjective pronoun, or +specifying adjective, it specifically points out a noun—indefinite, it +expresses its subject in an indefinite or general manner, and belongs to +the noun "man," according to RULE 19. <i>Adjective pronouns belong to +nouns, expressed or understood</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Others</i> is a compound pronoun, including both an adjective pronoun and +a noun, and is equivalent to <i>other men</i>. <i>Other</i> is an adjective +pronoun, it is used specifically to describe its noun—indefinite, it +expresses its subject in an indefinite manner, and belongs to <i>men</i>: +Rule 19. (Repeat the rule.) <i>Men</i> is a noun, a name denoting +persons—common, &c. (parse it in full;) and in the objective case, it +is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb +"instructs," and gov. by it: Rule 20. <i>Active-transitive verbs, &c</i>.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"<i>Those</i> books are <i>mine</i>."</p> + +<p><i>Those</i> is an adjective pronoun, it specifies what noun is referred +to—demonstrative, it precisely points out the subject to which it +relates—and agrees with the noun "books" in the plural number, +according to NOTE 1, under Rule 19. <i>Adjective pronouns must agree in +number with their nouns</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Mine</i> is a compound personal pronoun, including both the possessor and +the thing possessed, and is equivalent to <i>my books</i>. <i>My</i> is a pron. a +word used instead of a noun—personal, it stands for the name of the +person speaking—first person, it denotes the speaker—sing. number, it +implies but one—and in the poss. case, it denotes possession, and is +gov. by "books," according to Rule 12. (Repeat the rule, and decline +the pronoun.) <i>Books</i> is a noun, the name of a thing—common, &c. (parse +it in full;)—and in the nominative case after "are," according to RULE +21. <i>The verb</i> to be <i>admits the same case after it as before it</i>.</p> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>Each individual fills a space in creation. Every man helps a little. +These men rank among the great ones of the world. That book belongs to +the tutor, this belongs to me. Some men labor, others labor not; the +former increase in wealth, the latter decrease. The boy wounded the old +bird, and stole the young ones. None performs his duty too well. None of +those poor wretches complain of their miserable lot.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>NOTE. In parsing the distributive pronominal adjectives, NOTE 2, undo +Rule 19, should be applied.</p> +</div> + +<h4>III. OF <a name="RELATIVE_PRONOUNS"></a>RELATIVE PRONOUNS.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>Relative Pronouns are such as relate, in general, to some word or phrase +going before, which is called the antecedent. They are <i>who, which</i>, and +<i>that</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>The word <i>antecedent</i>, comes from the two Latin words, <i>ante, before</i>, +and <i>cedo, to go</i>. Hence you perceive, that antecedent means going +before; thus, "The <i>man</i> is happy <i>who</i> lives virtuously; This is the +<i>lady who</i> relieved my wants; <i>Thou who</i> lovest wisdom, &c. <i>We who</i> +speak from experience," &c. The relative who, in these sentences, +relates to the several words, <i>man, lady, thou</i>, and <i>we</i>, which words, +you observe, come before the relative: they are, therefore, properly +called antecedents.</p> + +<p>The relative is not varied on account of gender, person, or number, like +a personal pronoun. When we use a personal pronoun, in speaking of a +man, we say <i>he</i>, and of a woman, <i>she</i>; in speaking of one person or +thing, we use a singular pronoun, of more than one, a plural, and so on; +but there is no such variation of the relative. <i>Who</i>, in the first of +the preceding examples, relates to an antecedent of the mas. gend. third +pers. sing.; in the second, the antecedent is of the fem. gend.; in the +third, it is of the second pers.; and in the fourth, it is of the first +pers. plur. num.; and, yet, the relative is in the same form in each +example. Hence you perceive, that the relative has no peculiar <i>form</i> to +denote its gend. pers. and num., but it always agrees with its +antecedent <i>in sense</i>. Thus, when I say, The <i>man who</i> writes, <i>who</i> is +mas. gend. and sing.; but when I say, The <i>ladies who</i> write, <i>who</i> is +feminine, and plural. In order to ascertain the gend. pers. and num. of +the relative, you must always look at its antecedent.</p> + +<h4><a name="WHO_WHICH_and_THAT"></a>WHO, WHICH, and THAT.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p><i>Who</i> is applied to <i>persons, which</i> to <i>things</i> and <i>brutes</i>; as, "He +is a <i>friend who</i> is faithful in adversity; The <i>bird which</i> sung so +sweetly, is flown; This is the <i>tree which</i> produces no fruit."</p> + +<p><i>That</i> is often used as a relative, to prevent the too frequent +repetition of <i>who</i> and <i>which</i>. It is applied both to persons and +things; as, "<i>He that</i> acts wisely, deserves praise; Modesty is a +<i>quality that</i> highly adorns a woman."</p> +</div> + +<h4>NOTES.</h4> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>1. <i>Who</i> should never be applied to animals. The following +application of it is erroneous:—"He is like a <i>least</i> of prey, +<i>who</i> destroys without pity." It should be, <i>that</i> destroys, &c. +</p> +<p>2. <i>Who</i> should not be applied to children. It is incorrect to say, +"The <i>child whom</i> we have just seen," &c. It should be, "The child +<i>that</i> we have just seen."</p> + +<p>3. <i>Which</i> may be applied to persons when we wish to distinguish one +<i>person of two, or a particular person among a number of others; as,</i> +"<i>Which</i> of the two? <i>Which</i> of them is he?"</p> + +<p>4. <i><a name="That_ii"></a>That</i>, in preference to <i>who</i> or <i>which</i>, is applied to persons +<i>when they are qualified by an adjective in the superlative degree,</i> +or by the pronominal adjective <i>same</i>; as, "Charles XII., king of +Sweden, was one of the <i>greatest</i> madmen <i>that</i> the world ever +saw;—He is the <i>same</i> man <i>that</i> we saw before."</p> + +<p>5. <i>That</i> is employed after the interrogative <i>who</i>, in cases like +the following; "Who <i>that</i> has any sense of religion, would have +<i>argued thus?"</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>When the word <i>ever</i> or <i>soever</i> is annexed to a relative pronoun, the +combination is called a <i>compound pronoun</i>; as, <i>whoever</i> or <i>whosoever, +whichever</i> or <i>whichsoever, whatever</i> or <i>whatsoever</i>.</p> +</div> + +<h4>DECLENSION OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS.</h4> + +<h5>SINGULAR AND PLURAL.</h5> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Nom.</i></td><td align='left'>who,</td><td align='center'><i>Poss.</i></td><td align='left'>whose,</td><td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td><td align='left'> whom.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>whoever,</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>whosever,</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>whomever.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>whosoever,</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>whosesoever,</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>whomsoever.</td></tr></table> + + +<p><i>Which</i> and <i>that</i> are indeclinable, except that <i>whose</i> is sometimes +used as the possessive case of <i>which</i>; as, "Is there any other doctrine +<i>whose</i> followers are punished;" that is, the followers <i>of which</i> are +punished. The use of this license has obtained among our best writers; +but the construction is not to be recommended, for it is a departure +from a plain principle of grammar, namely, who, whose, whom, in their +applications, should be confined to rational beings.</p> + +<p><i>That</i> may be used as a pronoun, an adjective, and a conjunction, +depending on the office which it performs in the sentence.</p> + +<p><i>That</i> is a relative only when it can be changed to <i>who</i> or <i>which</i> +without destroying the sense; as, "They <i>that</i> (who) reprove us, may be +our best friends; From every thing <i>that</i> (which) you see, derive +instruction." <i>That</i> is a demonstrative adjective, when it belongs to, +or points out, some particular noun, either expressed or implied; as, +"Return <i>that</i> book; <i>That</i> belongs to me; Give me <i>that</i>." When <i>that</i> +is neither a relative nor an adjective pronoun, it is a conjunction; as, +"Take care <i>that</i> every day be well employed." The word <i>that</i>, in this +last sentence, cannot be changed to <i>who</i> or <i>which</i> without destroying +the sense, therefore you know it is not a relative pronoun; neither does +it point out any particular noun, for which reason you know it is not an +adjective pronoun; but it connects the sentence, therefore it is a +conjunction.</p> + +<p>If you pay particular attention to this elucidation of the word <i>that</i>, +you will find no difficulty in parsing it. When it is a relative or an +adjective pronoun, it may be known by the signs given; and whenever +these signs will not apply to it, you know it is a conjunction.</p> + +<p>Some writers are apt to make too free use of this word. I will give you +one example of affronted <i>that</i>, which may serve as a caution. The tutor +said, in speaking of the word that, that that that that that lady +parsed, was not the that that that gentleman requested her to analyze. +This sentence, though rendered inelegant by a bad choice of words, is +strictly grammatical. The first <i>that</i> is a noun; the second, a +conjunction; the third, an adjective pronoun; the fourth, a noun; the +fifth, a relative pronoun; the sixth, an adjective pronoun; the seventh, +a noun; the eighth, a relative pronoun; the ninth, an adjective pronoun. +The meaning of the sentence will be more obvious, if rendered thus; The +tutor said, in speaking of the word that, that that that <i>which</i> that +lady parsed, was not the that <i>which</i> that gentleman requested her to +analyze.</p> + +<h4><a name="WHAT"></a>WHAT.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p><i>What</i> is generally a compound relative, including both the antecedent +and the relative, and is equivalent to <i>that which</i>; as, "This is <i>what</i> +I wanted;" that is, <i>that which</i>, or, <i>the thing which</i> I wanted.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>What</i> is compounded of <i>which that</i>. These words have been contracted +and made to coalesce, a part of the orthography of both being still +retained: <i>what—wh[ich—t]hat</i>; (<i>which-that</i>.) Anciently it appeared +in the varying forms, <i>tha qua, qua tha, qu'tha, quthat, quhat, hwat</i>, +and finally, <i>what</i>.</p> + +<p><i>What</i> may be used as three kinds of a pronoun, and as an interjection. +When it is equivalent to <i>that which, the thing which</i>, or <i>those things +which</i>, it is a compound relative, because it includes both the +antecedent and the relative; as, "I will try <i>what</i> (that which) can be +found in female delicacy; <i>What</i> you recollect with most pleasure, are +the virtuous actions of your past life;" that is, <i>those things which</i> +you recollect, &c.</p> + +<p>When <i>what</i> is a compound relative, you must always parse it as two +words; that is, you must parse the antecedent part as a noun, and give +it a case; the relative part you may analyze like any other relative, +giving it a case likewise. In the first of the preceding examples, +<i>that</i>, the antecedent part of <i>what</i>, is in the obj. case, governed by +the verb "will try;" <i>which</i>, the relative part, is in the nom. case to +"can be found." "I have heard <i>what</i> (i.e. <i>that which</i>, or <i>the thing +which</i>) has been alleged."</p> + +<p><i>Whoever</i> and <i>whosoever</i> are also compound relatives, and should be +parsed like the compound <i>what</i>; as, "<i>Whoever</i> takes that oath, is +bound to enforce the laws." In this sentence, <i>whoever</i> is equivalent to +<i>he who</i>, or, <i>the man who</i>; thus, "<i>He who</i> takes that oath, is bound," +&c.</p> + +<p><i>Who, which</i>, and <i>what</i>, when used in asking questions, are called +interrogative pronouns, or relatives of the interrogative kind; as, +<i>"Who</i> is he? <i>Which</i> is the person? <i>What</i> are you doing?"</p> + +<p>Interrogative pronouns have no antecedent; but they relate to the word +or phrase which is the answer to the question, for their subsequent; as, +"<i>Whom</i> did you see? The <i>preceptor. What</i> have you done? <i>Nothing</i>." +Antecedent and subsequent are opposed to each other in signification. +Antecedent means preceding, or going before; and subsequent means +following, or coming after. <i>What</i>, when used as an interrogative, is +never compound.</p> + +<p><i>What, which</i>, and <i>that</i>, when joined to nouns, are specifying +adjectives, or adjective pronouns, in which situation they have no case, +but are parsed like adjective pronouns of the demonstrative or +indefinite kind; as, "Unto <i>which</i> promise our twelve tribes hope to +come;" "<i>What</i> misery the vicious endure! <i>What</i> havock hast thou made, +foul monster, sin!"</p> + +<p><i>What</i> and <i>which</i>, when joined to nouns in asking questions, are +denominated interrogative pronominal adjectives; as, "<i>What man</i> is +that? <i>Which road</i> did he take?"</p> + +<p><i>What, whatever</i>, and <i>whatsoever, which, whichever</i>, and <i>whichsoever</i>, +in constructions like the following, are compound pronouns, but not +compound relatives; as, "In <i>what</i> character Butler was admitted, is +unknown; Give him <i>what</i> name you choose; Nature's care largely endows +<i>whatever</i> happy man will deign to use her treasures; Let him take +<i>which</i> course, or, <i>whichever</i> course he will." These sentences may be +rendered thus; "<i>That</i> character, or, <i>the</i> character in <i>which</i> Butler +was admitted, is unknown; Give him <i>that</i> name, or, <i>the</i> name <i>which</i> +you choose; Nature's care endows <i>that</i> happy man <i>who</i> will deign, &c.; +Let him take <i>that</i> course, or <i>the</i> course <i>which</i> he will." A compound +relative necessarily includes both an antecedent and a relative. These +compounds, you will notice, do not include antecedents, the first part +of each word being the article <i>the</i>, or the adjective pronoun, <i>that</i>; +therefore they cannot properly be denominated compound relatives.—With +regard to the word <i>ever</i> annexed to these pronouns, it is a singular +fact, that, as soon as we analyze the word to which it is subjoined, +<i>ever</i> is entirely excluded from the sentence.</p> + +<p><i>What</i> is sometimes used as an interjection; as, "But <i>what!</i> is thy +servant a dog, that he should do this? <i>What!</i> rob us of our right of +suffrage, and then shut us up in dungeons!"</p> + +<p>You have now come to the most formidable obstacle, or, if I may so +speak, to the most rugged eminence in the path of grammatical science; +but be not disheartened, for, if you can get safely over this, your +future course will be interrupted with only here and there a gentle +elevation. It will require close application, and a great deal of sober +thinking, to gain a clear conception of the nature of the relative +pronouns, particularly the compound relatives, which are not easily +comprehended by the young learner. As this eighth lecture is a very +important one, it becomes necessary for you to read it carefully four or +five times over before you proceed to commit the following order. +Whenever you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you, if you +please.</p> + +<h4>SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p><i>The order of parsing a</i> RELATIVE PRONOUN, is—a pronoun, and +why?—relative, and why?—gender, person, and number, and +why?—RULE:—case, and why?—RULE.—Decline it.</p> +</div> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"This is the man <i>whom</i> we saw."</p> + +<p><i>Whom</i> is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—relative, it relates +to "man" for its antecedent—mas. gend. third pers. sing. num. because +the antecedent "man" is with which it agrees, according to</p> + +<p>RULE 14. <i>Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents in gender, +person, and number. Whom</i> is in the objective case, the object of the +action expressed by the active-transitive verb "saw," and governed by +it, agreeably to</p> + +<p>RULE 16. <i>When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the +relative is governed by the following verb, or some other word in its +own member of the sentence</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Whom</i>, in the objective case, is placed before the verb that governs +it, according to NOTE 1, under Rule 16. (Repeat the Note, and decline +<i>who</i>.)</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"From <i>what</i> is recorded, he appears," &c.</p> + +<p><i><a name="What_iii"></a>What</i> is a comp. rel. pron. including both the antecedent and the +relative, and is equivalent to <i>that which</i>, or the <i>thing +which</i>—<i>Thing</i>, the antecedent part of <i>what</i>, is a noun, the name of a +thing—com. the name of a species—neuter gender, it has no sex—third +person, spoken of—sing. number, it implies but one—and in the obj. +case, it is the object of the relation expressed by the prep. "from," +and gov. by it: RULE 31. (Repeat the Rule, and every other Rule to which +I refer.) <i>Which</i>, the relative part of <i>what</i>, is a pronoun, a word +used instead of a noun—relative, it relates to "thing" for its +antecedent—neut. gender, third person, sing. number, because the +antecedent "thing" is with which it agrees, according to RULE 14. <i>Rel +pron</i>. &c. <i>Which</i> is in the nom. case to the verb "is recorded," +agreeably to</p> + +<p>RULE 15. <i>The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no +nominative comes between it and the verb</i>.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"<i>What</i> have you learned? Nothing."</p> + +<p><i>What</i> is a pron. a word used, &c.—relative of the interrogative kind, +because it is used in asking a question—it refers to the word "nothing" +for its <i>subsequent</i>, according to</p> + +<p>RULE 17. <i>When the rel. pron. is of the interrog. kind, it refers to the +word or phrase containing the answer to the question, for its +subsequent, which subsequent must agree in case with the interrogative. +What</i> is of the neut. gend. third pers. sing. because the subsequent +"nothing" is with which it agrees; RULE 14. <i>Rel. pron. agree</i>, &c.—It +is in the obj. case, the object of the action, of the active-transitive +verb "have learned," and gov. by it, agreeably to RULE 16. <i>When a nom</i>. +&c. See NOTE 1, under the Rule.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>NOTE. 1. You need not apply gend. pers. and numb, to the interrogative +when the answer to the question is <i>not</i> expressed.</p> +</div> + +<h5>WHO, WHICH, WHAT.</h5> + +<p>Truth and simplicity are twin sisters, and generally go hand in hand. +The foregoing exposition of the "relative pronouns," is in accordance +with the usual method of treating them; but if they were unfolded +according to their true character, they would be found to be very +simple, and, <i>doubtless</i>, much labor and perplexity, on the part of the +learner, would thereby be saved.</p> + +<p>Of the words called "relatives," <i>who</i>, only, is a pronoun; and this is +strictly <i>personal</i>; more so, indeed, if we except <i>I</i> and <i>we</i>, than +any other word in our language, for it is always restricted to persons. +It ought to be classed with the personal pronouns. <i>I, thou, he, she, +it, we, ye, you</i>, and <i>they, relate</i> to antecedents, as well as <i>who. +Which, that</i>, and <i>what</i>, are always adjectives. They never <i>stand for</i>, +but always <i>belong</i> to nouns, either expressed or implied. They +<i>specify</i>, like many other adjectives, and <i>connect</i> sentences.</p> + +<p><i>Who</i> supplies the place of <i>which</i> or <i>what</i> and its <i>personal noun</i>. +<i>Who</i> came? i.e. <i>what man, what woman, what person;—which man, woman</i>, +or <i>person</i>, came? "They heard <i>what</i> I said"—they heard <i>that</i> (thing) +<i>which</i> (thing) I said. "Take <i>what</i> (or <i>whichever</i>) course you +please;"—take <i>that</i> course <i>which</i> (course) you please to take. +"<i>What</i> have you done?" i.e. <i>what thing, act</i>, or <i>deed</i> have you +done? "<i>Which thing</i> I also did at Jerusalem." "<i>Which</i> will you +take?"—<i>which book, hat</i>, or something else? "This is the tree <i>which</i> +(tree) produces no fruit." "He <i>that</i> (man, or <i>which</i> man) acts wisely, +deserves praise."</p> + +<p>They who prefer this method of treating the "relatives," are at liberty +to adopt it, and parse accordingly.</p> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>The man who instructs you, labors faithfully. The boy whom I instruct, +learns well. The lady whose house we occupy, bestows many charities. +That modesty which highly adorns a woman, she possesses. He that acts +wisely deserves praise. This is the tree which produces no fruit. I +believe what He says. He speaks what he knows. Whatever purifies the +heart, also fortifies it. What doest<sup><a name='FN_anchor_5'></a><a href='#Footnote_5'>[5]</a></sup> thou? Nothing. What book +have you? A poem. Whose hat have you? John's. Who does that work? Henry. +Whom seest thou? To whom gave you the present? Which pen did he take? +Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you. I heard what he +said. George, you may pursue whatever science suits your taste. Eliza, +take whichever pattern pleases you best. Whoever lives to see this +republic forsake her moral and literary institutions, will behold her +liberties prostrated. Whosoever, therefore, will be a friend of the +world, is the enemy of God.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>NOTE. The nominative case is frequently placed after the verb, and +the objective case, before the verb that governs it. <i>Whom</i>, in +every sentence except one, <i>house, modesty, book, hat, pen, him</i>, +the third <i>what</i> and <i>which</i>, the relative part of the first <i>two +whats</i>, are all in the <i>objective</i> case, and governed by the several +verbs that follow them. See RULE 16, and NOTE 1. <i>Tree</i> is nom. +after is, according to RULE 21. Thing, the antecedent part of +<i>whatever</i>, is nom. to "fortifies;" <i>which</i>, the relative part, is +nom. to "purifies." <i>Nothing</i> is governed by <i>do</i>, and <i>poem</i>, by +<i>have</i>, understood. <i>Henry</i> is nominative to <i>does</i>, understood. +<i>Whose</i> and <i>John's</i> are governed according to RULE 12. <i>I, thou, +you, him</i>, &c. represent nouns understood. <i>Him</i>, in the last +sentence but five, is governed by <i>declare</i>, and <i>I</i> is nominative +to <i>declare. George</i> and <i>Eliza</i> are in the nominative case +independent: Rule 5. "<i>Whatever</i> science," &c. is equivalent to, +<i>that</i> science <i>which</i> suits your taste;—"<i>whichever</i> pattern;" +i.e. <i>that</i> pattern <i>which</i> pleases you best. <i>Whoever</i> is a +compound relative; <i>he</i>, the antecedent part, is nominative to "will +behold." <i>Take</i> agrees with <i>you</i> understood. <i>Forsake</i> is in the +infinitive mood after "see:" Rule 25. +</p> +<h4>REMARKS ON RELATIVE PRONOUNS.</h4> + +<p><i>Which</i> sometimes relates to a member of a sentence, or to a whole +sentence, for its antecedent: as, "We are required to fear God and keep +his commandments, <i>which</i> is the whole duty of man." What is the whole +duty of man? "To fear God and keep his commandments:" therefore, this +phrase is the antecedent to <i>which</i>.</p> + +<a name='as_i'></a> +<p>The conjunction <i>as</i>, when it follows <i>such, many</i>, or <i>same</i>, is +frequently denominated a relative pronoun; as, "I am pleased with <i>such +as</i> have a refined taste;" that is, with <i>those who</i>, or <i>them who +have</i>, &c. "Let <i>such as</i> presume to advise others, look well to their +own conduct;" that is, Let <i>those</i>, or <i>them who</i> presume, &c. "<i>As many +as</i> were ordained to eternal life, believed;" that is, <i>they, those</i>, or +<i>all who</i> were ordained, believed. "He exhibited the <i>same</i> testimonials +<i>as</i> were adduced on a former occasion;" that is, <i>those</i> testimonials +<i>which</i> were adduced, &c. But, in examples like these, if we supply the +ellipsis which a critical analysis requires us to do, <i>as</i> will be found +to be a conjunction; thus, "I am pleased with <i>such persons, as those +persons are who</i> have a refined taste; Let <i>such persons, as those +persons are who</i> presume," &c.</p> +</div> + +<h4>QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>From what words is the term pronoun derived?—Do pronouns always avoid +the repetition of nouns?—Name the three kinds of pronouns.—What +distinguishes the personal from the relative pronouns?—How many +personal pronouns are there?—Repeat them.—What belong to pronouns?—Is +gender applied to all the personal pronouns?—To which of them is it +applied?—Which of the personal pronouns have no peculiar termination to +denote their gender?—How many persons have pronouns?—Speak them in +their different persons.—How many numbers have pronouns?—How many +cases?—What are they?—Decline all the personal pronouns.—When <i>self</i> +is added to the personal pronouns, what are they called, and how are +they used?—When is <i>you</i> singular in sense?—Is it ever singular in +form?—Why are the words, <i>my, thy, his, her, our, your, their</i>, called +personal pronouns?—Why are the words, <i>mine, thine, his, hers, ours, +yours, theirs</i>, denominated compound pers. pron.?—How do you parse +these compounds?—What is said of <i>others</i>?—Repeat the order of parsing +a personal pronoun.—What rule do you apply in parsing a pronoun of the +first person, and in the nom. case?—What rule when the pronoun is in +the possessive case?—What Rules apply in parsing personal pronouns of +the second and third person?—What Rules in parsing the compounds, +<i>yours, ours, mine</i>, &c.?—What is said of the pronoun <i>it</i>?</p> + +<p>What are adjective pronouns?—Name the three kinds.—What does <i>each</i> +relate to?—To what does <i>every</i> relate?—To what does <i>either</i> +relate?—What does <i>neither</i> import?—To what do <i>this</i> and <i>these</i> +refer?—Give examples.—To what do <i>that</i> and <i>those</i> refer?—Give +examples.—Repeat all the adjective pronouns.—When adj. pronouns belong +to nouns understood, how are they parsed?—When they stand for, or +represent nouns, what are they called?—Give examples.—Repeat the +order of parsing an adj. pronoun.—What Rule do you apply in parsing +the indefinite adjective pronouns?—What Notes, in parsing the +distributives and demonstratives?</p> + +<p>What are relative pronouns?—Repeat them.—From what words is the term +antecedent derived?—What does <i>antecedent</i> mean?—Are relatives varied +on account of gender, person, or number?—To what are <i>who</i> and <i>which</i> +applied?—To what is <i>that</i> applied?—Should <i>who</i> ever be applied to +irrational beings or children?—In what instances may <i>which</i> be applied +to persons?—Decline the rel. pronouns.—Can <i>which</i> and <i>that</i> be +declined?—Is <i>that</i> ever used as three parts of speech?—Give +examples.—What part of speech is the word <i>what</i>?—Is <i>what</i> ever used +as three kinds of a pronoun?—Give examples.—What is said of +<i>whoever</i>?—What words are used as interrogative pronouns?—Give +examples.—When are the words, <i>what, which</i>, and <i>that</i>, called adj. +pron.?—When are they called interrogative pronominal adjectives?—What +is said of <i>whatever</i> and <i>whichever</i>?—Is <i>what</i> ever used as an +interjection?—Give examples.—Repeat the order of parsing a rel. +pron.—What Rules do you apply in parsing a relative?—What Rules in +parsing a compound relative?—What Rules in parsing an +interrogative?—Does the relative <i>which</i> ever relate to a sentence for +its antecedent?—When does the conjunction <i>as</i> become a relative?—Give +examples.</p> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>NOTE 1, to RULE 13. When a noun or pronoun is the subject of a verb, it +must be in the nominative case.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>Who will go? Him and I. How does thee do? Is thee well?</p> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>"Him and I;" not proper, because the pronoun <i>him</i> is the subject of the +verb <i>will go</i> understood, therefore him should be in the nominative +case, <i>he</i>, according to the above NOTE. (Repeat the NOTE.) <i>Him</i> and I +are connected by the conjunction <i>and</i>, and <i>him</i> is in the obj. case, +and I in the nom., therefore RULE 33d, is violated. (Repeat the Rule.) +In the second and third examples, <i>thee</i> should be <i>thou</i>, according to +the NOTE. The verbs, <i>does</i> and <i>is</i>, are of the third person, and the +nom. <i>thou</i> is second, for which reason the verbs should be of the +second person, <i>dost do</i> and <i>art</i>, agreeably to RULE 4. You may correct +the other examples, <i>four</i> times over.</p> +</div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>Him and me went to town yesterday. Thee must be attentive. Him who is +careless, will not improve. They can write as well as me. This is the +man whom was expected. Her and I deserve esteem. I have made greater +proficiency than him. Whom, of all my acquaintances, do you think was +there? Whom, for the sake of his important services, had an office of +honor bestowed upon him.</p> + +<p>NOTE 2, to RULE 13. Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of +nouns, should not be employed in the same member of the sentence with +the noun which they represent.</p> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>The men they are there. I saw him the king. Our cause it is just. Many +words they darken speech. That noble general who had gained so many +victories, he died, at last, in prison. Who, instead of going about +doing good, they are continually doing evil.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>In each of the preceding examples, the personal pronoun should be +omitted, according to Note 2.</p> +</div> + +<p>NOTE 3, to RULE 13. A personal pronoun in the objective case, should not +be used instead of <i>these</i> and <i>those</i>.</p> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + + +<p>Remove them papers from the desk. Give me them books. Give them men +their discharge. Observe them three there. Which of them two persons +deserves most credit?</p> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>In all these examples, <i>those</i> should be used in place of <i>them</i>. The +use of the personal, <i>them</i>, in such constructions, presents two +objectives after one verb or preposition. This is a solecism which may +be avoided by employing an adjective pronoun in its stead.</p> +</div> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> +<a name="CONJUNCTIONS"></a> +<h2>LECTURE IX.</h2> + +<h3>OF CONJUNCTIONS.</h3> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>A CONJUNCTION is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect +sentences, joining two or more simple sentences into one compound +sentence: it sometimes connects only words; as, "Thou <i>and</i> he are +happy, <i>because</i> you are good."</p> +</div> + +<p>Conjunctions are those parts of language, which, by joining sentences in +different ways, mark the connexions and various dependances of human +thought. They belong to language only in its refined state.</p> + +<p>The term CONJUNCTION comes from the two Latin words, <i>con</i>, which +signifies <i>together</i>, and <i>jungo</i>, to <i>join</i>. A conjunction, then, is a +word that conjoins, or joins together something. Before you can fully +comprehend the nature and office of this sort of words, it is requisite +that you should know what is meant by a sentence, a simple sentence, and +a compound sentence, for conjunctions are chiefly used to connect +sentences.</p> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>A <a name="SENTENCE"></a>SENTENCE is an assemblage of words forming complete sense.</p> + +<p>A SIMPLE SENTENCE contains but one subject, or nominative, and one verb +which agrees with that nominative; as, "<i>Wheat grows</i> in the field."</p> +</div> + +<p>You perceive that this sentence contains several words besides the +nominative and the verb, and you will often see a simple sentence +containing many parts of speech; but, if it has only one nominative and +one <i>finite</i> verb, (that is, a verb <i>not</i> in the infinitive mood,) it is +a simple sentence, though it is longer than many compound sentences.</p> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>A COMPOUND SENTENCE is composed of two or more simple sentences +connected together; as, "<i>Wheat grows</i> in the field, and <i>men reap</i> it."</p> +</div> + +<p>This sentence is compound, because it is formed of two simple sentences +joined together by the word <i>and</i>; which word, on account of its +connecting power, is called a conjunction. If we write this sentence +without the conjunction, it becomes two simple sentences: thus, "Wheat +grows in the field. Men reap it."</p> + +<p>The nature and importance of the conjunction, are easily illustrated. +After expressing one thought or sentiment, you know we frequently wish +to <i>add</i> another, or several others, which are closely connected with +it. We generally effect this addition by means of the conjunction: thus, +"The Georgians cultivate rice <i>and</i> cotton;" that is, "They cultivate +rice <i>add</i> cotton." This sentence is compound, and without the use of +the conjunction, it would be written in two separate, simple sentences: +thus, "The Georgians cultivate rice. They cultivate cotton." The +conjunction, though chiefly used to connect sentences, sometimes +connects only words; in which capacity it is nearly allied to the +preposition; as, "The sun <i>and (add)</i> the planets constitute the solar +system." In this, which is a simple sentence, <i>and</i> connects two +<i>words</i>.</p> + +<p>A few more examples will illustrate the nature, and exhibit the use of +this part of speech so clearly, as to enable you fully to comprehend it. +The following simple sentences and members of sentences, have no +relation to each other until they are connected by conjunctions. He +labors harder—more successfully—I do. That man is healthy—he is +temperate. By filling up the vacancies in these sentences with +conjunctions, you will see the importance of this sort of words: thus, +He labors harder <i>and</i> more successfully <i>than</i> I do. That man is +healthy <i>because</i> he is temperate.</p> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>Conjunctions are divided into two sorts, the Copulative and Disjunctive.</p> + +<p>I. The Conjunction <i>Copulative</i> serves to connect and continue a +sentence by joining on a member which expresses an addition, a +supposition, or a cause; as, "Two <i>and</i> three are five; I will go <i>if</i> +he will accompany me; You are happy <i>because</i> you are good."</p> +</div> + +<p>In the first of these examples, <i>and</i> joins on a word that expresses an +<i>addition</i>; in the second, <i>if</i> connects a member that implies a +<i>supposition</i> or <i>condition</i>; and in the third, <i>because</i> connects a +member that expresses a <i>cause</i>.</p> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>II. The Conjunction <i>Disjunctive</i> serves to connect and continue a +sentence by joining on a member that expresses opposition of meaning; +as, "They came with her, <i>but</i> they went away without her."</p> +</div> + +<p><i>But</i> joins on a member of this sentence which expresses, not only +something added, but, also, <i>opposition</i> of meaning.</p> + +<p>The principal conjunctions, may be known by the following <i>lists</i>, which +you may now commit to memory. Some words in these lists, are, however, +frequently used as adverbs, and sometimes as prepositions; but if you +study well the nature of all the different sorts of words, you cannot be +at a loss to tell the part of speech of any word in the language.</p> + +<h4>LISTS OF THE CONJUNCTIONS.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p><i>Copulative</i>. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore, +wherefore, provided, besides.</p> + +<p><i>Disjunctive</i>. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, either, +neither, yet, notwithstanding, nevertheless, except, whether, whereas, +as well as.</p> +</div> + +<p>Some conjunctions are followed by corresponding conjunctions, so that, +in the subsequent member of the sentence, the latter answers to the +former; as,</p> + +<p>1. <i>Though</i>—<i>yet</i> or <i>nevertheless</i>; as, "<i>Though</i> he was rich, <i>yet</i> +for our sakes he became poor."</p> + +<p>2. <i>Whether</i>—<i>or</i>; as, "<i>Whether</i> he will go, <i>or</i> not, I cannot tell." +It is improper to say, "Whether he will go or <i>no</i>."</p> + +<p>3. <i>Either</i>—<i>or</i>; as, "I will <i>either</i> send it, <i>or</i> bring it myself."</p> + +<p>4. <i>Neither—nor</i>; as, "<i>Neither</i> thou <i>nor</i> I can comprehend it."</p> + +<p>5. <i>As</i>—<i>as</i>; as, "She is <i>as</i> amiable <i>as</i> her sister."</p> + +<p>6. <i>As</i>—<i>so</i>; as, "<i>As</i> the stars, <i>so</i> shall thy seed be."</p> + +<p>7. <i>So</i>—<i>as</i>; as, "To see thy glory, <i>so as</i> I have seen thee in the +sanctuary."</p> + +<p>8. <i>So</i>—<i>that</i>; as, "He became <i>so</i> vain, <i>that</i> everyone disliked +him."</p> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<h4>NOTES.</h4> + +<p>1. Some conjunctions are used to connect simple <i>sentences</i> only, +and form them into compound <i>sentences</i>; such as, further, again, +besides, &c. Others are employed to connect simple <i>members</i> only, +so as to make them compound <i>members</i>; such as, than, lest, unless, +that, so that, if, though, yet, because, as well as, &c. But, and, +therefore, or, nor, for, &c., connect either whole sentences, or +simple members.</p> + +<p>2. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect +sentences; as, "Blessed is the man <i>who</i> feareth the Lord, <i>and</i> +keepeth his commandments."</p> +</div> + +<p>You will now please to turn back and read this lecture four or five +times over; and then, after committing the following order, you may +parse the subsequent exercises.</p> + +<h4>SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"><p><i>The order of parsing a</i> CONJUNCTION, is—a conjunction, and +why?—copulative or disjunctive, and why?—what does it connect?</p></div> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"Wisdom <i>and</i> virtue <i>form</i> the good man's character."</p> + +<p><i>And</i> is a +conjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences; but in +this example it connects only words—copulative, it serves to connect +and continue the sentence by joining on a member which expresses an +addition—it connects the words "wisdom and virtue."</p> + +<p><i>Wisdom</i> is a noun, the name of a thing—(You may parse it in +full.)—<i>Wisdom</i> is one of the nominatives to the verb "form."</p> + +<p><i>Virtue</i> is a noun, the name, &c.—(Parse it in full:)—and in the nom. +case to the verb "form," and connected to the noun "wisdom" by and, +according to RULE 33. <i>Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the +same case</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Form</i> is a verb, a word which signifies to do, &c.—of the third +person, <i>plural</i>, because its two nominatives, "wisdom and virtue," are +connected by a copulative conjunction, agreeably to RULE 8. <i>Two or more +nouns in the singular number, joined by</i> copulative <i>conjunctions, must +have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them in the</i> plural.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"Wisdom <i>or</i> folly <i>governs</i> us."</p> + +<p><i>Or</i> is a conjunction, a word that is +chiefly used to connect sentences: it sometimes connects +words—disjunctive, it serves not only to connect and continue the +sentence, but also to join on a member which expresses opposition of +meaning—it connects the nouns "wisdom and folly."</p> + +<p><i>Governs</i> is a verb, a word that signifies, &c.—of the third person, +singular number, agreeing with "wisdom or folly," according to +RULE 9. <i>Two or more nouns singular, joined by</i> disjunctive +<i>conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them +in the</i> singular:</p> + +<p>If you reflect, for a few moments, on the meaning of me last two Rules +presented, you will see, at once, their propriety and importance. For +example; in the sentence, "Orlando <i>and</i> Thomas, <i>who study their +lessons, make</i> rapid progress," you notice that the two singular nouns, +<i>Orlando</i> and <i>Thomas</i>, are connected by the copulative conjunction +<i>and</i>, therefore the verb <i>make</i>, which agrees with them, is plural, +because it expresses the action of <i>both</i> its nominatives or actors. And +you observe, too, that the pronouns <i>who</i> and <i>their</i>, and the noun +<i>lessons</i>, are <i>plural</i>, agreeing with the nouns <i>Orlando</i> and <i>Thomas</i>, +according to RULE 8. The verb <i>study</i> is plural, agreeing with <i>who</i>, +according to RULE 4.</p> + +<p>But let us connect these two nouns by a disjunctive conjunction, and see +how the sentence will read: "Orlando <i>or</i> Thomas, <i>who studies his +lesson, makes</i> rapid progress." Now, you perceive, that a different +construction takes place, for the latter expression does not imply, that +Orlando and Thomas, <i>both</i> study and make rapid progress; but it +asserts, that either the one <i>or</i> the other studies, and makes rapid +progress. Hence the verb <i>makes</i> is singular, because it expresses the +action of the one <i>or</i> the other of its nominatives. And you observe, +too, that the pronouns <i>who</i> and <i>his</i>, and the noun <i>lesson</i>, are +likewise in the singular, agreeing with Orlando <i>or</i> Thomas, agreeably +to RULE 9. <i>Studies</i> is also singular, agreeing with <i>who</i>, according to +RULE 4.</p> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>Joseph and his brother reside in New York. The Sun, moon, and stars, +admonish us of a superior and superintending Power. I respect my friend, +because he is upright and obliging. Henry and William, who obey their +teacher, improve rapidly. Henry or William, who obeys his teacher, +improves very fast. Neither rank nor possession makes the guilty mind +happy. Wisdom, virtue, and meekness, form the good man's happiness and +interest: they support him in adversity, and comfort him in prosperity. +Man is a little lower than the angels. The United States, as justly as +Great Britain, can now boast of their literary institutions.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"><p>NOTE. The verb <i>form</i> is plural, and agrees with three nouns singular, +connected by copulative conjunctions, according to RULE 8. The verb +<i>comfort</i> agrees with <i>they</i> for its nominative. It is connected to +<i>support</i> by the conjunction <i>and</i>, agreeably to RULE 34. <i>Angels</i> is +nom. to <i>are</i> understood, and <i>Great Britain</i> is nom. to <i>can boast</i> +understood, according to RULE 35.</p> + +<h4>REMARKS ON CONJUNCTIONS AND PREPOSITIONS.</h4> + +<p>The same word is occasionally employed, either as a conjunction, an +adverb, or a preposition. "I submitted, <i>for</i> it was in vain to resist;" +in this example, <i>for</i> is a conjunction, because it connects the two +members of a compound sentence. In the next it is a preposition, and +governs <i>victory</i> in the objective case: "He contended <i>for</i> victory +only."</p> + +<p>In the first of the following sentences, <i>since</i> is a conjunction; in +the second, it is a preposition, and in the third, an adverb; "<i>Since</i> +we must part, let us do it peaceably; I have not seen him <i>since</i> that +time; Our friendship commenced long <i>since.</i>"</p> + +<p>"He will repent <i>before</i> he dies; Stand <i>before</i> me; Why did you not +return <i>before</i>" [that or this <i>time</i>;] in the first of these three +examples, <i>before</i> is an adverbial conjunction, because it expresses +time and connects; and in the second and third, it is a preposition.</p> + +<a name="transposition"></a> +<p>As the words of a sentence are often transposed, so are also its +members. Without attending to this circumstance, the learner may +sometimes be at a loss to perceive the <i>connecting</i> power of a +preposition or conjunction, for every preposition and every conjunction +connects either words or phrases, sentences or members of sentences. +Whenever a sentence begins with a preposition or conjunction, its +members are transposed; as, "<i>In</i> the days of Joram, king of Israel, +flourished the prophet Elisha;" "<i>If</i> thou seek the Lord, he will be +found of thee; but, <i>if</i> thou forsake him, he will cast thee off for +ever."</p> + +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>"<i>When</i> coldness wraps this suffering clay,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'><i>"Ah, whither strays the immortal mind?"</i></span><br /> + +<p>That the words <i>in, if</i>, and <i>when</i>, in these examples, connect the +members of the respective sentences to which they are attached, will +obviously appear if we restore these sentences to their natural order, +and bring these particles <i>between</i> the members which they connect: +thus, "Elisha the prophet flourished <i>in</i> the days of Joram, king of +Israel;" "The Lord will be found of thee <i>if</i> thou seek him; but he will +cast thee off for ever <i>if</i> thou forsake him:"</p> + +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'><i>"Ah, whither strays the immortal mind,</i></span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>"<i>When</i> coldness wraps this suffering clay?"</span><br /> +</div> + +<p>As an exercise on this lecture, you may now answer these</p> + +<h4>QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>From what words is the term conjunction derived?—What is a +sentence?—What is a simple sentence?—What is a compound +sentence?—Give examples.—In what respect do conjunctions and +prepositions agree in their nature?—How many sorts of conjunctions are +there?—Repeat the lists of conjunctions.—Repeat some conjunctions with +their corresponding conjunctions.—Do relative pronouns ever connect +sentences?—Repeat the order of parsing a conjunction.—Do you apply any +Rule in parsing a conjunction?—What Rule should be applied in parsing +a noun or pronoun connected with another?—What Rule in parsing a verb +agreeing with two or more nouns singular, connected by a copulative +conjunction?—What Rule when the nouns are connected by a +disjunctive?—In parsing a verb connected to another by a conjunction, +what Rule do you apply?—Is a conjunction ever used as other parts of +speech?—Give examples.—What is said of the words <i>for, since</i>, and +<i>before?</i>—What is said of the transposition of sentences?</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<h4>PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.</h4> + +<p>On scientific principles, our <i>connectives</i>, commonly denominated +prepositions and conjunctions, are but one part of speech, the +distinction between them being merely technical. Some conjunctions +unite only words, and some prepositions connect sentences. They are +derived from nouns and verbs; and the time has been, when, perhaps, +in our language, they did not perform the office of connectives.</p> + +<p>"I wish you to believe, <i>that</i> I would not wilfully hurt a fly." +Here, in the opinion of H. Tooke, our modern conjunction <i>that</i>, is +merely a demonstrative adjective, in a disguised form; and he +attempts to prove it by the following resolution: "I would not +wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believe <i>that [assertion</i>."] Now, +if we admit, that <i>that</i> is an adjective in the latter construction, +it does not necessarily follow, that it is the same part of speech, +nor that its associated meaning is precisely the same, in the former +construction. Instead of expressing our ideas in two detached +sentences, by the former phraseology we have a quicker and closer +transition of thought, and both the mode of employing <i>that</i>, and +its <i>inferential</i> meaning, are changed. Moreover, if we examine the +meaning of each of these constructions, taken as a whole, we shall +find, that they do not both convey the same ideas. By the latter, I +assert, positively, that "I would not wilfully hurt a fly:" whereas, +by the former, I merely <i>wish you to believe</i> that "I would not +wilfully hurt a fly;" but I do not <i>affirm</i>, that as a fact.</p> + +<p><i>That</i> being the past part, of <i>thean</i>, to get, take, assume, by +rendering it as a <i>participle</i>, instead of an adjective, we should +come nearer to its primitive character. Thus, "I would not wilfully +hurt a fly. I wish you to believe the <i>assumed [fact</i> or +<i>statement</i>;] or, the fact <i>assumed</i> or <i>taken</i>."</p> + +<p><i><a name="If"></a>If</i>, (formerly written <i>gif, give, gin</i>,) as previously stated, is +the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb <i>gifan</i>, to give. In +imitation of Horne Tooke, some of our modern philosophical writers +are inclined to teach pupils to render it as a verb. Thus, "I will +go, <i>if</i> he will accompany me:"—"He will accompany me. +<i>Grant</i>—<i>give</i> that [fact] I will go." For the purpose of +ascertaining the <i>primitive</i> meaning of this word, I have no +objection to such a resolution; but, by it, do we get the exact +meaning and force of <i>if</i> as it is applied in our modern, refined +state of the language? I <i>trow</i> not. But, admitting we do, does this +prove that such a mode of resolving sentences can be advantageously +adopted by learners in common schools? I presume it can not be +denied, that instead of teaching the learner to express himself +correctly in modern English, such a resolution is merely making him +familiar with an ancient and barbarous construction which modern +refinement has rejected. Our forefathers, I admit, who were governed +by those laws of necessity which compel all nations in the early and +rude state of their language, to express themselves in short, +detached sentences, employed <i>if</i> as a verb when they used the +following circumlocution: "My son will reform. <i>Give that fact</i>. I +will forgive him." But in the present, improved state of our +language, by using <i>if</i> as a <i>conjunction</i>, (for I maintain that it +is one,) we express the same thought more briefly; and our modern +mode of expression has, too, a decisive advantage over the ancient, +not only in point of elegance, but also in perspicuity and force. In +Scotland and the north of England, some people still make use of +<i>gin</i>, a contraction of <i>given:</i> thus, "I will pardon my son, <i>gin</i> +he reform." But who will contend, that they speak pure English?