diff options
Diffstat (limited to '14041-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/14041-h.htm | 4094 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/13a.png | bin | 0 -> 478103 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/13a_th.jpg | bin | 0 -> 23739 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/13b.png | bin | 0 -> 791639 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/13b_th.jpg | bin | 0 -> 36934 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/13c.png | bin | 0 -> 686678 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/13c_th.jpg | bin | 0 -> 34350 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/14a.png | bin | 0 -> 335576 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/14a_th.jpg | bin | 0 -> 45867 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/1a.png | bin | 0 -> 179875 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/1a_th.jpg | bin | 0 -> 49812 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/1b.png | bin | 0 -> 717251 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/1b_th.jpg | bin | 0 -> 19970 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/1c.png | bin | 0 -> 16189 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/1c_th.jpg | bin | 0 -> 14016 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/1d.png | bin | 0 -> 719104 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/1d_th.jpg | bin | 0 -> 34897 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/2a.png | bin | 0 -> 342195 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/2a_th.jpg | bin | 0 -> 40722 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/2b.png | bin | 0 -> 109203 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/2b_th.jpg | bin | 0 -> 8327 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/3a.png | bin | 0 -> 245240 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/3a_th.jpg | bin | 0 -> 18802 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/4a.png | bin | 0 -> 150880 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/4a_th.jpg | bin | 0 -> 12299 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/5a.png | bin | 0 -> 184924 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/5a_th.jpg | bin | 0 -> 26195 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/7a.png | bin | 0 -> 399345 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/7a_th.jpg | bin | 0 -> 20425 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/8a.png | bin | 0 -> 233559 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/8a_th.jpg | bin | 0 -> 15715 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/8b.png | bin | 0 -> 226316 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/8b_th.jpg | bin | 0 -> 15786 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/9a.png | bin | 0 -> 688183 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/9a_th.jpg | bin | 0 -> 45986 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/9b.png | bin | 0 -> 606135 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/9b_th.jpg | bin | 0 -> 37781 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/tex1.png | bin | 0 -> 4137 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 14041-h/images/tex2.png | bin | 0 -> 3338 bytes |
39 files changed, 4094 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/14041-h/14041-h.htm b/14041-h/14041-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3005d32 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/14041-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,4094 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy, see www.w3.org"> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= +"text/html; charset=UTF-8"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American +Supplement, January 3, 1885.</title> +<style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- +body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white} +img {border: 0;} +h1,h2,h3 {text-align: center;} +.note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;} +.ind {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} +hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} +.ctr {text-align: center;} + +table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span {display: block; margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + +</style> +</head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14041 ***</div> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/1a.png"><img src= +"./images/1a_th.jpg" alt="TITLE"></a></p> + +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 470</h1> + +<h2>NEW YORK, JANUARY 3, 1885</h2> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIX, No. 470.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> + +<hr> +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">I.</td> +<td><a href="#1">METALLURGY, CHEMISTRY, ETC.—The Elasticity +of Metals.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#2">The Liquefaction of the Elementary Gases.—By +JULES JAMIN.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#20">Examination of Fats.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#3">Notes on Nitrification.—By R. +WARINGTON.—Paper read before the British Association at +Montreal.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">II.</td> +<td><a href="#4">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.—Flow of Water +through Hose Pipes.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#5">Iron Pile Planks in the Construction of +Foundations under Water.—3 engravings.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#6">Sound Signals.—Extracts from a paper by A.B. +JOHNSON.—Treating of gongs, guns, rockets, bells, whistling +buoys, bell buoys, locomotive whistles, trumpets, the siren, and +the use of natural orifices.—2 engravings.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#7">Trevithick's High Pressure Engine at +Crewe.—2 engravings.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#8">Planetary Wheel Trains.—By Prof. C.W. +MACCORD.—With a page and a half of illustrations.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#9">Bridge over the River Indus, at Attock. Punjaub, +Northern State Railway, India.—Full page +illustrations.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#10">The Harrington Rotary Engine.—3 +figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">III.</td> +<td><a href="#11">TECHNOLOGY.—Testing Car Varnishes.—By +D.D. ROBERTSON.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#12">Aniline Dyes in Dress Materials.—By Prof. +CHAS. O'NEILL.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">IV.</td> +<td><a href="#13">DECORATIVE ART.—A. Chippendale +Sideboard.—With engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">V.</td> +<td><a href="#14">PHYSICS, MAGNETISM, ETC.—The Fallacy of the +Present Theory of Sound.—Abstract of a lecture by Dr. H.A. +MOTT.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#15">The Fixation of Magnetic Phantoms.—With +engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VI.</td> +<td><a href="#16">NATURAL HISTORY.—Researches on the Origin +and Life Histories of the Least and Lowest Living Things—-By +Rev. W.H. DALLINGER.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VII.</td> +<td><a href="#17">MEDICINE, ETC.—Case of Resuscitation and +Recovery after Apparent Death by Hanging.—by Dr. E.W. +WHITE.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VIII.</td> +<td><a href="#18">MISCELLANEOUS.—The Inventors' +Institute.—Address of the Chairman at the opening of the +twenty-second session of the Institute, October 2.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#19">The New Central School at Paris.—3 +engravings.</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr> +<p><a name="4"></a></p> + +<h2>FLOW OF WATER THROUGH HOSE PIPES.</h2> + +<p>At a recent meeting in this city of the American Society of +Civil Engineers, a paper by Edmund B. Weston was read, giving the +description and result of experiments on the flow of water through +a 2½ inch hose and through nozzles of various forms and +sizes; also giving the results of experiments as to the height of +jets of water. The experiments were made at Providence, R.I. The +water was taken from a hydrant to the head of which were attached +couplings holding two pressure gauges, and from the couplings the +hose extended to a tank holding 2,100 gallons, so arranged as to +measure accurately the time and amount of delivery of water by the +hose. Different lengths of hose were used. The experiments resulted +in the following formula for flow from coupling:</p> + +<p>1. For hose between 90 and 100 feet in length, and where great +accuracy is required:</p> + +<p><img src="./images/tex1.png" align="middle" alt= +"V = \sqrt{\frac{2gh}{1 - 0.0256 d^4 + (0.0087 + \frac{0.504}{\sqrt{v}}) 0.12288 d^4 l}}."> +</p> + +<p>2. For all lengths of hose, a reliable general formula:</p> + +<p><img src="./images/tex2.png" align="middle" alt= +"V = \sqrt{\frac{h}{0.0155463 - 0.000398 d^4 + 0.0000362962 d^4 l}}."> +</p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>g</i> being velocity of +efflux in feet per second.</span><br> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>h</i>, head in feet indicated by +gauge.</span><br> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>d</i>, of coupling in +inches.</span><br> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>l</i>, length of hose in feet +from gauge.</span><br> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>v</i>, velocity in 2½ +inch hose.</span><br> +</p> + +<p>Forty-five experiments were made on ring nozzles, resulting in +the following formula:</p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>f</i> = +0.001135<i>v</i>².</span><br> +</p> + +<p><i>f</i> being loss of head in feet owing to resistance of +nozzle, and <i>v</i> the velocity of the contracted vein in feet +per second.</p> + +<p>Thirty-five experiments were made with smooth nozzles, resulting +in the following formula:</p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>f</i> = 0.0009639 +<i>v</i>².</span><br> +</p> + +<p><i>f</i> being the loss of head in feet owing to resistance, and +<i>v</i> the velocity of efflux in feet per second.</p> + +<p>Experiments show that a prevailing opinion is incorrect that +jets will rise higher from ring nozzles than from smooth +nozzles.</p> + +<p>Box's formula for height of jets of water compares very +favorably with experimental results.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="5"></a></p> + +<h2>IRON PILE PLANKS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF FOUNDATIONS UNDER +WATER.</h2> + +<p>The annexed engravings illustrate a method of constructing +subaqueous foundations by the use of iron pile planks. These +latter, by reason of their peculiar form, present a great +resistance, not only to the vertical blow of the pile driver (as it +is indispensable that they should), but also to horizontal pressure +when excavating is being done or masonry being constructed within +the space which they circumscribe. Polygonal or curved perimeters +may be circumscribed with equal facility by joining the piles, the +sides of one serving as a guide to that of its neighbor, and +special pieces being adapted to the angles. Preliminary studies +will give the dimensions, form, and strength of the iron to be +employed. The latter, in fact, will be rolled to various +thicknesses according to the application to be made of it. We may +remark that the strength of the iron, aside from that which is +necessary to allow the pile to withstand a blow in a vertical +direction, will not have to be calculated for all entire resistance +to the horizontal pressure due to a vacuum caused by the +excavation, for the stiffness of the piles may be easily maintained +and increased by establishing string-pieces and braces in the +interior in measure as the excavation goes on.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/1b.png"><img src= +"./images/1b_th.jpg" alt= +" FIG. 1.—CONSTRUCTION OF A DOCK WALL BEHIND PAPONOTS IRON PILE PLANKS."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.—CONSTRUCTION OF A DOCK WALL BEHIND +PAPONOTS IRON PILE PLANKS.</p> + +<p>The system is applicable to at least three different kinds of +work: (1) The making of excavations with a dredge and afterward +concreting without pumping out the water. (2) The removal of earth +or the construction of masonry under protection from water (Fig. +1). (3) The making of excavations by dredging and afterward +concreting without pumping, mid then, after the beton has set, +pumping out the water in order to continue the masonry in the open +air. This construction of masonry in the open air has the great +advantage of allowing the water to evaporate from the mortar, and +consequently of causing it to dry and effect a quick and perfect +cohesion of the materials employed.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/1c.png"><img src= +"./images/1c_th.jpg" alt= +" FIG. 2.—TRAVERSE SECTION OF TWO PILES CONNECTED BY MORTAR JOINTS."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.—TRAVERSE SECTION OF TWO PILES +CONNECTED BY MORTAR JOINTS.</p> + +<p>This system may likewise be employed with advantage for the +forming of stockades in rivers, or for building sea walls. A single +row of pile planks will in many cases suffice for the construction +of dock walls in the river or ocean when the opposite side is to be +filled in, or in any other analogous case (Fig. 1).</p> + +<p>The piles are driven by means of the ordinary apparatus in use. +Their heads are covered with a special apparatus to prevent them +from being flattened out under the blows of the pile driver. They +may be made in a single piece or be composed of several sections +connected together with rivets. They are designed according to +circumstances, to be left in the excavation in order to protect the +masonry, or to be removed in their entirety or in parts, as is done +with caissons. In case they are to remain wholly or in part in the +excavation, they are previously galvanized or painted with an +inoxidizable coating in order to protect them and increase their +durability.</p> + +<p>The points of the piles, whatever be their form and arrangement, +are strengthened by means of steel pieces, which assure of their +penetrating hard and compact earth.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/1d.png"><img src= +"./images/1d_th.jpg" alt= +" FIG. 3.—DREDGING WITHIN A SPACE CIRCUMSCRIBED BY IRON PILE PLANKS."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 3.—DREDGING WITHIN A SPACE CIRCUMSCRIBED +BY IRON PILE PLANKS.</p> + +<p>Fig. 2 represents a dredge at work within a space entirely +circumscribed by pile planks. Here, after the excavation is +finished, beton will be put down by means of boxes with hinged +bottoms, and the water will afterward be pumped out in order to +allow the masonry to be constructed in the open air. Fig. 3 shows a +transverse section of two of these pile planks united by mortar +joints. This system is the invention of Mr. Papenot.—<i>Revue +Industrielle.</i></p> + +<hr> +<h2>AN ATMOSPHERIC BATTERY.</h2> + +<p>Great ingenuity is being shown in the arrangement of new forms +of primary batteries. The latest is that devised by M. Jablochkoff, +which acts by the effect of atmospheric moisture upon the metal +sodium. A small rod of this metal is flattened into a plate, +connected at one end to a copper wire. There is another plate of +carbon, not precisely the same as that used for arc lights or +ordinary batteries, but somewhat lighter in texture. This plate is +perforated, and provided with small wooden pegs. The sodium plate +is wrapped in silk paper, and pressed upon the carbon in such a +manner that the wooden pegs penetrate the soft sodium. For greater +security the whole is tied together with a few turns of fine iron +wire; care being taken that the wire does not form an electric +contact between the sodium and the carbon. The element is then +complete, the carbon and the small copper wire being the +electrodes. The sodium, on exposure to the air, becomes oxidized, +forming caustic soda, which with the moisture of the air dissolves, +and drains gradually away in the form of a concentrated solution; +thus constantly exposing the fresh surface of the metal, which +renders the reaction continuous. The price of the element is lower +than would be expected at first sight from the employment of so +expensive a metal. The present cost of sodium is 10 frs. per +kilogramme; but M. Jablochkoff thinks that on the large scale the +metal might be obtained at a very low figure. The elements are +grouped in sets of ten, hung upon rods in such a manner that the +solution as formed may drain off. Such a battery continues in +action as long as the air contains moisture; the only means of +stopping it is to shut it up in an air-tight case. The +electro-motive force depends on the degree of humidity in the air, +and also upon the temperature.</p> + +<hr> +<p>ANALYSIS OF PERFUMED SCOURING PASTES.—The analysis of No. +1 resulted in water and traces of myrbane oil, 3.66 per cent.; +fatty acid, melting at 104° F., 54.18 per cent.; iron peroxide, +10.11 per cent.; silicic acid, 14.48 per cent.; alumina, 17.31 per +cent.; lime and magnesia, traces. The iron peroxide is partly +soluble in hydrochloric acid, the alumina entirely so as silicate. +The scouring paste, therefore, is composed of 54 per cent. fatty +(palm oil) acid, 10 per cent. jeweler's rouge, 32 per cent. +pumice-stone powder.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="6"></a></p> + +<h2>SOUND SIGNALS.</h2> + +<p>In Appleton's "Annual Cyclopædia" for 1883, Mr. Arnold B. +Johnson, Chief Clerk of the Lighthouse Board, contributes a mass of +very interesting information, under the above title. His +descriptions of the most approved inventions relating thereto are +interesting, and we make the following extracts:</p> + +<p>The sound signals generally used to guide mariners, especially +during fogs, are, with certain modifications, sirens, trumpets, +steam-whistles, bell-boats, bell-buoys, whistling buoys, bells +struck by machinery, cannons fired by powder or gun cotton, +rockets, and gongs.</p> + +<p><i>Gongs.</i>—Gongs are somewhat used on lightships, +especially in British waters. They are intended for use at close +quarters. Leonce Reynaud, of the French lighthouse service, has +given their mean effective range as barely 550 yards. They are of +most use in harbors, short channels, and like places, where a long +range would be unnecessary. They have been used but little in +United States waters. The term "effective range" is used here to +signify the actual distance at which, under the most unfavorable +circumstances, a signal can generally be heard on board of a +paddle-wheel steamer in a heavy sea-way.</p> + +<p><i>Guns.</i>—The use of guns is not so great as it once +was. Instances are on record in which they were quite serviceable. +Admiral Sir A. Milne said he had often gone into Halifax harbor, in +a dense fog like a wall, by the sound of the Sambro fog gun. But in +the experiments made by the Trinity House off Dungeness in January, +1864, in calm weather, the report of an eighteen-pounder, with +three pounds of powder, was faint at four miles. Still, in the +Trinity House experiments of 1865, made in light weather with a +light gun, the report was clearly heard seven miles away. Dr. +Gladstone records great variability in the range of gun-sound in +the Holyhead experiments. Prof. Henry says that a +twenty-four-pounder was used at Point Boneta, San Francisco Bay, +Cal., in 1856-57, and that, by the help of it alone, vessels came +into the harbor during the fog at night as well as in the day, +which otherwise could not have entered. The gun was fired every +half hour, night and day, during foggy and thick weather in the +first year, except for a time when powder was lacking. During the +second year there were 1,582 discharges. It was finally superseded +by a bell-boat, which in its turn was after a time replaced by a +siren. A gun was also used at West Quoddy Head, Maine. It was a +carronade, five feet long, with a bore of five and one-quarter +inches, charged with four pounds of powder. The gun was fired on +foggy days when the Boston steamer was approaching the lighthouse +from St. Johns, and the firing was begun when the steamer's whistle +was heard, often when she was six miles away, and was kept up as +fast as the gun could be loaded, until the steamer answered with +its whistle.</p> + +<p>The report of the gun was heard from two to six miles. "This +signal was abandoned," Prof. Henry says, "because of the danger +attending its use, the length of intervals between successive +explosions, and the brief duration of the sound, which renders it +difficult to determine its direction with accuracy." In 1872 there +were three fog guns on the English coast, iron eighteen-pounders, +carrying a three pound charge of powder, which were fired at +intervals of fifteen minutes in two places, and of twenty minutes +in the other. The average duration of fog at these stations was +said to be about six hours, and as it not unfrequently lasted +twenty hours, each gun required two gunners, who had to undergo +severe labor, and the risk of remissness and irregularity was +considerable. In 1881 the interval between charges was reduced to +ten minutes.</p> + +<p>The Trinity House, in its experiments at South Foreland, found +that the short twenty-four pound howitzer gave a better sound than +the long eighteen-pounder. Tyndall, who had charge of the +experiments, sums up as to the use of the guns as fog-signals by +saying: "The duration of the sound is so short that, unless the +observer is prepared beforehand, the sound, through lack of +attention rather than through its own powerlessness, is liable to +be unheard. Its liability to be quenched by local sound is so great +that it is sometimes obliterated by a puff of wind taking +possession of the ears at the time of its arrival. Its liability to +be quenched by an opposing wind, so as to be practically useless at +a very short distance to windward, is very remarkable.... Still, +notwithstanding these drawbacks, I think the gun is entitled to +rank as a first-class signal."</p> + +<p>The minute gun at sea is known the world over as a signal of +distress. The English lightships fire guns to attract the attention +of the lifeboat crew when shipwrecks take place in sight of the +ships, but out of sight of the boats; and guns are used as signals +of approaching floods at freshet times in various countries.</p> + +<p><i>Rockets.</i>—As a signal in rock lighthouses, where it +would be impossible to mount large pieces of apparatus, the use of +a gun-cotton rocket has been suggested by Sir Richard Collinson, +deputy-master of the Trinity House. A charge of gun-cotton is +inclosed in the head of a rocket, which is projected to the height +of perhaps 1,000 feet, when the cotton is exploded, and the sound +shed in all directions. Comparative experiments with the howitzer +and rocket showed that the howitzer was beaten by a rocket +containing twelve ounces, eight ounces, and even four ounces of +gun-cotton. Large charges do not show themselves so superior to +small charges as might be expected. Some of the rockets were heard +at a distance of twenty-five miles. Tyndall proposes to call it the +Collinson rocket, and suggests that it might be used in lighthouses +and lightships as a signal by naval vessels.</p> + +<p><i>Bells.</i>—Bells are in use at every United States +lightstation, and at many they are run by machinery actuated by +clock-work, made by Mr. Stevens, of Boston, who, at the suggestion +of the Lighthouse Board, has introduced an escapement arrangement +moved by a small weight, while a larger weight operates the +machinery which strikes the bell. These bells weigh from 300 to +3,000 pounds. There are about 125 in use on the coasts of the +United States. Experiments made by the engineers of the French +Lighthouse Establishment, in 1861-62, showed that the range of +bell-sounds can be increased with the rapidity of the bell-strokes, +and that the relative distances for 15, 25, and 60 bell-strokes a +minute were in the ratio of 1, 1-14/100, and 1-29/100. The French +also, with a hemispherical iron reflector backed with Portland +cement, increased the bell range in the ratio of 147 to 100 over a +horizontal arc of 60°, beyond which its effect gradually +diminished. The actual effective range of the bell sound, whatever +the bell size, is comparatively short, and, like the gong, it is +used only where it needs to be heard for short distances. Mr. +Cunningham, Secretary of the Scottish Lighthouse Establishment, in +a paper on fog signals, read in February, 1863, says the bell at +Howth, weighing 2¼ tons, struck four times a minute by a 60 +pound hammer falling ten inches, has been heard only one mile to +windward against a light breeze during fog; and that a similar bell +at Kingston, struck eight times a minute, had been so heard three +miles away as to enable the steamer to make her harbor from that +distance. Mr. Beaseley, C.E., in a lecture on coast-fog signals, +May 24, 1872, speaks of these bells as unusually large, saying that +they and the one at Ballycottin are the largest on their coasts, +the only others which compare with them being those at Stark Point +and South Stack, which weigh 31¾ cwt. and 41½ cwt. +respectively. Cunningham, speaking of the fog-bells at Bell Rock +and Skerryvore lighthouses, says he doubts if either bell has been +the means of saving a single vessel from wreck during fog, and he +does not recall an instance of a vessel reporting that she was +warned to put about in the fog, or that she ascertained her +position in any respect by hearing the sound of the bell in either +place. Gen. Duane, U.S.A., says a bell, whether operated by hand or +machinery, cannot be considered an efficient fog signal on the +sea-coast. In calm weather it cannot be heard half the time at a +greater distance than one mile, while in rough weather the noise of +the surf will drown its sound to seaward altogether. The use of +bells is required, by the International Code, on ships of all +nations, at regular intervals during fog. But Turkish ships are +allowed to substitute the gong or gun, as the use of bells is +forbidden to the followers of Mohammed.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/2a.png"><img src= +"./images/2a_th.jpg" alt= +" FIG. 1.—COURTENAY'S WHISTLING BUOY."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.—COURTENAY'S WHISTLING BUOY.</p> + +<p><i>Whistling Buoys.</i>—The whistling buoy now in use was +patented by Mr. J.M. Courtenay, of New York. It consists of an iron +pear-shaped bulb, 12 feet across at its widest part, and floating +12 feet out of water. Inside the bulb is a tube 33 inches across, +extending from the top through the bottom to a depth of 32 feet, +into water free from wave motion. The tube is open at its lower +end, but projects, air-tight, through the top of the bulb, and is +closed with a plate having in it three holes, two for letting the +air into the tube, and one between the others for letting the air +out to work the 10-inch locomotive whistle with which it is +surmounted. These holes are connected with three pipes which lead +down to near the water level, where they pass through a diaphragm +which divides the outer cylinder into two parts. The great bulb +which buoys up the whole mass rises and falls with the motion of +the waves, carrying the tube up and down with it, thus establishing +a piston-and-cylinder movement, the water in the tube acting as an +immovable piston, while the tube itself acts as a moving cylinder. +Thus the air admitted through valves, as the buoy rises on the +wave, into that part of the bulb which is above water, is +compressed, and as the buoy falls with the wave, it is further +compressed and forced through a 2½ inch pipe which at its +apex connects with the whistle. The dimensions of the whistling +buoy have recently been much diminished without detracting +materially from the volume of sound it produces. It is now made of +four sizes. The smallest in our waters has a bulb 6 feet in +diameter and a tube 10 feet in length, and weighs but 2,000 pounds. +The largest and oldest whistling buoy has a 12-foot bulb, a tube 32 +feet long, and weighs 12,000 pounds.</p> + +<p>There are now 34 of these whistling buoys on the coast of the +United States, which have cost, with their appurtenances, about +$1,200 each. It is a curious fact that, in proportion as they are +useful to the mariner, they are obnoxious to the house dweller +within earshot of them, and that the Lighthouse Board has to weigh +the petitions and remonstrances before setting these buoys off +inhabited coasts. They can at times be heard 15 miles, and emit an +inexpressibly mournful and saddening sound.</p> + +<p>The inspector of the First Lighthouse District, Commander +Picking, established a series of observations at all the light +stations in the neighborhood of the buoys, giving the time of +hearing it, the direction of the wind, and the state of the sea, +from which it appears that in January, 1878, one of these buoys was +heard every day at a station 1⅛ miles distant, every day but +two at one 2¼ miles distant, 14 times at one 7½ miles +distant, and 4 times at one 8½ miles distant. It is heard by +the pilots of the New York and Boston steamers at a distance of +one-fifth of a mile to 5 miles, and has been frequently heard at a +distance of 9 miles, and even, under specially favorable +circumstances, 15 miles.