</p> + +<p>But perhaps the advocates of what <i>they</i> call a philosophical +development of language, will say, that by their resolution of +sentences, they merely supply an ellipsis. If, by an ellipsis, they +mean such a one as is necessary, to the grammatical construction, I +cannot accede to their assumption. In teaching grammar, as well as +in other things, we ought to avoid extremes:—we ought neither to +pass superficially over an ellipsis necessary to the sense of a +phrase, nor to put modern English to the blush, by adopting a mode +of resolving sentences that would entirely change the character of +our language, and carry the learner back to the Vandalic age.</p> + +<a name='as_ii'></a> +<p><i>But</i> comes from the Saxon verb, <i>beon-utan</i>, to be-out. "All were +well <i>but (be-out, leave-out)</i> the stranger." "Man is <i>but</i> a reed, +floating on the current of time." Resolution: "Man is a reed, +floating on the current of time; <i>but (be-out</i> this fact) he is not +a stable being."</p> + +<p><i>And—aned, an'd, and</i>, is the past part. of <i>ananad</i>, to add, join. +<a name='a_ii'></a><i>A, an, ane</i>, or <i>one</i>, from the same verb, points out whatever is +<i>aned, oned</i>, or made <i>one. And</i> also refers to the thing that is +<i>joined</i> to, <i>added</i> to, or <i>made one</i> with, some other person or +thing mentioned. "Julius <i>and</i> Harriet will make a happy pair." +Resolution: "Julius, Harriet <i>joined, united</i>, or <i>aned</i>, will make +a happy pair;" i.e. Harriet <i>made one</i> with Julius; will make a +happy pair.</p> + +<p><i>For</i> means <i>cause</i>.</p> + +<p><i><a name='Because'></a>Because</i>—<i>be-cause</i>, is a compound of the verb <i>be</i>, and the noun +<i>cause</i>. It retains the meaning of both; as, "I believe the maxim, +<i>for</i> I know it to be true;"—"I believe the maxim, <i>be-cause</i> I +know it to be true;" i.e. the <i>cause</i> of my belief, <i>be</i>, or <i>is</i>, I +know it to be true.</p> + +<p><i>Nor</i> is a contraction of <i>ne or. Ne</i> is a contraction of <i>not</i>, and +<i>or</i>, of <i>other. Nor</i> is, <i>not other</i>-wise: <i>not</i> in the <i>other</i> way +or manner.</p> + +<p><i>Else</i> is the imperative of <i>alesan, unless</i>, of <i>onlesan</i>, and +<i>lest</i>, the past part. of <i>lesan</i>, all signifying to dismiss, +release, loosen, set free. "He will be punished, <i>unless</i> he +repent;"—"<i>Unless, release, give up</i>, (the fact) he repents he will +be punished." <i>Though</i> is the imperative of the Saxon verb +<i>thafigan</i>, to allow, and <i>yet</i> of <i>getan</i>, to get. <i>Yet</i> is simply, +<i>get</i>; ancient <i>g</i> is the modern <i>y</i>. "<i>Though</i> he slay me, <i>yet</i> +will I trust in him:—<i>Grant</i> or <i>allow</i> (the fact) he slay me, +<i>get</i>, or <i>retain</i> (the opposite fact) I will trust in +him."</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h4>QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.</h4> + +<p>From what parts of speech are prepositions and conjunctions +derived?—What is Horne Tooke's opinion of that?—From what is each of +the following words derived, <i>that, if, but, and, because, nor, else, +unless, lest, though</i>, and <i>yet?</i></p> +</div> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> +<a name="INTERJECTIONS"></a> +<h2>LECTURE X.</h2> + + +<h3>OF INTERJECTIONS.—CASES OF NOUNS.</h3> + +<div class="bigtext"><p>INTERJECTIONS are words which express the sudden emotions of the +speaker; as, "<i>Alas!</i> I fear for life;" "<i>O</i> death! where is thy sting?"</p> +</div> +<p>Interjections are not so much the signs of thought, as of feeling. +Almost any word may be used as an interjection; but when so employed, it +is not the representative of a <i>distinct</i>, idea. A word which denotes a +distinct conception of the mind, must necessarily belong to some other +part of speech. They who wish to speak often, or rather, to make +<i>noises</i>, when they have no useful information to communicate, are apt +to use words very freely in this way; such as the following expressions, +<i>la, la me, my, O my, O dear, dear me, surprising, astonishing</i>, and the +like.</p> + +<p>Interjections not included in the following list, are generally known by +their taking an exclamation point after them.</p> + +<h4>A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL INTERJECTIONS.</h4> + +<ol><li>Of <i>earnestness</i> or <i>grief</i>; as, O! oh! ah! alas!</li> +<li><i>Contempt;</i> as, Pish! tush!</li> +<li><i>Wonder;</i> as, Heigh! really! strange!</li> +<li><i>Calling;</i> as, Hem! ho! halloo!</li> +<li><i>Disgust</i> or <i>aversion;</i> as, Foh! fy! fudge! away!</li> +<li><i>Attention</i>; as, Lo! behold! hark!</li> +<li><i>Requesting silence</i>; as, Hush! hist!</li> +<li><i>Salutation</i>; as, Welcome! hail! all hail!</li></ol> + + +<div class="smalltext"><p>NOTE. We frequently meet with what some call an <i>interjective +phrase</i>; such as, Ungrateful wretch! impudence of hope! folly in the +extreme! what ingratitude! away with him! +</p></div> + +<p>As the interjection is the least important part of speech in the English +language, it will require but little attention. You may, however, make +yourself well acquainted with what has been said respecting it, and then +commit the</p> + +<h4>SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"><p><i>The order of parsing an</i> <b>INTERJECTION</b>, is—an interjection, and +why?</p></div> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"O virtue! how amiable thou art!"</p> + +<p><i>O</i> is an interjection, a word used to express some passion or emotion +of the speaker.</p> + +<p>The ten parts of speech have now been unfolded and elucidated, although +some of them have not been fully explained. Before you proceed any +farther, you will please to begin again at the first lecture, and read +over, attentively, the whole, observing to parse every example in the +exercises systematically. You will then be able to parse the following +exercises, which contain all the parts of speech. If you study +faithfully <i>six</i> hours in a day, and pursue the directions given, you +may become, if not a critical, at least, a good, practical grammarian, +in <i>six weeks</i>; but if you study only <i>three</i> hours in a day, it will +take you nearly <i>three months</i> to acquire the same knowledge.</p> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>True cheerfulness makes a man happy in himself, and promotes the +happiness of all around him.</p> + +<p>Modesty always appears graceful in youth: it doubles the lustre of every +virtue which it seems to hide.</p> + +<p>He who, every morning, plans the transactions of the day, and follows +out that plan, carries on a thread that will guide him through the +labyrinth of the most busy life.</p> + +<p>The king gave me a generous reward for committing that barbarous act; +but, alas! I fear the consequence.</p> + +<div class='poem' style='font-size: 100%'> +<span style='margin-left: 1em;'>E'en now, where Alpine solitudes ascend,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 1em;'>I set me down a pensive hour to spend;</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 1em;'>And, placed on high, above the storm's career,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 1em;'>Look downward where a hundred realms appear:—</span><br /> +</div> +<div class='poem' style='font-size: 100%'> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Alas! the joys that fortune brings,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 3em;'>Are trifling, and decay;</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>And those who mind the paltry things,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 3em;'>More trifling still than they.</span><br /> +</div> + +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>NOTE. In the second sentence of the foregoing exercises, <i>which</i> is +governed by the verb <i>to hide</i>, according to RULE 16. <i>He</i> is nom. +to <i>carries; who</i> is nom. to <i>plans. Follows</i> agrees with <i>who</i> +understood, and is connected to <i>plans</i> by <i>and</i>; RULE 34. What did +the king give? A <i>reward to</i> me. Then <i>reward</i> is in the <i>obj</i>. +case, gov. by <i>gave</i>; RULE 20. <i>Me</i> is gov. by <i>to</i> understood; NOTE +1, RULE 32. The phrase, <i>committing that barbarous act</i>, is gov. by +<i>for</i>; NOTE 2, under RULE 28. <i>Hour</i> is in the <i>obj</i>. case, gov. by +<i>to spend</i>; RULE 20. <i>Look</i> is connected to <i>set</i> by <i>and</i>; RULE 34. +<i>Joys</i> is nom. to <i>are. That</i> is gov. by <i>brings</i>; RULE 16. <i>Those</i> +is nom. to <i>are</i> understood. <i>They</i> is nom. to <i>are</i> understood; +RULE 35.</p> +</div> + +<h4>CASES OF NOUNS.</h4> + +<p>In a former lecture, I promised to give you a more extensive explanation +of the cases of nouns; and, as they are, in many situations, a little +difficult to be ascertained, I will now offer some remarks on this +subject. But before you proceed, I wish you to parse all the examples in +the exercises just presented, observing to pay particular attention to +the remarks in the subjoined NOTE. Those remarks will assist you much in +analyzing.</p> + +<p>A noun is sometimes nominative to a verb placed many lines after the +noun. You must exercise your judgment in this matter. Look at the +sentence in the preceding exercises beginning with, "He who, every +morning," &c. and see if you can find the verb to which <i>he</i> is +nominative. What does <i>he</i> do? He carries on a thread, &c. <i>He</i>, then, +is nominative to the verb <i>carries</i>. What does <i>who</i> do? Who <i>plans</i>, +and who <i>follows</i>, &c. Then <i>who</i> is nom. to <i>plans</i>, and <i>who</i> +understood, is nominative to <i>follows</i>.</p> + +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>"A soul without reflection, like a pile</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Without inhabitant, to ruin runs."</span><br /> + +<p>In order to find the verb to which the noun <i>soul</i>, in this sentence, is +the nominative, put the question; What does a <i>soul</i> without reflection +do? Such, a soul <i>runs</i> to ruin, like a pile without inhabitant. Thus +you discover, that <i>soul</i> is nominative to <i>runs</i>.</p> + +<p>When the words of a sentence are arranged according to their natural +order, the nominative case, you recollect, is placed before the verb, +and the objective, after it; but when the words of a sentence are +transposed; that is, not arranged according to their natural order, it +frequently happens, that the nominative comes <i>after</i>, and the +objective, <i>before</i> the verb; especially in poetry, or when a question +is asked: as, "Whence <i>arises</i> the <i>misery</i> of the present world?" "What +good <i>thing shall</i> I <i>do</i> to inherit eternal life?" Put these +expressions in the declarative form, and the nominative will <i>precede</i>, +and the objective <i>follow</i> its verb: thus, "The <i>misery</i> of the present +world <i>arises</i> whence; I <i>shall do</i> what good <i>thing</i> to inherit eternal +life."</p> + +<div class='poem'> +<span>"Now came still <i>evening</i> on, and twilight gray</span><br /> +<span>Had, in her sober livery, all <i>things</i> clad."</span><br /> +</div> +<div class='poem'> +<span>"Stern rugged nurse, thy rigid <i>lore</i></span><br /> +<span>With patience many a <i>year</i> she bore."</span><br /> +</div> + +<p>What did the <i>evening</i> do? The evening <i>came on</i>. Gray <i>twilight</i> had +clad what? Twilight had clad all <i>things</i> in her sober livery. +<i>Evening</i>, then, is nom. to <i>came</i>, and the noun <i>things</i> is in the +objective case, and gov. by <i>had clad</i>: RULE 20. What did <i>she</i> bear? +She bore thy rigid <i>lore</i> with patience, <i>for</i>, or <i>during</i>, many a +year. Hence you find, that <i>lore</i> is in the objective case, and governed +by <i>bore</i>, according to RULE 20. <i>Year</i> is gov. by <i>during</i> understood: +RULE 32.</p> + +<p>A noun is frequently nominative to a verb understood, or in the +objective, and governed by a verb understood; as, "Lo, [<i>there is</i>] the +poor <i>Indian!</i> whose untutored mind." "O, the <i>pain</i> [<i>there is!</i>] the +<i>bliss</i> [<i>there is</i>] in dying!" "All were sunk, but the wakeful +<i>nightingale</i> [<i>was not sunk</i>."] "He thought as a <i>sage</i> [<i>thinks</i>,] +though he felt as a <i>man</i> [<i>feels</i>."] "His hopes, immortal, blow them +by, as <i>dust</i> [<i>is blown by</i>."] Rule 35 applies to these last three +examples.</p> + +<p>In the next place I will explain several cases of nouns and pronouns +which have not yet come under our notice. Sometimes a noun or pronoun +may be in the nominative case when it has no verb to agree with it.</p> + +<a name="nominative_case_independent_ii"></a> +<h4>OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"><p>Whenever a direct address is made, the person or thing spoken to, is in +the <i>nominative case independent</i>; as, "<i>James</i>, I desire you to study."</p> +</div> +<p>You notice that, in this expression, I address myself to <i>James</i> that +is, I speak to him; and you observe, too, that there is no verb, either +expressed or implied, to which James can be the nominative; therefore +you know that <i>James</i> is in the nom. case independent, according to Rule +5. Recollect, that <i>whenever a noun is of the second person</i>, it is in +the nom. case independent; that is, independent of any verb; as, +<i>Selma</i>, thy halls are silent; Love and meekness, my <i>lord</i>, become a +churchman, better than ambition; O <i>Jerusalem, Jerusalem</i>, how often +would I have gathered thy children together, even as a hen gathereth her +chickens under her wings, but ye would not!—For a farther illustration +of this case, see Note 2, under the 5th Rule of Syntax.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"><p>NOTE. When a pronoun of the <i>second</i> person is in apposition with a +noun independent, it is in the same case; as, "<i>Thou traitor</i>, I +detest thee." +</p></div> +<a name="NOMINATIVE_CASE_ABSOLUTE_i"></a> +<h4>OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE ABSOLUTE.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"><p>A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, without any verb to agree +with it, is in the nominative case <i>absolute</i>; as, "The <i>sun being +risen</i>, we pursued our journey."</p></div> + +<p><i>Sun</i> is here placed before the participle "being risen," and has no +verb to agree with it; therefore it is in the nominative case absolute, +according to RULE 6.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"><p>NOTE 1. A noun or pronoun in the nominative case independent, is always +of the <i>second</i> person; but, in the case absolute, it is generally of +the <i>third</i> person.</p> + +<p>2. The case absolute is always nominative; the following sentence is +therefore incorrect; "Whose top shall tremble, <i>him</i> descending," &c.; +it should be, <i>he</i> descending.</p> +</div> + +<a name="APPOSITION_i"></a> +<h4>OF NOUNS IN APPOSITION.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"><p>Two or more nouns or pronouns signifying the same person or thing, are +put, by <i>apposition</i>, in the same case; as, "<i>Cicero</i>, the great +<i>orator, philosopher</i>, and <i>statesman</i> of Rome, was murdered by Antony."</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Apposition</i>, in a grammatical sense, means something added, or names +added, in order more fully to define or illustrate the sense of the +first name mentioned.</p> + +<p>You perceive that <i>Cicero</i>, in the preceding example, is merely the +proper name of a man; but when I give him the three additional +appellations, and call him a great <i>orator, philosopher</i>, and +<i>statesman</i>, you understand what kind of a man he was; that is, by +giving him these three additional names, his character and abilities as +a man are more fully made known. And, surely, you cannot be at a loss to +know that these four nouns must be in the same case, for they are all +names given to the same person; therefore, if <i>Cicero</i> was murdered, the +<i>orator</i> was murdered, and the <i>philosopher</i> was murdered, and the +<i>statesman</i> was murdered, because they all mean one and the same person.</p> + +<p>Nouns and pronouns in the objective case, are frequently in +<i>apposition</i>; as, He struck <i>Charles</i> the <i>student</i>. Now it is obvious, +that, when he struck <i>Charles</i>, he struck the <i>student</i>, because Charles +was the <i>student</i>, and the <i>student</i> was <i>Charles</i>; therefore the noun +<i>student</i> is in the objective case, governed by "struck," and put by +apposition with Charles, according to RULE 7.</p> + +<p>Please to examine this lecture very attentively. You will then be +prepared to parse the following examples correctly and systematically.</p> + +<h4>PARSING.</h4> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, O <i>maid</i> of Inistore."</p> + +<p><i>Maid</i> is a noun, the name of a person—- com. the name of a sort—fem. +gender, it denotes a female—second pers. spoken to—sing. num. it +implies but one—and in the nominative case independent, because it is +addressed, and has no verb to agree with it, according to</p> + +<p>RULE 5. <i>When an address is made, the noun or pronoun addressed, is put +in the nominative case independent</i>.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"The <i>general</i> being ransomed, the barbarians permitted him to +depart."</p> + +<p><i>General</i> is a noun, the name, &c. (parse it in full:)—and in the +nominative case absolute, because it is placed before the participle +"being ransomed," and it has no verb to agree with it, agreeably to</p> + +<p>RULE 6. <i>A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and being +independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case +absolute</i>.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'><i>"Thou man</i> of God, flee to the land of Judah."</p> + +<p><i>Thou</i> is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—personal, it +personates "man"—second pers. spoken to—mas. gender, sing. num. +because the noun "man" is for which it stands; RULE 13 (Repeat the +Rule.)—<i>Thou</i> is in the nominative case independent and put by +<i>apposition</i> with <i>man</i>, because it signifies the same thing, according +to</p> + +<p>RULE 7. <i>Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signifying the same +thing, are put, by apposition, in the same case</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Man</i> is in the nominative case independent, according to Rule 5. <i>Flee</i> +agrees with <i>thou</i> understood.</p> + +<div class='poem'> +<span>"Lo! <i>Newton, priest</i> of Nature, shines afar,</span><br /> +<span>Scans the wide world, and numbers every star."</span><br /> +</div> + +<p><i>Newton</i> is a noun, (parse it in full,) and in the nominative case to +"shines." RULE 3.</p> + +<p><i>Priest</i> is a noun, (parse it in full,) and in the nom. case, it is the +actor and subject of the verb "shines," and put by apposition with +"Newton," because it signifies the same thing, agreeably to Rule 7. +(Repeat the Rule.)</p> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p><i>Turn</i> from your evil ways, O house of Israel! Ye fields of light, +celestial plains, ye scenes divinely fair! proclaim your Maker's +wondrous power. O king! <i>live</i> for ever. The murmur of thy streams, O +Lora, brings back the memory of the past. The sound of thy woods, +Garmallar, is lovely in my ear. Dost thou not behold, Malvina, a rock +with its head of heath? Three aged pines bend from its face; green is +the plain at its feet; there the flower of the mountain grows, and +shades its white head in the breeze.</p> + +<p>The General being slain, the army was routed. Commerce having thus got +into the legislative body, privilege must be done away. Jesus had +conveyed himself away, a multitude being in that place. I being in great +haste, he consented. The rain having ceased, the dark clouds rolled +away. The Son of God, while clothed in flesh, was subject to all the +frailties and inconveniences of human nature, sin excepted; (that is, +sin being excepted.)</p> + +<p>In the days of Joram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha. +Paul the apostle suffered martyrdom. <i>Come</i>, peace of mind, delightful +guest! and <i>dwell</i> with me. Friends, Romans, countrymen, <i>lend</i> me your +ears.</p> + +<div class='poem'> +<span>Soul of the just, companion of the dead!</span><br /> +<span>Where is thy home, and whither art thou fled?</span><br /> +</div> +<div class='poem'> +<span>Till Hymen brought his love-delighted hour,</span><br /> +<span>There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower:—</span><br /> +<span>The world was sad, the garden was a wild,</span><br /> +<span>And man the hermit sighed, till woman smiled.</span><br /> +</div> +<div class="smalltext"> +<p>NOTE. Those verbs in <i>italics</i>, in the preceding examples, are all +in the imperative mood, and <i>second</i> person, agreeing with <i>thou, +ye</i>, or <i>you</i>, understood. <i>House of Israel</i> is a noun of multitude. +<i>Was routed</i> and <i>must be done</i> are passive verbs. <i>Art fled</i> is a +neuter verb in a passive form. <i>Clothed</i> is a perfect participle. +<i>Till</i> is an adverbial conjunction. +</p> +</div> + +<p>When you shall have analyzed, systematically, every word in the +foregoing exercises, you may answer the following</p> + +<h4>QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>Repeat the list of interjections.—Repeat some interjective +phrases.—Repeat the order of parsing an interjection.—In order to +find the verb to which a noun is nom. what question do you put?—Give +examples.—Is the nominative case ever placed after the +verb?—When?—Give examples.—Does the objective case ever come before +the verb?—Give examples.—Is a noun ever nom. to a verb +understood?—Give examples.—When is a noun or pronoun in the nom. case +independent?—Give examples.—Are nouns of the <i>second</i> person always in +the nom. case independent?—When a pronoun is put by apposition with a +noun independent, in what case is it?—When is a noun or pronoun in the +nom. case absolute?—Give examples.—When are nouns or nouns and +pronouns put, by apposition, in the same case?—Give examples.—In +parsing a noun or pronoun in the nom. case independent, what Rule should +be applied?—In parsing the nom. case absolute, what Rule?—What Rule in +parsing nouns or pronouns in apposition?—Do real interjections belong +to written language?—(<i>Phil. Notes</i>.)—From what are the following +words derived, <i>pish, fy, lo, halt, farewell, welcome, adieu!</i></p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h4>PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.</h4> + +<div class="smalltext"><p>The term INTERJECTION is applied to those <i>inarticulate</i> sounds +employed both by men and brutes, not to express distinct ideas, but +emotions, passions, or feelings. The sounds employed by human beings +in groaning, sighing, crying, screaming, shrieking, and laughing, by +the dog in barking, growling, and whining, by the horse in snorting +and neighing, by the sheep in bleating, by the cat in mewing, by the +dove in cooing, by the duck in quacking, and by the goose in +hissing, we sometimes attempt to represent by words; but, as +<i>written</i> words are the ocular representatives of <i>articulate</i> +sounds, they cannot be made clearly to denote <i>inarticulate</i> or +<i>indistinct noises</i>. Such indistinct utterances belong to natural +language; but they fall below the bounds of regulated speech. Hence, +<i>real</i> interjections are not a part of written language.</p> + +<p>The meaning of those words commonly called interjections, is easily +shown by tracing them to their roots.</p> + +<p><i>Pish</i> and <i>pshaw</i> are the Anglo-Saxon <i>paec, paeca</i>; and are +equivalent to <i>trumpery</i>! i.e. <i>tromperie</i>, from <i>tromper</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Fy</i> or <i>fie</i> is the imperative, <i>foe</i>, the past tense, and <i>foh</i> or +<i>faugh</i>, the past part. of the Saxon verb <i>fian</i>, to hate. +<i>Lo</i> is the imperative of <i>look. Halt</i> is the imperative of +<i>healden</i>, to hold. <i>Farewell—fare-well</i>, is a compound of <i>faran</i>, +to go, and the adverb <i>well</i>. It means, to <i>go well. +Welcome—well-come</i>, signifies, it is <i>well</i> that you are <i>come. +Adieu</i> comes from the French <i>a Dieu</i>, to God; meaning, I commend +you <i>to God</i>.</p> +</div> +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + + +<h2>LECTURE XI.</h2> + + +<h3>OF THE MOODS AND TENSES OF VERBS.</h3> + +<p>You have now acquired a general, and, I may say, an extensive, knowledge +of nine parts of speech; but you know but little, as yet, respecting the +most important one of all; I mean the VERB. I will, therefore, commence +this lecture by giving you an explanation of the Moods and Tenses of +verbs. Have the goodness, however, first to turn back and read over +Lecture II., and reflect well upon what is there said respecting the +verb; after which I will conduct you so smoothly through the moods and +tenses, and the conjugation of verbs, that, instead of finding yourself +involved in obscurities and deep intricacies, you will scarcely find an +obstruction to impede your progress.</p> + +<a name="MOODS"></a> +<h4>I. OF THE MOODS.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"> +<p>The MOOD or MODE of a verb means the <i>manner</i> in which its action, +passion, or being, is represented.</p> +</div> + +<p>When I wish to assert a thing, positively, I use the <i>declarative</i> or +<i>indicative</i> mode; as, The man <i>walks</i>; but sometimes the action or +occurrence of which I wish to speak, is doubtful, and then I must not +declare it positively, but I must adopt another <i>mode</i> of expression; +thus, <i>If</i> the man <i>walk</i>, he will refresh himself with the bland +breezes. This second mode or manner of representing the action, is +called the <i>subjunctive</i> or <i>conditional</i> mode.</p> + +<p>Again, we sometimes employ a verb when we do not wish to <i>declare</i> a +thing, nor to represent the action in a <i>doubtful</i> or <i>conditional</i> +manner; but we wish to <i>command</i> some one to act. We then use the +<i>imperative</i> or <i>commanding</i> mode, and say, <i>Walk</i>, sir. And when we do +not wish to command a man to act, we sometimes allude to his <i>power</i> or +<i>ability</i> to act. This fourth mode of representing action, is called the +<i>potential</i> mode; as, He <i>can walk</i>; He <i>could walk</i>. The fifth and last +mode, called the <i>infinitive</i> or <i>unlimited</i> mode, we employ in +expressing action in an unlimited manner; that is, without confining it, +in respect to number and person, to any particular agent; as, <i>To walk, +to ride</i>. Thus you perceive, that the mood, mode, or manner of +representing the action, passion, or being of a verb, must vary +according to the different intentions of the mind.</p> + +<p>Were we to assign a particular name to <i>every</i> change in the mode or +manner of representing action or being, the number of moods in our +language would amount to many hundreds. But this principle of division +and arrangement, if followed out in detail, would lead to great +perplexity, without producing any beneficial result. The division of Mr. +Harris, in his Hermes, is much more curious than instructive. He has +fourteen moods; his <i>interrogative, optative, hortative, promissive, +precautive, requisitive, enunciative</i>, &c. But as far as philosophical +accuracy and the convenience and advantage of the learner are concerned, +it is believed that no arrangement is preferable to the following. I am +not unaware that plausible objections may be raised against it; but what +arrangement cannot be objected to?</p> + +<div class="bigtext"><p>There are five moods of verbs, the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the +Imperative, the Potential, and the Infinitive.</p> + +<p>The INDICATIVE MOOD simply indicates or declares a thing; as, "He +<i>writes</i>;" or it asks a question; as, "<i>Does</i> he <i>write</i>? Who <i>wrote</i> +that?"</p> +</div> +<p>The term <i>indicative</i>, comes from the Latin <i>indico</i>, to <i>declare</i>. +Hence, the legitimate province of the indicative mood, is to <i>declare</i> +things, whether positively or negatively; thus, <i>positively</i>, He <i>came</i> +with me; <i>negatively</i>, He <i>came not</i> with me. But in order to avoid a +multiplication of moods, we extend its meaning, and use the indicative +mood in asking a question; as, Who <i>came</i> with you?</p> + +<p>The subjunctive mood being more analogous to the indicative in +conjugation, than any other, it ought to be presented next in order. +This mood, however, differs materially from the indicative in sense; +therefore you ought to make yourself well acquainted with the nature of +the indicative, before you commence with the subjunctive.</p> + +<div class="bigtext"><p>The <a name="SUBJUNCTIVE_i"></a>SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD expresses action, passion, or being, in a doubtful +or conditional manner or,</p> + +<p>When a verb is preceded by a word that expresses a condition, doubt, +motive, wish, or supposition, it is in the SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD; as, "<i>If</i> +he <i>study</i>, he will improve; I will respect him, <i>though</i> he <i>chide</i> me; +He will not be pardoned, <i>unless</i> he <i>repent</i>; <i>Had</i> he <i>been</i> there, he +would have conquered;" (that is, <i>if</i> he <i>had been</i> there.)</p> +</div> + +<p>The conjunctions <i>if, though, unless</i>, in the preceding examples, +express condition, doubt, &c.; therefore, the verbs <i>study, chide, +repent</i>, and <i>had been</i>, are in the subjunctive mood.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"><p>NOTE 1. A verb in this mood is generally attended by another verb in +some other mood. You observe, that each of the first three of the +preceding examples, contains a verb in the indicative mood, and the +fourth, a verb in the potential.</p> + +<p>2. Whenever the conjunctions <i>if, though, unless, except, whether,</i> +<i>lest</i>, or any others, denote contingency or doubt, the verbs that +follow them are in the subjunctive mood; as, "<i>If</i> he <i>ride</i> out +every day, his health will probably improve;" that is, if he <i>shall</i> +or <i>should</i> ride out hereafter. But when these conjunctions do not +imply doubt, &c. the verbs that follow them are in the indicative, +or some other mood; as, "<i>Though</i> he <i>rides</i> out daily, his health +is no better." The conjunctive and indicative forms of this mood, +are explained in the conjugation of the verb to <i>love</i>. See page.</p> +</div> + +<div class="bigtext"><p>The IMPERATIVE MOOD is used for commanding, exhorting, entreating, or +permitting; as, <i>"Depart</i> thou; <i>Remember</i> my admonitions; <i>Tarry</i> +awhile longer; <i>Go</i> in peace."</p> +</div> + +<p>The verb <i>depart</i> expresses a command; <i>remember</i> exhorts; <i>tarry</i> +expresses entreaty; and <i>go</i>, permission; therefore they are all in the +imperative mood.</p> + +<p>The <i>imperative</i>, from <i>impero</i>, to command, is literally that mood of +the verb used in <i>commanding;</i> but its technical meaning in grammar is +extended to the use of the verb in exhorting, entreating, and +permitting.</p> + +<p>A verb in the imperative mood, is always of the second person, though +never varied in its terminations, agreeing with <i>thou, ye</i>, or <i>you</i>, +either expressed or implied. You may know a verb in this mood by the +sense; recollect, however, that the nominative is always <i>second</i> +person, and frequently understood; as, George, <i>give</i> me my hat; that +is, give thou, or give you. When the nominative is expressed, it is +generally placed after the verb; as, Go <i>thou</i>; Depart <i>ye</i>; or between +the auxiliary and the verb; as, Do <i>thou</i> go; Do <i>ye</i> depart. (<i>Do</i> is +the auxiliary.)</p> + +<div class="bigtext"><p>The POTENTIAL MOOD implies possibility, liberty, or necessity, power, +will, or obligation; as, "It <i>may rain</i>; He <i>may go</i> or <i>stay</i>; We <i>must +eat</i> and <i>drink</i>; I <i>can ride</i>; He <i>would walk</i>; They <i>should learn</i>."</p> +</div> +<p>In the first of these examples, the auxiliary <i>may</i> implies possibility; +in the second it implies liberty; that is, he is at liberty to go or to +stay; in the third, <i>must</i> denotes necessity; <i>can</i> denotes power or +ability; <i>would</i> implies will or inclination; that is, he had a <i>mind</i> +to walk; and <i>should</i> implies obligation. Hence you perceive, that the +verbs, may rain, may go, must eat, must drink, can ride, world walk, and +should learn, are in the <i>potential</i> mood.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"><p>NOTE 1. As a verb in the indicative mood is converted into the +subjunctive when it is preceded by a conjunction expressing doubt, +contingency, supposition, &c., so a verb in the potential mood, may, +in like manner, be turned into the subjunctive; as, "<i>If</i> I <i>could +deceive</i> him, I should abhor it; <i>Though</i> he <i>should increase</i> in +wealth, he would not be charitable." I <i>could deceive</i>, is in the +potential; <i>If</i> I <i>could deceive</i>, is in the subjunctive mood.</p> + +<p>2. The potential mood, as well as the indicative, is used in asking +a question; as, "May I go? Could you understand him? Must we die?"</p> +</div> +<div class="bigtext"><p>The INFINITIVE MOOD expresses action, passion, or being, in a general +and unlimited manner, having no nominative, consequently, neither person +nor number; as, <i>"To speak, to walk</i>."</p> +</div> +<p><i>Infinitive</i> means <i>unconfined</i>, or <i>unlimited</i>. This mood is called the +infinitive, because its verb is not confined or limited to a nominative. +A verb in any other mood is limited; that is, it must agree in number +and person with its nominative; but a verb in this mood has <i>no</i> +nominative, therefore, it never changes its termination, except to form +the perfect tense. Now you understand why all verbs are called <i>finite</i> +or <i>limited</i>, excepting those in the infinitive mood.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"><p>NOTE. <i>To</i>, the sign of the infinitive mood, is often understood +before the verb; as, "Let me proceed;" that is, Let me <i>to</i> proceed. +See RULE 25. <i>To</i> is not a preposition when joined to a verb in this +mood; thus, <i>to</i> ride, <i>to</i> rule; but it should be parsed with the +verb, and as a part of it. +</p></div> +<p>If you study this lecture attentively, you will perceive, that when I +say, I <i>write</i>, the verb is in the indicative mood; but when I say, <i>if</i> +I write, or, <i>unless</i> I write, &c. the verb is in the subjunctive mood; +<i>write</i> thou, or <i>write</i> ye or you, the imperative; I <i>may write</i>, I +<i>must write</i>, I <i>could write, &c.</i> the potential; and <i>to write</i>, the +infinitive. Any other verb (except the defective) may be employed in the +same manner.</p> + +<a name="TENSES_i"></a> +<h4>II. OF THE TENSES.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"><p>TENSE means time.</p> + +<p>Verbs have six tenses, the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the +Pluperfect, and the First and Second Future tenses.</p> + +<p>The PRESENT TENSE represents an action or event as taking place at the +time in which it is mentioned; as, "I <i>smile</i>; I <i>see</i>; I <i>am seen</i>."</p> +</div> +<div class="smalltext"><p>NOTE 1. The present tense is also used in speaking of actions +continued, with occasional intermissions, to the present time; as, +"He <i>rides</i> out every morning."</p> + +<p>2. This tense is sometimes applied to represent the actions of +persons long since dead; as, "Seneca <i>reasons</i> and <i>moralizes</i> well; +An honest man <i>is</i> the noblest work of God."</p> + +<p>3. When the present tense is preceded by the words, <i>when, before,</i> +<i>after, as soon as</i>, &c. it is sometimes used to point out the +relative time of a future action; as, "<i>When</i> he <i>arrives</i> we shall +hear the news."</p></div> + +<div class="bigtext"><p>The IMPERFECT TENSE denotes a past action or event, however distant; +or,</p> + +<p>The IMPERFECT TENSE represents an action or event as past and finished, +but without defining the precise time of its completion; as, "I <i>loved</i> +her for her modesty and virtue; They <i>were</i> travelling post when he +<i>met</i> them."</p></div> + +<p>In these examples, the verbs <i>loved</i> and <i>met</i> express past and +<i>finished</i> actions, and therefore constitute a <i>perfect</i> tense as +strictly as any form of the verb in our language; but, as they do not +define the precise time of the completion of these actions, their tense +may properly be denominated an <i>indefinite past</i>. By defining the +present participle in conjunction with the verb, we have an <i>imperfect</i> +tense in the expression, <i>were travelling</i>. This course, however, would +not be in accordance with the ordinary method of treating the +participle. Hence it follows, that the terms <i>imperfect</i> and <i>perfect</i>, +as applied to this and the next succeeding tense, are not altogether +significant of their true character; but if you learn to apply these +tenses <i>correctly</i>, the propriety or impropriety of their names is not a +consideration of very great moment.</p> + +<div class="bigtext"><p>The PERFECT TENSE denotes past time, and also conveys an allusion to the +present; as, "I <i>have</i> finished my letter."</p> +</div> +<p>The verb <i>have finished</i>, in this example, signifies that the action, +though past, was perfectly finished at a point of time immediately +preceding, or in the course of a period which comes to the present. +Under this view of the subject, the term <i>perfect</i> may be properly +applied to this tense, for it specifies, not only the completion of the +action, but, also, alludes to the particular period of its +accomplishment.</p> + +<div class="bigtext"><p>The PLUPERFECT TENSE represents a past action or event that transpired +before some other past time specified; as, "I <i>had finished</i> my letter +before my brother arrived."</p> +</div> +<p>You observe that the verb <i>had finished</i>, in this example, represents +one <i>past</i> action, and the arrival of my brother, another <i>past</i> action; +therefore <i>had finished</i> is in the pluperfect tense, because the action +took place prior to the taking place of the other past action specified +in the same sentence.</p> + +<div class="bigtext"><p>The FIRST FUTURE TENSE denotes a future action or event; as "I <i>will +finish</i>; I <i>shall finish</i> my letter."</p> + +<p>The SECOND FUTURE TENSE represents a future action that will be fully +accomplished, at or before the time of another future action or event; +as, "I <i>shall have finished</i> my letter when my brother arrives."</p> +</div> +<p>This example clearly shows you the meaning and the proper use of the +second future tense. The verb "shall have finished" implies a future +action that will be completely finished, at or before the time of the +other future event denoted by the phrase, "<i>when</i> my brother <i>arrives</i>."</p> + +<div class="smalltext"><p>NOTE. What is sometimes called the <i>Inceptive</i> future, is expressed +thus, "I am going <i>to write</i>;" "I am about <i>to write</i>." Future time +is also indicated by placing the infinitive present immediately +after the indicative present of the verb <i>to be</i>; thus, "I am <i>to +write</i>;" "Harrison is <i>to be</i>, or ought <i>to be</i>, commander in +chief;" "Harrison is <i>to command</i> the army." +</p></div> + +<p>You may now read what is said respecting the moods and tenses several +times over, and then you may learn to <i>conjugate</i> a verb. But, before +you proceed to the conjugation of verbs, you will please to commit the +following paragraph on the <i>Auxiliary</i> verbs and, also, the <i>signs</i> of +the moods and tenses; and, in conjugating, you must pay particular +attention to the manner in which these signs are applied.</p> + +<h4>OF THE <a name="AUXILIARY_VERBS"></a>AUXILIARY VERBS.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"><p>AUXILIARY or HELPING VERBS are those by the help of which the English +verbs are principally conjugated. <i>May, can, must, might, could, would, +should,</i> and <i>shall</i>, are always auxiliaries; <i>do, be, have</i>, and +<i>will</i>, are sometimes auxiliaries, and sometimes principal verbs.</p> +</div> +<p>The use of the auxiliaries is shown in the following conjugation.</p> + +<h4><a name="SIGNS_OF_THE_MOODS"></a>SIGNS OF THE MOODS.</h4> + +<div class="bigtext"><p>The <i>Indicative</i> Mood is known by the <i>sense</i>, or by its having <i>no +sign</i>, except in asking a question; as, "Who <i>loves</i> you?"</p> + +<p>The conjunctions <i>if, though, unless, except, whether</i>, and <i>lest</i>, are +generally signs of the <i>Subjunctive</i>; as, "<i>If</i> I <i>love; unless</i> I +<i>love</i>," &c.</p> + +<p>A verb is generally known to be in, the <i>Imperative</i> Mood by its +agreeing with <i>thou</i>, or <i>ye</i> or <i>you</i>, understood; as, <i>"Love</i> virtue, +<i>and follow</i> her steps;" that is, love <i>thou</i>, or love <i>ye</i> or <i>you</i>; +follow <i>thou</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><i>May, can</i>, and <i>must, might, could, would</i>, and <i>should</i>, are signs of +the <i>Potential</i> Mood; as, "I <i>may</i> love; I <i>must</i> love; I <i>should</i> +love," &c.</p> + +<p><i>To</i> is the sign of the <i>Infinitive</i>; as, "<i>To</i> love, <i>to</i> smile, <i>to</i> +hate, <i>to</i> walk."</p> + +<h4><a name="SIGNS_OF_THE_TENSES"></a>SIGNS OF THE TENSES.</h4> + +<p>The first form of the verb is the sign of the present tense; as, <i>love, +smile, hate, walk</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Ed</i>—the imperfect tense of regular verbs; as, <i>loved, smiled, hated, +walked</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Have</i>—the perfect; as, <i>have</i> loved.</p> + +<p><i>Had</i>—the pluperfect; as, <i>had</i> loved. <i>Shall</i> or <i>will</i>—the first +future; as, <i>shall</i> love, or <i>will</i> love; <i>shall</i> smile, <i>will</i> smile.</p> + +<p><i>Shall</i> or <i>will have</i>—the second future; as, <i>shall have</i> loved, or +<i>will have</i> loved.</p></div> + +<div class="smalltext"><p>NOTE. There are some exceptions to these signs, which you will +notice by referring to the conjugation in the potential mood. +</p></div> +<p>Now, I hope you will so far consult your own ease and advantage, as to +commit, perfectly, the signs of the moods and tenses before you proceed +farther than to the subjunctive mood. If you do, the supposed Herculean +task of learning to conjugate verbs, will be transformed into a few +hours of pleasant pastime.</p> + +<div class="bigtext"><p>The Indicative Mood has <i>six</i> tenses.</p> +<p>The Subjunctive has also <i>six</i> tenses.</p> +<p>The Imperative has only <i>one</i> tense.</p> +<p>The Potential has <i>four</i> tenses.</p> +<p>The Infinitive has <i>two</i> tenses.</p> + +<h4><a name="CONJUGATION_OF_VERBS"></a>CONJUGATION OF VERBS.</h4> + +<p>The CONJUGATION of a verb is the regular combination and arrangement of +its several numbers, persons, moods, and tenses.</p> + +<p>The Conjugation of an active verb, is styled the <i>active voice</i>; and +that of a passive verb, the <i>passive voice</i>.</p> + +<p>Verbs are called <a name="Regular"></a>Regular when they form their imperfect tense of the +indicative mood, and their perfect participle, by adding to the present +tense <i>ed</i>, or <i>d</i> only when the verb ends in <i>e</i>; as,</p></div> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>Pres. Tense.</td><td align='left'>Imp. Tense.</td><td align='left'>Perf. Participle</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I favor.</td><td align='left'>I favor<i>ed</i>.</td><td align='left'>favor<i>ed</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I love.</td><td align='left'>I love<i>d</i>,</td><td align='left'>love<i>d</i>.</td></tr></table> + + +<p>A Regular Verb is conjugated in the following manner.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>TO LOVE.—INDICATIVE MOOD.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>Present Tense.</p> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular</i>.</td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1. <i>Pers</i>. I love,</td><td align='left'>1. We love,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. <i>Pers</i>. Thou lovest,</td><td align='left'>2. Ye <i>or</i> you love,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. <i>Pers</i>. He, she, <i>or</i> it, loveth <i>or</i> loves.</td><td align='left'>3. They love.</td></tr></table> + + + +<div class="smalltext"><p>When we wish to express energy or positiveness, the auxiliary <i>do</i> +should precede the verb in the present tense: thus,</p></div> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary='' class='smalltext'> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular</i>.</td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1. I do love,</td><td align='left'>1. We do love,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. Thou dost love,</td><td align='left'>2. Ye <i>or</i> you do love,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. He doth <i>or</i> does love.</td><td align='left'>3. They do love.</td></tr></table> + + +<p style='text-align: center'>Imperfect Tense.</p> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular</i>.</td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1. I loved,</td><td align='left'>1. We loved,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. Thou lovedst,</td><td align='left'>2. Ye <i>or</i> you loved,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. He loved.</td><td align='left'>3. They loved.</td></tr></table> + + +<div class="smalltext"><p>Or by prefixing <i>did</i> to the present: thus,</p></div> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary='' class='smalltext'> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular</i>.</td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1. I did love</td><td align='left'>1. We did love,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. Thou didst love,</td><td align='left'>2. Ye <i>or</i> you did love,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. He did love.</td><td align='left'>3. They did love.</td></tr></table> + + +<p style='text-align: center'>Perfect Tense.</p> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular</i>.</td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1. I have loved,</td><td align='left'>1. We have loved,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. Thou hast loved,</td><td align='left'>2. Ye <i>or</i> you have loved,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. He hath <i>or</i> has loved.</td><td align='left'>3. They have loved.</td></tr></table> + + +<p style='text-align: center'>Pluperfect Tense.</p> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular</i>.</td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1. I had loved,</td><td align='left'>1. We had loved,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. Thou hadst loved,</td><td align='left'>2. Ye <i>or</i> you had loved,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. He had loved.</td><td align='left'>3. They had loved.</td></tr></table> + + +<p style='text-align: center'>First Future Tense.</p> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular</i>.</td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1. I shall <i>or</i> will love,</td><td align='left'>1. We shall <i>or</i> will love,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. Thou shalt <i>or</i> wilt love,</td><td align='left'>2. Ye <i>or</i> you shall <i>or</i> will love,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. He shall <i>or</i> will love,</td><td align='left'>3. They shall <i>or</i> will love.</td></tr></table> + + +<p style='text-align: center'>Second Future Tense.</p> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular</i>.</td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1. I shall have loved,</td><td align='left'>1. We shall have loved,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. Thou wilt have loved,</td><td align='left'>2. Ye <i>or</i> you will have loved,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. He will have loved,</td><td align='left'>3. They will have loved.</td></tr></table> + + +<div class="smalltext"><p>NOTE. Tenses formed without auxiliaries, are called <i>simple</i> tenses; +as, I <i>love;</i> I <i>loved;</i> but those formed by the help of +auxiliaries, are denominated <i>compound</i> tenses; as, I <i>have loved;</i> +I <i>had loved</i>, &c. +</p></div> + +<p>This display of the verb shows you, in the clearest light, the +application of the <i>signs</i> of the <i>tenses</i>, which signs ought to be +perfectly committed to memory before you proceed any farther. By looking +again at the conjugation, you will notice, that <i>have</i>, placed before +the perfect participle of any verb, forms the perfect tense; <i>had</i>, the +pluperfect; <i>shall</i> or <i>will</i>, the first future, and so on.</p> + +<p>Now speak each of the verbs, <i>love, hate, walk, smile, rule</i>, and +<i>conquer</i>, in the first person of each tense in this mood, with the +pronoun <i>I</i> before it; thus, indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers. +sing. I love; imperf. I loved; perf. I have loved; and so on, through +all the tenses. If you learn thoroughly the conjugation of the verb in +the indicative mood, you will find no difficulty in conjugating it +through those that follow, for in the conjugation through all the moods, +there is a great similarity.</p> + +<a name="SUBJUNCTIVE_ii"></a> +<p style='text-align: center'>SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>Present Tense, or elliptical future.—<i>Conjunctive form</i>.</p> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular</i>.</td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1. If I love,</td><td align='left'>1. If we love,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. If thou love,</td><td align='left'>2. If ye <i>or</i> you love,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. If he love.</td><td align='left'>3. If they love.</td></tr></table> + + +<p>Look again at the conjugation in the indicative present, and you will +observe, that the form of the verb differs from this form in the +subjunctive. The verb in the present tense of this mood, does not vary +its termination on account of number or person. This is called the +<i>conjunctive</i> form of the verb; but sometimes the verb in the +subjunctive mood, present tense, is conjugated in the same manner as it +is in the indicative, with this exception, <i>if, though, unless</i>, or some +other conjunction, is prefixed; as,</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'><i>Indicative form</i>.</p> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular</i>.</td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1. If I love,</td><td align='left'>1. If we love,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. If thou lovest,</td><td align='left'>2. If ye <i>or</i> you love,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. If he loves,</td><td align='left'>3. If they love.</td></tr></table> + + +<p>The following general rule will direct you when to use the <i>conjunctive</i> +form of the verb, and when the <i>indicative</i>. When a verb in the +subjunctive mood, present tense, has a <i>future</i> signification, or a +reference to <i>future</i> time, the conjunctive form should be used; as, "If +thou <i>prosper</i>, thou shouldst be thankful;" "He will maintain his +principles, though he <i>lose</i> his estate;" that is, If thou <i>shalt</i> or +<i>shouldst</i> prosper; though he <i>shall</i> or <i>should</i> lose, &c. But when a +verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, has <i>no</i> reference to +future time, the indicative form ought to be used; as, "Unless he +<i>means</i> what he says, he is doubly faithless." By this you perceive, +that when a verb in the present tense of the subjunctive mood, has a +future signification, an <i>auxiliary</i> is always understood before it, for +which reason, in this construction, the termination of the principal +verb never varies; us, "He will not become eminent, unless he <i>exert</i> +himself;" that is, unless he <i>shall</i> exert, or <i>should</i> exert himself. +This tense of the subjunctive mood ought to be called the <i>elliptical +future</i>.</p> + +<p>The imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, and the first future tenses +of this mood, are conjugated, in every respect, like the same tenses of +the indicative, with this exception; in the subjunctive mood, a +conjunction implying doubt, &c. is prefixed to the verb. In the second +future tense of this mood, the verb is conjugated thus:</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>Second Future Tense.</p> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular.</i></td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>1. If I shall have loved,</td><td align='left'>1. If we shall have loved,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. If thou shalt have loved,</td><td align='left'>2. If you shall have loved,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. If he shall have loved.</td><td align='left'>3. If they shall have loved.</td></tr></table> + + +<p>Look at the same tense in the indicative mood, and you will readily +perceive the distinction between the two conjugations.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>IMPERATIVE MOOD.</p> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular.</i></td><td align='center'><i> Plural</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. Love, <i>or</i> love thou, <i>or</i> do thou love.</td><td align='left'>2. Love, <i>or</i> love ye <i>or</i> you, <i>or</i> do ye <i>or</i> you love.</td></tr></table> + + + +<div class="smalltext"><p>NOTE. We cannot command, exhort, &c. either in <i>past</i> or <i>future</i> +time; therefore a verb in this mood is always in the <i>present</i> +tense.</p></div> + +<p style='text-align: center'>POTENTIAL MOOD.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>Present Tense.</p> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular.</i></td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>1. I may, can, <i>or</i> must love,</td><td align='left'>1. We may, can, or must love,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. Thou mayst, canst, <i>or</i> must love,</td><td align='left'>2. Ye <i>or</i> you may, can, <i>or</i> must love,</td><td align='left'></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. He may, can, <i>or</i> must love.</td><td align='left'>3. They may, can, <i>or</i> must love.</td></tr></table> + + +<p style='text-align: center'>Imperfect Tense.</p> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular.</i></td><td align='center'><i>Plural.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>1. I might, could, would, <i>or</i> should love,</td><td align='left'>1. We might, could, would, <i>or</i> should love,</td><td align='left'></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, <i>or</i> shouldst love,</td><td align='left'>2. Ye <i>or</i> you might, could, would, <i>or</i> should love,</td><td align='left'></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. He might, could, would, <i>or</i> should love, </td><td align='left'>3. They might, could, would, <i>or</i> should love.</td></tr> +</table> + + +<p style='text-align: center'>Perfect Tense.</p> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular.</i></td><td align='center'><i>Plural.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>1. I may, can, <i>or</i> must have loved,</td><td align='left'>1. We may, can, <i>or</i> must have loved,</td><td align='left'></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. Thou mayst, canst, <i>or</i> must have loved,</td><td align='left'>2. Ye <i>or</i> you may, can, <i>or</i> must have loved,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. He may, can, <i>or</i> must have loved.</td><td align='left'>3. They may, can, <i>or</i> must have loved.</td></tr> +</table> + + +<p style='text-align: center'>Pluperfect Tense.</p> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular.</i></td><td align='center'><i>Plural.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1. I might, could, would, <i>or</i> should have loved, </td><td align='left'>1. We might, could, would, <i>or</i> should have loved,</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, <i>or</i> shouldst have loved,</td><td align='left'> 2. Ye <i>or</i> you might, could, would, <i>or</i> should have loved,</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>3. He might, could, would, <i>or</i> should have loved,</td><td align='left'> 3. They might, could, would, <i>or</i> should have loved.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>By examining carefully the conjugation of the verb through this mood, +you will find it very easy; thus, you will notice, that whenever any of +the auxiliaries, <i>may, can</i>, or <i>must</i>, is placed before a verb, that +verb is in the potential mood, <i>present</i> tense; <i>might, could, would</i>, +or <i>should</i>, renders it in the potential mood, <i>imperfect</i> tense; <i>may, +can</i>, or <i>must have</i>, the <i>perfect</i> tense; and <i>might, could, would</i>, or +<i>should have</i>, the <i>pluperfect</i> tense.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>INFINITIVE MOOD.</p> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>Pres. Tense. To love.</td><td align='left'> Perf. Tense. To have loved.</td></tr></table> + + +<p style='text-align: center'>PARTICIPLES.</p> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>Present <i>or</i> imperfect,</td><td align='left'> Loving.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Perfect <i>or</i> passive,</td><td align='left'> Loved.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Compound,</td><td align='left'> Having loved.</td></tr></table> + + +<div class="smalltext"><p>NOTE. The perfect participle of a regular verb, corresponds exactly +with the imperfect tense; yet the former may, at all times, be +distinguished from the latter, by the following rule: In +composition, the imperfect tense of a verb <i>always</i> has a +nominative, either expressed or implied: the perfect participle +<i>never</i> has.</p></div> + +<p>For your encouragement, allow me to inform you, that when you shall have +learned to conjugate the verb <i>to love</i>, you will be able to conjugate +all the regular verbs in the English language, for they are all +conjugated precisely in the same manner. By pursuing the following +direction, you can, in a very short time, learn to conjugate any verb. +Conjugate the verb <i>love</i> through all the moods and tenses, in the first +person singular, with the pronoun <i>I</i> before it, and speak the +Participles: thus, Indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I +<i>love</i>, imperf. tense, I <i>loved</i>; perf. tense, I <i>have loved</i>; and so +on, through every mood and tense. Then conjugate it in the second pers. +sing, with the pronoun <i>thou</i> before it, through all the moods and +tenses; thus, Indic. mood, pres. tense, second pers. sing, thou +<i>lovest</i>; imperf. tense, thou <i>lovedst</i>; and so on, through the whole. +After that, conjugate it in the third pers. sing, with <i>he</i> before it; +and then in the first pers. plural, with <i>we</i> before it, in like manner +through all the moods and tenses. Although this mode of procedure may, +at first, appear to be laborious, yet, as it is necessary, I trust you +will not hesitate to adopt it. My confidence in your perseverance, +induces me to recommend any course which I know will tend to facilitate +your progress.</p> + +<p>When you shall have complied with my requisition, you may conjugate the +following verbs in the same manner; which will enable you, hereafter, to +tell the mood and tense of any verb without hesitation: <i>walk, hate, +smile, rule, conquer, reduce, relate, melt, shun, fail</i>.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + + +<h4>PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.</h4> + +<div class="smalltext"><p>The changes in the <a name="terminations_v"></a>termination of words, in all languages, have been +formed by the <i>coalescence</i> of words of appropriate meaning. This +subject was approached on page 49. It is again taken up for the +purpose of showing, that the moods and tenses, as well as the number +and person, of English verbs, do not solely depend on inflection.</p> + +<p>The coalescing syllables which form the number and person of the +Hebrew verb, are still considered pronouns; and, by those who have +investigated the subject, it is conceded, that the same plan has +been adopted in the formation of the Latin and Greek verbs, as in +the Hebrew. Some languages have carried this process to a very great +extent. Ours is remarkable for the small number of its inflections. +But they who reject the passive verb, and those moods and tenses +which are formed by employing what are called "auxiliary verbs," +<i>because they are formed of two or more verbs</i>, do not appear to +reason soundly. It is inconsistent to admit, that walk-<i>eth</i>, and +walk-<i>ed</i>, are tenses, because each is but one word, and to reject +<i>have</i> walked, and <i>will</i> walk, as tenses, because each is composed +of two words. <i>Eth</i>, as previously shown, is a contraction of +<i>doeth</i>, or <i>haveth</i>, and <i>ed</i>, of <i>dede, dodo, doed</i>, or <i>did</i>; +and, therefore, walk-<i>eth</i>; i.e. walk-<i>doeth</i>, or <i>doeth</i>-walk, and +walk-<i>ed</i>; i.e. walk-<i>did</i>, or <i>doed</i> or <i>did</i>-walk, are, when +analyzed, as strictly compound, as <i>will</i> walk, <i>shall</i> walk, and +<i>have</i> walked. The only difference in the formation of these tenses, +is, that in the two former, the associated verbs have been +contracted and made to coalesce with the main verb, but in the two +latter, they still maintain their ground as separate words.</p> + +<p>If it be said that <i>will walk</i> is composed of two words, each of +which conveys a distinct idea, and, therefore, should be analyzed by +itself, the same argument with all its force, may be applied to +walk-<i>eth</i>, walk-<i>ed</i>, walk-<i>did</i>, or <i>did</i> walk. The result of all +the investigations of this subject, appears to settle down into the +hackneyed truism, that the passive verbs, and the moods and tenses, +of some languages, are formed by inflections, or terminations either +prefixed or postfixed, and of other languages, by the association of +auxiliary verbs, which have not yet been contracted and made to +coalesce as <i>terminations</i>. The auxiliary, when contracted into a +<i>terminating syllable,</i> retains its distinct and intrinsic meaning, +as much as when associated with a verb by juxtaposition: +consequently, an "auxiliary verb" may form a part of a mood or +tense, or passive verb, with as much propriety as a <i>terminating</i> +<i>syllable</i>. They who contend for the ancient custom of keeping the +auxiliaries distinct, and parsing them as primary verbs, are, by the +same principle, bound to extend their dissecting-knife <i>to every</i> +<i>compound word in the language</i>.</p> + +<p>Having thus attempted briefly to prove the philosophical accuracy of +the theory which recognises the tenses, moods, and passive verbs, +formed by the aid of auxiliaries, I shall now offer one argument to +show that this theory, and this <i>only</i>, will subserve the purposes +of the practical grammarian.</p> + +<p>As it is not so much the province of philology to instruct in the +exact meaning of single and separate words, as it is to teach the +student to combine and employ them properly in framing sentences, +and as those <i>combinations</i> which go by the name of compound tenses +and passive verbs, are necessary in writing and discourse, it +follows, conclusively, that that theory which does not explain these +verbs in their <i>combined</i> state, cannot teach the student the +correct use and application of the verbs of our language. By such an +arrangement, he cannot learn when it is proper to use the phrases, +<i>shall have walked, might have gone, have seen</i>, instead of, <i>shall +walk, might go</i>, and <i>saw</i>; because this theory has nothing to do +with the combining of verbs. If it be alleged, that the speaker or +writer's own good sense must guide him in combining these verbs, +and, therefore, that the directions of the grammarian are +unnecessary, it must be recollected, that such an argument would +bear, equally, against every principle of grammar whatever. In +short, the theory of the compound tenses, and of the passive verb, +appears to be so firmly based in the genius of our language, and so +practically important to the student, as to defy all the engines of +the paralogistic speculator, and the philosophical quibbler, to +batter it down.</p> + +<p>But the most plausible objection to the old theory is, that it is +encumbered with much useless technicality and tedious prolixity, +which are avoided by the <i>simple</i> process of exploding the passive +verb, and reducing the number of the moods to three, and of the +tenses to two. It is certain, however, that if we reject the <i>names</i> +of the perfect, pluperfect, and future tenses, the <i>names</i> of the +potential and subjunctive moods, and of the passive verb, in writing +and discourse we must still employ those <i>verbal combinations</i> which +form them; and it is equally certain, that the proper mode of +employing such combinations, is as easily taught or learned by the +old theory, which <i>names</i> them, as by the new, which gives them <i>no +name</i>.</p> + +<p>On philosophical principles, we might, perhaps, dispense with the +<i>future</i> tenses of the verb, by analyzing each word separately; but, +as illustrated on page 79, the combined words which form our perfect +and pluperfect tenses have an <i>associated</i> meaning, which is +destroyed by analyzing each word separately. That arrangement, +therefore, which rejects these tenses, appears to be, not only +<i>unphilosophical</i>, but inconsistent and inaccurate.</p> + +<p>For the satisfaction of those teachers who prefer it, and for their +adoption, too, a modernized <i>philosophical</i> theory of the moods and +tenses is here presented. If it is not quite so convenient and +useful as the old one, they need not hesitate to adopt it. It has +the advantage of being <i>new</i>; and, moreover, it sounds <i>large</i>, and +will make the <i>commonalty stare</i>. Let it be distinctly understood, +that you teach <i>"philosophical grammar, founded on reason and common</i> +<i>sense</i>," and you will pass for a very learned man, and make all the +good housewives wonder at the rapid march of intellect, and the vast +improvements of the age.</p> + +<h5>MOOD.</h5> + +<p>Verbs have three moods, the indicative, (embracing what is commonly +included under the <i>indicative</i>, the <i>subjunctive</i>, and the +<i>potential</i>,) the imperative, and the infinitive.—For definitions, +refer to the body of the work.</p> + +<h5>TENSE OR TIME.</h5> + +<p>Verbs have only two tenses, the present and the past. A verb +expressing action commenced and not completed, is in the present +tense; as, "Religion <i>soars</i>: it <i>has</i> gained many victories: it +<i>will</i> [to] <i>carry</i> its votaries to the blissful regions."</p> + +<p>When a verb expresses finished action, it is in the past tense; as, +"This page (the Bible) God <i>hung</i> out of heaven, and <i>retired</i>."</p> + +<p>A verb in the imperative and infinitive moods, is always in the +<i>present</i> tense, high authorities to the contrary notwithstanding. +The <i>command</i> must <i>necessarily</i> be given in time present, although +its <i>fulfilment</i> must be future. John, what are you doing? Learning +my task. Why do you learn it? Because my preceptor <i>commanded</i> me to +do so. When <i>did</i> he command you? <i>Yesterday</i>.—Not <i>now</i>, of +course.</p> + +<p>That it is inconsistent with the nature of things for a command to +be given in <i>future</i> time, and that the <i>fulfilment</i> of the command, +though future, has nothing to do with the tense or time of the +command itself, are truths so plain as to put to the blush the gross +absurdity of those who identify the time of the fulfilment with +that of the command.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p style='text-align: center'>You <i>may read</i> the book which I <i>have printed</i>.</p> + +<a name="Have_i"></a> +<p><i>May</i>, an irregular +active verb, signifying "to have and to exercise might or strength," +indic. mood, pres. tense, second pers. plur. agreeing with its nom. +<i>you. Read</i>, an irregular verb active, infinitive mood, pres. tense, +with the sign <i>to</i> understood, referring to <i>you</i> as its agent. +<i>Have</i>, an active verb, signifying to <i>possess</i>, indic. present, and +having for its object, book understood after "which." <i>Printed</i>, a +perf. participle, referring to book understood.</p> + +<p>Johnson, and Blair, and Lowth, <i>would have been laughed at, had</i> +they <i>essayed</i> to <i>thrust</i> any thing like our modernized +philosophical grammar down the throats of their contemporaries.</p> + +<p><i>Would</i>, an active verb, signifying "to exercise volition," in the +past tense of the indicative. <i>Have</i>, a verb, in the infinitive, +<i>to</i> understood. <i>Been</i>, a perfect part. of to <i>be</i>, referring to +Johnson, Blair, and Lowth. <i>Laughed at</i>, perf. part, of to <i>laugh +at</i>, referring to the same as <i>been. Had</i>, active verb, in the past +tense of the indicative, agreeing with its nom. <i>they. Essayed</i>, +perf. part, referring to they. +Call this "<i>philosophical</i> parsing, on reasoning principles, +according to the original laws of nature and of thought," and the +<i>pill</i> will be swallowed, by pedants and their dupes, with the +greatest ease imaginable.</p></div> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> +<br /> + +<a name="IRREGULAR"></a> +<h2>LECTURE XII.</h2> + +<h3>OF IRREGULAR VERBS.</h3> + +<div class="bigtext"><p>Irregular verbs are those that do not form +their imperfect tense and perfect participle by the +addition of <i>d</i> or <i>ed</i> to the present tense; as,</p></div> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary='' class='smalltext'> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Pres. Tense.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Imperf. Tense.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Perf. or Pass. Part.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I write</td><td align='left'>I wrote</td><td align='left'>written</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I begin</td><td align='left'>I began</td><td align='left'>begun</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I go</td><td align='left'>I went</td><td align='left'>gone</td></tr></table> + + +<div class="smalltext"><p>The following is a list of the <i>irregular</i> verbs. Those marked with an R +are sometimes conjugated <i>regularly</i>.</p></div> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary='' class='smalltext'> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Pres. Tense.</i></td><td align='center'><i>Imperf. Tense.</i></td><td align='center'> <i>Perf. or Pass. Part.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Abide</td><td align='left'>abode</td><td align='left'>abode</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Am</td><td align='left'>was</td><td align='left'>been</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Arise</td><td align='left'>arose</td><td align='left'>arisen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Awake</td><td align='left'>awoke, R.</td><td align='left'>awaked</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bear, <i>to bring forth</i></td><td align='left'> bare</td><td align='left'>born</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bear, <i>to carry</i></td><td align='left'>bore</td><td align='left'>borne</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Beat</td><td align='left'>beat</td><td align='left'>beaten, beat</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Begin</td><td align='left'>began</td><td align='left'>begun</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bend</td><td align='left'>bent</td><td align='left'>bent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bereave</td><td align='left'>bereft, R.</td><td align='left'>bereft, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Beseech</td><td align='left'>besought</td><td align='left'>besought</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bid</td><td align='left'>bade, bid</td><td align='left'>bidden, bid</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bind</td><td align='left'>bound</td><td align='left'>bound</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bite</td><td align='left'>bit</td><td align='left'>bitten, bit</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bleed</td><td align='left'>bled</td><td align='left'>bled</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Blow</td><td align='left'>blew</td><td align='left'>blown</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Break</td><td align='left'>broke</td><td align='left'>broken</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Breed</td><td align='left'>bred</td><td align='left'>bred</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bring</td><td align='left'>brought</td><td align='left'>brought</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Build</td><td align='left'>built</td><td align='left'>built</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Burst</td><td align='left'>burst, R.</td><td align='left'>burst, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Buy</td><td align='left'>bought</td><td align='left'>bought</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cast</td><td align='left'>cast</td><td align='left'>cast</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Catch</td><td align='left'>caught, R.</td><td align='left'>caught, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Chide</td><td align='left'>chid</td><td align='left'>chidden, chid</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Choose</td><td align='left'>chose</td><td align='left'>chosen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cleave, <i>to adhere</i></td><td align='left'>clave, R.</td><td align='left'>cleaved</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cleave, <i>to split</i></td><td align='left'>cleft <i>or</i> clove</td><td align='left'>cleft, cloven</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cling</td><td align='left'>clung</td><td align='left'>clung</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Clothe</td><td align='left'>clothed</td><td align='left'>clad, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Come</td><td align='left'>came</td><td align='left'>come</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cost</td><td align='left'>cost</td><td align='left'>cost</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Crow</td><td align='left'>crew, R.</td><td align='left'>crowed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Creep</td><td align='left'>crept</td><td align='left'>crept</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cut</td><td align='left'>cut</td><td align='left'>cut</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dare, <i>to venture</i></td><td align='left'>durst</td><td align='left'>dared</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dare, <i>to challenge</i></td><td align='left'> REGULAR</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Deal</td><td align='left'>dealt, R.</td><td align='left'>dealt, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dig</td><td align='left'>dug, R.</td><td align='left'>dug, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Do</td><td align='left'>did</td><td align='left'>done</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Draw</td><td align='left'>drew</td><td align='left'>drawn</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Drive</td><td align='left'>drove</td><td align='left'>driven</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Drink</td><td align='left'>drank</td><td align='left'>drunk, drank<sup><a name='FN_anchor_6'></a><a href='#Footnote_6'>[6]</a></sup></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dwell</td><td align='left'>dwelt, R.</td><td align='left'>dwelt, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Eat</td><td align='left'>eat, ate</td><td align='left'>eaten</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fall</td><td align='left'>fell</td><td align='left'>fallen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Feed</td><td align='left'>fed</td><td align='left'>fed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Feel</td><td align='left'>felt</td><td align='left'>felt</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fight</td><td align='left'>fought</td><td align='left'>fought</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Find</td><td align='left'>found</td><td align='left'>found</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Flee</td><td align='left'>fled</td><td align='left'>fled</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fling</td><td align='left'>flung</td><td align='left'>flung</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fly</td><td align='left'>flew</td><td align='left'>flown</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Forget</td><td align='left'>forgot</td><td align='left'>forgotten</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Forsake</td><td align='left'>forsook</td><td align='left'>forsaken</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Freeze</td><td align='left'>froze</td><td align='left'>frozen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Get</td><td align='left'>got</td><td align='left'>got<sup><a name='FN_anchor_7'></a><a href='#Footnote_7'>[7]</a></sup></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Gild</td><td align='left'>gilt, R.</td><td align='left'>gilt, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Gird</td><td align='left'>girt, R.</td><td align='left'>girt, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Give</td><td align='left'>gave</td><td align='left'>given</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Go</td><td align='left'>went</td><td align='left'>gone</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Grave</td><td align='left'>graved</td><td align='left'>graven, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Grind</td><td align='left'>ground</td><td align='left'>ground</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Grow</td><td align='left'>grew</td><td align='left'>grown</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Have</td><td align='left'>had</td><td align='left'>had</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hang</td><td align='left'>hung, R.</td><td align='left'>hung, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hear</td><td align='left'>heard</td><td align='left'>heard</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hew</td><td align='left'>hewed</td><td align='left'>hewn, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hide</td><td align='left'>hid</td><td align='left'>hidden, hid</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hit</td><td align='left'>hit</td><td align='left'>hit</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hold</td><td align='left'>held</td><td align='left'>held</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hurt</td><td align='left'>hurt</td><td align='left'>hurt</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Keep</td><td align='left'>kept</td><td align='left'>kept</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Knit</td><td align='left'>knit, R.</td><td align='left'>knit, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Know</td><td align='left'>knew</td><td align='left'>known</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lade</td><td align='left'>laded</td><td align='left'>laden</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lay</td><td align='left'>laid</td><td align='left'>laid</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lead</td><td align='left'>led</td><td align='left'>led</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Leave</td><td align='left'>left</td><td align='left'>left</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lend</td><td align='left'>lent</td><td align='left'>lent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Let</td><td align='left'>let</td><td align='left'>let</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lie, <i>to lie down</i></td><td align='left'> lay</td><td align='left'>lain</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Load</td><td align='left'>loaded</td><td align='left'>laden, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lose</td><td align='left'>lost</td><td align='left'>lost</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Make</td><td align='left'>made</td><td align='left'>made</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Meet</td><td align='left'>met</td><td align='left'>met</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mow</td><td align='left'>mowed</td><td align='left'>mown, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pay</td><td align='left'>paid</td><td align='left'>paid</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Put</td><td align='left'>put</td><td align='left'>put</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Read</td><td align='left'>read</td><td align='left'>read</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rend</td><td align='left'>rent</td><td align='left'>rent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rid</td><td align='left'>rid</td><td align='left'>rid</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ride</td><td align='left'>rode</td><td align='left'>rode, ridden<sup><a name='FN_anchor_8'></a><a href='#Footnote_8'>[8]</a></sup></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ring</td><td align='left'>rung, rang</td><td align='left'>rung</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rise</td><td align='left'>rose</td><td align='left'>risen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rive</td><td align='left'>rived</td><td align='left'>riven</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Run</td><td align='left'>ran</td><td align='left'>run</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Saw</td><td align='left'>sawed</td><td align='left'>sawn, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Say</td><td align='left'>said</td><td align='left'>said</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>See</td><td align='left'>saw</td><td align='left'>seen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Seek</td><td align='left'>sought</td><td align='left'>sought</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sell</td><td align='left'>sold</td><td align='left'>sold</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Send</td><td align='left'>sent</td><td align='left'>sent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Set</td><td align='left'>set</td><td align='left'>set</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shake</td><td align='left'>shook</td><td align='left'>shaken</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shape</td><td align='left'>shaped</td><td align='left'>shaped, shapen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shave</td><td align='left'>shaved</td><td align='left'>shaven, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shear</td><td align='left'>sheared</td><td align='left'>shorn</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shed</td><td align='left'>shed</td><td align='left'>shed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shine</td><td align='left'>shone, R.</td><td align='left'>shone, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Show</td><td align='left'>showed</td><td align='left'>shown</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shoe</td><td align='left'>shod</td><td align='left'>shod</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shoot</td><td align='left'>shot</td><td align='left'>shot</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shrink</td><td align='left'>shrunk</td><td align='left'>shrunk</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shred</td><td align='left'>shred</td><td align='left'>shred</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shut</td><td align='left'>shut</td><td align='left'>shut</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sing</td><td align='left'>sung, sang<sup><a name='FN_anchor_9'></a><a href='#Footnote_9'>[9]</a></sup></td><td align='left'>sung</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sink</td><td align='left'>sunk, sank<sup><a href='#Footnote_9'>[9]</a></sup></td><td align='left'>sunk</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sit</td><td align='left'>sat</td><td align='left'>set</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Slay</td><td align='left'>slew</td><td align='left'>slain</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sleep</td><td align='left'>slept</td><td align='left'>slept</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Slide</td><td align='left'>slid</td><td align='left'>slidden</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sling</td><td align='left'>slung</td><td align='left'>slung</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Slink</td><td align='left'>slunk</td><td align='left'>slunk</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Slit</td><td align='left'>slit, R.</td><td align='left'>slit</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Smite</td><td align='left'>smote</td><td align='left'>smitten</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sow</td><td align='left'>sowed</td><td align='left'>sown, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Speak</td><td align='left'>spoke</td><td align='left'>spoken</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Speed</td><td align='left'>sped</td><td align='left'>sped</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Spend</td><td align='left'>spent</td><td align='left'>spent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Spill</td><td align='left'>spilt, R.</td><td align='left'>spilt, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Spin</td><td align='left'>spun</td><td align='left'>spun</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Spit</td><td align='left'>spit, spat</td><td align='left'>spit, spitten<sup><a name='FN_anchor_10'></a><a href='#Footnote_10'>[10]</a></sup></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Split</td><td align='left'>split</td><td align='left'>split</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Spread</td><td align='left'>spread</td><td align='left'>spread</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Spring</td><td align='left'>sprung, sprang</td><td align='left'> sprung</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Stand</td><td align='left'>stood</td><td align='left'>stood</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Steal</td><td align='left'>stole</td><td align='left'>stolen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Stick</td><td align='left'>stuck</td><td align='left'>stuck</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sting</td><td align='left'>stung</td><td align='left'>stung</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Stink</td><td align='left'>stunk</td><td align='left'>stunk</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Stride</td><td align='left'>strode, strid</td><td align='left'>stridden</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Strike</td><td align='left'>struck</td><td align='left'>struck <i>or</i> stricken</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>String</td><td align='left'>strung</td><td align='left'>strung</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Strive</td><td align='left'>strove</td><td align='left'>striven</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Strow <i>or</i> strew</td><td align='left'>strowed <i>or</i> strewed </td><td align='left'>strown, strowed <i>or</i> strewed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sweat</td><td align='left'>swet, R.</td><td align='left'>swet, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Swear</td><td align='left'>swore</td><td align='left'>sworn</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Swell</td><td align='left'>swelled</td><td align='left'>swollen, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Swim</td><td align='left'>swum, swam</td><td align='left'>swum</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Swing</td><td align='left'>swung</td><td align='left'>swung</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Take</td><td align='left'>took</td><td align='left'>taken</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Teach</td><td align='left'>taught</td><td align='left'>taught</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tear</td><td align='left'>tore</td><td align='left'>torn</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tell</td><td align='left'>told</td><td align='left'>told</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Think</td><td align='left'>thought</td><td align='left'>thought</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Thrive</td><td align='left'>throve, R.</td><td align='left'>thriven</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Throw</td><td align='left'>threw</td><td align='left'>thrown</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Thrust</td><td align='left'>thrust</td><td align='left'>thrust</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tread</td><td align='left'>trod</td><td align='left'>trodden</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wax</td><td align='left'>waxed</td><td align='left'>waxen, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wear</td><td align='left'>wore</td><td align='left'>worn</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Weave</td><td align='left'>wove</td><td align='left'>woven</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wet</td><td align='left'>wet</td><td align='left'>wet, R.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Weep</td><td align='left'>wept</td><td align='left'>wept</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Win</td><td align='left'>won</td><td align='left'>won</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wind</td><td align='left'>wound</td><td align='left'>wound</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Work</td><td align='left'>wrought, worked</td><td align='left'>wrought, worked</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wring</td><td align='left'>wrung</td><td align='left'>wrung</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Write</td><td align='left'>wrote</td><td align='left'>written</td></tr></table> + + + +<div class="smalltext"><p>In familiar writing and discourse, the following, and some other verbs, +are often improperly terminated by <i>t</i> instead of <i>ed</i>; as, "learnt, +spelt, spilt, stopt, latcht." They should be, "learned, spelled, spilled, +stopped, latched."</p></div> + +<p>You may now conjugate the following irregular verbs, in a manner similar +to the conjugation of regular verbs: <i>arise, begin, bind, do, go, grow, +run, lend, teach, write</i>. Thus, to <i>arise</i>—Indicative mood, pres. +tense, first person, sing. I arise; imperf. tense, I arose; perf. tense, +I have arisen, and so on, through all the moods, and all the tenses of +each mood; and then speak the participles: thus, pres. arising, perf. +arisen, comp. having arisen. In the next place, conjugate the same verb +in the second person sing. through all the moods and tenses; and then in +the third person sing. and in the first pers. plural. After that, you +may proceed in the same manner with the words <i>begin, bind</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>Now read the eleventh and twelfth lectures <i>four</i> or <i>five</i> times over, +and learn the order of parsing a verb. You will then be prepared to +parse the following verbs in full; and I presume, all the other parts of +speech. Whenever you parse, you must refer to the Compendium for +definitions and rules, if you cannot repeat them without, I will now +parse a verb, and describe all its properties by applying the +definitions and rules according to the systematic order.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"We <i>could</i> not <i>accomplish</i> the business."</p> + +<p><i>Could accomplish</i> is a verb, a word which signifies to do—active, it +expresses action—transitive, the action passes over from the nom. "we" +to the object "business"—regular, it will form its imperfect tense of +the indic. mood and perf. part, in <i>ed</i>—potential mood, it implies +possibility or power—imperfect tense, it denotes past time however +distant—first pers. plural, because the nom. "we" is with which it +agrees, agreeably to RULE 4. <i>A verb must agree</i>, &c. Conjugated—Indic. +mood, present tense, first pers. sing. I accomplish; imperfect tense, I +accomplished; perfect, I have accomplished; pluperfect, I had +accomplished; and so on.—Speak it in the person of each tense through +all the moods, and conjugate, in the same manner, every verb you parse.</p> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + +<div class="smalltext"><p style='text-align: center'><i>These exercises contain a complete variety of Moods and Tenses</i>.</p></div> + +<p>I learn my lesson well. Charles, thou learnest thy lesson badly. John, +do you write a good hand? Those ladies wrote a beautiful letter, but +they did not despatch it. Have you seen the gentleman to whom I gave the +book? He has gone. They had received the news before the messenger +arrived. When will those persons return? My friend shall receive his +reward. He will have visited me three times, if he come to-morrow.</p> + +<p>If Eliza study diligently, she will improve. If Charles studies he does +not improve. Unless that man shall have accomplished his work, by +midsummer, he will receive no wages. Orlando, obey my precepts, unless +you wish to injure yourself. Remember what is told you. The physician +may administer the medicine, but Providence only can bless it. I told, +him that he might go, but he would not. He might have gone last week, +had he conducted himself properly; (that is, <i>if he had conducted</i>, &c.) +Boys, prepare to recite your lessons. Young ladies, let me hear you +repeat what you have learned. Study, diligently, whatever task may be +allotted to you. To correct the spirit of discontent, let us consider +how little we deserve. To die for one's country, is glorious. How can we +become wise? To seek God is wisdom. What is true greatness? Active +benevolence. A good man is a great man.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"><p>NOTE 1. <i>Man</i>, following <i>great</i>, and <i>what</i>, in the last two +examples, are nom. after <i>is</i>: RULE 21. <i>To seek God</i>, and <i>to die +for one's country</i>, are members of sentences, each put as the nom. +case to <i>is</i> respectively: RULE 24. The verb <i>to correct</i> is the +infinitive mood absolute: NOTE under RULE 23. <i>May be allotted</i> is a +passive verb, agreeing with <i>which</i>, the relative part of <i>whatever</i>. +<i>That</i>, the first part of whatever, is an adj. pronoun, agreeing with +<i>task</i>; and <i>task</i> is governed by <i>study.</i> <i>Hear</i>, following <i>let</i>, +and <i>repeat</i>, following <i>hear</i>, are in the infinitive mood without +the sign <i>to</i>, according to RULE 25. <i>To recite</i> is governed by +<i>prepare</i>: RULE 23. <i>Is told</i>, is a passive verb, agreeing with +<i>which</i>, the relative part of <i>whatever</i>; and <i>you</i>, following, is +governed by <i>to</i> understood: NOTE 1, under RULE 32.</p> + +<p>2. In parsing a pronoun, if the noun for which it stands is not +expressed, you must say it represents some person or thing +understood.</p></div> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h2>LECTURE XIII.</h2> + +<h3>OF THE AUXILIARY, PASSIVE, AND DEFECTIVE VERBS.</h3> + +<h4>I. AUXILIARY VERBS.</h4> + +<p>Before you attend to the following additional remarks on the Auxiliary +Verbs, you will do well to read again what is said respecting them in +Lecture XI. page 140. The short account there given, and their +application in conjugating verbs, have already made them quite familiar +to you; and you have undoubtedly observed, that, without their help, we +cannot conjugate any verb in any of the tenses, except the present and +imperfect of the indicative and subjunctive moods, and the present of +the imperative and infinitive. In the formation of all the other tenses, +they are brought into requisition.</p> + +<p>Most of the <a name="auxiliary_verbs_ii"></a>auxiliary verbs are defective in conjugation; that is, they +are used only in some of the moods and tenses; and when unconnected with +principal verbs, they are conjugated in the following manner:</p> + +<h5>MAY.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>Pres. Tense</td><td align='left'> <i>Sing</i>. </td><td align='left'>I may, thou mayst, he may.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We may, ye <i>or</i> you may, they may.</td></tr></table> + + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>Imperf. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> I might, thou mightst, he might.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We might, ye <i>or</i> you might, they might.</td></tr></table> + + +<h5>CAN.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>Pres. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> I can, thou canst, he can.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We can, ye <i>or</i> you can, they can.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Imperf. Tense. </td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>. </td><td align='left'>I could, thou couldst, he could.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We could, ye <i>or</i> you could, they could.</td></tr></table> + + +<h5>WILL.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>Pres. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> I will, thou wilt, he will.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We will, ye <i>or</i> you will, they will.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>Imperf. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> I would, thou wouldst, he would.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We would, ye <i>or</i> you would, they would.</td></tr></table> + + +<h5>SHALL.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>Pres. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> I shall, thou shalt, he shall.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We shall, ye <i>or</i> you shall, they shall.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>Imperf. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> I should, thou shouldst, he should.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We should, ye <i>or</i> you should, they should.</td></tr></table> + + +<h5>TO DO.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>Pres. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> I do, thou dost <i>or</i> doest, he doth <i>or</i> does.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We do, ye <i>or</i> you do, they do.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Imperf. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> I did, thou didst, he did.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We did, ye <i>or</i> you did, they did.</td></tr></table> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Participles</i>.</td><td align='left'> Pres. doing.</td><td align='left'> Perf. done.</td></tr></table> + + +<h5>TO BE.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>Pres. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> I am, thou art, he is.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>. </td><td align='left'>We are, ye <i>or</i> you are, they are.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>Imperf. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> I was, thou wast, he was.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We were, ye <i>or</i> you were, they were.</td></tr></table> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Participles</i>.</td><td align='left'> Pres. being.</td><td align='left'> Perf. been.</td></tr></table> + + +<h5>TO HAVE.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>Pres. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> I have, thou hast, he hath <i>or</i> has.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We have, ye <i>or</i> you have, they have.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>Imperf. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> I had, thou hadst, he had.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We had, ye <i>or</i> you had, they had.</td></tr></table> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Participles</i>.</td><td align='left'> Pres. having.</td><td align='left'>Perf. had.</td></tr></table> + + +<p><i>Do, be, have</i>, and <i>will</i>, are sometimes used as principal verbs; and +when employed as such, <i>do, be</i>, and <i>have</i>, may be conjugated, by the +help of other auxiliaries, through all the moods and tenses.</p> + +<p>DO. The different tenses of <i>do</i>, in the several moods, are thus formed: +Indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I do; imperfect tense, I +did; perf. I have done; pluperfect, I had done; first future, I shall or +will do; sec. fut. I shall have done. Subjunctive mood, pres. tense, If +I do; imperf. if I did; and so on. Imperative mood, do thou. Potential, +pres. I may, can, or must do, &c. Infinitive, present, to do; perf. to +have done. Participles, pres. doing; perf. done; compound, having done.</p> + +<a name="Have_ii"></a> +<p>HAVE. <i>Have</i> is in great demand. No verb can be conjugated through all +the moods and tenses without it. <i>Have</i>, when used as a principal verb, +is doubled in some of the past tenses, and becomes an auxiliary to +itself; thus, Indic. mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I have; +imperf. tense, I had; perf. I have had; pluperf. I had had; first fut. I +shall or will have; sec. fut. I shall have had. Subjunctive, present, if +I have; imperf. if I had; perf. if I have had; pluperf. if I had had; +first fut. if I shall or will have; sec. fut. if I shall have had. +Imper. mood, have thou. Potential, present, I may, can, or must have; +imperf. I might, could, would, or should have; perf. I may, can, or must +have had; pluperf. I might, could, would, or should have had. +Infinitive, present, to have; perf. to have had. Participles, pres. +having; perf. had; compound, having had.</p> + +<p>BE. In the next place I will present to you the conjugation of the +irregular, neuter verb, <i>Be</i>, which is an auxiliary whenever it is +placed before the perfect participle of another verb, but in every other +situation, it is a <i>principal</i> verb.</p> + +<h5>TO BE.—INDICATIVE MOOD.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>Pres. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> I am, thou art, he, she, <i>or</i> it is.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We are, ye <i>or</i> you are, they are.