</p> + +<p>The whistling buoy is also used to some extent in British, +French, and German waters, with good results. The latest use to +which it has been put in this country has been to place it off the +shoals of Cape Hatteras, where a light ship was wanted but could +not live, and where it does almost as well as a light ship would +have done. It is well suited for such broken and turbulent waters, +as the rougher the sea the louder its sound.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/2b.png"><img src= +"./images/2b_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 2.—BROWN'S BELL BUOY."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.—BROWN'S BELL BUOY.</p> + +<p><i>Bell-Buoys.</i>—The bell-boat, which is at most a +clumsy contrivance, liable to be upset in heavy weather, costly to +build, hard to handle, and difficult to keep in repair, has been +superseded by the Brown bell-buoy, which was invented by the +officer of the lighthouse establishment whose name it bears. The +bell is mounted on the bottom section of an iron buoy 6 feet 6 +inches across, which is decked over and fitted with a framework of +3-inch angle-iron 9 feet high, to which a 300-pound bell is rigidly +attached. A radial grooved iron plate is made fast to the frame +under the bell and close to it, on which is laid a free +cannon-ball. As the buoy rolls on the sea, this ball rolls on the +plate, striking some side of the bell at each motion with such +force as to cause it to toll. Like the whistling-buoy, the +bell-buoy sounds the loudest when the sea is the roughest, but the +bell-buoy is adapted to shoal water, where the whistling-buoy could +not ride; and, if there is any motion to the sea, the bell-buoy +will make some sound. Hence the whistling-buoy is used in +roadsteads and the open sea, while the bell-buoy is preferred in +harbors, rivers, and the like, where the sound-range needed is +shorter, and smoother water usually obtains. In July, 1883, there +were 24 of these bell-buoys in United States waters. They cost, +with their fitments and moorings, about $1,000 each.</p> + +<p><i>Locomotive-Whistles.</i>—It appears from the evidence +given in 1845, before the select committee raised by the English +House of Commons, that the use of the locomotive-whistle as a +fog-signal was first suggested by Mr. A. Gordon, C.E., who proposed +to use air or steam for sounding it, and to place it in the focus +of a reflector, or a group of reflectors, to concentrate its sounds +into a powerful phonic beam. It was his idea that the sharpness or +shrillness of the whistle constituted its chief value. And it is +conceded that Mr. C.L. Daboll, under the direction of Prof. Henry, +and at the instance of the United States Lighthouse Board, first +practically used it as a fog-signal by erecting one for use at +Beaver Tail Point, in Narragansett Bay. The sounding of the whistle +is well described by Price-Edwards, a noted English lighthouse +engineer, "as caused by the vibration of the column of air +contained within the bell or dome, the vibration being set up by +the impact of a current of steam or air at a high pressure." It is +probable that the metal of the bell is likewise set in vibration, +and gives to the sound its timbre or quality. It is noted that the +energy so excited expends its chief force in the immediate vicinity +of its source, and may be regarded, therefore, as to some extent +wasted. The sound of the whistle, moreover, is diffused equally on +all sides. These characteristics to some extent explain the +impotency of the sound to penetrate to great distances. Difference +in pitch is obtained by altering the distance between the steam +orifice and the rim of the drum. When brought close to each other, +say within half an inch, the sound produced is very shrill, but it +becomes deeper as the space between the rim and the steam or air +orifice is increased.</p> + +<p>Prof. Henry says the sound of the whistle is distributed +horizontally. It is, however, much stronger in the plane containing +the lower edge of the bell than on either side of this plane. Thus, +if the whistle is standing upright in the ordinary position, its +sound is more distinct in a horizontal plane passing through the +whistle than above it or below it.</p> + +<p>The steam fog-whistle is the same instrument ordinarily used on +steamboats and locomotives. It is from 6 to 18 inches in diameter, +and is operated by steam under a pressure of from 50 to 100 pounds. +An engine takes its steam from the same boiler, and by an automatic +arrangement shuts off and turns on the steam by opening and closing +its valves at determined times. The machinery is simple, the +piston-pressure is light, and the engine requires no more skilled +attention than does an ordinary station-engine.</p> + +<p>"The experiments made by the Trinity House in 1873-74 seem to +show," Price-Edwards says, "that the sound of the most powerful +whistle, whether blown by steam or hot air, was generally inferior +to the sound yielded by other instruments," and consequently no +steps were taken to extend their use in Great Britain, where +several were then in operation. In Canadian waters, however, a +better result seems to have been obtained, as the Deputy Minister +of Marine and Fisheries, in his annual report for 1872, summarizes +the action of the whistles in use there, from which it appears that +they have been heard at distances varying with their diameter from +3 to 25 miles.</p> + +<p>The result of the experiments made by Prof. Henry and Gen. Duane +for the United States Lighthouse Board, reported in 1874, goes to +show that the steam-whistle could be heard far enough for practical +uses in many positions. Prof. Henry found that he could hear a +6-inch whistle 7¼ miles with a feeble opposing wind. Gen. +Duane heard the 10-inch whistle at Cape Elizabeth at his house in +Portland, Maine, nine miles distant, whenever it was in operation. +He heard it best during a heavy northeast snow storm, the wind +blowing then directly from him, and toward the source of the sound. +Gen. Duane also reported that "there are six fog-signals on the +coast of Maine; these have frequently been heard at the distance of +twenty miles," ... which distance he gives as the extreme limit of +the twelve-inch steam-whistle.</p> + +<p><i>Trumpets.</i>—The Daboll trumpet was invented by Mr. +C.L. Daboll, of Connecticut, who was experimenting to meet the +announced wants of the United States Lighthouse Board. The largest +consists of a huge trumpet seventeen feet long, with a throat three +and one-half inches in diameter, and a flaring mouth thirty-eight +inches across. In the trumpet is a resounding cavity, and a +tongue-like steel reed ten inches long, two and three-quarter +inches wide, one inch thick at its fixed end, and half that at its +free end. Air is condensed in a reservoir and driven through the +trumpet by hot air or steam machinery at a pressure of from fifteen +to twenty pounds, and is capable of making a shriek which can be +heard at a great distance for a certain number of seconds each +minute, by about one-quarter of the power expended in the case of +the whistle. In all his experiments against and at right angles and +at other angles to the wind, the trumpet stood first and the +whistle came next in power. In the trial of the relative power of +various instruments made by Gen. Duane in 1874, the twelve-inch +whistle was reported as exceeding the first-class Daboll trumpet. +Beaseley reports that the trumpet has done good work at various +British stations, making itself heard from five to ten miles. The +engineer in charge of the lighthouses of Canada says: "The expense +for repairs, and the frequent stoppages to make these repairs +during the four years they continued in use, made them [the +trumpets] expensive and unreliable. The frequent stoppages during +foggy weather made them sources of danger instead of aids to +navigation. The sound of these trumpets has deteriorated during the +last year or so." Gen. Duane, reporting as to his experiments in +1881, says: "The Daboll trumpet, operated by a caloric engine, +should only be employed in exceptional cases, such as at stations +where no water can be procured, and where from the proximity of +other signals it may be necessary to vary the nature of the sound." +Thus it would seem that the Daboll trumpet is an exceptionally fine +instrument, producing a sound of great penetration and of +sufficient power for ordinary practical use, but that to be kept +going it requires skillful management and constant care.</p> + +<p><i>The Siren.</i>—The siren was adapted from the +instrument invented by Cagniard de la Tour, by A. and F. Brown, of +the New York City Progress Works, under the guidance of Prof. +Henry, at the instance and for the use of the United States +Lighthouse Establishment, which also adopted it for use as a +fog-signal. The siren of the first class consists of a huge +trumpet, somewhat of the size and shape used by Daboll, with a wide +mouth and a narrow throat, and is sounded by driving compressed air +or steam through a disk placed in its throat. In this disk are +twelve radial slits; back of the fixed disk is a revolving plate, +containing as many similar openings. The plate is rotated 2,400 +times each minute, and each revolution causes the escape and +interruption of twelve jets of air or steam through the openings in +the disk and rotating plate. In this way 28,800 vibrations are +given during each minute that the machine is operated; and, as the +vibrations are taken up by the trumpet, an intense beam of sound is +projected from it. The siren is operated under a pressure of +seventy-two pounds of steam, and can be heard, under favorable +circumstances, from twenty to thirty miles. "Its density, quality, +pitch, and penetration render it dominant over such other noises +after all other signal-sounds have succumbed." It is made of +various sizes or classes, the number of slits in its throat-disk +diminishing with its size. The dimensions given above are those of +the largest. [See engraving on page 448, "Annual Cyclopædia" +for 1880.]</p> + +<p>The experiments made by Gen. Duane with these three machines +show that the siren can be, all other things being equal, heard the +farthest, the steam-whistle stands next to the siren, and the +trumpet comes next to the whistle. The machine which makes the most +noise consumes the most fuel. From the average of the tests it +appears that the power of the first-class siren, the twelve-inch +whistle, and first-class Daboll trumpet are thus expressed: siren +nine, whistle seven, trumpet four; and their relative expenditure +of fuel thus: siren nine, whistle three, trumpet one.</p> + +<p>Sound-signals constitute so large a factor in the safety of the +navigator, that the scientists attached to the lighthouse +establishments of the various countries have given much attention +to their production and perfection, notably Tyndall in England and +Henry in this country. The success of the United States has been +such that other countries have sent commissions here to study our +system. That sent by England in 1872, of which Sir Frederick Arrow +was chairman, and Captain Webb, R.N., recorder, reported so +favorably on it that since then "twenty-two sirens have been placed +at the most salient lighthouses on the British coasts, and sixteen +on lightships moored in position where a guiding signal is of the +greatest service to passing navigation."</p> + +<p>The trumpet, siren, and whistle are capable of such arrangement +that the length of blast and interval, and the succession of +alternation, are such as to identify the location of each, so that +the mariner can determine his position by the sounds.</p> + +<p>In this country there were in operation in July, 1883, sixty-six +fog-signals operated by steam or hot air, and the number is to be +increased in answer to the urgent demands of commerce.</p> + +<p><i>Use of Natural Orifices.</i>—There are, in various +parts of the world, several sound-signals made by utilizing natural +orifices in cliffs through which the waves drive the air with such +force and velocity as to produce the sound required. One of the +most noted is that on one of the Farallon Islands, forty miles off +the harbor of San Francisco, which was constructed by Gen. Hartmann +Bache, of the United States Engineers, in 1858-59, and of which the +following is his own description:</p> + +<p>"Advantage was taken of the presence of the working party on the +island to make the experiment, long since contemplated, of +attaching a whistle as a fog-signal to the orifice of a +subterranean passage opening out upon the ocean, through which the +air is violently driven by the beating of the waves. The first +attempt failed, the masonry raised upon the rock to which it was +attached being blown up by the great violence of the wind-current. +A modified plan with a safety-valve attached was then adopted, +which it is hoped will prove permanent. ... The nature of this work +called for 1,000 bricks and four barrels of cement."</p> + +<p>Prof. Henry says of this:</p> + +<p>"On the apex of this hole he erected a chimney which terminated +in a tube surmounted by a locomotive-whistle. By this arrangement a +loud sound was produced as often as the wave entered the mouth of +the indentation. The penetrating power of the sound from this +arrangement would not be great if it depended merely on the +hydrostatic pressure of the waves, since this under favorable +circumstances would not be more than that of a column of water +twenty feet high, giving a pressure of about ten pounds to the +square inch. The effect, however, of the percussion might add +considerably to this, though the latter would be confined in effect +to a single instance. In regard to the practical result from this +arrangement, which was continued in operation for several years, it +was found not to obviate the necessity of producing sounds of +greater power. It is, however, founded on an ingenious idea, and +may be susceptible of application in other cases."</p> + +<p>There is now a first-class siren in duplicate at this place.</p> + +<p>The sixty-six steam fog-signals in the waters of the United +States have been established at a cost of more than $500,000, and +are maintained at a yearly expense of about $100,000. The erection +of each of these signals was authorized by Congress in an act +making special appropriations for its establishment, and Congress +was in each instance moved thereto by the pressure of public +opinion, applied usually through the member of Congress +representing the particular district in which the signal was to be +located. And this pressure was occasioned by the fact that mariners +have come to believe that they could be guided by sound as +certainly as by sight. The custom of the mariner in coming to this +coast from beyond the seas is to run his ship so that on arrival, +if after dark, he shall see the proper coast-light in fair weather, +and, if in thick weather, that he shall hear fog-signal, and, +taking that as a point of departure, to feel his way from the +coast-light to the harbor-light, or from the fog-signal on the +coast to the fog-signal in the harbor, and thence to his anchorage +or his wharf. And the custom of the coaster or the sound-steamer is +somewhat similar.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="7"></a></p> + +<h2>TREVITHICK'S ENGINE AT CREWE.</h2> + +<p>The old high-pressure engine of Richard Trevithick, which, +thanks to Mr. Webb, has been rescued from a scrap heap in South +Wales, and re-erected at the Crewe Works. We give engravings of +this engine, which have been prepared from photographs kindly +furnished to us by Mr. Webb, and which will clearly show its +design.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/3a.png"><img src= +"./images/3a_th.jpg" alt= +" TREVITHICK'S HIGH PRESSURE ENGINE AT CREWE."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">TREVITHICK'S HIGH PRESSURE ENGINE AT CREWE.</p> + +<p>The boiler bears a name-plate with the words "No. 14, Hazeldine +and Co., Bridgnorth," and it is evidently one of the patterns which +Trevithick was having made by Hazeldine and Co., about the year +1804. The shell of the boiler is of cast iron, and the cylinder, +which is vertical, is cast in one with it, the back end of the +boiler and the barrel being in one piece as shown. At the front end +the barrel has a flange by means of which it is bolted to the front +plate, the plate having attached to it the furnace and return flue, +which are of wrought iron. The front plate has also cast on it a +manhole mouthpiece to which the manhole cover is bolted. In the +case of the engine at Crewe, the chimney, firehole door, and front +of flue had to be renewed by Mr. Webb, these parts having been +broken up before the engine came into his possession.</p> + +<p>The piston rod is attached to a long cast-iron crosshead, from +which two bent connecting rods extend downward, the one to a crank, +and the other to a crank-pin inserted in the flywheel. The +connecting-rods now on this engine were supplied by Mr. Webb, the +original ones—which they have been made to resemble as +closely as possible—having been broken up. In the Crewe +engine as it now exists it is not quite clear how the power was +taken off from the crankshaft, but from the particulars of similar +engines recorded in the "Life of Richard Trevithick," it appears +that a small spur pinion was in some cases fixed on the crankshaft, +and in others a spurwheel, with a crank-pin inserted in it, took +the place of the crank at the end of the shaft opposite to that +carrying the flywheel. In the Crewe engine the flywheel, it will be +noticed, is provided with a balanceweight.</p> + +<p>The admission of the steam to and its release from the cylinder +is effected by a four-way cock provided with a lever, which is +actuated by a tappet rod attached to the crosshead, as seen on the +back view of the engine. To the crosshead is also coupled a lever +having its fulcrum on a bracket attached to the boiler; this lever +serving to work the feed pump. Unfortunately the original pump of +the Crewe engine was smashed, but Mr. Webb has fitted one up to +show the arrangement. A notable feature in the engine is that it is +provided with a feed heater through which the water is forced by +the pump on its way to the boiler. The heater consists of a +cast-iron pipe through which passes the exhaust pipe leading from +the cylinder to the chimney, the water circulating through the +annular space between the two pipes.</p> + +<p>Altogether the Trevithick engine at Crewe is a relic of the very +highest interest, and it is most fortunate that it has come into +Mr. Webb's hands and has thus been rescued from destruction. No +one, bearing in mind the date at which it was built, can examine +this engine without having an increased respect for the talents of +Richard Trevithick, a man to whom we owe so much and whose labors +have as yet met with such scant +recognition.—<i>Engineering.</i></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="8"></a></p> + +<h3>[Continued from SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 451, page +7192.]</h3> + +<h2>PLANETARY WHEEL TRAINS.</h2> + +<h3>By Prof. C.W. MacCORD, Sc. D.</h3> + +<h3>IV.</h3> + +<p>The arrangement of planetary wheels which has been applied in +practice to the greatest extent and to the most purposes, is +probably that in which the axial motions of the train are derived +from a fixed sun wheel. Numerous examples of such trains are met +with in the differential gearing of hoisting machines, in portable +horse-powers, etc. The action of these mechanisms has already been +fully discussed; it may be remarked in addition that unless the +speed be very moderate, it is found advantageous to balance the +weights and divide the pressures by extending the train arm and +placing the planet-wheels in equal pairs diametrically opposite +each other, as, for instance, in Bogardus' horse power, Fig. +31.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/4a.png"><img src= +"./images/4a_th.jpg" alt=" PLANETARY WHEEL TRAINS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">PLANETARY WHEEL TRAINS.</p> + +<p>In trains of this description, the velocity ratio is invariable; +which for the above-mentioned objects it should be. But the use of +a planetary combination enables us to cause the motions of two +independent trains to converge, and unite in producing a single +resultant rotation. This may be done in two ways; each of the two +independent trains may drive one sun-wheel, thus determining the +motion of the train-arm; or, the train-arm may be driven by one of +them, and the first sun-wheel by the other; then the motion of the +second sun-wheel is the resultant. Under these circumstances the +ratio of the resultant velocity to that of either independent train +is not invariable, since it may be affected by a change in the +velocity of the other one. To illustrate our meaning, we give two +examples of arrangements of this nature. The first is Robinson's +rope-making machine, Fig. 32. The bobbins upon which the strands +composing the rope are wound turn freely in bearings in the frames, +G, G, and these frames turn in bearings in the disk, H, and the +three-armed frame or spider, K, both of which are secured to the +central shaft, S. Each bobbin-frame is provided with a pinion, +<i>a</i>, and these three pinions engage with the annular wheel, A. +This wheel has no shaft, but is carried and kept in position by +three pairs of rollers, as shown, so that its axis of rotation is +the same as that of the shaft, S; and it is toothed externally as +well as internally. The strands pass through the hollow axes of the +pinions, and thence each to its own opening through the laying-top, +T, fixed upon S, which completes the operation of twisting them +into a rope. The annular wheel, A, it will be perceived, may be +driven by a pinion, E, engaging with its external teeth, at a rate +of speed different from that of the central shaft; and by varying +the speed of that pinion, the velocity of the wheel, A, may be +changed without affecting the velocity of S.</p> + +<p>It is true that in making a certain kind of rope, the velocity +ratio of A and S must remain constant, in order that the strands +may be equally twisted throughout; but if for another kind of rope +a different degree of twist is wanted, the velocity of the pinion, +E, may be altered by means of change-wheels, and thus the same +machine may be used for manufacturing many different sorts.</p> + +<p>The second combination of this kind was devised by the writer as +a "tell-tale" for showing whether the engines driving a pair of +twin screw-propellers were going at the same rate. In Fig. 33, an +index, P, is carried by the wheel, F: the wheel, A, is loose upon +the shaft of the train-arm, which latter is driven by the wheel, E. +The wheels, F and <i>f</i>, are of the same size, but <i>a</i> is +twice as large as A; if then A be driven by one engine, and E by +the other, at the same rate but in the opposite direction, the +index will remain stationary, whatever the absolute velocities. But +if either engine go faster than the other, the index will turn to +the right or the left accordingly. The same object may also be +accomplished as shown in Fig. 34, the index being carried by the +train-arm. It makes no difference what the actual value of the +ratio A/<i>a</i> may be, but it must be equal to F/<i>f</i>: under +which condition it is evident that if A and F be driven contrary +ways at equal speeds, small or great, the train-arm will remain at +rest; but any inequality will cause the index to turn.</p> + +<p>In some cases, particularly when annular wheels are used, the +train-arm may become very short, so that it may be impossible to +mount the planet-wheel in the manner thus far represented, upon a +pin carried by a crank. This difficulty may be surmounted as shown +in Fig. 35, which illustrates an arrangement originally forming a +part of Nelson's steam steering gear. The Internal pinions, +<i>a</i>, <i>f</i>, are but little smaller than the annular wheels, +A, F, and are hung upon an eccentric E formed in one solid piece +with the driving shaft, D.</p> + +<p>The action of a complete epicyclic train involves virtually and +always the action of two suns and two planets; but it has already +been shown that the two planets may merge into one piece, as in +Fig. 10, where the planet-wheel gears externally with one +sun-wheel, and internally with the other.</p> + +<p>But the train may be reduced still further, and yet retain the +essential character of completeness in the same sense, though +composed actually of but two toothed wheels. An instance of this is +shown in Fig. 36, the annular planet being hung upon and carried by +the pins of three cranks, <i>c</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>c</i>, which are +all equal and parallel to the virtual train-arm, T. These cranks +turning about fixed axes, communicate to <i>f</i> a motion of +circular translation, which is the resultant of a revolution, +<i>v'</i>, about the axis of F in one direction, and a rotation, +<i>v</i>, at the same rate in the opposite direction about its own +axis, as has been already explained. The cranks then supply the +place of a fixed sun-wheel and a planet of equal size, with an +intermediate idler for reversing the, direction of the rotation of +the planet; and the velocity of F is</p> + +<p>V'= <i>v'</i>(1 - <i>f</i>/F).</p> + +<p>A modification of this train better suited for practical use is +shown in Fig. 37, in which the sun-wheel, instead of the planet, is +annular, and the latter is carried by the two eccentrics, E, E, +whose throw is equal to the difference between the diameters of the +two pitch circles; these eccentrics must, of course, be driven in +the same direction and at equal speeds, like the cranks in Fig. +36.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/5a.png"><img src= +"./images/5a_th.jpg" alt=" PLANETARY WHEEL TRAINS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">PLANETARY WHEEL TRAINS.</p> + +<p>A curious arrangement of pin-gearing is shown in Fig. 38: in +this case the diameter of the pinion is half that of the annular +wheel, and the latter being the driver, the elementary +hypocycloidal faces of its teeth are diameters of its pitch circle; +the derived working tooth-outlines for pins of sensible diameter +are parallels to these diameters, of which fact advantage is taken +to make the pins turn in blocks which slide in straight slots as +shown. The formula is the same as that for Fig. 36, viz.:</p> + +<p>V' = <i>v'</i>(1 - <i>f</i>/F),<br> +</p> + +<p>which, since <i>f</i> = 2F, reduces to V' = -<i>v'</i>.</p> + +<p>Of the same general nature is the combination known as the +"Epicycloidal Multiplying Gear" of Elihu Galloway, represented in +Fig. 39. Upon examination it will be seen, although we are not +aware that attention has previously been called to the fact, that +this differs from the ordinary forms of "pin gearing" only in this +particular, viz., that the elementary tooth of the driver consists +of a complete branch, instead of a comparatively small part of the +hypocycloid traced by rolling the smaller pitch-circle within the +larger. It is self-evident that the hypocycloid must return into +itself at the point of beginning, without crossing: each branch, +then, must subtend an aliquot part of the circumference, and can be +traced also by another and a smaller describing circle, whose +diameter therefore must be an aliquot part of the diameter of the +outer pitch-circle; and since this last must be equal to the sum of +the diameters of the two describing circles, it follows that the +radii of the pitch circles must be to each other in the ratio of +two successive integers; and this is also the ratio of the number +of pins to that of the epicycloidal branches.</p> + +<p>Thus in Fig. 39, the diameters of the two pitch circles are to +each other as 4 to 5; the hypocycloid has 5 branches, and 4 pins +are used. These pins must in practice have a sensible diameter, and +in order to reduce the friction this diameter is made large, and +the pins themselves are in the form of rollers. The original +hypocycloid is shown in dotted line, the working curve being at a +constant normal distance from it equal to the radius of the roller; +this forms a sort of frame or yoke, which is hung upon cranks as in +Figs. 36 and 38. The expression for the velocity ratio is the same +as in the preceding case:</p> + +<p>V¹ = <i>v'</i>(1 - <i>f</i>/F); which in Fig. 39 gives<br> +<br> +V¹ = <i>v'</i>(1 - 5/4)= -¼<i>v'</i>:<br> +</p> + +<p>the planet wheel, or epicycloidal yoke, then, has the higher +speed, so that if it be desired to "gear up," and drive the +propeller faster than the engine goes (and this, we believe, was +the purpose of the inventor), the pin-wheel must be made the +driver; which is the reverse of advantageous in respect to the +relative amounts of approaching and receding action.</p> + +<p>In Figs. 40 and 41 are given the skeletons of Galloway's device +for ratios of 3:4 and 2:3 respectively, the former having four +branches and three pins, the latter three branches and two pins. +Following the analogy, it would seem that the next step should be +to employ two branches with only one pin; but the rectilinear +hypocycloid of Fig. 38 is a complete diameter, and the second +branch is identical with the first; the straight tooth, then, could +theoretically drive the pin half way round, but upon its reaching +the center of the outer wheel, the driving action would cease: this +renders it necessary to employ two pins and two slots, but it is +not essential that the latter should be perpendicular to each +other.</p> + +<p>In these last arrangements, the forms of the parts are so +different from those of ordinary wheels, that the true nature of +the combinations is at least partially disguised. But it may be +still more completely hidden, as for instance in the common +elliptic trammel, Fig. 42. The slotted cross is here fixed, and the +pins, R and P, sliding respectively in the vertical and horizontal +lines, control the motion of the bar which carries the pencil, S. +At first glance there would seem to be nothing here resembling +wheel works. But if we describe a circle upon R P as a diameter, +its circumference will always pass through C, because R C P is a +right angle, and the instantaneous axis of the bar being at the +intersection O of a vertical line through P, with a horizontal line +through R, will also lie upon this circumference. Again, since O is +diametrically opposite to C, we have C O = R P, whence a circle +about center C with radius R P will also pass through O, which +therefore is the point of contact of these two circles. It will now +be seen that the motion of the bar is the same as though carried by +the inner circle while rolling within the outer one, the latter +being fixed; the points P and R describing the diameters L M and K +N, the point D a circle, and S an ellipse; C D being the train-arm. +The distance R P being always the diameter of one circle and the +radius of the other, the sizes of the wheels can be in effect +varied by altering that distance.</p> + +<p>Thus we see that this combination is virtually the same in its +action as the one shown in Fig. 43, known as Suardi's Geometrical +Pen. In this particular case the diameter of <i>a</i> is half of +that of A; these wheels are connected by the idler, E, which merely +reverses the direction without affecting the velocity of <i>a's</i> +rotation. The working train arm is jointed so as to pivot about the +axis of E, and may be clamped at any angle within its range, thus +changing the length of the virtual train arm, C D. The bar being +fixed to <i>a</i>, then, moves as though carried by the wheel, +<i>a¹</i>, rolling within A¹; the radius of +<i>a¹</i> being C D, and that of A¹ twice as great.</p> + +<p>In either instrument, the semi-major axis C X is equal to S R, +and the semi-minor axis to S P.</p> + +<p>The <i>ellipse</i>, then, is described by these arrangements +because it is a special form of the epitrochoid; and various other +epitrochoids may be traced with Suardi's pen by substituting other +wheels, with different numbers of teeth, for a in Fig. 43.</p> + +<p>Another disguised planetary arrangement is found in Oldham's +coupling, Fig. 44. The two sections of shafting, A and B, have each +a flange or collar forged or keyed upon them; and in each flange is +planed a transverse groove. A third piece, C, equal in diameter to +the flanges, is provided on each side with a tongue, fitted to +slide in one of the grooves, and these tongues are at right angles +to each other. The axes of A and B must be parallel, but need not +coincide; and the result of this connection is that the two shafts +will turn in the same direction at the same rate.</p> + +<p>The fact that C in this arrangement is in reality a planetary +wheel, will be perceived by the aid of the diagram, Fig. 45. Let C +D be two pieces rotating about fixed parallel axes, each having a +groove in which slides freely one of the arms, A C, A D, which are +rigidly secured to each other at right angles.</p> + +<p>The point C of the upper arm can at the instant move only in the +direction C A; and the point D of the lower arm only in the +direction A D, at the same instant; the instantaneous axis is +therefore at the intersection, K, of perpendiculars to A C and A D, +at the points C and D. C A D K being then a rectangle, A K and C D +will be two diameters of a circle whose center, O, bisects C D; and +K will also be the point of contact between this circle and another +whose center is A, and radius A K = C D. If then we extend the arms +so as to form the cross, P K, M N, and suppose this to be carried +by the outer circle, <i>f</i>, rolling upon the inner one, F, its +motion will be the same as that determined by the pieces, C D; and +such a cross is identical with that formed by the tongues on the +coupling-piece, C, of Fig. 44.</p> + +<p>A O is the virtual train-arm; let the center, A, of the cross +move to the position B, then since the angles A O B at the center, +and A C B in the circumference, stand on the same arc, A B, the +former is double the latter, showing that the cross revolves twice +round the center O during each rotation of C; and since A C B = A D +B, C and D rotate with equal velocities, and these rotations and +the revolution about O have the same direction. While revolving, +the cross rotates about its traveling center, A, in the opposite +direction, the contact between the two circles being internal, and +at a rate equal to that of the rotations of C and D, because the +velocities of the axial and the orbital motion are to each other as +<i>f</i> is to F, that is to say, as 1 is to 2. Since in the course +of the revolution the points P and K must each coincide with C, and +the points M and N with D, it follows that each tongue in Fig. 44 +must slide in its groove a distance equal to twice that between the +axes of the shafts.</p> + +<p>Another example of a disguised planetary train is shown in Fig. +46. Let C be the center about which the train arm, T, revolves, and +suppose it required that the distant shaft, B, carried by T, shall +turn once backward for each forward revolution of the arm. E is a +fixed eccentric of any convenient diameter, in the upper side of +which is a pin, D. On the shaft, B, is keyed a crank, B G, equal in +length to C D; and at any convenient point, H, on B C, or its +prolongation, another crank, H F, equal also to C D, is provided +with a bearing in the train-arm. The three crank pins, F, D, G, are +connected by a rod, like the parallel rod of a locomotive; F D, D +G, being respectively equal to H C, C B. Then, as the train-arm +revolves, the three cranks must remain parallel to each other; but +C D being fixed, the cranks, H F and B G, will remain always +parallel to their original positions, thus receiving the required +motion of circular translation.</p> + +<p>The result then is the same as though the periphery of E were +formed into a fixed spurwheel, A, and another, <i>a</i>, of the +same size, secured on a shaft, B, the two being connected by the +three equal wheels, L, M, N. It need hardly be stated that instead +of the eccentric, E, a stationary crank similar and equal to B G +may be used, should it be found better suited to the circumstances +of the case.</p> + +<p>It is possible also to apply the planetary principle to +mechanism composed partially of racks; in fact, a rack is merely a +wheel of prodigious size—the limiting case, just as a right +line is a circle of infinite radius. A very neat application of +this principle is found in Villa's Pantograph, of which a full +description and illustration was given in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN +SUPPLEMENT, No. 424; the racks, moving side by side, are the +sun-wheels, and the planet-wheels are the pinions, carried by the +traveling socket, by which the motion of one rack is transmitted to +the other.</p> + +<p>Thus far attention has been called only to combinations of +circular wheels. In these the velocity ratios are constant, if we +except the cases in which two independent trains converge, the two +sun-wheels, or one of them and the train-arm, being driven +separately—and even in those, a variable motion of the +ultimate follower is obtained only by varying the speed of one or +both drivers. It is not, however, necessary to employ circular +wheels exclusively or even at all; wheels of other forms are +capable of acting together in the relation of sun and planet, and +in this way a varying velocity ratio may be produced even with a +fixed sun-wheel and a single driver. We have not found, in the +works of any previous writer, any intimation that noncircular +wheels have ever been thus combined; and we propose in the +following article to illustrate some curious results which may be +thus obtained.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="14"></a></p> + +<h2>THE FALLACY OF THE PRESENT THEORY OF SOUND.</h2> + +<p>Dr. H.A. Mott recently delivered a lecture before the New York +Academy of Sciences, in Columbia College, on the Fallacy of the +Present Theory of Sound.</p> + +<p>He commenced his lecture by stating that "the object of science +was not to find out what we like or what we dislike; the object of +science was truth." He then said that, as Galileo stated a +hypothesis should be judged by the weight of facts and the force of +mathematical deductions, he claimed the theory of sound should be +so examined, and not allowed to exist as a true theory simply +because it is sustained by a long line of scientific names; as too +many theories had been overthrown to warrant the acceptance of any +one authority unless they had been thoroughly tested. Dr. Mott +stated that Dr. Wilford Hall was the first to attack the theory of +sound and show its fallaciousness, and that many other scientists +besides himself had agreed with Dr. Hall in his arguments and had +advanced additional arguments and experiments to establish this +fact. Dr. Mott first gave a very elaborate and still at the same +time condensed statement of the current theory of sound as +propounded by such men as Helmholtz, Tyndall, Lord Rayleigh, Mayer, +Rood, Sir Wm. Thomson, and others, and closed this section of the +paper with the remarks made by Tyndall: "Assuredly no question of +science ever stood so much in need of revision as this of the +transmission of sound through the atmosphere. Slowly but surely we +mastered the question, and the further we advance, the more plainly +it appeared that our reputed knowledge regarding it was erroneous +from beginning to end."</p> + +<p>Dr. Mott then took up the other side of the question, and +treated the same under the following heads:</p> + +<p>1. Agitation of the air. 2. Mobility of the atmosphere. 3. +Resonance. 4. Heat and velocity of the supposed sound waves. 5. +Decrease in loudness of sound. 6. The physical strength of the +locust. 7. The barometric theory of Sir Wm. Thomson. 8. Elasticity +and density of the air. 9. Interference and beats. 10. The membrana +tympani and the corti arches.</p> + +<p>Under the first head Dr. Mott stated that all experiments and +photographs made to establish the existence of sound waves simply +referred to the necessary agitation of the air accompanying any +disturbance, such as would of necessity be produced by a vibrating +body, and had nothing to do directly with sound. He stated that in +the Edison telephone, sound was converted directly into electricity +without vibrating any diaphragm at all, as attested to by Edison +himself. Speaking of the mobility of the air, he said the particles +were free to slip around and not practically be pushed at all, and +that the greatest distance a steam whistle could affect the air +would not exceed 30 feet, and the waves would not travel more than +4 or 5 feet a second, while sound travels 1,120 feet a second. +Under heat and velocity of sound waves, Dr. Mott stated that Newton +found by calculating the exact relative density and elasticity of +air that sound should travel only 916 feet a second, while it was +known to travel 1,120 feet a second.</p> + +<p>Laplace, by a heat and cold theory, tried to account for the 174 +feet, and supposed that in the condensed portion of a sound wave +heat was generated, and in the rarefied portion cold was produced; +the heat augmenting the elasticity and therefore the sound waves, +and the cold produced neutralizing the heat, thus kept the +atmosphere at a constant temperature. Dr. Mott stated that when +Newton first pointed out this discrepancy of 174 feet, the theory +should have been dropped at once, and later on he showed the +consequences of Laplace's heat and cold theory.</p> + +<p>The great argument of the evening, and the one to which he +attached the most importance, was that all scientists have spoken +of the swift movement of the tuning fork, while in fact it moved +25,000 times slower than the hour hand of a clock and 300,000,000 +times slower than any clock pendulum ever constructed.</p> + +<p>Since a pendulum cannot, according to the high authorities, +produce sonorous air waves on account of its slow movement, Dr. +Mott asks some one to enlighten him how a prong of a tuning fork +going 300,000,000 times slower could be able to produce them. He +then showed that there was not the slightest similarity between the +theoretical sound waves and water waves, and still they are spoken +of as "precisely similar" and "essentially identical," and "move in +exactly the same way." Considerable merriment was occasioned when +Dr. Mott showed what a locust stridulating in the air would be +called upon to do if the present theory of sound were correct. He +stated that a locust not weighing more than half a pennyweight, and +that could not move an ounce weight, was supposed capable of +setting 4 cubic miles of atmosphere into vibration, weighing +120,000,000 tons, so that it would be displaced 440 times in one +second, and any portion of the air could bend the human tympanic +membrane once in and once out 440 times in one second; and that +40,000,000 people, nearly the whole population of the United +States, could have their 5,000 pounds of tympanic membrane thus +shaken by an insect that could not move an ounce weight to save its +life; and that the 231,222 pounds of tympanic membrane of the +entire population of the earth, amounting to 1,350,000,000, who +could conveniently stand in 11¼ square miles, would be +affected the same way by 34 locusts stridulating in the air. +According to the barometric theory of Sir William Thomson, he +showed that a locust would have to add 60,000,000 pounds to the +weight of the atmosphere.</p> + +<p>Under elasticity and density he stated that elasticity was a +mere property of a body, and could not add one grain of force to +that exercised by the locust, so as to assist it in performing such +wonderful feats. Under interference he showed that the law of +interference is fallacious; that no such thing occurs; and that in +the experiment with the siren to show such fact, the octave is +produced which of necessity ought to be when the number of orifices +are alternately doubled, and the same effect would be produced with +one disk with double the number of holes. Under the last head of +his paper Dr. Mott proved that the membrana tympani was not +necessary for good hearing, that in fact when it was punctured, a +deaf man could in many cases be made to hear, and in fact it +improved the hearing in general; the only reason why the tympanic +membrane was not punctured oftener was that dust, heat, and cold +were apt to injure the middle ear.</p> + +<p>In closing his paper Dr. Mott said that he would risk the +fallacy of the current theory of sound on the argument advanced +relating to the impossibility of the slow motion of a tuning fork +to produce sonorous waves, and stated that he would retire if any +one could show the fallacy of the argument; but if not, the wave +theory must be abandoned as absurd and fallacious, as was the +Ptolemaic system of astronomy, which was handed down from age to +age until Copernicus and his aide de camp Galileo gave to the world +a better system.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="9"></a></p> + +<h2>THE ATTOCK BRIDGE.</h2> + +<p>We give illustrations from <i>Engineering</i> of a bridge +recently constructed across the Indus River at Attock, for the +Punjaub Northern State Railway. This bridge, which was opened on +May 24, 1883, was erected under the direction of Mr. F.L. +O'Callaghan, engineer in chief, Mr. H. Johnson acting as executive +engineer, and Messrs. R.W. Egerton and H. Savary as assistants.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7a.png"><img src= +"./images/7a_th.jpg" alt= +" BRIDGE OVER THE RIVER INDUS AT ATTOCK: PUNJAUB NORTHERN STATE RAILWAY, INDIA."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">BRIDGE OVER THE RIVER INDUS AT ATTOCK: PUNJAUB +NORTHERN STATE RAILWAY, INDIA.</p> + +<p>The principal spans cover a length of about 1,150 feet. It will +be seen from the diagram that there is a difference of nearly 100 +feet in the levels of high and low water.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="1"></a></p> + +<h2>THE ELASTICITY OF METALS.</h2> + +<p>M. Tresca has contributed to the <i>Comptes Rendus</i> some +observations on the effect of hammering, and the variation of the +limit of elasticity of metals and materials used in the arts.</p> + +<p>He says that hitherto, in considering the deformation of solids +under strain, two distinct periods, relative to their mechanical +properties, have alone been recognized. These periods are of course +the elastic limit and the breaking point. In the course of M. +Tresca's own experiments, however, he has found it necessary to +consider, at the end of the period of alteration of elasticity, a +third state, geometrically defined and describable as a period of +fluidity, corresponding to the possibility of a continuous +deformation under the constant action of the same strain. This +particular condition is only realized with very malleable or +plastic bodies; and it may even be regarded as characteristic of +such bodies, since its absence is noticeable in all non-malleable +or fragile bodies, which break without being deformed. It is +already known that the period of altered elasticity for hard or +tempered steel is much less than for iron. In 1871 the author +showed that steel or iron rails that had acquired a permanent set +were at the same time perfectly elastic up to the limit of the load +which they had already borne. With certain bars the same result was +renewed five times in succession; and thus their period of perfect +elasticity could be successively extended, while the coefficient of +elasticity did not appear to sustain any appreciable modification. +This process of repeated straining, when there is an absence of a +certain hammering effect, renders malleable bodies somewhat similar +to those which are not malleable and brittle. There is an +indication here of another argument against the testing of steam +boilers by exaggerated pressures before use, which process has the +effect of rendering the plates more brittle and liable to sudden +rupture.</p> + +<p>M. Tresca also protests against the elongation of metals under +breaking strain tests being stated as a percentage of the length. +The elongation is in all cases, chiefly local; and is therefore the +same for a test piece 12 inches or 8 inches long, being confined to +the immediate vicinity of the point of rupture. The indication of +elasticity should rather be sought for in the reduction of the area +of the bar at the point of rupture. This portion of the bar is +otherwise remarkable for having lost its original condition. It is +condensed in a remarkable manner, and has almost completely lost +its malleability. The final rupture, therefore, is that of a +brittle zone of the metal, of the same character that may be +produced by hammering. If a test bar, strained almost to the verge +of rupture, be annealed, it will stretch yet further before +breaking; and, indeed, by successive annealings and stretchings, +may be excessively modified in its proportions.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="10"></a></p> + +<h2>THE HARRINGTON ROTARY ENGINE.</h2> + +<p>The chief characteristic or principle of this engine is the +maintenance of an accurate steam and mechanical balance and the +avoidance of cross pressure. The power is applied directly to the +work, the only friction being that of the steel shaft in +phosphor-bronze bearings. Referring to the cuts, Fig. 1 shows the +engine and an electric dynamo on the same shaft, all connecting +mechanism being done away with, and pounding obviated. There are +but two parts to the engine (two disks which supply the place of +all the ordinary mechanism), both of which are large, solid, and +durable. These disks have a bearing surface of several inches on +each other, preventing the passage of steam between them—a +feature peculiar to this engine. Fig. 2 represents an end elevation +partly in section, showing the piston, A, and the abutment disk, B, +in the position assumed in the instant of taking steam through a +port from the valve-chamber, E. Fig. 3 is a vertical section +through the center of Fig. 2, showing the relations of the disks, +C, and the abutment disks, B, and gear. The piston disks and gear +are attached to the driving shaft, H, and the abutment disks and +gear are attached to the shaft, K. These shafts, H and K, as above +stated, run in taper phosphor-bronze bearings, which are adjustable +for wear or other causes by the screw-caps, O. The whole mechanism +is kept rigidly in place by the flanged hub, r, bolted securely to +the cylinder head, F. These flanged heads project through the +cylinder head, touching the piston disk, and thereby prevent any +end motion of the shaft, H, or its attachments. The abutment disks +and shaft are furnished with similar inwardly projecting flanged +hubs, which are provided with a recess, I, Fig. 2, on their +periphery, located radially between the shaft, K, and the clearance +space, J. Into this recess steam is admitted—through an inlet +in the cylinder head not shown in the cuts. By this means the +shaft, K, is relieved of all side pressure. The exhaust-port, which +is very large and relieves all back pressure, is shown at D. The +pistons and disks are made to balance at the speed at which the +engine is intended to run. The steam-valve, for which patent is +pending, is new in principle. It has a uniform rotating motion, +and, like the engine, is steam and mechanically balanced. The +governor is located in the flywheel, and actuates the automatic +cut-off, with which it is directly connected, without the +intervention of an eccentric, in such a way as to vary the cut-off +without changing the point of admission. By this means is secured +uniformity of motion under variable loads with variable boiler +pressure. It also secures the advantage resulting from high initial +and low terminal pressure with small clearances and absence of +compression, giving a large proportionate power and smooth +action.</p> + +<p>Expansion has been excellently provided for, the steam passing +entirely around before entering the cylinder. These engines are +mounted on a bed-plate which may be set on any floor without +especial preparation therefor. The parts are all made +interchangeable. A permanent indicator is provided which shows the +exact point of cut-off. The steam-port is exceptionally large, +being one-fourth of the piston area. Reciprocating motion is +entirely done away with. The steam is worked at the greatest +leverage of the crank through the entire stroke. Among the other +chief advantages claimed for this engine are direct connection to +the machinery without belts, etc., impossibility of getting out of +line, uniform crank leverage, capacity for working equally well +slow or fast, etc. It has but one valve, which is operated by gear +from the shaft, as shown, traveling at one-half the velocity of the +piston.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/8a.png"><img src= +"./images/8a_th.jpg" alt= +" Fig. 1.—THE HARRINGTON ROTARY ENGINE COUPLED TO A DYNAMO."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 1.—THE HARRINGTON ROTARY ENGINE COUPLED +TO A DYNAMO.</p> + +<p>With this engine a speed of 5,000 revolutions per minute is +easily attainable, while, as a matter of fact and curiosity, a +speed of 8,000 revolutions per minute has been obtained. An engine +of this class was run at the Illinois Inter-State Exposition at +Chicago for six weeks at a uniform speed of 1,050 revolutions per +minute, furnishing the power for twenty-three electric arc lights, +with a steam pressure not exceeding fifty-five pounds per square +inch, and cutting off at from one-tenth to one-sixth of the stroke. +It was taking steam from a large main-pipe, so there was no +opportunity for an exact test of the amount of fuel used, but from +a careful mathematical calculation it must have been developing one +horse-power from three pounds of coal.</p> + +<p>The inventor claims that, as his engine works the steam +expansively, even better results would have been obtained had the +engine been furnished steam at 100 pounds per square inch.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/8b.png"><img src= +"./images/8b_th.jpg" alt= +" Figs. 2 and 3.—DETAILS OF HARRINGTON ENGINE."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">Figs. 2 and 3.—DETAILS OF HARRINGTON +ENGINE.</p> + +<p>The Harrington Rotary Engine Company, 123 Clinton Street, +Chicago, are the owners and manufacturers.</p> + +<hr> +<p>In a can of peas sold in Liverpool recently the public analyst +found two grains of crystallized sulphate of copper, a quantity +sufficient to injuriously affect human health. The defendant urged +that the public insisted upon having green peas; and that +artificial means had to be resorted to to secure the required +color.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="11"></a></p> + +<h2>TESTING CAR VARNISHES.</h2> + +<h3>By D.D. ROBERTSON.</h3> + +<p>At the Master Car-Painters' Convention, D.D. Robertson, of the +Michigan Central, read the following paper on the best method of +testing varnishes to secure the most satisfactory results as to +their durability, giving practical suggestions as to the time a car +may safely remain in the service before being taken in for +revarnishing:</p> + +<p>The subject which the association has assigned to me for this +convention has always been regarded as important. There is no +branch of the business which gives the painter more anxiety than +the varnishing department. It is more susceptible to an endless +variety of difficulties, and therefore needs more close and careful +attention, than all other branches put together, and even with all +the research and practical experience which has been given to the +subject we are yet far from coming to a definite conclusion as to +the causes of many of the unfavorable results.</p> + +<p>Beauty and durability are what we aim at in the paint shop, and +from my experience in varnish work we may have beauty without +durability, but we have rarely durability without beauty, so that +the fewer defects of any kind in our work caused by inferior +material, inferior workmanship, or any other cause, it is more +likely to be durable, and ought, therefore, to possess beauty. +There are certain qualifications absolutely necessary to durability +in varnish. The material of which it is made must be of the proper +kind, pure and unadulterated; the manipulation in manufacturing +must be correct as to time, quantities, temperature, handling, +etc., and age is also necessary. The want of durability arising +from the quality of the materials, or from the manner of +manufacturing, the painter has no control over; but let me say +here, that frequently a first-class varnish has been used upon a +car, and after being in service for a short time it deadens, +checks, cracks, chips, or flakes, and therefore shows a very poor +record. The varnish is condemned, when in reality, had the varnish +been applied under different circumstances and over different work, +the result would have been good and the durability +satisfactory.</p> + +<p>I am satisfied that in many cases first-class varnish has to +bear the odium, when the root of the evil is to be found nearer the +foundation. The leading varnish manufacturers of this country have +expended large fortunes to secure the best skill and appliances, +and, indeed, to do everything to bring their goods to perfection. +Their standing and respectability put them beyond suspicion, and +their reputation is of too much value for them knowingly to put +into the hands of large consumers an inferior article; and even +when we have just cause to complain of the varnish, we ought to be +charitable enough to attribute the mistake to circumstances beyond +their control (for every kettleful is subjected to such +circumstances), and not to charge them with using cheap or inferior +material for the sake of gain.