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>Imperf. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> I was, thou wast, he was.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We were, ye <i>or</i> you were, they were.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>Perf. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> I have been, thou hast been, he hath <i>or</i> has been.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We have been, ye <i>or</i> you have been, they have been.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>Plup. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>. </td><td align='left'>I had been, thou hadst been, he had been.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We had been, ye <i>or</i> you had been, they had been.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>First Fut. T.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> I shall <i>or</i> will be, thou shalt <i>or</i> wilt be, he shall <i>or</i> will be.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We shall <i>or</i> will be, you shall <i>or</i> will be, they shall <i>or</i> will be.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>Second Fut. T.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> I shall have been, thou wilt have been, he will have been.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>. </td><td align='left'>We shall have been, you will have been, they will have been.</td></tr></table> + +<a name="SUBJUNCTIVE_iii"></a> +<h5>SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>Pres. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> If I be, if thou be, if he be.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> If we be, if ye <i>or</i> you be, if they be.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Imperf. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> If I were, if thou wert, if he were.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> If we were, if ye <i>or</i> you were, if they were.</td></tr></table> + + +<p>The neuter verb to <i>be</i>, and all passive verbs, have two forms in the +imperfect tense of this mood, as well as in the present; therefore, the +following rule may serve to direct you in the proper use of each form. +When the sentence implies doubt, supposition, &c. and the neuter verb +<i>be</i>, or the passive verb, is used with a reference to present or future +time, and is either followed or preceded by another verb in the +imperfect of the potential mood, the <i>conjunctive</i> form of the imperfect +tense must be employed; as, "<i>If</i> he <i>were</i> here, we <i>should</i> rejoice +together;" "She <i>might</i> go, <i>were</i> she so disposed." But when there is +no reference to present or future time, and the verb is neither followed +nor preceded by another in the potential imperfect, the <i>indicative</i> +form of the imperfect tense must be used; as, "<i>If</i> he <i>was</i> ill, he did +not make it known;" "<i>Whether</i> he <i>was</i> absent or present, is a matter +of no consequence." The general rule for using the conjunctive form of +the verb, is presented on page 145. See, also, page 135.</p> + + +<div class="smalltext"><p>The perfect, pluperfect, and first future tenses of the subjunctive +mood, are conjugated in a manner similar to the correspondent tenses of +the indicative. The second future is conjugated thus:</p></div> + +<h5>Second Fut. T.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary='' class="smalltext"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> If I shall have been, if thou shalt have been, if he shall. &c</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> If we shall have been, if you shall have been, if they, &c.</td></tr></table> + + +<h5>IMPERATIVE MOOD.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary='' class="smalltext"> +<tr><td align='left'>Pres. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>. </td><td align='left'>Be, <i>or</i> be thou, <i>or</i> do thou be.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> Be, <i>or</i> be ye <i>or</i> you, or do ye <i>or</i> you be.</td></tr></table> + + +<h5>POTENTIAL MOOD.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary='' class="smalltext"> +<tr><td align='left'>Pres. Tense</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>. </td><td align='left'>I may, can, <i>or</i> must be, thou mayst, canst, <i>or</i> must be, he may, can, <i>or</i> must be.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We may, can, <i>or</i> must be, ye <i>or</i> you may, can, <i>or</i> must be, they may, can, <i>or</i> must be.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>Imperf. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>. </td><td align='left'>I might, could, would, <i>or</i> should be, thou mightest, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We might, could, would, <i>or</i> should be, you might, &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>Perf. Tense</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>. </td><td align='left'>I may, can, <i>or</i> must have been, thou mayst, canst, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We may, can, <i>or</i> must have been, you may, can, <i>or</i> must be, &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>Pluper. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> I might, could, would, <i>or</i> should have been, thou, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We might, could, would, <i>or</i> should have been, you, &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<h5>INFINITIVE MOOD.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary='' class="smalltext"> +<tr><td align='left'>Pres. Tense.</td><td align='left'> To be.</td><td align='left'> Perf. Tense.</td><td align='left'> To have been.</td></tr></table> + + +<h5>PARTICIPLES.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary='' class="smalltext"> +<tr><td align='left'>Pres.</td><td align='left'> Being.</td><td align='left'> Perf.</td><td align='left'>Been.</td><td align='left'> Compound.</td><td align='left'> Having been.</td></tr></table> + +<p>This verb to be, though very irregular in its conjugation, is by far the +most important verb in our language, for it is more frequently used than +any other; many rules of syntax depend on constructions associated with +it, and, without its aid, no passive verb can be conjugated. You ought, +therefore, to make yourself perfectly familiar with all its changes, +before you proceed any farther.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h3>II. PASSIVE VERBS.</h3> + +<p>The <i>cases of nouns</i> are a fruitful theme for investigation and +discussion. In the progress of these lectures, this subject has +frequently engaged our attention; and, now, in introducing to your +notice the passive verb, it will, perhaps, be found both interesting and +profitable to present one more view of the nominative case.</p> + +<p>Every sentence, you recollect, must have one <i>finite</i> verb, or more than +one, and one <i>nominative</i>, either expressed or implied, for, without +them, no sentence can exist.</p> + +<a name='nominative_ii'></a> +<p>The <i>nominative</i> is the <i>actor</i> or <i>subject</i> concerning which the verb +makes an affirmation. There are three kinds of nominatives, <i>active, +passive</i>, and <i>neuter</i>.</p> + +<p>The nominative to an <i>active</i> verb, is <i>active</i>, because it <i>produces</i> +an action, and the nominative to a <i>passive</i> verb, is <i>passive</i>, because +it <i>receives</i> or <i>endures</i> the action expressed by the verb; for,</p> + +<div class="bigtext"><p>A <a name="Passive_Verb"></a>Passive Verb denotes action <i>received</i> or <i>endured</i> by the person or +thing which is the nominative; as, "The <i>boy is beaten</i> by his father."</p> +</div> +<p>You perceive, that the nominative <i>boy</i>, in this example, is not +represented as the <i>actor</i>, but as the <i>object</i> of the action expressed +by the verb <i>is beaten</i>; that is, the boy <i>receives</i> or <i>endures</i> the +action performed by his father; therefore <i>boy</i> is a <i>passive</i> +nominative. And you observe, too, that the verb <i>is beaten</i>, denotes the +<i>action</i> received or endured by the nominative; therefore <i>is beaten</i> is +a <i>passive</i> verb.</p> + +<p>If I say, John <i>kicked</i> the horse, John is an active nominative, because +he performed or produced the action; but if I say, John <i>was kicked</i> by +the horse, John is a passive nominative, because he received or endured +the action.</p> + +<p>The nominative to a <i>neuter</i> verb, is <i>neuter</i>, because it does not +produce an action nor receive one; as, John <i>sits</i> in the chair. John is +here connected with the neuter verb <i>sits</i>, which expresses simply the +state of being of its nominative, therefore <i>John</i> is a neuter +nominative.</p> + +<a name="active_passive_and_neuter_nominatives"></a> +<p>I will now illustrate the active, passive, and neuter nominatives by a +few examples.</p> + +<p>I. Of ACTIVE NOMINATIVES; as, "The <i>boy</i> beats the dog; The <i>lady</i> +sings; The <i>ball</i> rolls; The <i>man</i> walks."</p> + +<p>II. Of PASSIVE NOMINATIVES; as, "The <i>boy</i> is beaten; The <i>lady</i> is +loved; The <i>ball</i> is rolled; The <i>man</i> was killed."</p> + +<p>III. Of NEUTER NOMINATIVES; as, "The <i>boy</i> remains idle; The <i>lady</i> is +beautiful; The <i>ball</i> lies on the ground; The <i>man</i> lives in town." +You may now proceed to the conjugation of passive verbs.</p> + +<div class="bigtext"><p>Passive Verbs are called <i>regular</i> when they end in <i>ed</i>; as, was +<i>loved</i>; was <i>conquered</i>.</p> + +<p>All Passive Verbs <i>are formed</i> by adding the <i>perfect participle</i> of an +active-transitive verb, to the neuter verb <i>to be</i>.</p></div> + +<p>If you place a perfect participle of an active-transitive verb after +this neuter verb <i>be</i>, in any mood or tense, you will have a <i>passive</i> +verb in the same mood and tense that the verb <i>be</i> would be in if the +participle were not used; as, I am <i>slighted</i>; I was <i>slighted</i>; he will +be <i>slighted</i>; If I be <i>slighted</i>; I may, can, <i>or</i> must be <i>slighted</i>, +&c. Hence you perceive, that when you shall have learned the conjugation +of the verb <i>be</i>, you will be able to conjugate any passive verb in the +English language.</p> + +<p>The regular passive verb to <i>be loved</i>, which is formed by adding the +perfect participle <i>loved</i> to the neuter verb to <i>be</i>, is conjugated in +the following manner:</p> + +<h5>TO BE LOVED.—INDICATIVE MOOD.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>Pres. Tense</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>. </td><td align='left'>I am loved, thou art loved, he is loved.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We are loved, ye <i>or</i> you are loved, they are loved.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>Imperf. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> I was loved, thou wast loved, he was loved.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We were loved, ye <i>or</i> you were loved, they were loved.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>Perfect Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>. </td><td align='left'>I have been loved, thou hast been loved, he has been loved.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We have been loved, you have been loved, they have, &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>Pluper. Tense</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>. </td><td align='left'>I had been loved, thou hadst been loved, he had been, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We had been loved, you had been loved, they had been, &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>First Future.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> I shall <i>or</i> will be loved, thou shall <i>or</i> wilt be loved, he, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We shall <i>or</i> will be loved, you shall <i>or</i> will be loved, they, &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>First Future.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>. </td><td align='left'>I shall have been loved, thou wilt have been loved, he, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We shall have been loved, you will have been loved, &c.</td></tr></table> + + +<h5>SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>Pres. Tense</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> If I be loved, if thou be loved, if he be loved.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> If we be loved, if ye <i>or</i> you be loved, if they be loved.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>Imperf. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> If I were loved, if thou wert loved, if he were loved.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> If we were loved, if you were loved, if they were loved.</td></tr></table> + + +<p>This mood has six tenses:—See conjugation of the verb to <i>be</i>.</p> + +<h5>IMPERATIVE MOOD.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>Pres. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> Be thou loved, <i>or</i> do thou be loved.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> Be ye <i>or</i> you loved, <i>or</i> do ye be loved.</td></tr> +</table> + +<h5>POTENTIAL MOOD.</h5> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>Pres. Tense</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>. </td><td align='left'>I may, can, <i>or</i> must be loved, thou mayst, canst, <i>or</i> must, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We may, can, <i>or</i> must be loved, you may, can, <i>or</i> must, &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>Imperf. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>. </td><td align='left'>I might, could, would, <i>or</i> should be loved, thou mightst, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>. </td><td align='left'>We might, could, would, or should be loved, ye <i>or</i> you, &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>Perfect Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> I may, can, <i>or</i> must have been loved, thou mayst, canst, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We may, can, <i>or</i> must have been loved, you may, can, &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>Plup. Tense.</td><td align='left'><i>Sing</i>.</td><td align='left'> I might, could, would, <i>or</i> should have been loved, thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, <i>or</i> shouldst have</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'><i>Plur</i>.</td><td align='left'> We might, could, would, <i>or</i> should have been loved, you might, could, would, <i>or</i> should have been loved, they, &c.</td></tr></table> + + +<h5>INFINITIVE MOOD.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>Pres. Tense. </td><td align='left'>To be loved.</td><td align='left'> Perf. Tense.</td><td align='left'>To have been loved.</td></tr></table> + + +<h5>PARTICIPLES.</h5> + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>Present,</td><td align='left'> Being loved.</td><td align='left'> Perfect <i>or</i> Passive,</td><td align='left'> Loved. </td><td align='left'>Compound, </td><td align='left'>Having been loved.</td></tr></table> + + +<div class="smalltext"><p>NOTE. This conjugation of the passive verb <i>to be loved</i>, is called +the <i>passive, voice</i> of the regular active-transitive verb <i>to +love</i>.</p></div> + +<p>Now conjugate the following passive verbs; that is, speak them in the +first pers. sing, and plur. of each tense, through all the moods, and +speak the participles; "to be loved, to be rejected, to be slighted, to +be conquered, to be seen, to be beaten, to be sought, to be taken."</p> + +<div class="smalltext"><p>NOTE 1. When the perfect participle of an <i>intransitive</i> verb is +joined to the neuter verb <i>to be</i>, the combination is not a passive +verb, but a <i>neuter</i> verb in a <i>passive form</i>; as, "He <i>is gone</i>; +The birds <i>are flown</i>; The boy <i>is grown</i>; My friend <i>is arrived</i>." +The following mode of construction, is, in general, to be preferred; +"He <i>has</i> gone; The birds <i>have</i> flown; The boy <i>has</i> grown; My +Friend <i>has</i> arrived."</p> + +<p>2. Active and neuter verbs may be conjugated by adding their present +participle to the auxiliary verb <i>to be</i>, through all its +variations; as, instead of, I teach, thou teachest, he teaches, &c., +we may say, I am teaching, thou art teaching, he is teaching, &c.; +and, instead of, I taught, &c.; I was teaching, &c. This mode of +conjugation expresses the continuation of an action or state of +being; and has, on some occasions, a peculiar propriety, and +contributes to the harmony and precision of language. When the +present participle of an active verb is joined with the neuter verb +to be, the two words united, are, by some grammarians, denominated +an active verb, either transitive or intransitive, as the case may +be; as, "I am writing a letter; He is walking:" and when the present +participle of a neuter verb is thus employed, they term the +combination a neuter verb; as, "I am sitting; He is standing." +Others, in constructions like these, parse each word separately. +Either mode may be adopted.</p></div> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h3>III. <a name="DEFECTIVE_VERBS"></a>DEFECTIVE VERBS.</h3> + +<div class="bigtext"><p>DEFECTIVE VERBS are those which are used only in some of the moods and +tenses.</p></div> + +<div class="smalltext"><p>The principal of them are these.</p></div> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary='' class='smalltext'> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Pres. Tense.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Imperf. Tense.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Perfect or Passive Participle is wanting.</i></td></tr> + + +<tr><td align='left'>May,</td><td align='left'>might.</td><td align='left'>——————</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Can,</td><td align='left'>could.</td><td align='left'>——————</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Will,</td><td align='left'>would.</td><td align='left'>——————</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shall,</td><td align='left'>should.</td><td align='left'>——————</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Must,</td><td align='left'>must.</td><td align='left'>——————</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ought,</td><td align='left'>ought.</td><td align='left'>——————</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>———</td><td align='left'>quoth.</td><td align='left'>——————</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="smalltext"><p>NOTE. <i>Must</i> and <i>ought</i> are not varied. <i>Ought</i> and <i>quoth</i> are +never used as auxiliaries. <i>Ought</i> is always followed by a verb in +the infinitive mood, which verb determines its tenses. <i>Ought</i> is in +the <i>present</i> tense when the infinitive following it is in the +present; as, "He <i>ought</i> to do it;" and <i>ought</i> is in the +<i>imperfect</i> tense when followed by the perfect of the infinitive; +as, "He <i>ought</i> to have done it." +</p></div> + +<p>Before you proceed to the analysis of the following examples, you may +read over the last <i>three</i> lectures carefully and attentively; and as +soon as you become acquainted with all that has been presented, you will +understand nearly all the principles and regular constructions of our +language. In parsing a verb, or any other part of speech, be careful to +pursue the <i>systematic order</i>, and to conjugate every verb until you +become familiar with all the moods and tenses.</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"He <i>should have been punished</i> before he committed that atrocious +deed."</p> + +<p><i>Should have been punished</i> is a verb, a word that signifies to +do—passive, it denotes action received or endured by the nom.—it is +formed by adding the perfect part, <i>punished</i> to the neuter verb to +<i>be</i>—regular, the perf. part, ends in <i>ed</i>—potential mood, it implies +obligation, &c.—pluperfect tense, it denotes a past act which was prior +to the other past time specified by "committed"—third pers. sing. +num. because the nom. "he" is with which it agrees: RULE 4. <i>The verb +must agree</i>, &c.—Conjugated, Indic. mood, pres. tense, he is punished; +imperf. tense, he was punished; perf. tense, he has been punished; and +so on. Conjugate it through all the moods and tenses, and speak the +participles.</p> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>Columbus discovered America. America was discovered by Columbus. The +preceptor is writing a letter. The letter is written by the preceptor. +The work can be done. The house would have been built ere this, had he +fulfilled his promise. If I be beaten by that man, he will be punished. +Young man, if you wish to be respected, you must be more assiduous. +Being ridiculed and despised, he left the institution. He is reading +Homer. They are talking. He may be respected, if he become more +ingenuous. My worthy friend ought to be honored for his benevolent +deeds. This ought ye to have done.</p> + +<h4>ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>All the most important principles of the science, together with many of +the rules, have now been presented and illustrated. But before you +proceed to analyze the following exercises, you may turn over a few +pages, and you will find all the rules presented in a body. Please to +examine them critically, and parse the <i>examples</i> under each rule and +note. The examples, you will notice, are given to illustrate the +respective rules and notes under which they are placed; hence, by paying +particular attention to them, you will be enabled fully and clearly to +comprehend the meaning and application of all the rules and notes.</p> + +<p>As soon as you become familiarly acquainted with all the <i>definitions</i> +so that you can apply them with facility, you may omit them in parsing; +but you must always apply the rules of Syntax. When you parse without +applying the definitions, you may proceed in the following manner:</p> + +<p style='text-align: center'>"Mercy is the true badge of nobility."</p> + +<p><i>Mercy</i> is a noun common, of the neuter gender, third person, singular +number, and in the nominative case to "is:" RULE 3. <i>The nominative case +governs the verb</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Is</i> is an irregular neuter verb, indicative mood, present tense, third +person, singular number, agreeing with "mercy," according to RULE 4. +<i>The verb must agree</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><i>The</i> is a definite article, belonging to "badge," in the singular +number: RULE 2. <i>The definite article</i> the, &c.</p> + +<p><i>True</i> is an adjective in the positive degree, and belongs to the noun +"badge:" RULE 18. <i>Adjectives belong</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Badge</i> is a noun com. neuter gender, third person, singular number, and +in the nominative case <i>after</i> "is," and put by apposition with "mercy," +according to RULE 21. <i>The verb to be may have the same case after it as +before it</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Of</i> is a preposition, connecting "badge" and "nobility," and showing +the relation between them.</p> + +<p><i>Nobility</i> is a noun of multitude, mas. and fem. gender, third person, +sing, and in the obj. case, and governed by "of:" RULE 31. <i>Prepositions +govern the objective case</i>.</p> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + +<p>Learn to unlearn what you have learned amiss.</p> + +<p>What I forfeit for myself is a trifle; that my indiscretions should +reach my posterity, wounds me to the heart.</p> + +<p>Lady Jane Gray fell a sacrifice to the wild ambition of the duke of +Northumberland.</p> + +<p>King Missipsi charged his sons to consider the senate and people of Rome +as proprietors of the kingdom of Numidia.</p> + +<p>Hazael smote the children of Israel in all their coasts; and from what +is left on record of his actions, he plainly appears to have proved, +what the prophet foresaw him to be, a man of violence, cruelty, and +blood.</p> + +<p>Heaven hides from brutes what men, from men what spirits know.</p> + +<p>He that formed the ear, can he not hear?</p> + +<p>He that hath ears to hear, let him hear.</p> + +<div class="smalltext"><p>NOTE 1. <i>Learn</i>, in the first of the preceding examples, is a +transitive verb, because the action passes over from the nom. <i>you</i> +understood, to <i>the rest of the sentence</i> for its object: RULE 24. +In the next example, <i>that my indiscretions should reach my</i> +<i>posterity</i>, is a part of a sentence put as the nominative to the +verb <i>wounds</i>, according to the same Rule.</p> + +<p>2. The noun <i>sacrifice</i>, in the third example, is nom. after the +active-intransitive verb <i>fell</i>: RULE 22. The noun <i>proprietors</i>, in +the next sentence, is in the objective case, and put by apposition +with <i>senate</i> and <i>people</i>: RULE 7, or governed by <i>consider</i>, +understood, according to RULE 35.</p> + +<p>3. In the fifth example, <i>what</i>, following <i>proved</i>, is a compound +relative. <i>Thing</i>, the antecedent part, is in the nom. case after +<i>to be</i>, understood, and put by apposition with <i>he</i>, according to +RULE 21, and NOTE. <i>Which</i>, the relative part, is in the obj. case +after <i>to be</i> expressed, and put by apposition with <i>him</i>, according +to the same RULE. <i>Man</i> is in the obj. case, put by apposition with +<i>which</i>: RULE 7. The latter part of the sentence may be <i>literally</i> +rendered thus: He plainly appears to have proved <i>to be that base +character which</i> the prophet foresaw him to be, viz. a <i>man</i> of +violence, cruelty, and blood. The antecedent part of the first +<i>what</i>, in the next sentence, is governed by <i>hides</i>; and <i>which</i>, +the relative part, is governed by <i>know</i> understood. The antecedent +part of the second <i>what</i>, is governed by <i>hides</i> understood, and +the relative part is governed by <i>know</i> expressed.</p> + +<p>4. The first <i>he</i>, in the seventh example, is, in the opinion of +some, nom. to <i>can hear</i> understood; but Mr. N.R. Smith, a +<i>distinguished and acute grammarian, suggests the propriety of</i> +rendering the sentence thus; "He that formed the ear, <i>formed it to +hear</i>; can he not hear?" The first <i>he</i>, in the last example, is +redundant; yet the construction is sometimes admissible, for the +expression is more forcible than it would be to say, "Let him hear +who hath ears to hear;" and if we adopt the ingenious method of Mr. +Smith, the sentence is grammatical, and may be rendered thus; "He +that hath ears, <i>hath ears</i> to hear; let him hear."</p> +</div> +<a name='anomalies'></a> +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> +<h5><i>Idioms, anomalies, and intricacies</i>.</h5> + +<ol><li>"The wall is three <i>feet</i> high."</li> + +<li>"His son is eight <i>years</i> old."</li> + +<li>"My knife is worth a <i>shilling</i>."</li> + +<li>"She is worth <i>him</i> and all his <i>connexions</i>."</li> + +<li>"He has been there three <i>times</i>."</li> + +<li>"The hat cost ten <i>dollars</i>."</li> + +<li>"The load weighs a <i>tun</i>."</li> + +<li>"The spar measures ninety <i>feet</i>."</li></ol> + + +<div class="smalltext"><p>REMARKS.—<i>Anomaly</i> is derived from the Greek, <i>a</i>, without, and +<i>omales</i>, similar; that is, <i>without similarity</i>. Some give its +derivation thus; <i>anomaly</i>, from the Latin, <i>ab</i>, from, or out of, and +<i>norma</i>, a rule, or law, means an <i>outlaw</i>; a mode of expression that +departs from the rules, laws, or <i>general</i> usages of the language; a +construction in language peculiar to itself. Thus, it is a general rule +of the language, that adjectives of one syllable are compared by adding +<i>r</i>, or <i>er</i>, and <i>st</i>, or <i>est</i>, to the positive degree; but good, +<i>better, best</i>; bad, <i>worse, worst</i>, are not compared according to the +general rule. They are, therefore, anomalies. The plural number of nouns +is generally formed by adding s to the singular: man, <i>men</i>; woman, +<i>women</i>; child, <i>children</i>; penny, <i>pence</i>, are anomalies. The use of +<i>news, means, alms</i> and <i>amends</i>, in the singular, constitutes +anomalies. Anomalous constructions are correct according to custom; but, +as they are departures from general rules, by them they cannot be +analyzed.</p> + +<p>An <i>idiom</i>, Latin <i>idioma</i>, a construction peculiar to a language, may +be an anomaly, or it may not. An idiomatical expression which is not an +anomaly, can be analyzed.</p> + +<p><i>Feet</i> and <i>years</i>, in the 1st and 2d examples, are not in the +nominative after <i>is</i>, according to Rule 21, because they are not in +apposition with the respective nouns that precede the verb; but the +constructions are anomalous; and, therefore, no rule can be applied to +analyze them. The same ideas, however; can be conveyed by a legitimate +construction which can be analyzed; thus, "The <i>height</i> of the wall is +three <i>feet</i>;" "The <i>age</i> of my son is eight <i>years</i>."</p> + +<a name="worth"></a> +<p>An anomaly, when ascertained to be such, is easily disposed of; but +sometimes it is very difficult to decide whether a construction is +anomalous or not. The 3d, 4th, and 5th examples, are generally +considered anomalies; but if we supply, as we are, perhaps, warranted in +doing, the associated words which modern refinement has dropped, they +will cease to be anomalies; thus, "My knife is <i>of the</i> worth <i>of</i> a +shilling;" "—<i>of the</i> worth <i>of</i> him," &c. "He has been there <i>for</i> +three times;" as we say, "I was unwell <i>for</i> three days, after I +arrived;" or, "I was unwell three days." Thus it appears, that by +tracing back, <i>for</i> a few centuries, what the merely modern English +scholar supposes to be an anomaly, an ellipsis will frequently be +discovered, which, when supplied, destroys the anomaly.</p> + +<p>On extreme points, and peculiar and varying constructions in a living +language, the most able philologists can never be agreed; because many +usages will always be unsettled and fluctuating, and will, consequently, +be disposed of according to the caprice of the grammarian. By some, a +sentence may be treated as an anomaly; by others who contend for, and +supply, an ellipsis, the same sentence may be analyzed according to the +ellipsis supplied; whilst others, who deny both the elliptical and +anomalous character of the sentence, construct a rule by which to +analyze it, which rule has for its foundation the principle contained in +that sentence only. This last mode of procedure, inasmuch as it requires +us to make a rule for every peculiar construction in the language, +appears to me to be the most exceptionable of the three. It appears to +be multiplying rules beyond the bounds of utility.</p> + +<p>The verbs, <i>cost, weighs</i>, and <i>measures</i>, in the 6th, 7th, and 8th +examples, may be considered as transitive. See remarks on <i>resemble, +have, own</i>, &c., page 56.</p></div> + +<h4>EXAMPLES.</h4> + +<ol><li>"And God said, 'Let there be light,' and there was light." "Let us +make man." "Let us bow before the Lord." "Let high-born seraphs tune the +lyre."</li> + +<li>"<i>Be it</i> enacted." "<i>Be it</i> remembered." <i>"Blessed be he</i> that +blesseth thee; and <i>cursed be he</i> that curseth thee." "My soul, turn +from them:—<i>turn we</i> to survey," &c.</li> + +<li>"<i>Methinks</i> I see the portals of eternity wide open to receive him." +"<i>Methought</i> I was incarcerated beneath the mighty deep." "I was there +just thirty <i>years ago</i>."</li> + +<li>"Their laws and their manners, generally <i>speaking</i>, were extremely +rude." "<i>Considering</i> their means, they have effected much."</li> +</ol> + +<div class='poem'> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"Ah <i>me!</i> nor hope nor life remains."</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"<i>Me</i> miserable! which way shall I fly?"</span><br /> +</div> + +<div class='poem'> +<span style='margin-left: 2.5em;'>"O <i>happiness!</i> our being's end and aim!</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Good, pleasure, ease, content! whatever thy name,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>That something still which prompts th' eternal sigh.</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>For which we bear to live, or dare to die."—</span> +</div> + +<a name="nominative_case_independent_iii"></a> +<div class="smalltext"><p>The verb <i>let</i>, in the idiomatic examples under number 1, has no +nominative specified, and is left applicable to a nominative of the +first, second, or third person, and of either number. Every action +necessarily depends on an agent or moving cause; and hence it follows, +that the verb, in such constructions, has a nominative understood; but +as that nominative is not particularly <i>pointed out</i>, the constructions +may be considered anomalous.</p> + +<p>Instead of saying, "<i>Let</i> it [<i>to</i>] be enacted;" or, "It <i>is</i> or <i>shall</i> +be enacted;" "<i>Let</i> him [<i>to</i>] be blessed;" or, "He <i>shall</i> be blessed;" +"<i>Let us</i> turn to survey," &c.; the verbs, <i>be enacted, be blessed, +turn</i>, &c. according to an idiom of our language, or the poet's license, +are used in the <i>imperative</i>, agreeing with a nominative of the first or +third person.</p> + +<p>The phrases, <i>methinks</i> and <i>methought</i>, are anomalies, in which the +objective pronoun <i>me</i>, in the <i>first</i> person, is used in place of a +nominative, and takes a verb after it in the <i>third</i> person. <i>Him</i> was +anciently used in the same manner; as, "<i>him thute</i>, him thought." There +was a period when these constructions were not anomalies in our +language. Formerly, what we call the <i>objective</i> cases of our pronouns, +were employed in the same manner as our present <i>nominatives</i> are. <i>Ago</i> +is a contraction of <i>agone</i>, the past part. of to <i>go</i>. Before this +participle was contracted to an adverb, the noun <i>years</i> preceding it, +was in the nominative case absolute; but now the construction amounts to +an anomaly. The expressions, "generally speaking," and "considering +their means," under number 4, are idiomatical and anomalous, the +subjects to the participles not being specified.</p> + +<p>According to the genius of the English language, transitive verbs and +prepositions require the <i>objective</i> case of a noun or pronoun after +them; and this requisition is all that is meant by government, when we +say, that these parts of speech govern the objective case. See pages 52, +57, and 94. The same principle applies to the interjection. +Interjections require the <i>objective</i> case of a pronoun of the first +person after them; but the <i>nominative</i> of a noun or pronoun of the +second or third person; as, "Ah <i>me!</i> Oh <i>thou!</i> O my <i>country!</i>" To +say, then, that interjections <i>require</i> particular cases after them, is +synonymous with saying, that they <i>govern</i> those cases; and this office +of the interjection is in perfect accordance with that which it performs +in the Latin and many other languages. In the examples under number 5, +the first <i>me</i> is in the objective after "ah," and the second <i>me</i>, +after <i>ah</i> understood; thus, "Ah miserable me!" according to NOTE 2, +under Rule 5.—<i>Happiness</i>, under number 6, is nom. independent; Rule 5, +or in the nom. after <i>O</i>, according to this Note. The principle +contained in the note, proves that every noun of the second person is in +the <i>nominative</i> case; for, as the pronoun of the second person, in such +a situation, is always nominative, which is shown by its <i>form</i>, it +logically follows that the noun, under such circumstances, although it +has <i>no form</i> to show its case, must necessarily be in the same case as +the pronoun. "Good, pleasure, ease, content, <i>that</i>," the antecedent +part of "whatever," and <i>which</i>, the relative part, are nom. after <i>art</i> +understood; Rule 21, and <i>name</i> is nom. to <i>be</i> understood.</p> + +<p>The second line may be rendered thus; Whether thou art good, or whether +thou art pleasure, &c. or <i>be</i> thy <i>name</i> that [thing] which [ever +thing] it may be: putting <i>be</i> in the imperative, agreeing with <i>name</i> +in the third person. <i>Something</i> is nominative after <i>art</i> understood.</p></div> + +<h4>EXAMPLES.</h4> + +<ol><li><p>"All were well <i>but</i> the <i>stranger</i>." "I saw nobody but the +<i>stranger</i>." "All had returned but he." "None but the <i>brave</i> deserve +the fair." "The thing they can't <i>but</i> purpose, they postpone." "This +life, at best, is <i>but</i> a dream." "It affords <i>but</i> a scanty measure of +enjoyment." "If he <i>but</i> touch the hills, they will smoke." "Man is +<i>but</i> a reed, floating on the current of time."</p></li> + +<li><p>"Notwithstanding his poverty, he is content."</p></li> + +<li><p>"Open your hand <i>wide</i>." "The apples boil <i>soft</i>." "The purest clay +is that which burns <i>white</i>." "Drink <i>deep</i>, or taste not the Pierian +spring."</p></li> + +<li><p>"<i>What though</i> the swelling surge thou see?" &c. "<i>What if</i> the foot, +ordain'd the dust to tread?" &c.</p></li></ol> + +<a name='as_iii'></a> +<div class="smalltext"><p>REMARKS.—According to the principle of analysis assumed by many of our +most critical philologists, <i>but</i> is <i>always</i> a disjunctive conjunction; +and agreeably to the same authorities, to construe it, in any case, as a +preposition, would lead to error. See false Syntax under Rule 35. They +maintain, that its legitimate and undeviating office is, to join on a +member of a sentence which <i>expresses opposition of meaning</i>, and +thereby forms an exception to, or takes from the universality of, the +proposition contained in the preceding member of the sentence. That it +sustains its true character as a conjunction in all the examples under +number 1, will be shown by the following resolution of them.—"All were +well but the <i>stranger [was not well</i>."] "I saw nobody but [<i>I saw</i>] the +<i>stranger</i>." "None deserve the fair but the <i>brave</i> [<i>deserve the +fair</i>."] "They postpone the thing which [<i>they ought to do, and do not] +but</i> which [<i>thing</i>] they cannot avoid purposing to do." "This life, at +best, [<i>is not a reality,] but</i> it is a dream. It [<i>affords not +unbounded fruition] but</i> it affords a scanty measure of enjoyment." "If +he <i>touch</i> the hills, <i>but exert no greater power upon them</i>, they will +smoke;"—"If <i>he exert no greater power upon the hills, but [be-out this +fact</i>] if he touch them, they will smoke." "Man <i>is not a stable being, +but</i> he is a reed, floating on the current of time." This method of +analyzing sentences, however, if I mistake not, is too much on the plan +of our pretended philosophical writers, who, in their rage for ancient +constructions and combinations, often overlook the modern associated +meaning and application of this word. It appears to me to be more +consistent with the <i>modern</i> use of the word, to consider it an <i>adverb</i> +in constructions like the following: "If he <i>but (only, merely)</i> touch +the hills they will smoke."</p> + +<p><i>Except</i> and <i>near</i>, in examples like the following, are generally +construed as prepositions: "All went <i>except him</i>;" "She stands <i>near +them</i>." But many contend, that when we employ <i>but</i> instead of <i>except</i>, +in such constructions, a <i>nominative</i> should follow: "All went <i>but he +[did not go</i>."] On this point and many others, <i>custom</i> is <i>variable</i>; +but the period will doubtless arrive, when <i>but, worth</i>, and <i>like</i>, +will be considered prepositions, and, in constructions like the +foregoing, invariably be followed by an objective case. This will not be +the case, however, until the practice of supplying an ellipsis after +these words is entirely dropped.</p> + +<p><i>Poverty</i>, under number 2, is governed by the preposition +<i>notwithstanding</i>, Rule 31. The adjectives <i>wide, soft, white</i>, and +<i>deep</i>, under number 3, not only express the quality of nouns, but also +qualify verbs: Note 4, under Rule 18.—<i>What</i>, in the phrases "what +though" and "what if," is an interrogative in the objective case, and +governed by the verb <i>matters</i> understood, or by some other verb; thus, +"What matters it—what dost thou fear, though thou see the swelling +surge?" "What would you think, if the foot, which is ordained to tread +the dust, aspired to be the head?"</p></div> + +<p>In the following examples, the same word is used as several parts of +speech. But by exercising judgment sufficient to comprehend the meaning, +and by supplying what is understood, you will be able to analyze them +correctly.</p> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + +<ul><li>I like what you dislike.</li> +<li>Every creature loves its like.</li> +<li>Anger, envy, and like passions, are sinful.</li> +<li>Charity, like the sun, brightens every object around it.</li> +<li>Thought flies swifter than light.</li> +<li>He thought as a sage, though he felt as a man.</li> +<li>Hail often proves destructive to vegetation.</li> +<li>I was happy to hail him as my friend.</li> +<li>Hail! beauteous stranger of the wood.</li> +<li>The more I examine the work, the better I like it.</li> +<li>Johnson is a better writer than Sterne.</li> +<li>Calm was the day, and the scene delightful.</li> +<li>We may expect a calm after a storm.</li> +<li>To prevent passion is easier than to calm it.</li> +<li>Damp air is unwholesome.</li> +<li>Guilt often casts a damp over our sprightliest hours.</li> +<li>Soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones.</li> +<li>Much money has been expended.</li> +<li>Of him to whom much is given, much will be required.</li> +<li>It is much better to give than to receive.</li> +<li>Still water runs deep. He labored to still the tumult.</li> +<li>Those two young profligates remain still in the wrong.</li> +<li>They wrong themselves as well as their friends.</li></ul> + +<a name="poetry"></a> +<p>I will now present to you a few examples in poetry. Parsing in poetry, +as it brings into requisition a higher degree of mental exertion than +parsing in prose, will be found a more delightful and profitable +exercise. In this kind of analysis, in order to come at the meaning of +the author, you will find it necessary to <i>transpose</i> his language, and +supply what is understood; and then you will have the literal meaning in +prose.</p> + +<h4>EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + +<h5>APOSTROPHE TO HOPE.—CAMPBELL.</h5> + +<div class='poem'> +<span style='margin-left: 3em;'>Eternal Hope! when yonder spheres sublime</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Pealed their first notes to sound the march of time,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Thy joyous youth began:—but not to fade.—</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>When all the sister planets have decayed;</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>When wrapt in flames the realms of ether glow,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>And Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below;</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Thou, undismay'd, shalt o'er the ruins smile,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>And light thy torch at Nature's funeral pile!</span><br /> +</div> + +<h5>TRANSPOSED.</h5> + +<p>Eternal Hope! thy joyous youth began when yonder sublime spheres pealed +their first notes to sound the march of time:—but it began not to +fade.—Thou, undismayed, shalt smile over the ruins, when all the sister +planets shall have decayed; and thou shalt light thy torch at Nature's +funeral pile, when wrapt in flames, the realms of ether glow, and +Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below.</p> + +<h5>ADDRESS TO ADVERSITY.—GRAY.</h5> + +<div class='poem'> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Daughter of heaven, relentless power,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Thou tamer of the human breast,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Whose iron scourge, and tort'ring hour,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>The bad affright, afflict the best!</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>The gen'rous spark extinct revive;</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Teach me to love and to forgive;</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Exact my own defects to scan:</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>What others are to feel; and know myself a man.</span><br /> +</div> + +<h6>TRANSPOSED.</h6> + +<p>Daughter of heaven, relentless power, thou tamer of the human breast, +whose iron scourge and torturing hour affright the bad, and afflict the +best! Revive thou in me the generous, extinct spark; and teach thou me +to love others, and to forgive them; and teach thou me to scan my own +defects exactly, or critically: and teach thou me that which others are +to feel; and make thou me to know myself to be a man.</p> + +<h5>ADDRESS TO THE ALMIGHTY.—POPE.</h5> + +<div class='poem'><span style='margin-left: 2em;'>What conscience dictates to be done,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 3em;'>Or warns me not to do,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>This teach me more than hell to shun,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 3em;'>That more than heav'n pursue.</span><br /></div> + +<h6>TRANSPOSED.</h6> + +<p>O God, teach thou me to pursue that (<i>the thing</i>) which conscience +dictates to be done, more ardently than I pursue heaven; and teach thou +me to shun this (<i>the thing</i>) which conscience warns me not to do, more +cautiously than I would shun hell.</p> + +<h5>TRIALS OF VIRTUE.—MERRICK.</h5> + +<div class='poem'><span style='margin-left: 2em;'>For see, ah! see, while yet her ways</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 3em;'>With doubtful step I tread,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>A hostile world its terrors raise,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 3em;'>Its snares delusive spread.</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>O how shall I, with heart prepared,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 3em;'>Those terrors learn to meet?</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>How, from the thousand snares to guard</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 3em;'>My unexperienced feet?</span><br /> +</div> +<h6>TRANSPOSED.</h6> + +<p>For see thou, ah! see thou a hostile world <i>to</i> raise its terrors, and +see thou a hostile world <i>to</i> spread its delusive snares, while I yet +tread her (<i>virtue's</i>) ways with doubtful steps.</p> + +<p>O how shall I learn to meet those terrors with a prepared heart? How +shall I learn to guard my unexperienced feet from the thousand snares of +the world?</p> + +<h5>THE MORNING IN SUMMER.—THOMPSON.</h5> + +<div class='poem'><span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Short is the doubtful empire of the night;</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>And soon, observant of approaching day,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>The meek-eyed morn appears, mother of dews,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>At first, faint gleaming in the dappled east,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Till far o'er ether spreads the wid'ning glow,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>And from before the lustre of her face</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>White break the clouds away.</span><br /> +</div> +<h6>TRANSPOSED.</h6> + +<p>The doubtful empire of the night is short; and the meek-eyed morn, +(<i>which is the</i>) mother of dews, observant of approaching day, soon +appears, gleaming faintly, at first, in the dappled east, till the +widening glow spreads far over ether, and the white clouds break away +from before the lustre of her face.</p> + +<h5>NATURE BOUNTIFUL.—AKENSIDE.</h5> + +<div class='poem'><span style='margin-left: 2em;'>—Nature's care, to all her children just,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>With richest treasures, and an ample state,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Endows at large whatever happy man</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Will deign to use them.</span><br /> +</div> +<h6>TRANSPOSED.</h6> + +<p>Nature's care, which is just to all her children, largely endows, with +richest treasures and an ample state, that happy man who will deign to +use them.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE. <i>What</i>, in the second example, is a comp. rel. The antecedent +part is gov. by <i>teach</i> understood; and the relative part by <i>to +feel</i> expressed. <i>To shun</i> and <i>to pursue</i>, in the third example, +are in the infinitive mood, gov. by <i>than</i>, according to a NOTE +under Rule 23. <i>Faint</i> and <i>from</i>, in the 5th example, are adverbs. +<i>An adverb, in poetry, is often written in the form of an adjective.</i> +<i>Whatever</i>, in the last sentence, is a compound pronoun, and is +equivalent to <i>that</i> and <i>who. That</i> is an adj. pron. belonging to +"man;" <i>who</i> is nom. to "will deign;" and <i>ever</i> is excluded from +<i>the sentence in sense. See page 113. Parse these examples as they</i> +<i>are transposed, and you will find the analysis very easy.</i> +</p></div> + + +<h4>ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN PARSING.</h4> + +<h5>GOLD, NOT GENUINE WEALTH.</h5> + +<div class='poem'><span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Where, thy true treasure? Gold says, "not in me;"</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>And, "not in me," the Diamond. Gold is poor.</span><br /> +</div> +<h6>TRANSPOSED.</h6> + +<p>Where is thy true treasure? Gold says, "It is not in me;" and the +Diamond says, "It is not in me." Gold is poor.</p> + +<h5>SOURCE OF FRIENDSHIP.—DR. YOUNG.</h5> + +<div class='poem'><span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Lorenzo, pride repress; nor hope to find</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>A friend, but what has found a friend in thee.</span><br /> +</div> +<h6>TRANSPOSED.</h6> + +<p>Lorenzo, repress thou pride; nor hope thou to find a friend, only in him +who has already found a friend in thee.</p> + +<h5>TRUE GREATNESS.—POPE.</h5> + +<div class='poem'><span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Who noble ends by noble means obtains,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Or, failing, smiles in exile or in chains,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Like good Aurelius let him reign, or bleed</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Like Socrates, that man is great indeed.</span><br /> +</div> +<h6>TRANSPOSED.</h6> + +<p>That man is great indeed, let him <i>to</i> reign like unto good Aurelius, or +let him <i>to</i> bleed like unto Socrates, who obtains noble ends by noble +means; or that man is great indeed, who, failing to obtain noble ends by +noble means, smiles in exile or in chains.</p> + +<h5>INVOCATION.—POLLOK.</h5> + +<div class='poem'><span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Eternal Spirit! God of truth! to whom</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>All things seem as they are, inspire my song;</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>My eye unscale: me what is substance teach;</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>And shadow what, while I of things to come,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>As past rehearsing, sing. Me thought and phrase</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Severely sifting out the whole idea, grant.</span><br /> +</div> +<h6>TRANSPOSED.</h6> + +<p>Eternal Spirit! God of truth! to whom all things seem to be as they +really are, inspire thou my song; and unscale thou my eyes: teach thou +<i>to</i> me the thing which is substance; and teach thou <i>to</i> me the thing +which is shadow, while I sing of things which are to come, as one sings +of things which are past rehearsing. Grant thou <i>to</i> me thought and +phraseology which shall severely sift out the whole idea.</p> + +<h5>THE VOYAGE OF LIFE.</h5> + +<div class='poem'><span style='margin-left: 2em;'>How few, favored by ev'ry element,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>With swelling sails make good the promised port,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>With all their wishes freighted! Yet ev'n these,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Freighted with all their wishes, soon complain.</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Free from misfortune, not from nature free,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>They still are men; and when is man secure?</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>As fatal time, as storm. The rush of years</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Beats down their strength; their numberless escapes</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>In ruin end: and, now, their proud success</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>But plants new terrors on the victor's brow.</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>What pain, to quit the world just made their own!</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Their nests so deeply downed and built so high!—</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Too low they build, who build beneath the stars.</span><br /> +</div> +<h6>TRANSPOSED.</h6> + +<p>How few persons, favored by every element, safely make the promised port +with swelling sails, and with all their wishes freighted! Yet even these +few persons who do safely make the promised port with all their wishes +freighted, soon complain. Though they are free from misfortunes, yet +(<i>though</i> and <i>yet</i>, corresponding conjunctions, form only <i>one</i> +connexion) they are not free from the course of nature, for they still +are men; and when is man secure? Time is as fatal to him, as a storm is +to the mariner.—The rush of years beats down their strength; (<i>that is, +the strength of these few</i>;) and their numberless escapes end in ruin: +and then their proud success only plants new terrors on the victor's +brow. What pain it is to them to quit the world, just as they have made +it to be their own world; when their nests are built so high, and when +they are downed so deeply!—They who build beneath the stars, build too +low for their own safety.</p> + +<h5>REFLECTIONS ON A SCULL.—LORD BYRON.</h5> + +<div class='poem'><span style='margin-left: 3em;'>Remove yon scull from out the scattered heaps.</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 3em;'>Is that a temple, where a God may dwell?</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Why, ev'n the worm at last disdains her shattered cell!</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 3em;'>Look on its broken arch, its ruined wall,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 3em;'>Its chambers desolate, and portals foul;</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 3em;'>Yes, this was once ambition's airy hall,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 3em;'>The dome of thought, the palace of the soul.</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 3em;'>Behold, through each lack-lustre, eyeless hole,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 3em;'>The gay recess of wisdom and of wit,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 3em;'>And passion's host, that never brooked control.</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 3em;'>Can all, saint, sage, or sophist ever writ,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>People this lonely tower, this tenement refit?</span><br /> +</div> +<h6>TRANSPOSED.</h6> + +<p>Remove thou yonder scull out from the scattered heaps. Is that a temple, +where a God may dwell? Why, even the worm at last disdains her shattered +cell! Look thou on its broken arch, and look thou on its ruined wall, +and on its desolate chambers, and on its foul portals:—yes, this scull +was once ambition's airy hall; (<i>it was</i>) the dome of thought, the +palace of the soul. Behold thou, through each lack-lustre, eyeless hole, +the gay recess of wisdom and of wit, and passion's host, which never +brooked control. Can all the works which saints, or sages, or sophists +have ever written, repeople this lonely tower, or can they refit this +tenement?</p> + +<p>For your future exercises in parsing, you may select pieces from the +English Reader, or any other grammatical work. I have already hinted, +that parsing in poetry, as it brings more immediately into requisition +the reasoning faculties, than parsing in prose, will necessarily tend +more rapidly to facilitate your progress: therefore it is advisable that +your future exercises in this way, be chiefly confined to the analysis +of poetry. Previous to your attempting to parse a piece of poetry, you +ought always to transpose it, in a manner similar to the examples just +presented; and then it can be as easily analyzed as prose.</p> + +<p>Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false syntax, +you may turn back and read over the whole thirteen lectures, unless you +have the subject-matter already stored in your mind.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> +<a name="derivation_iii"></a> +<a name='LECTURE_XIV'></a><h2>LECTURE XIV.</h2> +<br /> + + +<h3>OF DERIVATION.</h3> + +<p>At the commencement of Lecture II., I informed you that Etymology +treats, 3dly, of derivation. This branch of Etymology, important as it +is, cannot be very extensively treated in an elementary work on grammar. +In the course of the preceding lectures, it has been frequently +agitated; and now I shall offer a few more remarks, which will doubtless +be useful in illustrating some of the various methods in which one word +is derived from another. Before you proceed, however, please to turn +back and read again what is advanced on this subject on page 27, and in +the PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.</p> + +<ol><li>Nouns are derived from verbs.</li> + +<li>Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from adverbs.</li> + +<li>Adjectives are derived from nouns.</li> + +<li>Nouns are derived from adjectives.</li> + +<li>Adverbs are derived from adjectives.</li></ol> + + +<p>1. Nouns are derived from verbs; as, from "to love," comes "lover;" from +"to visit, visiter;" from "to survive, surviver," &c.</p> + +<p>In the following instances, and in many others, it is difficult to +determine whether the verb was deduced from the noun, or the noun from +the verb, <i>viz</i>. "Love, to love; hate, to hate; fear, to fear; sleep, to +sleep; walk, to walk; ride, to ride; act, to act," &c.</p> + +<p>2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from adverbs; +as, from the noun <i>salt</i>, comes "to salt;" from the adjective <i>warm</i>, +"to warm;" and from the adverb <i>forward</i>, "to forward." Sometimes they +are formed by lengthening the vowel, or softening the consonant; as, +from "grass, to graze;" sometimes by adding <i>en</i>; as, from "length, to +lengthen;" especially to adjectives; as, from "short, to shorten; +bright, to brighten."</p> + +<p>3. Adjectives are derived from nouns in the following manner: adjectives +denoting plenty are derived from nouns by adding <i>y</i>; as, from "Health, +healthy; wealth, wealthy; might, mighty," &c.</p> + +<p>Adjectives denoting the matter out of which any thing is made, are +derived from nouns by adding <i>en</i>; as, from "Oak, oaken; wood, wooden; +wool, woollen," &c.</p> + +<p>Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from nouns by adding <i>ful</i>; +as, from "Joy, joyful; sin, sinful; fruit, fruitful," &c.</p> + +<p>Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of diminution, are +derived from nouns by adding <i>some</i>; as, from "Light, lightsome; +trouble, troublesome; toil, toilsome," &c.</p> + +<p>Adjectives denoting want are derived from nouns by adding <i>less</i>; as, +from "Worth, worthless;" from "care, careless; joy, joyless," &c.</p> + +<p>Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from nouns by adding <i>ly</i>; as, +from "Man, manly; earth, earthly; court, courtly," &c.</p> + +<p>Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or from nouns by +adding <i>ish</i> to them; which termination when added to adjectives, +imports diminution, or lessening the quality; as, "White, whitish;" i.e. +somewhat white. When added to nouns, it signifies similitude or tendency +to a character; as, "Child, childish; thief, thievish."</p> + +<p>Some adjectives are formed from nouns or verbs by adding the termination +<i>able</i>; and those adjectives signify capacity; as, "Answer, answerable; +to change, changeable."</p> + +<p>4. Nouns are derived from adjectives, sometimes by adding the +termination <i>ness</i>; as, "White, whiteness; swift, swiftness;" sometimes +by adding <i>th</i> or <i>t</i>, and making a small change in some of the letters; +as, "Long, length; high, height."</p> + +<p>5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by adding <i>ly</i>, or +changing <i>le</i> into <i>ly</i>; and denote the same quality as the adjectives +from which they are derived; as, from "base," comes "basely;" from +"slow, slowly;" from "able, ably."</p> + +<p>There are so many other ways of deriving words from one another, that it +would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to enumerate them. The +primitive words of every language are very few; the derivatives form +much the greater number. A few more instances only can be given here.</p> + +<p>Some nouns are derived from other nouns, by adding the terminations +<i>hood</i> or <i>head, ship, ery, wick, rick, dom, ian, ment</i>, and <i>age</i>.</p> + +<p>Nouns ending in <i>hood</i> or <i>head</i>, are such as signify character or +qualities; as, "Manhood, knighthood, falsehood," &c.</p> + +<p>Nouns ending in <i>ship</i>, are those that signify office, employment, +state, or condition; as, "Lordship, stewardship, partnership," &c. Some +nouns in <i>ship</i> are derived from adjectives; as, "Hard, hardship," &c.</p> + +<p>Nouns which end in <i>ery</i>, signify action or habit; as, "Slavery, +foolery, prudery," &c. Some nouns of this sort come from adjectives; as, +"Brave, bravery," &c.</p> + +<p>Nouns ending in <i>wick, rick</i>, and <i>dom</i>, denote dominion, jurisdiction, +or condition; as, "Bailiwick, bishopric, kingdom, dukedom, freedom," &c.</p> + +<p>Nouns which end in <i>ian</i>, are those that signify profession; as, +"Physician, musician," &c. Those that end in <i>ment</i> and <i>age</i>, come +generally from the French, and commonly signify the act or habit; as, +"Commandment," "usage."</p> + +<p>Some nouns ending in <i>ard</i>, are derived from verbs or adjectives, and +denote character or habit; as, "Drunk, drunkard; dote, dotard."</p> + +<p>Some nouns have the form of diminutives; but these are not many. They +are formed by adding the terminations <i>kin, ling, ing, ock, el</i>, and the +like; as, "Lamb, lambkin; goose, gosling; duck, duckling; hill, hillock; +cock, cockerel," &c.</p> + +<h4>OF PREPOSITIONS USED AS PREFIXES.</h4> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>I shall conclude this lecture by presenting and explaining a list of +Latin and Greek prepositions which are extensively used in English as +prefixes. By carefully studying their signification, you will be better +qualified to understand the meaning of those words into the composition +of which they enter, and of which they form a material part.</p> + +<h5>I. LATIN PREFIXES.</h5> + +<p><i>A, ab, abs</i>—signify from or away; as, <i>a-vert</i>, to turn from; +<i>ab-ject</i>, to throw away; <i>abs-tract</i>, to draw away.</p> + +<p><i>Ad</i>—to or at; as, <i>ad-here</i>, to stick to; <i>ad-mire</i>, to wonder at.</p> + +<p><i>Ante</i>—means before; as, <i>ante-cedent</i>, going before.</p> + +<p><i>Circum</i>—signifies round, about; as, <i>circum-navigate</i>, to sail round.</p> + +<p><i>Con, com, co, col</i>—together; as, <i>con-join</i>, to join together; +<i>com-press</i>, to press together; <i>co-operate</i>, to work together; +<i>col-lapse</i>, to fall together.</p> + +<p><i>Contra</i>—against; as, <i>contra-dict</i>, to speak against.</p> + +<p><i>De</i>—from, down; as, <i>de-duct</i>, to take from; <i>de-scend</i>, to go down.</p> + +<p><i>Di, dis</i>—asunder, away; as, <i>di-lacerate</i>, to tear asunder; +<i>dis-miss</i>, to send away.</p> + +<p><i>E, ef, ex</i>—out; as, <i>e-ject</i>, to throw out; <i>ef-flux</i>, to flow out; +<i>ex-clude</i>, to shut out.</p> + +<p><i>Extra</i>—beyond; as, <i>extra-ordinary</i>, beyond what is ordinary.</p> + +<p><i>In, im, il, ir</i>—(<i>in</i>, Gothic, <i>inna</i>, a cave or cell;) as, <i>in-fuse</i>, +to pour in. These prefixes, when incorporated with adjectives or nouns, +commonly reverse their meaning; as, <i>in-sufficient, im-polite, +il-legitimate, ir-reverence, ir-resolute</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Inter</i>—between; as, <i>inter-pose</i>, to put between.</p> + +<p><i>Intro</i>—within, into; <i>intro-vert</i>, to turn within; <i>intro-duce</i>, to +lead into.</p> + +<p><i>Ob, op</i>—denote opposition; as, <i>ob-ject</i>, to bring against; <i>op-pugn</i>, +to oppose.</p> + +<p><i>Per</i>—through, by; as, <i>per-ambulate</i>, to walk through; <i>per-haps</i>, by +haps.</p> + +<p><i>Post</i>—after; as, <i>post-script</i>, written after; <i>post-fix</i>, placed +after.</p> + +<p><i>Præ, pre</i>—before; as, <i>pre-fix</i>, to fix before.</p> + +<p><i>Pro</i>—for, forth, forward; as, <i>pro-noun</i>, for a noun; <i>pro-tend</i>, to +stretch forth; <i>pro-ject</i>, to shoot forward.</p> + +<p><i>Præter</i>—past, beyond; as, <i>preter-perfect</i>, pastperfect; +<i>preter-natural</i>, beyond the course of nature.</p> + +<p><i>Re</i>—again or back; as, <i>re-peruse</i>, to peruse again; <i>re-trade</i>, to +trade back.</p> + +<p><i>Retro—</i>backwards; as, <i>retro-spective</i>, looking backwards.</p> + +<p><i>Se</i>—aside, apart; as, <i>se-duce</i>, to draw aside.</p> + +<p><i>Sub</i>—under; as, <i>sub-scribe</i>, to write under, or <i>sub-sign</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Subter</i>—under; as, <i>subter-fluous</i>, flowing under.</p> + +<p><i>Super</i>—above or over; as, <i>super-scribe</i>, to write above; +<i>super-vise</i>, to overlook.</p> + +<p><i>Trans</i>—over, beyond, from one place to another; as, <i>trans-port</i>, to +carry over; <i>trans-gress</i>, to pass beyond.</p> + +<h5>II. GREEK PREFIXES.</h5> + +<p><i>A</i>—signifies privation; as, <i>anonymous</i>, without name.</p> + +<p><i>Amphi</i>—both or two; as, <i>amphi-bious</i>, partaking of both or two +natures,</p> + +<p><i>Anti</i>—against; as, <i>anti-masonry</i>, against masonry.</p> + +<p><i>Dia</i>—through; as, <i>dia-meter</i>, line passing through a circle.</p> + +<p><i>Hyper</i>—over; as, <i>hyper-critical</i>, over or too critical.</p> + +<p><i>Hypo</i>—under, implying concealment or disguise; as, <i>hypo-crite</i>, one +dissembling his real character.</p> + +<p><i>Meta—</i>denotes change or transmutation; as, <i>meta-morphose</i>, to change +the shape.</p> + +<p><i>Para</i>—contrary or against; as, <i>para-dox</i>, a thing contrary to +received opinion.</p> + +<p><i>Peri</i>—round about; as, <i>peri-phrasis</i>, circumlocution.</p> + +<p><i>Syn, syl, sym</i>—together; as, <i>syn-tax</i>, a placing together; <i>syn-od</i>, +a meeting or coming together; <i>syl-lable</i>, that portion of a word which +is taken together; <i>sym-pathy</i>, fellow-feeling, or feeling together.</p></div> + + + +<h3><a name="RULES_OF_SYNTAX"></a>RULES OF SYNTAX,</h3> + +<h4>WITH ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + + +<div class='bigtext'><p>The third part of Grammar is SYNTAX, which treats of the agreement and +government of words and of their proper arrangement in a sentence.</p> + +<p>SYNTAX consists of two parts, <i>Concord</i> and <i>Government</i>.</p> + +<p>CONCORD is the agreement which one word has with another, in gender, +person, number, or case.</p></div> + +<p>For the illustration of agreement and government, see pages 52, and 53.</p> + +<p>For the definition of a sentence, and the transposition of its words and +members, see pages 119, 124, 128, and 167.</p> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>The principal parts of a simple sentence are the <i>nominative</i> or +subject, the <i>verb</i> or attribute, or word that makes the affirmation, +and the <i>object</i>, or thing affected by the action of the verb; as, "A +wise <i>man governs</i> his <i>passions</i>." In this sentence, <i>man</i> is the +subject; <i>governs</i>, the attribute; and <i>passions</i> the object.</p> + +<p>A PHRASE is two or more words rightly put together, making sometimes a +part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence.</p> + +<p>ELLIPSIS is the omission of some word or words, in order to avoid +disagreeable and unnecessary repetitions, and to express our ideas +concisely, and with strength and elegance.</p></div> + +<p>In this recapitulation of the rules, Syntax is presented in a condensed +form, many of the essential NOTES being omitted. This is a necessary +consequence of my general plan, in which Etymology and Syntax, you know +are blended. Hence, to acquire a complete knowledge of Syntax from this +work, you must look over the whole.</p> + +<p>You may now proceed and parse the following additional exercises in +false Syntax; and, as you analyze, endeavor to correct all the errors +without looking at the Key. If, in correcting these examples, you should +be at a loss in assigning the reasons why the constructions are +erroneous, you can refer to the manner adopted in the foregoing pages.</p> + +<h4><b>RULE I.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>The article <i>a</i> or <i>an</i> agrees with nouns in the <i>singular</i> number only, +individually or collectively; as, "<i>A</i> star, <i>an</i> eagle, <i>a</i> score, <i>a</i> +thousand."</p></div> + +<h4><b>RULE II.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>The definite article <i>the</i> belongs to nouns in the <i>singular</i> or +<i>plural</i> number; as, "<i>The</i> star, <i>the</i> stars; <i>the</i> hat, <i>the</i> hats."</p> +</div> +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE 1. A nice distinction in the meaning is sometimes effected by +the use or omission of the article <i>a</i>. If I say, "He behaved with +<i>a</i> little reverence," my meaning is positive. But if I say, "He +behaved with little reverence," my meaning is negative. By the +former, I rather praise a person; by the latter, I dispraise him. +When I say, "There were few men with him," I speak diminutively, and +mean to represent them as inconsiderable; whereas, when I say, +"There were a few men with him," I evidently intend to make the most +of them.</p> + +<p>2. The indefinite article sometimes has the meaning of <i>every</i> or +<i>each</i>; as, "They cost five shillings <i>a</i> dozen;" that is, '<i>every</i> +dozen.'</p> + +<div class='poem'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">"A man he was to all the country dear,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">And passing rich with forty pounds <i>a</i> year!"</span></div> + +that is, '<i>every</i> year.' + +<p>3. When several adjectives are connected, and express the various +qualities of things individually different, though alike in name, +the article should be repeated; but when the qualities all belong to +the same thing or things, the article should not be repeated. "<i>A</i> +black and <i>a</i> white calf," signifies, A black <i>calf</i>, and a white +<i>calf</i>; but "<i>A</i> black and white calf," describes the two colors of +<i>one</i> calf.</p></div> + +<h4><b>RULE III.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>The nominative case governs the verb; as, "<i>I</i> learn, <i>thou</i> learnest, +<i>he</i> learns, <i>they</i> learn."</p></div> + +<h4><b>RULE IV.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person; as, "The +bird <i>sings</i>, the birds <i>sing</i>, thou <i>singest</i>."</p></div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE 1. Every verb, when it is not in the infinitive mood, must have +a nominative, expressed or implied; as, "Awake, arise;" that is, +Awake <i>ye</i>; arise <i>ye</i>.</p> + +2. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may be +considered as the subject of the affirmation, it must agree with +that which is more naturally its subject; as, "The wages of sin <i>is</i> +death; His meat <i>was</i> locusts and wild honey;" "His pavilion <i>were</i> +dark <i>waters</i> and thick <i>clouds</i>." +</div> +<a name="EXAMPLES_OF_FALSE_SYNTAX"></a> +<h4>EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>Frequent commission of sin harden men in it.</p> +<p>Great pains has been taken to reconcile the parties.</p> +<p>So much both of ability and merit, are seldom found.</p> +<p>The sincere is always esteemed.</p> +<p>Not one of them are happy.</p> +<p>What avails the best sentiments, if people do not live suitably to them?</p> +<p>Disappointments sinks the heart of man; but the renewal of hope give +consolation.</p> +<p>The variety of the productions of genius, like that of the operations of +nature; are without limit.</p> +<p>A variety of blessings have been conferred upon us.</p> +<p>Thou cannot heal him, it is true, but thou may do something to relieve +him.</p> +<p>In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man.</p> + +<div class='poem'><span style='margin-left: 2em;'>O thou, my voice inspire,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire.</span><br /> +</div> + + +<table><tr><td><i>Note</i> 1.</td> +<td><div class='poem'><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Will martial flames for ever fire thy mind,</span> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"> And never, never be to Heaven resigned?</span></div></td></tr></table> + + +<p>He was a man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and had great +abilities to manage the business.</p> + + +<table summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Note 2</i>.</td><td align='left'>The crown of virtue is peace and honor.</td></tr></table> + +<p>His chief occupation and enjoyment were controversy.</p> + +<a name="nominative_case_independent_iv"></a> +<h4><b>RULE V.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>When an address is made, the noun or pronoun addressed, is put in the +nominative case <i>independent</i>; as, "<i>Plato</i>, thou reasonest well;" "Do, +<i>Trim</i>, said my uncle Toby."</p></div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE 1. A noun is independent, when it has no verb to agree with it.</p> + +<p>2. Interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the +<i>first</i> person after them, but the nominative of a noun or pronoun +of the <i>second</i> or <i>third</i> person; as, "Ah! <i>me</i>; Oh! <i>thou</i>; O! +<i>virtue</i>."</p></div> + +<a name="nominative_case_absolute_ii"></a> +<h4><b>RULE VI.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and being independent of +the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case <i>absolute</i>; as, +"<i>Shame being lost</i>; all virtue is lost;" "The <i>sun being risen</i>, we +travelled on."</p></div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE. Every nominative case, except the case absolute and +independent, should belong to some verb expressed or understood; as, +"To whom thus <i>Adam</i>;" that is, <i>spoke</i>. +</p></div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<div class='poem'><span style='margin-left: 5em;'>Him Destroyed,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Or won to what may work his utter loss,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>All this will follow soon.</span><br /></div> + +<p><i>Note</i>.—Two substantives, when they come together, and do not +signify the same thing, the former must be in the genitive case.</p> + +<p>Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men are so constituted +as ultimately to acknowledge and respect genuine merit.</p> + +<a name="apposition_ii"></a> +<h4><b>RULE VII.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signifying the same thing, are +put, by apposition, in the same case; as, "<i>Paul</i>, the <i>apostle;</i>" +"<i>Joram</i>, the <i>king;</i>" "<i>Solomon</i>, the <i>son</i> of David, <i>king</i> of Israel, +wrote many proverbs."</p></div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence; as, +"The sheriff has just seized and sold his valuable library—<i>(which +was) a misfortune</i> that greatly depressed him."</p></div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<div class='poem'><span style='margin-left: 2em;'>We ought to love God, he who created and sustains all things.</span><br /></div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>The pronoun <i>he</i> in this sentence, is improperly used in the nominative +case. It is the object of the action of the transitive verb "love," and +put by apposition with "God;" therefore it should be the objective +case, <i>him</i>, according to Rule 7. (Repeat the Rule, and correct the +following.)</p></div> + +<p>I saw Juliet and her brother, they that you visited.</p> + +<p>They slew Varus, he that was mentioned before.</p> + +<p>It was John, him who preached repentance.</p> + +<p>Adams and Jefferson, them who died on the fourth of July 1826, were +both signers and the firm supporters of the Declaration of +Independence.</p> + +<p>Augustus the Roman emperor, him who succeeded Julius Cesar, is +variously described by historians.</p> + +<h4><b>RULE VIII.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the <i>singular</i> number, +connected by copulative conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and +pronouns, agreeing with them in the <i>plural</i>; as, "Socrates <i>and</i> Plato +<i>were</i> wise; <i>they</i> were eminent <i>philosophers</i>."</p></div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE 1. When <i>each</i> or <i>every</i> relates to two or more nominatives in +the singular, although connected by a copulative, the verb must +agree with each of them in the singular; as, "<i>Every</i> leaf, <i>and +every</i> twig, <i>and every</i> drop of water, <i>teems</i> with life."</p> + +<p>2. When the singular nominative of a complex sentence, has another +noun joined to it with a preposition, it is customary to put the +verb and pronoun agreeing with it in the singular; as, "Prosperity +with humility, <i>renders its</i> possessor truly amiable;" "The General, +also, in conjunction with the officers, <i>has</i> applied for redress."</p></div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>Coffee and sugar grows in the West Indies: it is exported in large +quantities.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>Two singular nouns coupled together, form a plural idea. The verb <i>grow</i> +is improper, because it expresses the action of both its nominatives, +"coffee and sugar," which two nominatives are connected by the +copulative conjunction, <i>and</i>; therefore the verb should be plural, +<i>grow</i>; and then it would agree with coffee <i>and</i> sugar, according to +Rule 8. (Repeat the Rule.) The pronoun <i>it</i>, as it represents both the +nouns, "coffee and sugar," ought also to be plural, <i>they</i>, agreeably to +Rule 8. The sentence should be written thus. "Coffee and sugar <i>grow</i> in +the West Indies: <i>they are</i> exported in large quantities."</p></div> + +<p>Time and tide waits for no man.</p> + +<p>Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains.</p> + +<p>Life and health is both uncertain.</p> + +<p>Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity.</p> + +<p>The planetary system, boundless space, and the immense ocean, +affects the mind with sensations of astonishment.</p> + +<p>What signifies the counsel and care of preceptors, when you think +you have no need of assistance?</p> + +<p>Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished.</p> + +<p>Why is whiteness and coldness in snow?</p> + +<p>Obey the commandment of thy father, and the law of thy mother; bind +it continually upon thy heart.</p> + +<p>Pride and vanity always render its possessor despicable in the eyes +of the judicious.</p> + +<p>There is error and discrepance in the schemes of the orthoepists, +which shows the impossibility of carrying them into effect.</p> + +<h4>EXAMPLES FOR THE NOTE.</h4> + +<p>Every man, woman, and child, were numbered.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>Not proper; for, although <i>and</i> couples things together so as to present +the whole at one view, yet <i>every</i> has a contrary effect: it distributes +them, and brings each separately and singly under consideration. <i>Were</i> +numbered is therefore improper. It should be, "<i>was</i> numbered," in the +singular, according to the Note. (Repeat it.)</p></div> + +<p>When benignity and gentleness reign in our breasts, every person and +every occurrence are beheld in the most favorable light. +</p> +<h4><b>RULE IX.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the <i>singular</i> number, +connected by disjunctive conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and +pronouns, agreeing with them in the <i>singular</i>; as, "Neither John <i>nor</i> +James <i>has</i> learned <i>his</i> lesson."</p></div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE 1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of different +persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree, in +person, with that which is placed nearest to it; as, "Thou <i>or</i> I +<i>am</i> in fault; I <i>or</i> thou <i>art</i> to blame; I, <i>or</i> thou, <i>or</i> he, +<i>is</i> the author of it." But it would be better to say "Either I am +to blame or thou art," &c.</p> + +<p>2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun or pronoun and +a plural one, the verb must agree with the plural noun or pronoun, +which should generally be placed next to the verb; as, "Neither +poverty <i>nor riches</i> were injurious to him;" "I <i>or</i> they were +offended by it."</p> + +<p>Constructions like these ought generally to be avoided.</p></div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>Ignorance or negligence have caused this mistake.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>The verb, <i>have</i> caused, in this sentence, is improperly used in the +plural, because it expresses the action, not of <i>both</i>, but of either +the one or the other of its nominatives; therefore it should be in the +singular, <i>has</i> caused; and then it would agree with "ignorance <i>or</i> +negligence," agreeably to Rule 9 (Repeat the Rule.)</p></div> + +<p>A circle or a square are the same in idea.</p> + +<p>Neither whiteness nor redness are in the porphyry.</p> + +<p>Neither of them are remarkable for precision.</p> + +<p>Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move merely +as they are moved.</p> + +<p>When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affect us, the +sincerity of friendship is proved.</p> + +<p>Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, put into his own +hands.</p> + +<p>Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of life, for +they may be thy own lot.</p> + +<p>The prince, as well as the people, were blameworthy.</p> + +<h4><b>RULE X.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>A collective noun or noun of multitude, conveying <i>unity</i> of idea, +generally has a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the <i>singular</i>; as, +"The <i>meeting was</i> large, and <i>it</i> held three hours."</p></div> + +<div class='smalltext'>NOTE. Rules 10, and 11, are limited in their application. See page. 59 +</div> +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>The nation are powerful.</p> + +<p>The fleet were seen sailing up the channel.</p> + +<p>The church have no power to inflict corporal punishment. The +flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects of the +shepherd's care.</p> + +<p>That nation was once powerful; but now they are feeble.</p> + +<h4><b>RULE XI.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>A noun of multitude, conveying <i>plurality</i> of idea, must have a verb or +pronoun agreeing with it in the <i>plural</i>; as, "The <i>council were</i> +divided in <i>their</i> sentiments."</p></div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>My people doth not consider.</p> + +<p>The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure as its chief good.</p> + +<p>The committee was divided in its sentiments, and it has referred the +business to the general meeting.</p> + +<p>The people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow.</p> + +<h4><b>RULE XII.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the noun it +possesses; as, "<i>Man's</i> happiness;" "<i>Its</i> value is great."</p> +</div> +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE 1. When the possessor is described by a circumlocution, the +possessive sign should generally be applied to the last term only; +as, "The <i>duke of Bridgewater's</i> canal; The <i>bishop of Landaff's</i> +excellent book; The <i>captain of the guard's</i> house." This usage, +however, ought generally to be avoided. The words do not literally +convey the ideas intended. What nonsense to say, "This is <i>the</i> +<i>governor of Ohio's</i> house!"</p> + +<p>2. When nouns in the possessive case are in apposition, and follow +each other in quick succession, the possessive sign is generally +annexed to the last only; as, "For <i>David</i> my <i>servant's</i> sake; +<i>John</i> the <i>Baptist's</i> head; The canal was built in consequence of +<i>De Witt Clinton</i> the <i>governor's</i> advice."</p> + +<p>But when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed, +the sign should be applied to the first possessive only, and +understood to the rest; as, "I reside at Lord <i>Stormont's</i>, my old +<i>patron</i> and <i>benefactor</i>."</p> + +<p>3. <i>Its</i>, the possessive case of <i>it</i>, is often improperly used for +<i>'tis</i>, or, <i>it is</i>; as, "<i>Its</i> my book: <i>Its</i> his," &c.; instead +of, <i>"It is</i> my book; or, <i>'Tis</i> my book; <i>It is</i> his; or, <i>'Tis</i> +his."</p> + +<p>4. Participles frequently govern nouns and pronouns in the +possessive case, as, "In case of his <i>majesty's dying</i> without +issue, &c.; Upon <i>God's having ended</i> all his works, &c.; I remember +<i>its being reckoned</i> a great exploit; At <i>my coming</i> in he said," +&c. But in such instances, the participle with its adjuncts may be +considered a substantive phrase, according to Note 2, Rule 28.</p> + +<p>5. Phrases like these, "A work of <i>Washington Irving's</i>; A brother +of <i>Joseph's</i>; A friend of <i>mine</i>; A neighbor of <i>yours</i>," do not, +as some have supposed, each contain a double possessive, or two +possessive cases, but they may be thus construed; "A work of (<i>out +of</i>, or, <i>among the number of) Washington Irving's works</i>; that is, +One of the works of <i>Washington Irving</i>; One of the brothers <i>of +Joseph</i>; One friend <i>of my friends</i>; One neighbor of <i>your +neighbors</i>."</p></div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>Homers works are much admired.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, Asa his heart was not perfect with the Lord.</p> + +<p>James Hart, his book, bought August the 19, 1829.</p> + +<p><i>Note</i> 1. It was the men's, women's, and children's lot to suffer +great calamities.</p> + +<p>This is Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation.</p> + +<p><i>Note</i> 2. This is Campbell's the poet's production.</p> + +<p>The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's and haberdasher's.</p> + +<p><i>Note</i> 4. Much will depend on the pupil composing frequently.</p> + +<p>Much depends on this rule being observed.</p> + +<p>The measure failed in consequence of the president neglecting to lay +it before the council.</p> + +<h4><b>RULE XIII.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in +<i>gender</i> and <i>number</i>; as, "<i>John</i> writes, and <i>he</i> will soon write +well."</p></div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE. You, though frequently employed to represent a singular noun, +is always <i>plural in form</i>; therefore the verb connected with it +should be plural; as, "My friend, you <i>were</i> mistaken." See pages 99 +and 100.</p></div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX</h4> + +<p>Every man will be rewarded according to their works.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>Incorrect, because the pronoun <i>their</i> does not agree in gender or +number with the noun "man," for which it stands; consequently Rule 13, +is violated. <i>Their</i> should be <i>his</i>; and then the pronoun would be of +the masculine gender, singular number, agreeing with <i>man</i>, according to +Rule 13. (Repeat the Rule.)</p></div> + +<p>An orator's tongue should be agreeable to the ear of their audience.</p> + +<p>Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob.</p> + +<p>Take handfuls of ashes, and let Moses sprinkle it towards heaven, in +the sight of Pharaoh, and it shall become small dust.</p> + +<p>No one should incur censure for being tender of their reputation.</p> + +<p><i>Note</i>. Horace, you was blamed; and I think you was worthy of +censure.</p> + +<p>Witness, where was you standing during the transaction? How far was +you from the defendant?</p> + + +<h4><b>RULE XIV.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents, in <i>gender</i>, <i>person</i>, +and <i>number</i>; as, "Thou <i>who lovest</i> wisdom;" "I <i>who speak</i> from +experience."</p></div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE. When a relative pronoun is preceded by two antecedents of +different persons, the relative and the verb may agree in person +with either, but not without regard to the sense; as, "I am the man +<i>who command</i> you;" or, "I am the man <i>who commands</i> you." The +meaning of the first of these examples will more obviously appear, +if we render it thus: "I who command you, am the <i>man</i>."</p> + +<p>When the agreement of the relative has been fixed with either of the +preceding antecedents, it must be preserved throughout the sentence; +as, "I am the <i>Lord, that maketh</i> all things; <i>that stretcheth</i> +forth the heavens alone; <i>that spreadeth</i> abroad the earth by +myself," &c.</p></div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>Thou who has been a witness of the fact, canst state it.</p> + +<p>The wheel killed another man, which make the sixth which have lost +their lives by this means.</p> + +<p>Thou great First Cause, least understood!</p> + +<p>Who all my sense confined.</p> + +<p><i>Note, 2d part</i>. Thou art the Lord, who didst choose Abraham, and +brought him forth out of Ur of the Chaldees.</p> + +<h4><b>RULE XV.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominative +comes between it and the verb; as, "The master <i>who</i> taught us, was +eminent."</p></div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>If he will not hear his best friend, whom shall be sent to admonish +him.</p> + +<p>This is the man whom, he informed me, was my benefactor.</p> + +<h4><b>RULE XVI.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative +is governed by the following verb, or by some other word in its own +member of the sentence; as, "He <i>whom</i> I <i>serve</i>, is eternal."</p></div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE 1. <i>Who, which, what</i>, the relative <i>that</i>, and their +compounds, <i>whomever, whomsoever</i>, &c., though in the objective +case, are always placed before the verb; as, "He <i>whom</i> ye <i>seek</i>, +has gone hence."</p> + +<p>2. Every relative must have an antecedent to which it relates, +either expressed or implied; as, "<i>Who</i> steals my purse, steals +trash;" that is, <i>he</i> who.</p> + +<p>3. The pronouns <i>whichsoever, whatsoever</i>, and the like, are +sometimes elegantly divided by the interposition of the +corresponding nouns; as, "On <i>which</i> side <i>soever</i> the <i>king</i> cast +his eyes," &c.</p> + +<p>4. The pronoun <i>what</i> is sometimes improperly used instead of the +conjunction <i>that;</i> as, "He would not believe but <i>what</i> I was in +fault." It should be "but <i>that</i>," &c.</p></div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>That is the friend who I sincerely esteem.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>Not proper, because <i>who</i>, which is the object of the action expressed +by the transitive verb "esteem," is in the nominative case. It ought to +be <i>whom</i>, in the objective; and then it would be governed by esteem, +according to Rule 16. (Repeat the Rule:)—and, also, according to Rule +20. "That is the friend <i>whom</i> I sincerely esteem."</p></div> + +<p>They who much is given to, will have much to answer for.</p> + +<p>From the character of those who you associate with, your own will be +estimated.</p> + +<p>He is a man who I greatly respect.</p> + +<p>Our benefactors and tutors are the persons who we ought to love, and +who we ought to be grateful to.</p> + +<p>They who conscience and virtue support, may smile at the caprices of +fortune.</p> + +<p>Who did you walk with?</p> + +<p>Who did you see there?</p> + +<p>Who did you give the book to?</p> + +<h4><b>RULE XVII.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>When a relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, it refers to the +word or phrase containing the answer to the question for its +<i>subsequent</i>, which subsequent must agree in <i>case</i> with the +interrogative; as, "<i>Whose</i> book is that? <i>Joseph's;" "Who</i> gave you +this? <i>John</i>."</p></div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE. Whether the interrogative <i>really refers</i> to a subsequent or +not, is doubtful; but it is certain that the subsequent should agree +in case with the interrogative.</p></div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>Who gave John those books? Us. Of whom did you buy them? Of a +bookseller, he who lives in Pearl street.</p> + +<p>Who walked with you? My brother and him.</p> + +<p>Who will accompany me to the country? Her and me.</p> + +<h4><b>RULE XVIII.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>Adjectives belong to, and qualify nouns, expressed or understood; as, +"He is a <i>good</i>, as well as a <i>wise</i> man."</p></div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE 1. Adjectives frequently belong to pronouns; as, "I am +<i>miserable; He</i> is <i>industrious</i>."</p> + +<p>2. Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns must agree in +number with their adjectives, when of the <i>cardinal</i> kind; as, "Ten +<i>feet</i>; Eighty <i>fathoms</i>." But some anomalous and figurative +expressions form an exception to this rule; as, "A fleet of <i>forty</i> +<i>sail;" "Two hundred head of cattle</i>."</p> + +<p>3. Adjectives sometimes belong to verbs in the infinitive mood, or +to a part of a sentence; as, "<i>To see</i> is <i>pleasant</i>; To be blind is +<i>unfortunate</i>; To die for our country is <i>glorious</i>."</p> + +<p>4. Adjectives are often used to modify the sense of other +adjectives, or the action of verbs, and to express the quality of +things in connexion with the action by which that quality is +produced; as, "<i>Red hot</i> iron; <i>Pale blue</i> lining; <i>Deep sea-green</i> +sash; The apples boil <i>soft</i>; Open your hand <i>wide</i>; The clay burns +<i>white</i>; The fire burns <i>blue</i>; The eggs boil <i>hard</i>."</p> + +<p>5. When an adjective is preceded by a preposition, and the noun is +understood, the two words may be considered an adverbial phrase; as, +"In general, in particular;" that is, generally, particularly.</p> + +<p>6. Adjectives should be placed next to the nouns which they qualify; +as, "A tract of <i>good</i> land."</p> + +<p>7. We should generally avoid comparing such adjectives as do not +literally admit of comparison; such as, <i>more impossible, most</i> +<i>impossible; more unconquerable, more perfect</i>, &c. See REMARKS on +adjectives, page 76.</p> + +<p>8. When an adjective or an adverb is used in comparing two objects, +it should be in the comparative degree; but when more than two are +compared, the superlative ought to be employed; as, "Julia is the +<i>taller</i> of the two; Her specimen is the <i>best</i> of the three."</p> +</div> +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p><i>Note</i> 2. The boat carries thirty tun.</p> + +<p>The chasm was twenty foot broad, and one hundred fathom in depth.</p> + +<p><i>Note</i> 6. He bought a new pair of shoes, and an elegant piece of +furniture.</p> + +<p>My cousin gave his fine pair of horses for a poor tract of land.</p> + +<p><i>Note</i> 7. The contradictions of impiety are still more +incomprehensible.</p> + +<p>It is the most uncertain way that can be devised.</p> + +<p>This is a more perfect model than I ever saw before.</p> + +<p><i>Note</i> 8. Which of those two cords is the strongest?</p> + +<p>I was at a loss to determine which was the wiser of the three.</p> + +<h4><b>RULE XIX.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>Adjective pronouns belong to nouns, expressed or understood; as, "<i>Any</i> +man, <i>all</i> men."</p></div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE 1. The demonstrative adjective pronouns must agree in number +with their nouns; as, "<i>This</i> book, <i>these</i> books; <i>that</i> sort, +<i>those</i> sorts."</p> + +<p>2. The pronominal adjectives, <i>each, every, either, neither, +another</i>, and <i>one</i>, agree with nouns in the singular number only; +as, "<i>Each</i> man, <i>every</i> person, <i>another</i> lesson;" unless the +plural nouns convey a collective idea: as, "<i>Every</i> six months."</p> + +<p>3. <i>Either</i> is often improperly employed instead of <i>each;</i> as, "The +king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat <i>either</i> of +them on his throne." <i>Each</i> signifies <i>both</i> taken separately; +<i>either</i> implies only <i>the one</i> or <i>the other</i> taken +disjunctively:—"sat <i>each</i> on <i>his</i> throne."</p> +</div> +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p><i>Note</i> 1. Those sort of favors do real injury.</p> + +<p>They have been playing this two hours.</p> + +<p>These kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind. He saw one +or more persons enter the garden.</p> + +<p><i>Note</i> 2. Let each esteem others better than themselves.</p> + +<p>There are bodies, each of which are so small as to be invisible.</p> + +<p>Every person, whatever their station may be, are bound by the laws +of morality and religion.</p> + +<p><i>Note</i> 3. On either side of the river was the tree of life.</p> + +<p>Nadab and Abihu took either of them his censer.</p> + +<h4><b>RULE XX.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case; as, "Cesar conquered +<i>Pompey</i>;" "Columbus discovered <i>America</i>;" "Truth ennobles <i>her</i>."</p> +</div> +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>Ye who were dead, hath he quickened.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p><i>Ye</i>, in the nominative case, is erroneous, because it is the object of +the action expressed by the transitive verb "hath quickened;" and +therefore it should be <i>you</i>, in the objective case. <i>You</i> would then be +governed by "hath quickened," agreeably, to Rule 20. <i>Active-transitive +verbs govern the objective case</i>.</p></div> + +<p>Who did they entertain so freely?</p> + +<p>They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has corrupted, +cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature.</p> + +<p>He and they we know, but who are ye?</p> + +<p>She that is negligent, reprove sharply.</p> + +<p>He invited my brother and I to pay him a visit.</p> + +<p>Who did they send on that mission?</p> + +<p>They who he has most injured, he had the greatest reason to love.</p> + +<a name="to_be"></a> +<h4><b>RULE XXI</b>.</h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>The verb <i>to be</i> may have the same case after it as before it; as, "<i>I</i> +am the <i>man</i>;" "I believe <i>it</i> to have been <i>them;</i>" "<i>He</i> is the +<i>thief</i>."</p></div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE 1. When nouns or pronouns next preceding and following the verb +<i>to be</i>, signify the <i>same thing</i>, they are <i>in apposition</i>, and, +therefore, in the <i>same case</i>. Rule 21 is predicated on the +principle contained in Rule 7.</p> + +<p>2. The verb <i>to be</i> is often understood; as, "The Lord made <i>me +man</i>; He made <i>him what</i> he was;" that is, "The Lord made me <i>to be</i> +man; He made him <i>to be that which</i> he was." "They desired me to +call <i>them brethren</i>;" i.e. <i>by the name of</i> brethren. "They named +<i>him John</i>;" i.e. <i>by the name of</i> John; or, by the <i>name</i> John; +putting these two nouns in <i>apposition</i>.</p></div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>I know it to be they.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>Improper, because <i>it</i> is in the objective case before the verb "to be," +and <i>they</i> is in the nominative after; consequently, Rule 21 is +violated. <i>They</i> is in apposition with <i>it</i>, therefore <i>they</i> should be +<i>them</i>, in the objective after to be, according to Rule 21. (Repeat the +Rule.)</p></div> + +<p>Be composed, it is me.</p> + +<p>I would not act thus, if I were him.</p> + +<p>Well may you be afraid; it is him, indeed.</p> + +<p>Who do you fancy him to to be?</p> + +<p>Whom do men say that I am? Whom say ye that I am?</p> + +<p>If it was not him, who do you imagine it to have been?</p> + +<p>He supposed it was me; but you knew that it was him.</p> + +<h4><b>RULE XXII.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'>Active-intransitive and passive verbs, the verb <i>to become</i>, and other +neuter verbs, have the same case after them as before them, when both +words refer to, and signify, the same thing; as, "<i>Tom</i> struts a +<i>soldier</i>;" "<i>Will</i> sneaks a <i>scrivener</i>;" "<i>He</i> was called <i>Cesar</i>;" +"The <i>general</i> was saluted <i>emperor</i>;" "<i>They</i> have become <i>fools</i>."</div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE 1. Active-intransitive verbs sometimes assume a transitive +form, and govern the objective case; as, "<i>To dream</i> a <i>dream; To +run</i> a <i>race; To walk</i> the <i>horse; To dance</i> the <i>child; To fly</i> the +<i>kite</i>."</p> + +<p>2. According to a usage too common in colloquial style, an agent not +literally the correct one, is employed as the nominative to a +passive verb, which causes the verb to be followed by an <i>objective</i> +case without the possibility of supplying before it a preposition: +thus, "<i>Pitticus</i> was offered a large <i>sum</i> by the king;" "<i>She</i> was +promised <i>them</i> (the <i>jewels</i>) by her mother;" "<i>I</i> was asked a +<i>question</i>." It would be better sense, and more agreeable to the +idiom of our language, to say, "A large <i>sum</i> was offered <i>to +Pitticus</i>;" "<i>They</i> were promised <i>(to) her</i>;" "A <i>question</i> was put +<i>to me</i>."