</p> + +<p>If the question which has been given me means to give some +method of testing before using, I confess my inability to answer. +For varnish to be pronounced "durable" must be composed of the +materials to make it so, and to ascertain this, chemistry must be +called in to test it. Comparatively few painters understand +chemistry sufficiently to analyze, and if they did, and found the +material all that is necessary, the manipulation may have been +defective, so as to injure its wearing qualities, and therefore I +cannot suggest any way of pronouncing varnish durable before using +it.</p> + +<p>As to the common custom of hanging out boards prepared and +varnished to the exposure of the sun and weather for months does +not seem to me to be the correct way of testing durability. It is +true we may by this mode get some idea of wearing properties, but +the most thorough and correct way is to put the varnish to the same +exposure, the tear and wear, that it would have in the regular +service on the road on which it is to run. Cars while running are +exposed to circumstances which boards on the wall are not subjected +to. The cars under my charge run through two different countries +and three different States, and therefore subjected to such a +variety of climate and soil that the testing by stationary boards +would completely fail to give the correct result. For example: I +have placed two sample boards, prepared and varnished, and exposed +them to all kinds of weather and to the constant and steady rays of +the sun for an equal length of time, and both gave favorable +results; and I have also put the same varnishes on a car and found +very different results. One of the varnishes having some properties +adapted to resist the friction caused by cinders, sand, and dust, +and consequently not so liable to cut the surface, and therefore +much more durable.</p> + +<p>The system which I adopted long ago, and to which I still adhere +(not on account of "old fogyism," but for want of better), is as +follows: I have two varnishes which I want to put into competition +to test their relative merits. With varnish No. 1, I do the south +half of the east end of the car and the east half of the south side +of the car, the north half of the west end, and also the west end +of the north side; this is also done with the same varnish. On the +other half of the car varnish No. 2 is put.</p> + +<p>Thus you will see it is so placed that, should the car be turned +at any time, both varnishes on each side will have the same +exposure and circumstances to contend with. This I regard as the +best method to test the durability of varnish. And again let me say +that it would be wrong for me to argue that because the varnish +which I use gives me the best results, therefore I would regard it +the best for all to use. This would be wrong, inasmuch as we have a +diversity of climates between Maine and California, and between the +extreme northern and southern States. The varnish which has failed +to give me satisfaction may be most suitable for other parts of the +Union.</p> + +<p>As to the second part of my subject, "What length of time may a +car safely remain in service before being taken in for +revarnishing?" this must be regulated by the nature of the run and +general treatment of the car while in service. Through cars are +frequently continuously on the road, and little or no opportunity +can be had to attend to them while in service. Such cars should be +called in earlier than those which make shorter runs, and where +ample time is allowed at both ends of the journey to be kept in +order. And again, cars which are run nearest the engine cannot make +so large a running record as those less exposed. Some roads, for a +variety of reasons which might be given, can run cars for 14 months +with less wear than others can run 12 months. So that I hold that +the master painter on every road should keep a complete and correct +record of his cars, and have an opportunity to examine these at +intervals and report their condition, in order to have them called +in before they are too far gone for revarnishing. If this system +was more frequently adopted, the rolling stock of our roads would +be more attractive, and the companies would be the gainers.</p> + +<p>I cannot lay down a standard rule as to the exact time a car +should remain in service before being called in for revarnishing, +but I find as a general rule with the cars on the Michigan Central +Railroad that they should not exceed 12 months' service, and new +cars, or those painted from the foundation, should not be allowed +to run over 10 months the first year. By thus allowing a shorter +period the first year the car will look better and wear longer by +this mode of treatment. Cars treated in this way can be kept +running for six and seven years without repainting.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="15"></a></p> + +<h2>THE FIXATION OF MAGNETIC PHANTOMS.</h2> + +<p>When we place a thin sheet of cardboard or glass upon a magnet +and scatter iron filings over it, we observe the iron to take +certain positions and trace certain lines which Faraday has styled +lines of magnetic force, or, more simply, lines of force. The +figure, as a whole, which is thus formed constitutes a magnetic +phantom. The forms of the latter vary with that of the magnet, the +relative positions of the magnet and plate, etc.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9a.png"><img src= +"./images/9a_th.jpg" alt=" METHOD OF FIXING MAGNETIC PHANTOMS."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">METHOD OF FIXING MAGNETIC PHANTOMS.</p> + +<p>The whole space submitted to the influence of the magnet +constitutes a <i>magnetic field</i>, which is characterized by the +presence of these lines of force, and the study of which is of the +most important character as regards electro-magnetic action and +that of induction. In order to study these phantoms it is +convenient to fix them so that they can be preserved, projected, or +photographed. Fig. 1 shows how they may be fixed. To effect this, +we cover the plate with a layer of mucilage of gum arabic, allow +the latter to harden, and then place the plate over the magnet. +Next, iron filings are scattered over the surface by means of a +small sieve, and, when the curves are well developed,<a name= +"FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1"><sup>1</sup></a> the +surface is moistened by the aid of an ordinary vaporizer. The layer +of gum arabic thus becomes softened and holds the iron filings so +that the particles cannot change position. When the gum has +hardened again, the magnet is removed, and the phantom is +fixed.</p> + +<p>We thus have a tangible representation of the magnetic field +produced by the magnet in the plane of the glass plate or sheet of +paper. The number of these lines, or their density, is at every +point proportional to the intensity of the field, and the curves +that are traced show their direction. To finish the definition of +the field, it remains to determine the direction of these lines of +force. Such direction is, by definition, and conventionally, that +in which the north pole of a small magnetic needle, free to move in +the field, would travel. It results from this definition that the +lines of force issue from the north pole of a magnet and re-enter +the south pole, since the north pole of a magnet repels the north +pole of a needle, and <i>vice versa.</i></p> + +<p>These considerations relative to the direction and intensity of +the magnetic field are of the highest importance for the physical +theory of magneto-electric machines.</p> + +<p>The following is another method of fixing phantoms, as employed +by Prof. Bailie, of the Industrial School of Physics and Chemistry +of the City of Paris. He begins by forming the phantom, in the +usual way, upon paper prepared with ferrocyanide, and exposes it to +daylight for a sufficient length of time. The filings form a screen +which is so much the more perfect in proportion as it is denser, +and, after fixation, there is obtained a negative phantom, that is +to say, one in which the parts where the field is densest have +remained white.</p> + +<p>The same processes of fixation apply equally well to galvanic +phantoms, that is to say, to the galvanic fields produced by the +passage of a current in a conductor, and which consists of +analogous lines of force. The processes may be employed very +efficaciously and with certainty of success.—<i>La +Nature.</i></p> + +<a name="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1">[1]</a> +<div class="note">The curves are obtained by striking the plate +lightly with a glass rod.</div> + +<hr> +<p><a name="13"></a></p> + +<h2>A CHIPPENDALE SIDEBOARD.</h2> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9b.png"><img src= +"./images/9b_th.jpg" alt=" A CHIPPENDALE SIDEBOARD."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">A CHIPPENDALE SIDEBOARD.</p> + +<p>Our illustration this week is of a unique and handsome piece of +Chippendale work. The outline is elegant, and the scrollings +delicate. The pedestals are peculiar in their form, the panels +being carved in draperies, etc. In the frieze are two drawers, with +grotesque heads forming the handles. The back is fitted with shaped +glass and surmounted by an eagle. The whole forms a very +characteristic piece of work of the period, having been made about +1760-1770. As our readers are aware, Thomas Chippendale published +his book of designs in 1764, with the object of promoting good +French design in this field of art. This piece of furniture was +sold at auction lately for 85 guineas.—<i>Building +News.</i></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="2"></a></p> + +<h2>LIQUEFACTION OF THE ELEMENTARY GASES.</h2> + +<h3>By JULES JAMIN, of the Institute of France.</h3> + +<p>The earlier experiments of MM. Cailletet and Raoul Pictet in the +liquefaction of gases, and the apparatus by means of which they +performed the process, were described in the <i>Popular Science +Monthly</i>, March and May, 1878. The experiments have since been +continued and improved upon by MM. Cailletet and Pictet, and +others, with more complete results than had been attained at the +time the first reports were published, and with the elucidation of +some novel properties of gases, and the disclosure of relations, +previously not well understood, between the gaseous and the liquid +condition. The experiments of Faraday, in the compression of gases +by the combined agency of pressure and extreme cold, left six gases +which still refused to enter into the liquid state. They were the +two elements of the atmosphere (oxygen and nitrogen), nitric oxide, +marsh-gas, carbonic oxide, and hydrogen. Many new experiments were +tried before the principle that governs the change from the gaseous +to the liquid, or from the liquid to the gaseous form was +discovered. Aime sank manometers filled with air into the sea till +the pressure upon them was equal to that of four hundred +atmospheres; Berthelot, by the expansion of mercury in a +thermometer tube, succeeded in exerting a pressure of seven hundred +and eighty atmospheres upon oxygen. Both series of experiments were +without result. M. Cailletet, having fruitlessly subjected air and +hydrogen to a pressure of one thousand atmospheres, came to the +conclusion that it was impossible to liquefy those gases at the +ordinary temperature by pressure alone. Previously it had been +thought that the obstacle to condensing gases by pressure alone lay +in the difficulty of obtaining sufficient pressure, or in that of +finding a vessel suitable for manipulation that would be capable of +resisting it. M. Cailletet's thought led to the discovery of +another fundamental property of gases.</p> + +<p>The experiments of Despretz and Regnault had shown that the +scope of Mariotte's law (that the volume of gases increases or +diminishes inversely as the pressure upon them) was limited, and +that its limits were different with different substances. Andrews +confirmed the observations of these investigators, and extended +them. Compressing carbonic acid at 13° C. (55° Fahr.), he +found that the rate of diminution in volume increased more rapidly +than Mariotte's law demanded, and at a progressive rate. At fifty +atmospheres the gas all at once assumed the liquid form, became +very dense, and fell to the bottom of the vessel, where it remained +separated from its vapor by a clearly defined surface, like that +which distinguishes water in the air. Experimenting in the same way +with the gas at a higher temperature (21° C. or 70° Fahr.), +he found that the same result was produced, but more slowly; and it +seemed to be heralded in advance by a more rapid diminution in +volume previous to the beginning of the change, which continued +after the process had been accomplished; as if an anticipatory +preparation for the liquid state were going on previous to the +completion of the change. Performing the experiment again at +32° C. (90° Fahr.), the anticipatory preparation and the +after-continuation of the contraction were more marked, and, +instead of a separate and distinct liquid, wavy and mobile +striæ were perceived on the sides of the vessel as the only +signs of a change of state which had not yet been effected. At +temperatures above 32° C. (90° Fahr.), there were neither +striæ nor liquefaction, but there seemed to be a suggestion +of them, for, under a particular degree of pressure, the density of +the gas was augmented, and its volume diminished at an increasing +rate. The temperature of 32° C. (90° Fahr.) is, then, a +limit, marking a division between the temperatures which permit and +those which prevent liquefaction; it is the critical point, at +which is defined the separation, for carbonic acid, between two +very distinct states of matter. Below this point, the particular +matter may assume the aspect of a liquid; above it, the gas cannot +change its appearance, but enters into the opposite constitution +from that of a liquid.</p> + +<p>Generally, a liquid has considerably greater density than its +vapor. But, if a vessel containing both is heated, the liquid +experiences a dilatation which is gradually augmented till it +equals and even exceeds that of the gas; whence, of course, an +equal volume of the liquid will weigh less and less. On the other +hand, a constantly larger quantity of vapor is formed, which +accumulates above the liquid and becomes heavier and heavier. Now +if the density of the vapor increases, and that of the liquid +diminishes, they will reach a point, under a suitable temperature, +when they will be the same. There will then be no reason for the +liquid to sink or the vapor to rise, or for the existence of any +line of separation between them, and they will be mixed and +confounded. They will no longer be distinguishable by their heat of +constitution. It is true that, in passing into the state of a +vapor, a liquid absorbs a great deal of latent heat, but that is +employed in scattering the molecules and keeping them at a +distance; and there will be none of it if the distance does not +increase. We are then, at this stage of our experiments, in the +presence of a critical point, at which we do not know whether the +matter is liquid or gaseous; for, in either condition, it has the +same density, the same heat of constitution, and the same +properties. It is a new state, the gaso-liquid state. An experiment +of Cagniard-Latour re-enforced this explanation of the phenomena. +Heating ether in closed vessels to high temperatures, he brought it +to a point where the liquid could be made wholly to disappear, or +to be suddenly reformed on the slightest elevation or the slightest +depression of temperature accordingly as it was raised just above +or cooled to just below the critical point. The discovery of these +properties suggested an explanation of the failure of previous +attempts to liquefy air. Air at ordinary low temperatures is in the +gaso-liquid condition, and its liquefaction is not possible except +when a difference exists between the density of the vapor and that +of the liquid greater than it is possible to produce under any +conditions that can exist then. It was necessary to reduce the +temperature to below the critical point; and it was by adopting +this course that MM. Cailletet and Raoul Pictet achieved their +success. The rapid escape of the compressed gas itself from a +condition of great condensation at an extremely low temperature was +employed as the agent for producing a greater degree of cold than +it had been possible before to obtain. M. Cailletet used oxygen +escaping at -29° C. from a pressure of three hundred +atmospheres; M. Raoul Pictet, the same gas escaping at -140° +from a pressure of three hundred and twenty atmospheres; and both +obtained oxygen and nitrogen, and M. Pictet hydrogen, in what they +thought was a liquid, and possibly even in a solid form.</p> + +<p>Still, it could not be asserted that hydrogen and the elements +of the air had been completely liquefied. These gases had not yet +been seen collected in the static condition at the bottom of a tube +and separated from their vapors by the clearly defined concave +surface which is called a <i>meniscus.</i> The experiments had, +however, proved that liquefaction is possible at a temperature of +below -120° C. (-184° Fahr.). To make the process +practicable, it was only necessary to find sufficiently powerful +refrigerants; and these were looked for among gases that had proved +more refractory than carbonic acid and protoxide of nitrogen. M. +Cailletet selected ethylene, a hydrocarbon of the same composition +as illuminating gas, which, when liquefied by the aid of carbonic +acid and a pressure of thirty-six atmospheres, boils at -103° +C. (-153° Fahr.). M. Wroblewski, of Cracow, who had witnessed +some of M. Cailletet's experiments, and obtained his apparatus, and +M. Olzewski, in association with him, also experimented with +ethylene, and had the pleasure of recording their first complete +success early in April, 1883. Causing liquid ethylene to boil in an +air-pump vacuum at -103° C., they were able to produce a +temperature of -150° C. (-238° Fahr.), the lowest that had +ever been observed. Oxygen, having been previously compressed in a +glass tube, became a permanent liquid, with a clearly defined +meniscus. It presented itself, like the other liquefied gases, +under the form of a transparent and colorless substance, resembling +water, but a little less dense. Its critical point was marked at +-113° C. (-171° Fahr.), below which the liquid could be +formed, but never above it; while it boiled rapidly at -186° C. +(-303° Fahr.). A few days afterward, the Polish professors +obtained the liquefaction of nitrogen, a more refractory gas, under +a pressure of thirty-six atmospheres, at -146° C. (-231° +Fahr.). Long, difficult, and expensive operations were required to +produce this result, for the extreme degree of cold it demanded had +to be produced by boiling large quantities of ethylene in a vacuum. +M. Cailletet devised a cheaper process, by employing another +hydrocarbon that rises from the mud of marshes, and is called +<i>formene</i>. It is less easily liquefied than ethylene, but for +that very reason can be boiled in the air at a lower temperature, +or at -160°C. (-256° Fahr.); and at this temperature +nitrogen and oxygen can be liquefied in a bath of formene as +readily as sulphurous acid in the common freezing mixture.</p> + +<p>MM. Cailletet, Wroblewski, and Olzewski have continued their +experiments in liquefaction, and acquired increased facility in the +handling of liquid ethylene, formene, atmospheric air, oxygen, and +nitrogen. M. Olzewski was able to report to the French Academy of +Sciences, on the 21st of July, 1884, that by placing liquefied +nitrogen in a vacuum he had succeeded in producing a temperature of +-213°C. (-351° Fahr.), under which hydrogen was liquefied. +Contrary to the suppositions founded on the metallic behavior of +this element, that it would present the appearance of a molten +metal, like mercury, the liquid had the mobile behavior and the +transparency of the hydrocarbons.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="20"></a></p> + +<h2>EXAMINATION OF FATS.</h2> + +<p>The methods employed up to the present in examination of fats, +animal and vegetable, are mere reactions lacking general +application; scattered throughout the literature, and doubtful with +regard to reliability, they are of little or no value to the +experimenter—an approximate quantitative examination even of +a simple mixture being exceedingly difficult if not impossible, +since the qualitative composition of fatty substances is the same, +and the separation of the nearer components impracticable. The +object of analysis consisted in estimating the accompanying +impurities of fat, as, resin, albuminoids, and pigments. The nature +of these substances depends on the mode of extraction and +preservation of the fat, and are subject in the course of time to +alteration. The only reaction based upon the chemical constitution +of fat is produced by treatment of oleic or linoleic acid with +nitrous acid, which therefore is of some value in the examination +of drying oils. Of general application are the methods which +correspond to the chemical constitution of fats, and thus determine +the relative quantity of the components; advantage can then be +derived from qualitative reactions, inasmuch as they further affirm +the result of the quantitative test, or dispel any doubt with +regard to the correctness of the result. The principal methods +which comply with these demands have been carefully studied by +Hueble for the purpose of discovering a process of general +application; methods founded on the determination of density, +freezing, and melting point were compared with those dependent on +the solubility of fatty substances in glacial acetic acid or a +mixture of alcohol and acetic acid; also the method of Hehner for +testing of butter, the determination of glycerine and oleic acid, +and at length the process of saponification. Nearly all fats +contain members belonging to one of the three series of fatty +acids, <i>e.g.</i>, acids of the type of acetic acid (stearic and +palmitic acids); such as are derivatives of acrylic acid (oleic and +erucic acids); and such as are homologues of tetrolic acid +(linoleic acid). It is likely that the relative quantity of each of +these acids is variable, with regard to the same fat, within +definite limits, and changes with the nature of the fatty +substance. The groups of fatty acids are distinguished by a +characteristic deportment toward halogens; while members of the +first series are indifferent to haloids, those of the second and +third class combine readily, without suffering substitution, with +two respectively four atoms of a haloid. In view of this behavior +the first series is termed saturated, the second and third that of +unsaturated acids. Addition of halogen to one of the unsaturated +acids yields on subsequent examination an invariable quantity of +the former, representing two or four atoms, according to one or the +other of unsaturated groups; and as the molecular weights of fatty +acids are unequal, the percentage quantity of halogen will be found +varying with regard to members belonging to the same series. The +amount of iodine absorbed by some of the fatty acids is illustrated +by the following items:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left'>Hypogallic acid,</td> +<td align='left'>C<sub>16</sub>H<sub>30</sub>O<sub>2</sub>,</td> +<td align='left'>combines</td> +<td align='left'>with</td> +<td align='right'>100.00</td> +<td align='left'>grammes.</td> +<td align='left'>iodine.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align='left'>Oleic acid,</td> +<td align='left'>C<sub>18</sub>H<sub>34</sub>O<sub>2</sub></td> +<td align='left'> "</td> +<td align='left'> "</td> +<td align='right'>90.07</td> +<td align='left'> "</td> +<td align='left'> "</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align='left'>Erucic acid,</td> +<td align='left'>C<sub>22</sub>H<sub>42</sub>O<sub>2</sub></td> +<td align='left'> "</td> +<td align='left'> "</td> +<td align='right'>75.15</td> +<td align='left'> "</td> +<td align='left'> "</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align='left'>Ricinoleic acid,</td> +<td align='left'>C<sub>18</sub>H<sub>34</sub>O<sub>3</sub></td> +<td align='left'> "</td> +<td align='left'> "</td> +<td align='right'>85.24</td> +<td align='left'> "</td> +<td align='left'> "</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align='left'>Linoleic acid,</td> +<td align='left'>C<sub>16</sub>H<sub>28</sub>O<sub>2</sub></td> +<td align='left'> "</td> +<td align='left'> "</td> +<td align='right'>201.59</td> +<td align='left'> "</td> +<td align='left'> "</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Of the halogens employed in the examination, iodine is +preferable to either chlorine or bromine; it acts but slowly at +ordinary, but energetically at elevated temperatures. The reagents +are solution of mercury iodo-chloride prepared by dissolving of 25 +grms. iodine, 500 c.c. alcohol of 95 per cent., and of 30 grms. +mercury chloride in an equal measure of the same solvent; both +liquids are filtered and united; a standard solution of sodium +hyposulphite produced by digestion of 24 grms. of the dry salt with +1 liter water and titration with iodine solution; solution of +potassium iodide of 1:10; chloroform, and finally a solution of +starch. The above solution of mercury iodo-chloride acts on both +free unsaturated acids and glycerides, producing addition products. +For testing a sample of 0.2 to 0.4 grm. of a liquid, and from 0.8 +to 1.0 grm. of a solid fat being used, which is dissolved in 10 +c.c. chloroform and treated with 20 c.c. mercury iodo-chloride +solution run into it from a burette, if the liquid appear +opalescent a further measure of chloroform is introduced, while the +amount of mercury iodo-chloride must be such as to produce a +brownish coloration of the chloroform for two subsequent hours. The +excess of iodine is determined, on addition of from 10 to 15 c.c. +potassium iodide solution and 150 c.c. distilled water, by means of +caustic soda. From a burette divided into 0.1 c.c. a solution of +caustic soda is poured with continual gyration of the flask into +the tinged liquid, and the percentage of combined iodine +ascertained by difference; for this purpose 20 c.c. of mercury +iodo-chloride are tested, on introduction of a solution of +potassium iodide and starch, previously to its use as reagent. +Adulteration of solid or semi-liquid fats, especially lard, butter, +and tallow, with vegetable oils are readily detected by this +method, since the latter yield on examination a high percentage of +iodine. Animal fats, absorb comparatively less halogen than +vegetable fats, and the power to combine with iodine increases with +the transition from the solid to the liquid state, and attains its +maximum with vegetable oils—the method being adapted to the +examination of fat mixtures containing glycerides and free +saturated fatty acids, provided that substances which under similar +conditions combine with iodine are absent. These conditions are +fulfilled with regard to the examination of animal fats and soap. +Ethereal oils are also acted upon by iodine; the reaction proceeds +similar to that observed in ordinary fat mixtures. Alcoholic +mercury iodo-chloride can probably be used with success in +synthetical chemistry, as it allows determination of the free +affinities of the molecule and conversion of unsaturated compounds +into saturated chlorine-iodo addition +products.—<i>Rundschau.</i></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="3"></a></p> + +<h2>NOTES ON NITRIFICATION.<a name="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_2_2"><sup>2</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By R. WARINGTON.</h3> + +<p>In the following brief notes I propose to consider in the first +place the present position of the theory of nitrification, and next +to give a short account of the results of some recent experiments +conducted in the Rothamsted Laboratory.</p> + +<p><i>The Theory of Nitrification.</i>—The production of +nitrates in soils, and in waters contaminated with sewage, are +facts thoroughly familiar to chemists. It is also well known that +ammonia, and various nitrogenous organic matters, are the materials +from which the nitric acid is produced. Till the commencement of +1877 it was generally supposed that this formation of nitrates from +ammonia or nitrogenous organic matter was the result of simple +oxidation by the atmosphere. In the case of soil it was imagined +that the action of the atmosphere was intensified by the +condensation of oxygen in the pores of the soil; in the case of +waters no such assumption was possible. This theory was most +unsatisfactory, as neither solutions of pure ammonia, nor of any of +its salts, could be nitrified in the laboratory by simple exposure +to air. The assumed condensation of oxygen in the pores of the soil +also proved to be a fiction as soon as it was put by Schloesing to +the test of experiment.</p> + +<p>Early in 1877, two French chemists, Messrs. Schloesing and +Müntz, published preliminary experiments showing that +nitrification in sewage and in soils is the result of the action of +an organized ferment, which occurs abundantly in soils and in most +impure waters. This entirely new view of the process of +nitrification has been amply confirmed both by the later +experiments of Schloesing and Müntz, and by the investigations +of other chemists, among which are those by myself conducted in the +Rothamsted Laboratory.</p> + +<p>The evidence for the ferment theory of nitrification is now very +complete. Nitrification in soils and waters is found to be strictly +limited to the range of temperature within which the vital activity +of living ferments is confined. Thus nitrification proceeds with +extreme slowness near the freezing-point, and increases in activity +with a rise in temperature till 37° is reached; the action then +diminishes, and ceases altogether at 55°. Nitrification is also +dependent on the presence of plant-food suitable for organisms of +low character. Recent experiments at Rothamsted show that in the +absence of phosphates no nitrification will occur. Further proof of +the ferment theory is afforded by the fact that antiseptics are +fatal to nitrification. In the presence of a small quantity of +chloroform, carbon bisulphide, salicylic acid, and apparently also +phenol, nitrification entirely ceases. The action of heat is +equally confirmatory. Raising sewage to the boiling-point entirely +prevents its undergoing nitrification. The heating of soil to the +same temperature effectually destroys its nitrifying power. +Finally, nitrification can be started in boiled sewage, or in other +sterilized liquid of suitable composition, by the addition of a few +particles of fresh surface soil or a few drops of a solution which +has already nitrified; though without such addition these liquids +may be freely exposed to filtered air without nitrification taking +place.</p> + +<p>The nitrifying organism has been submitted as yet to but little +microscopical study; it is apparently a micrococcus.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to conceive how the evidence for the ferment +theory of nitrification could be further strengthened; it is +apparently complete in every part. Although, however, nearly the +whole of this evidence has been before the scientific public for +more than seven years, the ferment theory of nitrification can +hardly be said to have obtained any general acceptance; it has not +indeed been seriously controverted, but neither has it been +embraced. In hardly a single manual of chemistry is the production +of saltpeter attributed to the action of a living ferment existing +in the soil. Still more striking is the absence of any recognition +of the evidence just mentioned when we turn to the literature and +to the public discussions on the subjects of sewage, the pollution +of river water, and other sanitary questions. The oxidation of the +nitrogenous organic matter of river water is still spoken of by +some as determined by mere contact with atmospheric oxygen, and the +agitation of the water with air as a certain means of effecting +oxidation; while by others the oxidation of nitrogenous organic +matter in a river is denied, simply because free contact with air +is not alone sufficient to produce oxidation. How much light would +immediately be thrown on such questions if it were recognized that +the oxidation of organic matter in our rivers is determined solely +by the agency of life, is strictly limited to those conditions +within which life is possible, and is most active in those +circumstances in which life is most vigorous. It is surely most +important that scientific men should make up their minds as to the +real nature of those processes of oxidation of which nitrification +is an example. If the ferment theory be doubted, let further +experiments be made to test it, but let chemists no longer go on +ignoring the weighty evidence which has been laid before them. It +is partly with the view of calling the attention of English and +American chemists to the importance of a decision on this question +that I have been induced to bring this subject before them on the +present occasion. I need hardly add that such results as the +nitrification of sewage by passing it through sand, or the +nitrification of dilute solutions of blood prepared without special +precaution, are no evidence whatever against the ferment theory of +nitrification. If it is to be shown that nitrification will occur +in the absence of any ferment, it is clear that all ferments must +be rigidly excluded during the experiments; the solutions must be +sterilized by heat, the apparatus purified in a similar manner, and +all subsequent access of organisms carefully guarded against. It is +only experiments made in this way that can have any weight in +deciding the question.</p> + +<p>Leaving now the theory of nitrification, I will proceed to say a +few words, first, as to the distribution of the nitrifying organism +in the soil; secondly, as to the substances which are susceptible +of nitrification; thirdly, upon certain conditions having great +influence on the process.</p> + +<p><i>The Distribution of the Nitrifying Organism in the +Soil.</i>—Three series of experiments have been made on the +distribution of the nitrifying organism in the clay soil and +subsoil at Rothamsted. Advantage was taken of the fact that deep +pits had been dug in one of the experimental fields for the purpose +of obtaining samples of the soil and subsoil. Small quantities of +soil were taken from freshly-cut surfaces on the sides of these +pits at depths varying from 2 inches to 8 feet. The soil removed +was at once transferred to a sterilized solution of diluted urine, +which was afterward examined from time to time to ascertain if +nitrification took place. These experiments are hardly yet +completed; the two earlier series of solutions have, however, been +examined for eight and seven months respectively. In both these +series the soil taken from 2 inches, 9 inches, and 18 inches from +the surface has been proved to contain the nitrifying organism by +the fact that it has produced nitrification in the solutions to +which it was added; while in twelve distinct experiments made with +soil from greater depths no nitrification has yet occurred, and we +must therefore conclude that the nitrifying organism was not +present in the samples of soil taken. The third series of +experiments has continued as yet but three months and a half; at +present no nitrification has occurred with soil taken below 9 +inches from the surface. It would appear, therefore, that in a clay +soil the nitrifying organism is confined to about 18 inches from +the surface; it is most abundant in the first 6 inches. It is quite +possible, however, that in the channels caused by worms, or by the +roots of plants, the organism may occur at greater depths. In a +sandy soil we should expect to find the organism at a lower level +than in clay, but of this we have as yet no evidence. The facts +here mentioned are in accordance with the microscopical +observations made by Koch, who states that the micro-organisms in +the soils he has investigated diminish rapidly in number with an +increasing depth; and that at a depth of scarcely 1 meter the soil +is almost entirely free from bacteria.</p> + +<p>Some very practical conclusions may be drawn from the facts now +stated. It appears that the oxidation of nitrogenous matter in soil +will be confined to matter near the surface. The nitrates found in +the subsoil and in subsoil drainage waters have really been +produced in the upper layer of the soil, and have been carried down +by diffusion, or by a descending column of water. Again, in +arranging a filter bed for the oxidation of sewage, it is obvious +that, with a heavy soil lying in its natural state of +consolidation, very little will be gained by making the filter bed +of considerable depth; while, if an artificial bed is to be +constructed, it is clearly the top soil, rich in oxidizing +organisms, which should be exclusively employed.</p> + +<p><i>The Substances Susceptible of Nitrification.</i>—The +analyses of soils and drainage waters have taught us that the +nitrogenous humic matter resulting from the decay of plants is +nitrifiable; also that the various nitrogenous manures applied to +land, as farmyard manure, bones, fish, blood, rape cake, and +ammonium salts, undergo nitrification in the soil. Illustrations of +many of these facts from the results obtained in the experimental +fields at Rothamsted have been published by Sir J.B. Lawes, Dr. +J.H. Gilbert, and myself, in a recent volume of the <i>Journal</i> +of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. In the Rothamsted +Laboratory, experiments have also been made on the nitrification of +solutions of various substances. Besides solutions containing +ammonium salts and urea, I have succeeded in nitrifying solutions +of asparagine, milk, and rape cake. Thus, besides ammonia, two +amides, and two forms of albuminoids have been found susceptible of +nitrification. In all cases in which amides or albuminoids were +employed, the formation of ammonia preceded the production of +nitric acid. Mr. C.F.A. Tuxen has already published in the present +year two series of experiments on the formation of ammonia and +nitric acids in soils to which bone-meal, fish-guano, or stable +manure had been applied; in all cases he found the formation of +ammonia preceded the formation of nitric acid.</p> + +<p>As ammonia is so readily nitrifiable, we may safely assert that +every nitrogenous substance which yields ammonia when acted upon by +the organisms present in soil is also nitriflable.</p> + +<p><i>Certain Conditions having Great Influence in the Process of +Nitrification.</i>—If we suppose that a solution containing a +nitrifiable substance is supplied with the nitrifying organism, and +with the various food constituents necessary for its growth and +activity, the rapidity of nitrification will depend on a variety of +circumstances:</p> + +<p>1. The degree of concentration of the solution is important. +Nitrification always commences first in the weakest solution, and +there is probably in the case of every solution a limit of +concentration beyond which nitrification is impossible.</p> + +<p>2. The temperature has great influence. Nitrification proceeds +far more rapidly in summer than winter.</p> + +<p>3. The presence or absence of light is important. Nitrification +is most rapid in darkness; and in the case of solutions, exposure +to strong light may cause nitrification to cease altogether.</p> + +<p>4. The presence of oxygen is of course essential. A thin layer +of solution will nitrify sooner than a deep layer, owing to the +larger proportion of oxygen available. The influence of depth of +fluid is most conspicuous in the case of strong solutions.</p> + +<p>5. The quantity of nitrifying organism present has also a marked +effect. A solution seeded with a very small amount of organism will +for a long time exhibit no nitrification, the organism being +(unlike some other bacteria) of very slow growth. A solution +receiving an abundant supply of the ferment will exhibit speedy +nitrification, and strong solutions may by this means be +successfully nitrified, which with small seedings would prove very +refractory. The speedy nitrification which occurs in soil (far more +speedy than in experiments in solutions under any conditions yet +tried) is probably owing to the great mass of nitrifying organisms +which soil contains, and to the thinness of the liquid layer which +covers the soil particles.</p> + +<p>6. The rapidity of nitrification also depends on the degree of +alkalinity of the solution. Nitrification will not take place in an +acid solution; it is essential that some base should be present +with which the nitric acid may combine; when all available base is +used up, nitrification ceases.</p> + +<p>It appeared of interest to ascertain to what extent +nitrification would proceed in a dilute solution of urine without +the addition of any substance save the nitrifying ferment. As urea +is converted into ammonium carbonate in the first stage of the +action of the ferment, a supply of salifiable base would at first +be present, but would gradually be consumed. The result of the +experiment showed that only one-half the quantity of nitric acid +was formed in the simple urine solution as in similar solutions +containing calcium and sodium carbonate. The nitrification of the +urine had evidently proceeded until the whole of the ammonium had +been changed into ammonium nitrate, and the action had then ceased. +This fact is of practical importance. Sewage will be thoroughly +nitrified only when a sufficient supply of calcium carbonate, or +some other base, is available. If, instead of calcium carbonate, a +soluble alkaline salt is present, the quantity must be small, or +nitrification will be seriously hindered.</p> + +<p>Sodium carbonate begins to have a retarding influence on the +commencement of nitrification when its amount exceeds 300 +milligrammes per liter, and up to the present time I have been +unable to produce an effective nitrification in solutions +containing 1.000 gramme per liter.</p> + +<p>Sodium hydrogen carbonate hinders far less the commencement of +nitrification.</p> + +<p>Ammonium carbonate, when above a certain amount, also prevents +the commencement of nitrification. The strongest solution in which +nitrification has at present commenced contained ammonium carbonate +equivalent to 368 milligrammes of nitrogen per liter. This +hinderance of nitrification by the presence of an excess of +ammonium carbonate effectually prevents the nitrification of strong +solutions of urine, in which, as already mentioned, ammonium +carbonate is the first product of fermentation.</p> + +<p>Far stronger solutions of ammonium chloride can be nitrified +than of ammonium carbonate, if the solution of the former salt is +supplied with calcium carbonate. Nitrification has in fact +commenced in chloride of ammonium solutions containing more than +two grammes of nitrogen per liter.</p> + +<p>The details of the recent experiments, some of the results of +which we have now described, will, it is hoped, shortly appear in +the <i>Journal</i> of the Chemical Society of London.</p> + +<p>Harpenden, July 21.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2">[2]</a> +<div class="note">A paper by R. Warington, read before the Chemical +Section of the British Association at Montreal.</div> + +<hr> +<p><a name="12"></a></p> + +<h2>ANILINE DYES IN DRESS MATERIALS.</h2> + +<h3>By Professor CHARLES O'NEILL.</h3> + +<p>Twenty-eight years ago Mr. Perkin discovered the first of the +aniline dyes. It was the shade of purple called mauve, and the +chief agent in its production was bichromate of potash. This salt +is not actively poisonous, and no one thought of attributing +injurious properties to materials dyed with the aniline mauve. Next +in chronological order came magenta red. It was first made from +aniline by the agency of mercurial salts, and afterward by that +form of arsenic known to chemists as arsenic acid. The fact that +this at one time fashionable color was prepared by means of an +arsenical compound was spread through the country in a very +impressive manner by the great trial as to whether the patent was +valid or not, all turning upon the expression in the specification +of "dry arsenic acid," and the disputes of scientists whether this +expression meant arsenic acid with or without water. The public +mind had been for some time previously exercised and alarmed by +accounts of sickness and debility caused by arsenical +paper-hangings; it was, therefore, easy for pseudo scientists to +create an opinion that the magenta dye must be also poisonous, and +that persons wearing materials dyed with this color were liable to +absorb arsenic and suffer from its action. Ever since there have +been, at intervals, statements more or less circumstantial, that +individuals have suffered from wearing materials dyed with some of +the artificial dyes. At the present time these statements are +emphasized by the exhibition at the Healtheries of models of skin +diseases said to be actually produced by the wearing of dyed +garments. Whether it be true or not that any form of skin disease +has been produced by the wearing of dyed articles of clothing is +simply a question of evidence, and there is evidence enough to show +that individuals have experienced ill effects who have worn +clothing dyed with artificial colors. But, as far as we know, there +is an entire want of any evidence that will satisfactorily show +that the inconvenience suffered by wearers of these dyed goods has +been owing to the dyeing material. Years must elapse before +chemists or physicians can hope to become thoroughly informed of +the physiological action produced by the cutaneous absorption of +the thousands of new products which the ingenuity and industry of +technological chemists have made available for the manufacture of +colors; they are also new to science, most of them very complex in +their constitution, and so dissimilar to previously studied +compounds used by the dyer, that it may be said we have nearly +everything to learn concerning their action upon the human economy. +With respect to dyed woolen and silk goods it is almost entirely a +question as to the innocence or otherwise of the coloring matter +itself, which in nine cases out of ten is an organic body +containing no mineral matter of any sort, and not requiring the +assistance of any mordant to enable it to dye. Considerations of +arsenic, or antimony, or mercury existing in the dyed stuffs are +absolutely excluded. In a few cases the dyestuff is a zinc +compound, and zinc in small traces may possibly be fixed by the +material, but this metal is not known to be actively noxious. +Textiles made from fibers of animal origin do not require, and as a +rule do not tolerate, the addition of any metal in dyeing with the +artificial colors, and if the manufacture of the color require the +use of a metal, such as arsenic, which by unskillfulness or +carelessness is left in it when delivered to the dyer, the tendency +of the animal fiber is to reject it.</p> + +<p>But the case with regard to textiles made from vegetables fibers +is quite different; upon materials made from cotton, flax, jute, or +other fiber of the vegetable kingdom, the new aniline colors cannot +be fixed without the assistance of other bodies acting the part of +mordants. Some of these bodies are actively poisonous in their +nature, and introduce a possible element of danger to the wearer of +the dyed article. For many years, almost the only method of dyeing +cotton goods with the aniline colors consisted in a preliminary +steeping in sumac or tannic acid, followed by a passage in some +suitable compound of tin, and subsequent dyeing in the coloring +matter. Sumac and tin have been used for two hundred years or more +as the dyer's basis for a considerable number of shades of color +from old dye-stuffs; there never has been the least suspicion that +there was anything hurtful in colors so dyed. Sumac or tannic acid, +in combination with alumina, may be held to be equally inoffensive; +now it is a fact that the great bulk of cotton goods are dyed with +the aniline colors by the agency of these harmless chemicals. But +of late years the dyers of certain goods, and the calico printers +generally, have found an advantage in the use of tartar emetic, and +other compounds of antimony, to fix aniline colors; besides this, +some colors are fixed in calico printing by means of an arsenical +alumina mordant; it need not be mentioned that antimony, as well as +arsenic, is, when administered internally, an active poison in even +small quantities, and that externally both are injurious under +certain conditions. An alarmist would require nothing further than +this statement to feel himself justified in attributing everything +bad to fabrics so colored; but the practical dyer or calico printer +knows that though he employs these poisonous bodies in his +business, and that some portion of them does actually accompany the +dyed material in its finished state, not only is the quantity +excessively small, but that it is in such a state of combination as +to be completely inert and innoxious. In the case of tartar emetic, +it is the tannate of antimony which remains upon the cloth, a +compound of considerable stability, and almost perfectly insoluble +in water; in the case of a few colors fixed by the arsenical +alumina mordant, the arsenic is in an insoluble state of +combination with the alumina, in fact, the poisons are in the +presence of their antidotes, and not even the most scrupulous +manufacturer has any fear that he is turning out goods which can be +hurtful to the wearer. Persons quite unacquainted with the process +of dyeing are apt to think that goods are dyed by simply immersing +them in a colored liquid and then drying them with all the color on +them and all that the color contains; they do not know that in all +usual cases of dyeing a careful washing in a plentiful supply of +water is the final process in the dye-house, and that nothing +remains upon the cloth which can be washed out by water, the color +being retained by a sort of attraction or affinity between it and +the fiber, or mordant on the fiber. Dyeing is not like painting or +even the printing or staining of paper for hangings, where the +vehicle and color in its entirety is applied and remains. It +follows, therefore, that many chemicals used in dyeing have only a +transitory use, and are washed away completely—such as oil of +vitriol, much used in woolen dyeing—and that of others only a +very minute quantity is finally left on the cloth, as is the case +in antimony and arsenic in cotton dyeing and printing.</p> + +<p>There is evidently among working dyers, as among all other +classes, an unknown amount of carelessness, ignorance, and +stupidity, from which employers are constantly suffering in the +shape of spoiled colors and rotted cloth. It is not for us to say +that the public may not at times have to suffer also from neglect +of the most common treatments which should remove injurious matters +from dyed goods; what can be said is, that if the dyeing processes +for aniline colors be followed out with ordinary care and +intelligence, it is extremely improbable that anything left in the +material should be injurious to human health.—<i>Manchester +Textile Recorder.</i></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="17"></a></p> + +<h2>CASE OF RESUSCITATION AND RECOVERY AFTER APPARENT DEATH BY +HANGING.</h2> + +<h3>By ERNEST W. WHITE, M.B. Lond., M.R.C.P.,</h3> + +<h4>Senior Assistant Medical Officer to the Kent Lunatic Asylum; +Associate, Late Scholar, of King's College, London.</h4> + +<p>The following case, from its hopelessness at the outset, yet +ultimate recovery under the duly recognized forms of treatment, is +of such interest as to demand publicity, and will afford +encouragement to others in moments of doubt.</p> + +<p>M.A. S——, aged fifty-three, was admitted into the +Kent Lunatic Asylum at Chartham on Oct. 3, 1882, suffering from +melancholia, the duration of which was stated to have been three +months. She had several times attempted suicide by drowning and +strangulation. She was on admission ordered a mixture containing +morphia and ether thrice daily, to allay her distress. On Oct. 10 +she attempted suicide by tying a stocking, which she had secreted +about her person, round her neck. Shortly afterward, with similar +intent, she threw herself downstairs. On Jan. 4, 1883, she +attempted to strangle herself with her apron. On the 30th of +November following, at 4 P.M. she evaded the attendants, and made +her way to the bath-room of of No. 1 ward, the door of which had +been left unfastened by an attendant. She then suspended herself +from a ladder there by means of portions of her dress and +underclothing tied together. A patient of No. 1 ward discovered her +suspended from the ladder eight minutes after she had last seen her +in the adjoining watercloset, and gave the alarm.</p> + +<p>The woman was quickly cut down, and the medical officers +summoned. In the interval cold affusion was resorted to by the +attendant in charge, but the patient was to all appearances dead. +The junior assistant medical officer, Mr. J. Reynolds Salter, M.B. +Lond., arrived after about three minutes, and at once resorted to +artificial respiration by the Silvester method. A minute or so +later the medical superintendent and myself joined him. At this +time the condition of the patient was as follows: The face +presented the appearance known as facies hippocratica: the eyeballs +were prominent, the corneæ glassy, the pupils widely dilated, +not acting to light, and there was no reflex action of the +conjunctivæ; the lips were livid, the tongue tumefied, but +pallid, the skin ashy pale, the cutaneous tissues apparently devoid +of elasticity. There was an oblique depressed mark on the neck, +more evident on the left side; the small veins and capillaries of +the surface of the body were turgid with coagulating blood the +surface temperature was extremely low. She was pulseless at the +wrists and temples. There was no definite beat of the heart +recognizable by the stethoscope.</p> + +<p>There was absolute cessation of all natural respiratory efforts, +complete unconsciousness, total abolition of reflex action and +motion, and galvanism with the ordinary magneto-electric machine +failed to induce muscular contractions. The urine and fæces +had been passed involuntarily during or immediately subsequent to +the act of suspension. As the stethoscope revealed that but a small +amount of air entered the lungs with each artificial inspiration, +the tongue was at once drawn well forward, and retained in that +position by an assistant, with the result that air then penetrated +to the smaller bronchi. Inspiration and expiration were +artificially imitated about ten times to the minute. In performing +expiration the chest was thoroughly compressed. The lower +extremities were raised, and manual centripetal frictions freely +applied. In the intervals of these applications warmth to the +extremities was resorted to.</p> + +<p>About ten minutes from the commencement of artificial +respiration we noticed a single weak spasmodic contraction of the +diaphragm, the feeblest possible effort at natural respiration. +Simultaneously, very distant weak reduplicated cardiac pulsations, +numbering about 150 to the minute, became evident to the +stethoscope. The reduplication implied that the two sides of the +heart were not acting synchronously, owing to obstruction to the +pulmonary circulation induced by the asphyxiated state. Artificial +respiration was steadily maintained, and during the next half hour +spasmodic contractions of the diaphragm occurred at gradually +diminishing intervals, from once in three minutes to three or four +times a minute.</p> + +<p>These natural efforts were artificially aided as far as +possible. At 5:45 P.M. natural respiration was fairly though +insufficiently established, the skin began to lose its deadly hue, +and titillation of the fauces caused weak reflex contractions. +Flagellation with wet towels was now freely resorted to, and +immediately the natural efforts at respiration were increased to +twice their previous number. The administration of a little brandy +and water by the mouth failed, as the liquid entered the larynx. +Ammonia was applied to the nostrils, and the surface temperature +was increased by warm applications and clothing. At 6 P.M. +artificial respiration was no longer necessary. The heart sounds +then numbered 140 to the minute, the right and left heart still +acting separately. A very small radial pulse could also be felt. At +6:45 P.M. the woman was put to bed, warmth of surface maintained, +and hot coffee and beef-tea given in small quantities.</p> + +<p>Great restlessness and jactitation set in with the renewal of +the circulation in the extremities. An enema of two ounces of +strong beef-tea was administered at 10 P.M. The amount of organic +effluvium thrown off by the lungs on the re-establishment of +respiration was very great and tainted the atmosphere of the room +and adjoining ward. The pupils, previously widely dilated, began to +contract to light at 11 P.M. Imperfect consciousness returned at 5 +P.M. the following day (Dec. 1), and about an hour later she +vomited the contents of the stomach (bread, etc., taken on Nov. +30). Small quantities of beef-tea were given by the mouth during +the night. At 9 A.M. air entered the lungs freely, and there were +no symptoms of pulmonary engorgement beyond slight basic +hypostasis; the pulse remained at 140, and the heart sounds +reduplicated; she was semiconscious, very drowsy, in a state of +mental torpor, with confused ideas when roused, and she complained +of rheumatic-like pains all over her.