</p> + +<a name="compound_ii"></a> +<p>3. Some passive verbs are formed by using the participles of +compound active verbs. To <i>smile</i>, to <i>wonder</i>, to <i>dream</i>, are +intransitive verbs, for which reason they have no passive voice; +but, to <i>smile on</i>, to <i>wonder at</i>, to <i>dream of</i>, are compound +active-transitive verbs, and, therefore, admit of a passive voice; +as, "He <i>was smiled on</i> by fortune; The accident is not <i>to be +wondered at</i>;"</p></div> + +<div class='poem'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">"There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"Than <i>are dreamed of</i> in your philosophy."</span><br /></div> + +<h4><b>RULE XXIII.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>A verb in the infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun, +adjective, participle, or pronoun; as, "<i>Cease</i> to do evil;" "We all +have our <i>talent</i> to be improved;" "She is <i>eager</i> to learn;" "They are +<i>preparing</i> to go;" "Let <i>him</i> do it."</p></div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>ILLUSTRATION. The supposed principle of <i>government</i> referred to in this +rule, may be thus illustrated. In the sentence, "Cease to do evil," the +peculiar manner in which <i>cease</i> is introduced, <i>requires</i> or <i>compels</i> +us to put the verb <i>do</i> in the infinitive mood; and, according to the +genius of our language, we cannot express this act of doing, when thus +connected with <i>cease</i>, in any other mood, unless we change the +construction of the sentence. Hence we say, that <i>cease</i> governs the +mood of the verb <i>do</i>. Similar remarks may be applied to the words +<i>talent</i>, <i>eager</i>, <i>preparing</i>, and <i>him</i>, in the respective examples +under the rule.</p> + +<p>Many respectable grammarians refer the government of this mood +invariably to the preposition <i>to</i> prefixed, which word they do not, of +course, consider a part of the verb. Others contend, and with some +plausibility, that this mood is not governed by any particular word. If +we reject the idea of government, as applied to the verb in this mood, +the following rule, if substituted for the foregoing, might, perhaps, +answer all practical purposes.</p></div> + +<h4><b>RULE.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'>A verb in the infinitive mood, refers to some noun or pronoun, as its +subject or actor.</div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>ILLUSTRATION of the examples under Rule XXIII. "To do" refers to <i>thou</i> +understood for its agent; "to be improved" refers to <i>talent</i>; "to +learn," to <i>she</i>; "to go," to <i>they</i>; and "to do," refers to <i>him</i>.</p> + +<p>NOTE 1. The infinitive mood absolute stands independent of the rest +of the sentence; as, "<i>To confess</i> the truth, I was in fault."</p> + +<p>2. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by conjunctions or +adverbs; as, "An object so high <i>as to be</i> invisible;" "He is wise +<i>enough to deceive</i>;" "The army is <i>about to march</i>."</p></div> + +<h4><b>RULE XXIV.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'>The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is frequently put as the +nominative case to a verb, or the object of an active-transitive verb; +as, "<i>To play</i> is pleasant;" "Boys love <i>to play</i>;" "<i>That warm climates +shorten life</i>, is reasonable to suppose;" "He does not consider <i>how +near he approaches to his end</i>."</div> + +<div class='smalltext'>NOTE. <i>To</i>, the sign of the infinitive mood, is sometimes properly +omitted; as, "I heard him <i>say</i> it;" instead of, "to <i>say</i> it."</div> + +<h4><b>RULE XXV.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'>The verbs which follow <i>bid</i>, <i>dare</i>, <i>need</i>, <i>make</i>, <i>see</i>, <i>hear</i>, +<i>feel</i>, <i>help</i>, <i>let</i>, and their participles, are in the infinitive mood +without the sign <i>to</i> prefixed; as, "He bids me <i>come</i>;" "I dare +<i>engage</i>;" "Let me <i>go</i>;" "Help me <i>do it</i>;" i.e. <i>to come</i>, <i>to go</i>, +<i>to do</i> it, &c. "He is <i>hearing</i> me <i>recite</i>."</div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>Bid him to come.</p> + +<p>He durst not to do it without permission.</p> + +<p>Hear him to read his lesson.</p> + +<p>It is the difference in their conduct, which makes us to approve the +one, and to reject the other.</p> + +<p>It is better live on a little, than outlive a great deal.</p> + +<p>I wish him not wrestle with his happiness.</p> + +<h4><b>RULE XXVI.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>Participles have the same government as the verbs have from which they +are derived; as, "I saw the tutor <i>instructing</i> his <i>pupils</i>."</p></div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE. The present participle with the definite article <i>the</i> before +it, becomes a noun, and must have the preposition <i>of</i> after it. +<i>The</i> and <i>of</i> must both be used, or both be omitted; as, "By <i>the</i> +observing <i>of</i> truth, you will command respect;" or, "By observing +truth," &c.</p></div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p><i>Note</i>. We cannot be wise and good without the taking pains for it.</p> + +<p>The changing times and seasons, the removing and setting up kings, +belong to Providence alone.</p> + +<p>These are the rules of grammar, by observing of which you may avoid +mistakes.</p> + +<h4><b>RULE XXVII.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'>The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun denoting the +subject or actor; as, "I see a <i>boy running</i>."</div> + +<h4><b>RULE XXVIII.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'>The perfect participle belongs, like an adjective, to some noun or +pronoun, expressed or understood; as, "I saw the boy <i>abused</i>."</div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE 1. Participles of neuter verbs have the same case after them as +before them; as, "<i>Pontius Pilate</i> being <i>Governor</i> of Judea, and +<i>Herod</i> being <i>Tetrarch</i>," &c.</p> + +<p>2. A participle with its adjuncts, may sometimes be considered as a +substantive or participial phrase, which phrase may be the subject +of a verb, or the object of a verb or preposition; as, "<i>Taking from</i> +<i>another without his knowledge or assent</i>, is called stealing; He +studied to avoid <i>expressing himself too severely</i>; I cannot fail of +<i>having money</i>, &c.; By <i>promising much and performing but little</i>, +we become despicable."</p> + +<p>3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense of irregular +verbs, are sometimes different in their form, care must be taken +that they be not indiscriminately used. It is frequently said, 'He +begun,' for 'he began;' 'He run,' for 'he ran;' 'He come,' for 'he +came;' the participles being here used instead of the imperfect +tense; and much more frequently is the imperfect tense employed +instead of the participle; as, 'I had wrote,' for 'I had written;' +'I was chose,' for 'I was chosen;' 'I have eat,' for 'I have eaten.' +'He would have spoke;'—<i>spoken</i>. 'He overrun his +guide;'—<i>overran</i>. 'The sun had rose;'—<i>risen</i>.</p></div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>I seen him. I have saw many a one.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p><i>Seen</i> is improper, the perfect participle being used instead of the +imperfect tense of the verb. It ought to be, "I <i>saw</i> him," according to +Note 3, <i>Have saw</i> is also erroneous, the imperfect tense being employed +instead of the perfect participle. The perfect tense of a verb is formed +by combining the auxiliary <i>have</i> with its perfect participle: therefore +the sentence should be written thus, "I have <i>seen</i> many a one:" Note 3.</p></div> + +<p><i>Note</i> 3. He done me no harm, for I had wrote my letter before he +come home.</p> + +<p>Had not that misfortune befel my cousin, he would have went to +Europe long ago.</p> + +<p>The sun had already arose, when I began my journey.</p> + +<p>Since the work is began, it must be prosecuted.</p> + +<p>The French language is spoke in every state in Europe.</p> + +<p>He writes as the best authors would have wrote, had they writ on the +same subject.</p> + +<h4><b>RULE XXIX.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs; as, +"A <i>very good</i> pen <i>writes extremely well</i>;" "By <i>living temperately</i>," +&c.</p></div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE 1. Adverbs are generally set before adjectives or adverbs, +after verbs, or between the auxiliary and the verb; as, "He made a +<i>very sensible</i> discourse, and was <i>attentively</i> heard."</p> + +<p>2. When the qualifying word which follows a verb, expresses +<i>quality</i>, it must be an adjective, but when it expresses <i>manner</i>, +an adverb should be used; as, "She looks <i>cold;</i> She looks <i>coldly</i> +on him; He feels <i>warm;</i> He feels <i>warmly</i> the insult offered to +him." If the verb <i>to be</i> can be substituted for the one employed, +an adjective should follow, and not an adverb; as, "She looks <i>[is] +cold</i>; The hay smells <i>[is] sweet</i>; The fields look <i>[are] green</i>; +The apples taste <i>[are] sour</i>; The wind blows <i>[is] fresh</i>."</p> + +<p>3. It is not strictly proper to apply the adverbs <i>here, there</i>, and +<i>where</i>, to verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs <i>hither, +thither, whither</i>; thus, "He came <i>here [hither]</i> hastily;" "They +rode <i>there [thither]</i> in two hours;" "<i>Where [whither]</i> will he +go?" But in familiar style, these constructions are so far +sanctioned as sometimes to be admissible.</p> + +<p>4. The use of <i>where</i>, instead of <i>in which</i>, in constructions like +the following, is hardly admissible: "The immortal sages of '76, +formed a charter, <i>where [in which]</i> their rights are boldly +<i>asserted."</i></p> + +<p>5. As the adverbs <i>hence, thence</i>, and <i>whence</i>, literally supply +the place of a noun and preposition, there appears to be a solecism +in employing a preposition in conjunction with them: "<i>From whence</i> +it follows;" "He came <i>from thence</i> since morning." Better, +"<i>whence</i> it follows;" "He came <i>thence</i>." The following phrases are +also exceptionable: "The <i>then</i> ministry;" "The <i>above</i> argument;" +"Ask me <i>never</i> so much dowry;" "Charm he <i>never</i> so wisely." +Better, "The ministry <i>of that time</i> or <i>period</i>;" "The <i>preceding</i> +argument;" "<i>Ever</i> so much dowry;" "<i>Ever</i> so wisely."</p></div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p><i>Note</i> 1. It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore to +remonstrate.</p> + +<p>He was pleasing not often, because he was vain.</p> + +<p>These things should be never separated.</p> + +<p>We may happily live, though our possessions are small.</p> + +<h4><b>RULE XXX.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>Two negatives destroy one another, and are generally equivalent to an +affirmative; as, "Such things are <i>not un</i>common;" i.e. they are common.</p></div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE. When one of the two negatives employed is joined to another +word, it forms a pleasing and delicate variety of expression; as, +"His language, though inelegant, is <i>not un</i>grammatical;" that is, +it is grammatical.</p> + +<p>But, as two negatives, by destroying each other, are equivalent to +an affirmative, they should not be used when we wish to convey a +<i>negative</i> meaning. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate: +"I can<i>not</i> by <i>no</i> means allow him what his argument must prove." +It should be, "I cannot by <i>any</i> means," &c., or, "I <i>can</i> by <i>no</i> +means."</p> +</div> +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p><i>Note, 2d part</i>. I don't know nothing about it.</p> + +<p>I did not see nobody there. Nothing never affects her.</p> + +<p>Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise.</p> + +<p>There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity.</p> + +<p>Precept nor discipline is not so forcible as example.</p> + + +<h4><b>RULE XXXI.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'>Prepositions govern the objective case; as, "He went <i>from</i> Utica <i>to</i> +Rome, and then passed <i>through</i> Redfield."</div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>Each is accountable for hisself.</p> + +<p>They settled it among theirselves.</p> + +<p>It is not I who he is displeased with.</p> + +<p>Who did you go with?</p> + +<p>Who did you receive instruction from?</p> + + +<h4><b>RULE XXXII.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p><i>Home</i>, and nouns signifying <i>distance</i>, time <i>when</i>, <i>how long</i>, &c. +are generally governed by a preposition <i>understood</i>; as, "The horse ran +a mile;" "He came <i>home</i> last June;" "My friend lived four <i>years</i> at +college;" that is, ran <i>through the space of</i> a mile; or, ran <i>over a +space called</i> a mile; <i>to</i> his home <i>in</i> last June; <i>during</i> four years, +&c.</p></div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE 1. The prepositions <i>to</i> and <i>for</i> are often understood, +chiefly before the pronouns; as, "Give [to] <i>me</i> a book; Get [for] +<i>him</i> some paper."</p> + +<p>2. <i>To</i> or <i>unto</i>, is, by some, supposed to be understood after +<i>like</i> and <i>unlike</i>; as, "He is <i>like</i> [unto] his brother; She is +<i>unlike</i> [to] him." Others consider this mode of expression an idiom +of the language, and maintain that <i>like</i> governs the objective +following it.</p> + +<p>3. Nouns signifying extension, duration, quantity, quality, or +value, are used without a governing word; as, "The Ohio is one +thousand <i>miles</i> long; She is ten <i>years</i> old; My hat is worth ten +<i>dollars</i>." These are sometimes considered anomalies. See page 163.</p></div> + + +<h4><b>RULE XXXIII.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case; as, "The +master taught <i>her</i> and <i>me</i> to write;" "<i>He</i> and <i>she</i> are associates."</p></div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>My brother and him are grammarians.</p> + +<p>You and me enjoy great privileges.</p> + +<p>Him and I went to the city in company; but John and him returned +without me.</p> + +<p>Between you and I there is a great disparity of years.</p> + + +<h4><b>RULE XXXIV.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>Conjunctions generally connect verbs of like moods and tenses; as, "If +thou sincerely <i>desire, and</i> earnestly <i>pursue</i> virtue, she <i>will</i> +assuredly <i>be found</i> by thee, <i>and prove</i> a rich reward."</p></div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE 1. When different moods and tenses are connected by +conjunctions, the nominative must be repeated; as, "He <i>may return</i>, +but <i>he will</i> not <i>tarry</i>."</p> + +<p>2. Conjunctions implying contingency or doubt, require the +subjunctive mood after them; as, "<i>If</i> he <i>study</i>, he will improve." +See pages 135, 145, and 155.</p> + +<p>3. The conjunctions <i>if</i>, <i>though</i>, <i>unless</i>, <i>except</i>, <i>whether</i>, +and <i>lest</i>, generally require the subjunctive mood after them.</p> + +<p>4. Conjunctions of a positive and absolute nature, implying no +doubt, require the indicative mood; as, "<i>As</i> virtue <i>advances, so</i> +vice <i>recedes</i>."</p></div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive him?</p> + +<p>Professing regard, and to act differently, discovers a base mind.</p> + +<p><i>Note</i> 1. He has gone home, but may return.</p> + +<p>The attorney executed the deed, but will write no more.</p> + +<p><i>Note</i> 2. I shall walk to-day, unless it rains.</p> + +<p>If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind.</p> + + +<h4><b>RULE XXXV.</b></h4> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>A noun or pronoun following the conjunction <i>than</i>, <i>as</i>, or <i>but</i>, is +nominative to a verb, or governed by a verb or preposition, expressed or +understood; as, "Thou art wiser <i>than</i> I [<i>am</i>."] "I saw nobody <i>but</i> +[<i>I saw</i>] him."</p></div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE 1. The conjunction <i>as</i>, when it is connected with <i>such</i>, +<i>many</i>, or <i>same</i>, is sometimes, though erroneously, called a +<i>relative pronoun</i>; as, "Let <i>such</i> as presume to advise others," +&c.; that is, Let <i>them who</i>, &c. See page 116.</p> + +<p>2. An ellipsis, or omission of some words, is frequently admitted, +which must be supplied in the mind in order to parse grammatically; +as "Wo is me;" that is, <i>to</i> me; "To sleep all night;" i.e. +<i>through</i> all <i>the</i> night; "He has gone a journey;" i.e. <i>on</i> a +journey; "They walked a league;" i.e. <i>over a space called</i> a +league.</p> + +<p>3. When the omission of words would obscure the sense, or weaken its +force, they must be expressed.</p> + +<p>4. In the use of prepositions, and words that relate to each other, +we should pay particular regard to the meaning of the words or +sentences which they connect: all the parts of a sentence should +correspond to each other, and a regular and clear construction +throughout should be carefully preserved.</p></div> + +<h4>FALSE SYNTAX.</h4> + +<p>They are much greater gainers than me.</p> + +<p>They know how to write as well as him; but he is a better grammarian +than them.</p> + +<p>They were all well but him.</p> + +<p>None were rewarded but him and me.</p> + +<p>Jesus sought none but they who had gone astray.</p> + +<a name="TENSES_ii"></a> +<h4>REMARKS ON THE TENSES.</h4> + +<p>1. In the use of verbs, and other words and phrases which, <i>in point of +time</i>, relate to each other, a due regard to that relation should be +observed.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>Instead of saying, "The Lord <i>hath given</i>, and the Lord <i>hath taken</i> +away;" we should say, "The Lord <i>gave</i>, and the Lord <i>hath taken</i> away." +Instead of, "I <i>remember</i> the family more than twenty years;" it should +be, "I <i>have remembered</i> the family more than twenty years."</p></div> + +<p>2. The best rule that can be given for the management of the tenses, and +of words and phrases which, in point of time, relate to each other, is +this very general one; <i>Observe what the sense necessarily requires</i>.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>To say, "I <i>have</i> visited Washington last summer; I <i>have seen</i> the work +more than a month ago," is not good <i>sense</i>. The constructions should +be, "I <i>visited</i> Washington, &c.; I <i>saw</i> the work, &c." "This mode of +expression <i>has been</i> formerly much admired:"—"<i>was</i> formerly much +admired." "If I <i>had have</i> been there;" "If I <i>had have</i> seen him;" +"<i>Had</i> you <i>have</i> known him," are solecisms too gross to need +correction. We can say, I <i>have</i> been, I <i>had</i> been; but what sort of a +tense is, <i>had have been</i>? To place <i>had</i> before the <i>defective</i> verb +ought, is an error equally gross and illiterate:—"<i>had</i> ought, <i>hadn't</i> +ought." This is as low a vulgarism as the use of <i>theirn</i>, <i>hern</i>, and +<i>hizzen</i>, <i>tother</i>, <i>furder</i>, <i>baynt</i>, <i>this ere</i>, I <i>seed</i> it, I +<i>tell'd</i> him.</p></div> + +<p>3. When we refer to a past action or event, and no part of that time in +which it took place; remains, the <i>imperfect</i> tense should be used; but +if there is still remaining some portion of the time in which we declare +that the thing has been done, the <i>perfect</i> tense should be employed.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>Thus, we say, "Philosophers <i>made</i> great discoveries in the last +century;" "He <i>was</i> much afflicted last year;" but when we refer to the +present century, year, week, day, &c. we ought to use the <i>perfect</i> +tense; as, "Philosophers <i>have made</i> great discoveries in the present +century;" "He <i>has been</i> much afflicted this year;" "I <i>have read</i> the +president's message this week;" "We <i>have heard</i> important news this +morning;" because these events occurred in this century, this year, this +week, and to-day, and still there remains a part of this century, year, +week, and day, of which I speak.</p> + +<p>In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action is +connected with the present time, by the actual existence either of the +author of the work, though it may have been performed many centuries +ago; but if neither the author nor the work now remains, the perfect +tense ought not to be employed. Speaking of priests in general, we may +say, "They <i>have</i>, in all ages, <i>claimed</i> great powers;" because the +general order of the priesthood still exists; but we cannot properly +say, "The Druid priests <i>have claimed</i> great powers;" because that order +is now extinct. We ought, therefore, to say, "The Druid priests +<i>claimed</i> great powers."</p> + +<p>The following examples may serve still farther to illustrate the proper +use and application of the tenses. "My brother has recently been to +Philadelphia." It should be, "<i>was</i> recently at Philadelphia;" because +the adverb <i>recently</i> refers to a time completely past, without any +allusion to the present time. "Charles is grown considerably since I +have seen him the last time." Corrected, "Charles <i>has</i> grown, since I +<i>saw</i> him," &c. "Payment was at length made, but no reason assigned for +its being so long postponed." Corrected, "for its <i>having been</i> so long +postponed." "They were arrived an hour before we reached the +city:"—"They <i>had</i> arrived."</p> + +<p>"The workmen will complete the building at the time I take possession of +it." It should be, "will <i>have completed</i> the building," &c. "This +curious piece of workmanship was preserved, and shown to strangers for +more than fifty years past:"—"<i>has been</i> preserved, and <i>been</i> shown to +strangers," &c. "I had rather write than beg:"—"I <i>would</i> rather write +than beg."</p> + +<p>"On the morrow, because he would have known the certainty whereof Paul +was accused of the Jews, he loosed him from his bands." It ought to be, +"because he <i>would know</i>; or, <i>being willing to know,</i>" &c. "The blind +man said, 'Lord, that I might receive my sight;'" "If by any means I +might attain unto the resurrection of the dead." In both these examples, +<i>may</i> would be preferable to <i>might</i>. "I feared that I should have lost +the parcel, before I arrived:"—"that I should <i>lose</i>." "It would have +afforded me no satisfaction, if I could perform it." It ought to be, "if +I could <i>have performed</i> it;" or, "It <i>would afford</i> me no satisfaction, +if I <i>could perform</i> it." "This dedication may serve for almost any book +that has, is, or shall be published:"—"that <i>has been</i>, or <i>will be +published</i>."</p></div> + +<p>4. In order to employ the two tenses of the infinitive mood with +propriety, particular attention should be paid to the meaning of what we +express.</p> + +<p>Verbs expressive of <i>hope</i>, <i>desire</i>, <i>intention</i>, or <i>command</i>, ought +to be followed by the PRESENT tense of the <i>Infinitive mood</i>.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>"Last week I intended to <i>have written</i>," is improper. The intention of +writing was then <i>present</i> with me; and, therefore, the construction +should be, "I intended <i>to write</i>." The following examples are also +inaccurate; "I found him better than I expected <i>to have found</i> him;" +"My purpose was, after spending ten months more in commerce, <i>to have +withdrawn</i> my wealth to another country." They should be, "expected <i>to +find</i> him;" "<i>to withdraw</i> my wealth."</p> + +<p>"This is a book which proves itself to be written by the person whose +name it bears." It ought to be "which proves itself <i>to have been +written</i>," &c. "To see him would have afforded me pleasure all my life." +Corrected, "<i>To have seen</i> him;" or, "<i>To see</i> him <i>would afford</i> me +pleasure," &c. "The arguments were sufficient to have satisfied all who +heard them:"—"were sufficient <i>to satisfy</i>." "History painters would +have found it difficult to have invented such a species of +beings:"—"<i>to invent</i> such a species."</p></div> + +<p>5. General and immutable truths ought to be expressed in the <i>present</i> +tense.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>Instead of saying, "He did not know that eight and twenty <i>were</i> equal +to twenty and eight;" "The preacher said very audibly, that whatever +<i>was</i> useful, <i>was</i> good;" "My opponent would not believe, that virtue +<i>was</i> always advantageous.;" The constructions should be, "<i>are</i> equal +to twenty;" "whatever <i>is</i> useful, <i>is</i> good;" "virtue <i>is</i> always +advantageous."</p></div> + +<h4>EXAMPLES IN FALSE SYNTAX PROMISCUOUSLY ARRANGED.</h4> + +<p>We adore the Divine Being, he who is from eternity to eternity.</p> + +<p>On these causes depend all the happiness or misery which exist among +men.</p> + +<p>The enemies who we have most to fear, are those of our own hearts.</p> + +<p>Is it me or him who you requested to go?</p> + +<p>Though great has been his disobedience and his folly, yet if he +sincerely acknowledges his misconduct, he shall be forgiven.</p> + +<p>There were, in the metropolis, much to amuse them.</p> + +<p>By exercising of our memories, they are improved.</p> + +<p>The property of my friend, I mean his books and furniture, were +wholly consumed.</p> + +<p>Affluence might give us respect in the eyes of the vulgar, but will +not recommend us to the wise and good.</p> + +<p>The cares of this world, they often choke the growth of virtue.</p> + +<p>They that honor me, I will honor; and them that despise me, shall be +lightly esteemed.</p> + +<p>I intended to have called last week, but could not.</p> + +<p>The fields look freshly and gayly since the rain.</p> + +<p>The book is printed very neat, and on fine wove paper.</p> + +<p>I have recently been in Washington, where I have seen Gen. Andrew +Jackson, he who is now president.</p> + +<p>Take the two first, and, if you please, the three last.</p> + +<p>The Chinese wall is thirty foot high.</p> + +<p>It is an union supported by an hypothesis, merely.</p> + +<p>I have saw him who you wrote to; and he would have came back with +me, if he could.</p> + +<p>Not one in fifty of those who call themselves deists, understand the +nature of the religion which they reject.</p> + +<p>If thou studiest diligently, thou will become learned.</p> + +<p>Education is not attended to properly in Spain.</p> + +<p>He know'd it was his duty; and he ought, therefore, to do it.</p> + +<p>He has little more of the great man besides the title.</p> + +<p>Richard acted very independent on the occasion.</p> + +<p>We have done no more than it was our duty to have done.</p> + +<p>The time of my friend entering on business, soon arrived.</p> + +<p>His speech is the most perfect specimen I ever saw.</p> + +<p>Calumny and detraction are sparks which, if you do not blow, they +will go out of themselves.</p> + +<p>Those two authors have each of them their merit.</p> + +<div class='poem'><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Reasons whole pleasure, all the joys of sense,</span> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lies in three words, health, peace, and competence.</span> +</div> + +<p>A great mass of rocks thrown together by the hand of nature with +wildness and confusion, strike the mind with more grandeur, than if +they were adjusted to one another with the accuratest symmetry.</p> + +<p>A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder.</p> + +<p>The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle.</p> + +<p>If some persons opportunities were never so favorable, they would be +too indolent to improve.</p> + +<p>It is reported that the governor will come here to-morrow.</p> + +<p>Beauty and innocence should be never separated.</p> + +<p>Extravagance and folly may reduce you to a situation where you will +have much to fear and little to hope.</p> + +<p>Not one in fifty of our modern infidels are thoroughly versed in +their knowledge of the Scriptures.</p> + +<p>Virtue and mutual confidence is the soul of friendship. Where these +are wanting, disgust or hatred often follow little differences.</p> + +<p>An army present a painful sight to a feeling mind.</p> + +<p>To do good to them that hate us, and, on no occasion, to seek +revenge, is the duty of a Christian.</p> + +<p>The polite, accomplished libertine, is but miserable amidst all his +pleasures: the rude inhabitant of Lapland is happier than him.</p> + +<p>There are principles in man, which ever have, and ever will, incline +him to offend.</p> + +<p>This is one of the duties which requires great circumspection.</p> + +<p>They that honor me, them will I honor.</p> + +<p>Every church and sect have opinions peculiar to themselves.</p> + +<p>Pericles gained such an ascendant over the minds of the Athenians, +that he might be said to attain a monarchical power in Athens.</p> + +<p>Thou, Lord, who hath permitted affliction to come upon us, shall +deliver us from it in due time.</p> + +<p>That writer has given us an account of the manner in which +Christianity has formerly been propagated among the heathens.</p> + +<p>Though the measure be mysterious, it is not unworthy of your +attention.</p> + +<p>In his conduct was treachery, and in his words, faithless +professions. After I visited Europe, I returned to America.</p> + +<p>I have not, nor shall not, consent to a proposal so unjust.</p> + +<p>I had intended yesterday to have walked out, but I have been again +disappointed.</p> + +<p>Five and eight makes thirteen; five from eight leaves three.</p> + +<p>If he goes to Saratoga next week, it will make eight times that he +has visited that renowned watering place.</p> + +<p>I could not convince him, that a forgiving disposition was nobler +than a revengeful one. I consider the first, one of the brightest +virtues that ever was or can be possessed by man.</p> + +<p>The college consists of one great, and several smaller edifices.</p> + +<p>He would not believe, that honesty was the best policy.</p> + +<p>The edifice was erected sooner than I expected it to have been.</p> + +<p>Surely, goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life; +and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever.</p> + +<p>If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them be gone astray, doth +he not leave the ninety and nine, &c.?</p> + +<p>He might have completed his task sooner, but he could not do it +better.</p> + +<p>The most ignorant and the most savage tribes of men, when they have +looked round on the earth, and on the heavens, could not avoid +ascribing their origin to some invisible, designing cause, and felt +a propensity to adore their Creator.</p> +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h3><b>CRITICAL NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS.</b></h3> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>OBSERVATION 1. The following absurd phrases so common in the sacred desk +and elsewhere, should be carefully avoided by all who regard common +sense:—"Sing the <i>two first</i> and <i>three last</i> verses." Just as if there +could be more than <i>one</i> first and <i>one</i> last. There may be a <i>first +two</i>, a <i>second two</i>, &c.; a <i>first three</i>, a <i>second three</i>, a <i>last +three</i>. "Within the <i>two last</i> centuries;" "The second syllable of the +<i>three first</i> words;" "The <i>three first</i> of these orthoepists have no +rule by which their pronunciation is regulated:"—"the <i>last two</i> +centuries;" "the <i>first three</i> words;" "the <i>first three</i> of these +orthoepists."</p> + +<p>2. Adjectives should not be used to express the manner of action. "The +higher the river, the <i>swifter</i> it flows;" "James learns <i>easier</i> than +Juliet; he sees <i>deeper</i> into the millstone than she:"—"the <i>more +swiftly</i> it flows;" "learns <i>more easily</i>; <i>farther</i> into the +millstone." "He conducted the <i>boldest</i> of any:"—"the <i>most boldly</i>."</p> + +<p>3. <i>More</i> requires <i>than</i> after it. The following sentences are +therefore improper: "He was more beloved, but not so much admired, <i>as</i> +Cinthio;" "Richard is more active, but not so studious, <i>as</i> his +companion." The legitimate mode of supplying the ellipses in these +constructions, will show their gross impropriety: thus, "He was more +beloved <i>as</i> Cinthio;" "Richard is more active <i>as</i> his companion," &c.</p> + +<p>4. Adverbs, as illustrated on page 85, are generally <i>substitutes</i> for +two or more words belonging to other parts of speech. "Will you +accompany me to Europe next summer?" <i>"Yes."</i> "Do you believe that the +voyage will restore your health?" <i>"No."</i> In these examples, the adverbs +<i>yes</i> and <i>no</i>, are substitutes for whole sentences, and, therefore, do +not qualify any words understood. <i>Yes</i>, in this instance, literally +means, <i>"I will accompany you to Europe next summer;"</i> and <i>no</i>, <i>"I do +not believe that the voyage will restore my health."</i> Many other adverbs +are often employed in a similar manner.</p> + +<p><i>"Firstly,"</i> is often improperly used instead of the adverb <i>first;</i> "a +<i>good deal</i>," instead of, <i>much</i>, or, a <i>great deal</i>.</p> + +<p>5. A nice distinction should be observed in the use of <i>such</i> and <i>so</i>. +The former may be employed in expressing <i>quality</i>; the latter, in +expressing a <i>degree</i> of the quality; as, "<i>Such</i> a temper is seldom +found;" "<i>So</i> bad a temper is seldom found." In the following examples, +<i>so</i> should be used instead of <i>such:</i> "He is <i>such</i> an extravagant +young man, that I cannot associate with him;" "I never before saw <i>such</i> +large trees."</p> + +<p>The affected use of cardinal, instead of ordinal numbers, ought not to +be imitated. "On page <i>forty-five;"</i> "Look at page +<i>nineteen</i>;"—<i>forty-fifth, nineteenth</i>.</p> + +<p>6. In the choice and application of prepositions, particular regard +should be paid to their meaning as established by the idiom of our +language and the best usage. "In my proceedings, I have been actuated +from the conviction, that I was supporting a righteous cause;" "He +should have profited from those golden precepts;" "It is connected to +John with the conjunction <i>and</i>;" "Aware that there is, in the minds of +many, a strong predilection in favor of established usages;" "He was +made much on at Argos;" "They are resolved of going;" "The rain has been +falling of a long time;" "It is a work deserving of encouragement." +These examples may be corrected thus, "actuated <i>by</i> the conviction;" +"<i>by</i> those golden precepts;" "<i>by</i> the conjunction and;" "predilection +<i>for</i>;" "much <i>of</i> at Argos;" "<i>on</i> going;" "falling a long time;" +"deserving encouragement."</p> + +<p>7. The preposition <i>to</i> is used before nouns of place, where they follow +verbs or participles of motion; as, "I went <i>to</i> Washington." But <i>at</i> +is employed after the verb <i>to be</i>; as, "I have been <i>at</i> Washington;" +"He has been <i>to</i> New York, <i>to</i> home," &c. are improper. The +preposition <i>in</i> is set before countries, cities, and large towns; "He +lives <i>in</i> France, <i>in</i> London, <i>in</i> Philadelphia, <i>in</i> Rochester." But +before single houses, and cities and villages which are in distant +countries, <i>at</i> is commonly used; as, "He lives <i>at</i> Park-place;" "She +resides <i>at</i> Vincennes." People in the northern states may say, "They +live <i>in</i> New Orleans, or, <i>at</i> New Orleans."</p> + +<p>8. Passive agents to verbs in the infinitive mood, should not be +employed as active agents. The following are solecisms: "This house to +let;" "Horses and carriages to let;" "Congress has much business to +perform this session;" because the agents, <i>house</i>, <i>horses</i> and +<i>carriages</i>, and <i>business</i>, which are really <i>passive</i>, are, according +to these constructions, rendered as active. The expressions should be, +"This house to <i>be</i> let;" "Horses and carriages to <i>be</i> let;" "much +business to <i>be performed</i>."</p> + +<p>9. AMBIGUITY.—"Nothing is more to be desired than wisdom." Not +<i>literally</i> correct, for <i>wisdom</i> is certainly more to be desired than +<i>nothing</i>; but, as a figurative expression, it is well established and +unexceptionable.</p> + +<p>"A crow is a large black bird:"—a large, <i>black—bird</i>.</p> + +<p>"I saw a horse—fly through the window:"—I saw a <i>horsefly</i>.</p> + +<p>"I saw a ship gliding under full sail through a spy glass." I saw, +through a spy glass, a ship gliding under full sail.</p> + +<p>"One may see how the world goes with half an eye." One may see with half +an eye, how the world goes.</p> + +<p>"A great stone, that I happened to find, after a long search, by the sea +shore, served me for an anchor." This arrangement of the members and +circumstances of this sentence, confines the speaker's <i>search to the +sea shore;</i> whereas, he meant, "A <i>large stone, which,</i> after a long +search, I happened <i>to find by the sea shore,</i> served me for an anchor."</p> + +<p>"I shall only notice those called personal pronouns." I shall notice +<i>only</i> those called personal pronouns.</p> + +<p>10. TAUTOLOGY.—Avoid words which add no thing to the sense; such as, +"<i>Now</i> extant, <i>free</i> gratis, <i>slow</i> mope, <i>cold</i> snow, a <i>hot</i> sun, a +<i>flowing</i> stream, a <i>dull</i> blockhead, <i>wise</i> sages." "I am just going to +go there;" I am <i>about</i> to go.</p> + +<p>11. ABSURDITIES AND IMPROPRIETIES.—"I can learn him many things."</p> + +<p>It ought to be, "I can <i>teach</i> him." To <i>learn</i>, is to <i>acquire</i> or +<i>receive</i> information; to <i>teach</i>, means to <i>communicate</i> it.</p> + +<p>"I don't think it is so." You <i>do think</i>, that it is <i>not</i> so.</p> + +<p><i>Ever, always.</i> "I have ever been of this mind." I have <i>always</i> been. +<i>Ever</i> and <i>always</i> are not synonymous. <i>Ever</i> refers to <i>one</i> +indefinite period of time; as, "If he <i>ever</i> become rich:" <i>always</i> +means <i>at all times</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Excuse, pardon.</i> The former signifies to release from an obligation +which refers to the future; the latter, to forgive a neglect or crime +that is past. "Excuse me for neglecting to call yesterday:" <i>pardon</i> me.</p> + +<p><i>Remember, recollect.</i> We <i>remember</i> a thing which we retain in our +mind; we <i>recollect</i> it, when, though having gone from the mind, we have +power to call it back.</p> + +<p><i>Defect, deficiency.</i> A thing which is incomplete in any of its parts, +is <i>defective;</i> a total absence of the thing, is a <i>deficiency</i>.</p> + +<p>This subject will be resumed in the appendix to this work.</p></div> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<a name="ORTHOGRAPHY_ii"></a> +<h3><b>CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOGRAPHY.</b></h3> + +<p>From among those words which are often erroneously spelled, the +following are selected and corrected according to Johnson, and to Cobb's +Dictionary.</p> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='center'>INCORRECT.</td><td align='center'>CORRECT.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Abridgement</td><td align='left'>Abridgment</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>abscision</td><td align='left'>abcission</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>achievment</td><td align='left'>achievement</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>adze</td><td align='left'>addice</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>agriculturalist</td><td align='left'>agriculturist</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ancle</td><td align='left'>ankle</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>attornies</td><td align='left'>attorneys</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>baise</td><td align='left'>baize</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bason</td><td align='left'>basin</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bass</td><td align='left'>base</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bombazin</td><td align='left'>bombasin</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>boose</td><td align='left'>bouse</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>boult</td><td align='left'>bolt</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>buccaneer</td><td align='left'>bucanier</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>burthen</td><td align='left'>burden</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bye</td><td align='left'>by</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>calimanco</td><td align='left'>calamanco</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>camblet</td><td align='left'>camlet</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>camphire</td><td align='left'>camphor</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>canvas</td><td align='left'>canvass</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>carcase</td><td align='left'>carcass</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>centinel</td><td align='left'>sentinel</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>chace</td><td align='left'>chase</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>chalibeate</td><td align='left'>chalybeate</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>chamelion</td><td align='left'>chameleon</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>chimist</td><td align='left'>chemist</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>chimistry</td><td align='left'>chemistry</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>cholic</td><td align='left'>colic</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>chuse</td><td align='left'>choose</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>cimetar</td><td align='left'>cimeter</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>clench</td><td align='left'>clinch</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>cloke</td><td align='left'>cloak</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>cobler</td><td align='left'>cobbler</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>chimnies</td><td align='left'>chimneys</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>chesnut</td><td align='left'>chestnut</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>clue</td><td align='left'>clew</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>connection</td><td align='left'>connexion</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>corset</td><td align='left'>corslet</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>cypher</td><td align='left'>cipher</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>cyphering</td><td align='left'>ciphering</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>dactyl</td><td align='left'>dactyle</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>develope</td><td align='left'>develop</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>dipthong</td><td align='left'>diphthong</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>dispatch</td><td align='left'>despatch</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>doat</td><td align='left'>dote</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>drouth</td><td align='left'>drought</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>embitter</td><td align='left'>imbitter</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>embody</td><td align='left'>imbody</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>enquire</td><td align='left'>inquire</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>enquirer</td><td align='left'>inquirer</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>enquiry</td><td align='left'>inquiry</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ensnare</td><td align='left'>insnare</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>enterprize</td><td align='left'>enterprise</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>enthral</td><td align='left'>inthrall</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>entrench</td><td align='left'>intrench</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>entrenchment</td><td align='left'>intrenchment</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>entrust</td><td align='left'>intrust</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>enwrap</td><td align='left'>inwrap</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>epaulette</td><td align='left'>epaulet</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>etherial</td><td align='left'>ethereal</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>faggot</td><td align='left'>fagot</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>fasset</td><td align='left'>faucet</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>fellon</td><td align='left'>felon</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>fie</td><td align='left'>fy</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>germ</td><td align='left'>germe</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>goslin</td><td align='left'>gosling</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>gimblet</td><td align='left'>gimlet</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>grey</td><td align='left'>gray</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>halloe</td><td align='left'>halloo</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>highth</td><td align='left'>height</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>hindrance</td><td align='left'>hinderance</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>honied</td><td align='left'>honeyed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>impale</td><td align='left'>empale</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>inclose</td><td align='left'>enclose</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>inclosure</td><td align='left'>enclosure</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>indict</td><td align='left'>endict</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>indictment</td><td align='left'>endictment</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>indorse</td><td align='left'>endorse</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>indorsement</td><td align='left'>endorsement</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>instructor</td><td align='left'>instructer</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>insure</td><td align='left'>ensure</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>insurance</td><td align='left'>ensurance</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>judgement</td><td align='left'>judgment</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>laquey</td><td align='left'>lackey</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>laste</td><td align='left'>last</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>licence</td><td align='left'>license</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>loth</td><td align='left'>loath</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>lothsome</td><td align='left'>loathsome</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>malcontent</td><td align='left'>malecontent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>maneuver</td><td align='left'>manoeuvre</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>merchandize</td><td align='left'>merchandise</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>misprison</td><td align='left'>misprision</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>monies</td><td align='left'>moneys</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>monied</td><td align='left'>moneyed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>negociate</td><td align='left'>negotiate</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>negociation</td><td align='left'>negotiation</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>noviciate</td><td align='left'>novitiate</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ouse</td><td align='left'>ooze</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>opake</td><td align='left'>opaque</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>paroxism</td><td align='left'>paroxysm</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>partizan</td><td align='left'>partisan</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>patronize</td><td align='left'>patronise</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>phrenzy</td><td align='left'>phrensy</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>pinchers</td><td align='left'>pincers</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>plow</td><td align='left'>plough</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>poney</td><td align='left'>pony</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>potatoe</td><td align='left'>potato</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>quere</td><td align='left'>query</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>recognize</td><td align='left'>recognise</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>reindeer</td><td align='left'>raindeer</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>reinforce</td><td align='left'>re-enforce</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>restive</td><td align='left'>restiff</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ribbon</td><td align='left'>riband</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>rince</td><td align='left'>rinse</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sadler</td><td align='left'>saddler</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sallad</td><td align='left'>salad</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sceptic</td><td align='left'>skeptic</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sceptical</td><td align='left'>skeptical</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>scepticism</td><td align='left'>skepticism</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>segar</td><td align='left'>cigar</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>seignor</td><td align='left'>seignior</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>serjeant</td><td align='left'>sergeant</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>shoar</td><td align='left'>shore</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>soothe</td><td align='left'>sooth</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>staunch</td><td align='left'>stanch</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>streight</td><td align='left'>straight</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>suitor</td><td align='left'>suiter</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sythe</td><td align='left'>scythe</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>tatler</td><td align='left'>tattler</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>thresh</td><td align='left'>thrash</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>thwak</td><td align='left'>thwack</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>tipler</td><td align='left'>tippler</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>tranquility</td><td align='left'>tranquillity</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>tripthong</td><td align='left'>triphthong</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>trissyllable</td><td align='left'>trisyllable</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>valice</td><td align='left'>valise</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>vallies</td><td align='left'>valleys</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>vise</td><td align='left'>vice</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>vollies</td><td align='left'>volleys</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>waggon</td><td align='left'>wagon</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>warrantee</td><td align='left'>warranty</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>whoopingcough</td><td align='left'>hoopingcough</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>woe</td><td align='left'>wo</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>yeast</td><td align='left'>yest</td></tr></table> + +<h4><b>CORRECTIONS IN <a name="ORTHOEPY"></a>ORTHOEPY.