</p> + +<p>The temperature was 100.2°; the facial expression more +natural; the tongue remained somewhat swollen and sore; she was no +longer restless; she took tea, beef-tea, milk, etc., well; the +functions of the secreting organs were being restored; she +perspired freely; had micturated; the mucous membrane of the mouth +was moist, and there was a tendency to tears without corresponding +mental depression. The patient was ordered a mixture of ether and +digitalis every four hours. On December 2 the pulse was 136, and +the heart sounds reduplicated. The following day she was given +bromide of potassium in place of the ether in the digitalis +mixture. On the 4th the pulse was 126; reduplication gone. On the +6th the pulse was 82, and the temperature fell with the pulse rate. +She was well enough to get into the ward for a few hours. Her +memory, especially for recent events, was at that time greatly +impaired. On the 12th she still complained of muscular pains like +those of rheumatism. Apart from that, she was enjoying good bodily +health.</p> + +<p>A curious fact in connection with this case is that since this +attempt at suicide she has steadily improved mentally, has lost her +delusions, is cheerful, and employs herself usefully with her +needle. She converses rationally, and tells me she recollects the +impulse by which she was led to hang herself, and remembers the act +of suspension; but from that time her memory is a blank, until two +days subsequently, when her husband came to see her, and when she +expressed great grief at having been guilty of such a deed. Her +bodily health is now (June 30, 1884) more robust than formerly, and +she is on the road to mental convalescence.</p> + +<p><i>Remarks.</i>—The successful issue of this case leads me +to draw the following inferences: 1. That in cases of suspended +animation similar to the above there is no symptom by which +apparent can be distinguished from real death. 2. That in +artificial respiration alone do we possess the means of restoring +animation when life is apparently extinct from asphyxia, and that, +with the tongue drawn well forward and retained there by the hand +or an elastic band, the Silvester method is complete and effective. +3. That artificial respiration may be necessary for two hours or +more before the restoration of adequate natural efforts, and that +the performance of the movements ten times to the minute is amply +sufficient, and produces a better result than a more rapid rate. 4. +That galvanism, ammonia to the nostrils, cold affusion, and +stimulants by the mouth are practically useless in the early stage. +5. That on the re-establishment of the reflex function we possess a +powerful auxiliary agent in flagellation with wet towels, etc. 6. +That centripetal surface frictions and the restoration of the body +temperature by warm applications aid recovery. 7. That the heart, +if free from organic disease, has great power of overcoming the +distention of its right cavities and the obstruction to the +pulmonary circulation, although its action may for a time be +seriously deranged, as evidenced by reduplication of its sounds. 8. +That when the heart's action remains excessively feeble, and the +right and left heart fail to contract synchronously, it would be +justifiable to open the external jugular vein. 9. That during +recovery the lungs are heavily taxed in purifying the vitiated +blood, as shown by the excessive amount of organic impurities +exhaled. 10. That restlessness and jactitation accompany the +restoration of nerve function, and that vomiting occurs with +returning consciousness. 11. That pains like those of rheumatism +are complained of for some days subsequently, these probably +resulting from the sudden arrest of nutrition in the muscles.</p> + +<p>Chartham, near Canterbury.</p> + +<p>—<i>Lancet.</i></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="18"></a></p> + +<h2>THE INVENTORS' INSTITUTE.</h2> + +<p>The twenty-second session of the Inventors' Institute was opened +on October 27, the chair being taken by Vice-Admiral J.H. Selwyn, +one of the vice-presidents, at the rooms of the institute, Lonsdale +Chambers, 27 Chancery Lane, London. The chairman, in delivering the +inaugural address, said that in the absence of their president, the +Duke of Manchester, it became his duty to open the session of 1885. +The institute having been established in 1862, this was their +twenty-second anniversary. At the time of its establishment a +greater number of members were rapidly enrolled than they could now +reckon, although a large number had joined since the commencement +of the present year. In 1862 a considerable amount of enthusiasm on +the part of inventors had arisen, from the fact that at that time +the leading journals had advocated the views of certain +manufacturers as to sweeping away the patent laws, enacted anew in +1852, and with them the sole protection of the inventive talent and +industry of the nation. This naturally caused much excitement and +interest among those chiefly concerned, and a very numerous body of +gentlemen associated themselves together and formed an institute +for the purpose mainly of resisting the aggression and inculcating +views more in accordance with true principles, as well as for +explaining what were the true relations of inventive genius to the +welfare of the state. He hoped to be able to show strong reasons +for this action, and for energetically following it up in the +future. Although on that evening there were many visitors present +besides the members of the institute, yet he thought the subject +could be shown to be of such national importance that it might +justly engage the attention of any assembly of Englishmen, to +whatever mode of thought they might belong. The institute had +persistently done its work ever since its formation. Sometimes it +had failed to make itself heard, at others it had been more +successful in so doing; but the net result of its labors—and +he did not fear to claim it as mainly due to those labors—had +been to propagate and spread abroad a fact and a feeling entirely +opposed to the false doctrines previously current on the subject, +namely, that among our most valuable laws were those which could +excite the intelligence and reward the labors of the inventors of +all nations. There were still those who wished to see the patent +laws swept away, but their numbers had dwindled into a miserable +minority, composed mainly of manufacturers who were so curiously +short-sighted as not to see that all improvement in manufactures +must come from inventive talent, or those who, still more blind, +could not perceive that property created by brains was certainly +not a monopoly, and deserves protection quite as much as any other +form of possession, in order that it may be developed by capital. +He need scarcely waste time in pointing out the fallacy of refusing +to pay for the seed corn of industrial pursuits, for that fallacy, +bit by bit, had been completely swept away, and last year the +labors of the institute had been so far crowned with success that +the President of the Board of Trade, in his place in Parliament, +announced his conviction that "inventors were the creators of +trade, and ought to be encouraged and not repressed." Such a +conviction, forced home in such a quarter, ought to have produced a +great and beneficial change in the legislation on the subject, and +the hopes of inventors were that this would surely be the case; but +when the bill appeared these hopes were considerably depressed, and +now, after a year's experience of the working of the changed law, +scarcely any benefit appears to have been obtained, beyond the +meager concession that the heavy payments demanded, for an English +patent may be made in installments instead of lump sums. Against +this infinitesimal concession had to be set a number of +disabilities which did not formerly exist, such as compulsory +licenses, which disinclined the capitalist to invest in inventions, +attempts to assimilate the provisional specification to the +complete, or to restrict the latter within the terms of the former, +attempts to separate the parts of an invention, and thus increase +the number of patents required to protect it, and many other minor +annoyances which would take too much time to explain fully. It was +true that there was some extension of the time for +payment—some such locus penitentiæ as would be accorded +to any debtor by any creditor in the hope of getting the assets; +but the promised spirit of encouragement to inventors was not to be +found in the bill; it was still a boon which must be earnestly +sought by the institute.</p> + +<p>He had said that the concessions granted were almost +infinitesimal, yet a result had been obtained, surprisingly +confirmatory of the views always advocated by the institute as to +the potentiality of the inventive talent of this nation were it +released from its shackles. While in former years the highest +number of patents taken out had slowly risen to the number of five +to six thousand per annum, in the year now expiring it had bounded +to more than three times five thousand—had at one leap +reached an equality with the patents of the United States, where +only £4 ($20) was paid for a patent for seventeen years, +instead of £175, as in Great Britain, for a term of fourteen +years. If in the future we could hope to persuade the legislators +to be content with no heavier tax than in the United States had +yielded a heavy surplus over expenses of a well-conducted Patent +Office, he did not fear to assert that the number of patents taken +out in this country would again be trebled, and that trade and +industry would be correspondingly animated and developed. The +result of the wiser patent law of the United States had been to +flood our markets with well-manufactured yet cheap articles from +that country which might have been equally well made by our +artisans at home had invention not been subject to such heavy +restrictions, and had technical skill been equally sure of its +reward.</p> + +<p>The business of the institute in the future was not to rest +satisfied with the proposition of Mr. Chamberlain, but to lead him +or his successors forward by logical and legitimate means toward +the necessary corollary of that proposition. If inventors were +indeed the creators of trade, then the President of the Board of +Trade was bound to see, not only that they were not prevented from +creating trade, but that they received every facility in performing +their work. Hence all exertions should be used to convince the +Chancellor of the Exchequer that a less tax may produce a greater +income: to persuade the legal authorities that this description of +property, of all others, most deserves the protection of the law. +Inherited direct from the Giver of all good gifts, no person had +been dispossessed of anything he previously owned, and the wealth +of humanity might be indefinitely increased by means of it. Not +many mighty, not many noble, received this gift, but it was the +inexhaustible heritage of the humble, it was the rich reward of the +intelligent of all races that peopled the earth. To whomsoever +given, this gift was intended to contribute to the health and the +wealth of the human race, for the bringing into existence new +products, for their utilization for the encouragement of the +general intelligence of the nations, and for the lightening of the +burdens of the poor. It would also cause technical education to be +more highly valued as a means to an end—for true inventive +genius was never so likely to succeed as when it passed from the +summit of the known to the confines of the possible, when, having +learnt and appreciated what predecessors had accomplished, it went +earnestly to work to solve the next problem, to remove the next +obstacle on the path which to them had proved insurmountable.</p> + +<p>More beneficial than any other change whatever in our +legislation would be a full and cordial recognition, a complete and +efficient protection, of property created by thought. Then the +humblest individual in the land might have confidence that he could +call into existence property not inferior in value to that of the +richest landowner, the most successful merchant, or the most +wealthy manufacturer, in the whole world. As an instance of this +Admiral Selwyn mentioned two prominent cases arising out of the +pursuit of two widely differing branches of knowledge, in the one +case by an outsider, in the other by a specialist. He referred to +Sir H. Bessemer, one of his valued colleagues in the +vice-presidency of the institute, and Mr. Perkins, the discoverer +of aniline dyes. In each of these instances, whatever might have +been the results to the inventors, and he hoped they had been +satisfactory, a sum which might be estimated at twenty millions +sterling annually, constantly on the increase, and never before +existing, had been added to the income-tax-paying wealth of the +country. With such a result arising from the development of only +two inventions, he thought it would be seen that he must be a most +ignorant, foolish, or obstinate Chancellor of the Exchequer who +would refuse to allow such property to be created by requiring +heavy preliminary payments, or in any way discourage or fail to +encourage to the utmost of his power the creation of property which +was capable of producing such a result—a result which he +would in vain seek for did he rely on landed property alone, since +this, in the hands of whomsoever it might be, never could largely +increase in extent, and was subject at this moment to serious +depreciation in tax-paying power.</p> + +<p>The exertion of intelligence, combined with a sense of security +in its pecuniary results, was in itself opposed to loose notions of +proprietary rights, and tended to diminish that coveting of +neighbors' goods which was the fertile source of vice and crime, +and which was capable of breaking down the strongest and most +wealthy community if indulged, till at last society was resolved +into its elements, and when nothing else was left as property, man, +the savage, coveted the scalp of his fellow man, and triumphed over +a lock of hair torn from his bleeding skull.</p> + +<p>Invention was an ennobling pursuit, and was, even among those +who were not also handworkers, a means of employment which never +left dull or idle hours, while to the handworker it meant more, for +it offered the most ready means of rising among his fellows, and, +where invention received proper protection, of securing a +competence for old age or ill health. Not only, as he had before +said, did the results of invention cause no loss to any other +individual, unless by displacing inferior methods of working, but +in most instances some distinct benefit arose to the whole human +race, and unless this was the case the patented invention failed to +obtain recognition, soon died out, and left the field clear for +others to occupy.</p> + +<p>He regretted that so few results had been obtained from the +Patent Bill of last year, but he would briefly refer to some of the +changes thought desirable by inventors and by the council of the +institute.</p> + +<p>No one could deem it desirable, it could scarcely be thought +reasonable, that an Englishman who was called upon to pay in the +United States £7 for a valid patent for seventeen years +should be still obliged in his own country to pay £175 for a +less term of a patent which does not convey anything but a right to +go to law. It was also not reasonable to pretend by a deed to +convey a proprietary right while reserving the power to grant +compulsory licenses, which must tend to destroy the value of such +proprietary right.</p> + +<p>It was a reproach to legislative perspicacity that the grantee +of a patent should be obliged to accept the view of the state, the +grantor, as to the value of the invention to the nation, and also +that any other method of proceeding to upset a patent, once +granted, should be allowed than a suit for revocation to the crown, +on the ground of error, such revocation if obtained not to +prejudice the granting anew, with the old date, of a valid patent +for the parts of the invention which are not proved to be +anticipated at the trial. There are many other points which could +not be referred to on the present occasion, but he might say that +the duty of the council would be to press them forward until the +capitalist could consider patented property at least as sound an +investment as any other. So might the wealth of the nation be +largely increased, and the sense of justice between man and man be +more fully inculcated. In the United States inventors were able at +once to secure the favorable attention of capitalists, because +there the whole business of the Patent Office was to assist the +inventor to obtain a valid—and, as far as possible, an +indisputable—patent.</p> + +<p>Even so small an article as a pair of pliers, one of the most +familiar of tools, had been proved to be capable of patented +improvement. Formerly these were always made to open and close at +an angle which precluded their holding any object grasped by them +with the desirable rigidity. A clever workman invented a means of +producing this effect by the application of a parallel motion. He +probably went to the office at Washington, was referred to a +certain room in a certain corridor, and there found a gentleman +whose business it was to know all about the patents for such tools. +By his aid he eliminated from his patent all anticipatory matter, +and issued from the office with a valid patent, which, developed by +capital, had supplied all the trades which employ such instruments +with a better means of accomplishing their work, had employed +capital and labor with remunerative results in producing the +pliers, and had added one more to the little things which create +trade for his country.</p> + +<p>This was a typical instance of the way in which invention was +encouraged in America. Why should it be otherwise here? For many +years literary property had received a protection which was yet to +be desired for patented invention. Not only for fourteen years, but +for the duration of a man's life, was that kind of brain property +protected, and even after his death his heirs still continued to +derive benefit from it. Should a romance or a poem be deemed more +worthy of reward than the labors of those inventors to whom he had +referred, and which certainly produced far greater and more abiding +advantage to the nation? To secure a due appreciation of the whole +importance of invention, no other means could be adopted than that +which the institute had been formed to secure, namely, the union of +inventors, not only of one nation, but of the whole world. The +international character of the subject had been recognized by the +institute, and they had never neglected any opportunities of +pressing that view of the subject, which had at last obtained some +recognition from our government.</p> + +<p>No great result could, however, be expected from a congress +where inventors, not lawyers or patent agents, still less officials +trained in a vicious routine, formed the majority. It might be +hoped that next year there would arise an opportunity for such a +congress, and that the institute would do its best to improve the +occasion. There never had been a time when England more required +the creation of new industries. Our agriculturists had signally +failed to hold their own in the face of unlimited competition, and +the food of the nation no longer came from within. But if that were +the case, then some means must be found of paying for the food +imported from abroad, and this could only be done by constant +improvement in manufactures, or some change by which we might sell +some of our other productions at a profit if the food could not be +produced but at a loss. Here invention might fitly be called to +aid, but could only respond if all restrictions were removed and +every facility granted.</p> + +<p>Capital must be induced to consider that home investments are +more remunerative and not less secure than any others, and this +could only be done by adding to the security of the property +proposed for investment. He had referred to the unlimited nature of +the property created by invention, and they would infer that if +properly protected there was equally no limit to the capital that +could be profitably employed in developing such property. The +institute did not exist solely or even mainly for the purpose of +advocating the claims of inventors to consideration, either +individually or collectively, but for the great object of forcing +home upon the convictions of the people the fact that at the very +foundation of the wealth and prosperity of every nation lies the +intelligence, the skill, the honesty, and the self-denial of its +sons.</p> + +<p>If, when these were exercised, for want of wise legislation such +virtues failed to secure their due reward, they sought a more +genial clime, and that nation which had undervalued them sank to +rise no more; or, if the error were acknowledged, and too late the +course was reversed, found itself already outstripped in the race +of progress, and could slowly, if ever, regain its lost position. +Finally he urged the inventors of England to rally round the +institution in all their strength, and thus secure the objects of +which he had striven, however feebly, to point out the importance. +If they did so, this institution would take a rank second to no +other in the empire: and while acknowledging that the interests of +the inventor must always be subordinate to the welfare of the +state, he asserted that the two were inseparable, and that in no +other way could the latter and principal result be so completely +secured as by according a due consideration to the former.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="19"></a></p> + +<h2>THE NEW CENTRAL SCHOOL AT PARIS.</h2> + +<p>We present herewith, from <i>L'Illustration</i>, views of the +amphitheater, and first and second year laboratories of the new +Central School at Paris.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/13a.png"><img src= +"./images/13a_th.jpg" alt=" THE NEW CENTRAL SCHOOL AT PARIS."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE NEW CENTRAL SCHOOL AT PARIS.</p> + +<p>The amphitheater does not perceptibly differ from those of other +schools. It consists of a semicircle provided with rows of benches, +one above another, upon which the pupils sit while listening to +lectures and taking notes thereof. Several blackboards, actuated by +hydraulic motors, serve for demonstration by the professor, who, if +need be, will be enabled, thanks to the electricity and gas put +within his reach, to perform experiments of various kinds. +Electricity is brought to him by wires, just as water and gas are +by pipes. It will always be possible for him to support the theory +that he is explaining by experiments which facilitate the +comprehension of it by the pupils. The amphitheater is likewise +provided with a motor which furnishes the professor with power +whenever he has recourse to a mechanical application.</p> + +<p>It will not be possible for the pupils to have their attention +distracted by what is going on outside of the amphitheater, since +the architect has taken the precaution to use ground glass in the +windows.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/13b.png"><img src= +"./images/13b_th.jpg" alt=" THE NEW CENTRAL SCHOOL AT PARIS."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE NEW CENTRAL SCHOOL AT PARIS.</p> + +<p>As regards the laboratories, it is allowable to say that they +constitute the first great school of experimental chemistry in +France. The first year laboratory consists of a series of tables, +provided with evaporating hoods, at which a series of pupils will +study general chemistry experimentally. Electricity, and gas and +water cocks are within reach of each operator, and all the +deleterious emanations from the acids that are used or are produced +in studying a body will escape through the hoods.</p> + +<p>The third year laboratory is designed for making commercial +analyses. These latter are made by either dry or wet way. The first +method employs water chiefly as a vehicle, and alkaline solutions +as reagents. The second employs reagents in a dry state, and the +action of which requires lamp and furnace heat. The furnaces +employed in the new school are like those almost exclusively used +industrially for the analysis of ores. The tables upon which +analyses by dry way are made are large enough to allow sixteen +pupils to work.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/13c.png"><img src= +"./images/13c_th.jpg" alt=" THE NEW CENTRAL SCHOOL AT PARIS."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE NEW CENTRAL SCHOOL AT PARIS.</p> + +<p>Analyses by wet way are made upon tables, with various sorts of +vessels. Along with water, gas, and electricity, the pupils have at +their disposal a faucet from whence they may draw the +hydrosulphuric acid which is so constantly used in laboratory +operations.</p> + +<p>The architect of the new school is Mr. Denfer.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="16"></a></p> + +<h3>[NATURE.]</h3> + +<h2>RESEARCHES ON THE ORIGIN AND LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE LEAST AND +LOWEST LIVING THINGS.</h2> + +<h3>By Rev. W.H. DALLINGER, LL. D.</h3> + +<p>To all who have familiarized themselves, even cursorily, with +modern scientific knowledge, it is well known that the mind +encounters the <i>infinite</i> in the contemplation of minute as +well as in the study of vast natural phenomena. The farthest limit +we have reached, with the most gigantic standard of measurement we +could well employ, in gauging the greatness of the universe, only +leaves us with an overwhelming consciousness of the awful +greatness—the abyss of the infinite—that lies beyond, +and which our minds can never measure. The indefinite has a limit +somewhere; but it is not the indefinite, it is the measureless, the +infinite, that vast extension forces upon our minds. In like +manner, the immeasurable in minuteness is an inevitable mental +sequence from the facts and phenomena revealed to us by a study of +the <i>minute</i> in nature. The practical divisibility of matter +disclosed by modern physics may well arrest and astonish us. But +biology, the science which investigates the phenomena of all living +things, is in this matter no whit behind. The most universally +diffused organism in nature, the least in size with which we are +definitely acquainted, is so small that fifty millions of them +could lie together in the one-hundredth of an inch square. Yet +these definite living things have the power of locomotion, of +ingestion, of assimilation, of excretion, and of enormous +multiplication, and the material of which the inconceivably minute +living speck is made is a highly complex chemical compound. We dare +not attempt a conception of the minuteness of the ultimate atoms +that compose the several simple elements that thus mysteriously +combine to form the complex substance and properties of this least +and lowliest living thing. But if we could even measure these, as a +mental necessity, we are urged indefinitely on to a minuteness +without conceivable limit, in effect, a minuteness that is beyond +all finite measure or conception. So that, as modern physics and +optics have enabled us not to conceive merely, but to actually +realize, the vastness of spatial extension, side by side with +subtile tenuity and extreme divisibility of matter, so the labor, +enthusiasm, and perseverance of thirty years, stimulated by the +insight of a rare and master mind, and aided by lenses of steadily +advancing perfection, have enabled the student of life-forms not +simply to become possessed of an inconceivably broader, deeper, and +truer knowledge of the great world of visible life, of which he +himself is a factor, but also to open up and penetrate into a world +of minute living things so ultimately little that we cannot +adequately conceive them, which are, nevertheless, perfect in their +adaptations and wonderful in their histories. These organisms, +while they are the least, are also the lowliest in nature, and are +to our present capacity totally devoid of what is known as organic +structure, even when scrutinized with our most powerful and perfect +lenses. Now these organisms lie on the very verge and margin of the +vast area of what we know as living. They possess the essential +properties of life, but in their most initial state. And their +numberless billions, springing every moment into existence wherever +putrescence appeared, led to the question, How do they originate? +Do they spring up <i>de novo</i> from the highest point on the area +of <i>not-life</i>, which they touch? Are they, in short, the +direct product of some yet uncorrelated force in nature, changing +the dead, the unorganized, the not-living, into definite forms of +life? Now this is a profound question, and that it is a difficult +one there can be no doubt. But that it is a question for our +laboratories is certain. And after careful and prolonged experiment +and research the legitimate question to be asked is, Do we find +that, in our laboratories and in the observed processes of nature +now, the not-living can be, without the intervention of living +things, changed into that which lives?</p> + +<p>To that question the vast majority of practical biologists +answer without hesitancy, <i>No</i>, we have no facts to justify +such a conclusion. Prof. Huxley shall represent them. He says: "The +properties of living matter distinguish it absolutely from all +other kinds of things;" and, he continues, "the present state of +our knowledge furnishes us with no link between the living and the +not-living." Now let us carefully remember that the great doctrine +of Charles Darwin has furnished biology with a magnificent +generalization; one indeed which stands upon so broad a basis that +great masses of detail and many needful interlocking facts are, of +necessity, relegated to the quiet workers of the present and the +earnest laborers of the years to come. But it is a doctrine which +cannot be shaken. The constant and universal action of variation, +the struggle for existence, and the "survival of the fittest," few +who are competent to grasp will have the temerity to doubt. And to +many, that lies within it as a doctrine, and forms the fibre of its +fabric, is the existence of a continuity, an unbroken stream of +unity running from the base to the apex of the entire organic +series. The plant and the animal, the lowliest organized and the +most complex, the minutest and the largest, are related to each +other so as to constitute one majestic organic whole. Now to this +splendid continuity practical biology presents no adverse fact. All +our most recent and most accurate knowledge confirms it. But +<i>the</i> question is, Does this continuity terminate now in the +living series, and is there then a break—a sharp, clear +discontinuity, and beyond, another realm immeasurably less endowed, +known as the realm of not-life? or Does what has been taken for the +clear-cut boundary of the vital area, when more deeply searched, +reveal the presence of a force at present unknown, which changes +not-living into the living, and thus makes all nature an unbroken +sequence and a continuous whole? That this is a great question, a +question involving large issues, will be seen by all who have +familiarized themselves with the thought and fact of our times. But +we must treat it purely as a question of science; it is not a +question of <i>how</i> life <i>first</i> appeared upon the earth, +it is only a question of whether there is any natural force +<i>now</i> at work building not-living matter into living forms. +Nor have we to determine whether or not, in the indefinite past, +the not-vital elements on the earth, at some point of their highest +activity, were endowed with, or became possessed of, the properties +of life.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/14a.png"><img src= +"./images/14a_th.jpg" alt=" Fig. 1"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 1</p> + +<p>On that subject there is no doubt. The elements that compose +protoplasm—the physical basis of all living things—are +the familiar elements of the world without life. The mystery of +life is not in the elements that compose the vital stuff. We know +them all, we know their properties. The mystery consists +<i>solely</i> in <i>how</i> these elements can be so combined as +<i>to acquire</i> the transcendent properties of life. Moreover, to +the investigator it is not a question of <i>by what means</i> +matter dead—without the shimmer of a vital +quality—became either slowly or suddenly possessed of the +properties of life. Enough for us to know that whatever the power +that wrought the change, that power was competent, as the issue +proves. But that which calm and patient research has to determine +is whether matter demonstrably <i>not living</i> can be, without +the aid of organisms already living, endowed with the properties of +life. Judged of hastily, and apart from the facts, it may appear to +some minds that an origin of life from not-life, by sheer physical +law, would be a great philosophical gain, an indefinitely strong +support of the doctrine of evolution. If this were so, and, indeed, +so far as it is believed to be so, it would speak and does speak +volumes in favor of the spirit of science pervading our age. For +although the vast majority of biologists in Europe and America +accept the doctrine of evolution, they are almost unanimous in +their refusal to accept as in any sense competent the reputed +evidence of "spontaneous generation;" which demonstrates, at least, +that what is sought by our leaders in science is not the mere +support of hypotheses, cherished though they may be, but the truth, +the uncolored truth, from nature. But it must be remembered that +the present existence of what has been called "spontaneous +generation," the origin of life <i>de novo</i> to-day, by physical +law, is by no means required by the doctrine of evolution. Prof. +Huxley, for example, says: "If all living beings have been evolved +from pre-existing forms of life, it is enough that a single +particle of protoplasm should <i>once</i> have appeared upon the +globe, as the result of no matter what agency; any further +independent formation of protoplasm would be sheer waste." And why? +we may ask. Because one of the most marvelous and unique properties +of protoplasm, and the living forms built out of it, <i>is the +power</i> to multiply indefinitely and for ever! What need, then, +of spontaneous generation? It is certainly true that evidence has +been adduced purporting to support, if not establish, the origin in +dead matter of the least and lowest forms of life. But it evinces +no prejudice to say that it is inefficient. For a moment study the +facts. The organisms which were used to test the point at issue +were those known as <i>septic</i>. The vast majority of these are +inexpressibly minute. The smallest of them, indeed, is so small +that, as I have said, fifty millions of them, if laid in order, +would only fill the one-hundredth part of a cubic inch. Many are +relatively larger, but all are supremely minute. Now, these +organisms are universally present in enormous numbers, and ever +rapidly increasing in all moist putrefactions over the surface of +the globe.</p> + +<p>Take an illustration prepared for the purpose, and taken direct +from nature. A vessel of pure drinking water was taken during the +month of July at a temperature of 65 deg. F., and into it was +dropped a few shreds of fish muscle and brain. It was left +uncovered for twelve hours; at the end of that time a small blunt +rod was inserted in the now somewhat opalescent water, and a minute +drop taken out and properly placed on the microscope, and, with a +lens just competent to reveal the minutest objects, examined. The +field of view presented is seen in Fig. 1, A. But—with the +exception of the dense masses which are known as zooglœa or +bacteria, fused together in living glue—the whole field was +teeming with action; each minute organism gyrating in its own path, +and darting at every visible point. The same fluid was now left for +sixteen hours, and once more a minute drop was taken and examined +with the same lens as before. The field presented to the eye is +depicted in Fig. 1, B, where it is visible that while the original +organism persists yet a new organism has arisen in and invaded the +fluid. It is a relatively long and beautiful spiral form, and now +the movement in the field is entrancing. The original organism +darts with its vigor and grace, and rebounds in all directions. But +the spiral forms revolving on their axes glide like a flight of +swallows over the ample area of their little sea. Ten hours more +elapsed and, without change of circumstances, another drop was +taken from the now palpably putrescent fluid. The result of +examination is given in Fig. 1, C, where it will be seen that the +first organism is still abundant, the spiral organism is still +present and active, but a new and oval form, not a bacterium, but a +<i>monad</i>, has appeared. And now the intensity of action and +beauty of movement throughout the field utterly defy description, +gyrating, darting, spinning, wheeling, rebounding, with the +swiftness of the grayling and the beauty of the bird. Finally, at +the end of another eight to sixteen hours, a final "dip" was taken +from the fluid, and under the same lens it presented as a field +what is seen in Fig. 1, D, where the largest of the putrefactive +organisms has appeared and has even more intense and more varied +movements than the others. Now the question before us is, "How did +these organisms arise?" The water was pure; they were not +discoverable in the fresh muscle of fish. Yet in a dozen hours the +vessel of water is peopled with hosts of individual forms which no +mathematics could number! How did they arise? From universally +diffused eggs, or from the direct physical change of dead matter +into living forms? Twelve years ago the life-histories of these +forms were unknown. We did not know biologically how they +developed. And yet with this great deficiency it was considered by +some that their mode of origin could be determined by heat +experiments on the adult forms. Roughly, the method was this: It +was assumed that nothing vital could resist the boiling point of +water. Fluids, then, containing full-grown organisms in enormous +multitudes, chiefly bacteria, were placed in flasks, and boiled for +from five to ten minutes. While they were boiling the necks of the +flasks was hermetically closed; and the flask was allowed to remain +unopened for various periods. The reasoning was: "Boiling has +killed all forms of vitality <i>in</i> the flask; by the hermetical +sealing nothing living can gain subsequent access to the fluid; +therefore, if living organisms do appear when the flask is opened, +they must have arisen in the dead matter <i>de novo</i> by +spontaneous generation, but if they do never so arise, the +probability is that they originate in spores or eggs."</p> + +<p>Now it must be observed concerning this method of inquiry that +it could never be final; it is incompetent by deficiency. Its +results could never be exhaustive until the life-histories of the +organisms involved were known. And further, although it is a +legitimate method of research for partial results, and was of +necessity employed, yet it requires precise and accurate +manipulation. A thousand possible errors surround it. It can only +yield scientific results in the hands of a master in physical +experiment. And we find that when it has secured the requisite +skill, as in the hands of Prof. Tyndall, for example, the result +has been the irresistible deduction that living things have never +been seen to originate in not-living matter. Then the ground is +cleared for the strictly biological inquiry, How do they originate? +To answer that question we must study the life histories of the +minutest forms with the same continuity and thoroughness with which +we study the development of a crayfish or a butterfly. The +difficulty in the way of this is the extreme minuteness of the +organisms. We require powerful and perfect lenses for the work. +Happily during the last fifteen years the improvement in the +structure of the most powerful lenses has been great indeed. Prior +to this time there were English lenses that amplified enormously. +But an enlargement of the image of an object avails nothing, if +there be no concurrent disclosure of detail. Little is gained by +expanding the image of an object from the ten-thousandth of an inch +to an inch, if there be not an equivalent revelation of hidden +details. It is in this revealing quality, which I shall call +<i>magnification</i> as distinct from <i>amplification</i>, that +our recent lenses so brilliantly excel. It is not easy to convey to +those unfamiliar with objects of extreme minuteness a correct idea +of what this power is. But at the risk of extreme simplicity, and +to make the higher reaches of my subject intelligible to all, I +would fain make this plain.</p> + +<p>But to do so I must begin with familiar objects, objects used +solely to convey good relative ideas of minute dimension. I begin +with small objects with the actual size of which you are familiar. +All of us have taken a naked eye view of the sting of the wasp or +honey bee; we have a due conception of its size. This is the +scabbard or sheath which the naked eye sees.<a name= +"FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3"><sup>3</sup></a> Within +this are two blades terminating in barbed points. The point of the +scabbard more highly magnified is presented, showing the inclosed +barbs. One of the barbs, looked at on the barbed edge, is also +seen. Now these two barbed stings are tubes with an opening in the +end of the barb. Each is connected with the tube of the sac, C. +This Is a reservoir of poison, and D is the gland by which it is +secreted. Now I present this to you, not for its own sake, but +simply for the comparison, a comparison which struck the earliest +microscopists. Here is the scabbard carefully rendered. One of the +stings is protruded below its point, as in the act of stinging; the +other is free to show its form. Now the actual length of this +scabbard in nature was the <i>one-thirtieth</i> of an inch. I have +taken the point, C, of a fine cambric sewing needle, and broken it +off to slightly less than the one-thirtieth of an inch, and +magnified it as the sting is magnified. Now here we obtain an +instance of what I mean by magnification. The needle point is not +merely bigger, unsuspected details start into view. The sting is +not simply enlarged, but all its structure is revealed. Nor can we +fail to note that the <i>finish</i> of art differs from that of +nature. The homogeneous gloss of the needle disappears under the +fierce scrutiny of the lens, and its delicate point becomes +furrowed and riven. But Nature's finish reveals no flaw, it remains +perfect to the last.</p> + +<p>We may readily amplify this. The butterflies and moths of our +native lands we all know; most of us have seen their minute eggs. +Many are quite visible to the unaided eye; others are extremely +minute. A gives the egg of the small white butterfly;<a name= +"FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4"><sup>4</sup></a> B, that +of the small tortoiseshell; C, that of the waved umber moth; D, +that of the thorn moth; E, that of the shark moth; at F we have the +delicate egg of the small emerald butterfly, and at G an American +skipper; and finally, at H, the egg of a moth known as mania maura. +In all this you see a delicacy of symmetry, structure, and carving, +not accessible to the eye, but clearly unfolded. We may, from our +general knowledge, form a correct notion of the average relation in +size existing between butterflies and their eggs; so that we can +compare. Now there is a group of extremely minute, insect-like +forms that are the parasites of birds. Many of them are just +plainly visible to the naked eye, others are too minute to be +clearly seen, and others yet again wholly elude the unaided sight. +The epizoa generally lodge themselves in various parts of the +plumage of birds; and almost every group of birds becomes the host +of some specific or varietal form with distinct adaptations. There +is here seen a parasite that secretes itself in the inner feathers +of the peacock, this is a form that attacks the jay, and here is +one that secretes itself beneath the plumage of the partridge.</p> + +<p>Now these minute creatures also deposit eggs. They are placed +with wonderful instinct in the part of the plumage and the part of +the feather which will most conserve their safety; and they are +either glued or fixed by their shape or by their spine in the +position in which they shall be hatched. I show here a group of the +eggs of these minute creatures. I need not call your attention to +their beauty; it is palpable. But I am fain to show you that, +subtle and refined as that beauty is, it is clearly brought out. +The flower-like beauty of the egg of the peacock's parasite, the +delicate symmetry and subtle carving of the others, simply entrance +an observer. Note then that it is not merely <i>enlarged</i> specks +of form that we are beholding, but such true magnifications of the +objects as bring out all their subtlest details. And it is +<i>this</i> quality that must characterize our most powerful +lenses. I am almost compelled to note in passing that the +<i>beauty</i> of these delicate and minute objects must not be +considered <i>an end</i>—a purpose—in nature. It is not +so. The form is what it is because it <i>must be</i> so to serve +the end for which the egg is formed. There is not a superfluous +spine, not a useless petal in the floral egg, not an unneeded line +of chasing in the decorated shell. It is shaped beautifully because +its shape is needed. In short, it is Nature's method; the +identification of beauty and use. But to resume. We may at this +point continue our illustrations of the analytical power of +moderate lenses by a beautiful instance. We are indebted to Albert +Michael, of the Linnean Society of England, for a masterly treatise +on a group of acari, or <i>mites</i>, known as the +<i>oribatidæ</i>. Many of these he has discovered. The one +before you is a full grown nymph of what is known as a +<i>palmicinctum</i>. It is deeply interesting as a form; but for us +its interest is that it is minute, being only a millimeter in +length. But it repeatedly casts the dorsal skin of the abdomen. +Each skin is bordered by a row of exquisite scales; and then +successive rows of these scales persist, forming a protection to +the entire organism. Mark then that we not only reveal the general +form of the nymph, but the lens reveals the true structure of the +scales, not enlargement merely, but detail. The egg of the +organism, still more magnified, is also seen.</p> + +<p>To vary our examples and still progress. We all know the +appearance and structure of chalk. The minute foraminifera have, by +their accumulated tests, mainly built up its enormous masses. But +there is another chalk known as Barbados earth; it is silicious, +and is ultimately composed of minute and beautiful skeletons such +as those which, enormously magnified, you now see. These were the +glassy envelopes which protected the living speck that dwelt within +and built it. They are the minutest of the Radiolaria, which +peopled in inconceivable multitudes the tertiary oceans; and, as +they died, their minute skeletons fell down in a continuous rain +upon the ocean bed, and became cemented into solid rock which +geologic action has brought to the surface in Barbados and many +other parts of the earth. If a piece of this earth, the size of a +bean, be boiled in dilute acid and washed, it will fall into +powder, the ultimate grains of which are such forms as these which +you see. The one before you is an instance of exquisite refinement +of detail. The form from which the drawing of the magnified image +was made was extremely small—a mere white speck in the +strongest light upon a black ground. But you observe it is not a +speck of form merely enlarged. It is not merely beauty of outline +made bigger. But there is—as in the delicate group you now +see—a perfect opening up of otherwise absolutely invisible +details. We may strengthen this evidence in favor of the analytical +power of our higher lenses by one more <i>familiar</i> example, and +then advance to the most striking illustration of this power which +our most perfect and powerful lenses can afford. I fear that may be +taking too much for granted to assume that every one in an audience +like this has seen a human flea! Most, however, will have a dim +recollection or suggestive instinct as to its size in nature. +Nothing striking is revealed by this amount of magnification +excepting the existence of breathing pores or spiracles along the +scale armor of its body. But there is a trace of structure in the +terminal ring of the exo-skeleton which we cannot clearly define, +and of which we may desire to know more. This can be done only by +the use of far higher powers.</p> + +<p>To effect this, we must carefully cut off this delicate +structure, and so prepare it that we may employ upon it the first +of a series of our highest powers. The result of that examination +is given here.<a name="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_5_5"><sup>5</sup></a> You see that the whole organ has a +distinct form and border, and that its carefully carved surface +gives origin to wheel-like areolæ which form the bases of +delicate hairs. The function of this organ is really unknown. It is +known from its position as the <i>pygidium</i>; and from the +extreme sensitiveness of the hairs to the slightest aerial +movement, may be a tactile organ warning of the approach of +enemies; the eyes have no power to see. But we have not reached the +ultimate accessible structure of this organ. If we place a portion +of the surface under one of the finest of our most powerful lenses, +this will be the result.<a name="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_6_6"><sup>6</sup></a> Now, without discussing the real +optical or anatomical value of this result as it stands, what I +desire to remind you of is:</p> + +<p>1. The natural size of the flea.</p> + +<p>2. The increase of knowledge gained by its general +enlargement.</p> + +<p>3. The relation in size between the flea and its pygidium.</p> + +<p>4. The manner in which our lenses reveal its structure, not +merely amplify its form.</p> + +<p>Now with these simple and yet needful preliminaries you will be +able to follow me in a careful study of the least, the very +lowliest and smallest, of all living things. It lies on the very +verge of our present powers of optical aid, and what we know +concerning it will convince you that we are prepared with competent +skill to attack the problem of the life-histories of the smallest +living forms. The group to which the subject of our present study +belongs is the bacteria. They are primarily staff-like organisms of +extreme minuteness, but may be straight, or bent, or curved, or +spiral, or twisted rods. This entire projection is drawn on glass, +with <i>camera lucida</i>, each object being magnified 2,000 +diameters, that is to say, 4,000,000 of times in area. Yet the +entire drawing is made upon an area of not quite 3 inches in +diameter, and afterward projected here. The objects therefore are +all equally magnified, and their relative sizes may be seen. The +giant of the series is known as <i>Spirillum volutans;</i> and you +will see that the representative species given become less and less +in size until we reach the smallest of all the definite forms, and +known to science as <i>Bacterium termo</i>.</p> + +<p>Now within given limits this organism varies in size, but if a +fair average be taken its size is such that 50,000,000 laid in +order would only fill the hundredth of a cubic inch. Now the +majority of these forms <i>move</i> with rapidity and grace in the +fluids they inhabit. But how? By what means? By looking at the +largest form of this group, you will see that it is provided with +two delicate fibers, one at each end. Ehrenberg and others strongly +suspected their existence, and we were enabled, with more perfect +lenses, to <i>demonstrate</i> their presence some twelve years ago. +They are actually the swimming organs of this Spirillum. The fluid +is lashed rhythmically by these fibers, and a spiral movement of +the utmost grace results. Then do the intermediate forms that move +also possess these flagella, and does this least form in nature, +viz., <i>Bacterium termo</i>, accomplish its bounding and +rebounding movements in the same way? Yes! by a series of resolute +efforts, in using a new battery of lenses—the finest that at +that time had ever been put into the hands of man—I was +enabled to show in succession that each motile form of Bacterium up +to <i>B. lineola</i> accomplished its movements by fibers or +flagella; and that in the act of self-division, constantly taking +place, a new fiber was drawn out for each half before +separation.</p> + +<p>But the point of difficulty was <i>B. termo</i>. The +demonstration of its flagella was a task of difficulty which only +patient purpose could conquer. But by the use of our new lenses, +and special illumination we—my colleague and I—were +enabled to demonstrate clearly a flagellum at each end of this +least of living organisms, as you see, and by the rapid lashing of +the fluid, alternately or together, with these flagella, the +powerful, rapid, and graceful movements of this smallest known +living thing are accomplished. Of course these fibers are +inconceivably fine—indeed for this very reason it was +desirable, if possible, to <i>measure</i> it, to discover its +actual thickness. We all know that, both for the telescope and the +microscope, beautiful apparatus are made for measuring minute +magnified details. But unfortunately no instrument manufactured was +delicate enough to measure <i>directly</i> this fiber. If it were +measured it must be by an indirect progress, which I accomplished +thus: The diameter of the body of <i>B. termo</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, +from; side to side, may in different forms vary from the 1/20000 to +the 1/50000 of an inch. <i>That</i> is a measurement which we may +easily make directly with a micrometer. Haying ascertained this, I +determined to discover the ratio of thickness between the body of +the Bacterium and its flagellum—that is to say, to discover +how many of the flagella laid side by side would make up the width +of the body.</p> + +<p>I proceeded thus: This is a complicated microscope placed on a +tripod, so arranged that it may be conveniently worked upright. +There is a special instrument for centering and illuminating. On +the stage of the instrument, the Bacterium with its flagellum in +distinct focus is placed. Instead of the simple eyepiece, <i>camera +lucida</i> is placed upon it. This instrument is so constructed +that it appears to throw the image of the object upon the white +sheet of paper on the small table at the right hand where the +drawing is made, at the, same time that it enables the same eye to +see the pencil and the right hand. In this way I made a careful +drawing of <i>B. termo</i> and its flagellum, magnified 5,000 +diameters. Here is a projection of the drawing made. But I +subsequently avoided paper, and used under the camera most +carefully prepared surface of ground glass. When the drawing was +made I placed on the drawing a drop of Canada balsam, and covered +it with a circle of thin glass, just like any other microscopic +mounted object. This is a micro-slide so prepared. Now you can see +that I only have to lay this on the stage of a microscope, make it +an object for a low power, and use a screw micrometer to find how +many flagella go to the making of a body. The result is given in +the figure; you see that ten flagella would fill the area occupied +by the diameter of the body.</p> + +<p>In the case chosen the body was the 1/20,400 of an inch wide, +and therefore, when divided by ten, gave for the flagellum a +thickness of the 1/204,000 of an English inch. In the end I made +fifty separate drawings with four separate lenses. I averaged the +result in each fifty, and then took the average of the total of +200, and the mean value of the width of the flagellum was the +1/204,700 of an English inch. It will be seen, then, that we are +possessed of instruments which, when competently used, will enable +us to study the life-histories of the putrefactive organisms, +although they are the minutest forms of life. I have stated that +they were the inevitable accompaniments of putrescence and decay. +You learned from a previous illustration the general appearance of +the Bacteria; they are the earliest to appear whenever putrefaction +shows itself. In fact the pioneer is this—the ubiquitous +<i>Bacterium termo.</i> The order of succession of the other forms +is by no means certain. But whenever a high stage of decomposition +is reached, a group of forms represented by these three will swarm +the fluid. These are the Monads, they are strictly putrefactive +organisms, they are midway in size between the least and largest +Bacteria, and are, from their form and other conditions, more +amenable to research, and twelve years ago I resolved, with the +highest power lenses and considerable practice in their use, to +attack the problem of their origin; whether as physical products of +the not-living, or as the natural progeny of parents.</p> + +<p>But you will remember that only a minute drop of fluid +containing them can be examined at one time. This minute drop has +to be covered with a minute film of glass not more than the 1/200 +of an inch thick. The highest lenses are employed, working so near +as almost to touch the delicate cover. Clearly, then, the film of +fluid would rapidly evaporate and cause the destruction of the +object studied. To prevent this an arrangement was devised by which +the lens and the covered fluid under examination were used in an +air-tight chamber, the air of which was kept in a saturated +condition; so that being, like a saturated sponge, unable to take +in any more, it left the film of fluid unaffected. But to make the +work efficient I soon found that there must be a second observer. +Observation by leaps was of no avail. To be accurate it must be +unbroken. There must be no gap in a chain of demonstration. A +thousand mishaps would occur in trying to follow a single organism +through all the changes of successive hours to the end. But, +however many failures, it was evident, we must begin on another +form at the earliest point again, and follow it to the close. I saw +soon that every other method would have been merely empirical, a +mere piecemeal of imagination and fact. When one observer's ability +to continue a long observation was exhausted, there must be another +at hand to take up the thread and continue it; and thus to the end. +I was fortunate indeed at this time in securing the ready and +enthusiastic aid of Dr. J.J. Drysdale, of Liverpool, who +practically lived with me for the purpose, and went side by side +with me to the work. We admitted nothing which we had not both +seen, and we succeeded each other consecutively, whenever needful, +in following to the end the complete life-histories of six of these +remarkable forms.