</b></h4> + +<p>The following words being often erroneously pronounced by polite people, +as well as by the vulgar, their correction, in this place, agreeably to +<i>Cobb's Dictionary</i>, it is presumed, will be useful to many. Some of the +mispronunciations given are <i>provincial</i>.</p> + +<pre> + 1 2 3 4 1 4 1 4 1 3 5 +Fate, far, fall, fat--me, met--pine, pin--no, nor, not, + 6 1 4 7 34 37 +move--tube, tub, bull--oil--found---<i>th</i>in--THIS, + +ORTHOGRAPHY. IMPROPER. PRONOUNCED. + 4 1 4 4 +Again a-gane' a-gen' + 4 1 4 4 +Against a-ganste' a-genst + 4 1 4 1 +Ally al'le al'li' + 1 2 +Are are ar + 4 4 1 1 +Azure azh'ur a'zhure + 1 1 +Bade bade bad + 1 11 +Beard bard beerd + 4 11 4 +Been ben or been bin + 22 11 +Bleat blaat bleet + 1 34 +Boil bile boil + 4 4 5 4 +Bonnet bun'net bon'nit + 2 66 +Brooch brotsh brootsh + 4 3 4 4 +Canal ka-nawl' ka-nal' + 4 4 +Catch ketsh katsh + 4 1 3 1 +Causeway kros'wa kawz'wa + 4 4 1 4 +Chalice kal'is tshal'is + 4 1 +Chasten tshas'tn tshase'sn + 4 1 4 1 +Chimney tshim'ble tshim'ne + 3 1 +Chine tshime tshine + 34 1 +Choir koir kwire + 4 4 1 1 +Clevy klev'is klev've + 4 4 +Clinch klensh klinsh + 5 4 5 4 +Column kol'yum kol'lum + 5 4 4 4 +Combat kom'bat kum'bat + 5 1 5 4 +Comma kom'me kom'ma + 1 4 3 4 +Coquet ko-kwet' ko-ket' + 3 1 +Corps korps kore + 4 4 4 4 +Cover kiv'ur kuv'ur + 11 4 +Deaf deef def + 1 4 4 1 1 4 +Decisive de-sis'iv de-si'siv + 1 5 1 1 +Depot de'pot de-po' + 4 1 1 1 1 +Depute dep'u-tize de-pute' + 4 1 1 1 1 4 +Deputed dep'u-tizd de-pu'ted + 1 1 1 1 +Design de-zine' de-sine' + 4 4 +Dint dent dint + 1 5 4 +Docile do'slle dos'sil + 4 4 4 4 +Disgust dis-gust' diz-gust' + 4 1 4 1 +Dismay dis-ma' diz-ma' + 4 1 4 1 +Disown dis-one' diz-one' + 1 4 +Dost dost dust + 1 4 +Doth do<i>th</i> du<i>th</i> + 66 4 +Does dooz duz + 11 1 +Drain dreen drane + 37 37 +Drought drou<i>th</i> drout + 37 4 37 +Drowned dround'ed dround + 4 1 4 4 +Ductile duk'tile duk'til + 1 4 +Edge aje edje + 1 1 4 +Either i'THur e'THur + 4 4 4 4 +English eng'lish ing'glish + 1 1 1 1 +Era e're e'ra + 1 1 +Ere ere are + 1 4 +Fasten fas'tn fas'sn + 4 7 11 7 +Fearful fer'ful feer'ful + 4 4 4 1 +Figure fig'gur fig'ure + 4 11 +Fiend fend feend + 4 4 +First fust furst + 34 1 1 1 1 +Foliage foil'aje fo'le-aje + 3 4 3 1 +Fortune for'tshun for'tshune + 3 4 3 1 +Fortnight fort'nit fort'nite + 37 37 4 +Fountain foun'tn foun'tin + 4 4 4 1 +Fracture frak'tshur frak'tshure + 1 4 1 4 +Fragrance frag'ranse fra'granse + 1 1 1 4 +Futile fu'tile fu'til + 4 4 4 4 +Gather geTH'ur gaTH'ur + 4 4 +Get git get + 4 4 +Girth gurt ger<i>th</i> + 66 1 +Goal gool gole + 1 1 4 1 4 +Going gone <i>or</i> go'in go'ing + 66 1 +Gold goold gold + 66 4 +Gum goom gum + 1 4 4 +Grudge be-gretsh' grudje + 4 4 4 4 +Gypsum gip'sum jip'sum + 4 4 +Has hez haz + 1 4 +Have have hav + 11 4 +Heard heerd herd + 4 4 2 +Hearth hur<i>th</i> or ha<i>th</i> har<i>th</i> + 4 4 +Hiss siss hiss + 1 34 +Hoist histe hoist + 4 1 1 1 +Homely hum'ble home'le + 4 66 +Hoof huf hoof + 3 4 5 4 +Hostler haws'lur os'lur + 4 4 +Humble hum'bl um'bl + 11 4 4 4 +Jesting jeest'in jest'ing + 4 4 +Kettle kit'tl ket'tl + 4 4 4 1 +Lecture lek'tshur lek'tshure + 4 4 1 1 +Leisure lezh'ur le'zhure + 4 4 1 4 +Lever lev'er le'vur + 4 4 +Lid led lid + 1 5 1 4 +Lilach la'lok li'lak + 66 1 +Loam loom lome + 1 66 +Loo lu loo + 1 1 4 1 +Maintain mane-tane' men-tane' + 1 4 1 4 +Matron mat'run ma'trun + 1 1 4 1 +Mermaid mare'made mer'made + 37 37 +Mountain moun'tn moun'tin + 1 4 1 1 +Nature na'tshur na'tshure + 1 4 1 4 +Neither ni'THur ne'THur + 1 11 1 1 +Oblige o-bleeje' o-blije' + 1 11 5 1 +Oblique o-bleek' ob-like' + 5 5 +Of of ov + 1 34 +Oil ile oil + 5 4 1 1 1 +Only on'le <i>or</i> un'le one'le + 1 4 4 4 +Panther pane'tur pan'<i>th</i>ur + 4 4 1 4 +Parent par'ent pa'rent + 2 4 2 4 +Partner pard'nur part'nur + 2 4 4 1 +Pasture pas'tshur pas'tshure + 4 4 1 4 +Patron pat'run pa'trun + 4 4 4 4 +Pincers pinsh'urz pin'surz + 4 4 +Pith pe<i>th</i> pi<i>th</i> + 11 1 +Plait pleet plate + 1 1 4 +Poem pome po'em + 1 34 +Point pinte point + 5 4 4 +Pother poTH'ur puTH'ur + 4 4 1 4 +Precept pres'sept pre'sept + 1 1 4 4 +Preface pre'fase pref'fas + 1 1 4 1 +Prelude pre'lude prel'ude + 1 4 5 4 +Process pro'ses pros'ses + 1 4 5 4 +Product pro'dukt prod'ukt + 1 4 5 4 +Progress pro'gres prog'res + 1 1 1 11 +Profile pro'file pro-feel' + 4 4 4 4 +Pumpion pungk'in pump'yun + 4 7 +Put put (verb) put + 1 34 +Quoit kwate kwoit + 1 1 4 1 +Rapine ra'pine rap'in + 1 11 +Rear rare reer + 4 1 4 4 +Reptile rep'tile rep'til + 4 4 +Rid red rid + 1 1 +Rind rine rind + 4 4 +Rinse rense rinse + 5 4 5 4 +Rosin roz'um roz'in + 87 1 66 11 +Routine rou tene roo-teen' + 4 66 +Roof ruff roof + 4 4 1 4 +Sacred sak'red sa'kred + 1 4 +Said sade sed + 4 4 +Sat set sat + 1 4 +Says saze sez + 2 1 +Scarce skarse skarse + 4 1 4 1 +Schedule sked'ule sed'jule + 4 4 +Shut shet shut + 4 4 +Since sense sinse + 4 11 +Sleek slik sleek + 4 4 1 4 +Sliver sliv'vur sli'vur + 3 7 1 7 +Slothful slaw<i>th</i>'ful slo<i>th</i>'ful + 4 66 +Soot sut soot + 4 4 1 2 +Spikenard spig'nut spike'nard + 1 34 +Spoil spile spoil + 4 4 11 2 +Steelyard stil'yurdz steel'yard + 5 4 +Stamp stomp stamp + 4 4 +Stint stent stint + 1 1 +Sword sword sord + 1 5 4 4 +Synod si'nod sin'ud + 1 1 4 1 +Therefore THare'fore THer'fore + 4 4 +Thill fil <i>th</i>il + 1 66 +To to too + 37 66 +Tour tour toor + 4 4 +Treble trib'bl treb'bl + 1 3 1 4 +Towards to-wardz' to'urdz + 5 1 1 1 +Trophy trof'fe tro'fe + 1 1 1 1 +Tuesday tshuz'de tuze'de + 4 4 4 1 +Verdure vur'jur ver'jure + 1 4 4 11 +Vizier vi'zhur viz'yeer + 5 4 5 1 +Volume vol'lum vol'yume + 1 4 +Were ware wer + 1 1 +Yea ya ye + 4 4 +Yes yes yis + 11 33 4 +Yest yeest <i>or</i> eest yest + 4 4 +Yet yit yet + 1 66 +You yu yoo + 1 66 +Your yure yoor + 1 66 +Youth yu<i>th</i> yoo<i>th</i> + 1 4 1 4 1 1 1 4 +Ague and fever fe'vurn-a'gur a'gu-and fe'vur + 3 4 1 4 4 1 +Alternate awl-ter'nate al-ter'nate + 4 4 1 4 4 1 1 +Annunciate an-nun'shate an-nun'she-ate + 4 1 4 4 1 4 +Andiron hand'i-urn and'i-urn + 4 1 1 4 4 1 11 +Antipodes an'te-podz an-tip'o-deez + 4 4 4 4 1 4 +Apparent ap-par'ent ap-pa'rent + 2 1 4 4 2 3 4 1 +Architecture artsh'e-tek-tshur ar'-ke-tek-tshure + 4 4 4 4 4 4 +Assumption as-sump'shun as-sum'shun + 3 4 4 1 3 4 4 1 +Auxiliary awks-il'a-re awg-zil'ya-re + 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 +Certiorari sash-ur-ar'ur ser-she-o-ra'ri + 4 4 1 1 4 1 4 1 1 +Christianity kris-tshan'e-te kris-tshe-an'e-te + 4 4 1 4 4 4 +Clandestine klan-des'tine klan-des'tin + 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 +Coadjutor ko-ad'ju-tur ko-ad-ju'tur + 5 4 1 4 5 4 1 4 +Compendium kom-pen'de-um kom-pen'je-um + 5 4 1 1 4 1 +Connoisseur kon-nis-sure' ko-nes-sare' + 1 1 4 4 1 4 +Courteous kore'te-us kur'tshe-us + 4 4 4 4 4 4 +Coverlet kuv'ur-lid kuv'ur-let + 37 4 1 37 4 4 +Cowardice kou'urd-ise kou'urd-is + 1 4 4 1 4 4 +Decrepit de-krip'id de-krep'it + 4 5 1 1 5 1 +Demonstrate dem'on-strate de-mon'strate + 1 4 4 4 4 1 4 1 1 4 +Desideratum de-sid-er-at'um de-sid-e-ra'tum + 1 4 1 1 4 +Diamond di'mund di'a-mund + 4 4 4 1 4 1 4 +Discrepance dis-krep'an-se dis'kre-panse + 4 4 1 4 4 4 +Disfranchise dis-fran'tschize dis-fran'tschiz + 4 5 4 4 5 4 +Dishonest dis-on'est diz-on'est + 4 3 4 4 3 4 +Disorder dis-or'dur diz-or'dur + 1 4 4 1 1 4 1 1 +Electrify e-lek'tur-ize e-lek'tre-fi + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 +Emaciate e-ma'shate e-ma'she-ate + 4 1 1 4 1 1 1 +Expatiate eks-pa'shate eks-pa'she-ate + 4 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 4 1 +Expiatory eks-pi'a-to-re eks'pe-a-tur-re + 4 4 1 4 4 1 1 +Extempore eks-tem'pore eks-tem'po-re + 4 1 1 4 1 4 +Feminine fem'e-nine fem'e-nin + 4 4 1 1 4 1 +Frequently frek'went-le fre'kwent-le + 4 1 1 4 1 4 +Genuine jen'u-ine jen'u-in + 2 11 2 1 4 +Guardian gar-deen' gyar'de-an + 4 4 4 4 4 4 +Gymnastic gim-nas'tik jim-nas'tik + 4 1 1 4 4 1 66 4 +Hallelujah hal-le-lu'ja hal-le-loo'ya + 5 4 4 5 3 4 +Hospital hos'pit-al os'pe-tal + 1 4 4 1 4 4 +Humorous hu'mur-us yu'mur-us + 1 1 1 1 4 +Idea i-de' i-de'a + 4 1 4 4 4 1 3 4 +Ignoramus ig-no-ram'us ig-no-ra'mus + 4 4 1 4 4 1 1 4 +Indecorous in-dek'o-rus in-de-ko'rus + 4 4 1 1 4 1 1 1 +Irradiate ir-rad'e-ate ir-ra'de-ate + 4 4 4 1 4 4 1 1 +Literati lit-er-at'i lit-er-a'ti + 1 1 4 4 1 4 +Maintenance mane-tane'anse men-'te-nanse + 4 1 1 4 1 4 +Masculine mas'ku-line mas'ku-lin + 4 4 1 + mur'kan-tile } + 4 4 11 } 4 4 4 +Mercantile mur-kan-teel'} mer'kan-til + 4 4 4 } + mur-kan'til } + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 +Meliorate me-li'o-rate me'le-o-rate + 1 4 1 4 5 4 1 4 +Molestation mo-les-ta'shun mol-es-ta'shun + 1 1 4 1 1 4 +Museum mu'ze-um mu-ze'um + 1 4 4 4 4 4 +National na'shun-al nash'un-al + 1 4 4 1 5 4 1 1 +Nomenclature no-men'kla-ture nom-en-kla'tshure + 5 1 4 5 1 4 4 +Nominative nom'e-tiv nom'e-na-tiv + 5 5 1 4 5 4 4 4 +Obstreperous ob-strop'pu-lus ob-strep'er-us + 5 2 1 5 1 1 +Octavo ok-ta'vo ok-ta'vo + 5 1 1 1 5 4 4 1 +Oratory or'a-to-re or'a-tur-re + 1 4 1 4 4 1 +Parentage pa'rent-aje par'ent-aje + 2 4 1 1 2 1 4 1 1 +Partiality par-shal'le-te par-she-al'le-te + 1 4 1 4 4 4 +Patronage pa'trun-aje pat'run-ije + 4 1 2 1 1 2 +Patriarch pat're-ark pa'tre-ark + 4 1 4 1 1 4 +Patriot pat're-ut pa'tre-ut + 4 1 4 4 1 1 4 4 +Patriotism pat're-ut-izm pa'tre-ut-izm + 1 5 1 4 1 5 1 4 +Philologist fi-lol'lo-jist fe-lol'lo-jist + 1 5 1 1 1 5 1 1 +Philosophy fi-los'o-fe fe-los'o-fe + 1 1 5 1 4 4 1 5 1 4 +Philosophical fi-lo-sof'ik-al fil-o-zof'e-kal + 1 4 4 1 4 4 +Plagiarism pla'ga-rizm pla'ja-rizm + 5 4 5 4 +Possess pos-ses' poz-zes' + 5 4 1 5 4 1 +Possessive pos-ses'siv poz-zes'siv + 5 4 4 5 4 4 +Possession pos-sesh'un poz-zesh'un + 1 4 4 4 1 4 4 +Preventive pre-vent'a-tiv pre-vent'iv + 1 4 1 1 4 1 4 1 1 4 +Pronunciation pro-nun-se-a'shun pro-nun-she-a'shun + 1 4 1 1 4 1 4 1 1 4 +Propitiation pro-pis-e-a'shun pro-pish-e-a'shun + 5 1 1 5 1 1 +Prophecy prov'e-si (noun) prof'e-se (noun) + 5 1 1 5 1 5 +Prophesy prov'e-si (verb) prof'e-si (verb) + 1 1 1 1 1 +Ratio ra'sho ra'she-o + 1 4 4 4 4 4 +Rational ra'shun-al rash'un-al + 1 4 4 1 4 4 +Sacrament sa'kra-ment sak'ra-ment + 1 1 1 4 1 1 +Sacrifice sa'kre-fize, sak're-fize + 4 + <i>or</i> (fis) + 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 +Stereotype ster'o-tipe ste're-o-tipe + 1 4 1 4 1 4 4 +Stupendous stu-pen'du-us, stu-pen'dus + 1 4 + stu-pen'jus + 1 5 1 1 4 1 4 +Synonyme se-non'e-me sin'o-nim + 4 4 4 4 1 4 +Transparent trans-par'ent trans-pa'rent + 4 4 4 1 4 1 4 1 +Transparency trans-par'en-se trans-pa'ren-se + 1 4 1 4 1 4 4 +Tremendous tre-men'du-us, tre-men'dus + 1 4 1 + tre-men'jus + 4 4 4 4 1 4 +Verbatim ver-bat'im ver-ba'tim + 5 2 1 5 1 1 +Volcano vol-ka'no vol-ka'no + 4 1 4 11 +Whiffletree hwip'pl-tre hwif'fl-tree +</pre> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE 1.—When the words <i>learned</i>, <i>blessed</i>, <i>loved,</i> &c. are +used as participial adjectives, the termination <i>ed</i> should +generally be pronounced as a separate syllable; as, "A <i>learn-ed</i> +man; The <i>bless-ed</i> Redeemer;" but when they are employed as verbs, +the <i>ed</i> is contracted in pronunciation; as, "He <i>learn'd</i> his +lesson; They are <i>lov'd;</i> I have <i>walk'd</i>."</p> + +<p>2. The accent of the following words falls on those syllables +expressed in the <i>italic</i> characters: Eu ro <i>pe</i> an, hy me <i>ne</i> al, +Ce sa <i>re</i> a, co ad <i>ju</i> tor, ep i cu <i>re</i> an, <i>in</i> ter est ed, <i>in</i> +ter est ing, <i>rep</i> a ra ble, <i>rec</i> og nise, <i>leg</i> is la ture, <i>ob</i> +li ga to ry, in <i>com</i> pa ra ble, ir <i>rep</i> a ra ble, in <i>ex</i> o ra +ble. In a large class of words, the vowels <i>a</i>, <i>e</i>, and <i>ai</i>, +should be pronounced like long <i>a</i> in <i>late</i>; such as, <i>fare</i>, +<i>rare</i>, <i>there</i>, <i>their</i>, <i>where</i>, <i>air</i>, <i>chair</i>, <i>compare</i>, +<i>declare</i>, &c. In the words <i>person</i>, <i>perfect</i>, <i>mercy</i>, +<i>interpret</i>, <i>determine</i>, and the like, the vowel <i>e</i> before <i>r</i>, is +often <i>erroneously</i> sounded like short <i>u</i>. Its proper sound is that +of <i>e</i> in <i>met</i>, <i>pet</i>, <i>imperative</i>.</p> + +<p>3. With respect to the pronunciation of the words <i>sky</i>, <i>kind</i>, +<i>guide</i>, &c. it appears that a mistake extensively prevails. It is +believed that their common pronunciation by the vulgar, is the +<i>correct</i> one, and agreeable to the pronunciation intended by Mr. +John Walker. The proper diphthongal sounds in</p> +<pre> + 11 1 1 +skei, kyind, gyide, +</pre> +<p>are adopted by the common mass, and +<i>perverted</i> by those who, in their unnatural and affected +pronunciation of these words, say,</p> +<pre> + 1 1 1 1 1 1 +ske-i; ke-inde, ge-ide. +</pre> +<p>This latter mode of pronouncing them in two +syllables, is as incorrect and ridiculous as to pronounce the words +<i>boil</i>, <i>toil</i>, in two +syllables; thus,</p> +<pre> + 3 4 3 4 +bo-il, to-il. +</pre> + +<p>4. <i>My</i>, <i>wind</i>. When <i>my</i> is contrasted with <i>thy</i>, <i>his</i>, <i>her</i>, <i>your</i>, &c, it is +pronounced,</p> +<pre> + 1 +mi: +</pre> +<p> in all other situations, it is pronounced,</p> +<pre> + 1 +me; +</pre> +<p>as, "<i>My [me]</i> +son, give ear to <i>my [me]</i> counsel." When <i>wind</i> ends a line in poetry, and is +made to rhyme with <i>mind</i>, <i>bind</i>, <i>kind</i>, &c. it is pronounced,</p> +<pre> + 1 +wind; +</pre> +<p>but, in other situations, it is pronounced,</p> +<pre> + 4 +wind. +</pre> +</div> + +<div class='poem'><span style='margin-left: 2em;'>"Lo, the poor Indian! whose untutored mind</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>Sees God in clouds, or hears him in the <i>wind</i>."</span><br /> +</div> + + +<hr style='width: 65%;' /> +<a name='PROVINCIALISMS'></a><h2>PROVINCIALISMS.</h2> +<br /> + +<h3>CONTRACTIONS, VULGARISMS, AND OTHER IMPROPRIETIES.</h3> + +<p>As each of the following provincialisms and vulgarisms, has its locality +in some one section or other of our country, it is hoped that these +corrections will be found useful in the districts to which the various +phrases respectively belong.</p> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='center'>IMPROPER.</td><td align='center'>CORRECT.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>Aint</td><td align='left'>Are not</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>haint</td><td align='left'>have not</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>taint</td><td align='left'>'tis not</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>haint</td><td align='left'>are not</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>maint</td><td align='left'>may not</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wont</td><td align='left'>will not</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wer'nt</td><td align='left'>were not</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>waunt</td><td align='left'>was not</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>woodent</td><td align='left'>would not</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>mussent</td><td align='left'>must not</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>izzent</td><td align='left'>is not</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wazzent</td><td align='left'>was not</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>hezzent</td><td align='left'>has not</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>doozzent</td><td align='left'>does not</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>tizzent</td><td align='left'>'tis not</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>whool</td><td align='left'>who will</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'>don't</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'>can't</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'>i'll</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align='left'>'tis</td></tr> +</table> + + +<p>COMMON IN NEW ENGLAND OR NEW YORK.</p> + +<pre> + 4 +Akst askt + 4 4 +ben bin + 4 2 +hul hole + 4 1 +hum home + 4 1 +stun stone + 66 4 +dooz duz + 2 4 +glass glass + 2 4 +mass mass + 2 4 +brass brass + 2 4 +pass pass + 3 2 +flawnt flant + 4 4 +hiz'zn hiz + 37 37 4 +hou'zn houz'iz +1 4 1 4 +an'shent ane'tshent +1 4 1 1 +an'jel ane'jel + 4 4 1 4 +dan'jur dane'jur + 4 4 1 4 +stran'jur strane'jur + 2 4 1 4 +tscham'bur tshame'bur + 1 4 1 1 +na'tur na'tshure + 4 4 4 4 1 4 +nat'ur-el natsh'u-ral + 3 4 3 1 +for'tin for'tshune + 3 1 1 3 1 1 +for'tew-nate for'tshu-nate + 4 1 4 1 +vur'tew ver'tshu + 4 1 4 4 1 4 +vur'tew-us ver'tshu-us +1 1 4 4 1 4 +ak'tew-el ak'tschu-al +4 1 1 4 1 1 +ed'ew-kate ed'ju-kate + 4 4 2 4 +faTH'ur fa'THur +heft weight +stoop porch +stent task +helve handle +muss disorder +dump unload +scup swing +shay gig or chaise +cutter one-horse sleigh +staddle sapling +foxy reddish +suple spry or supple +</pre> + +<h4>IN PENNSYLVANIA.</h4> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='5' summary=''> +<tr><td align='left'>Strenth</td><td align='left'>strength</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>lenth</td><td align='left'>length</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>brenth</td><td align='left'>breadth</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ort</td><td align='left'>ought</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>nan</td><td align='left'>what</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wisht</td><td align='left'>wish</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wunst</td><td align='left'>once</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ouch</td><td align='left'>oh</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>cheer</td><td align='left'>chair</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>spook</td><td align='left'>ghost</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>furnentz</td><td align='left'>opposite</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wanity</td><td align='left'>vanity</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>in wain</td><td align='left'>in vain</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ornary</td><td align='left'>ordinary</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>for by</td><td align='left'>to spare</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>we bit</td><td align='left'>small piece</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>disremember</td><td align='left'>do not remember</td></tr></table> + + +<p>IRISH.</p> +<pre> + 66 1 +Door dore + 66 1 +floor flore +5 4 +ond and + 5 55 +loss looz + 66 1 +koorse korse + 66 1 +soorse sorse + 4 66 +till too + 4 7 +put put + 4 7 +fut fut +4 66 4 54 +a-koont' ak-kount' + 4 4 7 4 +pul'pit pul'pit + 1 4 3 +pare'sun par'sn + +IMPROPER. CORRECT. + +MD. VA. KY. MISS. &c. + + 2 1 +THar THare + 2 1 +whar hware + 2 1 +bar [bear] bare + 2 4 +war wer + 37 1 +mout mite [might] + 1 1 4 +gwine go'ing + 4 4 4 +shet or shut rid + 1 5 1 1 4 4 +tote or fotch kar're, fetsh, or bring + 1 4 +hop'd helpt + 4 66 2 4 4 +ca-hoot' part'nur-ship + 3 66 5 +mar'bl moov off +</pre> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE, <i>Clever</i>, <i>pretty</i>, <i>ugly</i>, <i>curious</i>, <i>expect</i>, <i>guess</i>, and +<i>reckon</i>, though correct English words, have, among the common +people of New England and New York, a provincial application and +meaning. With them, a <i>clever</i> man, is one of a gentle and obliging +disposition; instead of, a man of distinguished talents and profound +acquirements. <i>Pretty</i> and <i>ugly</i>, they apply to the <i>disposition</i> +of a person, instead of, to his <i>external appearance</i>. In these +states, one will often hear, "I <i>guess</i> it rains," when the speaker +<i>knows</i> this to be a fact, and, therefore, <i>guessing</i> is uncalled +for. "I <i>expect</i> I can go;" or, "I <i>reckon</i> I can;" instead of, "I +<i>suppose</i> or <i>presume</i>." In New England, a clergyman is often called +a <i>minister</i>, in New York, a <i>priest</i>, and south of N.Y. a <i>parson</i>. +The last is preferable.</p></div> + +<table cellspacing='10'><tr><td align='center'>NEW ENGLAND OR NEW YORK.</td> <td align='center'>CORRECTED.</td></tr> +<tr><td>I be goin. He lives to hum. </td> <td> I <i>am</i> going. He lives <i>at</i> home.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Hese ben to hum this two weeks.</td> <td><i>He has been at home these</i> 2 weeks.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>You haddent ought to do it. Yes had ought.</td> <td> You ought <i>not</i> to do it. <i>Certainly</i> I ought.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Taint no better than hizzen.</td> <td> <i>'Tis</i> no better than <i>his</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Izzent that are line writ well? </td> <td> <i>Is not</i> that line well <i>written</i>?</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Tizzent no better than this ere.</td> <td> <i>It is</i> no better, or it is <i>not any</i> better <i>than his.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td>The keows be gone to hum, neow, and I'mer goin arter um. </td> <td>The <i>cows are</i> gone <i>home</i>, and <i>I am going after them</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>He'll be here, derights, and, bring yourn and thairn. </td> <td> He <i>will</i> here, directly, and bring yours and theirs.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>He touched the stun which I shew him, an di guess it made him sithe, for twas cissing hot.</td> +<td>He touched the <i>stone</i> which I <i>showed</i> him and it made him <i>sigh</i>, for <i>it was hissing</i> hot.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Run, Thanel, and cut a staddle, for to make a lever on. Ize jest agoneter go, daddy. </td> +<td>Go, Nathaniel, and cut a <i>sapling</i>, to make a <i>lever of</i>. I <i>was about</i> to go, or <i>intending</i> to go <i>immediately</i>, father.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Where shell I dump my cart, square? Dump it yender. Whats the heft of your load?</td> +<td>Where <i>shall</i> I <i>unload</i> my cart? <i>Yonder</i>. <i>What is</i> the <i>weight</i> of your load?</td></tr> + +<tr><td>When ju git hum from Hafford? A fortnit ago. You diddent, did ye? Ju see +my Danel, whose sot up a tarvern there? No. Hede gone afore I got there. +O, the pesky criter! Hele soon be up a stump.</td> +<td>When <i>did you return from +Hartford</i>? A <i>fortnight</i> ago. <i>It is possible! Did</i> you see my <i>son +Daniel, who has opened a public house</i> there? No. <i>He had left before</i> I +<i>arrived</i> there. O, the <i>paltry fellow! He will</i> soon <i>come to naught.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td>My frinds supurb mansion is delightfully sitewated on a nate-eral mound +of considerable hithe. It hez a long stoop in front; but it is furder +from the city than I'de like my hum.</td> +<td><i>My friend's</i> superb mansion is delightfully <i>situated</i> on a <i>natural</i> +mound of considerable <i>height</i>. It <i>has</i> a long <i>porch</i> in front; but it +is <i>farther</i> from the city than <i>I would</i> like to <i>reside</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>I know'd the gal was drownded, and I tell'd the inquisitdoners, that ize +nither geestin nor jokin about it; but if they'd permit me to give em my +ideze, they'd obleege me. So I parsevered, and carried my pinte. You +don't say so. Be you from Barkshire? I be. Neow I swan! if I aint clean +beat.</td> +<td>I <i>knew</i> the <i>girl had been drowned</i>, and I <i>told</i> the <i>jury of +inquest</i>, that <i>I was not jesting</i> about it; but, <i>by permitting</i> me to +<i>give them</i> my <i>view of the subject</i>, they <i>would oblige</i> me. So, I +<i>persevered</i>, and <i>gained</i> my <i>point. Indeed! Are</i> you from <i>Berkshire</i>? +I <i>am. Really</i>! I <i>am surprised</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>You baint from the Jarseys, be ye? Yes. Gosh! then I guess you kneow +heow to tend tarvern.</td> +<td><i>Are</i> you from <i>New Jersey</i>? Yes, Then I <i>presume</i> you <i>know how</i> to +tend <i>a tavern</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='center'>IN PENNSYLVANIA. </td> <td align='center'> CORRECTED</td></tr> + +<tr><td>I seen him. Have you saw him? Yes, I have saw him wunst; and that was +before you seed him.</td> +<td>I <i>saw</i> him. Have you <i>seen</i> him? Yes, <i>once</i>; and that was before you +<i>saw</i> him.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>I done my task. Have you did yours? No, but I be to do it.</td> +<td>I <i>have</i> done my task. Have you <i>done</i> yours? No, but I <i>must</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr><td>I be to be there. He know'd me.</td> +<td>I <i>shall</i> be there; or, I <i>must</i> be there. He <i>knew</i> me.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Leave me be, for Ime afear'd.</td> <td><i>Let</i> me be, for I <i>am afraid</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>I never took notice to it.</td> +<td>I never took notice <i>of</i> it: or, better thus, I never <i>noticed</i> it.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>I wish I haddent did it; howsumever, I don't keer: they cant skeer me. </td> +<td>I wish I <i>had not done</i> it: <i>however, I disregard them</i>. They <i>cannot +scare</i> me.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Give me them there books.</td> <td>Give me <i>those</i> books.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>He ort to go; so he ort.</td> <td>He <i>ought</i> to go, <i>really</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>No he orten.</td> <td>He <i>ought</i> not.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Dont scrouge me.</td><td> Don't <i>crowd</i> me.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>I diddent go to do it.</td> <td>I <i>did not intend</i> to do it.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Aint that a good hand write?</td><td> <i>Is not</i> that <i>beautiful writing</i>?</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Nan? I know'd what he meant, but I never let on.</td> +<td><i>What</i>? I <i>knew</i> what he meant, but I <i>kept that to myself</i>.</td></tr> + + +<tr><td>It is a long mile to town. Ah! I thought 'twas unle a short mile. </td> +<td>It is a <i>little over</i> a mile to town. Ah! I <i>supposed it to be less +than</i> a mile.</td></tr> + + +<tr><td align='center'>IRISH.</td> <td align='center'>CORRECTED.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Not here the day; he went till Pittsburg.</td> +<td><i>He is</i> not here to-day. He went <i>to</i> Pittsburg.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Let us be after pairsing a wee bit.</td> +<td>Let us <i>parse</i> a <i>little</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Where did you loss it?</td> <td>Where did you <i>lose</i> it?</td></tr> + + +<tr><td align='center'>MD. VA. KY. OR MISS.</td> <td align='center'>CORRECTED.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Carry the horse to water. </td> +<td><i>Lead</i> the horse to water; or, water <i>the horse.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Tote the wood to the river.</td> <td><i>Carry</i> the wood to the river.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Have you focht the water?</td> +<td>Have you <i>fetched</i>, or <i>brought</i>, the <i>water?</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td>I've made 200 bushels of corn this year.</td> +<td>I <i>have raised</i> 200 bushels of corn this year.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>He has run against a snag.</td><td> He has <i>got into difficulty</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Is that your plunder, stranger?</td><td> Is that your <i>baggage, sir</i>?</td></tr> + +<tr><td>He will soon come of that habit.</td> +<td>He will soon <i>overcome</i>, or <i>get rid of</i>, <i>that habit.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td>I war thar, and I seen his boat was loadend too heavy.</td> +<td>I <i>was there</i>, and I <i>saw that</i> his boat was too <i>heavily laden</i>, or +<i>loaded</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Whar you gwine.</td> <td><i>Where are</i> you <i>going</i>?</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Hese in cohoot with me.</td><td> <i>He is</i> in <i>partnership</i> with me.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Did you get shet of your tobacca?</td> +<td>Did you <i>get rid</i>, or <i>dispose</i> of, your <i>tobacco</i>?</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Who hoped you to sell it?</td> <td>Who <i>helped</i> you to sell it?</td></tr> +</table> + + +<hr style='width: 65%;' /> +<a name='PROSODY'></a><h2>PROSODY.</h2> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>PROSODY treats of the modulations of the voice according to the usages +of the language we speak, and the sentiments we wish to express: hence, +in its most extensive sense, it comprises all the laws of elocution.</p> + +<p>Prosody is commonly divided into two parts: the first teaches the true +pronunciation of words, comprising <i>accent</i>, <i>quantity</i>, <i>emphasis</i>, +<i>pause</i>, and <i>tone</i>; and the second, the laws of <i>versification</i>.</p></div> + +<p><i>Accent</i>. Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a +particular letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard +than the rest, or distinguished from them; as, in the word <i>presúme</i>, +the stress of the voice must be on the letter <i>u</i> and the second +syllable, <i>sume</i>, which syllable takes the accent.</p> + +<p>Every word of more syllables than one, has one accented syllable. For +the sake of euphony or distinctness in a long word, we frequently give a +secondary accent to another syllable besides the one which takes the +principal accent; as, <i>'tes ti mo' ni'al</i>, <i>a ban'don 'ing.</i></p> + +<p><i>Quantity</i>. The quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied +in pronouncing it. It is considered as long or short.</p> + +<p>A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel; which +causes it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the following +letters; as, "Fāll, bāle, mōōd, hōūse, fēature."</p> + +<p>A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant; which causes +the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter; "as, ănt, +bŏnnĕt, hŭngĕr."</p> + +<p>A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short one in +pronouncing it; thus, "māte" and "nōte" should be pronounced as +slowly again as "măt" and "nŏt."</p> + +<p><i>Emphasis</i>. By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of the +voice, by which we distinguish some word or words on which we design to +lay particular stress, and to show how they affect the rest of the +sentence. Sometimes the emphatic words must be distinguished by a +particular tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>Emphasis will be more fully explained under the head of Elocution.</p></div> + +<p><i>Pauses</i>. Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total +cessation of the voice during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a +measurable space of time.</p> + +<p><i>Tones</i>. Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses; consisting +in the modulation of the voice, or the notes or variations of sound +which we employ in the expression of our sentiments.</p> + +<p>Emphasis affects particular words and phrases; but tones affect +sentences, paragraphs, and sometimes a whole discourse.</p> + + + +<h3><b><a name="PUNCTUATION"></a>PUNCTUATION.</b></h3> + +<div class='bigtext'><p>PUNCTUATION is the art of dividing written composition into sentences or +parts of sentences, by points or stops, in order to mark the different +pauses which the sense and an accurate pronunciation require.</p></div> + +<p>The <i>Comma</i> represents the shortest pause; the <i>Semicolon</i>, a pause +double that of the comma; the <i>Colon</i>, double that of the semicolon; and +the <i>Period</i>, double that of the colon.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>Punctuation is a modern art. The ancients were entirely unacquainted +with the use of points; and wrote, not only without any distinction of +members and periods, but also without any distinction of words. This +custom continued till the year 360 before Christ. How the ancients read +their works, written in this manner, it is not easy to conceive. After +the practice of joining words together had ceased, notes of distinction +were placed at the end of every word. This practice continued a +considerable time.</p> + +<p>As it appears that the present usage of points did not take place while +manuscripts and monumental inscriptions were the only known methods of +conveying knowledge, we must conclude, that it was introduced with the +art of printing. The introduction was, however, gradual: all the points +did not appear at once. The colon, semicolon, and note of admiration, +were produced some time after the others. The whole set, as they are now +used, became established, when learning and refinement had made +considerable progress.</p></div> + +<p>As the rules of punctuation are founded altogether on the grammatical +construction of sentences, their application pre-supposes, on the part +of the student, a knowledge of Syntax. Although they admit of +exceptions, and require a continual exercise of judgment and literary +taste in applying them properly, they are of great utility, and justly +merit our particular attention.</p> + +<p>The great importance of acquiring a thorough knowledge of punctuation, +and of attending strictly to the application of its rules, is +established by the single fact, that <i>the meaning of a sentence is often +totally perverted by the omission or misapplication of points</i>. To +illustrate the correctness of this remark, numerous example might be +selected. The following border on the ridiculous: "Mr. Jared Hurton +having gone to sea his wife, desires the prayers of this church:" +"Tryon, who escaped from the jail on Friday last, is 22 years of age, +has sandy hair, light eyes, thin visage, with a short nose turned up +about six feet high, &c." Corrected; "Mr. Jared Hurton having gone to +sea, his wife desires the prayers of this church;" "thin visage, with a +short nose turned up, about six feet high, &c."</p> + +<p>Before one enters upon the study of punctuation, it is necessary for him +to understand what is meant by an <i>adjunct</i>, <i>a simple sentence</i>, and a +<i>compound sentence</i>.</p> + +<p>An <i>adjunct</i> or <i>imperfect phrase</i> contains no assertion, or does not +amount to a proposition or sentence; as, "Therefore;" "studious of +praise;" "in the pursuit of commerce."—For the definition of a +sentence, and a compound sentence, turn to page 119.</p> + +<p>When two or more adjuncts are connected with the verb in the same +manner, and by the same preposition or conjunction, the sentence is +compound, and may be resolved into as many simple ones as there are +adjuncts; as, "They have sacrificed their <i>health</i> and <i>fortune</i>, at the +<i>shrine</i> of vanity, <i>pride</i>, and <i>extravagance</i>." But when the adjuncts +are connected with the verb in a different manner, the sentence is +simple; as, "Grass of an excellent <i>quality</i>, is produced in great +<i>abundance</i> in the northern regions of our country."</p> +<br /> + +<h4><b>COMMA.</b></h4> + +<p>RULE 1. The members of a simple sentence should not, in general, be +separated by a comma; as, "Every part of matter swarms with living +creatures."</p> +<a name="Exercises_in_Punctuation"></a> +<div class='smalltext'><p><i>Exercises in Punctuation</i>.—Idleness is the great fomenter of all +corruptions in the human heart. The friend of order has made half his +way to virtue. All finery is a sign of littleness.</p></div> + +<p>RULE 2. When a simple sentence is long, and the nominative is +accompanied with an inseparable adjunct of importance, it may admit a +comma immediately before the verb; as, "The good taste <i>of the present +age</i>, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the English +language;" "Too many <i>of the pretended friendships of youth</i>, are mere +combinations in pleasure."</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p><i>Exercises</i>.—The indulgence of a harsh disposition is the introduction +to future misery. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure is a +real defect in character. The intermixture of evil in human society +serves to exercise the suffering graces and virtues of the good.</p></div> + +<p>RULE 3. When the connexion of the different parts of a simple sentence, +is interrupted by an adjunct of importance, the adjunct must be +distinguished by a comma before and after it; as, "His work is, <i>in many +respects,</i> very imperfect. It is, <i>therefore,</i> not much approved." But +when these interruptions are slight and unimportant, it is better to +omit the comma; as, "Flattery is <i>certainly</i> pernicious;" "There is +<i>surely</i> a pleasure in beneficence."</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p><i>Exercises</i>.—Charity like the sun brightens all its objects. Gentleness +is in truth the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. You too have your +failings. Humility and knowledge with poor apparel excel pride and +ignorance under costly attire. The best men often experience +disappointments. Advice should be seasonably administered. No assumed +behavior can always hide the real character.</p></div> + +<p>RULE 4. The nominative case independent, and nouns in apposition when +accompanied with adjuncts, must be distinguished by commas; as, "My +<i>son</i>, give me thy heart;" "Dear <i>Sir</i>, I write to express my gratitude +for your many kindnesses;" "I am obliged to you, my <i>friends</i>, for your +many favors;" "<i>Paul</i>, the <i>apostle</i>, of the Gentiles, was eminent for +his zeal and knowledge;" "The <i>butterfly</i>, <i>child</i> of the summer, +flutters in the sun."</p> + +<p>But if <i>two</i> nouns in apposition are unattended with adjuncts, or if +they form only a proper name, they should not be separated; as, <i>"Paul</i> +the <i>apostle</i>, suffered martyrdom;" "The <i>statesman Jefferson</i>, wrote +the declaration of Independence."</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p><i>Exercises</i>.—Lord thou hast been our dwelling place in all +generations. Continue my dear child to make virtue thy chief study. +Canst thou expect thou betrayer of innocence to escape the hand of +vengeance? Death the king of terrors chose a prime minister. Hope the +balm of life sooths us under every misfortune. Confucius the great +Chinese philosopher was eminently good as well as wise. The patriarch +Joseph is an illustrious example of true piety.</p></div> + +<p>RULE 5. The nominative case absolute and the infinitive mood absolute +with their adjuncts, a participle with words depending on it, and, +generally, any imperfect phrase which may be resolved into a simple +sentence, must be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; as, +"<i>His father dying</i>, he succeeded to the estate;" "<i>To confess the +truth</i>, I was in fault;" "The king, <i>approving the plan</i>, put it in +execution;" "He, <i>having finished his academical course</i>, has returned +home, <i>to prosecute his professional studies</i>."</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p><i>Exercises</i>.—Peace of mind being secured we may smile at misfortune. To +enjoy present pleasure he sacrificed his future ease and reputation. His +talents formed for great enterprises could not fail of rendering him +conspicuous. The path of piety and virtue pursued with a firm and +constant spirit will assuredly lead to happiness. All mankind compose +one family assembled under the eye of one common Father.</p></div> + +<p>RULE 6. A compound sentence must be resolved into simple ones by placing +commas between its members; as, "The decay, the waste, and the +dissolution of a plant, may affect our spirits, and suggest a train of +serious reflections."</p> + +<p>Three or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs, +connected by conjunctions, expressed or understood, must be separated by +commas; as, "The husband, wife,<sup><a name='FN_anchor_11'></a><a href='#Footnote_11'>[11]</a></sup> and children,<sup><a name='FN_anchor_12'></a><a href='#Footnote_12'>[12]</a></sup> suffered extremely;" +"In a letter, we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss;" +"David was a brave, wise, and pious man;" "A man, fearing, serving, and +loving his Creator, lives for a noble purpose;" "Success generally +depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously, in what we +undertake."</p> + + + +<p>Two or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs, occurring +in the same construction, with their conjunctions understood, must be +separated by commas; as, "Reason, virtue, answer one great aim;" "Virtue +supports in adversity, moderates in prosperity;" "Plain, honest truth, +needs no artificial covering;" "We are fearfully, wonderfully framed."</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p><i>Exercises.</i>—We have no reason to complain of the lot of man nor of the +mutability of the world. Sensuality contaminates the body depresses the +understanding deadens the moral feelings of the heart and degrades man +from his rank in creation.</p> + +<p>Self-conceit presumption and obstinacy blast the prospects of many a +youth. He is alternately supported by his father his uncle and his elder +brother. The man of virtue and honor will be trusted relied upon and +esteemed. Conscious guilt renders one mean-spirited timorous and base. +An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what is just and true +lovely honest and of good report. Habits of reading writing and thinking +are the indispensable qualifications of a good student. The great +business of life is to be employed in doing justly loving mercy and +talking humbly with our Creator. To live soberly righteously and piously +comprehends the whole of our duty.</p> + +<p>In our health life possessions connexions pleasures there are causes of +decay imperceptibly working. Deliberate slowly execute promptly. An idle +trifling society is near akin to such as is corrupting. This unhappy +person had been seriously affectionately admonished but in vain.</p></div> + +<p>RULE 7. Comparative sentences whose members are short, and sentences +connected with relative pronouns the meaning of whose antecedents is +restricted or limited to a particular sense, should not be separated by +a comma; as, "Wisdom is better than riches;" "No preacher is so +successful as thee;" "He accepted <i>what</i> I had rejected;" "Self-denial +is the <i>sacrifice which</i> virtue must make;" "Subtract from many modern +poets <i>all that</i> may be found in Shakspeare, and trash will remain;" +"Give it to the <i>man whom</i> you most esteem." In this last example, the +assertion is not of "man in general," but of "the man whom you most +esteem."</p> + +<p>But when the antecedent is used in a general sense, a comma is properly +inserted before the relative; as, "<i>Man, who</i> is born of a woman, is of +few days and full of trouble;" "There is no <i>charm</i> in the female sex, +<i>which</i> can supply the place of virtue."</p> + +<p>This rule is equally applicable to constructions in which the relative +is understood; as, "Value duly the privileges you enjoy;" that is, +"privileges <i>which</i> you enjoy."</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p><i>Exercises.</i>—How much better it is to get wisdom than gold! The +friendships of the world can exist no longer than interest cements them. +Eat what is set before you. They who excite envy will easily incur +censure. A man who is of a detracting spirit will misconstrue the most +innocent words that can be put together. Many of the evils which +occasion our complaints of the world are wholly imaginary.</p> + +<p>The gentle mind is like the smooth stream which reflects every object in +its just proportion and in its fairest colors. In that unaffected +civility which springs from a gentle mind there is an incomparable +charm. The Lord whom I serve is eternal. This is the man we saw +yesterday.</p></div> + +<p>RULE 8. When two words of the same sort, are connected by a conjunction +expressed, they must not be separated; as, "Libertines call religion, +bigotry <i>or</i> superstition;" "True worth is modest <i>and</i> retired;" "The +study of natural history, expands <i>and</i> elevates the mind;" "Some men +sin deliberately and presumptuously." When words are connected in pairs, +the pairs only should be separated; as, "There is a natural difference +between merit <i>and</i> demerit, virtue <i>and</i> vice, wisdom <i>and</i> folly;" +"Whether we eat <i>or</i> drink, labor <i>or</i> sleep, we should be temperate."</p> + +<p>But if the parts connected by a conjunction are not short, they may be +separated by a comma; as, "Romances may be said to be miserable +rhapsodies, <i>or</i> dangerous incentives to evil."</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p><i>Exercises</i>.—Idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad passions. +True friendship will at all times avoid a rough or careless behavior. +Health and peace a moderate fortune and a few friends sum up all the +undoubted articles of temporal felicity. Truth is fair and artless +simple and sincere uniform and consistent. Intemperance destroys the +strength of our bodies and the vigor of our minds.</p></div> + +<p>RULE 9. Where the verb of a simple member is understood, a comma may, in +some instances, be inserted; as, "From law arises security; from +security, curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge." But in others, it is +better to omit the comma; "No station is so high, no power so great, no +character so unblemished, as to exempt men from the attacks of +rashness, malice, and envy."</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p><i>Exercises</i>.—As a companion he was severe and satirical; as a friend +captious and dangerous. If the spring put forth no blossoms in summer +there will be no beauty and in autumn no fruit. So if youth be trifled +away without improvement manhood will be contemptible and old age +miserable.</p></div> + +<p>RULE 10. When a simple member stands as the object of a preceding verb, +and its verb may be changed into the infinitive mood, the comma is +generally omitted; as, "I suppose <i>he is at rest</i>;" changed, "I suppose +<i>him to be at rest</i>."</p> + +<p>But when the verb <i>to be</i> is followed by a verb in the infinitive mood, +which, by transposition, may be made the nominative case to it, the verb +<i>to be</i> is generally separated from the infinitive by a comma; as, "The +most obvious remedy is, <i>to withdraw from all associations with bad +men</i>;" "The first and most obvious remedy against the infection, is, to +withdraw from all associations with bad men."</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p><i>Exercises.</i>—They believed he was dead. He did not know that I was the +man. I knew she was still alive. The greatest misery is to be condemned +by our own hearts. The greatest misery that we can endure is to be +condemned by our own hearts.</p> + +<h4>NOTES.</h4> + +<p>1. When a conjunction is separated by a phrase or member from the +member to which it belongs, such intervening phrase appears to +require a comma at each extremity; as, "They set out early, <i>and</i>, +before the close of the day, arrived at the destined place." This +rule, however, is not generally followed by our best writers; as, +"If thou seek the Lord, he will be found of thee; <i>but</i> if thou +forsake him, he will cast thee off for ever;" "<i>But</i> if the parts +connected are not short, a comma may be inserted."</p> + +<p>2. Several verbs succeeding each other in the infinitive mood, and +having a common dependance, may be divided by commas; as, "To +relieve the indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the +innocent, to reward the deserving, are humane and noble +employments."</p> + +<p>3. A remarkable expression, or a short observation, somewhat in the +form of a quotation, may be properly marked with a comma; as, "It +hurts a man's pride to say, <i>I do not know</i>;" "Plutarch calls lying, +<i>the vice of slaves</i>."</p> + +<p>4. When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with some +marked variety, they must be distinguished by a comma; as,</p> +</div> + +<div class='poem'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">"Tho' <i>deep</i>, yet <i>clear</i>; tho' <i>gentle</i>, yet not <i>dull</i>;</span> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Strong</i>, without <i>rage</i>; without <i>o'erflowing</i>, <i>full</i>."</span> +</div> + +<div class='smalltext'> +<p>"Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found, not only +in union <i>with</i>, but in opposition <i>to</i>, the views and conduct of +each other."</p> + +<p>Sometimes when the word with which the last preposition agrees, is +single, the comma may be omitted; as, "Many states were in alliance +<i>with</i>, and under the protection <i>of</i> Rome."</p> + +<p>The same rule and restrictions apply, when two or more nouns refer +to the same preposition; as, "He was composed both under the +<i>threatening</i>, and at the <i>approach</i>, <i>of</i> a cruel and lingering +death;" "He was not only the <i>king</i>, but <i>the father of</i> his +people."</p> + +<p>5. The words, "as, thus, nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, +formerly, now, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the +next place, in short," and all other words and phrases of a similar +kind, must generally be separated from the context by a comma; <i>as</i>, +"Remember thy best friend; <i>formerly</i>, the supporter of thy infancy; +<i>now</i>, the guardian of thy youth;" "He feared want; <i>hence</i>, he +overvalued riches;" "<i>So</i>, if youth be trifled away," &c. "<i>Again</i>, +we must, have food and clothing;" "<i>Finally</i>, let us conclude."</p> +</div> +<p>The foregoing rules and examples are sufficient, it is presumed, to +suggest to the learner, in all ordinary instances, the proper place for +inserting the comma; but in applying these rules, great regard must be +paid to the length and meaning of the clauses, and the proportion which +they bear to one another.</p> +<br /> + +<h5><b>SEMICOLON.</b></h5> + +<p>The semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or more +parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a comma, +nor yet so little dependant on each other, as those which are +distinguished by a colon.