</p> + +<p>I will now give you the facts in relation to two which shall be +typical. We obtained them in enormous abundance in a maceration of +fish. I will not take them in the order of our researches, but +shall find it best to examine the largest and the smallest. The +appearance of the former is now before you. It is divergent from +the common type when seen in its perfect condition, avoiding the +oval form, but it resumes it in metamorphosis. It is comparatively +huge in its proportions, its average extreme length being the +1/1000 of an inch. Its normal form is rigidly adhered to as that of +a rotifer or a crustacean. Its body-substance is a structureless +sarcode. Its differentiations are a nucleus-like body, not common +to the monads; generally a pair of dilating vacuoles, which open +and close, like the human eyelid, ten to twenty times in every +minute; and lastly, the usual number of four flagella. That the +power of motion in these forms and in the Bacteria is dependent +upon these flagella I believe there can be no reasonable doubt. In +the monads, the versatility, rapidity, and power of movement are +always correlated with the number of these. The one before us could +sweep across the field with majestic slowness, or dart with +lightning swiftness and a swallow's grace. It could gyrate in a +spiral, or spin on its axis in a rectilinear path like a rifled +bullet. It could dart up or down, and begin, arrest, or change its +motion with a grace and power which at once astonish and entrance. +Fixing on one of these monads then, we followed it doggedly by a +never-ceasing movement of a "mechanical stage," never for an +instant losing it through all its wanderings and gyrations; We +found that in the course of minutes, or of hours, the sharpness of +its outline slowly vanish, its vacuoles disappeared, and it lost +its sharp caudal extremity, and was sluggishly amœboid. This +condition tensified, the amœboid action quickened as here +depicted, the agility of motion ceased, the nucleus body became +strongly developed, and the whole sarcode was in a state of vivid +and glittering action.</p> + +<p>If now it be sharply and specially looked for, it will be seen +that the root of the flagella <i>splits</i>, dividing henceforth +into two separate pairs. At the same moment a motion is set up +which pulls the divided pairs asunder, making the interval of +sarcode to grow constantly greater between them. During this time +the nuclear body has commenced and continued a process of +self-division; from this moment the organism grows rapidly rounder, +the flagella swiftly diverge. A bean-like form is taken; the +nucleus divides, and a constriction is suddenly developed; this +deepens; the opposite position of the flagella ensues, the nearly +divided forms now vigorously pull in opposite directions, the +constriction is thus deepened and the tail formed. The fiber of +sarcode, to which the constricted part has by tension been reduced, +now snaps, and two organisms go free. It will have struck you that +the new organism enters upon its career with only <i>two</i> +flagella, and the normal organism is possessed of four. But in a +few minutes, three or four at most, the full complement were always +there. How they were acquired it was the work of months to +discover, but at last the mystery was solved. The newly-fissioned +form darted irregularly and rapidly for a brief space, then fixed +itself to the floor or to a rigid object by the ends of its +flagella, and, with its body motionless, an intense vibratory +action was set up along the entire length of these exquisite +fibers. Rapidly the ends split, one-half being in each fiber set +free, and the other remaining fixed, and in 130 seconds each entire +flagellum was divided into a perfect pair.</p> + +<p>Now the amœboid state is a notable phenomenon throughout +the monads as precursive of striking change. It appears to subserve +the purpose of the more facile acquisition and digestion of food at +a crisis. And this augmented the difficulty of discovering further +change; and only persistent effort enabled us to discover that with +comparative rareness there appeared a form in an amœboid +state that was unique. It was a condition chiefly confined to the +caudal end, the sarcode having became diffluent, hyaline, and +intensely rapid in the protrusion and retraction of its substance, +while the nuclear body becomes enormously enlarged. These never +appear alone; forms in a like condition are diffused throughout the +fluid, and may swim in this state for hours. Meanwhile, the +diffluence causes a spreading and flattening of the sarcode and +swimming gives place to creeping, while the flagella violently +lash. In this condition two forms meet by apparent accident, the +protrusions touch, and instant fusion supervenes. In the course of +a few seconds there is no disconnected sarcode visible, and in five +to seven minutes the organism is a union of two of the organisms, +the swimming being again resumed, the flagella acting in apparent +concert. This may continue for a short time, when movement begins +to flag and then ceases. Meanwhile, the bodies close together, and +the eyenots or vacuoles melt together, the two nuclei become one +and disappear, and in eighteen hours the entire body of "either has +melted into other," and a motionless, and for a time irregular, sac +is left. This now becomes smooth, spherical, and tight, being fixed +and motionless. This is a typical process; but the mingled +weariness and pleasure realized in following such a form without a +break through all the varied changes into this condition is not +easily expressed.</p> + +<p>But now the utmost power of lenses, the most delicate adjustment +of light, and the keenest powers of eyesight and attention must do +the rest. Before the end of six hours the delicate glossy sac opens +gently at one place, then there streams out a glairy fluid densely +packed with semi-opaque granules, just fairly visible when their +area was increased six millions of times, and this continued until +the whole sac was empty and its entire contents diffused. To follow +with our utmost powers these exquisite specks was an unspeakable +pleasure, a group seen to roll from the sac, when nearly empty, +were fixed and never left. They soon palpably changed by apparent +swelling or growth, but were perfectly inactive; but at the end of +three hours a beaked appearance was presented. Rapid growth set in, +and at the end of another hour, how has entirely baffled us, they +acquired flagella and swam freely; in thirty-five minutes more they +possessed a nucleus and rapidly developed, until at the end of nine +hours after emission a sporule was followed to the parent condition +and left in the act of fission. In this way, with what difficulties +I need not weary you, a complete life-cycle was made out.</p> + +<p>And now I will invite your attention to the developmental +history of the <i>most minute</i> of the six forms we studied. In +form it is a long oval, it is without visible structure or +differentiation within, and is possessed of only a single +flagellum. Its utmost length is the 1/5000 of an inch. Its motion +is continuous in a straight line, and not intensely rapid, nor +greatly varied, being wholly wanting in curves and dartings. The +copiousness of its increase was, even to our accustomed eyes, +remarkable in the extreme, but the reason was discovered with +comparative ease. Its fission was not a division into two, but into +many. The first indication of its approach in following this +delicate form was the assumption rapidly of a rounder shape. Then +followed an amœboid and uncertain form, with an increased +intensity of action which lasted a few moments, when lassitude +supervened, then perfect stillness of the body, which is now +globular in form, while the flagellum feebly lashed, and then fell +upon and fused with the substance of the sarcode. And the result is +a solid, flattened, homogeneous ball of living jelly.</p> + +<p>To properly study this in its further changes, a power of from +three to four thousand diameters must be used, and with this I know +of few things in the whole range of minute beauty more beautiful +than the effect of what is seen. In the perfectly motionless +flattened sphere, without the shimmer of premonition and with +inconceivable suddenness, a white cross smites itself, as it were, +through the sarcode. Then another with equal suddenness at right +angles, and while with admiration and amazement one for the first +time is realizing the shining radii, an invisible energy seizes the +tiny speck, and fixing its center, twists its entire circumference, +and endows it with a turbined aspect. From that moment intense +interior activity became manifest. Now the sarcode was, as it were, +kneading its own substance, and again an inner whirling motion was +visible, reminding one of the rush of water round the interior of a +hollow sphere on its way to a jet or fountain. Deep fissures or +indentations showed themselves all over the sphere; and then at the +end of ten or more minutes all interior action ceased, and the +sphere had segmented into a coiled mass. There was no trace of an +investing membrane; the constituent parts were related to each +other simply as the two separating parts of an ordinary fission; +and they now commenced a quick, writhing motion like a knot of +eels, and then, in the course of from seven to thirty minutes, +separated, and fully endowed with flagella swam freely away, minute +but perfect forms, which by the rapid absorption of pabulum +attained speedily to the parent size.</p> + +<p>It is characteristic of this group of organic forms that +multiplication by self-division is the common and continuous method +of increase. The other and essential method was comparatively rare +and always obscure. In this instance, on the first occasion the +continuous observation of the same "field" for five days failed to +disclose to us any other method of increase but this +multiple-fission, and it was only the intense suggestiveness of +past experience that kept us still alert and prevented us from +inferring that it was the <i>only</i> method. But eventually we +perceived that while this was the prevailing phenomenon, there were +scattered among the other forms of the same monad <i>larger</i> +than the rest, and with a singular granular aspect toward the +flagellate end. It may be easily contrasted with the normal or +ordinary form. Now by doggedly following one of these through all +its wanderings a wholly new phase in the morphology of the creature +was revealed. This roughened or granular form seized upon and +fastened itself to a form in the ordinary condition. The two swam +freely together, both flagella being in action, but it was shortly +palpable that the larger one was absorbing the lesser. The +flagellum of the smaller one at length moved slower, then +sluggishly, then fell upon the sarcode, which rapidly diminished, +while the bigger form expanded and became vividly active until the +two bodies had actually fused into one. After this its activity +diminished, in a few minutes the body became quite still, leaving +only a feeble motion in the flagellum, which soon fell upon the +body-substance and was lost. All that was left now was a still +spheroidal glossy speck, tinted with a brownish yellow. A +peculiarity of this monad is the extreme uncertainty of the length +of time which may elapse before even the most delicate change in +this sac is visible. Its absolute stillness may continue for ten or +more hours. During this time it is absolutely inert, but at last +the sac—for such it is—opens gently, and there is +poured out a brownish glairy fluid. At first the stream is small, +but at length its flow enlarges the rift in the cyst, and the +cloudy volume of its contents rolls out, and the hyaline film that +inclosed it is all that is left.</p> + +<p>The nature of the outflow was like that produced by the pouring +of strong spirit into water. But no power that we could employ was +capable of detecting a <i>granule</i> in it. To our most delicate +manipulation of light, our finest optical appliances, and our most +riveted attention, it was a homogeneous fluid and nothing more. +This for a while baffled and disturbed us. It lured us off the +scent. We inferred that it might possibly be a fertilizing fluid, +and that we must look in other directions for the issue. But this +was fruitless, and we were driven again to the old point, and +having once more obtained the emitted fluid, determined to fix a +lens magnifying 5,000 diameters upon a clear space over which the +fluid had rolled, and near to the exhausted sac, and ply our old +trade of <i>watching</i> with unbroken observation.</p> + +<p>The result was a reward indeed. At first the space was clear and +white, but in the course of a hundred minutes there came suddenly +into view the minutest conceivable specks. I can only compare the +coming of these to the growth of the stars in a starless space upon +the eye of an intense watcher in a summer twilight. You knew but a +few minutes since a star was not visible there, and now there is no +mistaking its pale beauty. It was so with these inexpressibly +minute sporules; they were not there a short time since, but they +grew large enough for our optical aids to reveal them, and there +they were. Such a field after one hour's watching I present to you. +And here I would remark that these delicate specks were unlike any +which we saw emerge directly from the sac as granules. In that +condition they were always semi-opaque, but here they were +transparent, and a brown yellow, the condition always sequent upon +a certain measure of growth.</p> + +<p>To follow these without the loss of an instant's vision was +pleasure of the highest kind. In an hour and ten minutes from their +first discovery they had grown to oval points. In one hour more the +specks had become beaked and long. And this pointed end was +universally the end from which the flagellum emerged. With the +flagellum comes motion, and with that abundant pabulum, and +therefore rapid growth. But when motion is attained we are +compelled to abandon the mass and follow one in all its impetuous +travels in its little world; and by doing so we are enabled to +follow the developed speck into the parent condition and size, and +not to leave it until it had, like its predecessors, entered on and +completed its wonderful self-division by fission.</p> + +<p>It becomes then clearly manifest that these organisms, lowly and +little as they are, arise in fertilized parental products. There is +no more caprice in their mode of origin than in that of a +crustacean or a bird. Their minuteness, enormous abundance, and +universal distribution is the explanation of their rapid and +practically ubiquitous appearance in a germinating and adult +condition. The presence of putrefiable or putrescent matter +determines at once the germination of the always-present spore. But +a new question arises. These spores are definite products. In the +face of some experimental facts one was tempted to inquire: Have +these spores any capacity to resist heat greater than the adults? +It was not easy to determine this question. But we at length were +enabled to isolate the germs of seven separate forms, and by means +of delicate apparatus, and some twelve months of research, to place +each spore sac in an apparatus so constructed that it could be +raised to successive temperatures, and without any change of +conditions examined on the stage of the microscope.</p> + +<p>In this way we reached successive temperatures higher and higher +until the death point—the point beyond which no subsequent +germination ever occurred—was reached in regard to +<i>each</i> organism. The result was striking. The normal death +point for the adult was 140° F. One of the monads emitted from +its sac minute mobile specks—evidently living +bodies—which rapidly grew. These we always destroyed at a +temperature of 180° F. Three of the sacs emitted spores that +germinated at every temperature under 250° F. Two more only had +their power of germination destroyed at 260° F. And one, the +least of all the monad forms, in a heat partially fluid and +partially dry, at all points up to 300° F. But if wholly in +fluid it was destroyed at the point of 290° F. The average +being that the power of heat resistance in the spore was to that of +the adult as 11 to 6. From this it is clear that we dare not infer +spontaneous generation after heat until we know the life-history of +the organism.</p> + +<p>In proof of this I close with a practical case. A trenchant and +resolute advocate of the origin of living forms <i>de novo</i> has +published what he considers a crucial illustration in support of +his case. He took a strong infusion of common cress, placed it in a +flask, boiled it, and, while boiling, hermetically sealed it. He +then heated it up in a digester to 270° F. It was kept for nine +weeks and then opened, and, in his own language, on microscopical +examination of the earliest drop "there appeared more than a dozen +very active monads." He has fortunately measured and roughly drawn +these. A facsimile of his drawing is here. He says that they were +possessed of a rapidly moving lash, and that there were other forms +without tails, which he assumed were developmental stages of the +form. This is nothing less than the monad whose life-history I gave +you last. My drawings, magnified 2,500 diams., of the active +organism and the developing sac are here.</p> + +<p>Now this experimenter says that he took these monads and heated +them to a temperature of about 140° F., and they were all +absolutely killed. This is accurately our experience. But he says +these monads arose in a closed flask, the fluid of which had been +heated up to 270° F. Therefore, since they are killed at +140° F., and arose in a fluid after being heated to 270° +F., they must have arisen <i>de novo!</i> But the truth is that +this is the monad whose spore only loses its power to germinate at +a temperature (in fluid) of 290°, that is to say, 20° F. +higher than the heat to which, in this experiment, they had been +subjected. And therefore the facts compel the deduction that these +monads in the cress arose, not by a change of dead matter into +living, but that they germinated naturally from the parental spore +which the heat employed had been incompetent to injure. Then we +conclude with a definite issue, viz., by experiment it is +established that living forms do not now arise in dead matter. And +by study of the forms themselves it is proved that, like all the +more complex forms above them, they arise in parental products. The +law is as ever, only that which is living can give origin to that +which lives.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3">[3]</a> +<div class="note">A magnified image of the bee's sting was +projected on the screen.</div> + +<a name="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4">[4]</a> +<div class="note">A series of the eggs of butterflies were then +shown, as were the objects successively referred to, but not here +reproduced.</div> + +<a name="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5">[5]</a> +<div class="note">The pygidium of the flea, very highly magnified, +was here shown.</div> + +<a name="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6">[6]</a> +<div class="note">An illustration of the pygidium structure seen +with one-thirty-fifth immersion was given.</div> + +<hr> +<p>A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important +scientific papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be +had gratis at this office.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.</h2> + +<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3> + +<h3>Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</h3> + +<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country.</p> + +<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, +January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p> + +<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. +Two volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50, +stitched in paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers.</p> + +<p>COMBINED RATES—One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one +copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, +$7.00.</p> + +<p>A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and +canvassers.</p> + +<p><b>MUNN & CO., Publishers,</b></p> + +<p><b>361 Broadway, New York, N.Y.</b></p> + +<hr> +<h2>PATENTS.</h2> + +<p>In connection with the <b>Scientific American</b>, Messrs. MUNN +& Co. are Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had +40 years' experience, and now have the largest establishment in the +world. Patents are obtained on the best terms.</p> + +<p>A special notice is made in the <b>Scientific American</b> of +all inventions patented through this Agency, with the name and +residence of the Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, +public attention is directed to the merits of the new patent, and +sales or introduction often easily effected.</p> + +<p>Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can +ascertain, free of charge, whether a patent can probably be +obtained, by writing to MUNN & Co.</p> + +<p>We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents, +Caveats. Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured. Address</p> + +<p><b>MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New York.</b></p> + +<p>Branch Office, cor. F and 7th Sts., Washington, D.C.</p> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14041 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + diff --git a/14041-h/images/13a.png b/14041-h/images/13a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2590c61 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/13a.png diff --git a/14041-h/images/13a_th.jpg b/14041-h/images/13a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d9d3a9b --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/13a_th.jpg diff --git a/14041-h/images/13b.png b/14041-h/images/13b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d584c1c --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/13b.png diff --git a/14041-h/images/13b_th.jpg b/14041-h/images/13b_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ef21d45 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/13b_th.jpg diff --git a/14041-h/images/13c.png b/14041-h/images/13c.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e494366 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/13c.png diff --git a/14041-h/images/13c_th.jpg b/14041-h/images/13c_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6043dcb --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/13c_th.jpg diff --git a/14041-h/images/14a.png b/14041-h/images/14a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..33490d2 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/14a.png diff --git a/14041-h/images/14a_th.jpg b/14041-h/images/14a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..69da335 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/14a_th.jpg diff --git a/14041-h/images/1a.png b/14041-h/images/1a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..673ad22 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/1a.png diff --git a/14041-h/images/1a_th.jpg b/14041-h/images/1a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..78c4a5b --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/1a_th.jpg diff --git a/14041-h/images/1b.png b/14041-h/images/1b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..295244b --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/1b.png diff --git a/14041-h/images/1b_th.jpg b/14041-h/images/1b_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..80d697f --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/1b_th.jpg diff --git a/14041-h/images/1c.png b/14041-h/images/1c.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f1f99bc --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/1c.png diff --git a/14041-h/images/1c_th.jpg b/14041-h/images/1c_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e4db38e --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/1c_th.jpg diff --git a/14041-h/images/1d.png b/14041-h/images/1d.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9442dec --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/1d.png diff --git a/14041-h/images/1d_th.jpg b/14041-h/images/1d_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b95b398 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/1d_th.jpg diff --git a/14041-h/images/2a.png b/14041-h/images/2a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b4e2b3d --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/2a.png diff --git a/14041-h/images/2a_th.jpg b/14041-h/images/2a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..aefdfb6 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/2a_th.jpg diff --git a/14041-h/images/2b.png b/14041-h/images/2b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cb52cf0 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/2b.png diff --git a/14041-h/images/2b_th.jpg b/14041-h/images/2b_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d348140 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/2b_th.jpg diff --git a/14041-h/images/3a.png b/14041-h/images/3a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7927fd9 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/3a.png diff --git a/14041-h/images/3a_th.jpg b/14041-h/images/3a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..eaff7bd --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/3a_th.jpg diff --git a/14041-h/images/4a.png b/14041-h/images/4a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a9fe92f --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/4a.png diff --git a/14041-h/images/4a_th.jpg b/14041-h/images/4a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3c54ab8 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/4a_th.jpg diff --git a/14041-h/images/5a.png b/14041-h/images/5a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9126243 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/5a.png diff --git a/14041-h/images/5a_th.jpg b/14041-h/images/5a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e933d40 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/5a_th.jpg diff --git a/14041-h/images/7a.png b/14041-h/images/7a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5fa0b8e --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/7a.png diff --git a/14041-h/images/7a_th.jpg b/14041-h/images/7a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ce6e99b --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/7a_th.jpg diff --git a/14041-h/images/8a.png b/14041-h/images/8a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..74a3532 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/8a.png diff --git a/14041-h/images/8a_th.jpg b/14041-h/images/8a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a0b3105 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/8a_th.jpg diff --git a/14041-h/images/8b.png b/14041-h/images/8b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9831ba1 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/8b.png diff --git a/14041-h/images/8b_th.jpg b/14041-h/images/8b_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5007217 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/8b_th.jpg diff --git a/14041-h/images/9a.png b/14041-h/images/9a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..de6daec --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/9a.png diff --git a/14041-h/images/9a_th.jpg b/14041-h/images/9a_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a10ca31 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/9a_th.jpg diff --git a/14041-h/images/9b.png b/14041-h/images/9b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c35da0f --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/9b.png diff --git a/14041-h/images/9b_th.jpg b/14041-h/images/9b_th.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..61ec563 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/9b_th.jpg diff --git a/14041-h/images/tex1.png b/14041-h/images/tex1.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4d90655 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/tex1.png diff --git a/14041-h/images/tex2.png b/14041-h/images/tex2.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2937353 --- /dev/null +++ b/14041-h/images/tex2.png |