</p> + +<p>RULE 1. When the preceding member of the sentence does not of itself +give complete sense, but depends on the following clause, and sometimes +when the sense of that member would be complete without the concluding +one, the semicolon is used; as in the following examples: "As the desire +of approbation, when it works according to reason, improves the amiable +part of our species; so, nothing is more destructive to them, when it is +governed by vanity and folly;" "The wise man is happy, when he gains his +own approbation; the fool, when he gains the applause of those around +him;" "Straws swim upon the surface; but pearls lie at the bottom."</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p><i>Exercises</i>.—The path of truth is a plain and safe path that of +falsehood a perplexing maze. Heaven is the region of gentleness and +friendship hell of fierceness and animosity. As there is a worldly +happiness which God perceives to be no other than disguised misery as +there are worldly honors which in his estimation are reproach so there +is a worldly wisdom which in his sight is foolishness.</p> + +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>But all subsists by elemental strife</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>And passions are the elements of life.</span><br /> +</div> +<p>RULE 2. When an example is introduced to illustrate a rule or +proposition, the semicolon may be used before the conjunction <i>as;</i> as +in the following instance: Prepositions govern the objective case; as, +"She gave the book <i>to</i> him."</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE. In instances like the foregoing, many respectable punctuists +employ the colon, instead of the semicolon.</p></div> + + +<h5><b>COLON.</b></h5> + +<p>The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts +less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon; +but not so independent as separate, distinct sentences.</p> + +<p>RULE 1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but followed +by some supplemental remark, or farther illustration of the subject, the +colon may be properly employed; as, "Nature felt her inability to +extricate herself from the consequences of guilt: the gospel revealed +the plan of divine interposition and aid." "Great works are performed, +not by strength, but by perseverance: yonder palace was raised by single +stones; yet you see its height and spaciousness."</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p><i>Exercises.</i>—The three great enemies to tranquillity are vice +superstition and idleness vice which poisons and disturbs the mind with +bad passions superstition which fills it with imaginary terrors idleness +which loads it with tediousness and disgust.</p> + +<p>When we look forward into the year which is beginning what do we behold +there? All my brethren is a blank to our view a dark unknown presents +itself.</p></div> + +<p>RULE 2. When a semicolon has preceded, or more than one, and a still +greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the connecting or +concluding sentiment, the colon should be applied; as, "A divine +legislator, uttering his voice from heaven; an almighty governor, +stretching forth his arm to punish or reward; informing us of perpetual +rest prepared for the righteous hereafter, and of indignation and wrath +awaiting the wicked: these are the considerations which overawe the +world, which support integrity, and check guilt."</p> +<br /> + +<h5><b>PERIOD.</b></h5> + +<p>When a sentence is complete, and so independent as not to be connected +with the one which follows it, a period should be inserted at its close; +as, "Fear God." "Honor the patriot." "Respect virtue."</p> + +<p>In the use of many of the pauses, there is a diversity of practice among +our best writers and grammarians. Compound sentences connected by +conjunctions, are sometimes divided by the period; as, "Recreations, +though they may be of an innocent kind, require steady government to +keep them within a due and limited province. <i>But</i> such as are of an +irregular and vicious nature, are not to be governed, but to be banished +from every well-regulated mind."</p> + +<p>The period should follow every abbreviated word; as, "A.D. N.B. U.S. Va. +Md. Viz. Col. Mr."</p> + +<h5><b>DASH.</b></h5> + +<p>The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and incoherent writers, +may be introduced with propriety, where the sentence breaks off +abruptly; where a significant pause is required; or where there is an +unexpected turn in the sentiment; as, "If thou art he, so much respected +once—but, oh! how fallen! how degraded!" "If acting conformably to the +will of our Creator;—if promoting the welfare of mankind around us;—if +securing our own happiness;—are objects of the highest moment: then we +are loudly called upon to cultivate and extend the great interests of +religion and virtue."</p> + +<p>A dash following a stop, denotes that the pause is to be greater than if +the stop were alone; and when used by itself, requires a pause of such +length as the sense only can determine.</p> + +<div class='poem'><span style='margin-left: 2em;'>"Here lies the great—False marble, where?</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>"Nothing but sordid dust lies here."</span><br /> +</div> + +<h5><b>INTERROGATORY POINT.</b></h5> + +<p>The note of interrogation is used at the end of an interrogative +sentence; as, "Who adorned the heavens with such exquisite beauty?"</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE. The interrogative point should not be employed in cases where +it is only said, that a question has been asked; as, "The Cyprians +asked me, why I wept."</p></div> + + +<h5><b>EXCLAMATORY POINT.</b></h5> + +<p>The note of exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden emotion, +surprise, joy, grief, &c. and sometimes to invocations and addresses; +as, "How much vanity in the pursuits of men!" "What is more amiable than +virtue!" "My friend! this conduct amazes me!" "Hear me, O Lord! for thy +loving kindness is great!"</p> +<br /> + +<h5><b>PARENTHESIS.</b></h5> + +<p>A parenthesis is a clause containing some useful remark, which may be +omitted without injuring the grammatical construction; as, "To gain a +posthumous reputation, is to save a few letters (for what is a name +besides?) from oblivion."</p> + +<div class='poem'><span style='margin-left: 2em;'>"Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,)</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>"Virtue alone is happiness below."</span><br /></div> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>NOTE. The parenthesis generally denotes a moderate depression of the +voice; and, as the parenthetical marks do not supply the place of a +point, the clause should be accompanied with every stop which the +sense would require, if the parenthetical characters were not used. +It ought to terminate with the same kind of point which the member +has that precedes it; as "He loves nobly, (I speak of friendship,) +who is not jealous when, he has partners of love."</p> + +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>"Or why so long (in life if long can be)</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>"Lent Heav'n a parent to the poor and me?"</span><br /> + +<p>Parentheses, however, containing interrogations or exclamations, form an +exception to this rule; as, "If I grant his request, (and who could +refuse it?) I shall secure his esteem and attachment."</p></div> + +<h5><b>APOSTROPHE AND QUOTATION.</b></h5> + +<p>The Apostrophe is used to abbreviate a word, and also to mark the +possessive case of a noun; as, "<i>'tis</i>, for <i>it is</i>; <i>tho,'</i> for +<i>though</i>; <i>o'er</i>, for <i>over</i>;" "A <i>man's</i> poverty."</p> + +<p>A Quotation marks a sentence taken in the author's own language; as, +"The proper study of mankind is man."</p> + +<p>When an author represents a person as speaking, the language of that +person should be designated by a quotation; as, At my coming in, he +said, "You and the physician are come too late." A quotation contained +within another, should be distinguished by two <i>single</i> commas; as, +"Always remember this ancient maxim 'Know thyself.'"</p> +<br /> + +<h5><b>DIRECTIONS FOR USING CAPITAL LETTERS.</b></h5> + +<p>It is proper to begin with a capital,</p> + +<p>1. The first word of every sentence.</p> + +<p>2. Proper names, the appellations of the Deity, &c.; as, "James, +Cincinnati, the Andes, Huron;" "God, Jehovah, the Almighty the Supreme +Being, Providence, the Holy Spirit."</p> + +<p>3. Adjectives derived from proper names, the titles of books, nouns +which are used as the subject of discourse, the pronoun <i>I</i> and the +interjection <i>O</i>, and every line in poetry; as, "American, Grecian, +English, French; Irving's Sketch Book, Percival's Poems; I write; Hear, +O earth!"</p> + + + +<hr style='width: 65%;' /> +<a name='APPENDIX'></a><h2>APPENDIX.</h2> + +<h3><b><a name="VERSIFICATION"></a>VERSIFICATION.</b></h3> + +<p>POETRY is the language of passion, or of enlivened imagination.</p> + +<p>VERSIFICATION, in English, is the harmonious arrangement of a particular +number and variety of accented and unaccented syllables, according to +particular laws.</p> + +<p>RHYME is the correspondence of the sound of the last syllable in one +line, to the sound of the last syllable in another; as,</p> + +<div class='poem'><span style='margin-left: 2em;'>"O'er the glad waters of the dark-blue <i>sea</i>,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>"Our thoughts as boundless and our souls as <i>free</i>."</span><br /></div> + +<p>BLANK VERSE consists in poetical thoughts expressed in regular numbers, +but without the correspondence of sound at the end of the lines which +constitutes rhyme.</p> + +<p>POETICAL FEET consist in a particular arrangement and connexion of a +number of accented and unaccented syllables.</p> + +<p>They are called <i>feet</i>, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it +were, <i>steps</i> along through the verse in a measured pace.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>All poetical feet consist either of two, or of three syllables; and are +reducible to eight kinds; four of two syllables, and four of three, as +follows:</p></div> + + +<table align='center' border='0' cellpadding='2' cellspacing='3' summary=''> +<tr><td align='center'>DISSYLLABLE.</td><td align='center'>TRISYLLABLE.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>A Trochee - ̆</td><td align='left'>A Dactyle - ̆ ̆</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>An Iambus ̆ -</td><td align='left'>An Amphibrach ̆ - ̆</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>A Spondee - -</td><td align='left'>An Anapaest ̆ ̆ -</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>A Pyrrhic ̆ ̆</td><td align='left'>A Tribrach ̆ ̆ ̆</td></tr></table> + + +<p>A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented; as, +Hātefŭl, péttish:</p> + +<p>Rēstlĕss mōrtăls tōil fŏr nāught.</p> + +<p>An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented; as, +Bĕtrāy, consíst:</p> + +<p>Thĕ sēas shăll wāste, thĕ skīes ĭn smōke dĕcāy.</p> + +<p>A Dactyle has the first syllable accented, and the two latter +unaccented; as, Lābŏrĕr, póssible:</p> + +<p>Frōm thĕ lŏw plēasŭres ŏf thīs făllĕn nātŭre.</p> + +<p>An Anapaest has the first two syllables unaccented, and the last +accented; as, Cŏntrăvēne, acquiésce:</p> + +<p>ăt thĕ clōse ŏf thĕ dāy whĕn thĕ hāmlĕt ĭs stīll.</p> + +<p>A Spondee; as, The pāle mōōn: a Pyrrhic; as, ŏn thĕ tall +tree: an Amphibrach; as, Dēlightfūl: a Tribrach; as, +Numērăblĕ.</p> +<br /> +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> +<h4><b><a name="RHETORIC"></a>RHETORIC.</b></h4> + +<p>GRAMMAR instructs us how to express our thoughts correctly.</p> + +<p>RHETORIC teaches us to express them with force and elegance.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>The former is generally confined to the correct application of words in +constructing single sentences. The latter treats of the proper choice of +words, of the happiest method of constructing sentences, of their most +advantageous arrangement in forming a discourse, and of the various +kinds and qualities of composition. The principles of rhetoric are +principally based on those unfolded and illustrated in the science of +grammar. Hence, an acquaintance with the latter, and, indeed, with the +liberal arts, is a prerequisite to the study of rhetoric and +belles-lettres.</p></div> + + +<h4><b>COMPOSITION.</b></h4> + +<p>It may be laid down as a maxim of eternal truth, that <i>good sense</i> is +the foundation of all good writing. One who understands a subject well, +will scarcely write ill upon it.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>Rhetoric, or the art of persuasion, requires in a writer, the union of +good sense, and a lively and chaste imagination. It is, then, her +province to teach him to embellish his thoughts with elegant and +appropriate language, vivid imagery, and an agreeable variety of +expression. It ought to be his aim,</p> + +<span style='margin-left: 1em;'>"To mark the point where sense and dulness meet."</span><br /></div> + +<h4><b>STYLE.—PERSPICUITY AND PRECISION.</b></h4> + +<p>STYLE is the peculiar manner in which we express our conceptions by +means of language. It is a picture of the ideas which rise in our minds, +and of the order in which they are produced.</p> + +<p>The qualities of a good style, may be ranked under two heads. +<i>perspicuity</i> and <i>ornament</i>.</p> + +<p>PERSPICUITY, which is considered the fundamental quality of a good +style, claims attention, first, to single words and phrases; and, +secondly, to the construction of sentences. When considered with respect +to words and phrases, it requires these three qualities, <i>purity</i>, +<i>propriety,</i> and <i>precision.</i></p> + +<p><i>Purity</i> of language consists in the use of such words and such +constructions as belong to the language which we speak, in opposition to +words and phrases belonging to other languages, or which are obsolete or +new-coined, or employed without proper authority.</p> + +<p><i>Propriety</i> is the choice of those words which the best usage has +appropriated to the ideas which we intend to express by them. It implies +their correct and judicious application, in opposition to low +expressions, and to words and phrases which would be less significant of +the ideas which we wish to convey. It is the union of purity and +propriety, which renders style graceful and perspicuous.</p> + +<p><i>Precision</i>, from <i>præcidere</i>, to cut off, signifies retrenching all +superfluities, and pruning the expression in such a manner as to exhibit +neither more nor less than an exact copy of the ideas intended to be +conveyed.</p> + + +<h4><b>STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.</b></h4> + +<p>A proper construction of sentences is of so great importance in every +species of composition, that we cannot be too strict or minute in our +attention to it.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>Elegance of style requires us generally to <i>avoid</i>, many short or long +sentences in succession; a monotonous correspondence of one member to +another; and the commencing of a piece, section, or paragraph, with a +long sentence.</p></div> + +<p>The qualities most essential to a perfect sentence, are <i>Unity</i>, +<i>Clearness</i>, <i>Strength</i>, and <i>Harmony</i>.</p> + +<p>UNITY is an indispensable property of a correct sentence. A sentence +implies an arrangement of words in which only <i>one</i> proposition is +expressed. It may, indeed, consist of parts; but these parts ought to be +so closely bound together, as to make on the mind the impression, not of +many objects, but of only one. In order to preserve this unity, the +following rules may be useful.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>1. <i>In the course of the sentence, the scene should be changed as little +as possible.</i> In every sentence there is some leading or governing word, +which, if possible, ought to be continued so from the beginning to the +end of it. The following sentence is not constructed according to this +rule: "After we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was +saluted by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness." +In this sentence, though the objects are sufficiently connected, yet, by +shifting so frequently the place and the person, the <i>vessel</i>, the +<i>shore</i>, <i>we</i>, <i>they</i>, <i>I</i> and <i>who</i>, they appear in so disunited a +view, that the mind is led to wander for the sense. The sentence is +restored to its proper unity by constructing it thus: "Having come to +anchor, I was put on shore, where I was saluted by all my friends, who +received me with the greatest kindness."</p> + +<p>2. <i>Never crowd into one sentence things which have so little connexion, +that they would bear to be divided into two or more sentences.</i> The +violation of this rule produces so unfavorable an effect, that it is +safer to err rather by too many short sentences, than by one that is +overloaded and confused.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Avoid all unnecessary parentheses</i>.</p></div> + +<p>CLEARNESS. <i>Ambiguity</i>, which is opposed to clearness, may arise from a +bad choice, or a bad arrangement of words.</p> + +<p>A leading rule in the arrangement of sentences, is, that <i>those words or +members most nearly related, should be placed in the sentence as near to +each other as possible, so as thereby to make their mutual relation +clearly appear.</i> This rule ought to be observed,</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>1. <i>In the position of adverbs.</i> "By greatness," says Mr. Addison, "I do +not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a +whole view." The improper situation of the adverb <i>only</i>, in this +sentence, renders it a limitation of the verb <i>mean</i>, whereas the author +intended to have it qualify the phrase, <i>a single object;</i> thus, "By +greatness, I do not mean the bulk of any single object <i>only</i>, but the +largeness of a whole view."</p> + +<p>2. <i>In the position of phrases and members.</i> "Are these designs which +any man who is born a Briton, in any circumstances, in any situation, +ought to be ashamed or afraid to avow?" Corrected: "Are these designs +which any man who is born a Briton, ought to be ashamed or afraid, <i>in +any circumstances</i>, <i>in any situation</i>, to avow?"</p> + +<p>3. <i>In the position of pronouns.</i> The reference of a pronoun to its +noun, should always be <i>so clear that we cannot possibly mistake it:</i> +otherwise the noun ought to be repeated. "It is folly to pretend to arm +ourselves against the accidents of life, by heaping up treasures, which +nothing can protect us against but the good providence of our Heavenly +Father." <i>Which</i>, in this sentence, grammatically refers to <i>treasures;</i> +and this would convert the whole period into nonsense. The sentence +should have been thus constructed, "It is folly to pretend, by heaping +up treasures, to arm ourselves against the <i>accidents</i> of life, against +<i>which</i> nothing can protect us but the good providence of our Heavenly +Father."</p></div> + +<p>STRENGTH. By the <i>strength</i> of a sentence is meant such an arrangement +of its several words and members, as exhibits the sense to the best +advantage, and gives every word and member its due weight and force.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>1. The first rule for promoting the strength of a sentence, is, to <i>take +from it all redundant words and members.</i> Whatever can be easily +supplied in the mind, should generally be omitted; thus, "Content with +deserving a triumph, he refused the honor of it," is better than to say, +"<i>Being</i> content with deserving a triumph." &c. "They returned back +again to the same city from whence they came forth." If we expunge from +this snort sentence <i>five</i> which are were expletives, it will be much +more neat and forcible thus, "They returned to the city whence they +came." But we should be cautious of pruning so closely as to give a +hardness and dryness to the style. Some leaves must be left to shelter +and adorn the fruit.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Particular attention to the use of copulatives, relatives, and all +the particles employed for transition and connexion, is required</i>. In +compositions of an elevated character, the <i>relative</i> should generally +be inserted. An injudicious repetition of <i>and</i> enfeebles style; but +when enumerating objects which we wish to have appear as distinct from +each other as possible, it may be repeated with peculiar advantage; +thus, "Such a man may fall a victim to power; but truth, <i>and</i> reason, +<i>and</i> liberty, would fall with him."</p> + +<p>3. <i>Dispose of the capital word or words in that part of the sentence in +which they will make the most striking impression</i>.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Cause the members of a sentence to go on rising in their importance +one above another</i>. In a sentence of two members, the longer should +generally be the concluding one.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Avoid concluding a sentence with an adverb, a preposition, or any +inconsiderable word, unless it be emphatical</i>.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Where two things are compared or contrasted with each other, a +resemblance in the language and construction should be observed</i>.</p></div> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h4><b><a name="FIGURES_OF_SPEECH"></a>FIGURES OF SPEECH.</b></h4> + +<p>Figures of Speech may be described as that language which is prompted +either by the imagination, or by the passions. They generally imply some +departure from simplicity of expression; and exhibit ideas in a manner +more vivid and impressive, than could be done by plain language. Figures +have been commonly divided into two great classes; Figures of <i>Words</i>, +and Figures of <i>Thought</i>.</p> + +<p>Figures of Words are called <i>Tropes</i>, and consist in a word's being +employed to signify something that is different from its original +meaning; so that by altering the word, we destroy the figure.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>When we say of a person, that he has a fine <i>taste</i> in wines, the word +taste is used in its common, literal sense; but when we say, he has a +fine <i>taste</i> for painting, poetry, or music, we use the word +figuratively. "A good man enjoys comfort in the midst of adversity," is +simple language; but when it is said, "To the upright there ariseth +<i>light</i> in <i>darkness</i>," the same sentiment is expressed in a figurative +style, <i>light</i> is put in the place of <i>comfort</i>, and <i>darkness</i> is used +to suggest the idea of <i>adversity</i>.</p></div> + +<p>The following are the most important figures:</p> + +<p>1. A METAPHOR is founded on the resemblance which one object bears to +another; or, it is a comparison in an abridged form.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>When I say of some great minister, "That he upholds the state like a +<i>pillar</i> which supports the weight of a whole edifice," I fairly make a +comparison; but when I say of such a minister, "That he is the <i>pillar</i> +of the state," the word pillar becomes a metaphor. In the latter +construction, the comparison between the minister and a pillar, is made +in the mind; but it is expressed without any of the words that denote +comparison.</p> + +<p>Metaphors abound in all writings. In the scriptures they may be found in +vast variety. Thus, our blessed Lord is called a vine, a lamb, a lion, +&c.; and men, according to their different dispositions, are styled +wolves, sheep, dogs, serpents, vipers, &c.</p> + +<p>Washington Irving, in speaking of the degraded state of the American +Aborigines who linger on the borders of the "white settlements," employs +the following beautiful metaphor: "The proud <i>pillar</i> of their +independence has been shaken down, and the whole moral <i>fabric</i> lies in +ruins."</p></div> + +<p>2. AN ALLEGORY may be regarded as a metaphor continued; or it is several +metaphors so connected together in sense, as frequently to form a kind +of parable or fable. It differs from a single metaphor, in the same +manner that a cluster on the vine differs from a single grape.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>The following is a fine example of an allegory, taken from the 60th +psalm; wherein the people of Israel are represented under the image of a +vine. "Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast cast out the +heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it; and didst cause +it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered +with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly +cedars. She sent out her boughs into the sea, and her branches into the +river."</p></div> + +<p>3. A SIMILE or COMPARISON is when the resemblance between two objects, +whether real or imaginary, is expressed in form.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>Thus, we use a simile, when we say, "The actions of princes are like +those great rivers, the course of which every one beholds, but their +springs have been seen by few." "As the mountains are round about +Jerusalem, so the Lord is round about his people." "The music of Caryl +was like the memory of joys that are past, pleasant and mournful to the +soul." "Our Indians are like those wild plants which thrive best in the +shade, but which wither when exposed to the influence of the sun."</p> + +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>"The Assyrian came down, like the wolf on the fold,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>And his cohorts were gleaming with purple and gold;</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea,</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee."</span><br /></div> + +<p>4. A METONYMY is where the cause is put for the effect, or the effect +for the cause; the container for the thing contained; or the sign for +the thing signified.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>When we say, "They read <i>Milton</i>," the cause is put for the effect, +meaning "Milton's <i>works</i>." "Gray hairs should be respected;" here the +effect is put for the cause; meaning by "gray hairs," <i>old age</i>, which +produces gray hairs. In the phrase, "The kettle boils," the container is +substituted for the thing contained. "He addressed the <i>chair</i>;" that +is, the person in the chair.</p></div> + +<p>5. A SYNECDOCHE OR COMPREHENSION. When the whole is put for a part, or a +part for the whole; a genus for a species, or a species for a genus; in +general, when any thing less, or any thing more, is put for the precise +object meant, the figure is called a Synecdoche.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>Thus, "A fleet of twenty <i>sail</i>, instead of, <i>ships</i>." "The <i>horse</i> is a +noble animal;" "The <i>dog</i> is a faithful creature:" here an individual is +put for the species. We sometimes use the "head" for the <i>person</i>, and +the "waves" for the <i>sea</i>. In like manner, an attribute may be pat for a +subject; as "Youth" for the <i>young</i>, the "deep" for the <i>sea</i>.</p></div> + +<p>6. PERSONIFICATION or PROSOPOPOEIA is that figure by which we attribute +life and action to inanimate objects. When we say, "The ground <i>thirsts</i> +for rain," or, "the earth <i>smiles</i> with plenty;" when we speak of +"ambition's being <i>restless</i>," or, "a disease's being <i>deceitful</i>;" such +expressions show the facility, with which the mind can accommodate the +properties of living creatures to things that are inanimate.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>The following are fine examples of this figure:</p> + +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>"Cheer'd with the grateful smell, old <i>Ocean smiles</i>;"</span><br /> + +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>"The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them; and</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose."</span><br /></div> + +<p>7. AN APOSTROPHE is an address to some person, either absent or dead, as +if he were present and listening to us. The address is frequently made +to a personified object; as, "Death is swallowed up in victory. O +<i>death!</i> where is thy sting? O <i>grave!</i> where is thy victory?"</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>"Weep on the rock of roaring winds, O <i>maid</i> of Inistore; bend thy +fair head over the waves, thou fairer than the ghost of the hills, +when it moves in a sun-beam at noon over the silence of Morveu."</p></div> + +<p>8. ANTITHESIS. Comparison is founded on the resemblance, antithesis, on +the contrast or opposition, of two objects.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p><i>Example.</i> "If you wish to enrich a person, study not to <i>increase</i> his +<i>stores</i>, but to <i>diminish</i> his <i>desires."</i></p></div> + +<p>9. HYPERBOLE or EXAGGERATION consists in magnifying an object beyond its +natural bounds. "As swift as the wind; as white as the snow; as slow as +a snail;" and the like, are extravagant hyperboles.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>"I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice; his spear, the blasted +fir; his shield, the rising moon; he sat on the shore, like a cloud +of mist on the bills."</p></div> + +<p>10. VISION is produced, when, in relating something that is past, we use +the present tense, and describe it as actually, passing before our eyes.</p> + +<p>11. INTERROGATION. The literal use of an interrogation, is to ask a +question; but when men are strongly moved, whatever they would affirm or +deny with great earnestness, they naturally put in the form of a +question.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>Thus Balaam expressed himself to Balak: "The Lord is not man, that he +should lie, nor the son of man, that he should repeat. Hath he said it? +and shall he not do it? Hath he spoken it? and shall he not make it +good?" "Hast thou an arm like God? or canst thou thunder with a voice +like him?"</p></div> + +<p>12. EXCLAMATIONS are the effect of strong emotions, such a surprise, +admiration, joy, grief, and the like.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>"O that I had in the wilderness a lodging place of way-faring men!" +"O that I had wings like a dove! for then would I fly away, and be +at rest!"</p></div> + +<p>13. IRONY is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts; +not with a view to deceive, but to add force to our remarks. We can +reprove one for his negligence, by saying, "You have taken great care, +indeed."</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>The prophet Elijah adopted this figure, when he challenged the priests +of Baal to prove the truth of their deity. "He mocked them, and said. +Cry aloud for he is a god: either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or +he is on a journey, or, peradventure, he sleepeth, and must be waked."</p></div> + +<p>14. AMPLIFICATION or CLIMAX consists in heightening all the +circumstances of an object or action, which we desire to place in a +strong light.</p> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>Cicero gives a lively instance of this figure, when he says, "It is a +crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds: it is the height of guilt to +scourge him; little less than parricide to put him to death: what name, +then, shall I give to the act of crucifying him?"</p></div> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h3><b><a name="KEY"></a>KEY.</b></h3> + +<h5><i>Corrections of the False Syntax arranged under the Rules and Notes</i>.</h5> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>RULE 4. Frequent commission of sin <i>hardens</i> men in it. Great pains +<i>have</i> been taken, &c.—<i>is</i> seldom found. The sincere <i>are</i>, &c.—<i>is</i> +happy. What <i>avail</i>, &c.—Disappointments <i>sink</i>—the renewal of hope +<i>gives</i>, &c.—<i>is</i> without limit, <i>has</i> been conferred upon us.—Thou +<i>canst</i> not heal—but thou <i>mayst</i> do, &c.—<i>consists</i> the happiness, +&c.—Who <i>touchedst</i>, or <i>didst touch</i> Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire.</p> + +<p><i>Note 1.</i> And <i>wilt thou</i> never be to Heaven resigned?—And <i>who</i> had +great abilities, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Note 2.</i> Are peace and honor.—<i>was</i> controversy.</p> + +<p>RULE 7. <i>Them</i> that you visited.—<i>him</i> that was mentioned.—<i>he</i> who +preached repentance, &c.—<i>they</i> who died.—<i>he</i> who succeeded.</p> + +<p>RULE 8. Time and tide <i>wait,</i> &c.—<i>remove</i> mountains.—<i>are</i> both +uncertain.—<i>dwell</i> with, &c.—<i>affect</i> the mind, &c.—What <i>signify</i> +the counsel and care, &c.—<i>are</i> now perished.—Why <i>are</i> whiteness and +coldness, &c.—bind <i>them</i> continually, &c.—render <i>their</i> possessor, +&c.—There <i>are</i> error and discrepance—which <i>show</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>RULE 9. <i>Is</i> the same in idea.—<i>is</i> in the porphyry.—<i>is</i> remarkable, +&c.—which <i>moves</i> merely as <i>it is</i> moved.—<i>affects</i> us, &c.—Man's +happiness or misery <i>is</i>, in a great measure, &c.—for <i>it</i> may be, +&c.—<i>was</i> blameworthy.</p> + +<p>RULE 10. The nation <i>is</i> powerful.—The fleet <i>was</i> seen, &c.—The +church <i>has</i>, &c.—<i>is</i>, or ought to be, the <i>object</i>, &c.—<i>it</i> is +feeble.</p> + +<p>RULE 11. My people <i>do</i>, &c.—The multitude eagerly <i>pursue</i> pleasure as +<i>their</i>, &c.—<i>were</i> divided in <i>their</i> sentiments, and <i>they have</i> +referred, &c.—The people <i>rejoice</i>—give <i>them</i> sorrow.</p> + +<p>RULE 12. <i>Homer's</i> works are, &c.—<i>Asa's</i> heart. <i>James Hart's</i> book.</p> + +<p><i>Note 1.</i> It was the <i>men</i>, <i>women</i>, and children's lot, &c. or, <i>It was +the lot of</i> the men, women, and children.—<i>Peter</i>, <i>John</i>, and +Andrew's, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Note 2.</i> This is <i>Campbell</i> the poet's production; or, <i>The production +of Campbell, &c.</i>—The silk was purchased at Brown's the <i>mercer</i> and +<i>haberdasher.</i></p> + +<p><i>Note</i> 4. The <i>pupil's</i> composing, &c.—<i>rule's</i> being observed.—of the +<i>president's</i> neglecting to lay it before the council.</p> + +<p>RULE 13. Of <i>his</i> audience.—put <i>it</i> on Jacob.—sprinkle <i>them</i>—and +they shall, &c.—of <i>his</i> reputation.</p> + +<p><i>Note</i>. You were blamed; you <i>were</i> worthy.—where <i>were</i> you?—how fat +<i>were</i> you?</p> + +<p>RULE 14. Who <i>hast</i> been, &c.—<i>who is</i> the sixth <i>that has</i> lost <i>his +life</i> by this means.</p> + +<p>Who all my sense <i>confinedst;</i> or, <i>didst confine</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Note</i>. And <i>who broughtest</i> him forth out of Ur.</p> + +<p>RULE 15, <i>Who</i> shall be sent, &c.—This is the man <i>who</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>RULE 16. They <i>to whom</i> much is given, &c.—<i>with whom</i> you associate +&c.—<i>whom</i> I greatly respect, &c.—<i>whom</i> we ought to love, and <i>to +whom</i>, &c—They <i>whom</i> conscience, &c.—With <i>whom</i> did you +walk?—<i>Whom</i> did you see?—To <i>whom</i> did you give the book?</p> + +<p>RULE 17. Who gave John those books? <i>We</i>.—<i>him</i> who lives in Pearl +street—My brother and <i>he</i>.—<i>She</i> and <i>I</i>.</p> + +<p>RULE 18: <i>Note</i> 2. Thirty <i>tuns</i>.—twenty <i>feet</i>—one hundred <i>fathoms</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Note</i> 6. He bought a pair of <i>new</i> shoes—piece of <i>elegant</i> +furniture.—pair of <i>fine</i> horses—tract of <i>poor</i> land.</p> + +<p><i>Note</i> 7. Are still more <i>difficult to be comprehended</i>.—most +<i>doubtful</i>, or <i>precarious</i> way, &c.—<i>This model comes nearer +perfection than any I</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>RULE 19: <i>Note. That</i> sort.—<i>these</i> two hours.—<i>This</i> kind, &c.—He +saw one <i>person</i>, or more <i>than one</i>, enter the garden.</p> + +<p><i>Note</i> 2. Better than <i>himself</i>.—<i>is</i> so small.—<i>his</i> station may be, +<i>is</i> bound by the laws.</p> + +<p><i>Note</i> 3. On <i>each</i> side, &c.—took <i>each</i> his censer.</p> + +<p>RULE 20. <i>Whom</i> did they, &c.—They <i>whom</i> opulence,—<i>whom</i> luxury, +&c.—<i>Him</i> and <i>them</i> we know, &c.—<i>Her</i> that is negligent, &c.—my +brother and <i>me</i> &c.—<i>Whom</i> did they send, &c.—<i>Them whom</i> he, &c.</p> + +<p>RULE 21. It is <i>I</i>.—If I were <i>he</i>.—it is <i>he</i>, indeed.—<i>Whom</i> do +you, &c.—<i>Who</i> do men say, &c.—and <i>who</i> say ye, &c.—<i>whom</i> do you +imagine it to have been?—it was <i>I</i>; but you knew that it was <i>he</i>.</p> + +<p>RULE 25. Bid him <i>come</i>—durst not <i>do</i> it.—Hear him <i>read,</i> &c.—makes +us <i>approve</i> and <i>reject</i>, &c.—better <i>to</i> live—than <i>to</i> outlive, +&c.—<i>to</i> wrestle.</p> + +<p>RULE 26: <i>Note</i>. The taking <i>of</i> pains: or, without taking pains, +&c.—The changing <i>of</i> times,—the removing and setting up <i>of</i> kings.</p> + +<p>RULE 28: <i>Note</i> 3. He <i>did</i> me—I had <i>written</i>—he <i>came</i> +home.—<i>befallen</i> my cousin—he would have <i>gone</i>.—already <i>risen</i>.—is +<i>begun</i>.—is <i>spoken</i>.—would have <i>written</i>—had they <i>written</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>RULE 29: <i>Note</i> 1. It cannot, <i>therefore</i>, be, &c.—he was <i>not often</i> +pleasing.—should <i>never</i> be separated.—We may live <i>happily</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>RULE 30: <i>Note</i>. I don't know <i>any thing</i>; or, I <i>know</i> nothing, &c.—I +did not see <i>anybody</i>; or, I saw <i>nobody</i>, &c.—Nothing ever <i>affects</i> +her.—<i>and</i> take no shape <i>or</i> semblance, &c.—There <i>can</i> be nothing, +&c.—<i>Neither</i> precept <i>nor</i> discipline is so forcible as example.</p> + +<p>RULE 31. For <i>himself</i>.—among <i>themselves</i>.—<i>with whom</i> he is, +&c.—<i>With whom</i> did, &c.—<i>From whom</i> did you receive instruction?</p> + +<p>RULE 33. My brother and <i>he</i>, &c.—You and <i>I</i>, &c. <i>He</i> and I—John and +<i>he</i>, &c.—Between you and <i>me</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>RULE 34. And <i>entreat</i> me, &c.—and <i>acting</i> differently, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Note</i> 1. But <i>he</i> may return—but <i>he</i> will write no more.</p> + +<p><i>Note</i> 2. Unless it <i>rain</i>.—If he <i>acquire</i> riches, &c.</p> + +<p>RULE 35. Than <i>I</i>—as well as <i>he</i>, than <i>they</i>.—but <i>he</i>.—but <i>he</i> +and <i>I</i>.—but <i>them</i> who had gone astray.</p> + +<p><i>Promiscuous Examples</i>.—<i>Him</i> who is from eternity, &c.—<i>depends</i> all +the happiness,—which <i>exists</i>, &c.—the enemies <i>whom</i>, &c.—Is it <i>I</i> +or <i>he whom</i> you requested?—Though great <i>have</i> been,—sincerely +<i>acknowledge</i>.—There <i>was</i>, in the metropolis.—exercising our +memories.—<i>was</i> consumed.—Affluence <i>may</i> give—but <i>it</i> will not.—of +this world often choke.—<i>Them</i> that honor,—and <i>they</i> that despise.—I +intended <i>to call</i> last week.—the fields look <i>fresh</i> and <i>gay</i>.—very +<i>neatly, finely woven</i> paper.—where I <i>saw</i> Gen. Andrew Jackson, <i>him</i> +who.—Take the <i>first two</i>,—<i>last three</i>.—thirty <i>feet</i> high.—<i>a</i> +union,—<i>a</i> hypothesis.—I have <i>seen</i> him <i>to whom</i> you wrote, he would +have <i>come</i> back, or <i>returned</i>.—<i>understands</i> the nature,—he +<i>rejects</i>.—If thou <i>study</i>,—thou <i>wilt</i> become.—is not <i>properly</i> +attended to.—He <i>knew</i>.—therefore, to <i>have</i> done it,—<i>than</i> the +title.—very <i>independently</i>.—duty to <i>do</i>.—my <i>friend's</i> +entering.—is the <i>best</i> specimen, or it <i>comes nearer</i> perfection <i>than +any</i>, &c.—blow <i>them</i>, will go, &c.—<i>Each of those two authors has +his</i> merit.—<i>Reason's</i> whole,—<i>lie</i> in.—<i>strikes</i> the mind,—than if +<i>the parts had been adjusted</i>,—with <i>perfect</i> symmetry.</p> + +<p>Satire <i>does</i> not carry in <i>it</i>.—<i>composes</i> the triangle.—<i>persons'</i> +opportunities were <i>ever</i>.—It <i>has been</i> reported.—should <i>never</i> +be.—situation <i>in which</i>.—<i>is</i> thoroughly versed in <i>his</i>.—<i>are</i> the +soul,—<i>follows</i> little.—An army <i>presents</i>.—<i>are</i> the <i>duties</i> of a +christian.—happier than <i>he</i>.—<i>always</i> have <i>inclined</i>, and <i>which +always</i> will incline him to offend.—which <i>require</i> great.—<i>Them</i> that +honor me, will I.—<i>has</i> opinions peculiar to <i>itself</i>.—that <i>it may</i> +be said <i>he attained</i> monarchical.—<i>hast</i> permitted,—<i>wilt</i> +deliver.—<i>was</i> formerly propagated.—the measure <i>is</i>,—unworthy +your.—<i>were</i> faithless.—After I <i>had</i> visited.—nor shall <i>I</i>, +consent.—Yesterday I intended to <i>walk</i> out, but <i>was</i>.—<i>make</i> or +<i>are</i> thirteen,—<i>leave</i> three.—If he <i>go</i>,—make <i>the eighth time</i> +that he <i>will have</i> visited.—<i>is</i> nobler.—was possessed, or <i>that +ever</i> can be.—one great <i>edifice</i>,—smaller <i>ones</i>.—honesty <i>is</i>.—it +to <i>be</i>.—<i>will</i> follow me,—I <i>shall</i> dwell.—<i>is</i> gone astray.—he +could, not <i>have done</i>.—<i>feeling</i> a propensity.</p></div> +<br /> + +<h4>PUNCTUATION.</h4> + +<h5>COMMA.</h5> + +<h5><i>Corrections of the Exercises in Punctuation</i>.</h5> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>RULE 1. Idleness is the great fomenter of all corruptions in the human +heart. The friend of order has made half his way to virtue. All finery +is a sign of littleness.</p> + +<p>RULE 2. The indulgence of a harsh disposition, is the introduction to +future misery. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real +defect in character. The intermixture of evil in human society, serves +to exercise the suffering graces and virtues of the good.</p> + +<p>RULE 3. Charity, like the sun, brightens all its objects. Gentleness is, +in truth, the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. You, too, have your +failings. Humility and knowledge, with poor apparel, excel pride and +ignorance, under costly attire. The best men often experience +disappointments. Advice should be seasonably administered. No assumed +behavior can always hide the real character.</p> + +<p>RULE 4. Lord, thou hast been our dwelling place in all generations. +Continue, my dear child, to make virtue thy chief study. Canst thou +expect, thou betrayer of innocence, to escape the hand of vengeance? +Death, the king of terrors, chose a prime minister. Hope, the balm of +life, sooths us under every misfortune. Confucius, the great Chinese +philosopher, was eminently good, as well as wise. The patriarch Joseph +is an illustrious example of true piety.</p> + +<p>RULE 5. Peace of mind being secured, we may smile at misfortune. To +enjoy present pleasure, he sacrificed his future ease and reputation. +His talents, formed for great enterprises, could not fail of rendering +him conspicuous. The path of piety and virtue, pursued with a firm and +constant spirit, will assuredly lead to happiness. All mankind compose +one family, assembled under the eye of one common Father.</p></div> + +<h5>KEY TO THE EXERCISES.</h5> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>RULE 6. We have no reason to complain of the lot of man, nor of the +mutability of the world. Sensuality contaminates the body, depresses the +understanding, deadens the moral feelings of the heart, and degrades man +from his rank in creation.</p> + +<p>Self-conceit, presumption, and obstinacy, blast the prospect of many a +youth. He is alternately supported by his father, his uncle, and his +elder brother. The man of virtue and honor, will be trusted, relied +upon, and esteemed. Conscious guilt renders one mean-spirited, timorous, +and base. An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what is +just and true, lovely, honest, and of good report. Habits of reading, +writing, and thinking, are the indispensable qualifications of a good +student. The great business of life is, to be employed in doing justly, +loving mercy, and walking humbly with our God. To live soberly, +righteously, and piously, comprehends the whole of our duty.</p> + +<p>In our health, life, possessions, connexions, pleasures, there are +causes of decay imperceptibly working. Deliberate slowly, execute +promptly. An idle, trifling society, is near akin to such as is +corrupting. This unhappy person had been seriously, affectionately +admonished, but in vain.</p> + +<p>RULE 7. How much better it is to get wisdom than gold. The friendships +of the world can exist no longer than interest cements them. Eat what is +set before you. They who excite envy, will easily incur censure. A man +who is of a detracting spirit, will misconstrue the most innocent words +that can be put together. Many of the evils which occasion our +complaints of the world, are wholly imaginary.</p> + +<p>The gentle mind is like the smooth stream, which reflects every object +in its just proportion, and in its fairest colors. In that unaffected +civility which springs from a gentle mind, there is an incomparable +charm. The Lord, whom I serve, is eternal. This, is the man we saw +yesterday.</p> + +<p>RULE 8. Idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad passions. True +friendship will, at all times, avoid a rough or careless behavior. +Health and peace, a moderate fortune, and a few friends, sum up all the +undoubted articles of temporal felicity. Truth is fair and artless, +simple and sincere, uniform and consistent. Intemperance destroys the +strength of our bodies and the vigor of our minds.</p> + +<p>RULE 9. As a companion, he was severe and satirical; as a friend, +captious and dangerous. If the spring put forth no blossoms, in summer +there will be no beauty, and in autumn, no fruit. So, if youth be +trifled away without improvement, manhood will be contemptible, and old +age, miserable.</p> + +<p>RULE 10. They believed he was dead. He did not know that I was the man. +I knew she was still alive. The greatest misery is, to be condemned by +our own hearts. The greatest misery that we can endure, is, to be +condemned by our own hearts.</p></div> + +<h5>SEMICOLON.</h5> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>RULE 1. The path of truth is a plain and safe path; that of falsehood is +a perplexing maze. Heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship; +hell, of fierceness and animosity. As there is a worldly happiness, +which God perceives to be no other than disguised misery; as there are +worldly honors, which, in his estimation, are a reproach; so, there is a +worldly wisdom, which, in his sight, is foolishness.</p> + +<span style='margin-left: 1em;'>But all subsists by elemental strife;</span><br /> +<span style='margin-left: 1em;'>And passions are the elements of life.</span><br /></div> + +<h5>COLON.</h5> + +<div class='smalltext'><p>RULE 1. The three great enemies to tranquillity, are vice, superstition, +and idleness: vice, which poisons and disturbs the mind with bad +passions; superstition, which fills it with imaginary terrors; idleness, +which loads it with tediousness and disgust.</p></div> + +<hr style='width: 95%;' /> + +<h3>FOOTNOTES.</h3> + +<p><a href='#FN_anchor_1'>[1]</a><a name='Footnote_1'></a> The word <i>thing</i>, from the Saxon verb <i>thingian</i>, to think, is +almost unlimited in its meaning. It may be applied to every animal +and creature in the universe. By the term creature, I mean that +which has been created; as, a dog, water, dirt. This word is also +frequently applied to actions; as, "To get drunk is a beastly +<i>thing</i>." In this phrase, it signifies neither animal nor creature; +but it denotes merely an action; therefore this action is the thing.</p> + +<p><a href='#FN_anchor_2'>[2]</a><a name='Footnote_2'></a> Genii, imaginary spirits: geniuses, persons of great mental +abilities.</p> + +<p><a href='#FN_anchor_3'>[3]</a><a name='Footnote_3'></a> Indexes, when pointers or tables of contents are meant: indices, +when referring to algebraic quantities.</p> + +<p><a href='#FN_anchor_4'>[4]</a><a name='Footnote_4'></a> In the note next preceding, it is asserted, that my, thy, his, +her, our your, and their, are personal pronouns. What can more +clearly demonstrate the correctness of that assertion, than this +latter construction of the word theirs? All admit, that, in the +construction, "The faith <i>of them</i>," the word <i>them</i>, is a personal +pronoun: and for this conclusive reason:—it represents a noun +understood. What, then, is <i>their</i>, in the phrase, "their faith?" Is +it not obvious, that, if <i>them</i> is a personal pronoun, <i>their</i> must +be, also? for the latter represents the same noun as the former.</p> + +<p><a href='#FN_anchor_5'>[5]</a><a name='Footnote_5'></a> The second person singular of <i>do</i>, when used as a principal +verb, is spelled with an <i>e</i>; thus, "What thou <i>doest</i>, do quickly;" +but when employed as an auxiliary, the <i>e</i> should be omitted; as, +"<i>Dost</i> thou not <i>behold</i> a rock with its head of heath?"</p> + +<p><a href='#FN_anchor_6'>[6]</a><a name='Footnote_6'></a> The men were drunk; i.e. inebriated. The toasts were drank.</p> + +<p><a href='#FN_anchor_7'>[7]</a><a name='Footnote_7'></a> Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its compound forgotten, is still in +good use.</p> + +<p><a href='#FN_anchor_8'>[8]</a><a name='Footnote_8'></a> Ridden is nearly obsolete.</p> + +<p><a href='#FN_anchor_9'>[9]</a><a name='Footnote_9'></a> Sang and sank should not be used in familiar style.</p> + +<p><a href='#FN_anchor_10'>[10]</a><a name='Footnote_10'></a> Spitten is nearly obsolete.</p> + +<p><a href='#FN_anchor_11'>[11]</a><a name='Footnote_11'></a> The correctness and importance of this rule appear to be so +obvious, as to render it not a little surprising, that any <i>writer</i>, +possessing the least degree of rhetorical taste, should reject it. I +am bold to affirm, that it is observed by every correct reader and +speaker; and yet, strange as it may seem, it is generally violated +by those printers who punctuate by the ear, and all others who are +influenced by their pernicious example; thus, "The head, the heart +and the hands, should be constantly and actively employed in doing +good." Why do they not omit the comma where the conjunction is +understood? It would be doing no greater violence to the principles +of elocution; thus, "The head the heart and the hands, should be, +&c." or thus, "The head the heart, and the hands, should be +employed," &c. Who does not perceive that the latter pause, where +the conjunction is expressed, is as necessary as the former, where +the conjunction is understood? And, since this is the case, what +fair objection can be made to the following method of punctuation? +"The head, the heart, and the hands, should be constantly and +actively employed in doing good;" "She is a woman, gentle, sensible, +well-educated, and religious."</p> + +<p><a href='#FN_anchor_12'>[12]</a><a name='Footnote_12'></a> As a considerable pause in pronunciation is necessary between +the last noun and the verb, a comma should be inserted to denote it; +but as no pause is allowable between the last adjective and the +noun, or between the last adverb and the verb, the comma, in such +instances, is properly omitted; thus, "David was a brave, wise, and +<i>pious</i> man."</p> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14070 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + + |