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diff --git a/14033-0.txt b/14033-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8e33cf6 --- /dev/null +++ b/14033-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,16808 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14033 *** + +PLUTARCH'S LIVES, VOLUME I + +Translated from the Greek +with Notes and a Life of Plutarch + +by + +AUBREY STEWART, M.A., +Late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge + +and the late + +GEORGE LONG, M.A., +Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge + +IN FOUR VOLUMES. + +London + +George Bell & Sons, York St., Covent Garden, and New York + +1894 + +Reprinted from Stereotype Plates by Wm. Clowes & Sons, Ltd., Stamford +Street and Charing Cross + + + + + + + +PREFACE. + + +No apologies are needed for a new edition of so favourite an author as +Plutarch. From the period of the revival of classical literature in +Europe down to our own times, his writings have done more than those of +any other single author to familiarise us with the greatest men and the +greatest events of the ancient world. + +The great Duke of Marlborough, it is said, confessed that his only +knowledge of English history was derived from Shakespeare's historical +plays, and it would not be too much to say that a very large proportion +of educated men, in our own as well as in Marlborough's times, have owed +much of their knowledge of classical antiquity to the study of +Plutarch's Lives. Other writers may be read with profit, with +admiration, and with interest; but few, like Plutarch, can gossip +pleasantly while instructing solidly; can breathe life into the dry +skeleton of history, and show that the life of a Greek or Roman worthy, +when rightly dealt with, can prove as entertaining as a modern novel. No +one is so well able as Plutarch to dispel the doubt which all schoolboys +feel as to whether the names about which they read ever belonged to men +who were really alive; his characters are so intensely human and +lifelike in their faults and failings as well as in their virtues, that +we begin to think of them as of people whom we have ourselves personally +known. + +His biographies are numerous and short. By this, he avoids one of the +greatest faults of modern biographers, that namely of identifying +himself with some one particular personage, and endeavouring to prove +that all his actions were equally laudable. Light and shade are as +necessary to a character as to a picture, but a man who devotes his +energies for years to the study of any single person's life, is +insensibly led into palliating or explaining away his faults and +exaggerating his excellencies until at last he represents him as an +impossible monster of virtue. Another advantage which we obtain by his +method is that we are not given a complete chronicle of each person's +life, but only of the remarkable events in it, and such incidents as +will enable us to judge of his character. This also avoids what is the +dreariest part of all modern biographies, those chapters I mean which +describe the slow decay of their hero's powers, his last illness, and +finally his death. This subject, which so many writers of our own time +seem to linger lovingly upon, is dismissed by Plutarch in a few lines, +unless any circumstance of note attended the death of the person +described. + +Without denying that Plutarch is often inaccurate and often diffuse; +that his anecdotes are sometimes absurd, and his metaphysical +speculations not unfrequently ridiculous, he is nevertheless generally +admitted to be one of the most readable authors of antiquity, while all +agree that his morality is of the purest and loftiest type. + +The first edition of the Greek text of Plutarch's Lives appeared at +Florence in the year 1517, and two years afterwards it was republished +by Aldus. Before this, however, about the year 1470, a magnificent Latin +version by various hands appeared at Rome. From this, from the Greek +text, and also from certain MSS. to which he had access, Amyot in the +year 1559 composed his excellent translation, of which it has been well +said: "Quoique en vieux Gaulois, elle a un air de fraicheur qui la fait +rejeunir de jour en jour." + +Amyot's spirited French version was no less spiritedly translated by Sir +Thomas North. His translation was much read and admired in its day; a +modern reviewer even goes so far as to say that it is "still beyond +comparison the best version of Parallel Lives which the English tongue +affords." Be this as it may, the world will ever be deeply indebted to +North's translation, for it is to Shakespeare's perusal of that work +that we owe 'Coriolanus,' 'Antony and Cleopatra,' and 'Julius Caesar.' + +North's translation was followed by that known as Dryden's. This work, +performed by many different hands, is of unequal merit. Some Lives are +rendered into a racy and idiomatic, although somewhat archaic English, +while others fall far short of the standard of Sir Thomas North's work. +Dryden's version has during the last few years been re-edited by A.H. +Clough, Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. + +The translation by which Plutarch is best known at the present day is +that of the Langhornes. Their style is certainly dull and commonplace, +and is in many instances deserving of the harsh epithets which have been +lavished upon it. We must remember, however, before unsparingly +condemning their translation, that the taste of the age for which they +wrote differed materially from that of our own, and that people who +could read the 'Letters of Theodosius and Constantia' with interest, +would certainly prefer Plutarch in the translation of the Langhornes to +the simpler phrases of North's or Dryden's version. All events, comic or +tragic, important or commonplace, are described with the same inflated +monotony which was mistaken by them for the dignity of History. Yet +their work is in many cases far more correct as a translation, and the +author's meaning is sometimes much more clearly expressed, than in +Dryden's earlier version. Langhorne's Plutarch was re-edited by +Archdeacon Wrangham in the year 1819. + +In 1844, thirteen Lives were translated by that eminent scholar the late +Mr. George Long; and it is by way of complement to these Lives that the +present version was undertaken with his consent and his approval. + +Those translated by Mr. Long were selected by him as illustrating a +period of Roman history in which he was especially interested, and will +therefore be found to be more fully annotated than the others. It has +seemed to me unnecessary to give information in the notes which can at +the present day be obtained in a more convenient form in Dr. Smith's +Classical Dictionary and Dictionary of Antiquities, many of the articles +in which are written by Mr. Long himself. The student of classical +literature will naturally prefer the exhaustive essays to be found in +these works to any notes appended to Plutarch's text, while to those who +read merely "for the story," the notes prove both troublesome and +useless. + +In deciding on the spelling of the Greek proper names, I have felt great +hesitation. To make a Greek speak of Juno or Minerva seems as absurd as +to make a Roman swear by Herakles or Ares. Yet both Greek and Roman +divinities are constantly mentioned. The only course that seemed to +avoid absolute absurdity appeared to me to be that which I have adopted, +namely to speak of the Greek divinities by their Greek, and the Latin +ones by their Latin names. In substituting a k for the more usual c, I +have followed the example of Grote, who in his History spells all Greek +names exactly as they are written, with the exception of those with +which we are so familiar in their Latin form as to render this +practically impossible; as for instance in the case of Cyprus or +Corinth, or of a name like Thucydides, where a return to the Greek k +would be both pedantic and unmeaning. + +The text, which I have followed throughout, is that of C. Sintenis, +Leipsic, 1873. + +AUBREY STEWART. + + + + +PREFACE TO THE CIVIL WARS OF ROME.[A] + +[Footnote A: It has been thought desirable to give here Mr. Long's +preface to the lives published by him, under the title of "Civil Wars of +Rome." The lives will be found in subsequent volumes.] + + +Among the extant Lives of Plutarch there are thirteen Lives of Romans +which belong to the most eventful period of Roman history. They are the +lives of the brothers Tiberius and Caius Sempronius Gracchus, of Caius +Marius, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Quintus Sertorius, Marcus Licinius +Crassus, Cneius Pompeius Magnus, Marcus Porcius Cato the Younger, Marcus +Tullius Cicero, Lucius Licinius Lucullus, Caius Julius Caesar, Marcus +Junius Brutus, and Marcus Antonius. From the year of the death of +Tiberius Gracchus, B.C. 133, to the death of Marcus Antonius, B.C. 30, a +period of about one hundred years, the Roman State was convulsed by +revolutions which grew out of the contest between the People and the +Nobility, or rather, out of the contests between the leaders of these +two bodies. This period is the subject of Appian's History of the Civil +Wars of the Romans, in Five Books. Appian begins with the Tribunate and +legislation of Tiberius Gracchus, from which he proceeds to the +Dictatorship of Sulla, and then to the quarrels between Pompeius and +Caesar, and Caesar's Dictatorship and assassination. He then proceeds to +the history of the Triumvirate formed after Caesar's death by his great +nephew Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus, Marcus Antonius, and Lepidus, the +quarrels of the Triumviri, the downfall of Lepidus, who was reduced to +the condition of a private person, and the death of Sextus Pompeius, the +last support of the party in whose cause his father, Cneius Pompeius, +lost his life. The remainder of this History, which is lost, carried the +narration down to the quarrels of Octavianus and Marcus Antonius, which +ended in the defeat of Antonius in the battle of Actium, B.C. 31, and +his death in Egypt, B.C. 30. The victory over Antonius placed all the +power in the hands of Octavianus, who, in the year B.C. 27, received +from the Roman Senate the title of Augustus, or the Sacred, by which +name he is commonly known as the first of the long series of Roman +Emperors. "He made himself," says Appian (_Civil Wars_, i. 5), "like +Caius Julius Caesar, and still more than Caesar, governor of his country +and of all the nations under it, without needing either election or the +popular votes, or any show of such things. After his government had +subsisted for a long time, and been maintained with vigour, fortunate in +all his measures, and feared, he left behind him descendants and +successors who kept the power that he transmitted to them. In this way, +after various civil commotions, the Roman State was restored to +tranquillity, and the government became a Monarchy. And how this came +about I have explained, and brought together all the events, which are +well worth the study of those who wish to become acquainted with +ambition of men unbounded, love of power excessive, endurance unwearied, +and forms of suffering infinite." Thus, the historian's object was to +trace the establishment of the Imperial power in Rome back to its +origin, to show that the contests of the rival heads of parties involved +the State in endless calamities, which resulted in a dissolution of all +the bonds that held society together, and rendered the assumption of +supreme power by one man a healing and a necessary event. + +As already observed, it happens that thirteen of Plutarch's extant Lives +are the lives of the most distinguished of the Romans who lived during +this eventful period; and though Plutarch's Lives severally are not +histories of the times to which they respectively refer, nor +collectively form a History of any given time, yet they are valuable as +portraits of illustrious men, and help us to form a better judgment of +those who make so conspicuous a figure in History. + +Plutarch was a native of the town of Chaeroneia, in Boeotia; the times +of his birth and death are not exactly known, but we learn from his own +works that he was a young student at Delphi, in the thirteenth year of +the reign of the Emperor Nero, A.D. 66. He visited both Italy and Rome, +and probably resided at Rome for some time. He wrote his Life of +Demosthenes, at least after his return to Chaeroneia: he says (_Life of +Demosthenes_, c. 2), that he had not time to exercise himself in the +Latin Language during his residence at Rome, being much occupied with +public business, and giving lessons in philosophy. Accordingly it was +late before he began to read the Latin writers; and we may infer from +his own words that he never acquired a very exact knowledge of the +language. He observes that it happened in his case, that in his study of +the Latin writers he did not so much learn and understand the facts from +the words, as acquire the meaning of the words from the facts, of which +he had already some knowledge. We may perhaps conclude from this, that +Plutarch wrote all his Roman lives in Chaeroneia, after he had returned +there from Rome. The statement that Plutarch was the preceptor of the +Emperor Trajan, and was raised to the consular rank by him, is not +supported by sufficient evidence. Plutarch addressed to Trajan his Book +of Apophthegms, or Sayings of Kings and Commanders; but this is all that +is satisfactorily ascertained as to the connection between the Emperor +and Philosopher. Trajan died A.D. 117. + +"The plan of Plutarch's Biographies is briefly explained by himself in +the introduction to the Life of Alexander the Great, where he makes an +apology for the brevity with which he is compelled to treat of the +numerous events in the Lives of Alexander and Caesar. 'For,' he says, 'I +do not write Histories, but Lives; nor do the most conspicuous acts of +necessity exhibit a man's virtue or his vice, but oftentimes some slight +circumstance, a word, or a jest, shows a man's character better than +battles with the slaughter of tens of thousands, and the greatest arrays +of armies and sieges of cities. Now, as painters produce a likeness by a +representation of the countenance and the expression of the eyes, +without troubling themselves about the other parts of the body, so I +must be allowed to look rather into the signs of a man's character, and +thus give a portrait of his life, leaving others to describe great +events and battles.' The object then of Plutarch in his Biographies was +a moral end, and the exhibition of the principal events in a man's life +was subordinate to this his main design; and though he may not always +have adhered to the principle which he laid down, it cannot be denied +that his view of what biography should be, is much more exact than that +of most persons who have attempted this style of composition. The life +of a statesman or of a general, when written with a view of giving a +complete history of all the public events in which he was engaged, is +not biography, but history. This extract from Plutarch will also in some +measure be an apology for the want of historical order observable in +many of his Lives. Though altogether deficient in that critical sagacity +which discerns truth from falsehood, and distinguishes the intricacies +of confused and conflicting statements, Plutarch has preserved in his +Lives a vast number of facts which would otherwise have been unknown to +us. He was a great reader, and must have had access to large libraries. +It is said that he quotes two hundred and fifty writers, a great part of +whose works are now entirely lost." (_Penny Cyclopaedia_, art. +"Plutarch," by the writer of this Preface.) + +The lively portraitures of men drawn in Plutarch's Lives have made them +favourite reading in all ages. Whether Plutarch has succeeded in drawing +the portraits true, we cannot always determine, because the materials +for such a judgment are sometimes wanting. But when we can compare his +Lives with other extant authorities, we must admit, that though he is by +no means free from error as to his facts, he has generally selected +those events in a man's life which most clearly show his temper, and +that on the whole, if we judge of a man by Plutarch's measure, we shall +form a just estimate of him. He generally wrote without any +predilections or any prejudices. He tells us of a man's good and bad +acts, of his good and bad qualities; he makes no attempt to conceal the +one or the other; he both praises and blames as the occasion may arise; +and the reader leaves off with a mixed opinion about Plutarch's Greeks +and Romans, though the favourable or the unfavourable side always +predominates. The benevolent disposition of Plutarch, and his noble and +elevated character, have stamped themselves on all that he has written. +A man cannot read these Lives without being the better for it: his +detestation of all that is mean and disingenuous will be increased; his +admiration of whatever is truthful and generous will be strengthened and +exalted. + +The translation of these Lives is difficult. Plutarch's text is +occasionally corrupted; and where it is not corrupted, his meaning is +sometimes obscure. Many of the sentences are long and ill-constructed; +the metaphors often extravagant; and the just connection of the parts is +sometimes difficult to discover. Many single words which are or ought to +be pertinent in Plutarch, and which go towards a description of +character in general or of some particular act, can hardly be rendered +by any English equivalent; and a translator often searches in vain for +something which shall convey to the reader the exact notion of the +original. Yet Plutarch's narrative is lively and animated; his anecdotes +are appropriately introduced and well told; and if his taste is +sometimes not the purest, which in his age we could not expect it to be, +he makes amends for this by the fulness and vigour of his expression. He +is fond of poetical words, and they are often used with striking effect. +His moral reflections, which are numerous, have the merit of not being +unmeaning and tiresome, because he is always in earnest and has got +something to say, and does not deal in commonplaces. When the reflection +is not very profound, it is at least true; and some of his remarks show +a deep insight into men's character. + +I have attempted to give Plutarch's meaning in plain language; to give +all his meaning, and neither more nor less. If I have failed in any +case, it is because I could do no better. But, though I have not always +succeeded in expressing exactly what I conceive to be the meaning of the +original, I have not intentionally added to it or detracted from it. It +may be that there are passages in which I have mistaken the original; +and those who have made the experiment of rendering from one language +into another, know that this will sometimes happen even in an easy +passage. A difficult passage attracts more than usual of a translator's +attention, and if he fails there, it is either because the difficulty +cannot be overcome, or because he cannot overcome it. Mere inadvertence +or sleepiness may sometimes cause a translator to blunder, when he would +not have blundered if any friend had been by to keep him awake. + +The best thing that a man can do to avoid these and other errors is to +compare his translation, when he has finished it, with some other. The +translation which I have compared with mine is the German translation of +Kaltwasser, Magdeburg, 1799, which is generally correct. Kaltwasser in +his Preface speaks of the way in which he used the German translations +of two of his predecessors, J. Christopher Kind, Leipzig, 1745-1754, and +H. v. Schirach, 1776-1780, and some others. He says, "These two +translations, with the French translations above mentioned, I have duly +used, for it is the duty of a translator to compare himself with his +predecessors; but I lay my labour before the eyes of the public, without +fearing that I shall be accused of copying or of close imitation. First +of all, I carefully studied the text of my author and translated him as +well as I could: then, and not before, I compared the labour of my +predecessors, and where I found a more suitable expression or a happier +turn, I made use of it without hesitation. In this way, every fault, +every deviation of the old translators must be apparent; the most +striking of them I have remarked on in the notes, but I have more +frequently amended such things silently, as a comparison will show the +reader." The translator has not compared his version with any English +version. The translation of North, which has great merit in point of +expression, is a version of Amyot's French version, from which, however, +it differs in some passages, where it is decidedly wrong and Amyot's +version is right. Indeed, it is surprising to find how correct this old +French translation generally is. The translation of 'Plutarch's Lives +from the Greek by several hands,' was published at London in 1683-86. It +was dedicated by Dryden to James Butler, the first Duke of Ormond, in a +fulsome panegyric. It is said that forty-one translators laboured at the +work. Dryden did not translate any of the Lives; but he wrote the Life +of Plutarch which is prefixed to this translation. The advertisement +prefixed to the translation passes under the name and character of the +bookseller (Jacob Tonson), but, as Malone observes, it may from internal +evidence be safely attributed to Dryden. The bookseller says, "You have +here the first volume of Plutarch's Lives turned from the Greek into +English; and give me leave to say, the first attempt of doing it from +the _originals_." This is aimed at North's version, of which Dryden +remarks in his Life of Plutarch: "As that translation was only from the +French, so it suffered this double disadvantage; first, that it was but +a copy of a copy, and that too but lamely taken from the Greek original; +secondly, that the English language was then unpolished, and far from +the perfection which it has since attained; so that the first version is +not only ungrammatical and ungraceful, but in many places almost +unintelligible." There is another English version, by the Langhornes, +which has often been reprinted; there is an edition of it with notes by +Wrangham. I have compared my translation carefully with the German of +Kaltwasser, and sometimes with the French of Amyot, and I have thus +avoided some errors into which I should have fallen. There are errors +both in the versions of Amyot and Kaltwasser which I have avoided; but I +may have fallen into others. + +The translation of Kaltwasser contains some useful notes. Those which I +have added to this translation are intended to explain so much as needs +explanation to a person who is not much acquainted with Roman history +and Roman usages; but they will also be useful to others. The notes of +Kaltwasser have often reminded me of the passages where some note would +be useful, and have occasionally furnished materials also. But as I have +always referred to the original authorities, I do not consider it +necessary to make more than this general acknowledgment. The notes added +to this translation are all my own, and contain my own opinions and +observations. + +This translation has been made from the edition of C. Sintenis, Leipzig, +1839, and I have compared the text of Sintenis with that of G.H. +Schaefer, Leipzig, 1826, which has been severely criticized: this +edition contains, however, some useful notes. I have very seldom made +any remarks on the Greek text, as such kind of remark would not have +suited the plan and design of this version, which is not intended for +verbal critics. + +I shall explain by two brief extracts what is my main design in this +version and in the notes, which must be my apology for not affecting a +learned commentary, and my excuse to those who shall not find here the +kind of remarks that are suitable to a critical edition of an ancient +author. I have had another object than to discuss the niceties of words +and the forms of phrases, a labour which is well in its place, if it be +done well, but is not what needs to be done to such an author as +Plutarch to render him useful. A man who was a great reader of Plutarch, +a just and solid thinker above the measure of his age, and not surpassed +in his way by any writer in our own, Montaigne, observes in his 'Essay +of the Education of Children'--"Let him enquire into the manners, +revenues, and alliances of princes, things in themselves very pleasant +to learn, and very useful to know. In this conversing with men, I mean, +and principally those who only live in the records of history, he shall +by reading those books, converse with those great and heroic souls of +former and better ages. 'Tis an idle and vain study, I confess, to those +who make it so, by doing it after a negligent manner, but to those who +do it with care and observation, 'tis a study of inestimable fruit and +value; and the only one, as Plato reports, the Lacedaemonians reserved +to themselves. What profit shall he not reap as to the business of men, +by reading the Lives of Plutarch? But withal, let my governor remember +to what end his instructions are principally directed, and that he do +not so much imprint in his pupil's memory the date of the ruin of +Carthage, as the manners of Hannibal and Scipio; not so much where +Marcellus died, as why it was unworthy of his duty that he died there. +That he do not teach him so much the narrative part, as the business of +history. The reading of which, in my opinion, is a thing that of all +others we apply ourselves unto with the most differing and uncertain +measures."[A] North, in his address to the Reader, says: "The profit of +stories, and the praise of the Author, are sufficiently declared by +Amiot, in his Epistle to the Reader: so that I shall not need to make +many words thereof. And indeed if you will supply the defects of this +translation, with your own diligence and good understanding: you shall +not need to trust him, you may prove yourselves, that there is no +prophane study better than Plutarch. All other learning is private, +fitter for Universities than Cities, fuller of contemplation than +experience, more commendable in students themselves, than profitable +unto others. Whereas stories are fit for every place, reach to all +persons, serve for all times, teach the living, revive the dead, so far +excelling all other books, as it is better to see learning in Noblemen's +lives, than to read it in Philosophers' writings." + +GEORGE LONG. + +[Footnote A: Cotton's Translation.] + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +LIFE OF PLUTARCH xxiii + +LIFE OF THESEUS 1 + +LIFE OF ROMULUS 30 + +COMPARISON OF THESEUS AND ROMULUS 62 + +LIFE OF LYKURGUS 67 + +LIFE OF NUMA 99 + +COMPARISON OF NUMA WITH LYKURGUS 124 + +LIFE OF SOLON 130 + +LIFE OF POPLICOLA 161 + +COMPARISON OF SOLON AND POPLICOLA 181 + +LIFE OF THEMISTOKLES 185 + +LIFE OF CAMILLUS 214 + +LIFE OF PERIKLES 252 + +LIFE OF FABIUS MAXIMUS 288 + +COMPARISON OF PERIKLES AND FABIUS MAXIMIUS 315 + +LIFE OF ALKIBIADES 318 + +LIFE OF CAIUS MARCIUS CORIOLANUS 357 + +COMPARISON BETWEEN ALKIBIADES AND CORIOLANUS 390 + +LIFE OF TIMOLEON 395 + +LIFE OF AEMILIUS 428 + +COMPARISON OF PAULUS AEMILIUS AND TIMOLEON 461 + + + + +LIFE OF PLUTARCH. + + +Plutarch was born probably between A.D. 45 and A.D. 50, at the little +town of Chaeronea in Boeotia. His family appears to have been long +established in this place, the scene of the final destruction of the +liberties of Greece, when Philip defeated the Athenians and Boeotian +forces there in 338 B.C. It was here also that Sulla defeated +Mithridates, and in the great civil wars of Rome we again hear, this +time from Plutarch himself, of the sufferings of the citizens of +Chaeronea. Nikarchus, Plutarch's great-grandfather, was, with all the +other citizens, without any exception, ordered by a lieutenant of Marcus +Antonius to transport a quantity of corn from Chaeronea to the coast +opposite the island of Antikyra. They were compelled to carry the corn +on their shoulders, like slaves, and were threatened with the lash if +they were remiss. After they had performed one journey, and were +preparing their burdens for a second, the welcome news arrived that +Marcus Antonius had lost the battle of Actium, whereupon both the +officers and soldiers of his party stationed in Chaeronea at once fled +for their own safety, and the provisions thus collected were divided +among the inhabitants of the city. + +When Plutarch was born, however, no such warlike scenes as these were to +be expected. Nothing more than the traditions of war remained on the +shores of the Mediterranean. Occasionally some faint echo of strife +would make itself heard from the wild tribes on the Danube, or in the +far Syrian deserts, but over nearly all the world known to the ancients +was established the Pax Romana. Battles were indeed fought, and troops +were marched upon Rome, but this was merely to decide who was to be the +nominal head of the vast system of the Empire, and what had once been +independent cities, countries, and nations submitted unhesitatingly to +whoever represented that irresistible power. It might be imagined that a +political system which destroyed all national individuality, and +rendered patriotism in its highest sense scarcely possible, would have +reacted unfavourably on the literary character of the age. Yet nothing +of the kind can be urged against the times which produced Epictetus, Dio +Chrysostom and Arrian; while at Rome, Pliny the Younger, Tacitus, +Martial, and Juvenal were reviving the memories of the Augustan age. + +From several passages in Plutarch's writings we gather that he studied +under a master named Ammonius, at Athens. For instance, at the end of +his Life of Themistokles, he mentions a descendant of that great man who +was his fellow-student at the house of Ammonius the philosopher. Again, +he tells us that once Ammonius, observing at his afternoon lecture that +some of his class had indulged too freely in the pleasures of the table, +ordered his own son to be flogged, "because," he said, "the young +gentleman cannot eat his dinner without pickles," casting his eye at the +same time upon the other offenders so as to make them sensible that the +reproof applied to them also. + +By way of completing his education he proceeded to visit Egypt. The +"wisdom of the Egyptians" always seems to have had a fascination for the +Greeks, and at this period Alexandria, with its famous library and its +memories of the Ptolemies, of Kallimachus and of Theokritus, was an +important centre of Greek intellectual activity. Plutarch's treatise on +Isis and Osiris is generally supposed to be a juvenile work suggested by +his Egyptian travels. In all the Graeco-Egyptian lore he certainly +became well skilled, although we have no evidence as to how long he +remained in Egypt. He makes mention indeed of a feast given in his +honour by some of his relatives on the occasion of his return home from +Alexandria, but we can gather nothing from the passage as to his age at +that time. + +One anecdote of his early life is as follows:--"I remember," he says, +"that when I was still a young man, I was sent with another person on a +deputation to the Proconsul; my colleague, as it happened, was unable to +proceed, and I saw the Proconsul and performed the commission alone. +When I returned I was about to lay down my office and to give a public +account of how I had discharged it, when my father rose in the public +assembly and enjoined me not to say _I_ went, but _we_ went, nor to say +that _I_ said, but _we_ said, throughout my story, giving my colleague +his share." + +The most important event in the whole of Plutarch's pious and peaceful +life is undoubtedly his journey to Italy and to Rome; but here again we +know little more than that he knew but little Latin when he went +thither, and was too busy when there to acquire much knowledge of that +tongue. His occupation at Rome, besides antiquarian researches which +were afterwards worked up into his Roman Lives, was the delivery of +lectures on philosophical and other subjects, a common practice among +the learned Greeks of his day. Many of these lectures, it is +conjectured, were afterwards recast by him into the numerous short +treatises on various subjects now included under the general name of +Moralia. Plutarch's visit to Rome and business there is admirably +explained in the following passage of North's 'Life of Plutarch':--"For +my part, I think Plutarch was drawn to Rome by meanes of some friends he +had there, especially by Sossius Senecio, that had been a Consull, who +was of great estimation at that time, and namely under the Empire of +Trajan. And that which maketh me think so, is because of Plutarch's own +words, who saith in the beginning of his first book of his discourse at +the table, that he gathered together all his reasons and discourses made +here and there, as well in Rome with Senecio, as in Greece with Plutarch +and others. Not being likely that he would have taken the pains to have +made so long a voyage, and to have come to such a city where he +understood not their vulgar tongue, if he had not been drawn thither by +Senecio, and such other men; as also in acknowledgement of the good +turnes and honour he had received by such men, he dedicated diverse of +his bookes unto them, and among others, the Lives unto Senecio, and the +nine volumes of his discourse at the table, with the treaty, How a man +may know that he profiteth in vertue. Now for the time, considering what +he saith in the end of his book against curiosity, I suppose that he +taught in Rome in the time of Titus and of Domitian: for touching this +point, he maketh mention of a nobleman called Rusticus, who being one +day at his lecture, would not open a letter which was brought him from +the Emperor, nor interrupt Plutarch, but attended to the end of his +declamation, and until all the hearers were gone away; and addeth also, +that Rusticus was afterwards put to death by the commandment of +Domitian. Furthermore, about the beginning of the Life of Demosthenes, +Plutarch saith, that whilst he remained in Italy and at Rome, he had no +leizure to study the Latine tongue; as well for that he was busied at +that time with matters he had in hand, as also to satisfie those that +were his followers to learne philosophie of him."[A] + +[Footnote A: North's 'Plutarch,' 1631, p. 1194.] + +A list of all Plutarch's writings would be a very long one. Besides the +Lives, which is the work on which his fame chiefly rests, he wrote a +book of 'Table Talk,' which may have suggested to Athenaeus the plan of +his 'Symposium.' + +The most remarkable of his minor works is that 'On the Malignity of +Herodotus.' Grote takes this treatise as being intended seriously as an +attack upon the historian, and speaks of the "honourable frankness which +Plutarch calls his malignity." But it is probably merely a rhetorical +exercise, in which Plutarch has endeavoured to see what could be said +against so favourite and well-known a writer. + +He was probably known as an author before he went to Rome. Large +capitals have always had a natural attraction for literary genius, as it +is in them alone that it can hope to be appreciated. And if this be the +case at the present day, how much more must it have been so before the +invention of printing, at a time when it was more usual to listen to +books read aloud than to read them oneself? Plutarch journeyed to Rome +just as Herodotus went to Athens, or as he is said to have gone to the +Olympian festival, in search of an intelligent audience of educated men. +Whether his object was merely praise, or whether he was influenced by +ideas of gain, we cannot say. No doubt his lectures were not delivered +gratis, and that they were well attended seems evident from Plutarch's +own notices of them, and from the names which have been preserved of the +eminent men who used to frequent them. Moreover, strange though it may +appear to us, the demand for books seems to have been very brisk even +though they were entirely written by hand. + +The epigrams of Martial inform us of the existence of a class of slaves +whose occupation was copying books, and innumerable allusions in Horace, +Martial, &c., to the Sosii and others prove that the trade of a +bookseller at Rome was both extensive and profitable. Towards the end of +the Republic it became the fashion for Roman nobles to encourage +literature by forming a library, and this taste was given immense +encouragement by Augustus, who established a public library in the +Temple of Apollo on the Mount Palatine, in imitation of that previously +founded by Asinius Pollio. There were other libraries besides these, the +most famous of which was the Ulpian library, founded by Trajan, who +called it so from his own name, Ulpius. Now Trajan was a contemporary of +our author, and this act of his clearly proves that there must have been +during Plutarch's lifetime a considerable reading public, and consequent +demand for books at Rome. + +Of Plutarch's travels in Italy we know next to nothing. He mentions +incidentally that he had seen the bust or statue of Marius at Ravenna, +but never gives us another hint of how far he explored the country about +which he wrote so much. No doubt his ignorance of the Latin language +must not be taken as a literal statement, and probably means that he was +not skilled in it as a spoken tongue, for we can scarcely imagine that +he was without some acquaintance with it when he first went to Rome, and +he certainly afterwards became well read in the literature of Rome. In +some cases he has followed Livy's narrative with a closeness which +proves that he must have been acquainted with that author either in the +original or in a translation, and the latter alternative is, of the two, +the more improbable. + +It seems to be now generally thought that his stay at Rome was a short +one. Clough, in his excellent Preface, says on this subject, "The fault +which runs through all the earlier biographies, from that of Rualdus +downwards, is the assumption, wholly untenable, that Plutarch passed +many years, as many perhaps as forty, at Rome. The entire character of +his life is of course altered by such an impression." He then goes on to +say that in consequence of this mistaken idea, it is not worth while for +him to quote Dryden's 'Life of Plutarch,' which was originally prefixed +to the translations re-edited by himself. Yet I trust I may be excused +if I again quote North's 'Life of Plutarch,' as the following passage +seems to set vividly before us the quiet literary occupation of his +later days. + +"For Plutarch, though he tarried a long while in Italy, and in Rome, yet +that tooke not away the remembrance of the sweet aire of Greece, and of +the little towne where he was borne; but being touched from time to time +with a sentence of an ancient poet, who saith that, + + "'In whatsoever countrey men are bred + (I know not by what sweetnesse of it led), + They nourish in their minds a glad desire, + Unto their native homes for to retire,' + +"he resolved to go back into Greece againe, there to end the rest of his +daies in rest and honour among his citizens, of whom he was honourably +welcomed home. Some judge that he left Rome after the death of Trajan, +being then of great yeares, to leade a more quiet life. So being then at +rest, he earnestly took in hand that which he had long thought of +before, to wit, the Lives, and tooke great pains with it until he had +brought his worke to perfection, as we have done at this present; +although that some Lives, as those of Scipio African, of Metellus +Numidicus, and some other are not to be found. Now himselfe confesseth +in some place, that when he began this worke, at the first it was but to +profit others; but that afterwards it was to profit himselfe, looking +upon those histories, as if he had looked in a glasse, and seeking to +reform his life in some sort, and to forme it in the mould of the +vertues of these great men; taking this fashion of searching their +manners, and writing the Lives of these noble men, to be a familiar +haunting and frequenting of them. Also he thought, [said he himselfe] +that he lodged these men one after another in his house, entering into +consideration of their qualities, and that which was great in either of +them, choosing and principally taking that which was to be noted, and +most worthy to be knowne in their sayings and deeds."[A] + +[Footnote A: North's 'Plutarch,' 1631, p. 1198.] + +Of Plutarch in his domestic relations we gather much information from +his own writings. The name of his father has not been preserved, but it +was probably Nikarchus, from the common habit of Greek families to +repeat a name in alternate generations. His brothers Timon and Lamprias +are frequently mentioned in his essays and dialogues, where Timon is +spoken of in the most affectionate terms. Rualdus has ingeniously +recovered the name of his wife, Timoxena, from internal evidence +afforded by his writings. A touching letter is still extant, addressed +by Plutarch to his wife, bidding her not give way to excessive grief at +the death of their only daughter, who was named Timoxena after her +mother. The number of his sons we cannot exactly state. Autobulus and +Plutarch are especially spoken of as his sons, since the treatise on the +Timaeus of Plato is dedicated to them, and the marriage of his son +Autobulus is the occasion of one of the dinner-parties recorded in the +'Table Talk.' Another person, one Soklarus, is spoken of in terms which +seem to imply that he was Plutarch's son, but this is nowhere definitely +stated. His treatise also on Marriage Questions, addressed to Eurydike +and Pollianus, seems to speak of her as having been recently an inmate +of his house, but without enabling us to form an opinion whether she was +his daughter or not. A modern writer well describes his maturer years by +the words: "Plutarch was well born, well taught, well conditioned; a +self-respecting amiable man, who knew how to better a good education by +travels, by devotion to affairs private and public; a master of ancient +culture, he read books with a just criticism: eminently social, he was a +king in his own house, surrounded himself with select friends, and knew +the high value of good conversation; and declares in a letter written to +his wife that 'he finds scarcely an erasure, as in a book well written, +in the happiness of his life.'" + +He was an active member of the little community of Chaeronea, being +archon of that town. Whether this dignity was annual or for life we do +not know, but it was probably the former, and very likely he served it +more than once. He speaks of his devotion to the duties of his office as +causing him to incur the ridicule of some of his fellow-citizens, when +they saw him engaged in the humblest duties. "But," he says, in Clough's +version, "the story told about Antisthenes comes to my assistance. When +some one expressed surprise at his carrying home some pickled fish from +market in his own hands, _It is_, he answered, _for myself_. Conversely, +when I am reproached with standing by and watching while tiles are +measured out, and stone and mortar brought up, _This service_, I say, +_is not for myself_, it is for my country." + +Plutarch was for many years a priest of Apollo at Delphi. The scene of +some of his 'Table Talk' is laid there, when he in his priestly capacity +gives a dinner party in honour of the victor in the poetic contest at +the Pythian games. Probably this office was a source of considerable +income, and as the journey from Chaeronea to Delphi, across Mount +Parnassus, is a very short one, it interfered but little with his +literary and municipal business. In his essay on "Whether an old man +should continue to take part in public life," he says, "You know, +Euphanes, that I have for many Pythiads (that is, periods of four years +elapsing between the Pythian festivals), exercised the office of Priest +of Apollo: yet I think you would not say to me,'Plutarch, you have +sacrificed enough; you have led processions and dances enough; it is +time, now that you are old, to lay aside the garland from your head, and +to retire as superannuated from the oracle.'" + +Thus respected and loved by all, Plutarch's old age passed peacefully +away. "Notwithstanding," as North says, "that he was very old, yet he +made an end of the Lives.... Furthermore, Plutarch, having lived alwaies +honourably even to old age, he died quietly among his children and +friends in the city of Chaeronea, leaving his writings, an immortal +savour of his name, unto posterity. Besides the honour his citizens did +him, there was a statue set up for him by ordinance of the people of +Rome, in memory of his virtues. Now furthermore, though time hath +devoured some part of the writings of this great man, and minished some +other: neverthelesse those which remaine, being a great number, have +excellent use to this day among us." + + + + +PLUTARCH'S LIVES. + + + + +LIFE OF THESEUS. + + +I. As in books on geography, Sossius Senecio, the writers crowd the +countries of which they know nothing into the furthest margins of their +maps, and write upon them legends such as, "In this direction lie +waterless deserts full of wild beasts;" or, "Unexplored morasses;" or, +"Here it is as cold as Scythia;" or, "A frozen sea;" so I, in my +writings on Parallel Lives, go through that period of time where history +rests on the firm basis of facts, and may truly say, "All beyond this is +portentous and fabulous, inhabited by poets and mythologers, and there +is nothing true or certain." + +When I had written the lives of Lykurgus the lawgiver and Numa the king, +it appeared to me natural to go back to Romulus also, as I was engaged +on the history of times so close to his. So when I was reflecting, in +the words of Aeschylus, + + "Against this chieftain, who can best contend? + Whom shall I match in fight, what trusty friend?" + +it occurred to me to compare the founder of the fair and famous city of +Athens with him, and to contrast Theseus with the father of unconquered +glorious Rome. Putting aside, then, the mythological element, let us +examine his story, and wherever it obstinately defies probability, and +cannot be explained by natural agency, let us beg the indulgence of our +readers, who will kindly make allowance for tales of antiquity. + +II. Theseus appears to have several points of resemblance to Romulus. +Both were unacknowledged illegitimate children, and were reputed to +descend from the Gods. + + "Both warriors, well we all do know," + +and both were wise as well as powerful. The one founded Rome, while the +other was the joint founder of Athens; and these are two of the most +famous of cities. Both carried off women by violence, and neither of +them escaped domestic misfortune and retribution, but towards the end of +their lives both were at variance with their countrymen, if we may put +any trust in the least extravagant writings upon the subject. + +III. Theseus traced his descent on the father's side from Erechtheus and +the original Autochthones,[A] while on the mother's side he was +descended from Pelops. For Pelops surpassed all the other princes of the +Peloponnesus in the number of his children as well as in wealth; and of +these he gave many of his daughters in marriage to the chief men of the +country, and established many of his sons as rulers in various cities. +One of these, Pittheus, the grandfather of Theseus, founded Troezen, +which is indeed but a little state, though he had a greater reputation +than any man of his time for eloquence and wisdom. The nature of this +wisdom of his seems to have been much of the same kind as that which +made the reputation of Hesiod, in the collection of maxims known as the +'Works and Days.' One of these maxims is indeed ascribed to Pittheus: + + "Let promised pay be truly paid to friends." + +At any rate, this is what Aristotle the philosopher has recorded; and +also Euripides, when he speaks of Hippolytus as "child of holy +Pittheus," shows the prevailing opinion about Pittheus. Now Aegeus +desired to have children, and the Oracle at Delphi is said to have given +him the well-known response, forbidding him to have intercourse with any +woman before he reached Athens, but not appearing to explain this +clearly. Consequently, on his way home, he went to Troezen, and asked +the advice of Pittheus about the response of the God, which ran thus: + + "Great chief, the wine-skin's foot must closed remain, + Till thou to Athens art returned again." + +Pittheus clearly perceived what the oracle must mean, and persuaded or +cheated Aegeus into an intrigue with Aethra. Afterwards, when he +discovered that he had conversed with the daughter of Pittheus, as he +imagined that she might prove with child, he left behind him his sword +and sandals hidden under a great stone, which had a hollow inside it +exactly fitting them. This he told to Aethra alone, and charged her if a +son of his should be born, and on growing to man's estate should be able +to lift the stone and take from under it the deposit, that she should +send him at once with these things to himself, in all secrecy, and as +far as possible concealing his journey from observation. For he greatly +feared the sons of Pallas, who plotted against him, and despised him on +account of his childlessness, they themselves being fifty brothers, all +the sons of Pallas. + +[Footnote A: Autochthones was the name by which the original citizens of +Athens called themselves, meaning that they were sprung from the soil +itself, not immigrants from some other country.] + +IV. When Aethra's child was born, some writers say that he was at once +named Theseus, from the tokens placed under the stone; others say that +he was afterwards so named at Athens, when Aegeus acknowledged him as +his son. He was brought up by his grandfather Pittheus, and had a master +and tutor, Konnidas, to whom even to the present day, the Athenians +sacrifice a ram on the day before the feast of Theseus, a mark of +respect which is much more justly due to him, than those which they pay +to Silanion and Parrhasius, who have only made pictures and statues of +Theseus. + +V. As it was at that period still the custom for those who were coming +to man's estate to go to Delphi and offer to the god the first-fruits of +their hair (which was then cut for the first time),[A] Theseus went to +Delphi, and they say that a place there is even to this day named after +him. But he only cut the front part of his hair, as Homer tells us the +Abantes did, and this fashion of cutting the hair was called Theseus's +fashion because of him. The Abantes first began to cut their hair in +this manner, not having, as some say, been taught to do so by the +Arabians, nor yet from any wish to imitate the Mysians, but because they +were a warlike race, and met their foes in close combat, and studied +above all to come to a hand-to-hand fight with their enemy, as +Archilochus bears witness in his verses: + + "They use no slings nor bows, + Euboea's martial lords, + But hand to hand they close + And conquer with their swords." + +So they cut their hair short in front, that their enemies might not +grasp it. And they say that Alexander of Macedon for the same reason +ordered his generals to have the beards of the Macedonians shaved, +because they were a convenient handle for the enemy to grasp. + +[Footnote A: The first cutting of the hair was always an occasion of +solemnity among the Greeks, the hair being dedicated to some god. The +first instance of this is in Homer's Iliad, where Achilles speaks of +having dedicated his hair to the river Spercheius. The Athenian youth +offered their hair to Herakles. The Roman emperor Nero, in later times, +imitated this custom.] + +VI. Now while he was yet a child, Aethra concealed the real parentage of +Theseus, and a story was circulated by Pittheus that his father was +Poseidon. For the people of Troezen have an especial reverence for +Poseidon; he is their tutelar deity; to him they offer first-fruits of +their harvest, and they stamp their money with the trident as their +badge. But when he was grown into a youth, and proved both strong in +body and of good sound sense, then Aethra led him to the stone, told him +the truth about his father, and bade him take the tokens from beneath it +and sail to Athens with them. He easily lifted the stone, but determined +not to go to Athens by sea, though the voyage was a safe and easy one, +and though his mother and his grandfather implored him to go that way. +By land it was a difficult matter to reach Athens, as the whole way was +infested with robbers and bandits. That time, it seems, produced men of +great and unwearied strength and swiftness, who made no good use of +these powers, but treated all men with overbearing insolence, taking +advantage of their strength to overpower and slay all who fell into +their hands, and disregarding justice and right and kindly feeling, +which they said were only approved of by those who dared not do injury +to others, or feared to be injured themselves, while men who could get +the upper hand by force might disregard them. Of these ruffians, +Herakles in his wanderings cut off a good many, but others had escaped +him by concealing themselves, or had been contemptuously spared by him +on account of their insignificance. But Herakles had the misfortune to +kill Iphitus, and thereupon sailed to Lydia and was for a long time a +slave in that country under Omphale, which condition he had imposed upon +himself as a penance for the murder of his friend. During this period +the country of Lydia enjoyed peace and repose; but in Greece the old +plague of brigandage broke out afresh, as there was now no one to put it +down. So that the journey overland to Athens from Peloponnesus was full +of peril; and Pittheus, by relating to Theseus who each of these +evildoers was, and how they treated strangers, tried to prevail upon him +to go by sea. But it appears that Theseus had for a long time in his +heart been excited by the renown of Herakles for courage: he thought +more of him than of any one else, and loved above all to listen to those +who talked of him, especially if they had seen and spoken to him. Now he +could no longer conceal that he was in the same condition as +Themistokles in later times, when he said that the trophy of Miltiades +would not let him sleep. Just so did the admiration which Theseus +conceived for Herakles make him dream by night of his great exploits, +and by day determine to equal them by similar achievements of his own. + +VII. As it happened, they were connected, being second cousins; for +Aethra was the daughter of Pittheus, and Alkmena the daughter of +Lysidike, and Lysidike and Pittheus were brother and sister, being the +children of Pelops and Hippodameia. So Theseus thought that it would be +a great and unbearable disgrace to him that his cousin should go +everywhere and clear the sea and land of the brigands who infested them, +and he should refuse to undertake the adventures that came in his way; +throwing discredit upon his reputed father by a pusillanimous flight by +sea, and upon his real father by bringing him only the sandals and an +unfleshed sword, and not proving his noble birth by the evidence of some +brave deed accomplished by him. In this spirit he set out on his +journey, with the intention of doing wrong to no one, but of avenging +himself on any one who offered wrong to him. + +VIII. And first in Epidaurus he slew Periphetes, who used a club as his +weapon, and on this account was called the club-bearer, because he laid +hands upon him and forbade him to proceed farther on his way. The club +took his fancy, and he adopted it as a weapon, and always used it, just +as Herakles used his lion's skin; for the skin was a proof of how huge a +beast the wearer had overcome, while the club, invincible in the hands +of Theseus, had yet been worsted when used against him. At the Isthmus +he destroyed Sinis the Pine-bender by the very device by which he had +slain so many people, and that too without having ever practised the +art, proving that true valour is better than practice and training. +Sinis had a daughter, a tall and beautiful girl, named Perigoune. When +her father fell she ran and hid herself. Theseus sought her everywhere, +but she fled into a place where wild asparagus grew thick, and with a +simple child-like faith besought the plants to conceal her, as if they +could understand her words, promising that if they did so she never +would destroy or burn them. However, when Theseus called to her, +pledging himself to take care of her and do her no hurt, she came out, +and afterwards bore Theseus a son, named Melanippus. She afterwards was +given by Theseus in marriage to Deïoneus, the son of Eurytus of +Oechalia. Ioxus, a son of Melanippus, and Theseus's grandchild, took +part in Ornytus's settlement in Caria; and for this reason the +descendants of Ioxus have a family custom not to burn the asparagus +plant, but to reverence and worship it. + +IX. Now the wild sow of Krommyon, whom they called Phaia, was no +ordinary beast, but a fierce creature and hard to conquer. This animal +he turned out of his way to destroy, that it might not be thought that +he performed his exploits of necessity. Besides, he said, a brave man +need only punish wicked men when they came in his way, but that in the +case of wild beasts he must himself seek them out and attack them. Some +say that Phaia was a murderous and licentious woman who carried on +brigandage at Krommyon, and was called a sow from her life and habits, +and that Theseus put her to death. + +X. Before coming to Megara he slew Skeiron by flinging him down a +precipice into the sea, so the story runs, because he was a robber, but +some say that from arrogance he used to hold out his feet to strangers +and bid them wash them, and that then he kicked the washers into the +sea. But Megarian writers, in opposition to common tradition, and, as +Simonides says, "warring with all antiquity," say that Skeiron was not +an arrogant brigand, but repressed brigandage, loved those who were good +and just, and was related to them. For, they point out, Aeakus is +thought to have been the most righteous of all the Greeks, and Kychreus +of Salamis was worshipped as a god, and the virtue of Peleus and Telamon +is known to all. Yet Skeiron was the son-in-law of Kychreus, and +father-in-law of Aeakus, and grandfather of Peleus and Telamon, who were +both of them sons of Endeis, the daughter of Skeiron and his wife +Chariklo. It is not then reasonable to suppose that these, the noblest +men of their time, would make alliances with a malefactor, and give and +receive from him what they prized most dearly. But they say that Theseus +slew Skeiron, not when he first went to Athens, but that afterwards he +took the town of Eleusis which belonged to the Megarians, by dealing +treacherously with Diokles, who was the chief magistrate there, and that +on that occasion he killed Skeiron. This is what tradition says on both +sides. + +XI. At Eleusis Theseus overcame Kerkyon of Arcadia in wrestling and +killed him, and after journeying a little farther he killed Damastes, +who was surnamed Prokroustes, by compelling him to fit his own body to +his bed, just as he used to fit the bodies of strangers to it. This he +did in imitation of Herakles; for he used to retort upon his aggressors +the same treatment which they intended for him. Thus Herakles offered up +Busiris as a sacrifice, and overcame Antaeus in wrestling, and Kyknus in +single combat, and killed Termerus by breaking his skull. This is, they +say, the origin of the proverb, "A Termerian mischief," for Termerus, it +seems, struck passers-by with his head, and so killed them. So also did +Theseus sally forth and chastise evildoers, making them undergo the same +cruelties which they practised on others, thus justly punishing them for +their crimes in their own wicked fashion. + +XII. As he proceeded on his way, and reached the river Kephisus, men of +the Phytalid race were the first to meet and greet him. He demanded to +be purified from the guilt of bloodshed, and they purified him, made +propitiatory offerings, and also entertained him in their houses, being +the first persons from whom he had received any kindness on his journey. +It is said to have been on the eighth day of the month Kronion, which is +now called Hekatombeion, that he came to his own city. On entering it he +found public affairs disturbed by factions, and the house of Aegeus in +great disorder; for Medea, who had been banished from Corinth, was +living with Aegeus, and had engaged by her drugs to enable Aegeus to +have children. She was the first to discover who Theseus was, while +Aegeus, who was an old man, and feared every one because of the +disturbed state of society, did not recognise him. Consequently she +advised Aegeus to invite him to a feast, that she might poison him. +Theseus accordingly came to Aegeus's table. He did not wish to be the +first to tell his name, but, to give his father an opportunity of +recognising him, he drew his sword, as if he meant to cut some of the +meat with it, and showed it to Aegeus. Aegeus at once recognised it, +overset the cup of poison, looked closely at his son and embraced him. +He then called a public meeting and made Theseus known as his son to the +citizens, with whom he was already very popular because of his bravery. +It is said that when the cup was overset the poison was spilt in the +place where now there is the enclosure in the Delphinium, for there +Aegeus dwelt; and the Hermes to the east of the temple there they call +the one who is "at the door of Aegeus." + +XIII. But the sons of Pallas, who had previously to this expected that +they would inherit the kingdom on the death of Aegeus without issue, now +that Theseus was declared the heir, were much enraged, first that +Aegeus should be king, a man who was merely an adopted child of Pandion, +and had no blood relationship to Erechtheus, and next that Theseus, a +stranger and a foreigner, should inherit the kingdom. They consequently +declared war. Dividing themselves into two bodies, the one proceeded to +march openly upon the city from Sphettus, under the command of Pallas +their father, while the other lay in ambush at Gargettus, in order that +they might fall upon their opponents on two sides at once. But there was +a herald among them named Leos, of the township of Agnus, who betrayed +the plans of the sons of Pallas to Theseus. He suddenly attacked those +who were in ambush, and killed them all, hearing which the other body +under Pallas dispersed. From this time forth they say that the township +of Pallene has never intermarried with that of Agnus, and that it is not +customary amongst them for heralds to begin a proclamation with the +words "Acouete Leo," (Oyez) for they hate the name of Leo[A] because of +the treachery of that man. + +[Footnote A: The Greek word _leos_ signifies people.] + +XIV. Now Theseus, who wished for employment and also to make himself +popular with the people, went to attack the bull of Marathon, who had +caused no little trouble to the inhabitants of Tetrapolis. He overcame +the beast, and drove it alive through the city for all men to see, and +then sacrificed it to Apollo of Delphi. Hekale, too, and the legend of +her having entertained Theseus, does not seem altogether without +foundation in fact; for the people of the neighbouring townships used to +assemble and perform what was called the Hekalesian sacrifice to Zeus +Hekalus, and they also used to honour Hekale, calling her by the +affectionate diminutive Hekaline, because she also, when feasting +Theseus, who was very young, embraced him in a motherly way, and used +such like endearing diminutives. She also made a vow on Theseus's +behalf, when he was going forth to battle, that if he returned safe she +would sacrifice to Zeus; but as she died before he returned, she had the +above-mentioned honours instituted by command of Theseus, as a grateful +return for her hospitality. This is the legend as told by Philochorus. + +XV. Shortly after this the ship from Crete arrived for the third time +to collect the customary tribute. Most writers agree that the origin of +this was, that on the death of Androgeus, in Attica, which was ascribed +to treachery, his father Minos went to war, and wrought much evil to the +country, which at the same time was afflicted by scourges from Heaven +(for the land did not bear fruit, and there was a great pestilence and +the rivers sank into the earth). So that as the oracle told the +Athenians that, if they propitiated Minos and came to terms with him, +the anger of Heaven would cease and they should have a respite from +their sufferings, they sent an embassy to Minos and prevailed on him to +make peace, on the condition that every nine years they should send him +a tribute of seven youths and seven maidens. The most tragic of the +legends states these poor children when they reached Crete were thrown +into the Labyrinth, and there either were devoured by the Minotaur or +else perished with hunger, being unable to find the way out. The +Minotaur, as Euripides tells us, was + + "A form commingled, and a monstrous birth, + Half man, half bull, in twofold shape combined." + +XVI. Philochorus says that the Cretans do not recognise this story, but +say that the Labyrinth was merely a prison, like any other, from which +escape was impossible, and that Minos instituted gymnastic games in +honour of Androgeus, in which the prizes for the victors were these +children, who till then were kept in the Labyrinth. Also they say that +the victor in the first contest was a man of great power in the state, a +general of the name of Taurus, who was of harsh and savage temper, and +ill-treated the Athenian children. And Aristotle himself, in his +treatise on the constitution of the Bottiaeans, evidently does not +believe that the children were put to death by Minos, but that they +lived in Crete as slaves, until extreme old age; and that one day the +Cretans, in performance of an ancient vow, sent first-fruits of their +population to Delphi. Among those who were thus sent were the +descendants of the Athenians, and, as they could not maintain themselves +there, they first passed over to Italy, and there settled near +Iapygium, and from thence again removed to Thrace, and took the name of +Bottiaeans. For this reason, the Bottiaean maidens when performing a +certain sacrifice sing "Let us go to Athens." Thus it seems to be a +terrible thing to incur the hatred of a city powerful in speech and +song; for on the Attic stage Minos is always vilified and traduced, and +though he was called "Most Kingly" by Hesiod, and "Friend of Zeus" by +Homer, it gained him no credit, but the playwrights overwhelmed him with +abuse, styling him cruel and violent. And yet Minos is said to have been +a king and a lawgiver, and Rhadamanthus to have been a judge under him, +carrying out his decrees. + +XVII. So when the time of the third payment of the tribute arrived, and +those fathers who had sons not yet grown up had to submit to draw lots, +the unhappy people began to revile Aegeus, complaining that he, although +the author of this calamity, yet took no share in their affliction, but +endured to see them left childless, robbed of their own legitimate +offspring, while he made a foreigner and a bastard the heir to his +kingdom. This vexed Theseus, and determining not to hold aloof, but to +share the fortunes of the people, he came forward and offered himself +without being drawn by lot. The people all admired his courage and +patriotism, and Aegeus finding that his prayers and entreaties had no +effect on his unalterable resolution, proceeded to choose the rest by +lot. Hellanikus says that the city did not select the youths and maidens +by lot, but that Minos himself came thither and chose them, and that he +picked out Theseus first of all, upon the usual conditions, which were +that the Athenians should furnish a ship, and that the youths should +embark in it and sail with him, not carrying with them any weapon of +war; and that when the Minotaur was slain, the tribute should cease. +Formerly, no one had any hope of safety; so they used to send out the +ship with a black sail, as if it were going to a certain doom; but now +Theseus so encouraged his father, and boasted that he would overcome the +Minotaur, that he gave a second sail, a white one, to the steersman, and +charged him on his return, if Theseus were safe, to hoist the white one, +if not, the black one as a sign of mourning. But Simonides says that it +was not a white sail which was given by Aegeus, but "a scarlet sail +embrued in holm oak's juice," and that this was agreed on by him as the +signal of safety. The ship was steered by Phereklus the son of Amarsyas, +according to Simonides. + +But Philochorus says that Theseus had one Nausithous sent him from +Skirus of Salamis, to steer the ship, and Phaeax to act as look-out, as +the Athenians had not yet turned their attention to the sea. + +One of the youths chosen by lot was Menestheos the son of Skirus's +daughter. The truth of this account is attested by the shrines of +Nausithous and Phaeax, which Theseus built at Phalerum, and by the feast +called the Kybernesia or pilot's festival, which is held in their +honour. + +XVIII. When the lots were drawn Theseus brought the chosen youths from +the Prytaneum, and proceeding to the temple of the Delphian Apollo, +offered the suppliants' bough to Apollo on their behalf. This was a +bough of the sacred olive-tree bound with fillets of white wool. And +after praying he went to sea on the sixth day of the month Munychion, on +which day even now they send maidens as suppliants to the temple of the +Delphian Apollo. And there is a legend that the Delphian oracle told him +that Aphrodite would be his guide and fellow-traveller, and that when he +was sacrificing a she-goat to her by the seaside, it became a he-goat; +wherefore the goddess is called Epitragia. + +XIX. When they reached Crete, according to most historians and poets, +Ariadne fell in love with him, and from her he received the clue of +string, and was taught how to thread the mazes of the Labyrinth. He slew +the Minotaur, and, taking with him Ariadne and the youths, sailed away. +Pherekydes also says that Theseus also knocked out the bottoms of the +Cretan ships, to prevent pursuit. But Demon says that Taurus, Minos's +general, was slain in a sea-fight in the harbour, when Theseus sailed +away. But according to Philochorus, when Minos instituted his games, +Taurus was expected to win every prize, and was grudged this honour; for +his great influence and his unpopular manners made him disliked, and +scandal said, that he was too intimate with Pasiphae. On this account, +when Theseus offered to contend with him, Minos agreed. And, as it was +the custom in Crete for women as well as men to be spectators of the +games, Ariadne was present, and was struck with the appearance of +Theseus, and his strength, as he conquered all competitors. Minos was +especially pleased, in the wrestling match, at Taurus's defeat and +shame, and, restoring the children to Theseus, remitted the tribute for +the future. Kleidemus tells the story in his own fashion and at +unnecessary length, beginning much farther back. There was, he says, a +decree passed by all the Greeks, that no ship should sail from any post +with more than five hands on board, but Jason alone, the master of the +great ship Argo, should cruise about, and keep the sea free of pirates. +Now when Daedalus fled to Athens, Minos, contrary to the decree, pursued +him in long war galleys, and being driven to Sicily by a storm, died +there. When his son Deukalion sent a warlike message to the Athenians, +bidding them give up Daedalus to him, or else threatening that he would +put to death the children whom Minos had taken as hostages, Theseus +returned him a gentle answer, begging for the life of Daedalus, who was +his own cousin and blood relation, being the son of Merope, the daughter +of Erechtheus. But he busied himself with building a fleet, some of it +in Attica, in the country of the Thymaitadae, far from any place of +resort of strangers, and some in Troezen, under the management of +Pittheus, as he did not wish his preparations to be known. But when the +ships were ready to set sail, having with him as pilots, Daedalus +himself and some Cretan exiles, as no one knew that he was coming, and +the Cretans thought that it was a friendly fleet that was advancing, he +seized the harbour, and marched at once to Knossus before his arrival +was known. Then he fought a battle at the gates of the Labyrinth, and +slew Deukalion and his body-guard. As Ariadne now succeeded to the +throne, he made peace with her, took back the youths, and formed an +alliance between the Cretans and the Athenians, in which each nation +swore that it would not begin a war against the other. + +XX. There are many more stories about these events, and about Ariadne, +none of which agree in any particulars. Some say that she hanged herself +when deserted by Theseus, and some, that she was taken to Naxos by his +sailors, and there dwelt with Oenarus, the priest of Dionysus, having +been deserted by Theseus, who was in love with another. + + "For Aegle's love disturbed his breast." + +This line, we are told by Hereas of Megara, was struck out of Hesiod's +poems by Peisistratus; and again he says that he inserted into Homer's +description of the Shades, + + "Peirithous and Theseus, born of gods," + +to please the Athenians. Some writers say that Theseus had by Ariadne +two sons, Staphylus and Oenopion, whom Ion of Chios follows when he +speaks of his own native city as that + + "Which erst Oenopion stablished, Theseus' son." + +The pleasantest of these legends are in nearly every one's mouth. But +Paeon of Amathus gives an account peculiar to himself, that Theseus was +driven by a storm to Cyprus, and that Ariadne, who was pregnant, +suffered much from the motion of the ship, and became so ill, that she +was set on shore, but Theseus had to return to take charge of the ship, +and was blown off to sea. The women of the country took care of Ariadne, +and comforted her in her bereavement, even bringing forged letters to +her as if from Theseus, and rendering her assistance during her +confinement; and when she died in childbirth, they buried her. Theseus, +on his return, grieved much, and left money to the people of the +country, bidding them sacrifice to Ariadne; he also set up two little +statues, one of silver, and the other of brass. And at this sacrifice, +which takes place on the second day of the month Gorpiaeus, one of the +young men lies down on the ground, and imitates the cries of a woman in +travail; and the people of Amathus call that the grove of Ariadne +Aphrodite, in which they show her tomb. + +But some writers of Naxos tell a different story, peculiar to +themselves, that there were two Minoses and two Ariadnes, of whom one, +they say, was married to Dionysus in Naxos, and was the mother of +Staphylus and his brother, while the younger was carried off by Theseus, +and came to Naxos after he deserted her; and a nurse called Korkyne came +with her, whose tomb they point out. Then Naxians also says that this +Ariadne died there, and is honoured, but not so much as the elder; for +at the feast in honour of the elder, there are merriment and revelry, +but at that of the younger gloomy rites are mingled with mirth. + +XXI. Theseus, when he sailed away from Crete, touched at Delos; here he +sacrificed to the god and offered up the statue of Aphrodite, which +Ariadne had given him; and besides this, he and the youths with him +danced a measure which they say is still practised by the people of +Delos to this day, being an imitation of the turnings and windings of +the Labyrinth expressed by complicated evolutions performed in regular +order. This kind of dance is called by the Delians "the crane dance," +according to Dikaearchus. It was danced round the altar of the Horns, +which is all formed of horns from the left side. They also say that he +instituted games at Delos, and that then for the first time a palm was +given by him to the victor. + +XXII. As he approached Attica, both he and his steersman in their +delight forgot to hoist the sail which was to be a signal of their +safety to Aegeus; and he in his despair flung himself down the cliffs +and perished. Theseus, as soon as he reached the harbour, performed at +Phalerum the sacrifices which he had vowed to the gods if he returned +safe, and sent off a herald to the city with the news of his safe +return. This man met with many who were lamenting the death of the king, +and, as was natural, with others who were delighted at the news of their +safety, and who congratulated him and wished to crown him with garlands. +These he received, but placed them on his herald's staff, and when he +came back to the seashore, finding that Theseus had not completed his +libation, he waited outside the temple, not wishing to disturb the +sacrifice. When the libation was finished he announced the death of +Aegeus, and then they all hurried up to the city with loud lamentations: +wherefore to this day, at the Oschophoria, they say that it is not the +herald that is crowned, but his staff, and that at the libations the +bystanders cry out, "Eleleu, Iou, Iou;" of which cries the first is used +by men in haste, or raising the paean for battle, while the second is +used by persons in surprise and trouble. + +Theseus, after burying his father, paid his vow to Apollo, on the +seventh day of the month Pyanepsion; for on this day it was that the +rescued youths went up into the city. The boiling of pulse, which is +customary on this anniversary, is said to be done because the rescued +youths put what remained of their pulse together into one pot, boiled it +all, and merrily feasted on it together. And on this day also, the +Athenians carry about the Eiresione, a bough of the olive tree garlanded +with wool, just as Theseus had before carried the suppliants' bough, and +covered with first-fruits of all sorts of produce, because the +barrenness of the land ceased on that day; and they sing, + + "Eiresione, bring us figs + And wheaten loaves, and oil, + And wine to quaff, that we may all + Host merrily from toil." + +However, some say that these ceremonies are performed in memory of the +Herakleidae, who were thus entertained by the Athenians; but most +writers tell the tale as I have told it. + +XXIII. Now the thirty-oared ship, in which Theseus sailed with the +youths, and came back safe, was kept by the Athenians up to the time of +Demetrius Phalereus. They constantly removed the decayed part of her +timbers, and renewed them with sound wood, so that the ship became an +illustration to philosophers of the doctrine of growth and change, as +some argued that it remained the same, and others, that it did not +remain the same. The feast of the Oschophoria, or of carrying boughs, +which to this day the Athenians celebrate, was instituted by Theseus. +For he did not take with him all the maidens who were drawn by lot, but +he chose two youths, his intimate friends, who were feminine and fair to +look upon, but of manly spirit; these by warm baths and avoiding the +heat of the sun and careful tending of their hair and skin he +completely metamorphosed, teaching them to imitate the voice and +carriage and walk of maidens. These two were then substituted in the +place of two of the girls, and deceived every one; and when they +returned, he and these two youths walked in procession, dressed as now +those who carry boughs at the Oschophoria are dressed. They carry them +in honour of Dionysus and Ariadne, because of the legend, or rather +because they returned home when the harvest was being gathered in. And +the women called supper-carriers join in carrying them and partake of +the sacrifice, in imitation of the mothers of those who were drawn by +lot; for they used continually to bring their children food. Also, old +tales are told, because these women used to tell their children such +ones, to encourage and amuse them. + +These things are related by the historian Demus. Moreover, a sacred +enclosure was dedicated to Theseus, and those families out of whom the +tribute of the children had been gathered were bidden to contribute to +sacrifices to him. These sacrifices were presided over by the +Phytalidae, which post Theseus bestowed upon them as a recompense for +their hospitality towards him. + +XXIV. After the death of Aegeus, Theseus conceived a great and important +design. He gathered together all the inhabitants of Attica and made them +citizens of one city, whereas before they had lived dispersed, so as to +be hard to assemble together for the common weal, and at times even +fighting with one another. + +He visited all the villages and tribes, and won their consent; the poor +and lower classes gladly accepting his proposals, while he gained over +the more powerful by promising that the new constitution should not +include a king, but that it should be a pure commonwealth, with himself +merely acting as general of its army and guardian of its laws, while in +other respects it would allow perfect freedom and equality to every one. +By these arguments he convinced some of them, and the rest knowing his +power and courage chose rather to be persuaded than forced into +compliance. He therefore destroyed the prytaneia, the senate house, and +the magistracy of each individual township, built one common prytaneum +and senate house for them all on the site of the present acropolis, +called the city Athens, and instituted the Panathenaic festival common +to all of them. He also instituted a festival for the resident aliens, +on the sixteenth of the month, Hekatombeion, which is still kept up. And +having, according to his promise, laid down his sovereign power, he +arranged the new constitution under the auspices of the gods; for he +made inquiry at Delphi as to how he should deal with the city, and +received the following answer: + + "Thou son of Aegeus and of Pittheus' maid, + My father hath within thy city laid + The bounds of many cities; weigh not down + Thy soul with thought; the bladder cannot drown." + +The same thing they say was afterwards prophesied by the Sibyl +concerning the city, in these words: + + "The bladder may be dipped, but cannot drown." + +XXV. Wishing still further to increase the number of his citizens, he +invited all strangers to come and share equal privileges, and they say +that the words now used, "Come hither all ye peoples," was the +proclamation then used by Theseus, establishing as it were a +commonwealth of all nations. But he did not permit his state to fall +into the disorder which this influx of all kinds of people would +probably have produced, but divided the people into three classes, of +Eupatridae or nobles, Geomori or farmers, Demiurgi or artisans. To the +Eupatridae he assigned the care of religious rites, the supply of +magistrates for the city, and the interpretation of the laws and customs +sacred or profane, yet he placed them on an equality with the other +citizens, thinking that the nobles would always excel in dignity, the +farmers in usefulness, and the artisans in numbers. Aristotle tells us +that he was the first who inclined to democracy, and gave up the title +of king; and Homer seems to confirm this view by speaking of the people +of the Athenians alone of all the states mentioned in his catalogue of +ships. Theseus also struck money with the figure of a bull, either +alluding to the bull of Marathon, or Taurus, Minos' general, or else to +encourage farming among the citizens. Hence they say came the words, +"worth ten," or "worth a hundred oxen." He permanently annexed Megara to +Attica, and set up the famous pillar on the Isthmus, on which he wrote +the distinction between the countries in two trimeter lines, of which +the one looking east says, + + "This is not Peloponnesus, but Ionia," + +and the one looking west says, + + "This is Peloponnesus, not Ionia." + +And also he instituted games there, in emulation of Herakles; that, just +as Herakles had ordained that the Greeks should celebrate the Olympic +games in honour of Zeus, so by Theseus's appointment they should +celebrate the Isthmian games in honour of Poseidon. + +The festival which was previously established there in honour of +Melikerta used to be celebrated by night, and to be more like a +religious mystery than a great spectacle and gathering. Some writers +assert that the Isthmian games were established in honour of Skeiron, +and that Theseus wished to make them an atonement for the murder of his +kinsman; for Skeiron was the son of Kanethus and of Henioche the +daughter of Pittheus. Others say that this festival was established in +honour of Sinis, not of Skeiron. Be this as it may, Theseus established +it, and stipulated with the Corinthians that visitors from Athens who +came to the games should have a seat of honour in as large a space as +could be covered by a sail of the public ship which carried them, when +stretched out on the ground. This we are told by Hellanikus and Andron +of Halikarnassus. + +XXVI. Besides this, according to Philochorus and other writers, he +sailed with Herakles to the Euxine, took part in the campaign against +the Amazons, and received Antiope as the reward for his valour; but most +historians, among whom are Pherekydes, Hellanikus, and Herodorus, say +that Theseus made an expedition of his own later than that of Herakles, +and that he took the Amazon captive, which is a more reasonable story. +For no one of his companions is said to have captured an Amazon; while +Bion relates that he caught this one by treachery and carried her off; +for the Amazons, he says, were not averse to men, and did not avoid +Theseus when he touched at their coast, but even offered him presents. +He invited the bearer of these on board his ship; and when she had +embarked he set sail. But one, Menekrates, who has written a history of +the town of Nikaea in Bithynia, states that Theseus spent a long time in +that country with Antiope, and that there were three young Athenians, +brothers, who were his companions in arms, by name Euneon, Thoas, and +Soloeis. Soloeis fell in love with Antiope, and, without telling his +brothers, confided his passion to one of his comrades. This man laid the +matter before Antiope, who firmly rejected his pretensions, but treated +him quietly and discreetly, telling Theseus nothing about it. Soloeis, +in despair at his rejection, leaped into a river and perished; and +Theseus then at length learned the cause of the young man's death. In +his sorrow he remembered and applied to himself an oracle he had +received from Delphi. It had been enjoined upon him by the Pythia that +whenever he should be struck down with special sorrow in a foreign land, +he should found a city in that place and leave some of his companions +there as its chiefs. In consequence of this the city which he founded +was called Pythopolis, in honour of the Pythian Apollo, and the +neighbouring river was called Soloeis, after the youth who died in it. +He left there the brothers of Soloeis as the chiefs and lawgivers of the +new city, and together, with them one Hermus, an Athenian Eupatrid. In +consequence of this, the people of Pythopolis call a certain place in +their city the house of Hermes, by a mistaken accentuation transferring +the honour due to their founder, to their god Hermes. + +XXVII. This was the origin of the war with the Amazons; and it seems to +have been carried on in no feeble or womanish spirit, for they never +could have encamped in the city nor have fought a battle close to the +Pnyx and the Museum unless they had conquered the rest of the country, +so as to be able to approach the city safely. It is hard to believe, as +Hellanikus relates, that they crossed the Cimmerian Bosphorus on the +ice; but that they encamped almost in the city is borne witness to by +the local names, and by the tombs of the fallen. For a long time both +parties held aloof, unwilling to engage; but at last Theseus, after +sacrificing to Phobos (Fear), attacked them. The battle took place in +the month Boedromion, on the day on which the Athenians celebrate the +feast Boedromia. Kleidemus gives us accurate details, stating that the +left wing of the Amazons stood at the place now called the Amazoneum, +while the right reached up to the Pnyx, at the place where the gilded +figure of Victory now stands. The Athenians attacked them on this side, +issuing from the Museum, and the tombs of the fallen are to be seen +along the street which leads to the gate near the shrine of the hero +Chalkodus, which is called the Peiraeic gate. On this side the women +forced them back as far as the temple of the Eumenides, but on the other +side those who assailed them from the temple of Pallas, Ardettus, and +the Lyceum, drove their right wing in confusion back to their camp with +great slaughter. In the fourth month of the war a peace was brought +about by Hippolyte; for this writer names the wife of Theseus Hippolyte, +not Antiope. Some relate that she was slain fighting by the side of +Theseus by a javelin hurled by one Molpadia, and that the column which +stands beside the temple of Olympian Earth is sacred to her memory. It +is not to be wondered at that history should be at fault when dealing +with such ancient events as these, for there is another story at +variance with this, to the effect that Antiope caused the wounded +Amazons to be secretly transported to Chalkis, where they were taken +care of, and some of them were buried there, at what is now called the +Amazoneum. However, it is a proof of the war having ended in a treaty of +peace, that the place near the temple of Theseus where they swore to +observe it, is still called Horeomosium, and that the sacrifice to the +Amazons always has taken place before the festival of Theseus. The +people of Megara also show a burying-place of the Amazons, as one goes +from the market-place to what they call Rhus, where the lozenge-shaped +building stands. It is said that some others died at Chaeronea, and were +buried by the little stream which it seems was anciently called +Thermodon, but now is called Haemon, about which we have treated in the +life of Demosthenes. It would appear that the Amazons did not even get +across Thessaly without trouble, for graves of them are shown to this +day at Skotussa and Kynoskephalae. + +XXVIII. The above is all that is worthy of mention about the Amazons; +for, as to the story which the author of the 'Theseid' relates about +this attack of the Amazons being brought about by Antiope to revenge +herself upon Theseus for his marriage with Phaedra, and how she and her +Amazons fought, and how Herakles slew them, all this is clearly +fabulous. After the death of Antiope, Theseus married Phaedra, having a +son by Antiope named Hippolytus, or Demophoon, according to Pindar. As +for his misfortunes with this wife and son, as the account given by +historians does not differ from that which appears in the plays of the +tragic poets, we must believe them to have happened as all these writers +say. + +XXIX. However, there are certain other legends about Theseus' marriage +which have never appeared on the stage, which have neither a creditable +beginning nor a prosperous termination: for it is said that he carried +off one Anaxo, a Troezenian girl, and after slaying Sinis and Kerkyon he +forced their daughters, and that he married Periboea the mother of Ajax +and also Phereboea and Iope the daughter of Iphikles: and, as has been +told already, it was on account of his love for Aegle the daughter of +Panopeus that he deserted Ariadne, which was a shameful and +discreditable action. And in addition to all this he is charged with +carrying off Helen, which brought war upon Attica, and exile and +destruction on himself; about which we shall speak presently. But, +though many adventures were undertaken by the heroes of those times, +Herodorus is of opinion that Theseus took no part in any of them, except +with the Lapithae in their fight with the Centaurs; though other writers +say that he went to Kolchis with Jason and took part with Meleager in +the hunt of the Kalydonian boar. + +From these legends arises the proverb, "Not without Theseus;" also he by +himself without any comrades performed many glorious deeds, from which +the saying came into vogue, "This is another Herakles." + +Theseus, together with Adrastus, effected the recovery of the bodies of +those who fell under the walls of the Cadmea at Thebes, not after +conquering the Thebans, as Euripides puts it in his play, but by a truce +and convention, according to most writers. Philochorus even states that +this was the first occasion on which a truce was made for the recovery +of those slain in battle. But we have shown in our 'Life of Herakles' +that he was the first to restore the corpses of the slain to the enemy. +The tombs of the rank and file are to be seen at Eleutherae, but those +of the chiefs at Eleusis, by favour of Theseus to Adrastus. Euripides's +play of the 'Suppliants' is contradicted by that of Aeschylus, the +'Eleusinians,' in which Theseus is introduced giving orders for this to +be done. + +XXX. His friendship for Peirithous is said to have arisen in the +following manner: He had a great reputation for strength and courage; +Peirithous, wishing to make trial of these, drove his cattle away from +the plain of Marathon, and when he learned that Theseus was pursuing +them, armed, he did not retire, but turned and faced him. Each man then +admiring the beauty and courage of his opponent, refrained from battle, +and first Peirithous holding out his hand bade Theseus himself assess +the damages of his raid upon the cattle, saying that he himself would +willingly submit to whatever penalty the other might inflict. Theseus +thought no more of their quarrel, and invited him to become his friend +and comrade; and they ratified their compact of friendship by an oath. +Hereupon, Peirithous, who was about to marry Deidameia, begged Theseus +to come and visit his country and meet the Lapithae. He also had invited +the Centaurs to the banquet; and as they in their drunken insolence laid +hands upon the women, the Lapithae attacked them. Some of them they +slew, and the rest they overcame, and afterwards, with the assistance of +Theseus, banished from their country. Herodorus, however, says that this +is not how these events took place, but that the war was going on, and +that Theseus went to help the Lapithae and while on his way thither +first beheld Herakles, whom he made a point of visiting at Trachis, +where he was resting after his labours and wanderings; and that they met +with many compliments and much good feeling on both sides. But one would +more incline to those writers who tell us that they often met, and that +Herakles was initiated by Theseus's desire, and was also purified before +initiation at his instance, which ceremony was necessary because of some +reckless action. + +XXXI. Theseus was fifty years old, according to Hellanikus, when he +carried off Helen, who was a mere child. For this reason some who wish +to clear him of this, the heaviest of all the charges against him, say +that it was not he who carried off Helen, but that Idas and Lynkeus +carried her off and deposited her in his keeping. Afterwards the Twin +Brethren came and demanded her back, but he would not give her up; or +even it is said that Tyndareus himself handed her over to him, because +he feared that Enarsphorus the son of Hippocoon would take her by force, +she being only a child at the time. But the most probable story and that +which most writers agree in is the following: The two friends, Theseus +and Peirithous, came to Sparta, seized the maiden, who was dancing in +the temple of Artemis Orthia, and carried her off. As the pursuers +followed no farther than Tegea, they felt no alarm, but leisurely +travelled through Peloponnesus, and made a compact that whichever of +them should win Helen by lot was to have her to wife, but must help the +other to a marriage. They cast lots on this understanding, and Theseus +won. As the maiden was not yet ripe for marriage he took her with him to +Aphidnae, and there placing his mother with her gave her into the charge +of his friend Aphidnus, bidding him watch over her and keep her presence +secret. He himself in order to repay his obligation to Peirithous went +on a journey with him to Epirus to obtain the daughter of Aidoneus the +king of the Molossians, who called his wife Persephone, his daughter +Kore, and his dog Cerberus. All the suitors of his daughter were bidden +by him to fight this dog, and the victor was to receive her hand. +However, as he learned that Peirithous and his friend were come, not as +wooers, but as ravishers, he cast them into prison. He put an end to +Peirithous at once, by means of his dog, but only guarded Theseus +strictly. + +XXXII. Now at this period Mnestheus, the son of Peteus, who was the son +of Orneus, who was the son of Erechtheus, first of all mankind they say +took to the arts of a demagogue, and to currying favour with the people. +This man formed a league of the nobles, who had long borne Theseus a +grudge for having destroyed the local jurisdiction and privileges of +each of the Eupatrids by collecting them all together into the capital, +where they were no more than his subjects and slaves; and he also +excited the common people by telling them that although they were +enjoying a fancied freedom they really had been deprived of their +ancestral privileges and sacred rites, and made to endure the rule of +one foreign despot, instead of that of many good kings of their own +blood. + +While he was thus busily employed, the invasion of Attica by the sons of +Tyndareus greatly assisted his revolutionary scheme; so that some say +that it was he who invited them to come. At first they abstained from +violence, and confined themselves to asking that their sister Helen +should be given up to them; but when they were told by the citizens that +she was not in their hands, and that they knew not where she was, they +proceeded to warlike measures. Akademus, who had by some means +discovered that she was concealed at Aphidnae, now told them where she +was; for which cause he was honoured by the sons of Tyndareus during his +life, and also the Lacedaemonians, though they often invaded the country +and ravaged it unsparingly, yet never touched the place called the +Akademeia, for Akademus's sake. Dikaearchus says that Echemus and +Marathus, two Arcadians, took part in that war with the sons of +Tyndareus; and that from the first the place now called Akademeia was +then named Echedemia, and that from the second the township of Marathon +takes its names, because he in accordance with some oracle voluntarily +offered himself as a sacrifice there in the sight of the whole army. + +However, the sons of Tyndareus came to Aphidnae, and took the place +after a battle, in which it is said that Alykus fell, the son of +Skeiron, who then was fighting on the side of the Dioskuri. In memory +of this man it is said that the place in the territory of Megara where +his remains lie is called Alykus. But Hereas writes that Alykus was +slain by Theseus at Aphidnae, and as evidence he quotes this verse about +Alykus, + + "Him whom Theseus slew in the spacious streets of Aphidnae, + Fighting for fair-haired Helen." + +But it is not likely that if Theseus had been there, his mother and the +town of Aphidnae would have been taken. + +XXXIII. After the fall of Aphidnae, the people of Athens became +terrified, and were persuaded by Mnestheus to admit the sons of +Tyndareus to the city, and to treat them as friends, because, he said, +they were only at war with Theseus, who had been the first to use +violence, and were the saviours and benefactors of the rest of mankind. +These words of his were confirmed by their behaviour, for, victorious as +they were, they yet demanded nothing except initiation into the +mysteries, as they were, no less than Herakles, connected with the city. +This was permitted them, and they were adopted by Aphidnus, as Herakles +had been by Pylius. They received divine honours, being addressed as +"Anakes," either because of the cessation of the war, or from the care +they took, when they had such a large army within the walls of Athens, +that no one should be wronged; for those who take care of or guard +anything are said to do it "anakos," and perhaps for this reason kings +are called "Anaktes." Some say that they were called Anakas because of +the appearance of their stars in the heavens above, for the Attics +called "above" "anekas." + +XXXIV. It is said that Aethra, the mother of Theseus, was carried off as +a captive to Lacedaemon, and thence to Troy with Helen, and Homer +supports this view, when he says that there followed Helen, + + "Aithra the daughter of Pittheus and large-eyed Klymene." + +Others reject this verse, and the legend about Mounychus, who is said to +have been the bastard son of Laodike, by Demophoon, and to have been +brought up in Troy by Aithra. But Istrus, in his thirteenth book of his +'History of Attica,' tells quite a different and peculiar story about +Aithra, that he had heard that Paris was conquered by Achilles and +Patroklus near the river Spercheius, in Thessaly, and that Hector took +the city of Troezen by storm, and amongst the plunder carried off +Aithra, who had been left there. But this seems impossible. + +XXXV. Now Aidoneus the Molossian king chanced to be entertaining +Herakles, and related to him the story of Theseus and Peirithous, what +they had intended to do, and how they had been caught in the act and +punished. Herakles was much grieved at hearing how one had perished +ingloriously, and the other was like to perish. He thought that nothing +would be gained by reproaching the king for his conduct to Peirithous, +but he begged for the life of Theseus, and pointed out that the release +of his friend was a favour which he deserved. Aidoneus agreed, and +Theseus, when set free, returned to Athens, where he found that his +party was not yet overpowered. Whatever consecrated grounds had been set +apart for him by the city, he dedicated to Herakles, and called Heraklea +instead of Thesea, except four, according to Philochorus. But, as he at +once wished to preside and manage the state as before, he was met by +factious opposition, for he found that those who had been his enemies +before, had now learned not to fear him, while the common people had +become corrupted, and now required to be specially flattered instead of +doing their duty in silence. + +He endeavoured to establish his government by force, but was overpowered +by faction; and at last, despairing of success, he secretly sent his +children to Euboea, to Elephenor, the son of Chalkodous; and he himself, +after solemnly uttering curses on the Athenians at Gargettus, where now +is the place called Araterion, or the place of curses, set sail for +Skyros, where he was, he imagined, on friendly terms with the +inhabitants, and possessed a paternal estate in the island. At that time +Lykomedes was king of Skyros; so he proceeded to demand from him his +lands, in order to live there, though some say that he asked him to +assist him against the Athenians. Lykomedes, either in fear of the great +reputation of Theseus, or else to gain the favour of Mnestheus, led him +up to the highest mountain top in the country, on the pretext of +showing him his estate from thence, and pushed him over a precipice. +Some say that he stumbled and fell of himself, as he was walking after +supper, according to his custom. As soon as he was dead, no one thought +any more of him, but Mnestheus reigned over the Athenians, while +Theseus's children were brought up as private citizens by Elephenor, and +followed him to Ilium. When Mnestheus died at Ilium, they returned home +and resumed their rightful sovereignty. In subsequent times, among many +other things which led the Athenians to honour Theseus as a hero or +demi-god, most remarkable was his appearance at the battle of Marathon, +where his spirit was seen by many, clad in armour, leading the charge +against the barbarians. + +XXXVI. After the Persian war, in the archonship of Phaedo, the Athenians +were told by the Delphian Oracle to take home the bones of Theseus and +keep them with the greatest care and honour. There was great difficulty +in obtaining them and in discovering his tomb, on account of the wild +and savage habits of the natives of the island. However, Kimon took the +island, as is written in my history of his Life, and making it a point +of honour to discover his tomb, he chanced to behold an eagle pecking +with its beak and scratching with its talons at a small rising ground. +Here he dug, imagining that the spot had been pointed out by a miracle. +There was found the coffin of a man of great stature, and lying beside +it a brazen lance-head and a sword. These relics were brought to Athens +by Kimon, on board of his trireme, and the delighted Athenians received +them with splendid processions and sacrifices, just as if the hero +himself were come to the city. He is buried in the midst of the city, +near where the Gymnasium now stands, and his tomb is a place of +sanctuary for slaves, and all that are poor and oppressed, because +Theseus, during his life, was the champion and avenger of the poor, and +always kindly hearkened to their prayers. Their greatest sacrifice in +his honour takes place on the eighth of the month of Pyanepsion, upon +which day he and the youths came back from Crete. But besides this they +hold a service in his honour on the eighth of all the other months, +either because it was on the eighth day of Hekatombeion that he first +arrived in Athens from Troezen, as is related by Diodorus the +topographer, or else thinking that number to be especially his own, +because he is said to have been the son of Poseidon, and Poseidon is +honoured on the eighth day of every month. For the number eight is the +first cube of an even number, and is double the first square, and +therefore peculiarly represents the immovable abiding power of that god +whom we address as "the steadfast," and the "earth upholder." + + + + +LIFE OF ROMULUS. + + +Historians are not agreed upon the origin and meaning of the famous name +of Rome, which is so celebrated through all the world. Some relate that +the Pelasgi, after wandering over the greater part of the world, and +conquering most nations, settled there, and gave the city its name from +their own strength in battle.[A] Others tell us that after the capture +of Troy some fugitives obtained ships, were carried by the winds to the +Tyrrhenian or Tuscan coast, and cast anchor in the Tiber. There the +women, who had suffered much from the sea voyage, were advised by one +who was accounted chief among them for wisdom and noble birth, Roma by +name, to burn the ships. At first the men were angry at this, but +afterwards, being compelled to settle round about the Palatine Hill, +they fared better than they expected, as they found the country fertile +and the neighbours hospitable; so they paid great honour to Roma, and +called the city after her name. From this circumstance, they say, arose +the present habit of women kissing their male relatives and connections; +because those women, after they had burned the ships, thus embraced and +caressed the men, trying to pacify their rage. + +[Footnote A: The Greek [Greek: rhômê] = strength.] + +II. Some say that Roma, who gave the name to the city, was the daughter +of Italus and Leucaria, or of Telephus the son of Hercules, and the wife +of Aeneas, while others say that she was the daughter of Ascanius the +son of Aeneas. Others relate that Romanus, the son of Odysseus and +Circe, founded the city, or that it was Romus, the son of Hemathion, who +was sent from Troy by Diomedes; or Romis the despot of the Latins, who +drove out of his kingdom the Tyrrhenians, who, starting from Thessaly, +had made their way to Lydia, and thence to Italy. And even those who +follow the most reasonable of these legends, and admit that it was +Romulus who founded the city after his own name, do not agree about his +birth; for some say that he was the son of Aeneas and Dexithea the +daughter of Phorbas, and with his brother Romus was brought to Italy +when a child, and that as the river was in flood, all the other boats +were swamped, but that in which the children were was carried to a soft +bank and miraculously preserved, from which the name of Rome was given +to the place. Others say that Roma, the daughter of that Trojan lady, +married Latinus the son of Telemachus and bore a son, Romulus; while +others say that his mother was Aemilia the daughter of Aeneas and +Lavinia, by an intrigue with Mars; while others give a completely +legendary account of his birth, as follows: + +In the house of Tarchetius, the king of the Albani, a cruel and lawless +man, a miracle took place. A male figure arose from the hearth, and +remained there for many days. Now there was in Etruria an oracle of +Tethys, which told Tarchetius that a virgin must be offered to the +figure; for there should be born of her a son surpassing all mankind in +strength, valour, and good fortune. Tarchetius hereupon explained the +oracle to one of his daughters, and ordered her to give herself up to +the figure; but she, not liking to do so, sent her servant-maid instead. +Tarchetius, when he learned this, was greatly incensed, and cast them +both into prison, meaning to put them to death. However, in a dream, +Vesta appeared to him, forbidding him to slay them. In consequence of +this he locked them up with a loom, telling them that when they had +woven the piece of work upon it they should be married. So they wove all +day, and during the night other maidens sent by Tarchetius undid their +work again. Now when the servant-maid was delivered of twins, Tarchetius +gave them to one Teratius, and bade him destroy them. He laid them down +near the river; and there they were suckled by a she-wolf, while all +sorts of birds brought them morsels of food, until one day a cowherd saw +them. Filled with wonder he ventured to come up to the children and +bear them off. Saved from death in this manner they grew up, and then +attacked and slew Tarchetius. This is the legend given by one +Promathion, the compiler of a history of Italy. + +III. But the most credible story, and that has most vouchers for its +truth, is that which was first published in Greece by Diokles of +Peparethos, a writer whom Fabius Pictor has followed in most points. +There are variations in this legend also; but, generally speaking, it +runs as follows: + +The dynasty established by Aeneas at Alba Longa, came down to two +brothers, Numitor and Amulius. Amulius offered his brother the choice +between the sovereign power and the royal treasure, including the gold +brought from Troy. Numitor chose the sovereign power. But Amulius, +possessing all the treasure, and thereby having more power than his +brother, easily dethroned him, and, as he feared his brother's daughter +might have children who would avenge him, he made her a priestess of +Vesta, sworn to celibacy for ever. This lady is named by some Ilia, by +others Rhea or Silvia. After no long time she was found to be with +child, against the law of the Vestals. Her life was saved by the +entreaties of Antho, the king's daughter, but she was closely +imprisoned, that she might not be delivered without Amulius's knowledge. +She bore two children of remarkable beauty and size, and Amulius, all +the more alarmed at this, bade an attendant take them and expose them. +Some say that this man's name was Faustulus, while others say that this +was not his name, but that of their rescuer. However, he placed the +infants in a cradle, and went down to the river with the intention of +throwing them into it, but seeing it running strong and turbulently, he +feared to approach it, laid down the cradle near the bank and went away. +The river, which was in flood, rose, and gently floated off the cradle, +and carried it down to a soft place which is now called Cermalus, but +anciently, it seems, was called Germanus, because brothers are called +germani. + +IV. Near this place was a fig-tree, which they called Ruminalius, either +from Romulus, as most persons imagine, or because cattle came to +ruminate in its shade, or, more probably, because of the suckling of +the children there, for the ancients called the nipple _rouma_. +Moreover, they call the goddess who appears to have watched over the +children Roumilia, and to her they sacrifice offerings without wine, and +pour milk as a libation upon her altar. + +It is said that while the infants were lying in this place, the she-wolf +suckled them, and that a woodpecker came and helped to feed and watch +over them. Now these animals are sacred to the god Mars; and the Latins +have a peculiar reverence and worship for the woodpecker. These +circumstances, therefore, did not a little to confirm the tale of the +mother of the children, that their father was Mars, though some say that +she was deceived by Amulius himself, who, after condemning her to a life +of virginity, appeared before her dressed in armour, and ravished her. +Others say that the twofold meaning of the name of their nurse gave rise +to this legend, for the Latins use the word _lupa_ for she-wolves, and +also for unchaste women, as was the wife of Faustulus, who brought up +the children, Acca Laurentia by name. To her also the Romans offer +sacrifice, and in the month of April the priest of Mars brings libations +to her, and the feast is called Laurentia. + +V. The Romans also worship another Laurentia, for this reason: The +priest of Hercules, weary with idleness, proposed to the god to cast the +dice on the condition that, if he won, he should receive something good +from the god, while if he lost, he undertook to provide the god with a +bountiful feast and a fair woman to take his pleasure with. Upon these +conditions he cast the dice, first for the god, and then for himself, +and was beaten. Wishing to settle his wager properly, and making a point +of keeping his word, he prepared a feast for the god, and hired +Laurentia, then in the pride of her beauty, though not yet famous. He +feasted her in the temple, where he had prepared a couch, and after +supper he locked her in, that the god might possess her. And, indeed, +the god is said to have appeared to the lady, and to have bidden her go +early in the morning into the market-place, and to embrace the first man +she met, and make him her friend. There met her a citizen far advanced +in years, possessing a fair income, childless, and unmarried. His name +was Tarrutius. He took Laurentia to himself, and loved her, and upon his +death left her heiress to a large and valuable property, the greater +part of which she left by will to the city. It is related of her, that +after she had become famous, and was thought to enjoy the favour of +Heaven, she vanished near the very same spot where the other Laurentia +lay buried. This place is now called Velabrum, because during the +frequent overflowings of the river, people used there to be ferried over +to the market-place; now they call ferrying _velatura_. Some say that +the road from the market-place to the circus, starting from this point, +used to be covered with sails or awnings by those who treated the people +to a spectacle; and in the Latin tongue a sail is called _velum_. This +is why the second Laurentia is honoured by the Romans. + +VI. Now Faustulus, the swineherd of Amulius, kept the children concealed +from every one, though some say that Numitor knew of it, and shared the +expense of their education. They were sent to Gabii to learn their +letters, and everything else that well-born children should know; and +they were called Romulus and Remus, because they were first seen sucking +the wolf. Their noble birth showed itself while they were yet children, +in their size and beauty; and when they grew up they were manly and +high-spirited, of invincible courage and daring. Romulus, however, was +thought the wiser and more politic of the two, and in his discussions +with the neighbours about pasture and hunting, gave them opportunities +of noting that his disposition was one which led him to command rather +than to obey. On account of these qualities they were beloved by their +equals and the poor, but they despised the king's officers and bailiffs +as being no braver than themselves, and cared neither for their anger +nor their threats. They led the lives and followed the pursuits of nobly +born men, not valuing sloth and idleness, but exercise and hunting, +defending the land against brigands, capturing plunderers, and avenging +those who had suffered wrong. And thus they became famous. + +VII. Now a quarrel arose between the herdsmen of Numitor and those of +Amulius, and cattle were driven off by the former. Amulius's men, +enraged at this, fought and routed the others, and recovered a great +part of the booty. They cared nothing for Numitor's anger, but collected +together many needy persons and slaves, and filled them with a +rebellious spirit. While Romulus was absent at a sacrifice (for he was +much addicted to sacrifices and divination), the herdsmen of Numitor +fell in with Remus, accompanied by a small band, and fought with him. +After many wounds had been received on both sides, Numitor's men +conquered and took Remus alive. Remus was brought before Numitor, who +did not punish him, as he feared his brother's temper, but went to his +brother and begged for justice, saying that he had suffered wrong at the +hands of the king his brother's servants. As all the people of Alba +sympathised with Remus, and feared that he would be unjustly put to +death, or worse, Amulius, alarmed at them, handed over Remus to his +brother Numitor, to deal with as he pleased. Numitor took him, and as +soon as he reached home, after admiring the bodily strength and stature +of the youth, which surpassed all the rest, perceiving in his looks his +courageous and fiery spirit, undismayed by his present circumstances, +and having heard that his deeds corresponded to his appearance, and +above all, as seems probable, some god being with him and watching over +the first beginnings of great events, he was struck by the idea of +asking him to tell the truth as to who he was, and how he was born, +giving him confidence and encouragement by his kindly voice and looks. +The young man boldly said, "I will conceal nothing from you, for you +seem more like a king than Amulius. You hear and judge before you +punish, but he gives men up to be punished without a trial. Formerly we +(for we are twins) understood that we were the sons of Faustulus and +Laurentia, the king's servants; but now that we are brought before you +as culprits, and are falsely accused and in danger of our lives, we have +heard great things about ourselves. Whether they be true or not, we must +now put to the test. Our birth is said to be a secret, and our nursing +and bringing up is yet stranger, for we were cast out to the beasts and +the birds, and were fed by them, suckled by a she-wolf, and fed with +morsels of food by a woodpecker as we lay in our cradle beside the great +river. Our cradle still exists, carefully preserved, bound with brazen +bands, on which is an indistinct inscription, which hereafter will serve +as a means by which we may be recognised by our parents, but to no +purpose if we are dead." Numitor, considering the young man's story, and +reckoning up the time from his apparent age, willingly embraced the hope +which was dawning on his mind, and considered how he might obtain a +secret interview with his daughter and tell her of all this; for she was +still kept a close prisoner. + +VIII. Faustulus, when he heard of Remus being captured and delivered up +to Numitor, called upon Romulus to help him, and told him plainly all +about his birth; although previously he had hinted so much, that any one +who paid attention to his words might have known nearly all about it; +and he himself with the cradle ran to Numitor full of hopes and fears, +now that matters had come to a critical point. He was viewed with +suspicion by the guards at the king's gate, and while they were treating +him contemptuously, and confusing him by questions, they espied the +cradle under his cloak. Now it chanced that one of them had been one of +those who had taken the children to cast them away, and had been present +when they were abandoned. This man, seeing the cradle and recognising it +by its make and the inscription on it, suspected the truth, and at once +told the king and brought the man in to be examined. Faustulus, in those +dire straits, did not altogether remain unshaken, and yet did not quite +allow his secret to be wrung from him. He admitted that the boys were +alive, but said that they were living far away from Alba, and that he +himself was bringing the cradle to Ilia, who had often longed to see and +touch it to confirm her belief in the life of her children. Now Amulius +did what men generally do when excited by fear or rage. He sent in a +great hurry one who was a good man and a friend of Numitor, bidding him +ask Numitor whether he had heard anything about the survival of the +children. This man on arrival, finding Numitor all but embracing Remus, +confirmed his belief that he was his grandson, and bade him take his +measures quickly, remaining by him himself to offer assistance. Even had +they wished it, there was no time for delay; for Romulus was already +near, and no small number of the citizens, through hatred and fear of +Amulius, were going out to join him. He himself brought no small force, +arrayed in companies of a hundred each. Each of these was led by a man +who carried a bundle of sticks and straw upon a pole. The Latins called +these _manipla_; and from this these companies are even at the present +day called _maniples_ in the Roman army. Now as Remus raised a revolt +within, while Romulus assailed the palace without, the despot was +captured and put to death without having been able to do anything, or +take any measures for his own safety. + +The greater part of the above story is told by Fabius Pictor and Diokles +of Peparethos, who seem to have been the first historians of the +foundation of Rome. The story is doubted by many on account of its +theatrical and artificial form, yet we ought not to disbelieve it when +we consider what wondrous works are wrought by chance, and when, too, we +reflect on the Roman Empire, which, had it not had a divine origin, +never could have arrived at its present extent. + +IX. After the death of Amulius, and the reorganisation of the kingdom, +the twins, who would not live in Alba as subjects, and did not wish to +reign there during the life of their grandfather, gave up the sovereign +power to him, and, having made a suitable provision for their mother, +determined to dwell by themselves, and to found a city in the parts in +which they themselves had been reared; at least, this is the most +probable of the various reasons which are given. It may also have been +necessary, as many slaves and fugitives had gathered round them, either +that they should disperse these men and so lose their entire power, or +else go and dwell alone amongst them. It is clear, from the rape of the +Sabine women, that the citizens of Alba would not admit these outcasts +into their own body, since that deed was caused, not by wanton +insolence, but by necessity, as they could not obtain wives by fair +means; for after carrying the women off they treated them with the +greatest respect. Afterwards, when the city was once founded, they made +it a sanctuary for people in distress to take refuge in, saying that it +belonged to the god Asylus; and they received in it all sorts of +persons, not giving up slaves to their masters, debtors to their +creditors, or murderers to their judges, but saying that, in accordance +with a Pythian oracle, the sanctuary was free to all; so that the city +soon became full of men, for they say that at first it contained no less +than a thousand hearths. Of this more hereafter. When they were +proceeding to found the city, they at once quarrelled about its site. +Romulus fixed upon what is now called Roma Quadrata, a square piece of +ground, and wished the city to be built in that place; but Remus +preferred a strong position on Mount Aventino, which, in memory of him, +was called the Remonium, and now is called Rignarium. + +They agreed to decide their dispute by watching the flight of birds, and +having taken their seats apart, it is said that six vultures appeared to +Remus, and afterwards twice as many to Romulus. Some say that Remus +really saw his vultures, but that Romulus only pretended to have seen +them, and when Remus came to him, then the twelve appeared to Romulus; +for which reason the Romans at the present day draw their auguries +especially from vultures. Herodorus of Pontus says that Hercules +delighted in the sight of a vulture, when about to do any great action. +It is the most harmless of all creatures, for it injures neither crops, +fruit, nor cattle, and lives entirely upon dead corpses. It does not +kill or injure anything that has life, and even abstains from dead birds +from its relationship to them. Now eagles, and owls, and falcons, peck +and kill other birds, in spite of Aeschylus's line, + + "Bird-eating bird polluted e'er must be." + +Moreover, the other birds are, so to speak, ever before our eyes, and +continually remind us of their presence; but the vulture is seldom seen, +and it is difficult to meet with its young, which has suggested to some +persons the strange idea that vultures come from some other world to pay +us their rare visits, which are like those occurrences which, according +to the soothsayers, do not happen naturally or spontaneously, but by the +interposition of Heaven. + +X. When Remus discovered the deceit he was very angry, and, while +Romulus was digging a trench round where the city wall was to be built, +he jeered at the works, and hindered them. At last, as he jumped over +it, he was struck dead either by Romulus himself, or by Celer, one of +his companions. In this fight, Faustulus was slain, and also Pleistinus, +who is said to have been Faustulus's brother and to have helped him in +rearing Romulus and his brother. Celer retired into Tyrrhenia, and from +him the Romans call quick sharp men _Celeres_; Quintus Metellus, who, +when his father died, in a very few days exhibited a show of gladiators, +was surnamed Celer by the Romans in their wonder at the short time he +had spent in his preparations. + +XI. Romulus, after burying Remus and his foster-parents in the Remurium, +consecrated his city, having fetched men from Etruria, who taught him +how to perform it according to sacred rites and ceremonies, as though +they were celebrating holy mysteries. A trench was dug in a circle round +what is now the Comitium, and into it were flung first-fruits of all +those things which are honourable and necessary for men. Finally each +man brought a little of the earth of the country from which he came, and +flung it into one heap and mixed it all together. They call this pit by +the same name as the heavens, _Mundus_. Next, they drew the outline of +the city in the form of a circle, with this place as its centre. And +then the founder, having fitted a plough with a brazen ploughshare, and +yoked to it a bull and a cow, himself ploughs a deep furrow round the +boundaries. It is the duty of his attendants to throw the clods inwards, +which the plough turns up, and to let none of them fall outwards. By +this line they define the extent of the fortifications, and it is called +by contraction, Pomoerium, which means behind the walls or beyond the +walls (_post moenia_). Wherever they intend to place a gate they take +off the ploughshare, and carry the plough over, leaving a space. After +this ceremony they consider the entire wall sacred, except the gates; +but if they were sacred also, they could not without scruple bring in +and out necessaries and unclean things through them. + +XII. It is agreed that the foundation of the city took place on the +eleventh day before the Kalends of May (the 21st of April). And on this +day the Romans keep a festival which they call the birthday of the city. +At this feast, originally, we are told, they sacrificed nothing that has +life, but thought it right to keep the anniversary of the birth of the +city pure and unpolluted by blood. However, before the foundation of the +city, they used to keep a pastoral feast called Palilia. The Roman +months at the present day do not in any way correspond to those of +Greece; yet they (the Greeks) distinctly affirm that the day upon which +Romulus founded the city was the 30th of the month. The Greeks likewise +tell us that on that day an eclipse of the sun took place, which they +think was that observed by Antimachus of Teos, the epic poet, which +occurred in the third year of the sixth Olympiad. In the time of Varro +the philosopher, who of all the Romans was most deeply versed in Roman +history, there was one Taroutius, a companion of his, a philosopher and +mathematician, who had especially devoted himself to the art of casting +nativities, and was thought to have attained great skill therein. To +this man Varro proposed the task of finding the day and hour of +Romulus's birth, basing his calculations on the influence which the +stars were said to have had upon his life, just as geometricians solve +their problems by the analytic method; for it belongs, he argued, to the +same science to predict the life of a man from the time of his birth, +and to find the date of a man's birth if the incidents of his life are +given. Taroutius performed his task, and after considering the things +done and suffered by Romulus, the length of his life, the manner of his +death, and all such like matters, he confidently and boldly asserted +that Romulus was conceived by his mother in the first year of the second +Olympiad, at the third hour of the twenty-third day of the month which +is called in the Egyptian calendar _Choiac_, at which time there was a +total eclipse of the sun. He stated that he was born on the twenty-first +day of the month _Thouth_, about sunrise. Rome was founded by him on the +ninth day of the month _Pharmouthi_, between the second and third hour; +for it is supposed that the fortunes of cities, as well as those of men, +have their certain periods which can be discovered by the position of +the stars at their nativities. The quaint subtlety of these speculations +may perhaps amuse the reader more than their legendary character will +weary him. + +XIII. When the city was founded, Romulus first divided all the +able-bodied males into regiments, each consisting of three thousand +infantry and three hundred cavalry. These were named legions, because +they consisted of men of military age selected from the population. The +rest of the people were now organised. They were called Populus, and a +hundred of the noblest were chosen from among them and formed into a +council. These he called Patricians, and their assembly the Senate. This +word Senate clearly means assembly of old men; and the members of it +were named Patricians, according to some, because they were the fathers +of legitimate offspring; according to others, because they were able to +give an account of who their own fathers were, which few of the first +colonists were able to do. Others say that it was from their +_Patrocinium_, as they then called, and do at the present day call, +their patronage of their clients. There is a legend that this word arose +from one Patron, a companion of Evander, who was kind and helpful to his +inferiors. But it is most reasonable to suppose that Romulus called them +by this name because he intended the most powerful men to show kindness +to their inferiors, and to show the poorer classes that they ought not +to fear the great nor grudge them their honours, but be on friendly +terms with them, thinking of them and addressing them as fathers +(Patres). For, up to the present day, foreigners address the senators as +Lords, but the Romans call them Conscript Fathers, using the most +honourable and least offensive of their titles. Originally they were +merely called the Fathers, but afterwards, as more were enrolled, they +were called Conscript Fathers. By this more dignified title Romulus +distinguished the Senate from the People; and he introduced another +distinction between the powerful and the common people by naming the +former patrons, which means defenders, and the latter clients, which +means dependants. By this means he implanted in them a mutual good +feeling which was the source of great benefits, for the patrons acted as +advocates for their clients in law suits, and in all cases became their +advisers and friends, while the clients not only respected their patrons +but even assisted them, when they were poor, to portion their daughters +or pay their creditors. No law or magistrate could compel a patron to +bear witness against his client, nor a client against his patron. +Moreover, in later times, although all their other rights remained +unimpaired, it was thought disgraceful for a patron to receive money +from a client. So much for these matters. + +XIV. In the fourth month after the city was founded, we are told by +Fabius, the reckless deed of carrying off the women took place. Some say +that Romulus himself naturally loved war, and, being persuaded by some +prophecies that Rome was fated to grow by wars and so reach the greatest +prosperity, attacked the Sabines without provocation; for he did not +carry off many maidens, but only thirty, as though it was war that he +desired more than wives for his followers. This is not probable: Romulus +saw that his city was newly-filled with colonists, few of whom had +wives, while most of them were a mixed multitude of poor or unknown +origin, who were despised by the neighouring states, and expected by +them shortly to fall to pieces. He intended his violence to lead to an +alliance with the Sabines, as soon as the damsels became reconciled to +their lot, and set about it as follows: First he circulated a rumour +that the altar of some god had been discovered, hidden in the earth. +This god was called Census, either because he was the god of counsel +(for the Romans to this day call their assembly _Concilium_, and their +chief magistrates _consuls_, as it were those who take counsel on behalf +of the people), or else it was the equestrian Neptune. The altar stands +in the greater hippodrome, and is kept concealed except during the +horse-races, when it is uncovered. Some say that, as the whole plot was +dark and mysterious, it was natural that the god's altar should be +underground. When it was brought out, he proclaimed a splendid sacrifice +in its honour, and games and shows open to all men. Many people +assembled to see them, and Romulus sat among his nobles, dressed in a +purple robe. The signal for the assault was that he should rise, unfold +his cloak, and then again wrap it around him. Many men armed with swords +stood round him, and at the signal they drew their swords, rushed +forward with a shout, and snatched up the daughters of the Sabines, but +allowed the others to escape unharmed. Some say that only thirty were +carried off, from whom the thirty tribes were named, but Valerius of +Antium says five hundred and twenty-seven, and Juba six hundred and +eighty-three, all maidens. This is the best apology for Romulus; for +they only carried off one married woman, Hersilia, which proved that it +was not through insolence or wickedness that they carried them off, but +with the intention of forcibly effecting a union between the two races. +Some say that Hersilia married Hostilius, one of the noblest Romans, +others that she married Romulus himself, and that he had children by +her; one daughter, called Prima from her being the first-born, and one +son, whom his father originally named Aollius, because of the assembling +of the citizens, but whom they afterwards named Avillius. This is the +story as told by Zenodotus of Troezen, but many contradict it. + +XV. Among the ravishers they say there were some men of low condition +who had seized a remarkably tall and beautiful maiden. When any of the +nobles met them and endeavoured to take her away from them, they cried +out that they were taking her to Talasius, a young man of good family +and reputation. Hearing this, all agreed and applauded, and some even +turned and accompanied them, crying out the name of Talasius through +their friendship for him. From this circumstance the Romans up to the +present day call upon Talasius in their marriage-songs, as the Greeks do +upon Hymen; for Talasius is said to have been fortunate in his wife. +Sextius Sulla of Carthage, a man neither deficient in learning or taste, +told me that this word was given by Romulus as the signal for the rape, +and so that all those who carried off maidens cried "Talasio." But most +authors, among whom is Juba, think that it is used to encourage brides +to industry and spinning wool (talasia), as at that time Greek words +had not been overpowered by Latin ones. But if this be true, and the +Romans at that time really used this word "talasia" for wool-spinning, +as we do, we might make another more plausible conjecture about it. When +the treaty of peace was arranged between the Romans and the Sabines, a +special provision was made about the women, that they were to do no work +for the men except wool-spinning. And thus the custom remained for the +friends of those who were married afterwards to call upon Talasius in +jest, meaning to testify that the bride was to do no other work than +spinning. To the present day the custom remains in force that the bride +must not step over the threshold into her house, but be lifted over it +and carried in, because the Sabine maidens were carried in forcibly, and +did not walk in. + +Some add that the parting of the bride's hair with the point of a spear +is done in memory of the first Roman marriage having been effected by +war and battle; on which subject we have enlarged further in our +treatise on Causes. + +The rape of the Sabines took place upon the eighteenth day of the month +Sextilis, which is now called August, on which day the feast of the +Consualia is kept. + +XVI. The Sabines were a numerous and warlike tribe, dwelling in unwalled +villages, as though it was their birthright as a Lacedaemonian colony to +be brave and fearless. Yet when they found themselves bound by such +hostages to keep the peace, and in fear for their daughters, they sent +an embassy to propose equitable and moderate terms, that Romulus should +give back their daughters to them, and disavow the violence which had +been used, and that afterwards the two nations should live together in +amity and concord. But when Romulus refused to deliver up the maidens, +but invited the Sabines to accept his alliance, while the other tribes +were hesitating and considering what was to be done, Acron, the king of +the Ceninetes, a man of spirit and renown in the wars, who had viewed +Romulus first proceeding in founding a city with suspicion, now, after +what he had done in carrying off the women, declared that he was +becoming dangerous, and would not be endurable unless he were +chastised. He at once began the war, and marched with a great force; and +Romulus marched to meet him. When they came in sight of each other they +each challenged the other to fight, the soldiers on both sides looking +on. Romulus made a vow that if he should overcome and kill his enemy he +would himself carry his spoils to the temple of Jupiter and offer them +to him. He overcame his adversary, and slew him, routed his army and +captured his city. He did not harm the inhabitants, except that he +ordered them to demolish their houses and follow him to Rome, to become +citizens on equal terms with the rest. This is the policy by which Rome +grew so great, namely that of absorbing conquered nations into herself +on terms of equality. + +Romulus, in order to make the fulfilment of his vow as pleasing to +Jupiter, and as fine a spectacle for the citizens as he could, cut down +a tall oak-tree at his camp, and fashioned it into a trophy,[A] upon +which he hung or fastened all the arms of Acron, each in its proper +place. Then he girded on his own clothes, placed a crown of laurel upon +his long hair, and, placing the trophy upright on his right shoulder, +marched along in his armour, singing a paean of victory, with all the +army following him. At Rome the citizens received him with admiration +and delight; and this procession was the origin of all the subsequent +triumphs and the model which they imitated. The trophy itself was called +an offering to Jupiter Feretrius; for the Romans call to strike, +_ferire_, and Romulus prayed that he might strike down his enemy. The +spoils were called _spolia opima_, according to Varro, because _opim_ +means excellence. A more plausible interpretation would be from the +deed itself, for work is called in Latin _opus_. This dedication of +_spolia opima_ is reserved as a privilege for a general who has slain +the opposing general with his own hand. It has only been enjoyed by +three Roman generals, first by Romulus, who slew Acron, king of the +Ceninetes, second by Cornelius Cossus, who slew the Tyrrhenian +Tolumnius, and, above all, by Claudius Marcellus, who killed Britomart, +the king of the Gauls. Now Cossus and Marcellus drove into the city in +chariots and four, carrying the trophies in their own hands; but +Dionysius is in error when he says that Romulus used a chariot and four, +for the historians tell us that Tarquinius, the son of Demaratus, was +the first of the kings who introduced this pomp into his triumphs. +Others say that Poplicola was the first to triumph in a chariot. +However, the statues of Romulus bearing the trophy, which are to be seen +in Rome, are all on foot. + +[Footnote A: The habit of erecting trophies on a field of battle in +token of victory appears to have been originally confined to the Greeks, +who usually, as in the text, lopped the branches off a tree, placed it +in the ground in some conspicuous place, and hung upon it the shields +and other spoils taken from the enemy. In later times the Romans adopted +the habit of commemorating a victory by erecting some building on the +field of battle. Under the emperors, victory was commemorated by a +triumphal arch at Rome, many of which now exist. The Greek trophies were +always formed of perishable materials, and it was contrary to their +custom to repair them, that they might not perpetuate national +enmities.] + +XVII. After the capture of the Ceninete tribe, while the rest of the +Sabines were still engaged in preparation for war, the inhabitants of +Fidenae and Crustumerium and Antemna attacked the Romans. A battle took +place in which they were all alike worsted, after which they permitted +Romulus to take their cities, divide their lands, and incorporate them +as citizens. Romulus divided all the lands among the citizens, except +that which was held by the fathers of any of the maidens who had been +carried off, which he allowed them to retain. + +The remainder of the Sabines, angry at these successes, chose Tatius as +their general and marched against Rome. The city was hard to attack, as +the Capitol stood as an advanced fort to defend it. Here was placed a +garrison, and Tarpeius was its commander, not the maiden Tarpeia, as +some write, who make out Romulus a fool; but it was this Tarpeia, the +daughter of the captain of the garrison, who betrayed the capital to the +Sabines, for the sake of the golden bracelets which she saw them +wearing. She asked as the price of her treachery that they should give +her what they wore on their left arms. After making an agreement with +Tatius, she opened a gate at night and let in the Sabines. Now it +appears that Antigonus was not singular when he said that he loved men +when they were betraying, but hated them after they had betrayed; as +also Caesar said, in the case of Rhymitalkes the Thracian, that he loved +the treachery but hated the traitor; but this seems a common reflection +about bad men by those who have need of them, just as we need the poison +of certain venomous beasts; for they appreciate their value while they +are making use of them, and loathe their wickedness when they have done +with them. And that was how Tarpeia was treated by Tatius. He ordered +the Sabines to remember their agreement, and not to grudge her what was +on their left arms. He himself first of all took off his gold armlet, +and with it flung his great oblong shield. As all the rest did the like, +she perished, being pelted with the gold bracelets and crushed by the +number and weight of the shields. Tarpeius also was convicted of +treachery by Romulus, according to Juba's version of the history of +Sulpicius Galba. The other legends about Tarpeia are improbable; amongst +them that which is told by Antigonus, that she was the daughter of +Tatius the Sabine leader, abducted by Romulus, and treated by her father +as is related above. Simylus the poet talks utter nonsense when he says +that it was not the Sabines but the Gauls to whom Tarpeia betrayed the +Capitol, because she was in love with their king. His verses run as +follows: + + "And near Tarpeia, by the Capitol + That dwelt, betrayer of the walls of Rome. + She loved the chieftain of the Gauls too well, + To guard from treachery her father's home." + +And a little afterwards he speaks of her death. + + "Her did the Boians and the Celtic tribes + Bury, but not beside the stream of Po; + From off their warlike arms their shields they flung, + And what the damsel longed for laid her low." + +XVIII. However, as Tarpeia was buried there, the hill was called the +Tarpeian hill until King Tarquinius, when he dedicated the place to +Jupiter, removed her remains and abolished the name of Tarpeia. But even +to this day they call the rock in the Capitol the Tarpeian Rock, down +which malefactors used to be flung. When the Sabines held the citadel, +Romulus in fury challenged them to come down and fight. Tatius accepted +his challenge with confidence, as he saw that if overpowered his men +would have a strong place of refuge to retreat to. All the intermediate +space, in which they were about to engage, was surrounded by hills, and +so seemed to make a desperate battle necessary, as there were but narrow +outlets for flight or pursuit. It chanced, also, that the river had been +in flood a few days before, and had left a deep muddy pool of water upon +the level ground where the Forum now stands; so that men's footing was +not certain, but difficult and treacherous. Here a piece of good fortune +befell the Sabines as they heedlessly pressed forward. Curtius, one of +their chiefs, a man with a reputation for dashing courage, rode on +horseback far before the rest. His horse plunged into this morass, and +he, after trying to extricate him, at last finding it impossible, left +him there and saved himself. This place, in memory of him, is still +called the Gulf of Curtius. Warned of their danger, the Sabines fought a +stout and indecisive battle, in which many fell, amongst them Hostilius. +He is said to have been the husband of Hersilia and the grandfather of +Hostilius, who became king after the reign of Numa. Many combats took +place in that narrow space, as we may suppose; and especial mention is +made of one, which proved the last, in which Romulus was struck on the +head by a stone and like to fall, and unable to fight longer. The Romans +now gave way to the Sabines, and fled to the Palatine hill, abandoning +the level ground. Romulus, now recovered from the blow, endeavoured to +stay the fugitives, and with loud shouts called upon them to stand firm +and fight. But as the stream of fugitives poured on, and no one had the +courage to face round, he lifted his hands to heaven and prayed to +Jupiter to stay the army and not to allow the tottering state of Rome to +fall, but to help it. After his prayer many were held back from flight +by reverence for the king, and the fugitives suddenly resumed their +confidence. They made their first stand where now is the temple of +Jupiter Stator, which one may translate "He who makes to stand firm;" +and then forming their ranks once more they drove back the Sabines as +far as what is now called the Palace, and the Temple of Vesta. + +XIX. While they were preparing to fight as though the battle was only +now just begun, they were restrained by a strange spectacle, beyond the +power of words to express. The daughters of the Sabines who had been +carried off were seen rushing from all quarters, with loud shrieks and +wailings, through the ranks and among the dead bodies, as though +possessed by some god. Some of them carried infant children in their +arms, and others wore their hair loose and dishevelled. All of them kept +addressing the Romans and the Sabines alternately by the most endearing +names. The hearts of both armies were melted, and they fell back so as +to leave a space for the women between them. A murmur of sorrow ran +through all the ranks, and a strong feeling of pity was excited by the +sight of the women, and by their words, which began with arguments and +upbraidings, but ended in entreaties and tears. "What wrong have we done +to you," said they, "that we should have suffered and should even now +suffer such cruel treatment at your hands? We were violently and +wrongfully torn away from our friends, and after we had been carried off +we were neglected by our brothers, fathers, and relatives for so long a +time, that now, bound by the closest of ties to our enemies, we tremble +for our ravishers and wrongers when they fight, and weep when they fall. +Ye would not come and tear us from our ravishers while we were yet +maidens, but now ye would separate wives from their husbands, and +mothers from their children, a worse piece of service to us than your +former neglect. Even if it was not about us that you began to fight, you +ought to cease now that you have become fathers-in-law, and +grandfathers, and relatives one of another. But if the war is about us, +then carry us off with your sons-in-law and our children, and give us +our fathers and relatives, but do not take our husbands and children +from us. We beseech you not to allow us to be carried off captive a +second time." Hersilia spoke at length in this fashion, and as the other +women added their entreaties to hers, a truce was agreed upon, and the +chiefs met in conference. Hereupon the women made their husbands and +children known to their fathers and brothers, fetched food and drink for +such as needed it, and took the wounded into their own houses to be +attended to there. Thus they let their friends see that they were +mistresses of their own houses, and that their husbands attended to +their wishes and treated them with every respect. + +In the conference it was accordingly determined that such women as chose +to do so should continue to live with their husbands, free, as we have +already related, from all work and duties except that of spinning wool +(_talasia_); that the Romans and the Sabines should dwell together in +the city, and that the city should be called Rome, after Romulus, but +the Romans be called Quirites after the native city of Tatius; and that +they should both reign and command the army together. The place where +this compact was made is even to this day called the Comitium, for the +Romans call meeting _coire_. + +XX. Now that the city was doubled in numbers, a hundred more senators +were elected from among the Sabines, and the legions were composed of +six thousand infantry and six hundred cavalry. They also established +three tribes, of which they named one Rhamnenses, from Romulus, another +Titienses from Tatius, and the third Lucerenses, after the name of a +grove to which many had fled for refuge, requiring asylum, and had been +admitted as citizens. They call a grove _lucus_. The very name of +_tribe_ and tribune show that there were three tribes. Each tribe was +divided into ten _centuries_, which some say were named after the women +who were carried off; but this seems to be untrue, as many of them are +named after places. However, many privileges were conferred upon the +women, amongst which were that men should make way for them when they +walked out, to say nothing disgraceful in their presence, or appear +naked before them, on pain of being tried before the criminal court; and +also that their children should wear the _bulla_, which is so called +from its shape, which is like a bubble, and was worn round the neck, and +also the broad purple border of their robe (_praetexta_). + +The kings did not conduct their deliberations together, but each first +took counsel with his own hundred senators, and then they all met +together. Tatius dwelt where now is the temple of Juno Moneta, and +Romulus by the steps of the Fair Shore, as it is called, which are at +the descent from the Palatine hill into the great Circus. Here they say +the sacred cornel-tree grew, the legend being that Romulus, to try his +strength, threw a spear, with cornel-wood shaft, from Mount Aventine, +and when the spear-head sunk into the ground, though many tried, no one +was able to pull it out. The soil, which was fertile, suited the wood, +and it budded, and became the stem of a good-sized cornel-tree. After +the death of Romulus this was preserved and reverenced as one of the +holiest objects in the city. A wall was built round it, and whenever any +one thought that it looked inclined to droop and wither he at once +raised a shout to tell the bystanders, and they, just as if they were +assisting to put out a fire, called for water, and came from all +quarters carrying pots of water to the place. It is said that when Gaius +Caesar repaired the steps, and the workmen were digging near it, they +unintentionally damaged the roots, and the tree died. + +XXI. The Sabines adopted the Roman system of months, and all that is +remarkable about them will be found in the 'Life of Numa.' But Romulus +adopted the large oblong Sabine shield, and gave up the round Argolic +shields which he and the Romans had formerly carried. The two nations +shared each other's festivals, not abolishing any which either had been +wont to celebrate, but introducing several new ones, among which are the +Matronalia, instituted in honour of the women at the end of the war, and +that of the Carmentalia. It is thought by some that Carmenta is the +ruling destiny which presides over a man's birth, wherefore she is +worshipped by mothers. Others say that she was the wife of Evander the +Arcadian, a prophetess who used to chant oracles in verse, and hence +surnamed Carmenta (for the Romans call verses _carmina_); whereas it is +generally admitted that her right name was Nicostrate. Some explain the +name of Carmenta more plausibly as meaning that during her prophetic +frenzy she was bereft of intellect; for the Romans call to lack, +_carcre_; and mind, _mentem_. + +We have spoken before of the feast of the Palilia. That of the +Lupercalia would seem, from the time of its celebration, to be a +ceremony of purification; for it is held during the ominous days of +February, a month whose name one might translate by Purification; and +that particular day was originally called Febraté. The name of this +feast in Greek signifies that of wolves, and it is thought, on this +account, to be very ancient, and derived from the Arcadians who came to +Italy with Evander. Still this is an open question, for the name may +have arisen from the she-wolf, as we see that the Luperci start to run +their course from the place where Romulus is said to have been exposed. +The circumstances of the ritual are such as to make it hard to +conjecture their meaning. They slaughter goats, and then two youths of +good family are brought to them. Then some with a bloody knife mark the +foreheads of the youths, and others at once wipe the blood away with +wool dipped in milk. The youths are expected to laugh when it is wiped +away. After this they cut the skins of the goats into strips and run +about naked, except a girdle round the middle, striking with the thongs +all whom they meet. Women in the prime of life do not avoid being +struck, as they believe that it assists them in childbirth and promotes +fertility. It is also a peculiarity of this festival that the Luperci +sacrifice a dog. One Bontes, who wrote an elegiac poem on the origin of +the Roman myths, says that when Romulus and his party had killed +Amulius, they ran back in their joy to the place where the she-wolf +suckled them when little, and that the feast is typical of this, and +that the young nobles run, + + "As, smiting all they met, that day + From Alba Romulus and Remus ran." + +The bloody sword is placed upon their foreheads in token of the danger +and slaughter of that day, and the wiping with the milk is in +remembrance of their nurse. Caius Acilius tells us that, before the +foundation of Rome, the cattle of Romulus and Remus were missing, and +they, after invoking Faunus, ran out to search for them, naked, that +they might not be inconvenienced by sweat; and that this is the reason +that the Luperci ran about naked. As for the dog, one would say that if +the sacrifice is purificatory, it is sacrificed on behalf of those who +use it. The Greeks, in their purificatory rites, sacrifice dogs, and +often make use of what is called Periskylakismos. But if this feast be +in honour of the she-wolf, in gratitude for her suckling and preserving +of Romulus, then it is very natural to sacrifice a dog, for it is an +enemy of wolves; unless, indeed, the beast is put to death to punish it +for hindering the Luperci when they ran their course. + +XXII. It is said also that Romulus instituted the service of the sacred +fire of Vestae, and the holy virgins who keep it up, called Vestals. +Others attribute this to Numa, though they say that Romulus was a very +religious prince, and learned in divination, for which purpose he used +to carry the crooked staff called _lituus_, with which to divide the +heavens into spaces for the observation of the flight of birds. This, +which is preserved in the Palatium, was lost when the city was taken by +the Gauls; but afterwards, when the barbarians had been repulsed, it was +found unharmed in a deep bed of ashes, where everything else had been +burned or spoiled. He also enacted some laws, the most arbitrary of +which is that a wife cannot obtain a divorce from her husband, but that +a husband may put away his wife for poisoning her children, +counterfeiting keys, or adultery. If any one put away his wife on other +grounds than these, he enacted that half his property should go to his +wife, and half to the temple of Ceres. A man who divorced his wife was +to make an offering to the Chthonian gods.[A] A peculiarity of his +legislation is that, while he laid down no course of procedure in case +of parricide, he speaks of all murder by the name of parricide, as +though the one were an abominable, but the other an impossible crime. +And for many years it appeared that he had rightly judged, for no one +attempted anything of the kind at Rome for nearly six hundred years; but +it is said that the first parricide was that of Lucius Hostilius, which +he committed after the war with Hannibal. Enough has now been said upon +these subjects. + +[Footnote A: Chthonian gods are the gods of the world below.] + +XXIII. In the fifth year of the reign of Tatius, some of his relatives +fell in with ambassadors from Laurentum, on their way to Rome, and +endeavoured to rob them. As the ambassadors would not submit to this, +but defended themselves, they slew them. Romulus at once gave it as his +opinion that the authors of this great and audacious crime ought to be +punished, but Tatius hushed the matter up, and enabled them to escape. +This is said to have been the only occasion upon which they were openly +at variance, for in all other matters they acted with the greatest +possible unanimity. The relatives, however, of the murdered men, as they +were hindered by Tatius from receiving any satisfaction, fell upon him +when he and Romulus were offering sacrifice at Lavinium, and slew him, +but respected Romulus, and praised him as a just man. He brought home +the body of Tatius, and buried it honourably. It lies near what is +called the _Armilustrium_, on Mount Aventine. + +But Romulus neglected altogether to exact any satisfaction for the +murder. Some writers say that the city of Lavinium, in its terror, +delivered up the murderers of Tatius, but that Romulus allowed them to +depart, saying that blood had been atoned for by blood. This speech of +his gave rise to some suspicion that he was not displeased at being rid +of his colleague. However, it caused no disturbance in the state, and +did not move the Sabines to revolt, but partly out of regard for +Romulus, and fear of his power, and belief in his divine mission, they +continued to live under his rule with cheerfulness and respect. Many +foreign tribes also respected Romulus, and the more ancient Latin races +sent him ambassadors, and made treaties of friendship and alliance. + +He took Fidenae, a city close to Rome, according to some authorities, by +sending his cavalry thither on a sudden, and ordering them to cut the +pivots of the city gates, and then unexpectedly appearing in person. +Others say that the people of Fidenae first invaded the Roman territory, +drove off plunder from it, and insulted the neighbourhood of the city +itself, and that Romulus laid an ambush for them, slew many, and took +their city. He did not destroy it, but made it a Roman colony, and sent +two thousand five hundred Romans thither as colonists on the Ides of +April. + +XXIV. After this a pestilence fell upon Rome, which slew men suddenly +without previous sickness, and afflicted the crops and cattle with +barrenness. A shower of blood also fell in the city, so that religious +terror was added to the people's sufferings. As a similar visitation +befell the citizens of Laurentum, it became evident that the wrath of +the gods was visiting these cities because of the unavenged murders of +Tatius and of the ambassadors. The guilty parties were delivered up on +both sides, and duly punished, after which the plague was sensibly +mitigated. Romulus also purified the city with lustrations, which, they +say, are even now practised at the Ferentine gate. But before the plague +ceased, the people of Camerium attacked the Romans, supposing that they +would be unable to defend themselves on account of their misfortune, and +overran their country. Nevertheless, Romulus instantly marched against +them, slew six hundred of them in battle, and took their city. Half the +survivors he transplanted to Rome, and settled twice as many Romans as +the remainder at Camerium, on the Kalends of Sextilis. So many citizens +had he to spare after he had only inhabited Rome for about sixteen +years. Among the other spoils, he carried off a brazen four-horse +chariot from Camerium; this he dedicated in the temple of Vulcan, having +placed in it a figure of himself being crowned by Victory. + +XXV. As the city was now so flourishing, the weaker of the neighbouring +states made submission, and were glad to receive assurance that they +would be unharmed; but the more powerful, fearing and envying Romulus, +considered that they ought not to remain quiet, but ought to check the +growth of Rome. First the Etruscans of Veii, a people possessed of wide +lands and a large city, began the war by demanding the surrender to them +of Fidenae, which they claimed as belonging to them. This demand was not +only unjust, but absurd, seeing that they had not assisted the people of +Fidenae when they were fighting and in danger, but permitted them to be +destroyed, and then demanded their houses and lands, when they were in +the possession of others. Receiving a haughty answer from Romulus, they +divided themselves into two bodies, with one of which they attacked +Fidenae, and with the other went to meet Romulus. At Fidenae they +conquered the Romans, and slew two thousand; but they were defeated by +Romulus, with a loss of eight thousand men. A second battle now took +place at Fidenae, in which all agree that Romulus took the most +important part, showing the greatest skill and courage, and a strength +and swiftness more than mortal. But some accounts are altogether +fabulous, such as that fourteen hundred were slain, more than half of +whom Romulus slew with his own hand. The Messenians appear to use +equally inflated language about Aristomenes, when they tell us that he +thrice offered sacrifice for having slain a hundred Lacedaemonians. +After the victory, Romulus did not pursue the beaten army, but marched +straight to the city of Veii. The citizens, after so great a disaster, +made no resistance, but at their own request were granted a treaty and +alliance for a hundred years, giving up a large portion of their +territory, called the Septem Pagi, or seven districts, and their +saltworks by the river, and handing over fifty of their leading men as +hostages. + +For his success at Veii, Romulus enjoyed another triumph, on the Ides of +October, when he led in his train many captives, amongst whom was the +Veientine general, an old man, who was thought to have mismanaged +matters foolishly and like a boy. On this account to this day, when a +sacrifice is made for victory, they lead an old man through the Forum +and up to the Capitol, dressed in a boy's robe with wide purple border, +and with a child's _bulla_ hung round his neck; and the herald calls out +"Sardinians for sale." For the Tyrrhenians or Tuscans are said to be of +Sardinian origin, and Veii is a Tyrrhenian city. + +XXVI. This was Romulus's last war. After it, he, like nearly all those +who have risen to power and fame by a great and unexpected series of +successes, became filled with self-confidence and arrogance, and, in +place of his former popular manners, assumed the offensive style of a +despot. He wore a purple tunic, and a toga with a purple border, and did +business reclining instead of sitting on a throne; and was always +attended by the band of youths called Celeres, from their quickness in +service. Others walked before him with staves to keep off the crowd, and +were girt with thongs, with which to bind any one whom he might order +into custody. The Latins used formerly to call to bind _ligare_, and now +call it _alligare_; wherefore the staff-bearers are called _lictors_, +and their staves are called _bacula_,[A] from the rods which they then +carried. It is probable that these officers now called _lictors_ by the +insertion of the _c_, were originally called _litors_, that is, in +Greek, _leitourgoi_ (public officials). For to this day the Greeks call +a town-hall _leitus_, and the people _laos_. + +[Footnote A: The Romans termed these bundles of rods _fasces_. The +derivation of _lictor_ from the Greek shows the utter ignorance of +etymology prevailing among the ancients.] + +XXVII. When Romulus' grandfather Numitor died in Alba, although he was +evidently his heir, yet through a desire for popularity he left his +claim unsettled, and contented himself with appointing a chief +magistrate for the people of Alba every year; thus teaching the Roman +nobles to desire a freer constitution, which should not be so much +encroached upon by the king. For at Rome now even the so-called Fathers +took no part in public affairs, but had merely their name and dignity, +and were called into the Senate House more for form's sake than to +express their opinions. When there, they listened in silence to +Romulus's orders, and the only advantage which they possessed over the +commons was that they knew the king's mind sooner than they. Worst of +all was, that he of his own authority divided the land which was +obtained in war amongst the soldiers, and restored the hostages to the +Veientines, against the will of the Senate and without consulting it, by +which he seemed purposely to insult it. On this account the Senate was +suspected, when shortly after this he miraculously disappeared. His +disappearance took place on the Nones of the month now called July, but +then Quintilis, leaving nothing certain or agreed on about his end +except the date. Even now things happen in the same fashion as then; and +we need not wonder at the uncertainty about the death of Romulus, when +that of Scipio Africanus, in his own house after supper, proved so +inexplicable, some saying that it arose from an evil habit of body, some +that he had poisoned himself, some that his enemies had suffocated him +during the night. And yet the corpse of Scipio lay openly exposed for +all to see, and gave all who saw it some ground for their conjectures; +whereas Romulus suddenly disappeared, and no morsel of his body or shred +of his garments were ever seen again. Some supposed that the Senators +fell upon him in the Temple of Vulcan, and, after killing him cut his +body in pieces and each of them carried off one in the folds of his +robe. Others think that his disappearance took place neither in the +Temple of Vulcan, nor yet in the presence of the Senators alone, but say +that Romulus was holding an assembly without the city, near a place +called the Goat's Marsh, when suddenly strange and wonderful things took +place in the heavens, and marvellous changes; for the sun's light was +extinguished, and night fell, not calm and quiet, but with terrible +thunderings, gusts of wind, and driving spray from all quarters. +Hereupon the people took to flight in confusion, but the nobles +collected together by themselves. When the storm was over, and the light +returned, the people returned to the place again, and searched in vain +for Romulus, but were told by the nobles not to trouble themselves to +look for him, but to pray to Romulus and reverence him, for he had been +caught up into heaven, and now would be a propitious god for them +instead of a good king. + +The people believed this story, and went their way rejoicing, and +praying to him with good hope; but there were some who discussed the +whole question in a harsh and unfriendly spirit, and blamed the nobles +for encouraging the people to such acts of folly when they themselves +were the murderers of the king. + +XXVIII. Now Julius Proculus, one of the noblest patricians, and of good +reputation, being one of the original colonists from Alba, and a friend +and companion of Romulus, came into the Forum, and there upon his oath, +and touching the most sacred things, stated before all men that as he +was walking along the road Romulus appeared, meeting him, more beautiful +and taller than he had ever appeared before, with bright and glittering +arms. Astonished at the vision he had spoken thus: "O king, for what +reason or with what object have you left us exposed to an unjust and +hateful suspicion, and left the whole city desolate and plunged in the +deepest grief?" He answered, "It pleased the gods, Proculus, that I +should spend thus much time among mankind, and after founding a city of +the greatest power and glory should return to heaven whence I came. Fare +thee well; and tell the Romans that by courage and self-control they +will attain to the highest pitch of human power. I will ever be for you +the kindly deity Quirinus." + +This tale was believed by the Romans from the manner of Proculus in +relating it and from his oath: indeed a religious feeling almost +amounting to ecstasy seems to have taken hold of all present; for no one +contradicted him, but all dismissed their suspicions entirely from their +minds and prayed to Quirinus, worshipping him as a god. + +This account resembles the Greek legends of Aristeas of Proconnesus, and +that of Kleomedes of Astypalaea. The story goes that Aristeas died in a +fuller's shop, and that when his friends came to fetch his body it had +disappeared; then some persons who had just returned from travel said +that they had met Aristeas walking along the road to Kroton. Kleomedes, +we are told, was a man of unusual size and strength, but stupid and +half-crazy, who did many deeds of violence, and at last in a boy's +school struck and broke in two the column that supported the roof, and +brought it down. As the boys were killed, Kleomedes, pursued by the +people, got into a wooden chest, and shut down the lid, holding in +inside so that many men together were not able to force it open. They +broke open the chest, and found no man in it, dead or alive. Astonished +at this, they sent an embassy to the oracle at Delphi, to whom the +Pythia answered, + + "Last of the heroes is Kleomedes of Astypalaea." + +And it also related that the corpse of Alkmena when it was being carried +out for burial, disappeared, and a stone was found lying on the bier in +its place. And many such stories are told, in which, contrary to reason, +the earthly parts of our bodies are described as being deified together +with the spiritual parts. It is wicked and base to deny that virtue is a +spiritual quality, but again it is foolish to mix earthly with heavenly +things. + +We must admit, speaking with due caution, that, as Pindar has it, the +bodies of all men follow overpowering Death, but there remains a living +spirit, the image of eternity, for it alone comes from heaven. Thence it +comes, and thither it returns again, not accompanied by the body, but +only when it is most thoroughly separated and cleansed from it, and +become pure and incorporeal. This is the pure spirit which Herakleitus +calls the best, which darts through the body like lightning through a +cloud, whereas that which is clogged by the body is like a dull, cloudy +exhalation, hard to loose and free from the bonds of the body. There is +no reason, therefore, for supposing that the bodies of good men rise up +into heaven, which is contrary to nature; but we must believe that men's +virtues and their spirits most certainly, naturally and rightly proceed +from mankind to the heroes, and from them to the genii, and from thence, +if they be raised above and purified from all mortal and earthly taint, +even as is done in the holy mysteries, then, not by any empty vote of +the senate, but in very truth and likelihood they are received among the +gods, and meet with the most blessed and glorious end. + +XXIX. Some say that the name Quirinus, which Romulus received, means +Mars; others that it was because his people were called Quirites. +Others, again, say that the spear-head or spear was called by the +ancients _Quiris_, and that the statue of Juno leaning on a spear is +called Juno Quirites, and that the dart which is placed in the Regia is +addressed as Mars, and that it is customary to present with a spear +those who have distinguished themselves in war, and therefore that it +was as a warrior, or god of war, that Romulus was called Quirinus. A +temple dedicated to him is built on the Quirinal Hill which bears his +name, and the day of his translation is called the People's Flight, and +the Nonae Caprotinae, because they go out of the city to the Goat's +Marsh on that day to sacrifice, for in Latin a goat is called _Capra_. +And as they go to the sacrifice they call out many of the names of the +country, as Marcus, Lucius, Caius, with loud shouts, in imitation of +their panic on that occasion, and their calling to each other in fear +and confusion. But some say that this is not an imitation of terror, but +of eagerness, and that this is the reason of it: after the Gauls had +captured Rome and been driven out by Camillus, and the city through +weakness did not easily recover itself, an army of Latins, under one +Livius Postumius, marched upon it. He halted his army not far from Rome, +and sent a herald to say that the Latins were willing to renew their old +domestic ties, which had fallen into disuse, and to unite the races by +new intermarriage. If, therefore, the Romans would send out to them all +their maidens and unmarried women, they would live with them on terms of +peace and friendship, as the Romans had long before done with the +Sabines. The Romans, when they heard this, were afraid of going to war, +yet thought that the surrender of their women was no better than +captivity. While they were in perplexity, a female slave named Philotis, +or according to some Tutola, advised them to do neither, but by a +stratagem to avoid both war and surrender of the women. This stratagem +was that they should dress Philotis and the best looking of the other +female slaves like free women, and send them to the enemy; then at night +Philotis said she would raise a torch, and the Romans should come under +arms and fall upon the sleeping enemy. This was done, and terms were +made with the Latins. Philotis raised the torch upon a certain fig-tree +with leaves which spread all round and behind, in such a manner that the +light could not be seen by the enemy, but was clearly seen by the +Romans. When they saw it, they immediately rushed out, calling +frequently for each other at the various gates in their eagerness. As +they fell unexpectedly upon the enemy, they routed them, and keep the +day as a feast. Therefore the Nones are called Caprotinae because of the +fig-tree, which the Romans call _caprificus_, and the women are feasted +out of doors, under the shade of fig-tree boughs. And the female slaves +assemble and play, and afterwards beat and throw stones at each other, +as they did then, when they helped the Romans to fight. These accounts +are admitted by but few historians, and indeed the calling out one +another's names in the daytime, and walking down to the Goats' Marsh +seems more applicable to the former story, unless, indeed, both of these +events happened on the same day. + +Romulus is said to have been fifty-four years old, and to be in the +thirty-eighth year of his reign when he disappeared from the world. + + + + +COMPARISON OF THESEUS AND ROMULUS. + + +I. The above are all the noteworthy particulars which we have been able +to collect about Theseus and Romulus. It seems, in the first place, that +Theseus of his own free will, and without any compulsion, when he might +have reigned peacefully in Troezen, where he was heir to the kingdom, no +mean one, longed to accomplish heroic deeds: whereas Romulus was an +exile, and in the position of a slave; the fear of death was hanging +over him if unsuccessful, and so, as Plato says, he was made brave by +sheer terror, and through fear of suffering death and torture was forced +into doing great exploits. Moreover, Romulus's greatest achievement was +the slaying of one man, the despot of Alba, whereas Skeiron, Sinis, +Prokrustes, and Korynetes were merely the accompaniments and prelude to +the greater actions of Theseus, and by slaying them he freed Greece from +terrible scourges, before those whom he saved even knew who he was. He +also might have sailed peacefully over the sea to Athens, and had no +trouble with those brigands, whereas Romulus could not be free from +trouble while Amulius lived. And it is a great argument in favour of +Theseus that he attacked those wicked men for the sake of others, having +himself suffered no wrong at their hands; whereas the twins were +unconcerned at Amulius's tyranny so long as it did not affect +themselves. And although it may have been a great exploit to receive a +wound in fighting the Sabines, and to slay Acron, and to kill many +enemies in battle, yet we may compare with these, on Theseus's behalf, +his battle with the Centaurs and his campaign against the Amazons. As +for the courage which Theseus showed in the matter of the Cretan +tribute, when he voluntarily sailed to Crete with the youths and +maidens, whether the penalty was to be given to the Minotaur to eat, or +be sacrificed at the tomb of Androgeus, or even to be cast into +dishonoured slavery under an insolent enemy, which is the least +miserable fate mentioned by any writer, what a strength of mind, what +public spirit and love of fame it shows! In this instance it seems to me +that philosophers have truly defined love as a "service designed by the +gods for the care and preservation of the young." For the love of +Ariadne seems to have been specially intended by Heaven to save Theseus; +nor need we blame her for her passion, but rather wonder that all men +and women did not share it. If she alone felt it, then I say she +deserved the love of a god, because of her zeal for all that is best and +noblest. + +II. Both were born statesmen, yet neither behaved himself as a king +should do, but, from similar motives, the one erred on the side of +democracy, the other on that of despotism. The first duty of a king is +to preserve his crown; and this can be effected as well by refraining +from improperly extending his rights as by too great eagerness to keep +them. For he who either gives up or overstrains his prerogative ceases +to be a king or constitutional ruler, but becomes either a despot or +demagogue; and in the one case is feared, in the other despised by his +subjects. Still the one is the result of kindliness of disposition, and +the other that of selfishness and ferocity. + +III. If we are not to attribute their misfortunes to chance, but to +peculiarities of disposition, then we cannot acquit Romulus of blame in +his treatment of his brother, nor Theseus in that of his son; but the +greatest excuse must be made for the one who acted under the greatest +provocation. One would not have thought that Romulus would have flown +into such a passion during a grave deliberation on matters of state; +while Theseus was misled, in his treatment of his son, by love and +jealousy and a woman's slander, influences which few men are able to +withstand. And what is more, Romulus's fury resulted in actual deeds of +unfortunate result; whereas the anger of Theseus spent itself in words +and an old man's curses, and the youth seems to have owed the rest of +his suffering to chance; so here, at any rate, one would give one's +vote for Theseus. + +IV. Romulus, however, has the credit of having started with the most +slender resources, and yet of having succeeded. The twins were called +slaves and the sons of a swineherd before they achieved their liberty; +yet they freed nearly all the Latin race, and at one and the same time +gained those titles which are the most glorious among men, of slayers of +their enemies, preservers of their own house, kings of their own nation, +and founders of a new city, not by transferring the population of old +ones, as Theseus did, when he brought together many towns into one, and +destroyed many cities that bore the names of kings and heroes of old. +Romulus did this afterwards, when he compelled his conquered enemies to +cast down and obliterate their own dwellings, and become fellow-citizens +with their conquerors; yet at first he did not change the site of his +city nor increase it, but starting with nothing to help him, he obtained +for himself territory, patrimony, sovereignty, family, marriage, and +relatives, and he killed no one, but conferred great benefits on those +who, instead of homeless vagrants, wished to become a people and +inhabitants of a city. He slew no brigands or robbers, but he conquered +kingdoms, took cities, and triumphed over kings and princes. + +V. As for the misfortune of Remus, it seems doubtful whether Romulus +slew him with his own hand, as most writers attribute the act to others. +He certainly rescued his mother from death, and gloriously replaced his +grandfather, whom he found in an ignoble and servile position, on the +throne of Aeneas. He did him many kindnesses, and never harmed him even +against his will. But I can scarcely imagine that Theseus's +forgetfulness and carelessness in hoisting the black sail can, by any +excuses or before the mildest judges, come much short of parricide: +indeed, an Athenian, seeing how hard it is even for his admirers to +exculpate him, has made up a story that Aegeus, when the ship was +approaching, hurriedly ran up to the acropolis to view it, and fell +down, as though he were unattended, or would hurry along the road to the +shore without servants. + +VI. The crimes of Theseus in carrying off women are without any decent +excuse; first, because he did it so often, for he carried off Ariadne +and Antiope and Anaxo of Troezen, and above all when he was an old man +he carried off Helen, when she was not yet grown up, and a mere child, +though he was past the age for even legitimate marriage. Besides, there +was no reason for it, for these Troezenian, Laconian, and Amazonian +maidens, besides their not being betrothed to him, were no worthier +mothers for his children than the Athenian daughters of Erechtheus and +Kekrops would have been, so we must suspect that these acts were done +out of mere riotous wantonness. + +Now Romulus, though he carried off nearly eight hundred women, yet kept +only one, Hersilia, for himself, and distributed the others among the +unmarried citizens; and afterwards, by the respect, love, and justice +with which he treated them, proved that his wrongful violence was the +most admirable and politic contrivance for effecting the union of the +two nations. By means of it he welded them into one, and made it the +starting-point of harmony at home and strength abroad. The dignity, +love, and permanence with which he invested the institution of marriage +is proved by the fact that during two hundred and thirty years no man +separated from his wife or woman from her husband; but, just as in +Greece, very exact persons can mention the first instance of parricide +or matricide, so all the Romans know that Spurius Carvilius was the +first who put away his wife, upon a charge of barrenness. Events also +testify to the superior wisdom of Romulus, for, in consequence of that +intermarriage, the two kings and the two races shared the empire, +whereas, from the marriage of Theseus, the Athenians obtained no +alliance or intercourse with any nation, but only hatreds and wars and +deaths of citizens and at last the destruction of Aphidnae, and they +themselves escaped from the fate which Paris brought upon Troy, only by +the mercy of their enemies and their own entreaties and supplications. +The mother of Theseus, not nearly but quite, suffered the fate of +Hekuba, who was abandoned and given up by her son, unless the story of +her captivity is false, as I hope it is, together with much of the +rest. + +Also the religious part of their histories makes a great distinction +between them. For Romulus's success was due to the great favour of +Heaven, whereas the oracle given to Aegeus, to refrain from all women in +foreign parts, seems to argue that the birth of Theseus took place +contrary to the will of the gods. + + + + +LIFE OF LYKURGUS. + + +I. With regard to Lykurgus the lawgiver there is nothing whatever that +is undisputed; as his birth, his travels, his death, and, besides all +this, his legislation, have all been related in various ways; and also +the dates of his birth do not in any way accord. Some say that he was +contemporary with Iphitus, and with him settled the conditions of the +Olympic truce; and among these is Aristotle the philosopher, who adduces +as a proof of it the quoit which is at Olympia, on which the name of +Lykurgus is still preserved. Others, among them Eratosthenes and +Apollodorus, by computing the reigns of the kings of Sparta,[A] prove +that he must have lived many years before the first Olympiad. Timaeus +conjectures that there were two men of the name of Lykurgus in Sparta at +different times, and that the deeds of both are attributed to one of +them, on account of his celebrity. The elder, he thinks, must have lived +not far off the time of Homer; indeed some say that he came into the +presence of Homer. Xenophon gives an idea of his antiquity when he +speaks of him as living in the time of the Herakleidae. By descent of +course the last kings of Sparta are Herakleidae, but he appears to mean +by Herakleidae the earliest of all, who were next to Herakles himself. + +[Footnote A: In the Spartan constitution there were two kings, who were +believed to be descended from two brothers, Eurysthenes and Prokles, the +two sons of Aristodemus. When the descendants of Herakles returned to +Peloponnesus, and divided that country amongst them, Lacedaemon fell to +the lot of Aristodemus, who left his two sons joint heirs to the +monarchy. The kings of Sparta had little real power, and to this no +doubt they owed the fact of their retaining their dignity when every +other Hellenic state adopted a democratic form of government.] + +However, in spite of these discrepancies, we will endeavour, by +following the least inconsistent accounts and the best known +authorities, to write the history of his life. Simonides the poet tells +us that the father of Lykurgus was not Eunomus, but Prytanis. But most +writers do not deduce his genealogy thus, but say that Soüs was the son +of Prokles, and grandson of Aristodemus, and that Soüs begat Euripus; +Euripus, Prytanis, and Prytanis, Eunomus. Eunomus had two sons, +Polydektes by his first wife, and Lykurgus by his second wife Dionassa, +which makes him, according to Dieutychides, sixth in descent from +Prokles, and eleventh from Herakles. + +II. The most remarkable of his ancestors was Soüs, in whose reign the +Spartans enslaved the Helots, and annexed a large portion of Arcadia. It +is said that Soüs once was besieged by the Kleitorians, in a fort where +there was no water, and was compelled to conclude a treaty to restore +the territory in dispute, if he and his men were permitted to drink at +the nearest spring. After this had been agreed upon, he called his men +together, and offered his kingdom to any one who could refrain from +drinking. But as no one could do this, but all drank, last of all he +himself came down to the spring, and in the presence of the enemy merely +sprinkled his face with the water, and marched off, refusing to restore +the disputed territory, on the ground that all did not drink. But though +he gained great fame by this, yet it was not he but his son Eurypon who +gave the name of Eurypontidae to the family, because Eurypon was the +first to relax the despotic traditions of his family and render his +government more popular with the people. But as a consequence of this +the people were encouraged to demand more freedom, and great confusion +and lawlessness prevailed in Sparta for a long time, because some of the +kings opposed the people and so became odious, while others were found +to yield to them, either to preserve their popularity, or from sheer +weakness of character. It was during this period of disorder that the +father of Lykurgus lost his life. He was endeavouring to part two men +who were quarrelling, and was killed by a blow from a cook's chopper, +leaving the kingdom to his elder son Polydektes. + +III. He also died after a short time, and, as all thought, Lykurgus +ought to have been the next king. And he did indeed reign until his +brother's wife was found to be pregnant; but as soon as he heard this, +he surrendered the crown to the child, if it should be a boy, and merely +administered the kingdom as guardian for the child. The Lacedaemonian +name for the guardian of a royal orphan is _prodikus_. Now the queen +made a secret proposal to him, that she should destroy her infant and +that they should live together as king and queen. Though disgusted at +her wickedness, he did not reject the proposal, but pretended to approve +of it. He said that she must not risk her life and injure her health by +procuring abortion, but that he would undertake to do away with the +child. Thus he deluded her until her confinement, at which time he sent +officials and guards into her chamber with orders to hand the child over +to the women if it was a girl, and to bring it to him, whatever he might +be doing, if it was a boy. He happened to be dining with the archons +when a male child was born, and the servants brought it to him. He is +said to have taken the child and said to those present, "A king is born +to you, O Spartans," and to have laid him down in the royal seat and +named him Charilaus, because all men were full of joy admiring his +spirit and justice. He was king for eight months in all; and was much +looked up to by the citizens, who rendered a willing obedience to him, +rather because of his eminent virtues than because he was regent with +royal powers. There was, nevertheless, a faction which grudged him his +elevation, and tried to oppose him, as he was a young man. + +They consisted chiefly of the relatives and friends of the queen-mother, +who considered that she had been insultingly treated, and her brother +Leonidas once went so far in his abusive language as to hint to Lykurgus +that he knew that he meant to be king, throwing the suspicion upon +Lykurgus, if anything should happen to the child, that he would be +supposed to have managed it. This sort of language was used by the +queen-mother also, and he, grieved and alarmed, decided to avoid all +suspicion by leaving the country and travelling until his nephew should +be grown up and have an heir born to succeed him. + +IV. With this intention he set sail, and first came to Crete, where he +studied the constitution and mixed with the leading statesmen. Some part +of their laws he approved and made himself master of, with the +intention of adopting them on his return home, while with others he was +dissatisfied. One of the men who had a reputation there for learning and +state-craft he made his friend, and induced him to go to Sparta. This +was Thales, who was thought to be merely a lyric poet, and who used this +art to conceal his graver acquirements, being in reality deeply versed +in legislation. His poems were exhortations to unity and concord in +verse, breathing a spirit of calm and order, which insensibly civilised +their hearers and by urging them to the pursuit of honourable objects +led them to lay aside the feelings of party strife so prevalent in +Sparta; so that he may be said in some degree to have educated the +people and prepared them to receive the reforms of Lykurgus. + +From Crete Lykurgus sailed to Asia Minor, wishing, it is said, to +contrast the thrifty and austere mode of life of the Cretans with the +extravagance and luxury of the Ionians, as a physician compares healthy +and diseased bodies, and to note the points of difference in the two +states. There, it seems, he first met with the poems of Homer, which +were preserved by the descendants of Kreophylus, and observing that they +were no less useful for politics and education than for relaxation and +pleasure, he eagerly copied and compiled them, with the intention of +bringing them home with him. There was already some dim idea of the +existence of these poems among the Greeks, but few possessed any +portions of them, as they were scattered in fragments, but Lykurgus +first made them known. The Egyptians suppose that Lykurgus visited them +also, and that he especially admired their institution of a separate +caste of warriors. This he transferred to Sparta, and, by excluding +working men and the lower classes from the government, made the city a +city indeed, pure from all admixture. Some Greek writers corroborate the +Egyptians in this, but as to Lykurgus having visited Libya and Iberia, +or his journey to India and meeting with the Gymnosophists, or naked +philosophers, there, no one that we know of tells this except the +Spartan Aristokrates, the son of Hipparchus. + +V. During Lykurgus's absence the Lacedaemonians regretted him and sent +many embassies to ask him to return, telling him that their kings had +indeed the royal name and state, but nothing else to distinguish them +from the common people, and that he alone had the spirit of a ruler and +the power to influence men's minds. Even the kings desired his presence, +as they hoped that he would assist in establishing their authority and +would render the masses less insolent. Returning to a people in this +condition, he at once began alterations and reforms on a sweeping scale, +considering that it was useless and unprofitable to do such work by +halves, but that, as in the case of a diseased body, the original cause +of the disorder must be burned out or purged away, and the patient begin +an entirely new life. After reflecting on this, he made a journey to +Delphi. Here he sacrificed to the god, and, on consulting the oracle, +received that celebrated answer in which the Pythia speaks of him as +beloved by the gods, and a god rather than a man, and when he asked for +a good system of laws, answered that the god gives him what will prove +by far the best of all constitutions. Elated by this he collected the +leading men and begged them to help him, first by talking privately to +his own friends, and thus little by little obtaining a hold over more +men and banding them together for the work. When the time was ripe for +the attempt, he bade thirty of the nobles go into the market-place early +in the morning completely armed, in order to overawe the opposition. The +names of twenty of the most distinguished of these men have been +preserved by Hermippus, but the man who took the greatest part in all +Lykurgus's works, and who helped him in establishing his laws, was +Arthmiades. At first King Charilaus was terrified at the confusion, +imagining that a revolt had broken out against himself, and fled for +refuge to the temple of Minerva of the Brazen House; but, afterward +reassured and having received solemn pledges for his safety, returned +and took part in their proceedings. He was of a gentle nature, as is +proved by the words of his colleague, King Archelaus, who, when some +were praising the youth, said, "How can Charilaus be a good man, if he +is not harsh even to wicked men?" + +Of Lykurgus's many reforms, the first and most important was the +establishment of the Council of Elders, which Plato says by its +admixture cooled the high fever of royalty, and, having an equal vote +with the kings on vital points, gave caution and sobriety to their +deliberations. For the state, which had hitherto been wildly oscillating +between despotism on the one hand and democracy on the other, now, by +the establishment of the Council of the Elders, found a firm footing +between these extremes, and was able to preserve a most equable balance, +as the eight-and-twenty elders would lend the kings their support in the +suppression of democracy, but would use the people to suppress any +tendency to despotism. Twenty-eight is the number of Elders mentioned by +Aristotle, because of the thirty leading men who took the part of +Lykurgus two deserted their post through fear. But Sphairus says that +those who shared his opinions were twenty-eight originally. A reason may +be found in twenty-eight being a mystic number, formed by seven +multiplied by four, and being the first perfect number after six, for +like that, it is equal to all its parts.[A] But I think that he probably +made this number of elders, in order that with the two kings the council +might consist of thirty members in all. + +[Footnote A: 14, 2, 7, 4, 1, make by addition 28; as 3, 2, and 1 make +6.] + +VI. Lykurgus was so much interested in this council as to obtain from +Delphi an oracle about it, called the _rhetra_, which runs as follows: +"After you have built a temple to Zeus of Greece and Athene of Greece, +and have divided the people into _tribes_ and _obes_, you shall found a +council of thirty, including the chiefs, and shall from season to season +_apellazein_ the people between Babyka and Knakion, and there propound +measures and divide upon them, and the people shall have the casting +vote and final decision." In these words tribes and obes are divisions +into which the people were to be divided; the chiefs mean the kings; +_apellazein_ means to call an assembly, in allusion to Apollo, to whom +the whole scheme of the constitution is referred. Babyka and Knakion +they now call Oinous; but Aristotle says that Knakion is a river and +Babyka a bridge. Between these they held their assemblies, without any +roof or building of any kind; for Lykurgus did not consider that +deliberations were assisted by architecture, but rather hindered, as +men's heads were thereby filled with vain unprofitable fancies, when +they assemble for debate in places where they can see statues and +paintings, or the proscenium of a theatre, or the richly ornamented roof +of a council chamber. When the people were assembled, he permitted no +one to express an opinion; but the people was empowered to decide upon +motions brought forward by the kings and elders. But in later times, as +the people made additions and omissions, and so altered the sense of the +motions before them, the kings, Polydorus and Theopompus, added these +words to the _rhetra_, "and if the people shall decide crookedly, the +chiefs and elders shall set it right." That is, they made the people no +longer supreme, but practically excluded them from any voice in public +affairs, on the ground that they judged wrongly. However these kings +persuaded the city that this also was ordained by the god. This is +mentioned by Tyrtaeus in the following verses: + + "They heard the god, and brought from Delphi home, + Apollo's oracle, which thus did say: + That over all within fair Sparta's realm + The royal chiefs in council should bear sway, + The elders next to them, the people last; + If they the holy _rhetra_ would obey." + +VII. Though Lykurgus had thus mixed the several powers of the state, yet +his successors, seeing that the powers of the oligarchy were unimpaired, +and that it was, as Plato calls it, full of life and vigour, placed as a +curb to it the power of the Ephors. The first Ephors, of whom Elatus was +one, were elected about a hundred and thirty years after Lykurgus, in +the reign of Theopompus. This king is said to have been blamed by his +wife because he would transmit to his children a less valuable crown +than he had received, to which he answered: "Nay, more valuable, because +more lasting." In truth, by losing the odium of absolute power, the King +of Sparta escaped all danger of being dethroned, as those of Argos and +Messene were by their subjects, because they would abate nothing of +their despotic power. The wisdom of Lykurgus became clearly manifest to +those who witnessed the revolutions and miseries of the Argives and +Messenians, who were neighbouring states and of the same race as the +Spartans, who, originally starting on equal terms with them, and indeed +seeming in the allotment of their territories to have some advantage, +yet did not long live happily, but the insolent pride of the kings and +the unruly temper of the people together resulted in a revolution, which +clearly proved that the checked and balanced constitution established +among the Spartans was a divine blessing for them. But of this more +hereafter. + +VIII. The second and the boldest of Lykurgus's reforms was the +redistribution of the land. Great inequalities existed, many poor and +needy people had become a burden to the state, while wealth had got into +a very few hands. Lykurgus abolished all the mass of pride, envy, crime, +and luxury which flowed from those old and more terrible evils of riches +and poverty, by inducing all land-owners to offer their estates for +redistribution, and prevailing upon them to live on equal terms one with +another, and with equal incomes, striving only to surpass each other in +courage and virtue, there being henceforth no social inequalities among +them except such as praise or blame can create. + +Putting his proposals immediately into practice, he divided the outlying +lands of the state among the Perioeki, in thirty thousand lots, and that +immediately adjoining the metropolis among the native Spartans, in nine +thousand lots, for to that number they then amounted. Some say that +Lykurgus made six thousand lots, and that Polydorus added three thousand +afterwards; others that he added half the nine thousand, and that only +half was allotted by Lykurgus. + +Each man's lot was of such a size as to supply a man with seventy +medimni of barley, and his wife with twelve, and oil and wine in +proportion; for thus much he thought ought to suffice them, as the food +was enough to maintain them in health, and they wanted nothing more. It +is said that, some years afterwards, as he was returning from a journey +through the country at harvest-time, when he saw the sheaves of corn +lying in equal parallel rows, he smiled, and said to his companions that +all Laconia seemed as if it had just been divided among so many +brothers. + +IX. He desired to distribute furniture also, in order completely to do +away with inequality; but, seeing that actually to take away these +things would be a most unpopular measure, he managed by a different +method to put an end to all ostentation in these matters. First of all +he abolished the use of gold and silver money, and made iron money alone +legal; and this he made of great size and weight, and small value, so +that the equivalent for ten minae required a great room for its stowage, +and a yoke of oxen to draw it. As soon as this was established, many +sorts of crime became unknown in Lacedaemon. For who would steal or take +as a bribe or deny that he possessed or take by force a mass of iron +which he could not conceal, which no one envied him for possessing, +which he could not even break up and so make use of; for the iron when +hot was, it is said, quenched in vinegar, so as to make it useless, by +rendering it brittle and hard to work? + +After this, he ordered a general expulsion of the workers in useless +trades. Indeed, without this, most of them must have left the country +when the ordinary currency came to an end, as they would not be able to +sell their wares: for the iron money was not current among other Greeks, +and had no value, being regarded as ridiculous; so that it could not be +used for the purchase of foreign trumpery, and no cargo was shipped for +a Laconian port, and there came into the country no sophists, no +vagabond soothsayers, no panders, no goldsmiths or workers in silver +plate, because there was no money to pay them with. Luxury, thus cut off +from all encouragement, gradually became extinct; and the rich were on +the same footing with other people, as they could find no means of +display, but were forced to keep their money idle at home. For this +reason such things as are useful and necessary, like couches and tables +and chairs, were made there better than anywhere else, and the Laconian +cup, we are told by Kritias, was especially valued for its use in the +field. Its colour prevented the drinker being disgusted by the look of +the dirty water which it is sometimes necessary to drink, and it was +contrived that the dirt was deposited inside the cup and stuck to the +bottom, so as to make the drink cleaner than it would otherwise have +been. These things were due to the lawgiver; for the workmen, who were +not allowed to make useless things, devoted their best workmanship to +useful ones. + +X. Wishing still further to put down luxury and take away the desire for +riches, he introduced the third and the most admirable of his reforms, +that of the common dining-table. At this the people were to meet and +dine together upon a fixed allowance of food, and not to live in their +own homes, lolling on expensive couches at rich tables, fattened like +beasts in private by the hands of servants and cooks, and undermining +their health by indulgence to excess in every bodily desire, long sleep, +warm baths, and much repose, so that they required a sort of daily +nursing like sick people. This was a great advantage, but it was a +greater to render wealth valueless, and, as Theophrastus says, to +neutralise it by their common dining-table and the simplicity of their +habits. Wealth could not be used, nor enjoyed, nor indeed displayed at +all in costly apparatus, when the poor man dined at the same table with +the rich; so that the well-known saying, that "wealth is blind and lies +like a senseless log," was seen to be true in Sparta alone of all cities +under heaven. Men were not even allowed to dine previously at home, and +then come to the public table, but the others, watching him who did not +eat or drink with them, would reproach him as a sensual person, too +effeminate to eat the rough common fare. + +For these reasons it is said that the rich were bitterly opposed to +Lykurgus on this question, and that they caused a tumult and attacked +him with shouts of rage. Pelted with stones from many hands, he was +forced to run out of the market-place, and take sanctuary in a temple. +He outstripped all his pursuers except one, a hot-tempered and spirited +youth named Alkander, who came up with him, and striking him with a club +as he turned round, knocked out his eye. Lykurgus paid no heed to the +pain, but stood facing the citizens and showed them his face streaming +with blood, and his eye destroyed. All who saw him were filled with +shame and remorse. They gave up Alkander to his mercy, and conducted him +in procession to his own house, to show their sympathy. Lykurgus thanked +them and dismissed them, but took Alkander home with him. He did him no +harm and used no reproachful words, but sent away all his servants and +bade him serve him. Alkander, being of a generous nature, did as he was +ordered, and, dwelling as he did with Lykurgus, watching his kind +unruffled temper, his severe simplicity of life, and his unwearied +labours, he became enthusiastic in his admiration of him, and used to +tell his friends and acquaintances that Lykurgus, far from being harsh +or overbearing, was the kindest and gentlest of men. Thus was Alkander +tamed and subdued, so that he who had been a wicked and insolent youth +was made into a modest and prudent man. + +As a memorial of his misfortune, Lykurgus built the temple of Athene, +whom he called Optilitis, for the Dorians in that country call the eyes +_optiloi_. Some writers, however, among whom is Dioskorides, who wrote +an 'Account of the Spartan Constitution,' say that Lykurgus was struck +upon the eye, but not blinded, and that he built this temple as a +thank-offering to the goddess for his recovery. + +At any rate, it was in consequence of his mishap that the Spartans +discontinued the habit of carrying staffs when they met in council. + +XI. The Cretans call this institution of taking meals in common +_andreia_, which means _men's_ repast; but the Lacedaemonians call it +_phiditia_, which can either be explained as another form of _philia_, +friendship, putting a _d_ for an _l_, from the friendly feelings which +prevailed at them, or else because it accustomed them to frugality, +which is called _pheido_. Possibly the first letter was an addition, and +the word may have originally been _editia_, from _edodé_, food. + +They formed themselves into messes of fifteen, more or less. Each member +contributed per month a _medimnus_ of barley, eight measures of wine, +five minas' weight of cheese, and half as much of figs; and in addition +to this a very small sum of money to buy fish and other luxuries for a +relish to the bread. This was all, except when a man had offered a +sacrifice, or been hunting, and sent a portion to the public table. For +persons were allowed to dine at home whenever they were late for dinner +in consequence of a sacrifice or a hunting expedition, but the rest of +the company had to be present. This custom of eating in common lasted +for very many years. When King Agis returned from his victorious +campaign against the Athenians, and wished to dine at home with his +wife, he sent for his share of the public dinner, and the polemarchs +refused to let him have it. As next day, through anger, he did not offer +the customary sacrifice, they fined him. Boys were taken to the public +tables, as though they were schools of good manners; and there they +listened to discourses on politics, and saw models of gentlemanly +behaviour, and learned how to jest with one another, joking without +vulgarity, and being made the subjects of jokes without losing their +temper. Indeed, it was considered peculiarly Laconian to be able to take +a joke; however, if the victim could not, he was entitled to ask that it +should go no farther. As they came in, the eldest present said to each +man, pointing to the door, "Through this no tale passes." + +It is said that they voted for a new member of a mess in this manner. +Each man took a piece of bread crumb and threw it in silence into a +vessel, which a servant carried on his head. Those who voted for the new +member threw in their bread as it was, those who voted against, crushed +it flat in their hands. If even one of these crushed pieces be found, +they rejected the candidate, as they wished all members of the society +to be friendly. The candidate was said to be rejected by the +_kaddichus_, which is their name for the bowl into which the bread is +thrown. + +The "black broth" was the most esteemed of their luxuries, insomuch that +the elder men did not care for any meat, but always handed it over to +the young, and regaled themselves on this broth. It is related that, in +consequence of the celebrity of this broth, one of the kings of Pontus +obtained a Laconian cook, but when he tasted it he did not like it. His +cook thereupon said, "O king, those who eat this broth must first bathe +in the Eurotas." After drinking wine in moderation the guests separate, +without any torches; for it is not permitted to walk with a light on +this or any other occasion, in order that they may accustom themselves +to walk fearlessly and safely in the dark. This then is the way in which +the common dining-tables are managed. + +XII. Lykurgus did not establish any written laws; indeed, this is +distinctly forbidden by one of the so-called Rhetras. + +He thought that the principles of most importance for the prosperity and +honour of the state would remain most securely fixed if implanted in the +citizens by habit and training, as they would then be followed from +choice rather than necessity; for his method of education made each of +them into a lawgiver like himself. The trifling conventions of everyday +life were best left undefined by hard-and-fast laws, so that they might +from time to time receive corrections or additions from men educated in +the spirit of the Lacedaemonian system. On this education the whole +scheme of Lykurgus's laws depended. One _rhetra_, as we have seen, +forbade the use of written laws. Another was directed against +expenditure, and ordered that the roof of every house should consist of +beams worked with the axe, and that the doors should be worked with the +saw alone, and with no other tools. Lykurgus was the first to perceive +the truth which Epameinondas is said in later times to have uttered +about his own table, when he said that "such a dinner has no room for +treachery." He saw that such a house as that has no place for luxury and +expense, and that there is no man so silly and tasteless as to bring +couches with silver feet, purple hangings, or golden goblets into a +simple peasant's house, but that he would be forced to make his +furniture match the house, and his clothes match his furniture, and so +on. In consequence of this it is said that the elder Leotychides when +dining in Corinth, after looking at a costly panelled ceiling, asked his +host whether the trees grew square in that country. A third _rhetra_ of +Lykurgus is mentioned, which forbids the Spartans to make war frequently +with the same people, lest by constant practice they too should become +warlike. And this especial accusation was subsequently brought against +King Agesilaus in later times, that, by his frequent and long-continued +invasions of Boeotia, he made the Thebans a match for the +Lacedaemonians; for which cause Antalkidas, when he saw him wounded, +said, "The Thebans pay you well for having taught them to fight, which +they were neither willing nor able to do before." + +Maxims of this sort they call _rhetras_, which are supposed to have a +divine origin and sanction. + +XIII. Considering education to be the most important and the noblest +work of a lawgiver, he began at the very beginning, and regulated +marriages and the birth of children. It is not true that, as Aristotle +says, he endeavoured to regulate the lives of the women, and failed, +being foiled by the liberty and habits of command which they had +acquired by the long absences of their husbands on military expeditions, +during which they were necessarily left in sole charge at home, +wherefore their husbands looked up to them more than was fitting, +calling them Mistresses; but he made what regulations were necessary for +them also. He strengthened the bodies of the girls by exercise in +running, wrestling, and hurling quoits or javelins, in order that their +children might spring from a healthy source and so grow up strong, and +that they themselves might have strength, so as easily to endure the +pains of childbirth. He did away with all affectation of seclusion and +retirement among the women, and ordained that the girls, no less than +the boys, should go naked in processions, and dance and sing at +festivals in the presence of the young men. The jokes which they made +upon each man were sometimes of great value as reproofs for ill-conduct; +while, on the other hand, by reciting verses written in praise of the +deserving, they kindled a wonderful emulation and thirst for distinction +in the young men: for he who had been praised by the maidens for his +valour went away congratulated by his friends; while, on the other hand, +the raillery which they used in sport and jest had as keen an edge as a +serious reproof; because the kings and elders were present at these +festivals as well as all the other citizens. This nakedness of the +maidens had in it nothing disgraceful, as it was done modestly, not +licentiously, producing simplicity, and teaching the women to value good +health, and to love honour and courage no less than the men. This it was +that made them speak and think as we are told Gorgo, the wife of +Leonidas, did. Some foreign lady, it seems, said to her, "You Laconian +women are the only ones that rule men." She answered, "Yes; for we alone +bring forth men." + +XIV. These were also incentives to marriage, I mean these processions, +and strippings, and exercises of the maidens in the sight of the young +men, who, as Plato says, are more swayed by amorous than by mathematical +considerations; moreover, he imposed certain penalties on the unmarried +men. They were excluded from the festival of the Gymnopaedia, in honour +of Athene; and the magistrates ordered them during winter to walk naked +round the market-place, and while doing so to sing a song written +against themselves, which said that they were rightly served for their +disobedience to the laws; and also they were deprived of the respect and +observance paid by the young to the elders. + +Thus it happened that no one blamed the young man for not rising before +Derkyllidas, famous general as he was. This youth kept his seat, saying, +"You have not begotten a son to rise before me." + +Their marriage custom was for the husband to carry off his bride by +force. They did not carry off little immature girls, but grown up women, +who were ripe for marriage. After the bride had been carried off the +bridesmaid received her, cut her hair close to her head, dressed her in +a man's cloak and shoes, and placed her upon a couch in a dark chamber +alone. The bridegroom, without any feasting and revelry, but as sober as +usual, after dining at his mess, comes into the room, looses her virgin +zone, and, after passing a short time with her, retires to pass the +night where he was wont, with the other young men. And thus he +continued, passing his days with his companions, and visiting his wife +by stealth, feeling ashamed and afraid that any one in the house should +hear him, she on her part plotting and contriving occasions for meeting +unobserved. This went on for a long time, so that some even had children +born to them before they ever saw their wives by daylight. These +connections not only exercised their powers of self-restraint, but also +brought them together with their bodies in full vigour and their +passions unblunted by unchecked intercourse with each other, so that +their passion and love for each other's society remained unextinguished. + +Having thus honoured and dignified the married state, he destroyed the +vain womanish passion of jealousy, for, while carefully avoiding any +disorder or licentiousness, he nevertheless permitted men to associate +worthy persons with them in the task of begetting children, and taught +them to ridicule those who insisted on the exclusive possession of their +wives, and who were ready to fight and kill people to maintain their +right. It was permitted to an elderly husband, with a young wife, to +associate with himself any well-born youth whom he might fancy, and to +adopt the offspring as his own. + +And again, it was allowable for a respectable man, if he felt any +admiration for a virtuous mother of children, married to some one else, +to induce her husband to permit him to have access to her, that he might +as it were sow seed in a fertile field, and obtain a fine son from a +healthy stock. Lykurgus did not view children as belonging to their +parents, but above all to the state; and therefore he wished his +citizens to be born of the best possible parents; besides the +inconsistency and folly which he noticed in the customs of the rest of +mankind, who are willing to pay money, or use their influence with the +owners of well-bred stock, to obtain a good breed of horses or dogs, +while they lock up their women in seclusion and permit them to have +children by none but themselves, even though they be mad, decrepit, or +diseased; just as if the good or bad qualities of children did not +depend entirely upon their parents, and did not affect their parents +more than any one else. + +But although men lent their wives in order to produce healthy and useful +citizens, yet this was so far from the licence which was said to prevail +in later times with respect to women, that adultery was regarded amongst +them as an impossible crime. A story is told of one Geradas, a very old +Spartan, who, when asked by a stranger what was done to adulterers among +them, answered, "Stranger, there are no adulterers with us." "And if +there were one?" asked the stranger. "Then," said Geradas, "he would +have to pay as compensation a bull big enough to stand on Mount Täygetus +and drink from the river Eurotas." The stranger, astonished, asked +"Where can you find so big a bull?" "Where can you find an adulterer in +Sparta?" answered Geradas. This is what is said about their marriage +ceremonies. + +XV. A father had not the right of bringing up his offspring, but had to +carry it to a certain place called Lesché, where the elders of the tribe +sat in judgment upon the child. If they thought it well-built and +strong, they ordered the father to bring it up, and assigned one of the +nine thousand plots of land to it; but if it was mean-looking or +misshapen, they sent it away to the place called the Exposure, a glen +upon the side of Mount Täygetus; for they considered that if a child did +not start in possession of health and strength, it was better both for +itself and for the state that he should not live at all. Wherefore the +women used to wash their newborn infants with wine, not with water, to +make trial of their constitution. It was thought that epileptic or +diseased children shrank from the wine and fell into convulsions, while +healthy ones were hardened and strengthened by it. A certain supervision +was exercised over the nurses, making them bring up the children without +swaddling clothes, so as to make their movements free and unconfined, +and also to make them easily satisfied, not nice as to food, not afraid +in the dark, not frightened at being alone, not peevish and fretful. For +this reason, many foreigners used to obtain Lacedaemonian nurses for +their children, and it is said that Amykla, the nurse of Alkibiades, was +a Lacedaemonian. But Plato tells us that Perikles put him under the care +of one Zopyrus, who was no better than the other slaves; whereas +Lykurgus would not intrust the Spartan boys to any bought or hired +servants, nor was each man allowed to bring up and educate his son as he +chose, but as soon as they were seven years of age he himself received +them from their parents, and enrolled them in companies. Here they lived +and messed in common, and were associated for play and for work. +However, a superintendent of the boys was appointed, one of the best +born and bravest men of the state, and they themselves in their troops +chose as leader him who was wisest, and fiercest in fight. They looked +to him for orders, obeyed his commands, and endured his punishments, so +that even in childhood they learned to obey. The elder men watched them +at their play, and by instituting fights and trials of strength, +carefully learned which was the bravest and most enduring. They learned +their letters, because they are necessary, but all the rest of their +education was meant to teach them to obey with cheerfulness, to endure +labours, and to win battles. As they grew older their training became +more severe; they were closely shorn, and taught to walk unshod and to +play naked. They wore no tunic after their twelfth year, but received +one garment for all the year round. They were necessarily dirty, as they +had no warm baths and ointments, except on certain days, as a luxury. +They slept all together in troops and companies, on beds of rushes which +they themselves had picked on the banks of the Eurotas with their hands, +for they were not allowed to use a knife. In winter they mixed the herb +called lycophon with the rushes, as it is thought to possess some +warmth. + +XVI. At this age the elder men took even greater interest in them, +frequenting the gymnasia where they were, and listening to their +repartees with each other, and that not in a languid careless manner, +but just as if each thought himself the father, instructor, and captain +of them all. + +Thus no time was left unemployed, and no place was left without some one +to give good advice and punish wrong-doing; although a regular +superintendent of the boys was appointed from the leading men of the +city, and they had their own chiefs, who were the wisest and bravest of +the Eirenes. This is a name given to those who have begun their second +year after ceasing to be children, and the eldest of the children are +called Melleirenes. This Eiren, who is twenty years old, commands his +company in their battles, and in the house uses them as his servants to +prepare dinner. He orders the bigger boys to carry logs of wood, and the +little ones to gather pot herbs. They also bring him what they steal, +which they do, some from the gardens, and some from the men's +dining-tables, where they rush in very cleverly and cautiously; for if +one be taken, he is severely scourged for stealing carelessly and +clumsily. They also steal what victuals they can, learning to take them +from those who are asleep or off their guard. Whoever is caught is +punished by stripes and starvation. Their meals are purposely made +scanty, in order that they may exercise their ingenuity and daring in +obtaining additions to them. This is the main object of their short +commons, but an incidental advantage is the growth of their bodies, for +they shoot up in height when not weighed down and made wide and broad by +excess of nutriment. This also is thought to produce beauty of figure; +for lean and slender frames develop vigour in the limbs, whereas those +which are bloated and over-fed cannot attain this, from their weight. +This we see in the case of women who take purgatives during pregnancy, +whose children are thin, but well-shaped and slender, because from their +slight build they receive more distinctly the impress of their mother's +form. However, it may be that the cause of this phenomenon is yet to be +discovered. + +XVII. The boys steal with such earnestness that there is a story of one +who had taken a fox's cub and hidden it under his cloak, and, though his +entrails were being torn out by the claws and teeth of the beast, +persevered in concealing it until he died. This may be believed from +what the young men in Lacedaemon do now, for at the present day I have +seen many of them perish under the scourge at the altar of Diana +Orthias. + +After dinner the Eiren would recline, and bid one of the boys sing, and +ask another some questions which demand a thoughtful answer, such as +"Who is the best among men?" or "How is such a thing done?" By this +teaching they began even in infancy to be able to judge what is right, +and to be interested in politics; for not to be able to answer the +questions, "Who is a good citizen?" or "Who is a man of bad repute?" was +thought to be the sign of a stupid and unaspiring mind. The boy's answer +was required to be well reasoned, and put into a small compass; he who +answered wrongly was punished by having his thumb bitten by the Eiren. +Often when elders and magistrates were present the Eiren would punish +the boys; if only he showed that it was done deservedly and with method, +he never was checked while punishing, but when the boys were gone, he +was called to account if he had done so either too cruelly or too +remissly. + +The lovers of the boys also shared their honour or disgrace; it is said +that once when a boy in a fight let fall an unmanly word, his lover was +fined by the magistrates. Thus was love understood among them; for even +fair and honourable matrons loved young maidens, but none expected their +feelings to be returned. Rather did those who loved the same person make +it a reason for friendship with each other, and vie with one another in +trying to improve in every way the object of their love. + +XVIII. The boys were taught to use a sarcastic yet graceful style of +speaking, and to compress much thought into few words; for Lykurgus made +the iron money have little value for its great size, but on the other +hand he made their speech short and compact, but full of meaning, +teaching the young, by long periods of silent listening, to speak +sententiously and to the point. For those who allow themselves much +licence in speech seldom say anything memorable. When some Athenian +jeered at the small Laconian swords, and said that jugglers on the stage +could easily swallow them, King Agis answered, "And yet with these +little daggers we can generally reach our enemies." I think that the +Laconian speech, though it seems so short, yet shows a great grasp of +the subject and has great power over the listeners. Lykurgus himself +seems to have been short and sententious, to judge from what has been +preserved of his sayings; as, for instance, that remark to one who +proposed to establish a democracy in the state, "First establish a +democracy in your own household." And when he was asked why he ordained +the sacrifices to be so small and cheap, he answered, "It is in order +that we may never be forced to omit them." So too in gymnastic +exercises, he discouraged all those which are not performed with the +hand closed. + +The same class of answers are said to have been made by him to his +fellow-countrymen in his letters. When they asked how they should keep +off their enemies, he answered, "By remaining poor, and not each trying +to be a greater man than the other." Again, about walls, he said, "that +cannot be called an open town which has courage, instead of brick walls +to defend it." As to the authenticity of these letters, it is hard to +give an opinion. + +XIX.--The following anecdotes show their dislike of long speeches. When +some one was discoursing about matters useful in themselves at an +unfitting time, King Leonidas said, "Stranger, you speak of what is +wanted when it is not wanted." Charilaus the cousin of Lykurgus, when +asked why they had so few laws answered, that men of few words required +few laws. And Archidamidas, when some blamed Hekataeus the Sophist for +having said nothing during dinner, answered, "He who knows how to speak +knows when to speak also." The following are some of those sarcastic +sayings which I before said are not ungrateful. Demaratus, when some +worthless fellow pestered him with unreasonable queries, and several +times inquired, "Who is the best man in Sparta?" answered, "He who is +least like you." When some were praising the magnificence and justice +with which the Eleans conducted the Olympian games, Agis said, "What is +there so very remarkable in the people of Elis acting justly on one day +in every five years?" + +A stranger was vaunting his admiration of them, and was saying that in +his own city he was called a lover of Sparta. Theopompus observed, "It +would be more to your credit to be called a lover of your own city." +Pleistoanax the son of Pausanias, when an Athenian orator reproached the +Lacedaemonians for ignorance, observed, "What you say is quite true, for +we are the only Greeks who have not learned some mischief from you." + +When a stranger asked Archidamidas how many Spartans there were, he +answered, "Enough to keep off bad men." + +One may also discover their peculiarities in their jokes; for they are +taught never to talk at random, nor to utter a syllable that does not +contain some thought. As, when one of them was invited to hear a man +imitate the nightingale, he answered, "I have heard the original;" and +the man who read this epigram-- + + "These men, to quench a tyrant's pride, + Before Selinus fought and died." + +"These men," said he, "deserved to die; for, instead of quenching it, +they should have let it burn itself out." When a young man was promised +a present of cocks that would fight till they died, he said, "I had +rather have some that will fight and kill their foes." This was the +style of their talk; so that some have well said that philosophy is more +truly Laconian than gymnastic exercises. + +XX.--Their education in poetry and music was no less carefully watched +over than their cleverness and purity of speech, but their songs were +such as rouse men's blood and stir them to deeds of prowess, written in +plain unaffected language, upon noble and edifying subjects. For the +most part they consisted of panegyrics upon those who had been happy +enough to die for their country, reproaches of cowards for living a +miserable life, and encouragement to bravery suitable to those of all +ages. A good instance of this is that on festivals when there are three +choruses, that of the old men first sang-- + + "We once were lusty youths and tall." + +Then that of the young men sang-- + + "We still are stout; come, try a fall," + +and the third, that of the children, rejoined-- + + "But we'll be stronger than you all." + +Indeed, if one pays any attention to such Laconian poetry as is still +extant, and to the march music which was played on the flutes when they +were going to meet their enemies, it becomes clear that Terpander and +Pindar were right in connecting poetry with bravery. The former speaks +thus of the Lacedaemonians: + + "Where the youths are bold with the spear, + And the voice of the muse is clear, + And justice to all is dear." + +And Pindar says of them-- + + "Where the old are wise in council, + And the young are brave in fight; + Where song and dance are honoured + On many a festal night." + +For they represent them as being most warlike and at the same time most +poetical. + + "The sword with song full well combines," + +as the Laconian poet says. Even in their battles the king first +sacrificed to the Muses, to remind them, it would appear, of their +education and their former contests, that they may be bold in danger, +and do deeds worthy of record in the fight. + +XXI.--In time of war, too, they relaxed their strict rules and allowed +their young men to dress their hair and ornament their shields and +costumes, taking a pride in them such as one does in high-mettled +horses. For this reason, although they all let their hair grow long +after the age of puberty, yet it was especially in time of danger that +they took pains to have it smooth and evenly parted, remembering a +saying of Lykurgus about the hair, that it made a well-looking man look +handsomer, and an ugly man look more ferocious. + +During a campaign they made the young men perform less severe gymnastic +exercises, and allowed them to live a freer life in other respects, so +that, for them alone of all mankind, war was felt as a relief from +preparation for war. When their array was formed and the enemy were in +sight, the king used to sacrifice a kid, and bid them all put on +garlands, and the pipers to play the hymn to Kastor; then he himself +began to sing the paean for the charge, so that it was a magnificent and +terrible spectacle to see the men marching in time to the flutes, making +no gap in their lines, with no thought of fear, but quietly and steadily +moving to the sound of the music against the enemy. Such men were not +likely to be either panic-stricken or over-confident, but had a cool and +cheerful confidence, believing that the gods were with them. + +With the king used to march into battle a Spartan who had won a crown +in the public games of Greece. It is said that one of them was offered a +mighty bribe at Olympia, but refused to take it, and with great trouble +threw his adversary in the wrestling-match. Some one then asked him, +"Laconian, what have you gained by your victory?" The man, smiling with +delight, answered, "I shall fight in front of the king in the wars." +After they had routed their enemy and gained the victory, they were wont +to pursue so far as to render their success secure, and then to draw +off, as they did not think it manly or befitting a Greek to cut down and +butcher those who could fight no longer. + +This was not merely magnanimous, but very useful to them, for their +enemies, knowing that they slew those who resisted, but spared those who +gave way, often judged it better for themselves to flee than to stand +their ground. + +XXII. The sophist Hippias states that Lykurgus himself was a great +warrior and took part in many campaigns; and Philostephanus even +attributed to Lykurgus the division of the cavalry into the troops +called _oulamos_. This, according to him, consisted of a troop of fifty +horsemen drawn up in a square. Demetrius Phalereus, on the other hand, +says that he had no experience in war, and arranged the whole +constitution in time of peace. Moreover the institution of the Olympic +truce seems to be the idea of a man of gentle and peaceful temperament, +some however say, according to Hermippus, that Lykurgus had at first no +communication with Iphitus, but happened to be present in the crowd; +that he then heard a voice as it were of a man behind him blaming him +and wondering why he did not encourage his fellow-citizens to take part +in the festival. As, when he turned round, there was no one who could +have said so, he concluded that it was a divine warning, and, at once +joining Iphitus and assisting him in regulating the festival, he +rendered it both more splendid and more lasting. + +XXIII. The training of the Spartan youth continued till their manhood. +No one was permitted to live according to his own pleasure, but they +lived in the city as if in a camp, with a fixed diet and fixed public +duties, thinking themselves to belong, not to themselves, but to their +country. Those who had nothing else to do, either looked after the +young, and taught them what was useful, or themselves learned such +things from the old. For ample leisure was one of the blessings with +which Lykurgus provided his countrymen, seeing that they were utterly +forbidden to practise any mechanical art, while money-making and +business were unnecessary, because wealth was disregarded and despised. +The Helots tilled the ground, and produced the regular crops for them. +Indeed, a Spartan who was at Athens while the courts were sitting, and +who learned that some man had been fined for idleness, and was leaving +the court in sorrow accompanied by his grieving friends, asked to be +shown the man who had been punished for gentlemanly behaviour. So +slavish did they deem it to labour at trade and business. In Sparta, as +was natural, lawsuits became extinct, together with money, as the people +had neither excess nor deficiency, but all were equally well off, and +enjoyed abundant leisure by reason of their simple habits. All their +time was spent in dances, feasting, hunting or gymnastic exercises and +conversation, when they were not engaged in war. + +XXIV. Those who were less than thirty years old never came into the +market-place at all, but made their necessary purchases through their +friends and relations. And it was thought discreditable to the older men +to be seen there much, and not to spend the greater part of the day in +the gymnasium and the _lesches_ or places for conversation. In these +they used to collect together and pass their leisure time, making no +allusions to business or the affairs of commerce, but their chief study +being to praise what was honourable, and contemn what was base in a +light satiric vein of talk which was instructive and edifying to the +hearers. Nor was Lykurgus himself a man of unmixed austerity: indeed, he +is said by Sosibius to have set up the little statue of the god of +laughter, and introduced merriment at proper times to enliven their +wine-parties and other gatherings. In a word, he trained his countrymen +neither to wish nor to understand how to live as private men, but, like +bees, to be parts of the commonwealth, and gather round their chief, +forgetting themselves in their enthusiastic patriotism, and utterly +devoted to their country. This temper of theirs we can discern in many +of their sayings. Paidaretus, when not elected into the three hundred, +went away rejoicing that the city possessed three hundred better men +than himself. Polykratidas, when he went with some others on a mission +to the generals of the great king, was asked by them, if he and his +party came as private persons or as ambassadors? He answered, "As +ambassadors, if we succeed; as private men, if we fail." + +And when some citizens of Amphipolis came to Lacedaemon, and went to see +the mother of Brasidas, Argileonis, she asked them whether Brasidas died +bravely and worthily of Sparta. When they praised him to excess, and +said that he had not left his like behind, she said, "Say not so, +strangers; Brasidas was a noble and a gallant man, but Sparta has many +better than he." + +XXV. Lykurgus himself composed his senate, as we have seen, of the +persons who took part in his plot; and in future be ordained that +vacancies should be filled up by those men, upwards of sixty years of +age, who were adjudged to be the most worthy. + +This seemed the greatest prize in the world, and also the most difficult +to obtain; for it was not merely that a man should be adjudged swiftest +of the swift, or strongest of the strong, but he had to be chosen as the +best and wisest of all good and wise men, and, as a prize, was to obtain +power to regulate the morals of the state, as he was intrusted with +powers of life and death, and disfranchisement, and with all the highest +penalties. + +The elections took place as follows: The citizens were all assembled, +and certain men were placed in a building close by, where they could +neither see nor be seen, but merely hear the shouts of the general +assembly. They decided these, as indeed they did other contests, by +shouts of approval, not of all at once, but lots were cast, and each +candidate in the order denoted by his lot came forward and silently +walked through the assembly. The men locked up in the building had +writing materials, and noted down who was cheered most loudly, not +knowing who each man was, beyond that he was first, second, third, and +so on, of the candidates. They then told the number of the man for whom +there had been most voices, and he crowned himself with a garland and +offered sacrifice to the gods, followed by many of the young men, who +congratulated him, and by many women, who sang songs praising his +virtues and his felicity. As he went from one temple to another, each of +his relatives used to offer him food, saying, "The state honours you +with this banquet." But he would pass by them all, and go to his usual +mess-table. Here nothing uncommon took place, except that he was given a +second ration, which he took away with him; and after dinner, the women +of his own family being at the doors of the mess-room, he would call for +the one whom he wished to honour, and give her his portion, saying that +he had received it as a prize, and gave it to her as such. This caused +her to be greatly envied by the other women. + +XXVI.--Moreover, he made excellent regulations about funerals. In the +first place, he abolished all silly superstition, and raised no +objections to burial in the city, and to placing tombs near the temples, +in order to accustom the young to such sights from their infancy, so +that they might not feel any horror of death, or have any notion about +being defiled by touching a dead body, or walking among tombs. Next, he +permitted nothing to be buried with the dead, but they placed the body +in the grave, wrapped in a purple cloth and covered with olive-leaves. +It was not permitted to inscribe the name of the deceased upon his tomb, +except in the case of men who had fallen in war, or of women who had +been priestesses. A short time was fixed for mourning, eleven days; on +the twelfth they were to sacrifice to Demeter (Ceres) and cease from +their grief. For, in Sparta, nothing was left without regulation, but, +with all the necessary acts of life, Lykurgus mingled some ceremony +which might enkindle virtue or discourage vice; indeed he filled his +city with examples of this kind, by which the citizens were insensibly +moulded and impelled towards honourable pursuits. For this reason he +would not allow citizens to leave the country at pleasure, and to wander +in foreign lands, where they would contract outlandish habits, and +learn to imitate the untrained lives and ill-regulated institutions to +be found abroad. Also, he banished from Lacedaemon all strangers who +were there for no useful purpose; not, as Thucydides says, because he +feared they might imitate his constitution, and learn something +serviceable for the improvement of their own countries, but rather for +fear that they might teach the people some mischief. Strangers introduce +strange ideas; and these lead to discussions of an unsuitable character, +and political views which would jar with the established constitution, +like a discord in music. Wherefore he thought that it was more important +to keep out evil habits than even to keep the plague from coming into +the city. + +XXVII. In all these acts of Lykurgus, we cannot find any traces of the +injustice and unfairness which some complain of in his laws, which they +say are excellent to produce courage, but less so for justice. And the +institution called Krypteia, if indeed it is one of the laws of +Lykurgus, as Aristotle tells us, would agree with the idea which Plato +conceived about him and his system. The Krypteia was this: the leaders +of the young men used at intervals to send the most discreet of them +into different parts of the country, equipped with daggers and necessary +food; in the daytime these men used to conceal themselves in +unfrequented spots, and take their rest, but at night they would come +down into the roads and murder any Helots they found. And often they +would range about the fields, and make away with the strongest and +bravest Helots they could find. Also, as Thucydides mentions in his +History of the Peloponnesian War, those Helots who were especially +honoured by the Spartans for their valour were crowned as free men, and +taken to the temples with rejoicings; but in a short time they all +disappeared, to the number of more than two thousand, and in such a way +that no man, either then or afterwards, could tell how they perished. +Aristotle says that the Ephors, when they first take office, declare war +against the Helots, in order that it may be lawful to destroy them. And +much other harsh treatment used to be inflicted upon them; and they were +compelled to drink much unmixed wine, and then were brought into the +public dining-halls, to show the young what drunkenness is. + +They were also forced to sing low songs, and to dance low dances, and +not to meddle with those of a higher character. It is said that when the +Thebans made their celebrated campaign in Lacedaemon, they ordered the +Helots whom they captured to sing them the songs of Terpander, and +Alkman, and Spendon the Laconian; but they begged to be excused, for, +they said, "the masters do not like it." So it seems to have been well +said that in Lacedaemon, the free man was more free, and the slave more +a slave than anywhere else. This harsh treatment, I imagine, began in +later times, especially after the great earthquake, when they relate +that the Helots joined the Messenians, ravaged the country, and almost +conquered it. I cannot impute this wicked act of the Krypteia to +Lykurgus, when I consider the gentleness and justice of his general +behaviour, which also we know was inspired by Heaven. + +XXVIII. When the leading men of the city were thoroughly imbued with the +spirit of his institutions, and the newly constituted state was able to +walk by itself without leading-strings, and bear its own weight alone, +then, as Plato says of God, that he was pleased with the world that he +had created, when it first began to live and move, so was it with +Lykurgus. He admired the spectacle of his laws in operation, and, as far +as was possible by human prudence, he desired to leave it eternal and +unchangeable. He assembled all the citizens, and told them that the city +was now fairly well provided with materials for happiness and virtue, +but that he would not bestow upon them the most valuable gift of all, +until he had taken counsel with Heaven. It was therefore their duty to +abide by the already established laws, and to change and alter nothing +till he returned from Delphi; on his return, he would do whatever the +god commanded. They all assented, and bade him depart, and he, after +making first the kings and elders, and then the rest of the citizens, +swear that they would keep their existing constitution till Lykurgus +came back, set out for Delphi. Upon reaching the temple he sacrificed to +the god, and inquired whether his laws were good, and sufficient for the +prosperity and happiness of his country. Receiving answer from the +oracle that his laws were indeed good, and that the city would become +famous if it kept the constitution of Lykurgus, he wrote down this +prophecy and sent it to Sparta. But he himself, after offering a second +sacrifice to the god, and having embraced his friends and his son, +determined not to release his countrymen from their oath, but to put an +end to his own life, being at an age when, though life was still +pleasant, it seemed time to go to his rest, after having excellently +arranged all his people's affairs. He departed by starvation, as he +thought that a true statesman ought to make even his death of service to +the state, and not like that of a private person, the useless end of an +idle life. His death came in the fulness of time, after he had done an +excellent work, and it was left as the guardian of all the good that he +had done, because the citizens had sworn that they would abide by his +constitution until he returned to them. Nor was he deceived in his +expectations; for the state was by far the most celebrated in Greece, +for good government at home and renown abroad, during a period of five +hundred years, under his constitution, which was kept unaltered by +fourteen kings, counting from himself down to Agis the son of +Archidamus. For the institution of Ephors was not a relaxation, but a +strengthening of the original scheme, and while it seemed popular it +really confirmed the power of the oligarchy. + +XXIX. But in the reign of Agis money found its way into Sparta, and, +after money, selfishness and greed for gain came in, on account of +Lysander, who, though himself incorruptible, yet filled his country with +luxury and love of gold, as he brought back gold and silver from the +wars, and disregarded the laws of Lykurgus. Before this, when those laws +were in force, Sparta was like a wise and practised warrior more than a +city, or rather, she with her simple staff and cloak, like Herakles with +his lion-skin and club, ruled over a willing Greece, deposed bad kings +or factions, decided wars, and crushed revolutions; and that, too, often +without moving a single soldier, but merely by sending a commissioner, +who was at once obeyed, even as bees collect and rank themselves in +order when their queen appears. Sparta then had so much order and +justice as to be able to supply her neighbours; and I cannot understand +those who say that the Lacedaemonians "knew how to obey, but not how to +rule;" nor that story of some one who said to king Theopompus that the +safety of Sparta lay in her kings knowing how to rule. "Rather," he +answered, "in her citizens knowing how to obey." + +They would not brook an incapable commander: their very obedience is a +lesson in the art of command; for a good leader makes good followers, +and just as it is the object of the horse-breaker to turn out a gentle +and tractable horse, so it is the object of rulers to implant in men the +spirit of obedience. But the Lacedaemonians produced a desire in other +states to be ruled by them and to obey them; for they used to send +embassies and ask not for ships or money or troops, but for one Spartan +for a leader; and when they obtained him, they respected him and feared +him, as, for instance, the Sicilians had Gylippus as a general, the +people of Chalkidike had Brasidas, while Lysander and Kallikratidas and +Agesilaus were made use of by all the Greeks in Asia Minor. These men +were called Regulators and Pacificators in each several state, and the +whole city of Sparta was regarded as a school and example of orderly +public life and of settled political institutions. This was alluded to +by Stratonikus when he said in jest that the Athenians ought to conduct +mysteries and shows, the Eleans to be stewards at the games, and the +Lacedaemonians to be beaten if the others did not do right. This was not +spoken seriously; but Antisthenes, the Sokratic philosopher, was serious +when he said of the Thebans, who were in high spirits after their +victory at Leuktra, that they were as pleased as schoolboys who had +beaten their master. + +XXXI. Not that this was Lykurgus's main object, that his country should +dominate over as many other states as possible; but seeing that, in +states as in individuals, happiness is derived from virtue and +single-mindedness, he directed all his efforts to implant in his +countrymen feelings of honour, self-reliance, and self-control. These +were also taken as the basis of their constitution by Plato, Diogenes, +Zeno, and all who have written with any success upon this subject. But +they have left mere dissertations; Lykurgus produced an inimitable +constitution, confuted those who complained of the unreality of the +'Essay on the True Philosopher,' by showing them the spectacle of an +entire city acting like philosophers, and thereby obtained for himself a +greater reputation than that of any other Greek legislator at any +period. For this reason Aristotle says that he has less honour in +Lacedaemon than he deserves, although his memory is greatly respected; +for he has a temple, and they sacrifice to him every year as if he was a +god. It is also said that after his remains were carried home, his tomb +was struck by lightning. This distinction befell scarcely any other man +of note except Euripides, who died long after him, and was buried at +Arethusa in Macedonia. It was considered a great proof and token of his +fame by the admirers of Euripides, that this should happen to him after +his death which happened before to the especial favourite of Heaven. +Some say that Lykurgus died at Kirrha, but Apollothemis says that he was +taken to Elis and died there, and Timaeus and Aristoxenus say that he +ended his days in Crete. Aristoxenus even says that the Cretans show his +tomb in what is called the Strangers' Road in Pergamia. He is said to +have left one son, Antiorus, who died childless, and so ended the +family. His companions and relatives and their descendants kept up the +practice of meeting together for a long period; and the days when they +met were called Lykurgids. Aristokrates the son of Hipparchus says that +when Lykurgus died in Crete, his friends burned his body and threw the +ashes into the sea, at his own request, as he feared that if any remains +of him should be brought back to Lacedaemon, they would think themselves +absolved from their oath, and change the constitution. This is the story +of Lykurgus. + + + + +LIFE OF NUMA. + + +I. There is a considerable conflict of opinion about the time of King +Numa's reign, although several pedigrees seem to be accurately traced to +him. One Clodius, in a book on the verification of dates, insists that +all these old records were destroyed during the Gaulish troubles, and +that those which are now extant were composed by interested persons, by +whose means men who had no right to such honours claimed descent from +the noblest families. Though Numa is said to have been a friend of +Pythagoras, yet some deny that he had any tincture of Greek learning, +arguing that either he was born with a natural capacity for sound +learning, or that he was taught by some barbarian.[A] Others say that +Pythagoras was born much later, some five generations after the times of +Numa, but that Pythagoras the Spartan, who won the Stadium race at +Olympia on the thirteenth Olympiad, wandered into Italy, and there +meeting Numa, assisted him in the establishment of his constitution; and +that from this cause, the Roman constitution in many points resembles +the Laconian. The Olympic games were instituted in the third year of +Numa's reign. Another story is that Numa was a Sabine by birth, and the +Sabines consider themselves to be of Lacedaemonian origin. It is hard to +reconcile the dates, especially those which refer to Olympiads, the +table of which is said to have been made out by Hippias of Elis, on no +trustworthy basis. However, what things I have heard about Numa that are +worthy of mention I shall proceed to relate, beginning from a +starting-point of my own. + +[Footnote A: That is, by some one who was not a Greek.] + +II. Rome had been founded, and Romulus had reigned, for thirty-seven +years, when upon the fifth day of the month of July, which day is now +called _nonae caprotinae_, he was performing a public sacrifice outside +the gates, at a place called the Goat's Marsh, in the presence of the +Senate and most of the people. Suddenly a great commotion began in the +air, thick clouds covered the earth, with violent gusts and showers. The +people fled in terror, and Romulus disappeared. His body could never be +found, but suspicion fell upon the patricians, and a report was current +among the populace that they had long been jealous of his power as king, +and had determined to get it into their own hands. Indeed, he had dealt +with them very harshly and tyrannically. Fearing this suspicion, they +gave out that he was not dead, but had been caught up into heaven; and +Proclus, a man of mark, swore that he saw Romulus ascend into heaven in +his armour as he was, and that he heard a voice ordering that he should +be called Quirinus. Another disturbance took place in Rome about the +election of the next king, because the new citizens were not yet +thoroughly amalgamated with the old ones, the people were unquiet, and +the patricians suspicious of one another. Nevertheless they all +determined that they would have a king, but they disagreed not merely +about who, but of what race he should be. + +Romulus's original colonists thought it a monstrous thing that the +Sabines, because they had been admitted to a share of the city and the +country, should propose to rule over it; while the Sabines not +unreasonably urged that because, after the death of Tatius, they had +acquiesced in Romulus reigning alone, now in their turn they ought to +furnish a king of their own nation. They had not, they said, been +adopted by a more powerful race than themselves, but had, by their +combination with the Romans, greatly raised the power and renown of +their city. + +The two races were at issue on these points. The patricians, fearing +that confusion might arise if the state were left without a head, made +one of their own number every day assume the insignia of royalty, +perform the usual sacrifices to the gods, and transact business for six +hours by day, and six by night. This equal division of their periods of +rule was not only just for those in office, but prevented any jealousy +of them being felt by the populace, each day and night, because they saw +one who had been a king become a private person. This form of +government the Romans call an interregnum. + +III. But, although they appeared to manage things so smoothly, +suspicions and threatenings of disturbance arose, for men said that they +meditated altering the form of government to an oligarchy, in order to +keep all political power in their own hands, and would not therefore +elect a king. Hereupon the two factions agreed that one should select a +king from the ranks of the other. This, they thought, would both put an +end to their quarrels for the present, and also ensure the candidate who +should be chosen being impartial, because he would be friendly to the +one party because it had chosen him, and to the other because he +belonged to it by birth. The Sabines gave the Romans their choice which +they would do; and they decided that it would be better to choose a +Sabine king themselves, than to be ruled by a Roman chosen by the +Sabines. After deliberation amongst themselves, they chose Numa +Pompilius, a man who was not one of those Sabines who had settled in +Rome, but whose excellence was so well-known to all, that the Sabines, +as soon as they heard his name, were even more eager for him than the +Romans who had chosen him. When they had informed the people of their +decision, they sent an embassy to Numa, composed of the leading men of +both parties, to beg of him to come to Rome and assume the crown. + +Numa belonged to a celebrated Sabine city, Cures, from which the united +Romans and Sabines called themselves Quirites. He was the son of +Pomponius, an honourable citizen, and was the youngest of four brothers. +By a miraculous coincidence he was born on the very day on which Romulus +founded Rome; that is, the tenth day before the Calends of May. His +naturally good disposition had been so educated by sorrow and +philosophic pursuits, that he rose superior not merely to commonplace +vices, but even to the worship of brute force, so common among +barbarians, and considered true courage to consist in the conquest of +his own passions. Accordingly he banished all luxury and extravagance +from his house, and was known as a trusty friend and counsellor, both by +his countrymen and by strangers. When at leisure, he disregarded sensual +enjoyments and money-getting, but devoted himself to the service of the +gods and to speculations about their nature and power, so that he +obtained great celebrity. Indeed Tatius, when he was acting as +joint-king with Romulus, chose him for the husband of his only daughter +Tatia. But Numa was not elated by his marriage, and did not remove to +the town where his father-in-law was king, but stayed where he was in +Cures, among the Sabines, tending his aged father; while Tatia also +preferred the quiet of a private citizen's life to the pomp which she +might have enjoyed in Rome. She is said to have died in the thirteenth +year after her marriage. + +IV. Now Numa was in the habit of leaving the city and passing much of +his time in the country, wandering alone in the sacred groves and +dwelling in desert places. Hence the story first arose that it was not +from any derangement of intellect that he shunned human society, but +because he held converse with higher beings, and had been admitted to +marriage with the gods, and that, by passing his time in converse with +the nymph Egeria, who loved him, he became blessed, and learned heavenly +wisdom. It is evident that this is the same as many ancient myths; such +as that told by the Phrygians about Attis, that of the Bithynians about +Herodotus, that of the Arcadians about Endymion, and many others. Yet it +seems probable that a god, who loves man better than bird or beast, +should take pleasure in conversing with those men who are remarkable for +goodness, and not despise nor disdain to hold communion with the wise +and righteous. But it is hard to believe that a god or deity could feel +the passion of love for a human form; although the Egyptians not +unreasonably say, that a woman may be impregnated by the spirit of a +god, but that a man can have no material union with a god. However it is +very right to believe that a god can feel friendship for a man, and from +this may spring a love which watches over him and guides him in the path +of virtue. There is truth in the myths of Phorbas, of Hyacinthus, and of +Admetus, who were all loved by Apollo, as was also Hippolytus of Sicyon. +It is said that whenever he set sail from Sikyon to Kirrha on the +opposite coast, the Pythia would recite the verse, + + "Now goes our dear Hippolytus to sea," + +as if the god knew that he was coming and rejoiced at it. + +There is also a legend that Pan loved Pindar and his verses; and for the +Muse's sake, Hesiod and Archilochus were honoured after their deaths; +while Sophokles during his life is said, by a legend which remains +current at the present day, to have become the friend of Aesculapius, +and on his death to have had the rites of burial supplied by the care of +another god. + +If, then, we believe the legends which are told about these persons, why +should we doubt that Zaleukus, Minos, Zoroaster, Numa, and Lykurgus were +inspired by Heaven, when they governed their kingdoms and gave them +laws? We may suppose that the gods, when in an earnest mood, would hold +converse with such men as these, the best of their kind, to talk with +and encourage them, just as they visit the poets, if they do at all, +when inclined for pleasure. However, if any one thinks differently, as +Bacchylides says, "The way is broad." + +The other view, which some take about Lykurgus and Numa and such men, +seems very plausible, that they, having to deal with an obstinate and +unmanageable people when introducing great political changes, invented +the idea of their own divine mission as a means of safety for +themselves. + +V. It was in Numa's fortieth year that the envoys came from Rome to ask +him to be king. Their spokesmen were Proculus and Velesius, one of whom +had very nearly been elected king, for the Romulus people inclined much +to Proculus, and those of Tatius were equally in favour of Velesius. +These men made a short speech, imagining that Numa would be delighted +with his fortune; but it appears that it took much hard pleading to +induce a man who had lived all his life in peace to take the command of +a city which owed its origin and its increase alike to war. He said, in +the presence of his father and of Marcius, one of his relations, "Every +change in a man's life is dangerous; and when a man is not in want of +anything needful, and has no cause for being dissatisfied with his lot, +it is sheer madness for him to change his habits and way of life; for +these, at any rate, have the advantage of security, while in the new +state all is uncertain. Not even uncertain are the perils of royalty, +judging from Romulus himself, who was suspected of having plotted +against his partner Tatius, and whose peers were suspected of having +assassinated him. Yet these men call Romulus the child of the gods, and +tell how he had a divinely sent nurse, and was preserved by a miracle +while yet a child; while I was born of mortal parents, and brought up by +people whom you all know: even the points which you praise in my +character are far from those which make a good king, being love of +leisure and of unprofitable speculation, and also a great fondness for +peace and unwarlike matters, and for men who meet together for the glory +of the gods or for cheerful converse with one another, and who at other +times plough their fields and feed their cattle at home. But you Romans +have very likely many wars left upon your hands by Romulus, for the +conduct of which the state requires a vigorous warrior in the prime of +life. The people too, from their successes, are accustomed to and eager +for war, and are known to be longing for fresh conquests and +possessions; so that they would ridicule me when I told them to honour +the gods and act justly, and if I tried to instil a hatred of wars and +of brute force into a city which wants a general more than a king." + +VI. As he refused the offered crown in such terms, the Romans used every +kind of entreaty to induce him to accept it, begging him not to plunge +the state again into civil war, because there was no other man whom the +two parties would agree to receive as their king. In their absence, his +father and Marcius begged him not to refuse so great and marvellous an +offer. "If," they said, "you do not desire wealth, because of your +simple life, and do not care for the glory of royalty, because you +derive more glory from your own virtue, yet think that to be king is to +serve God, who gives you this office and will not allow your +righteousness to lie idle, useful only to yourself. Do not therefore +shrink from assuming this office, which gives you an opportunity to +conduct the solemn ceremonials of religion with due pomp, and to +civilise the people and turn their hearts, which can be effected more +easily by a king than by any one else. This people loved Tatius, though +he was a foreigner, and they respect the memory of Romulus as if he was +a god. And who knows, if the people, although victorious, may not have +had enough of wars, and, sated with triumphs and spoils, may not be +desirous of a gentle and just ruler under whom they may enjoy rest and +peace. If, however, they are madly bent upon war, is it not better that +you should hold the reins, and direct their fury elsewhere, becoming +yourself a bond of union and friendship between the Sabine nation and +this powerful and flourishing city?" Besides these arguments, it is said +that the omens were favourable, and that the people of the city, as soon +as they heard of the embassy, came and besought him to go and become +king, and thus unite and combine the two races. + +VII. When he had made up his mind, he sacrificed to the gods, and +started for Rome. The Senate and people met him and showed great +affection for him; the matrons also greeted him, and there were +sacrifices in the temples, and every one was as joyous as if he had +received a kingdom instead of a king. When they came into the Forum, the +_interrex_ or temporary king, Spurius Vettius, put it to the vote, and +all the people voted for Numa. When they offered him the insignia of +royalty, he bade them stop, saying that he wished to have his crown +confirmed to him by God as well as by man. Taking the prophets and +priests he ascended the Capitol, which the Romans at that time called +the Tarpeian Hill. There the chief of the prophets made him turn towards +the south, covered his head, and then standing behind him with his hand +laid upon his head, he prayed, and looked for a sign or omen sent from +the gods in every quarter of the heavens. A strange silence prevailed +among the people in the Forum, as they watched him eagerly, until a +prosperous omen was observed. Then Numa received the royal robes and +came down from the hill among the people. They received him with cheers +and congratulations, as the most pious of men, and as beloved of Heaven. +When he became king, his first act was to disband the body-guard of +three hundred men, whom Romulus always had kept about his person, who +were called _Celeres_, that is, swift; for Numa would not distrust a +loyal people nor reign over a disloyal one. Next he instituted a third +high priest, in addition to the existing priests of Jupiter and Mars, +whom, in honour of Romulus, he called the Flamen Quirinalis. The elder +priests are called Flamens from the skull-caps which they wear, and the +word is derived from the Greek word for felt; for at that time Greek +words were mingled with Latin ones more than now. For instance, the +_laena_ worn by the priests is said by Juba to be the Greek _chlaina_, +and the boy, whose parents must be both alive, who is servant to the +priest of Jupiter, is called _Camillus_, just as the Greeks sometimes +call Hermes (Mercury) _Cadmilus_, from his being the servant of the +gods. + +VIII. Numa, after confirming his popularity by these measures, proceeded +at once to attempt to convert the city from the practice of war and the +strong hand, to that of right and justice, just as a man tries to soften +and mould a mass of iron. The city at that time was indeed what Plato +calls "inflamed and angry," for it owed its very existence to the +reckless daring by which it had thrust aside the most warlike races of +the country, and had recruited its strength by many campaigns and +ceaseless war, and, as carpentry becomes more fixed in its place by +blows, so the city seemed to gain fresh power from its dangers. Thinking +that it would be a very difficult task to change the habits of this +excited and savage people, and to teach them the arts of peace, he +looked to the gods for help, and by sacrifices, processions, and choral +dances, which he himself organised and arranged, he awed, interested, +and softened the manners of the Romans, artfully beguiling them out of +their warlike ferocity. Sometimes he spoke of supernatural terrors, evil +omens, and unpropitious voices, so as to influence them by means of +superstition. These measures proved his wisdom, and showed him a true +disciple of Pythagoras, for the worship of the gods was an important +part of his state policy, as it is of Pythagoras's system of philosophy. +His love of outward show and stratagem was also said to be derived from +Pythagoras, for as the latter tamed an eagle and made it alight upon +him, and when walking through the crowd at Olympia showed his golden +thigh, and did all the other surprising devices which made Timon of +Phlius write the epigram-- + + "Pythagoras by magic arts, + And mystic talk deludes men's hearts," + +so did Numa invent the story of his amour with a wood-nymph and his +secret converse with her, and of his enjoying the society of the Muses. +He referred most of his prophetic utterances to the Muses, and taught +the Romans to worship one of them especially, whom he called Tacita, +which means silent or dumb. This seems to have been done in imitation of +Pythagoras, who especially revered silence. His legislation about images +was also connected with the Pythagorean doctrine, which says that first +principles cannot be touched or seen, but are invisible spiritual +essences; for Numa forbade the Romans to worship any likenesses of men +or of beasts. Among them there was no image of a god, either carved or +moulded, in the early times. For a hundred and seventy years they built +temples, and placed shrines in them, but made no image of any living +thing, considering that it was wrong to make the worse like the better, +and that God cannot be comprehended otherwise than by thought. Their +sacrifices also were connected with the Pythagorean doctrine; they were +for the most part bloodless, and performed with flour, libations of +wine, and all the commonest things. But besides these, there are other +distinct proofs of the connection of these two men with one another. One +of these is that the Romans enrolled Pythagoras as a citizen, as we are +told by Epicharmus the comic poet, in a letter which he wrote to +Antenor. He was a man who lived in old times and underwent the +Pythagorean training. Another proof is that of his four sons, King Numa +named one Mamercus after the son of Pythagoras; from whom sprung the +ancient patrician house of the Aemilii. This name was originally given +him in sport by the king, who used to call him _aimulos_ or wily. I +myself have heard many Romans narrate that an oracle once bade the +Romans establish the wisest and the bravest of the Greeks in their own +city, and that in consequence of it they set up two brazen statues in +the Forum, one of Alkibiades and one of Pythagoras. But all this can be +so easily disputed that it is not worth while to pursue it farther or to +put any trust in it. + +IX. To Numa also is referred the institution of the Pontifices, or high +priests; and he himself is said to have been one of the first. The +Pontifices are so called, according to some authorities, because they +worship the gods, who are powerful and almighty; for powerful in Latin +is _potens_. Others say that it refers to an exception made in favour of +possibilities, meaning that the legislator ordered the priests to +perform what services lay in their power, and did not deny that there +are some which they cannot. But the most usually received and most +absurd derivation is that the word means nothing more than bridge +builders, and that they were so named from the sacrifices which are +offered upon the sacred bridge, which are of great sanctity and +antiquity. The Latins call a bridge _pontem_. This bridge is intrusted +to the care of the priests, like any other immovable holy relic; for the +Romans think that the removal of the wooden bridge would call down the +wrath of Heaven. It is said to be entirely composed of wood, in +accordance with some oracle, without any iron whatever. + +The stone bridge was built many years afterwards, when Aemilius was +Quaestor. However, it is said that the wooden bridge itself does not +date from the time of Numa, but that it was finished by Marcius, the +grandson of Numa, when he was king. + +The chief priest, or Pontifex Maximus, is an interpreter and prophet or +rather expounder of the will of Heaven. He not only sees that the public +sacrifices are properly conducted, but even watches those who offer +private sacrifices, opposes all departure from established custom, and +points out to each man how to honour the gods and how to pray to them. +He also presides over the holy maidens called vestals. + +The consecration of the vestal virgins, and the worship and watching of +the eternal flame by them, are entirely attributed to Numa, and +explained either by the pure and uncorruptible essence of fire being +intrusted to the keeping of those who are stainless and undefiled, or +by that which is barren and without fruit being associated with maidens. + +Indeed, in Greece, wherever an eternal fire is kept up, as at Delphi and +Athens, it is not maidens, but widows, past the age to wed, that tend +it. When any of these fires chance to go out, as, for instance, the +sacred lamp went out at Athens when Aristion was despot, and the fire +went out at Delphi when the temple was burned by the Persians, and at +Rome in the revolutions during the time of the wars with King +Mithridates the fire, and even the altar upon which it burned, was swept +away; then they say that it must not be lighted from another fire, but +that an entirely new fire must be made, lighted by a pure and undefiled +ray from the sun. They usually light it with mirrors made by hollowing +the surface of an isosceles right-angled triangle, which conducts all +the rays of light into one point. Now when it is placed opposite to the +sun, so that all the rays coming from all quarters are collected +together into that point, the ray thus formed passes through the thin +air, and at once lights the dryest and lightest of the objects against +which it strikes, for that ray has the strength and force of fire +itself. + +Some say that the only duty of the vestal virgins is to watch that +eternal fire, but others say they perform certain secret rites, about +which we have written as much as it is lawful to divulge, in the Life of +Camillus. + +X. The first maidens who were consecrated by Numa were named Gegania and +Verenia; and afterwards Canuleia and Tarpeia were added. Servius +subsequently added two more to their number, which has remained six ever +since his reign. Numa ordained that the maidens should observe celibacy +for thirty years, during the first ten years of which they were to learn +their duties, during the next perform them, and during the last to teach +others. After this period any of them who wished might marry and cease +to be priestesses; but it is said that very few availed themselves of +this privilege, and that those few were not happy, but, by their regrets +and sorrow for the life they had left, made the others scruple to leave +it, prefer to remain virgins till their death. They had great +privileges, such as that of disposing of their property by will when +their fathers were still alive, like women who have borne three +children. When they walk abroad they are escorted by lictors with the +fasces; and if they happen to meet any criminal who is being taken to +execution, he is not put to death; but the vestal must swear that she +met him accidentally, and not on purpose. When they use a litter, no one +may pass under it on pain of death. The vestals are corrected by stripes +for any faults which they commit, sometimes by the Pontifex Maximus, who +flogs the culprit without her clothes, but with a curtain drawn before +her. She that breaks her vow of celibacy is buried alive at the Colline +Gate, at which there is a mound of earth which stretches some way inside +the city wall. In it they construct an underground chamber, of small +size, which is entered from above. In it is a bed with bedding, and a +lamp burning; and also some small means of supporting life, such as +bread, a little water in a vessel, milk, and oil, as though they wished +to avoid the pollution of one who had been consecrated with such holy +ceremonies dying of hunger. The guilty one is placed in a litter, +covered in, and gagged with thongs so that she cannot utter a sound. +Then they carry her through the Forum. All make way in silence, and +accompany her passage with downcast looks, without speaking. There is no +more fearful sight than this, nor any day when the city is plunged into +deeper mourning. When the litter reaches the appointed spot, the +servants loose her bonds, and the chief priest, after private prayer and +lifting his hands to Heaven before his dreadful duty, leads her out, +closely veiled, places her upon a ladder which leads down into the +subterranean chamber. After this he turns away with the other priests; +the ladder is drawn up after she has descended, and the site of the +chamber is obliterated by masses of earth which are piled upon it, so +that the place looks like any other part of the mound. Thus are the +vestals punished who lose their chastity. + +XI. Numa is said to have built the Temple of Vesta, which was to contain +the sacred fire, in a circular form, imitating thereby not the shape of +the earth, but that of the entire universe, in the midst of which the +Pythagoreans place the element of fire, which they call Vesta and the +Unit. The earth they say is not motionless, and not in the centre of its +orbit, but revolves round the central fire, occupying by no means the +first or the most honourable place in the system of the universe. These +ideas are said to have been entertained by Plato also in his old age; +for he too thought that the earth was in a subordinate position, and +that the centre of the universe was occupied by some nobler body. + +XII. The Pontifices also explain, to those who inquire of them, the +proper ceremonies at funerals. For Numa taught them not to think that +there was any pollution in death, but that we must pay due honours to +the gods below, because they will receive all that is noblest on earth. +Especially he taught them to honour the goddess Libitina, the goddess +who presides over funeral rites, whether she be Proserpine, or rather +Venus, as the most learned Romans imagine, not unnaturally referring our +birth and our death to the same divinity. + +He also defined the periods of mourning, according to the age of the +deceased. He allowed none for a child under three years of age, and for +one older the mourning was only to last as many months as he lived +years, provided those were not more than ten. The longest mourning was +not to continue above ten months, after which space widows were +permitted to marry again; but she that took another husband before that +term was out was obliged by his decree to sacrifice a cow with calf. + +Of Numa's many other institutions I shall only mention two, that of the +Salii and of the Feciales, which especially show his love of justice. +The Feciales are, as it were, guardians of peace, and in my opinion +obtain their name from their office; for they were to act as mediators, +and not to permit an appeal to arms before all hope of obtaining justice +by fair means had been lost. The Greeks call it peace when two states +settle their differences by negotiation and not by arms; and the Roman +Feciales frequently went to states that had done wrong and begged them +to think better of what they had done. If they rejected their offers, +then the Feciales called the gods to witness, invoked dreadful curses +upon themselves and their country, if they were about to fight in an +unjust cause, and so declared war. Against the will of the Feciales, or +without their approval, no Roman, whether king or common soldier, was +allowed to take up arms, but the general was obliged first to have it +certified to him by the Feciales that the right was on his side, and +then to take his measures for a campaign. It is said that the great +disaster with the Gauls befell the city in consequence of this ceremony +having been neglected. The barbarians were besieging Clusium; Fabius +Ambustus was sent as an ambassador to their camp to make terms on behalf +of the besieged. His proposals met with a harsh reply, and he, thinking +that his mission was at an end, had the audacity to appear before the +ranks of the men of Clusium in arms, and to challenge the bravest of the +barbarians to single combat. He won the fight, slew his opponent and +stripped his body; but the Gauls recognised him, and sent a herald to +Rome, complaining that Fabius had broken faith and not kept his word, +and had waged war against them without its being previously declared. +Hereupon the Feciales urged the Senate to deliver the man up to the +Gauls, but he appealed to the people, and by their favour escaped his +just doom. Soon after the Gauls came and sacked Rome, except the +Capitol. But this is treated of more at length in the 'Life of +Camillus.' + +XIII. The priests called Salii are said to owe their origin to the +following circumstances: In the eighth year of Numa's reign an epidemic +raged throughout Italy, and afflicted the city of Rome. Now amidst the +general distress it is related that a brazen shield fell from heaven +into the hands of Numa. Upon this the king made an inspired speech, +which he had learned from Egeria and the Muses. The shield, he said, +came for the salvation of the city, and they must guard it, and make +eleven more like it, so that no thief could steal the one that fell from +heaven, because he could not tell which it was. Moreover the place and +the meadows round about it, where he was wont to converse with the +Muses, must be consecrated to them, and the well by which it was watered +must be pointed out as holy water to the vestal virgins, that they might +daily take some thence to purify and sprinkle their temple. The truth +of this is said to have been proved by the immediate cessation of the +plague. He bade workmen compete in imitating the shield, and, when all +others refused to attempt it, Veturius Mamurius, one of the best workmen +of the time, produced so admirable an imitation, and made all the +shields so exactly alike, that even Numa himself could not tell which +was the original. He next appointed the Salii to guard and keep them. +These priests were called Salii, not, as some say, after a man of +Samothrace or of Mantinea named Salius, who first taught the art of +dancing under arms, but rather from the springing dance itself, which +they dance through the city when they carry out the shields in the month +of March, dressed in scarlet tunics, girt with brazen girdles, with +brazen helmets on their heads and little daggers with which they strike +the shields. The rest of their dance is done with their feet; they move +gracefully, whirling round, swiftly and airily counter-changing their +positions with light and vigorous motions according to rhythm and +measure. The shields are called _ancilia_, because of their shape; for +they are not round, nor with a perfect circumference, but are cut out of +a wavy line, and curl in at the thickest part towards each other; or +they may be called _ancilia_ after the name of the elbow, _ankon_, on +which they are carried; at least so Juba conjectures in his endeavours +to find a Greek derivation for the word. The name may be connected with +the fall of the shield _from above_ (_anekathen_), or with the healing +(_akesis_) of the plague, and the cessation of that terrible calamity, +if we must refer the word to a Greek root. + +It is related that, to reward Mamurius for his workmanship, his name is +mentioned in the song which the Salii sing while they dance their +Pyrrhic dance; others, however, say that it is not Veturium Mamurium +that they say, but _Veterem Memoriam_, which means ancient memory. + +XIV. After he had arranged all religious ceremonies, he built, near the +temple of Vesta, the Regia, as a kind of royal palace; and there he +spent most of his time, engaged in religious duties, instructing the +priests, or awaiting some divine colloquy. He had also another house on +the hill of Quirinus, the site of which is even now pointed out. + +In all religious processions through the city the heralds went first to +bid the people cease their work, and attend to the ceremony; for just as +the Pythagoreans are said to forbid the worship of the gods in a cursory +manner, and to insist that men shall set out from their homes with this +purpose and none other in their minds, so Numa thought it wrong that the +citizens should see or hear any religious ceremony in a careless, +half-hearted manner, and made them cease from all worldly cares and +attend with all their hearts to the most important of all duties, +religion; so he cleared the streets of all the hammering, and cries, and +noises which attend the practice of ordinary trades and handicrafts, +before any holy ceremony. Some trace of this custom still survives in +the practice of crying out _Hoc age_ when the consul is taking the +auspices or making a sacrifice. These words mean "Do this thing," and +are used to make the bystanders orderly and attentive. Many of his other +precepts are like those of the Pythagoreans; for just as they forbid men +to sit upon a quart measure, or to stir the fire with a sword, or to +turn back when they set out upon a journey, and bid them sacrifice an +odd number to the gods above, and an even one to those below, all of +which things had a mystical meaning, which was hidden from the common +mass of mankind, so also some of Numa's rites can only be explained by +reference to some secret legend, such as his forbidding men to make a +libation to the gods with wine made from an unpruned vine, and his +ordering that no sacrifice should be made without flour, and that men +should turn round while worshipping and sit after they had worshipped. +The first two of these seem to point to cultivation of the fruits of the +earth, as a part of righteousness; the turning round of the worshippers +is said to be in imitation of the revolution of the globe, but it seems +more probable that, as all temples look towards the east, the worshipper +who enters with his back to the sun turns round towards this god also, +and begs of them both, as he makes his circuit, to fulfil his prayer. +Unless indeed there is an allusion to the symbolical wheel of the +Egyptians, and the change of posture means that nothing human is +constant, and that, however God may turn about our lives, it is our duty +to be content. The act of sitting after prayer was said to portend that +such as were good would obtain a solid and lasting fulfilment of their +prayers. Or again, this attitude of rest marks the division between +different periods of prayer; so that after the end of one prayer they +seat themselves in the presence of the gods, in order that under their +auspices they may begin the next. This fully agrees with what has been +said above, and shows that the lawgiver intended to accustom his +countrymen not to offer their prayers in a hurry, or in the intervals of +doing something else, but when they were at leisure and not pressed for +time. + +XV. By this religious training the city became so easily managed by +Numa, and so impressed by his power, as to believe stories of the +wildest character about him, and to think nothing incredible or +impossible if he wished to do it. For instance, it is related that once +he invited many of the citizens to dine with him, and placed before them +common vessels and poor fare; but, as they were about to begin dinner, +he suddenly said that his familiar goddess was about to visit him, and +at once displayed abundance of golden cups and tables covered with +costly delicacies. The strangest story of all is that of his +conversation with Jupiter. The legend runs that Mount Aventine was not +at this time enclosed within the city, but was full of fountains and +shady glens, and haunted by two divinities, Picus and Faunus, who may be +compared to Satyrs or to Pan, and who, in knowledge of herbs and magic, +seem equal to what the Greeks call the Daktyli of Mount Ida. These +creatures roamed about Italy playing their tricks, but Numa caught them +by filling the spring at which they drank with wine and honey. They +turned into all kinds of shapes, and assumed strange and terrible forms, +but when they found that they were unable to escape, they told Numa much +of the future, and showed him how to make a charm against thunder-bolts, +which is used to this day, and is made of onions and hair and sprats. +Some say that it was not these deities who told him the charm, but that +they by magic arts brought down Jupiter from heaven, and he, in a rage, +ordered Numa to make the charm of "Heads"; and when Numa added, "Of +onions," he said "Of men's"--"Hair," said Numa, again taking away the +terrible part of the imprecation. When then Jupiter said "With +living"--"Sprats," said Numa, answering as Egeria had taught him. The +god went away appeased, and the place was in consequence called Ilicius. +This was how the charm was discovered. + +These ridiculous legends show the way in which the people had become +accustomed to regard the gods. Indeed Numa is said to have placed all +his hopes in religion, to such an extent that even when a message was +brought him, saying, "The enemy are approaching," he smiled and said, +"And I am sacrificing." + +XVI. The first temples that he founded are said to have been those of +Fides or Faith, and Terminus. Fides is said to have revealed to the +Romans the greatest of all oaths, which they even now make use of; while +Terminus is the god of boundaries, to whom they sacrifice publicly, and +also privately at the divisions of men's estates; at the present time +with living victims, but in old days this was a bloodless sacrifice, for +Numa argued that the god of boundaries must be a lover of peace, and a +witness of righteousness, and therefore averse to bloodshed. + +Indeed Numa was the first king who defined the boundaries of the +country, since Romulus was unwilling, by measuring what was really his +own, to show how much he had taken from other states: for boundaries, if +preserved, are barriers against violence; if disregarded, they become +standing proofs of lawless injustice. The city had originally but a +small territory of its own, and Romulus gained the greater part of its +possessions by the sword. All this Numa distributed among the needy +citizens, thereby removing the want which urged them to deeds of +violence, and, by turning the people's thoughts to husbandry, he made +them grow more civilised as their land grew more cultivated. No +profession makes men such passionate lovers of peace as that of a man +who farms his own land; for he retains enough of the warlike spirit to +fight fiercely in defence of his own property, but has lost all desire +to despoil and wrong his neighbours. It was for this reason that Numa +encouraged agriculture among the Romans, as a spell to charm away war, +and loved the art more because of its influence on men's minds than +because of the wealth which it produced. He divided the whole country +into districts, which he called pagi, and appointed a head man for +each, and a patrol to guard it. And sometimes he himself would inspect +them, and, forming an opinion of each man's character from the condition +of his farm, would raise some to honours and offices of trust, and +blaming others for their remissness, would lead them to do better in +future. + +XVII. Of his other political measures, that which is most admired is his +division of the populace according to their trades. For whereas the +city, as has been said, originally consisted of two races, which stood +aloof one from the other and would not combine into one, which led to +endless quarrels and rivalries, Numa, reflecting that substances which +are hard and difficult to combine together, can nevertheless be mixed +and formed into one mass if they are broken up into small pieces, +because then they more easily fit into each other, determined to divide +the whole mass of the people of Rome into many classes, and thus, by +creating numerous petty rivalries, to obliterate their original and +greatest cause of variance. + +His division was according to their trades, and consisted of the +musicians, the goldsmiths, the builders, the dyers, the shoemakers, the +carriers, the coppersmiths, and the potters. All the other trades he +united into one guild. He assigned to each trade its special privileges, +common to all the members, and arranged that each should have its own +times of meeting, and worship its own special patron god, and by this +means he did away with that habit, which hitherto had prevailed among +the citizens, of some calling themselves Sabines, and some Romans; one +boasting that they were Tatius's men, and other Romulus's. So this +division produced a complete fusion and unity. Moreover he has been much +praised for another of his measures, that, namely, of correcting the old +law which allows fathers to sell their sons for slaves. He abolished +this power in the case of married men, who had married with their +father's consent; for he thought it a monstrous injustice that a woman, +who had married a free man, should be compelled to be the wife of a +slave. + +XVIII. He also dealt with astronomical matters, not with perfect +accuracy, and yet not altogether without knowledge. During the reign of +Romulus the months had been in a state of great disorder, some not +containing twenty days, some five-and-thirty, and some even more, +because the Romans could not reconcile the discrepancies which arise +from reckoning by the sun and the moon, and only insisted upon one +thing, that the year should consist of three hundred and sixty days. + +Numa reckoned the variation to consist of eleven days, as the lunar year +contains three hundred and fifty-four days, and the solar year three +hundred and sixty-five. He doubled these eleven days and introduced them +every other year, after February, as an intercalary month, twenty-two +days in duration, which was called by the Romans Mercedinus. This was a +remedy for the irregularities of the calendar which itself required more +extensive remedies. + +He also altered the order of the months, putting March, which used to be +the first month, third, and making January the first, which in the time +of Romulus had been the eleventh, and February the second, which then +had been the twelfth. There are many writers who say that these months, +January and February, were added to the calendar by Numa, and that +originally there had only been ten months in the year, just as some +barbarians have three, and in Greece the Arcadians have four, and the +Acarnanians six. The Egyptians originally had but one month in their +year, and afterwards are said to have divided it into four mouths; +wherefore, though they live in the newest of all countries, they appear +to be the most ancient of all nations, and in their genealogies reckon +an incredible number of years, because they count their months as years. + +XIX. One proof that the Romans used to reckon ten months and not twelve +in the year is the name of the last month; for up to the present day it +is called _December_, the tenth, and the order of the months shows that +March was the first, for the fifth month from it they called +_Quintilis_, the fifth; and the sixth month Sextilis, and so on for the +others, although, by their putting January and February before March, it +resulted that the month which they number fifth is really seventh in +order. Moreover, there is a legend that the month of March, being the +first, was dedicated by Romulus to Mars, and the second, April, to +Aphrodité (Venus); in which month they sacrifice to this goddess, and +the women bathe on the first day of it crowned with myrtle. Some, +however, say that April is not named after Aphrodité, because the word +April does not contain the letter _h_, and that it comes from the Latin +word _aperio_, and means the month in which the spring-time opens the +buds of plants; for that is what the word signifies. Of the following +months, May is named after Maia, the mother of Hermes or Mercury, for it +is dedicated to her, and June from Juno. Some say that these names +signify old age and youth, for old men are called by the Latins majores, +and young men juniores. The remaining months they named, from the order +in which they came, the fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth: +Quintilis, Sextilis, September, October, November, December. Then +Quintilis was called Julius after Julius Caesar, who conquered Pompeius; +and Sextilis was called Augustus, after the second of the Roman +Emperors. The next two months Domitian altered to his own titles, but +not for any long time, as after his death they resumed their old names +of September and October. The last two alone have preserved their +original names without change. Of the months, added or altered by Numa, +Februarius means the month of purification, for that is as nearly as +possible the meaning of the word, and during it they sacrifice to the +dead, and hold the festival of the Lupercalia, which resembles a +ceremony of purification. The first month, Januarius, is named after +Janus. My opinion is, that Numa moved the month named after Mars from +its precedence, wishing the art of good government to be honoured before +that of war. For Janus in very ancient times was either a deity or a +king, who established a social polity, and made men cease from a savage +life like that of wild beasts. And for this reason his statues are made +with a double face, because he turned men's way of life from one form to +another. + +XX. There is a temple to him in Rome, which has two doors, and which +they call the gate of war. It is the custom to open the temple in time +of war, and to close it during peace. This scarcely ever took place, as +the empire was almost always at war with some state, being by its very +greatness continually brought into collision with the neighbouring +tribes. Only in the time of Caesar Augustus, after he had conquered +Antonius, it was closed; and before that, during the consulship of +Marcus Atilius and Titus Manlius, for a short time, and then was almost +immediately reopened, as a new war broke out. But during Numa's reign no +one saw it open for a single day, and it remained closed for forty-three +years continuously, so utterly had he made wars to cease on all sides. +Not only was the spirit of the Romans subdued and pacified by the gentle +and just character of their king, but even the neighbouring cities, as +if some soothing healthful air was breathed over them from Rome, altered +their habits and longed to live quiet and well-governed, cultivating the +earth, bringing up their families in peace, and worshipping the gods. +And gay festivals and entertainments, during which the people of the +various states fearlessly mixed with one another, prevailed throughout +Italy, for Numa's knowledge of all that was good and noble was shed +abroad like water from a fountain, and the atmosphere of holy calm by +which he was surrounded spread over all men. The very poets when they +wrote of that peaceful time were unable to find adequate expressions for +it, as one writes-- + + "Across the shields are cobwebs laid, + Rust eats the lance and keen edged blade; + No more we hear the trumpets bray. + And from our eyes no more is slumber chased away." + +No war, revolution, or political disturbance of any kind is recorded +during Numa's reign, neither was there any envy or hatred of him or any +attempt by others to obtain the crown; but either fear of the gods who +visibly protected him, or reverence for his virtues, or the special +grace of Heaven, made men's lives innocent and untainted with evil, and +formed a striking proof of the truth of what Plato said many years +afterwards, that the only escape from misery for men is when by Divine +Providence philosophy is combined with royal power, and used to exalt +virtue over vice. Blessed indeed is the truly wise man, and blessed are +they who hear the words of his mouth. Indeed his people require no +restraints or punishments, but seeing a plain example of virtue in the +life of their chief, they themselves of their own accord reform their +lives, and model them upon that gentle and blessed rule of love and just +dealing one with another which it is the noblest work of politicians to +establish. He is most truly a king who can teach such lessons as these +to his subjects, and Numa beyond all others seems to have clearly +discerned this truth. + +XXI. Historians differ in their accounts of his wives and children. Some +say that he married Tatia alone, and was the father of one daughter +only, named Pompilia; but others, besides her, assign to him four sons, +named Pompo, Pinus, Calpus, and Mamercus, from whom descended the four +noble families of the Pomponii, Pinarii, Calphurnii, and Mamerci, which +for this reason took the title of Rex, that is, king. Others again say +that these pedigrees were invented to flatter these families, and state +that the Pompilian family descends not from Tatia, but from Lucretia, +whom he married after he became king. All, however, agree that Pompilia +married Marcius, the son of that Marcius who encouraged Numa to accept +the crown. This man accompanied Numa to Rome, was made a member of the +Senate, and after Numa's death laid claim to the crown, but was worsted +by Tullus Hostilius and made away with himself. His son Marcius, who +married Pompilia, remained in Rome, and became the father of Ancus +Marcius, who was king after Tullus Hostilius, and who was only five +years old when Numa died. + +We are told by Piso that Numa died, not by a sudden death, but by slow +decay from sheer old age, having lived a little more than eighty years. + +XXII. He was enviable even in death, for all the friendly and allied +nations assembled at his funeral with national offerings. The senators +bore his bier, which was attended by the chief priests, while the crowd +of men, women and children who were present, followed with such weeping +and wailing, that one would have thought that, instead of an aged king, +each man was about to bury his own dearest friend, who had died in the +prime of life. At his own wish, it is said, the body was not burned, but +placed in two stone coffins and buried on the Janiculum Hill. One of +these contained his body, and the other the sacred books which he +himself had written, as Greek legislators write their laws upon tablets. +During his life he had taught the priests the contents of these books, +and their meaning and spirit, and ordered them to be buried with his +corpse, because it was right that holy mysteries should be contained, +not in soulless writings, but in the minds of living men. For the same +reason they say that the Pythagoreans never reduced their maxims to +writing, but implanted them in the memories of worthy men; and when some +of their difficult processes in geometry were divulged to some unworthy +men, they said that Heaven would mark its sense of the wickedness which +had been committed by some great public calamity; so that, as Numa's +system so greatly resembled that of Pythagoras, we can easily pardon +those who endeavour to establish a connection between them. + +Valerius of Antium says that twelve sacred books and twelve books of +Greek philosophy were placed in the coffin. Four hundred years +afterwards, when Publius Cornelius and Marcus Baebius were consuls, a +great fall of rain took place, and the torrent washed away the earth and +exposed the coffins. When the lids were removed, one of the coffins was +seen by all men to be empty, and without any trace of a corpse in it; +the other contained the books, which were read by Petilius the praetor, +who reported to the Senate that in his opinion it was not right that +their contents should be made known to the people, and they were +therefore carried to the Comitium and burned there. + +All good and just men receive most praise after their death, because +their unpopularity dies with them or even before them; but Numa's glory +was enhanced by the unhappy reigns of his successors. Of five kings who +succeeded him, the last was expelled and died an exile, and of the other +four, not one died a natural death, but three were murdered by +conspirators, and Tullus Hostilius, who was king next after Numa, and +who derided and insulted his wise ordinances, especially those +connected with religion, as lazy and effeminate, and who urged the +people to take up arms, was cut down in the midst of his boastings by a +terrible disease, and became subject to superstitious fears in no way +resembling Numa's piety. His subjects were led to share these terrors, +more especially by the manner of his death, which is said to have been +by the stroke of a thunderbolt. + + + + +COMPARISON OF NUMA WITH LYKURGUS. + + +I. Now that we have gone through the lives of Numa and Lykurgus, we must +attempt, without being daunted by difficulties, to reconcile the points +in which they appear to differ from each other. Much they appear to have +had in common, as, for example, their self-control, their piety, and +their political and educational ability; and while the peculiar glory of +Numa is his acceptance of the throne, that of Lykurgus is his +abdication. Numa received it without having asked for it; Lykurgus when +in full possession gave it up. Numa, though a private man and not even a +Roman, was chosen by the Romans as their king; but Lykurgus from being a +king reduced himself to a private station. It is honourable to obtain a +crown by righteousness, but it is also honourable to prefer +righteousness to a crown. Numa's virtue made him so celebrated that he +was judged worthy to be king, Lykurgus' made him so great that he did +not care to be king. + +Again, like those who tune the strings of a lyre, Lykurgus drew tighter +the relaxed and licentious Sparta, while Numa merely slackened the +highly strung and warlike Rome, so that here Lykurgus had the more +difficult task. He had to persuade his countrymen, not to take off their +armour and lay aside their swords, but to leave off using gold and +silver, and to lay aside costly hangings and furniture; he had not to +make them exchange wars for sacrifices and gay festivals, but to cease +from feasts and drinking-parties, and work hard both in the field and in +the palaestra to train themselves for war. + +For this reason, Numa was able to effect his purpose without difficulty, +and without any loss of popularity and respect; while Lykurgus was +struck and pelted, and in danger of his life, and even so could scarcely +carry out his reforms. Yet the genius of Numa was kindly and gentle, +and so softened and changed the reckless fiery Romans that they became +peaceful, law-abiding citizens; and if we must reckon Lykurgus' +treatment of the Helots as part of his system, it cannot be denied that +Numa was a far more civilised lawgiver, seeing that he allowed even to +actual slaves some taste of liberty, by his institution of feasting them +together with their masters at the festival of Saturn. + +For this custom of allowing the labourers to share in the harvest-feast +is traced to Numa. Some say that this is in remembrance of the equality +which existed in the time of Saturn, when there was neither master nor +slave, but all were kinsmen and had equal rights. + +II. Both evidently encouraged the spirit of independence and +self-control among their people, while of other virtues, Lykurgus loved +bravery, and Numa loved justice best; unless indeed we should say that, +from the very different temper and habits of the two states, they +required to be treated in a different manner. It was not from cowardice, +but because he scorned to do an injustice, that Numa did not make war; +while Lykurgus made his countrymen warlike, not in order that they might +do wrong, but that they might not be wronged. Each found that the +existing system required very important alterations to check its +excesses and supply its defects. Numa's reforms were all in favour of +the people, whom he classified into a mixed and motley multitude of +goldsmiths and musicians and cobblers; while the constitution introduced +by Lykurgus was severely aristocratic, driving all handicrafts into the +hands of slaves and foreigners, and confining the citizens to the use of +the spear and shield, as men whose trade was war alone, and who knew +nothing but how to obey their leaders and to conquer their enemies. In +Sparta a free man was not permitted to make money in business, in order +that he might be truly free. + +Each thing connected with the business of making money, like that of +preparing food for dinner, was left in the hands of slaves and helots. +Numa made no regulations of this kind, but, while he put an end to +military plundering, raised no objection to other methods of making +money, nor did he try to reduce inequalities of fortune, but allowed +wealth to increase unchecked, and disregarded the influx of poor men +into the city and the increase of poverty there, whereas he ought at the +very outset, like Lykurgus, while men's fortunes were still tolerably +equal, to have raised some barrier against the encroachments of wealth, +and to have restrained the terrible evils which take their rise and +origin in it. As for the division of the land among the citizens, in my +opinion, Lykurgus cannot be blamed for doing it, nor yet can Numa for +not doing it. The equality thus produced was the very foundation and +corner-stone of the Lacedaemonian constitution, while Numa had no motive +for disturbing the Roman lands, which had only been recently distributed +among the citizens, or to alter the arrangements made by Romulus, which +we may suppose were still in force throughout the country. + +III. With regard to a community of wives and children, each took a wise +and statesman-like course to prevent jealousy, although the means +employed by each were different. A Roman who possessed a sufficient +family of his own might be prevailed upon by a friend who had no +children to transfer his wife to him, being fully empowered to give her +away, by divorce, for this purpose; but a Lacedaemonian was accustomed +to lend his wife for intercourse with a friend, while she remained +living in his house, and without the marriage being thereby dissolved. +Many, we are told, even invited those who, they thought, would beget +fine and noble children, to converse with their wives. The distinction +between the two customs seems to be this: the Spartans affected an +unconcern and insensibility about a matter which excites most men to +violent rage and jealousy; the Romans modestly veiled it by a legal +contract which seems to admit how hard it is for a man to give up his +wife to another. Moreover Numa's regulations about young girls were of a +much more feminine and orderly nature, while those of Lykurgus were so +highflown and unbecoming to women, as to have been the subject of notice +by the poets, who call them _Phainomerides_, that is with bare thighs, +as Ibykus says; and they accuse them of lust, as Euripides says-- + + "They stay not, as befits a maid, at home, + But with young men in shameless dresses roam." + +For in truth the sides of the maiden's tunic were not fastened together +at the skirt, and so flew open and exposed the thigh as they walked, +which is most clearly alluded to in the lines of Sophokles-- + + "She that wanders nigh, + With scanty skirt that shows the thigh, + A Spartan maiden fair and free, + Hermione." + +On this account they are said to have become bolder than they should be, +and to have first shown this spirit towards their husbands, ruling +uncontrolled over their households, and afterwards in public matters, +where they freely expressed their opinions upon the most important +subjects. On the other hand, Numa preserved that respect and honour due +from men to matrons which they had met with under Romulus, who paid them +these honours to atone for having carried them off by force, but he +implanted in them habits of modesty, sobriety, and silence, forbidding +them even to touch wine, or to speak even when necessary except in their +husbands' presence. It is stated that once, because a woman pleaded her +own cause in the Forum, the Senate sent to ask the oracle what this +strange event might portend for the state. + +A great proof of the obedience and modesty of the most part of them is +the way in which the names of those who did any wrong is remembered. +For, just as in Greece, historians record the names of those who first +made war against their own kindred or murdered their parents, so the +Romans tell us that the first man who put away his wife was Spurius +Carvilius, nothing of the kind having happened in Rome for two hundred +and thirty years from its foundation; and that the wife of Pinarius, +Thalaea by name, was the first to quarrel with her mother-in-law Gegania +in the reign of Tarquinius Superbus--so well and orderly were marriages +arranged by this lawgiver. + +IV. The rest of their laws for the training and marriage of maidens +agree with one another, although Lykurgus put off the time of marriage +till they were full-grown, in order that their intercourse, demanded as +it was by nature, might produce love and friendship in the married pair +rather than the dislike often experienced by an immature child towards +her husband, and also that their bodies might be better able to support +the trials of child-bearing, which he regarded as the sole object of +marriage; whereas the Romans gave their daughters in marriage at the age +of twelve years or even younger, thinking thus to hand over a girl to +her husband pure and uncorrupt both in body and mind. It is clear that +the former system is best for the mere production of children, and the +latter for moulding consorts for life. But by his superintendence of the +young, his collecting them into companies, his training and drill, with +the table and exercises common to all, Lykurgus showed that he was +immensely superior to Numa, who, like any commonplace lawgiver, left the +whole training of the young in the hands of their fathers, regulated +only by their caprice or needs; so that whoever chose might bring up his +son as a shipwright, a coppersmith, or a musician, as though the +citizens ought not from the very outset to direct their attention to one +object, but were like people who have embarked in the same ship for +various causes, who only in time of danger act together for the common +advantage of all, and at other times pursue each his own private ends. +Allowance must be made for ordinary lawgivers, who fail through want of +power or of knowledge in establishing such a system; but no such excuse +can be made for Numa, who was a wise man, and who was made king of a +newly-created state which would not have opposed any of his designs. +What could be of greater importance than to regulate the education of +the young and so to train them that they might all become alike in their +lives and all bear the same impress of virtue? It was to this that +Lykurgus owed the permanence of his laws; for he could not have trusted +to the oaths which he made them take, if he had not by education and +training so steeped the minds of the young in the spirit of his laws, +and by his method of bringing them up implanted in them such a love for +the state, that the most important of his enactments remained in force +for more than five hundred years; for the lives of all Spartans seem to +have been coloured by these laws. That which was the aim and end of +Numa's policy, that Rome should be at peace and friendly with her +neighbours, ceased immediately upon his death; at once the double-gated +temple, which he kept closed as if he really kept war locked up in it, +had both its gates thrown open and filled Italy with slaughter. His +excellent and righteous policy did not last for a moment, for the people +were not educated to support it, and therefore it could not be lasting. +But, it may be asked, did not Rome flourish by her wars? It is hard to +answer such a question, in an age which values wealth, luxury, and +dominion more than a gentle peaceful life that wrongs no one and +suffices for itself. Yet this fact seems to tell for Lykurgus, that the +Romans gained such an enormous increase of power by departing from +Numa's policy, while the Lacedaemonians, as soon as they fell away from +the discipline of Lykurgus, having been the haughtiest became the most +contemptible of Greeks, and not only lost their supremacy, but had even +to struggle for their bare existence. On the other hand, it was truly +glorious for Numa that he was a stranger and sent for by the Romans to +be their king; that he effected all his reforms without violence, and +ruled a city composed of discordant elements without any armed force +such as Lykurgus had to assist him, winning over all men and reducing +them to order by his wisdom and justice. + + + + +LIFE OF SOLON. + + +I. Didymus the grammarian, in the book about Solon's laws which he wrote +in answer to Asklepiades, quotes a saying of one Philokles, that Solon +was the son of Euphorion, which is quite at variance with the testimony +of all other writers who have mentioned Solon: for they all say that he +was the son of Exekestides, a man whose fortune and power were only +moderate, but whose family was of the noblest in Athens; for he was +descended from Kodrus the last Athenian king. Herakleides of Pontus +relates that the mother of Solon was first cousin to the mother of +Peisistratus. The two boys, we are told, were friends when young, and +when in after years they differed in politics they still never +entertained harsh or angry feelings towards one another, but kept alive +the sacred flame of their former intimate friendship. Peisistratus is +even said to have dedicated the statue of Love in the Academy where +those who are going to run in the sacred torch-race light their torches. + +II. According to Hermippus, Solon, finding that his father had by his +generosity diminished his fortune, and feeling ashamed to be dependent +upon others, when he himself was come of a house more accustomed to give +than to receive, embarked in trade, although his friends were eager to +supply him with all that he could wish for. Some, however, say that +Solon travelled more with a view to gaining experience and learning than +to making money. He was indeed eager to learn, as he wrote when an old +man, + + "Old to grow, but ever learning," + +but disregarded wealth, for he wrote that he regarded as equally rich +the man who owned + + "Gold and broad acres, corn and wine; + And he that hath but clothes and food, + A wife, and youthful strength divine." + +Yet elsewhere he has written, but + + "I long for wealth, not by fraud obtained, + For curses wait on riches basely gained." + +There is no reason for an upright statesman either to be over anxious +for luxuries or to despise necessaries. At that period, as Hesiod tells +us, "Work was no disgrace," nor did trade carry any reproach, while the +profession of travelling merchant was even honourable, as it civilised +barbarous tribes, and gained the friendship of kings, and learned much +in many lands. Some merchants founded great cities, as, for example, +Protis, who was beloved by the Gauls living near the Rhone, founded +Marseilles. It is also said that Thales the sage, and Hippocrates the +mathematician, travelled as merchants, and that Plato defrayed the +expenses of his journey to Egypt by the oil which he disposed of in that +country. + +III. Solon's extravagance and luxurious mode of life, and his poems, +which treat of pleasure more from a worldly than a philosophic point of +view, are attributed to his mercantile training; for the great perils of +a merchant's life require to be paid in corresponding pleasures. Yet it +is clear that he considered himself as belonging to the class of the +poor, rather than that of the rich, from the following verses: + + "The base are rich, the good are poor; and yet + Our virtue for their gold we would not change; + For that at least is ours for evermore, + While wealth we see from hand to hand doth range." + +His poetry was originally written merely for his own amusement in his +leisure hours; but afterwards he introduced into it philosophic +sentiments, and interwove political events with his poems, not in order +to record them historically, but in some cases to explain his own +conduct, and in others to instruct, encourage, or rebuke the Athenians. +Some say that he endeavoured to throw his laws into an epic form, and +tell us that the poem began-- + + "To Jove I pray, great Saturn's son divine, + To grant his favour to these laws of mine." + +Of ethical philosophy, he, like most of the sages of antiquity, was most +interested in that branch which deals with political obligations. As to +natural science, his views are very crude and antiquated, as we see from +the following verses: + + "From clouds the snow and hail descend, + And thunderbolts the lightnings send; + The waves run high when gales do blow, + Without the wind they're still enow." + +Indeed, of all the sages of that time, Thales alone seems to have known +more of physics than was necessary to supply man's every-day needs; all +the others having gained their reputation for political wisdom. + +IV. These wise men are said to have met at Delphi, and again at Corinth, +where they were entertained by the despot Periander. Their reputation +was greatly increased by the tripod which was sent to all of them and +refused by all with a gracious rivalry. The story goes that some men of +Cos were casting a net, and some strangers from Miletus bought the haul +of them before it reached the surface. + +The net brought up a golden tripod, the same which, it is said, Helen +threw into the sea at that spot, in accordance with some ancient oracle, +when she was sailing away from Troy. A dispute arose at first between +the strangers and the fishermen; afterwards it was taken up by their +respective cities, who even came to blows about it. Finally they +consulted the oracle at Delphi, which ordered it to be given to the +wisest. Now it was first sent to Miletus, to Thales, as the men of Cos +willingly gave it to that one man, although they had fought with all the +Milesians together about it. Thales said that Bias was wiser than +himself, and sent it to him; and by him it was again sent to another +man, as being wiser yet. So it went on, being sent from one to another +until it came to Thales a second time, and at last was sent from Miletus +to Thebes and consecrated to Apollo Ismenius. As Theophrastus tells the +story, the tripod was first sent to Bias at Priéne, and secondly to +Thales at Miletus, and so on through all of the wise men until it again +reached Bias, and was finally offered at Delphi. This is the more common +version of the story, although some say that it was not a tripod but a +bowl sent by Croesus, others that it was a drinking-cup left behind by +one Bathykles. + +V. Anacharsis is said to have met Solon, and afterwards Thales in +private, and to have conversed with them. The story goes that Anacharsis +came to Athens, went to Solon's door, and knocked, saying that he was a +stranger and had come to enter into friendship with him. When Solon +answered that friendships were best made at home, Anacharsis said, "Well +then, do you, who are at home, enter into friendship with me." Solon, +admiring the man's cleverness, received him kindly, and kept him for +some time in his house. He was at this time engaged in politics, and was +composing his laws. Anacharsis, when he discovered this, laughed at +Solon's undertaking, if he thought to restrain the crimes and greed of +the citizens by written laws, which he said were just like spiders' +webs; for, like them, they caught the weaker criminals, but were broken +through by the stronger and more important. + +To this Solon answered, that men keep covenants, because it is to the +advantage of neither party to break them; and that he so suited his laws +to his countrymen, that it was to the advantage of every one to abide by +them rather than to break them. Nevertheless, things turned out more as +Anacharsis thought than as Solon wished. Anacharsis said too, when +present at an assembly of the people, that he was surprised to see that +in Greece wise men spoke upon public affairs, and ignorant men decided +them. + +VI. When Solon went to Thales at Miletus, he expressed his wonder at his +having never married and had a family. Thales made no answer at the +time, but a few days afterwards arranged that a man should come to him +and say that he left Athens ten days before. When Solon inquired of him, +whether anything new had happened at Athens, the man answered, as Thales +had instructed him, that "there was no news, except the death of a +young man who had been escorted to his grave by the whole city. He was +the son, they told him, of a leading citizen of great repute for his +goodness, but the father was not present, for they said he had been +travelling abroad for some years." "Unhappy man," said Solon, "what was +his name?" "I heard his name," answered the man, "but I cannot remember +it; beyond that there was much talk of his wisdom and justice." Thus by +each of his answers he increased Solon's alarm, until he at last in his +excitement asked the stranger whether it were not Solon's son that was +dead. The stranger said that it was. Solon was proceeding to beat his +head and show all the other marks of grief, when Thales stopped him, +saying with a smile, "This, Solon, which has the power to strike down so +strong a man as you, has ever prevented my marrying and having children. +But be of good courage, for this tale which you have been told is +untrue." This story is said by Hermippus to have been told by Pataikos, +he who said that he had inherited the soul of Aesop. + +VII. It is a strange and unworthy feeling that prompts a man not to +claim that to which he has a right, for fear that he may one day lose +it; for by the same reasoning he might refuse wealth, reputation, or +wisdom, for fear of losing them hereafter. We see even virtue, the +greatest and most dear of all possessions, can be destroyed by disease +or evil drugs; and Thales by avoiding marriage still had just as much to +fear, unless indeed he ceased to love his friends, his kinsmen, and his +native land. But even he adopted his sister's son Kybisthus; for the +soul has a spring of affection within it, and is formed not only to +perceive, to reflect, and to remember, but also to love. If it finds +nothing to love at home, it will find something abroad; and when +affection, like a desert spot, has no legitimate possessors, it is +usurped by bastard children or even servants, who when they have +obtained our love, make us fear for them and be anxious about them. So +that one may often see men, in a cynical temper, inveighing against +marriage and children, who themselves shortly afterwards will be plunged +into unmanly excesses of grief, at the loss of their child by some slave +or concubine. Some have even shown terrible grief at the death of dogs +and horses; whereas others, who have lost noble sons, made no unusual or +unseemly exhibition of sorrow, but passed the remainder of their lives +calmly and composedly. Indeed it is weakness, not affection, which +produces such endless misery and dread to those who have not learned to +take a rational view of the uncertainty of life, and who cannot enjoy +the presence of their loved ones because of their constant agony for +fear of losing them. We should not make ourselves poor for fear of +losing our property, nor should we guard ourselves against a possible +loss of friends by making none; still less ought we to avoid having +children for fear that our child might die. But we have already dwelt +too much upon this subject. + +VIII. After a long and harassing war with the Megarians about the +possession of the Island of Salamis, the Athenians finally gave up in +sheer weariness, and passed a law forbidding any one for the future, +either to speak or to write in favour of the Athenian claim to Salamis, +upon pain of death. Solon, grieved at this dishonour, and observing that +many of the younger men were eager for an excuse to fight, but dared not +propose to do so because of this law, pretended to have lost his reason. +His family gave out that he was insane, but he meanwhile composed a +poem, and when he had learned it by heart, rushed out into the +market-place wearing a small felt cap, and having assembled a crowd, +mounted the herald's stone and recited the poem which begins with the +lines-- + + "A herald I from Salamis am come, + My verse will tell you what should there be done." + +The name of this poem is Salamis; it consists of a hundred beautifully +written lines. After he had sung it, his friends began to commend it, +and Peisistratus made a speech to the people, which caused such +enthusiasm that they abrogated the law and renewed the war, with Solon +as their leader. The common version of the story runs thus: Solon sailed +with Peisistratus to Kolias, where he found all the women of the city +performing the customary sacrifice to Demeter (Ceres). At the same time, +he sent a trusty man to Salamis, who represented himself as a deserter, +and bade the Megarians follow him at once to Kolias, if they wished to +capture all the women of the first Athenian families. The Megarians were +duped, and sent off a force in a ship. As soon as Solon saw this ship +sail away from the island, he ordered the women out of the way, dressed +up those young men who were still beardless in their clothes, +headdresses, and shoes, gave them daggers, and ordered them to dance and +disport themselves near the seashore until the enemy landed, and their +ship was certain to be captured. So the Megarians, imagining them to be +women, fell upon them, struggling which should first seize them, but +they were cut off to a man by the Athenians, who at once sailed to +Salamis and captured it. + +IX. Others say that the island was not taken in this way, but that first +of all Solon received the following oracular response from Apollo at +Delphi: + + "Appease the land's true lords, the heroes blest, + Who near Asopia's fair margin rest, + And from their tombs still look towards the West." + +After this, Solon is said to have sailed by night, unnoticed by the +Megarians, and to have sacrificed to the heroes Periphemus and Kychreus. +His next act was to raise five hundred Athenian volunteers, who by a +public decree were to be absolute masters of the island if they could +conquer it. With these he set sail in a number of fishing-boats, with a +triaconter or ship of war of thirty oars, sailing in company, and +anchored off a certain cape which stretches towards Euboea. The +Megarians in Euboea heard an indistinct rumour of this, and at once ran +to arms, and sent a ship to reconnoitre the enemy. This ship, when it +came near Solon's fleet, was captured and its crew taken prisoners. On +board of it Solon placed some picked men, and ordered them to make sail +for the city of Salamis, and to conceal themselves as far as they could. +Meanwhile he with the remaining Athenians attacked the Megarian forces +by land; and while the battle was at its hottest, the men in the ship +succeeded in surprising the city. + +This story appears to be borne out by the proceedings which were +instituted in memory of the capture. In this ceremony an Athenian ship +used to sail to Salamis, at first in silence, and then as they neared +the shore with warlike shouts. Then a man completely armed used to leap +out and run, shouting as he went, up to the top of the hill called +Skiradion, where he met those who came by land. Close by this place +stands the temple of Ares, which Solon built; for he conquered the +Megarians in the battle, and sent away the survivors with a flag of +truce. + +X. However, as the Megarians still continued the war, to the great +misery of both sides, they agreed to make the Lacedaemonians arbitrators +and judges between them. Most writers say that Solon brought the great +authority of Homer's 'Iliad' to his aid, by interpolating in the +catologue of ships the two verses-- + + "Ajax from Salamis twelve vessels good + Brought, and he placed them where the Athenians stood," + +which he had read as evidence before the court. + +The Athenians, however, say that all this is nonsense, but that Solon +proved to the arbitrators that Philaeus and Eurysakes, the sons of Ajax, +when they were enrolled as Athenian citizens, made over the island to +Athens, and dwelt, one at Brauron, in Attica, and the other at Melité; +moreover, there is an Athenian tribe which claims descent from Philaeus, +to which Peisistratus belonged. Wishing, however, yet more thoroughly to +prove his case against the Megarians, he based an argument on the tombs +in the island, in which the corpses were buried, not in the Megarian, +but in the Athenian manner. For the Megarians bury their dead looking +towards the east, and the Athenians towards the west. But Hereas of +Megara denies this, and says that the Megarians also bury their dead +looking towards the west, and moreover, that each Athenian had a coffin +to himself, while the Megarians place two or three bodies in one coffin. +However, Solon supported his case by quoting certain oracles from +Delphi, in which the god addresses Salamis as Ionian. The Spartan +arbitrators were five in number, their names being Kritolaidas, +Amompharetus, Hypsichidas, Anaxilos, and Kleomenes. + +XI. Solon's reputation and power were greatly increased by this, but he +became much more celebrated and well-known in Greece by his speeches on +behalf of the temple at Delphi, in which he urged the necessity of +checking the insolent conduct of the people of Kirrha towards the +temple, and of rallying in defence of the god. The Amphiktyons, +prevailed upon by his eloquence, declared war, as we learn from +Aristotle, among other writers, in his book about the winners of the +prize at the Pythian games, in which he attributes this decision to +Solon. However, he was not made general in that war, as Hermippus +relates, quoting from Evanthes of Samos; for Aeschines the orator does +not mention him, and, in the records of Delphi, Alkmaeon, not Solon, is +mentioned as general of the Athenians on that occasion. + +XII. Athens had long been suffering from the anger of the gods, which it +had incurred by the treatment of Kylon's party. These conspirators took +sanctuary in Athene's temple, but were induced by Megakles the archon to +quit it and stand their trial. They fastened a thread to the shrine of +the goddess, and kept hold of it so as still to be under her protection. +But as they were coming down from the Acropolis, just beside the temple +of the Furies, the string broke, and Megakles and the other archons, +thinking that the goddess rejected their appeal, seized them. Some of +them were stoned to death outside the temple, and some who had fled for +sanctuary to the altars were slain there. Only those who fell as +suppliants at the feet of the archons' wives were spared. After this the +archons were called accursed, and were viewed with horror; moreover, the +survivors of Kylon's party regained strength, and continued their +intrigues against Megakles and the archons. At the time of which we are +speaking these dissensions had reached their height, and the city was +divided into two factions, when Solon, who was already a man of great +reputation, came forward with some of the noblest Athenians, and by his +entreaties and arguments prevailed upon those magistrates who were +called accursed, to stand trial and be judged by a jury of three hundred +citizens selected from the best families. Myron of Phlya prosecuted, and +the archons were found guilty, and forced to leave the country. The +bodies of such of them as had died were dug up, and cast out beyond the +borders of Attica. + +During these disorders the Athenians were again attacked by the +Megarians, and lost Nisaea, and were again driven out of Salamis. The +city was also a prey to superstitious terrors, and apparitions were +seen, so that the prophets, after inspecting their victims, said that +the city was polluted and under a curse, and that it required +purification. Upon this they sent for Epimenides the Phaestian, of +Crete, who is reckoned among the seven wise men of Greece, by some of +those who do not admit Periander into their number. He was thought to +enjoy the favour of Heaven, and was skilled in all the lore of the +sacred mysteries, and in the sources of divine inspiration; wherefore he +was commonly reported to be the child of the nymph Balte, and to be one +of the old Curetes of Crete revived. He came to Athens and was a friend +to Solon, assisting him greatly in his legislation. He remodelled their +religious rites, and made their mourning more moderate, introducing +certain sacrifices shortly after the funeral, and abolishing the harsh +and barbarous treatment which women were for the most part subject to +before in times of mourning. Above all, by purifications and atoning +sacrifices, and the erection of new temples, he so sanctified and +hallowed the city as to make the minds of the people obedient to the +laws, and easily guided into unity and concord. It is said that he saw +Munychia, and viewed it carefully for some time in silence. Then he said +to the bystanders, "How blind is man to the future. The Athenians would +eat this place up with their teeth if they knew what misfortunes it will +bring upon them?" A prophetic saying of the same kind is attributed to +Thales. He bade his friends bury him in a low and neglected quarter of +Miletus, telling them that one day it would be the market-place of the +city. Epimenides was greatly honoured by the Athenians, and was offered +large sums of money by them, and great privileges, but he refused them +all, and only asked for a branch of the sacred olive-tree, which he +received and went his way. + +XIII. When the troubles about Kylon were over, and the accursed men cast +out of the country, the Athenians relapsed into their old dispute about +the constitution. The state was divided into as many factions as there +were parts of the country, for the Diakrii, or mountaineers, favoured +democracy; the Pedioei, oligarchy; while those who dwelt along the +seashore, called Parali, preferred a constitution midway between these +two forms, and thus prevented either of the other parties from carrying +their point. Moreover, the state was on the verge of revolution, because +of the excessive poverty of some citizens, and the enormous wealth of +others, and it appeared that the only means of putting an end to these +disorders was by establishing an absolute despotism. The whole people +were in debt to a few wealthy men; they either cultivated their farms, +in which case they were obliged to pay one-sixth of the profit to their +creditors, and were called Hektemori, or servants, or else they had +raised loans upon personal security, and had become the slaves of their +creditors, who either employed them at home, or sold them to foreigners. +Many were even compelled to sell their own children, which was not +illegal, and to leave the country because of the harshness of their +creditors. + +The greater part, and those of most spirit, combined together, and +encouraged one another not to suffer such oppression any longer, but to +choose some trustworthy person to protect their interests, to set free +all enslaved debtors, redistribute the land, and, in a word, entirely +remodel the constitution. + +XIV. In this position of affairs, the most sensible men in Athens +perceived that Solon was a person who shared the vices of neither +faction, as he took no part in the oppressive conduct of the wealthy, +and yet had sufficient fortune to save him from the straits to which the +poor were reduced. In consequence of this, they begged him to come +forward and end their disputes. But Phanias of Lesbos says that Solon +deceived both parties, in order to save the state, promising the poor a +redistribution of lands, and the rich a confirmation of their +securities. However, Solon himself tells us that it was with reluctance +that he interfered, as he was threatened by the avarice of the one +party, and the desperation of the other. He was chosen archon next after +Philombrotus, to act as an arbitrator and lawgiver at once, because the +rich had confidence in him as a man of easy fortune, and the poor +trusted him as a good man. It is said also that a saying which he had +let fall some time before, that "equality does not breed strife," was +much circulated at the time, and pleased both parties, because the rich +thought it meant that property should be distributed according to merit +and desert, while the poor thought it meant according to rule and +measure. Both parties were now elate with hope, and their leaders urged +Solon to seize the supreme power in the state, of which he was +practically possessed, and make himself king. Many even of the more +moderate class of politicians, who saw how weary and difficult a task it +would be to reform the state by debates and legislative measures, were +quite willing that so wise and honest a man should undertake the sole +management of affairs. It is even said that Solon received an oracle as +follows: + + "Take thou the helm, the vessel guide, + Athens will rally to thy side." + +His intimate friends were loudest in their reproaches, pointing out that +it was merely the name of despot from which he shrunk, and that in his +case his virtues would lead men to regard him as a legitimate hereditary +sovereign; instancing also Tunnondas, who in former times had been +chosen by the Euboeans, and, at the present time, Pittakus, who had been +chosen king of Mitylene. But nothing could shake Solon's determination. +He told his friends that monarchy is indeed a pleasant place, but there +is no way out of it; and he inserted the following verses in answer to +Phokus, in one of his poems: + + "But if I spared + My country, and with dread tyrannic sway, + Forbore to stain and to pollute my glory; + I feel no shame at this; nay rather thus, + I think that I excel mankind." + +From which it is clear that he possessed a great reputation even before +he became the lawgiver of Athens. + +In answer to the reproaches of many of his friends at his refusal to +make himself despot, he wrote as follows: + + "Not a clever man was Solon, not a calculating mind, + For he would not take the kingdom, which the gods to him inclined, + In his net he caught the prey, but would not draw it forth to land, + Overpowered by his terrors, feeble both of heart and hand; + For a man of greater spirit would have occupied the throne, + Proud to be the Lord of Athens, though 'twere for a day alone, + Though the next day he and his into oblivion were thrown." + +XV. This is the way in which he says the masses, and low-minded men, +spoke of him. He, however, firmly rejecting the throne, proceeded +quietly to administer public affairs, in laying down his laws without +any weak yielding to the powerful, or any attempt to court popularity. +Such as were good, he did not meddle with, fearing that if he + + "Disturbed and overset the state," + +he might not have sufficient power to + + "Reconstitute and organise again," + +in the best way. He carried out his measures by persuasion, and, where +he thought he could succeed, by force; in his own words, + + "Combining Force and Justice both together." + +Being afterwards asked whether he had composed the best possible laws +for the Athenians, he answered, "The best that they would endure." And +the habit of Athenians of later times, who soften down harsh words by +using politer equivalents, calling harlots "mistresses," taxes +"contributions," garrisons of cities "protectors," and the common prison +"the house," was, it seems, first invented by Solon, who devised the +name of "relief from burdens" for his measure to abolish all debts. + +This was his first measure; namely, to put an end to all existing debts +and obligations, and to forbid any one in future to lend money upon +security of the person of the debtor. Some writers, among whom is +Androtion, say that he benefited the poor, not by the absolute +extinction of debt, but by establishing a lower rate of interest; and +that this measure was called "Relief from burdens," and together with it +the two other measures for the enlargement of measures and of the value +of money, which were passed about the same time. For he ordered a mina, +which was before constituted of seventy three drachmas, to contain a +hundred, so that, though they paid the same amount, yet the value was +less; thus those who had much to pay were benefited, and still their +creditors were not cheated. But most writers say that the "Relief from +burdens" meant the extinction of all securities whatever, and this +agrees best with what we read in his poems. For Solon prides himself in +these upon having + + "Taken off the mortgages, which on the land were laid, + And made the country free, which was formerly enslaved." + +While he speaks of bringing back Athenian citizens who had been sold +into slavery abroad, + + "In distant lands who roam, + Their native tongue forgot, + Or here endure at home + A slave's disgraceful lot," + +and of making them free men again. + +It is said that in consequence of this measure he met with the greatest +trouble of his life. As he was meditating how he might put an end to +debt, and what words and preambles were best for the introduction of +this law, he took counsel with his most intimate friends, such as Konon +and Kleinias and Hipponikus, informing them that he had no intention of +interfering with the tenure of land, but that he intended to abolishing +all existing securities. They instantly took time by the forelock, +borrowed large sums from the wealthy, and bought up a great extent of +land. Presently the decree came forth, and they remained in enjoyment of +these estates, but did not repay their loan to their creditors. This +brought Solon into great discredit, for the people believed that he had +been their accomplice. But he soon proved that this must be false, by +remitting a debt of five talents which he himself had lent; and some +state the sum at fifteen talents, amongst whom is Polyzelus of Rhodes. +However, his friends were for ever afterwards called "The Swindlers." + +XVI. By this measure he pleased neither party, but the rich were +dissatisfied at the loss of their securities, and the poor were still +more so because the land was not divided afresh, as they hoped it would +be, and because he had not, like Lykurgus, established absolute +equality. + +But Lykurgus was eleventh in direct descent from Herakles, and had +reigned in Lacedaemon for many years, and had his own great reputation, +friends, and interest to assist him in carrying out his reforms: and +although he chose to effect his purpose by violence, so that his eye was +actually knocked out, yet he succeeded in carrying that measure, so +valuable for the safety and concord of the state, by which it was +rendered impossible for any citizen to be either rich or poor. Solon's +power could not reach this height, as he was only a commoner and a +moderate man; yet he did all that was in his power, relying solely upon +the confidence and goodwill of his countrymen. + +It is clear that they were disappointed, and expected more from his +legislation, from his own verses-- + + "Once they speculated gaily, what good luck should them befall, + Now they look upon me coldly, as a traitor to them all." + +Yet he says, if any one else had been in his position, + + "He ne'er would have desisted from unsettling the laws, + Till he himself got all the cream." + +However, not long afterwards, they perceived the public benefits which +he had conferred upon them, forgot their private grievances, and made a +public sacrifice in honour of the Seisachtheia, or "Relief from +burdens." Moreover, they constituted Solon supreme reformer and +lawgiver, not over some departments only, but placing everything alike +in his hands; magistracies, public assemblies, senate, and law-courts. +He had full powers to confirm or abolish any of these, and to fix the +proper qualifications for members of them, and their numbers and times +of meeting. + +XVII. First of all, then, he repealed all the laws of Drakon, except +those relating to murder, because of their harshness and the excessive +punishments which they awarded. For death was the punishment for almost +every offence, so that even men convicted of idleness were executed, and +those who stole pot-herbs or fruits suffered just like sacrilegious +robbers and murderers. So that Demades afterwards made the joke that +Drakon's laws were not written with ink, but with blood. It is said +that Drakon himself, when asked why he had fixed the punishment of death +for most offences, answered that he considered these lesser crimes to +deserve it, and he had no greater punishment for more important ones. + +XVIII. In the next place, Solon, who wished to leave all magistracies as +he found them, in the hands of the wealthy classes, but to give the +people a share in the rest of the constitution, from which they were +then excluded, took a census of the wealth of the citizens, and made a +first class of those who had an annual income of not less than five +hundred medimni of dry or liquid produce; these he called +Pentakosiomedimni. The next class were the Hippeis, or knights, +consisting of those who were able to keep a horse, or who had an income +of three hundred medimni. The third class were the Zeugitae, whose +property qualification was two hundred medimni of dry or liquid produce; +and the last class were the Thetes, whom Solon did not permit to be +magistrates, but whose only political privilege was the right of +attending the public assemblies and sitting as jurymen in the law +courts. This privilege was at first insignificant, but afterwards became +of infinite importance, because most disputes were settled before a +jury. Even in those cases which he allowed the magistrates to settle, he +provided a final appeal to the people. + +Solon moreover is said to have purposely worded his laws vaguely and +with several interpretations, in order to increase the powers of these +juries, because persons who could not settle their disputes by the +letter of the law were obliged to have recourse to juries of the people, +and to refer all disputes to them, as being to a certain extent above +the laws. He himself notices this in the following verses: + + "I gave the people all the strength they needed, + Yet kept the power of the nobles strong; + Thus each from other's violence I shielded, + Not letting either do the other wrong." + +Thinking that the weakness of the populace required still further +protection, he permitted any man to prosecute on behalf of any other who +might be ill-treated. Thus if a man were struck or injured, any one else +who was able and willing might prosecute on his behalf, and the +lawgiver by this means endeavoured to make the whole body of citizens +act together and feel as one. A saying of his is recorded which quite +agrees with the spirit of this law. Being asked, what he thought was the +best managed city? "That," he answered, "in which those who are not +wronged espouse the cause of those who are, and punish their +oppressors." + +XIX. He established the senate of the Areopagus of those who had held +the yearly office of archon, and himself became a member of it because +he had been archon. But in addition to this, observing that the people +were becoming turbulent and unruly, in consequence of their relief from +debt, he formed a second senate, consisting of a hundred men selected +from each of the four tribes, to deliberate on measures in the first +instance, and he permitted no measures to be proposed before the general +assembly, which had not been previously discussed in this senate. The +upper senate he intended to exercise a general supervision, and to +maintain the laws, and he thought that with these two senates as her +anchors, the ship of the state would ride more securely, and that the +people would be less inclined to disorder. Most writers say that Solon +constituted the senate of the Areopagus, as is related above; and this +view is supported by the fact that Drakon nowhere mentions or names the +Areopagites, but in all cases of murder refers to the Ephetai. However, +the eighth law on the thirteenth table of the laws of Solon runs thus:-- + +"All citizens who were disfranchised before the magistracy of Solon +shall resume their rights, except those who have been condemned by the +Areopagus, or by the Ephetai, or by the king--archons, in the prytaneum, +for murder or manslaughter, or attempts to overthrow the government and +who were in exile when this law was made." + +This again proves that the senate of the Areopagus existed before the +time of Solon; for who could those persons be who were condemned by the +court of the Areopagus, if Solon was the first who gave the senate of +the Areopagus a criminal jurisdiction; though perhaps some words have +been left out, or indistinctly written, and the law means "all those +who had been condemned on the charges which now are judged by the court +of the Areopagus, the Ephetai, or the Prytanies, when this law was made, +must remain disfranchised, though the others become enfranchised?" Of +these explanations the reader himself must consider which he prefers. + +XX. The strangest of his remaining laws is that which declared +disfranchised a citizen who in a party conflict took neither side; +apparently his object was to prevent any one regarding home politics in +a listless, uninterested fashion, securing his own personal property, +and priding himself upon exemption from the misfortunes of his country, +and to encourage men boldly to attach themselves to the right party and +to share all its dangers, rather than in safety to watch and see which +side would be successful. That also is a strange and even ludicrous +provision in one of his laws, which permits an heiress, whose husband +proves impotent, to avail herself of the services of the next of kin to +obtain an heir to her estate. Some, however, say that this law rightly +serves men who know themselves to be unfit for marriage, and who +nevertheless marry heiresses for their money, and try to make the laws +override nature; for, when they see their wife having intercourse with +whom she pleases, they will either break off the marriage, or live in +constant shame, and so pay the penalty of their avarice and wrong-doing. +It is a good provision also, that the heiress may not converse with any +one, but only with him whom she may choose from among her husband's +relations, so that her offspring may be all in the family. This is +pointed at by his ordinance that the bride and bridegroom should be shut +in the same room and eat a quince together, and that the husband of an +heiress should approach her at least thrice in each month. For even if +no children are born, still this is a mark of respect to a good wife, +and puts an end to many misunderstandings, preventing their leading to +an actual quarrel. + +In other marriages he suppressed dowries, and ordered the bride to bring +to her husband three dresses and a few articles of furniture of no great +value; for he did not wish marriages to be treated as money bargains or +means of gain, but that men and women should enter into marriage for +love and happiness and procreation of children. Dionysius, the despot of +Syracuse, when his mother wished to be married to a young citizen, told +her that he had indeed broken the laws of the state when he seized the +throne, but that he could not disregard the laws of nature so far as to +countenance such a monstrous union. These disproportioned matches ought +not to be permitted in any state, nor should men be allowed to form +unequal loveless alliances, which are in no sense true marriages. A +magistrate or lawgiver might well address an old man who marries a young +girl in the words of Sophokles: "Poor wretch, a hopeful bridegroom you +will be;" and if he found a young man fattening like a partridge in the +house of a rich old woman, he ought to transfer him to some young maiden +who is without a husband. So much for this subject. + +XXI. Besides these, Solon's law which forbids men to speak evil of the +dead is much praised. It is good to think of the departed as sacred, and +it is only just to refrain from attacking the absent, while it is +politic, also, to prevent hatred from being eternal. He also forbade +people to speak evil of the living in temples, courts of justice, public +buildings, or during the national games; and imposed a fine of three +drachmas to the person offended, and two to the state. His reason for +this was that it shows a violent and uncultivated nature not to be able +to restrain one's passion in certain places and at certain times, +although it is hard to do so always, and to some persons impossible; and +a legislator should frame his laws with a view to what he can reasonably +hope to effect, and rather correct a few persons usefully than punish a +number to no purpose. + +He gained credit also by his law about wills. Before his time these were +not permitted at Athens, but the money and lands of a deceased person +were inherited by his family in all cases. Solon, however, permitted any +one who had no children to leave his property to whom he would, +honouring friendship more than nearness of kin, and giving a man +absolute power to dispose of his inheritance. Yet, on the other hand, he +did not permit legacies to be given without any restrictions, but +disallowed all that were obtained by the effects of disease or by +administration of drugs to the testator, or by imprisonment and +violence, or by the solicitations of his wife, as he rightly considered +that to be persuaded by one's wife against one's better judgment is the +same as to submit to force. For Solon held that a man's reason was +perverted by deceit as much as by violence, and by pleasure no less than +by pain. + +He regulated, moreover, the journeys of the women, and their mournings +and festivals. A woman was not allowed to travel with more than three +dresses, nor with more than an obolus' worth of food or drink, nor a +basket more than a cubit in length; nor was she to travel at night, +except in a waggon with a light carried in front of it. He abolished the +habits of tearing themselves at funerals, and of reciting set forms of +dirges, and of hiring mourners. He also forbade them to sacrifice an ox +for the funeral feast, and to bury more than three garments with the +body, and to visit other persons' graves. Most of these things are +forbidden by our own laws also; with the addition, that by our laws +those who offend thus are fined by the gynaeconomi, or regulators of the +women, for giving way to unmanly and womanish sorrow. + +XXII. Observing that the city was filled with men who came from all +countries to take refuge in Attica, that the country was for the most +part poor and unproductive, and that merchants also are unwilling to +despatch cargoes to a country which has nothing to export, he encouraged +his countrymen to embark in trade, and made a law that a son was not +obliged to support his father, if his father had not taught him a trade. +As for Lykurgus, whose city was clear of strangers, and whose land was +"unstinted, and with room for twice the number," as Euripides says, and +who above all had all the Helots, throughout Lacedaemon, who were best +kept employed, in order to break their spirit by labour and hardship, it +was very well that his citizens should disdain laborious handicrafts and +devote their whole attention to the art of war. + +But Solon had not the power to change the whole life of his countrymen +by his laws, but rather was forced to suit his laws to existing +circumstances, and, as he saw that the soil was so poor that it could +only suffice for the farmers, and was unable to feed a mass of idle +people as well, he gave great honour to trade, and gave powers to the +senate of the Areopagus to inquire what each man's source of income +might be, and to punish the idle. A harsher measure was that of which we +are told by Herakleides of Pontus, his making it unnecessary for +illegitimate children to maintain their father. Yet if a man abstains +from an honourable marriage, and lives with a woman more for his own +pleasure in her society than with a view to producing a family, he is +rightly served, and cannot upbraid his children with neglecting him, +because he has made their birth their reproach. + +XXIII. Altogether Solon's laws concerning women are very strange. He +permitted a husband to kill an adulterer taken in the act; but if any +one carried off a free woman and forced her, he assessed the penalty at +one hundred drachmas. If he obtained her favours by persuasion, he was +to pay twenty drachmas, except in the case of those who openly ply for +hire, alluding to harlots; for they come to those who offer them money +without any concealment. Moreover, he forbade men to sell their sisters +and daughters, except in the case of unchastity. Now to punish the same +offence at one time with unrelenting severity, and at another in a light +and trifling manner, by imposing so slight a fine, is unreasonable, +unless the scarcity of specie in the city at that period made fines +which were paid in money more valuable than they would now be; indeed, +in the valuation of things for sacrifice, a sheep and a drachma were +reckoned as each equal to a medimnus of corn. To the victor at the +Isthmian games he appointed a reward of a hundred drachmas, and to the +victor in the Olympian, five hundred. He gave five drachmas for every +wolf that was killed, and one drachma for every wolf's whelp; and we are +told by Demetrius of Phalerum that the first of these sums was the price +of an ox, and the second that of a sheep. The prices of choice victims, +which he settled in his sixteenth tablet of laws, would naturally be +higher than those of ordinary beasts, but even thus they are cheap +compared with prices at the present day. It was an ancient practice +among the Athenians to destroy the wolves, because their country was +better fitted for pasture than for growing crops. Some say that the +Athenian tribes derive their names, not from the sons of Ion, but from +the different professions in which men were then divided: thus the +fighting men were named Hoplites, and the tradesmen Ergadeis; the two +remaining ones being the Geleontes, or farmers, and the Aigikoreis, or +goat-herds and graziers. With regard to water, as the country is not +supplied with either rivers or lakes, but the people depend chiefly upon +artificial wells, he made a law, that wherever there was a public well +within four furlongs, people should use it, but if it were farther off, +then they must dig a private well for themselves; but if a man dug a +depth of sixty feet on his own estate without finding water, then he was +to have the right of filling a six-gallon pitcher twice a day at his +neighbour's well; for Solon thought it right to help the distressed, and +yet not to encourage laziness. He also made very judicious regulations +about planting trees, ordering that they should not be planted within +five feet of a neighbour's property, except in the case of olives and +fig-trees, which were not to be planted within nine feet; for these +trees spread out their roots farther than others, and spoil the growth +of any others by taking away their nourishment and by giving off hurtful +juices. Trenches and pits he ordered to be dug as far away from another +man's property as they were deep; and no hive of bees was to be placed +within three hundred feet of those already established by another man. + +XXIV. Oil was the only product of the country which he allowed to be +exported, everything else being forbidden; and he ordered that if any +one broke this law the archon was to solemnly curse him, unless he paid +a hundred drachmas into the public treasury. This law is written on the +first of his tablets. From this we see that the old story is not +altogether incredible, that the export of figs was forbidden, and that +the men who informed against those who had done so were therefore called +sycophants. He also made laws about damage received from animals, one of +which was that a dog who had bitten a man should be delivered up to him +tied to a stick three cubits long, an ingenious device for safety. + +One is astounded at his law of adopting foreigners into the state, +which permits no one to become a full citizen in Athens unless he be +either exiled for life from his native city, or transfers himself with +his whole family to Athens to practise his trade there. It is said that +his object in this was not so much to exclude other classes of people +from the city, as to assure these of a safe refuge there; and these he +thought would be good and faithful citizens, because the former had been +banished from their own country, and the latter had abandoned it of +their own freewill. Another peculiarity of Solon's laws was the public +dining-table in the prytaneum. Here he did not allow the same person to +dine often, while he punished the man who was invited and would not +come, because the one seemed gluttonous, and the other contemptuous. + +XXV. He ordered that all his laws should remain in force for a hundred +years, and he wrote them upon triangular wooden tablets, which revolved +upon an axis in oblong recesses, some small remains of which have been +preserved in the prytaneum down to the present day. These, we are told +by Aristotle, were called _Kurbeis_. The comic poet Kratinus also says, + + "By Solon and by Draco, mighty legislators once, + Whose tablets light the fire now to warm a dish of pulse." + +Some say that the term _Kurbeis_ is only applied to those on which are +written the laws which regulate religious matters. + +The senate swore by a collective oath that it would enforce Solon's +laws; and each of the Thesmothetae took an oath to the same effect at +the altar in the market-place, protesting that, if he transgressed any +of the laws, he would offer a golden statue as big as himself to the +temple at Delphi. + +Observing the irregularity of the months, and that the motions of the +moon did not accord either with the rising or setting of the sun, but +that frequently she in the same day overtakes and passes by him, he +ordered that day to be called "the old and the new," and that the part +of it before their conjunction should belong to the old month, while the +rest of the day after it belonged to the new one, being, it seems, the +first to rightly interpret the verse of Homer-- + + "The old month ended and the new began." + +He called the next day that of the new moon. After the twentieth, he no +longer reckoned forwards, but backwards, as the moon decreased, until +the thirtieth of the month. + +When Solon had passed all his laws, as people came to him every day to +praise or blame, or advise him to add or take away from what he had +written, while innumerable people wanted to ask questions, and discuss +points, and kept bidding him explain what was the object of this or that +regulation, he, feeling that he could not do all this, and that, if he +did not, his motives would be misunderstood; wishing, moreover, to +escape from troubles and the criticism and fault-finding of his +countrymen [for, as he himself writes, it is "Hard in great measures +every one to please"], made his private commercial business an excuse +for leaving the country, and set sail after having obtained from the +Athenians leave of absence for ten years. In this time he thought they +would become used to his laws. + +XXVI. He first went to Egypt, where he spent some time, as he himself +says, + + "At Nilus' outlets, by Canopus' strand." + +And he also discussed points of philosophy with Psenophis of Heliopolis, +and with Sonchis of Sais, the most distinguished of the Egyptian +priests. From them he heard the tale of the island Atlantis, as we are +told by Plato, and endeavoured to translate it into a poetical form for +the enjoyment of his countrymen. He next sailed to Cyprus, where he was +warmly received by Philocyprus, one of the local sovereigns, who ruled +over a small city founded by Demophon, the son of Theseus, near the +river Klarius, in a position which was easily defended, but +inconvenient. + +As a fair plain lay below, Solon persuaded him to remove the city to a +pleasanter and less contracted site, and himself personally +superintended the building of the new city, which he arranged so well +both for convenience and safety, that many new settlers joined +Philocyprus, and he was envied by the neighbouring kings. For this +reason, in honour of Solon, he named the new city Soloi, the name of the +old one having been Aipeia. Solon himself mentions this event, in one of +his elegiac poems, in which he addresses Philocyprus, saying-- + + "Long may'st thou reign, + Ruling thy race from Soloi's throne with glory, + But me may Venus of the violet crown + Send safe away from Cyprus famed in story. + May Heaven to these new walls propitious prove, + And bear me safely to the land I love." + +XXVII. Some writers argue, on chronological grounds, that Solon's +meeting with Croesus must have been an invention. But I cannot think +that so famous a story, which is confirmed by so many writers, and, +moreover, which so truly exhibits Solon's greatness of mind and wisdom, +ought to be given up because of the so-called rules of chronology, which +have been discussed by innumerable persons, up to the present day, +without their being ever able to make their dates agree. The story goes +that Solon at Croesus's desire came to Sardis, and there felt much like +a continental when he goes down to the seaside for the first time; for +he thinks each river he comes to must be the sea, and so Solon, as he +walked through the court and saw many of the courtiers richly attired +and each of them swaggering about with a train of attendants and +body-guards, thought that each one must be the king, until he was +brought before the king himself, who, as far as precious stones, richly +dyed clothes, and cunningly worked gold could adorn him, was splendid +and admirable, indeed a grand and gorgeous spectacle to behold. When +Solon was brought into his presence, he showed none of the feelings and +made none of the remarks about the sight, which Croesus expected, but +evidently despised such vulgar ostentation. Croesus then ordered his +treasures to be exhibited to him, and all the rest of his possessions +and valuables; not that Solon needed this, for the sight of Croesus +himself was enough to show him what sort of man he was. When, after +having seen all this, he was again brought before the king, Croesus +asked him whether he knew any man more happy than himself. Solon at +once answered that one Tellus, a fellow countryman of his own, was more +happy. He explained that Tellus was a good man, and left a family of +good sons; that he passed his life beyond the reach of want, and died +gloriously in battle for his country. At this, Croesus began to think +that Solon must be a cross-grained churlish fellow, if he did not +measure happiness by silver and gold, but preferred the life and death +of some private man of low degree to such power and empire as his. +However, he asked him a second time, whether he knew any one more happy +than himself, next to Tellus. Solon answered that he knew two men, +Kleobis and Biton, remarkable for their love for each other and for +their mother, who, as the oxen that drew their mother travelled slowly, +put themselves under the yoke and drew the carriage with her in it to +the temple of Here. She was congratulated by all the citizens, and was +very proud of them; and they offered sacrifice, drank some wine, and +then passed away by a painless death after so much glory. + +"Then," asked Croesus angrily, "do you not reckon me at all among happy +men?" Solon, who did not wish to flatter him, nor yet to exasperate him +farther, answered, "O King of the Lydians, we Greeks have been endowed +with moderate gifts, by Heaven, and our wisdom is of a cautious and +homely cast, not of a royal and magnificent character; so, being +moderate itself, and seeing the manifold chances to which life is +exposed, it does not permit us to take a pride in our present +possessions, nor to admire the good fortune of any man when it is liable +to change. Strange things await every man in the unknown future; and we +think that man alone happy whose life has been brought to a fortunate +termination. To congratulate a man who is yet alive and exposed to the +caprice of fortune is like proclaiming and crowning as victor one who +has not yet run his race, for his good fortune is uncertain and liable +to reversal." After speaking thus, Solon took his leave, having enraged +Croesus, who could not take his good advice. + +XXVIII. Aesop, the writer of the fables, who had been sent for to Sardis +by Croesus and enjoyed his favour, was vexed at the king's ungracious +reception of Solon, and advised him thus: "Solon," said he, "one ought +either to say very little to kings or else say what they wish most to +hear." "Not so," said Solon; "one should either say very little to them, +or else say what is best for them to hear." So at that time Croesus +despised Solon; but after he had been defeated by Cyrus, his city taken, +and he himself was about to be burned alive upon a pyre erected in the +presence of all the Persians and of Cyrus himself, then he thrice cried +out, "Solon," as loud as he could. Cyrus, surprised at this, sent to ask +what man or god Solon might be, who was invoked by a man in such +extremity. Croesus, without any concealment said, "He is one of the wise +men of Greece, whom I sent for, not because I wished to listen to him +and learn what I was ignorant of, but in order that he might see and +tell of my wealth, which I find it is a greater misfortune to lose than +it was a blessing to possess. For, while I possessed it, all I enjoyed +was opinion and empty talk; whereas, now the loss of it has brought me +in very deed into terrible and irreparable misfortunes and sufferings. +Now this man, who foresaw what might befall me, bade me look to the end +of my life, and not be arrogant on the strength of a fleeting +prosperity." + +When this was reported to Cyrus, he being a wiser man than Croesus, and +finding Solon's words strongly borne out by the example before him, not +only released Croesus, but treated him with favour for the rest of his +life; so that Solon had the glory of having by the same words saved one +king's life and given instruction to another. + +XXIX. During Solon's absence the strife of the factions at Athens was +renewed; Lykurgus was the chief of the party of the Pediaei, Megakles, +the son of Alkmaeon, led the Parali, and Peisistratus, the Diakrii, who +were joined by the mass of the poorer classes who hated the rich. Thus +the city still obeyed Solon's laws, but was longing for change, and all +men hoped for a new revolution, in which they trusted to get not only +their rights, but something more, and to triumph over the opposite +faction. In this state of affairs Solon landed at Athens, and was +received with respect by all the citizens. Although, on account of his +age, he was no longer able to engage in politics as keenly as before, +still he met the leaders of the various factions privately and +endeavoured to arrange their differences and reconcile them to one +another. Peisistratus appeared to pay more attention to him than the +others, for he was crafty and pleasant of speech, a protector of the +poor, and a man of moderation even in his quarrels. The qualities which +he had not, he affected to possess, giving himself out to be a cautious +and law-abiding man, who loved even-handed justice and was enraged at +any revolutionary proceedings. Thus he deceived the people; but Solon +soon saw through him, and detected his plans before any one else. He was +not shocked, but endeavoured to turn him from his purpose by advice, +saying to him and to others that if his desire to be first and his wish +to make himself master could be removed, there would be no more +excellent and virtuous citizen than Peisistratus. + +At this time Thespis was beginning to introduce the drama, and the +novelty of his exhibition attracted many people, although the regular +contests were not yet introduced. Solon, who was fond of seeing sights +and gaining knowledge, and whose old age was spent in leisure and +amusements and good fellowship, went to see Thespis, who acted in his +own play, as the ancient custom was. After the play was over, he asked +him if he was not ashamed to tell so many lies before so many people. +When Thespis answered that there was no harm in saying and doing these +things in jest, Solon violently struck the ground with his stick, +saying, "If we praise and approve of such jests as these, we shall soon +find people jesting with our business." + +XXX. When Peisistratus wounded himself and was driven into the +market-place in a cart to excite the people, whom he told that he had +been so treated by his enemies because he defended the constitution, and +while he was surrounded by a noisy crowd of sympathisers, Solon came +near him and said, "Son of Hippokrates, you are dishonourably imitating +Homer's Ulysses. You are doing this to deceive your fellow citizens, +while he mutilated himself to deceive the enemy." Upon this, as the +people were willing to take up arms on behalf of Peisistratus, they +assembled at the Pnyx, where Ariston proposed that a body-guard of +fifty club-bearers should be assigned to Peisistratus. Solon opposed +this, urging many arguments, like what we read in his poems: + + "You hang upon a crafty speaker's words;" + +and again, + + "Each alone a fox in cunning, + You grow stupid when you meet." + +But as he saw that the poor were eager to serve Peisistratus, while the +rich held back from cowardice, he went away, after saying that he was +wiser than the one class, and braver than the other; wiser, namely, than +those who did not understand what was going on, and braver than those +who did understand, but did not dare to oppose the despotism with which +they were threatened. + +The people carried the proposal, and would not be so mean as to make any +stipulation with Peisistratus about the number of his body-guard, but +permitted him to keep as many as he pleased until he seized the +Acropolis. When this took place, the city was convulsed; Megakles and +the other descendants of Alkmaeon fled, but Solon, although he was now +very old and had no one to stand by him, nevertheless came into the +market-place and addressed the citizens, reproaching them for their +folly and remissness, and urging them to make a final effort to retain +their freedom. It was then that he made the memorable remark that, in +former days it would have been easier for them to have prevented +despotism from appearing amongst them, but that now it would be more +glorious to cut it down, when it had arrived at its full growth. +However, as no one listened to him, because of the general terror, he +went home, armed himself, and took his post in the street outside his +door, saying, "I have done all I could for my country and her laws." +After this he remained quiet, though his friends urged him to leave +Athens. He, however, wrote poems reproaching the Athenians-- + + "Through your own cowardice you suffered wrong, + Blame then yourselves and not the gods for this; + 'Twas you yourselves that made the tyrant strong, + And rightly do you now your freedom miss." + +XXXI. At this many of his friends told him that the despot would surely +put him to death, and when they asked him what he trusted to, that he +performed such mad freaks, he answered, "To my age." But Peisistratus, +after he became established as sovereign, showed such marked favour to +Solon that he even was advised by him, and received his approval in +several cases. For he enforced most of Solon's laws, both observing them +himself and obliging his friends to do so. Indeed, when accused of +murder before the court of the Areopagus, he appeared in due form to +stand his trial, but his accuser let the case fall through. He also made +other laws himself, one of which is that those who are maimed in war +shall be kept at the public expense. Herakleides says that this was done +in imitation of Solon, who had already proposed it in the case of +Thersippus. But Theophrastus tells us that it was not Solon, but +Peisistratus, who made the law about idleness, by means of which he +rendered the city more quiet, and the country better cultivated. + +Solon also attempted to write a great poem about the fable of +'Atlantis,' which he had learned from the chroniclers of Sais +particularly concerned the Athenians, but he did not finish it, not, as +Plato says, for want of leisure, but rather because of his advanced age, +which made him fear that the task was too great for him. His own words +tell us that he had abundance of leisure-- + + "Old I grow, but ever learning," + +and, + + "Venus and Bacchus are all my care, + And the Muses, that charm the hearts of men." + +Plato eagerly took in hand the scheme of the 'Atlantis,' as though it +were a fine site for a palace, which had come to be his by inheritance, +still unbuilt on. He placed in the beginning of it such splendid +entrance-halls and vestibules as we find in no other tale or legend or +poem, but, as he began the work too late, he died before he was able to +finish it; so that the more we enjoy what he has written, the more we +grieve over what is lost. As the temple of Olympic Zeus among the +temples of Athens, so the 'Atlantis' is the only one among Plato's many +noble writings that is unfinished. + +Solon lived on into the reign of Peisistratus for a long time, +according to Herakleides of Pontus, but less than two years, according +to Phanias of Eresus. For Peisistratus became despot in the archonship +of Komius, and Phanias tells us that Solon died during the archonship of +Hegesistratus, Komias' successor. The story that his ashes were +scattered round the island of Salamis is legendary and improbable, yet +it is confirmed by many trustworthy writers, amongst whom is the +philosopher Aristotle. + + + + +LIFE OF POPLICOLA. + + +I. As a parallel to Solon we shall take Poplicola, who was honoured with +this name by the Romans, his original name having been Publius Valerius, +a supposed descendant of that Valerius who in ancient times was +especially instrumental in making the Romans and Sabines cease to be +enemies and become one people; for it was he who persuaded the two kings +to meet and make terms of peace. Valerius, a descendant of this hero, +was a man of eminence in Rome, which was then ruled by the kings, +because of his eloquence and wealth. He always spoke boldly on the side +of justice, and assisted the poor and needy with such kindness that it +was clear that, in case of a revolution, he would become the first man +in the state. + +Tarquinius Superbus, the king, had not come to his throne justly, but by +wicked and lawless violence, and as he reigned tyrannically and +insolently, the people hated him, and seized the opportunity of the +death of Lucretia, after her dishonour, to drive him out. Lucius Brutus, +who was determined to change the form of government, applied to Valerius +first of all, and with his vigorous assistance drove out the king. After +these events Valerius kept quiet, as long as it seemed likely that the +people would choose a single general to replace their king, because he +thought that it was Brutus's right to be elected, as he had been the +leader of the revolution. However the people, disgusted with the idea of +monarchy, and thinking that they could more easily endure to be ruled by +two men, proposed that two consuls should be chosen. Valerius now became +a candidate, hoping that he and Brutus would be elected; but he was not +chosen. Brutus, instead of Valerius, whom he would have preferred, had +as a colleague Tarquinius Collatinus, the husband of Lucretia, who was +not a better man than Valerius, but was elected because the men in power +at Rome, seeing what intrigues the exiled king was setting on foot to +secure his return, wished to have for their general a man who was his +sworn personal enemy. + +II. Valerius, disgusted at the idea that he was not trusted to fight for +his country because he had not suffered any personal wrong at the hands +of the king, left the senate, refused to attend public meetings, and +ceased to take any part whatever in public affairs, so that people began +to fear that in his rage he might go over to the king's party and +destroy the tottering edifice of Roman liberty. Brutus suspected some +others besides him, and proposed on a certain day to hold a solemn +sacrifice and bind the senate by an oath. Valerius, however, came +cheerfully into the Forum, and was the first to swear that he would +never yield anything to the Tarquins, but would fight for liberty to the +death, by which he greatly delighted the senate and encouraged the +leading men of the state. His acts too, immediately confirmed his words, +for ambassadors came from Tarquin with specious and seductive proposals, +such as he thought would win over the people, coming from a king who +seemed to have laid aside his insolence and only to wish for his just +rights. The consuls thought it right that these proposals should be laid +before the people, but Valerius would not permit it, not wishing that +the poorer citizens, to whom the war was a greater burden than the +monarchy had been, should have any excuse for revolt. + +III. After this came other ambassadors, announcing that Tarquin would +give up his throne, put an end to the war, and only ask for his own +property and that of his relatives and friends, upon which to live in +exile. Many were inclined to agree to this, and amongst them Collatinus, +when Brutus, an inflexible and harsh-tempered man, rushed into the +Forum, calling out that his colleague was a traitor, who wished to +furnish the tyrant with the means of continuing the war and recovering +his throne, when he ought rather to grudge him food to keep him from +starving. The citizens assembled, and Caius Minucius, a private citizen, +was the first man who addressed them, encouraging Brutus, and pointing +out to the Romans how much better it was that the money should be used +to help them than to help their enemies. In spite of this, however, the +Romans decided that, as they now possessed the liberty for which they +had fought, they would not lose the additional blessing of peace for the +sake of this property, but would cast it from them after the tyrant to +which it belonged. + +Tarquin really cared little for the property, and the demand was merely +made in order to sound the people and arrange a plot for the betrayal of +the state, which was managed by the ambassadors whom he had nominally +sent to look after his property. These men were selling some part of it, +keeping some safe, and sending some of it away, and meanwhile intrigued +so successfully that they won over two of the best families in Rome, +that of the Aquillii, in which were three senators, and that of the +Vitellii, among whom were two. All these men were, on the mother's side, +nephews of the consul Collatinus, and the Vitellii were also related to +Brutus, for he had married their sister, and by her had a large family. +The Vitellii, being relatives and intimate friends of the two elder sons +of Brutus, induced them to take part in the conspiracy, holding out to +them the hope that they might ally themselves to the great house of +Tarquin, soon to be restored to the throne, and would rid themselves of +their father's stupidity and harshness. By harshness, they alluded to +his inexorable punishment of bad men, and the stupidity was that which +he himself affected for a long time, in order to conceal his real +character from the tyrant, which was made matter of reproach to him +afterwards. + +IV. So, after they had persuaded these young men, they conferred again +with the Aquillii, and determined that all the conspirators should swear +a great and terrible oath, in which a man is killed, and each person +then pours a libation of his blood, and touches his entrails. The room +in which they meant to do this was, as may be supposed, a dark and +half-ruined one. Now a servant of the name of Vindicius happened to +conceal himself in it; not that he had any designs or any knowledge of +what was going on, but chancing to be in the room when the conspirators +solemnly entered, he was afraid of being detected there, and so hid +himself behind a chest, where he could see what was done and hear what +was said by them. They agreed to assassinate both consuls, and wrote a +letter to Tarquin acquainting him with their determination, which they +gave to the ambassadors, who were lodging in the house of the Aquillii +as their guests, and were present at this scene. After this they +dispersed, and Vindicius came out from his hiding-place. He was at a +loss what use to make of the discovery which Fortune had thrown in his +way, for he thought it a shocking thing, as indeed it was, for him to +make such a fearful revelation to Brutus about his sons, or to +Collatinus about his nephews, and he would not trust any private citizen +with a secret of such importance. Tormented by his secret, and unable to +remain quiet, he addressed himself to Valerius, chiefly moved to do so +by his affable kindly temper; for his house was open all day to those +who wished to speak with him, and he never refused an interview or +rejected a poor man's petition. + +V. When, then, Vindicius came before him and told him all that he knew +in the presence only of his wife and his brother Marcus, Valerius was +astounded and horrified. He would not let the man go, but locked him up, +set his wife to guard the door, and bade his brother to surround the +king's quarters, to seize the letter, if possible, keeping a strict +watch over all the servants there. He himself, with a large train of +clients, friends and servants, went to the house of the Aquillii, who +were not within. As no one expected him, he pushed into the house and +found the letter lying in the ambassadors' apartments. + +While he was thus employed, the Aquillii returned in haste, and +assembling a force at the door endeavoured to take away the letter from +him. His own party came to his assistance, and with their gowns twisted +round their necks with much buffeting made their way to the Forum. The +same thing happened at the king's quarters, where Marcus laid hold of +another letter which was being taken thither concealed among some +baggage, and brought as many of the king's party as he could into the +Forum. + +VI. When the consuls had put a stop to the confusion, Vindicius, at +Valerius's command, was brought out of his prison, and a court was held. +The letters were recognised, and the culprits had nothing to say for +themselves. All were silent and downcast, and a few, thinking to please +Brutus, hinted at banishment as the penalty of their crime. Collatinus +by his tears, and Valerius by his silence gave them hopes of mercy. But +Brutus, addressing each of his sons by name, said, "Come, Titus, come +Tiberius, why do you make no answer to the charges against you?" As, +after being asked thrice, they made no answer, he, turning his face to +the lictors, said, "I have done my work, do yours." They immediately +seized upon the young men, tore off their clothes, tied their hands +behind their backs, and scourged them. Although the people had not the +heart to look at so dreadful a sight, yet it is said that Brutus never +turned away his head, and showed no pity on his stern countenance, but +sat savagely looking on at the execution of his sons until at last they +were laid on the ground and their heads severed with an axe. Then he +handed over the rest of the culprits to be dealt with by his colleague, +rose, and left the Forum. His conduct cannot be praised, and yet it is +above censure. Either virtue in his mind overpowered every other +feeling, or his sorrow was so great as to produce insensibility. In +neither case was there anything unworthy, or even human in his conduct, +but it was either that of a god or a brute beast. It is better, however, +that we should speak in praise of so great a man rather than allow our +weakness to distrust his virtue. Indeed the Romans think that even the +foundation of the city by Romulus was not so great an event as the +confirmation of its constitution by Brutus. + +VII. When he left the Forum all men were silent for a long while, +shuddering at what had been done. The Aquillii took heart at the +mildness of Collatinus, and asked for time to prepare their defence. +They also begged that Vindicius might be given up to them, because he +was their servant, and ought not to be on the side of their accusers. +Collatinus was willing to allow this, but Valerius said that he was not +able to give the man up, because he was surrounded by so large a crowd, +and called upon the people not to disperse without punishing the +traitors. At last he laid his hands upon the two corpses, called for +Brutus, and reproached Collatinus for making his colleague act against +nature by condemning his own sons to death, and then thinking to please +the wives of these traitors and public enemies by saving their lives. +The consul, vexed at this, ordered the lictors to seize Vindicius. They +forced their way through the crowd, tried to lay hold of him, and struck +those who defended him, but the friends of Valerius stood in front of +him and beat them off, and the people raised a shout for Brutus. He +returned, and when silence was restored said that he had, as a father, +full power to condemn his sons to death, but that as for the other +culprits, their fate should be decided by the free vote of the citizens, +and that any one might come forward and address the people. The people, +however, would listen to no speeches, but voted unanimously for their +death, and they were all beheaded. + +Collatinus, it seems, had been viewed with suspicion before because of +his connection with the royal family, and his second name, Tarquinius, +was odious to the people. After these events, having utterly failed as +consul, he voluntarily laid down that office, and left the city. So now +there was another election, and Valerius received the due reward of his +patriotism and was gloriously made consul. Thinking that Vindicius ought +to receive something for his services, he made him a freedman, the first +ever made in Rome, and allowed him to vote in whatever tribe he chose to +be enrolled. The other freedmen were not allowed the suffrage till, long +after, it was given them by Appius to obtain popularity among them. The +whole ceremony is up to the present day called _vindicta_, after +Vindicius, we are told. + +VIII. After this they allowed the king's property to be plundered, and +destroyed the palace. Tarquinius had obtained the pleasantest part of +the Field of Mars, and had consecrated it to that god. This field had +just been cut, and the corn lay on the ground, for the people thought +that they must not thresh it or make any use of it, because of the +ground being consecrated, so they took the sheaves and threw them into +the river. In the same way they cut down the trees and threw them in, +leaving the whole place for the god, but uncultivated and unfruitful. +As there were many things of different sorts all floating together in +the river, the current did not carry them far, but when the first masses +settled on a shallow place, the rest which were carried down upon them +could not get past, but became heaped up there, and the stream compacted +them securely by the mud which it deposited upon them, not only +increasing the size of the whole mass, but firmly cementing it together. +The waves did not shake it, but gently beat it into a solid consistency. +Now, from its size, it began to receive additions, as most of what the +river brought down settled upon it. It is now a sacred island close by +the city, with temples and walks, and in the Latin tongue it has a name +which means "between two bridges." Some state that this did not happen +when Tarquinia's field was consecrated, but in later times when +Tarquinia gave up another field next to that one, for the public use. +This Tarquinia was a priestess, one of the Vestal virgins, and she was +greatly honoured for having done so, and was allowed to appear as a +witness in court, which no other woman could do; she also was permitted +to marry, by a decree of the senate, but did not avail herself of it. +These are the legends which they tell about this island. + +IX. Tarquin now gave up all hopes of recovering his throne by intrigue, +and appealed to the Etruscans, who willingly espoused his cause and +endeavoured to restore him with a great army. The consuls led out the +Romans to fight against them, posting them in holy places one of which +is called the Arsian grove, and another the Aesuvian meadow. When they +were about to join battle, Aruns, the son of Tarquin, and Brutus, the +Roman consul, attacked one another, not by chance, but with fell hatred +and rage, the one urging his horse against the tyrant and enemy of his +country, the other against the man who drove him into exile. Falling +upon one another with more fury than judgment, they made no attempt to +defend themselves, but only to strike, and both perished. The struggle, +so terribly begun, was continued with equal ferocity on both sides, +until the armies, after great losses, were separated by a tempest. +Valerius was in great straits, not knowing how the battle had gone, and +observing that his soldiers were despondent when they looked at the +corpses of their comrades, and elated when they saw those of the enemy, +so equal and undecided had been the slaughter. Yet each side, when it +viewed its own dead close by, was more inclined to own itself defeated, +than to claim the victory because of the supposed losses of the enemy. +Night came on, and it was spent as may be imagined by men who had fought +so hard. When all was quiet in both camps, we are told that the grove +was shaken, and that from it proceeded a loud voice which declared that +the Etruscans had lost one man more than the Romans. Apparently it was +the voice of a god; for immediately the Romans raised a bold and joyous +shout, and the Etruscans, panic-stricken, ran out of their camp and +dispersed. The Romans attacked the camp, took prisoners all that were +left in it, something less than five thousand, and plundered it. The +dead, when counted, proved to be eleven thousand three hundred of the +enemy, and of the Romans the same number save one. This battle is said +to have been fought on the Calends of March. Valerius triumphed after it +in a four-horse chariot, being the first consul that ever did so. And it +was a magnificent sight, and did not, as some say, offend the +spectators; for, if so, the habit of doing it would not have been so +carefully kept up for so many years. The people were also pleased with +the honours which Valerius paid to his colleague in arranging a splendid +funeral for him; he also pronounced a funeral oration over him, which +was so much approved of by the Romans that from that day forth it became +the custom for all good and great men at their deaths to have an oration +made over them by the leading men of the time. This is said to have been +older even than the Greek funeral orations, unless, as Anaximenes tells +us, Solon introduced this custom. + +X. But the people were vexed and angry, because though Brutus, whom they +thought the author of their liberty, would not be consul alone, but had +one colleague after another, yet "Valerius," they said, "has got all +power into his own hands, and is not so much the heir of the consulship +of Brutus as of the tyranny of Tarquin. And what use is it for him to +praise Brutus while he imitates Tarquin in his deeds, swaggering down +into the Forum with all the rods and axes before him, from a house +larger than the king's palace used to be." Indeed, Valerius lived in +rather too splendid a house on the Velian Hill, looking down into the +Forum, and difficult to climb up to, so that when he walked down from it +he did indeed look like a tragedy king leaving his palace. But now he +proved how valuable a thing it is for a statesman engaged in important +matters to keep his ears open to the truth, and shut against flattery. +Hearing from his friends what the people thought of him, he did not +argue or grieve at it, but suddenly assembled a number of workmen and +during the night destroyed his entire house down to the very +foundations, so that on the next day the Romans collected in crowds to +see it, admiring the magnanimity of the man, but sorrowing at the +destruction of so great and noble a house, which, like many a man, had +been put to death undeservedly, and expressing their concern for their +consul, who had no house to live in. Valerius, indeed, had to be +entertained by his friends, until the people gave him a site and built +him a house upon it, of more moderate proportions than the other, in the +place where at the present day stands the temple of Vica Pota. Wishing +to make not only himself but his office cease to be an object of terror +to his countrymen, he removed the axes from the bundles of rods carried +by the lictors, and when he entered the assembly of the people he +ordered his _fasces_ to be bowed and lowered before them, to show +respect to the majesty of the people. This custom the consuls observe to +this day. By these acts he did not really humble himself as he appeared +to the Romans to be doing, but he so completely destroyed any illwill +which had been felt against him that by giving up the semblance of power +he really gained the reality, as the people were eager to serve him and +obey him. For this reason they surnamed him _Poplicola_, which means +"lover of the people," and this name so took the place of his former one +that we shall use it during the remainder of this account of his life. + +XI. He permitted any one to become a candidate for the consulship; and +while he was sole consul he used his power to effect the greatest of his +reforms, because he did not know who his new colleague might be, and +whether he would not thwart him through ignorance or illwill. First of +all he brought up the senate to its proper number, for many senators had +perished, some at Tarquin's hands in former years, and some in the late +battle. It is said that he elected no less than a hundred and sixty-four +new senators. After this, he enacted laws which greatly added to the +power of the people, the first one of which gave accused persons a power +of appeal from the decision of the consuls to the people. The second +appointed the penalty of death to those who entered upon any public +office without the consent of the people. The third was to assist the +poor, as it relieved them from taxes and enabled them all to apply +themselves with greater assiduity to trade. The law, too, which he +enacted about disobedience to the consuls is no less popular in its +spirit, and favours the people more than the great nobles. He assessed +the fine for disobedience at the price of five oxen and two sheep. Now +the value of a sheep was ten obols, and that of an ox a hundred, for at +this period the Romans did not make much use of coined money, but +possessed abundance of cattle. For this reason at this day they call +property _peculia_, from _pecus_, a sheep, and on their oldest coins +they marked the figure of an ox, a sheep, or a pig. Their children, too, +were distinguished by the names of Suillii, Bubulci, Caprarii and +Porcii, for _capra_ means a goat, and _porcus_ a pig. + +XII. Though Poplicola favoured the people so much in these laws, and +showed such great moderation, yet in one instance he appointed a +terrible penalty. One of his laws enacted that any citizen was at +liberty to put to death anyone who tried to make himself king, without +any form of trial. No penalty was to be enforced, if the man could bring +forward proofs of the other's intention. His reason for this was that it +was impossible for any one to attempt to make himself king, unperceived +by some of his countrymen, but quite possible for him, although +detected, to become too powerful to be brought to trial. So, before he +made his attempt on the crown, any one was at liberty to exact from him +that penalty, which he would be unable to do after his success. + +His law about the treasury was also much approved. It being necessary +that the citizens should contribute taxes to carry on the war, as he did +not wish to touch the revenue himself or to allow his friends to do so, +and was even unwilling that the public money should be brought into a +private man's house, he appointed the Temple of Saturn to be used as a +treasury, which it is to this day, and he appointed also two of the +younger citizens as quaestors, to manage the accounts. The first +quaestors were Publius Venturius and Marcus Minucius, and a large sum of +money was collected, for a hundred and thirty thousand persons were +taxed, although orphans and widows were exempted. + +When he had settled all these matters, he nominated Lucretius, the +father of Lucretia, as his colleague, and gave up the _fasces_ to him as +a mark of respect, because he was the elder man. This custom, that the +elder of the two consuls has the _fasces_ carried before him, remains to +this day. As Lucretius died shortly afterwards, a new election took +place, and Marcus Horatius was elected, and acted as Poplicola's +colleague for the remainder of his year of office. + +XIII. As Tarquin was stirring up the Etruscans to a second war with +Rome, a great portent is said to have taken place. While he was yet +king, and had all but finished the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, he, +either in accordance with some prophecy or otherwise, ordered certain +Etruscan workmen at Veii to make an earthenware four-horse chariot to be +placed on the top of the temple. Shortly afterwards he was driven from +the throne, and the chariot, which had been modelled in clay, was placed +in the furnace. Here it did not, as clay generally does, shrink and +become smaller in the fire, as the wet dries out of it, but swelled to +so great a size, and became so hard and strong that it could only be got +out of the furnace by taking off the roof and sides. As this was decided +by the prophets to be a sign from Heaven that those who possessed the +chariot would be prosperous and fortunate, the Veientines determined not +to give it up to the Romans, arguing that it belonged to Tarquin, not to +those who had cast him out. + +A few days afterwards there were horse-races there; everything +proceeded as usual, but as the driver of the winning chariot, after +receiving his crown as victor, was driving slowly out of the circus, the +horses suddenly became excited for no apparent cause, and, either guided +by Heaven or by chance, rushed towards Rome, their driver with them, for +he finding it impossible to stop them was forced to let them whirl him +along until they reached the Capitol, where they threw him down near +what is called the Ratumenan Gate. The Veientines, struck with fear and +wonder at this event, permitted the workmen to deliver up the +earthenware chariot to the Romans. + +XIV. Tarquinius the son of Demaratus, when at war with the Sabines, +vowed that he would build the temple of Jupiter Olympius, but it was +built by Tarquinius Superbus, the son or grandson of him who made the +vow. He had not time to dedicate it, but was dethroned just before its +completion. Now when it was finished and thoroughly decorated, Poplicola +was eager to have the glory of dedicating it. Many of the nobles, +however, grudged him this, and were more incensed at this than at all +the glory which he had won as a general and as a legislator; for _that_, +they said, was his vocation, but _this_ was not. They stirred up +Horatius to oppose him and urged him to claim the right to dedicate the +temple. So when Poplicola was of necessity absent on military service, +the senate decreed that Horatius should dedicate it, and brought him up +into the Capitol to do so, a thing which they never could have done had +Poplicola been present. Some say that the two consuls casts lots, and +that the one, sorely against his will, drew the lot to command the army +in the field, and the other that to dedicate the temple. But we may +conjecture how this was, from the events which took place at the +dedication. On the Ides of September, which corresponds with the full +moon in our month Metageitnion, all the people assembled in the Capitol, +and Horatius, after silence had been enjoined upon all, performed the +ceremony of dedication. When, as is customary, he was about to take hold +of the doors of the temple and say the prayer of dedication, Marcus, +Poplicola's brother, who had long been standing near the doors watching +his opportunity, said to him, "Consul, your son has just died of +sickness in the camp." All who heard this were grieved, but Horatius, +undisturbed, merely said, "Fling his corpse where you please, for I +cannot grieve for him," and completed the dedication service. The story +was false, invented by Marcus to confuse Horatius. His conduct is a +remarkable instance of presence of mind, whether it be that he at once +saw through the trick, or believed the story and was not disturbed by +it. + +XV. The same fortune seems to have attended the second temple also. The +first, as we have related, was built by Tarquin, and dedicated by +Horatius. This was destroyed by fire in the civil wars. The second was +built by Sulla, but the name of Catulus appears as its dedicator, for +Sulla died before it was completed. This again was burned during the +civil tumults in the time of Vitellius, and Vespasian built a third, +which had nearly the same fortune as the others, except that he saw it +completed, and did not see it shortly afterwards destroyed, being thus +more fortunate than Tarquin in seeing the completion, and than Sulla in +seeing the dedication of his work. When Vespasian died the Capitol was +burned. The fourth and present temple was built and dedicated by +Domitian. It is said that Tarquin spent forty thousand pounds of silver +in building the foundations; but there is no private citizen in Rome at +the present day who could bear the expense of gilding the existing +temple, which cost more than twelve thousand talents. Its columns are of +Pentelic marble, exquisitely proportioned, which I myself saw at Athens; +but at Rome they were again cut and polished, by which process they did +not gain so much in gloss as they lost in symmetry, for they now appear +too slender. However, if any one who wonders at the expense of the +temple in the Capitol were to see the splendour of any one portico, +hall, or chamber in the house of Domitian, he would certainly be led to +parody that line of Epicharmus upon an extravagant fellow, + + "Not good-natured, but possessed with the disease of giving," + +and would say that Domitian was not pious or admirable, but possessed +with the disease of building, and turned everything into bricks and +mortar, just as it is said Midas turned things into gold. So much for +this. + +XVI. Tarquin, after the great battle in which his son was slain by +Brutus, took refuge at Clusium and begged Lars Porsena, the most +powerful king in Italy, to assist him. He was thought to be an +honourable and ambitious man, and promised his aid. First he sent an +embassy to Rome, ordering them to receive Tarquin; and when the Romans +refused to obey, he declared war against them, and telling them at what +place and time he would attack them, marched against them with a great +army. At Rome, Poplicola, though absent, was chosen consul for the +second time, and with him, Titus Lucretius. He returned to Rome, and by +way of putting a slight upon Porsena, went and founded the city of +Sigliuria, while his army was close at hand. He built the walls of this +place at a vast expense, and sent away seven hundred colonists to it, as +if the war with which he was menaced was a very unimportant matter. But, +nevertheless, Porsena made a sharp assault upon the walls of Rome, drove +away the garrison, and very nearly entered the town. Poplicola +forestalled him by sallying from one of the gates, and fought by the +banks of the Tiber against overwhelming numbers until he was severely +wounded and had to be carried out of the battle. As the same fate befell +his colleague Lucretius, the Romans lost heart and endeavoured to save +themselves by flight into the town. As the enemy also began to push +across the wooden bridge, Rome was in danger of being taken. But +Horatius, surnamed Cocles, and with him two of the noblest citizens, +named Herminius and Lartius, held the wooden bridge against them. This +Horatius was surnamed Cocles because he had lost an eye in the wars, or +as some say because of the flatness of his nose, which made his eyes and +eyebrows seem to meet, having nothing to separate them, and therefore +the people meaning to call him Cyclops, by a mistake of pronunciation, +named him Cocles. This man stood at the end of the bridge and kept off +the enemy until his friends behind had cut down the bridge. Then he +plunged into the river in his armour and swam to the other bank, though +wounded by an Etruscan spear in the thigh. Poplicola, in admiration of +his valour, at once proposed and passed a decree that every Roman should +give him the price of one day's provisions. Moreover, he gave him as +much land as he could plough in one day. And a brazen statue of him was +placed in the temple of Vulcan, by which honourable allusion was made to +the lameness caused by his wound. + +XVII. As Porsena pressed the siege, the Romans suffered from famine, and +another separate army of Etruscans invaded their territory. But +Poplicola, who was now consul for the third time, though he thought it +his chief duty to remain stedfast and hold out the city against Porsena, +did nevertheless sally out and attack these men, routing them with a +loss of five thousand. Now as to the legend of Mucius, it is told in +many different ways, but I will relate it as it seems most probable that +it happened. He was a man of great courage, and very daring in war, who, +meaning to assassinate Porsena, stole into the camp in an Etruscan dress +and speaking the Etruscan language. When he arrived at the raised +platform on which the king was sitting, he did not exactly know which +was he, and being afraid to ask, he drew his sword and killed the man +who of all the party looked most as if he were the king. Hereupon, he +was seized and questioned. A fire was burning close by in a brazier +which had been brought for Porsena to offer sacrifice. Mucius held his +right hand over this, and while the flesh was being consumed looked at +Porsena cheerfully and calmly, until he in astonishment acquitted him +and restored him his sword, which Mucius took with his left hand. On +account of this he is said to have been named _Scaevola_, which means +left-handed. He then said that though he did not fear Porsena, he was +conquered by his generosity, and out of kindness would tell him what +torture would have failed to extort: "Three hundred young Romans +like-minded with myself are at present concealed in your camp. I was +chosen by lot to make the first attempt, and am not grieved that I +failed to kill a man of honour, who ought to be a friend rather than an +enemy to the Romans." Porsena, hearing this, believed it to be true, and +became much more inclined to make peace, not, I imagine, so much for +fear of the three hundred, as out of admiration for the spirit and +valour of the Romans. This Mucius is called Scaevola by all writers, but +Athenodorus, the son of Sandon, in his book which is dedicated to +Octavia, the sister of Caesar Augustus, says that he was also named +Posthumus. + +XVIII. Poplicola, who did not think Porsena so terrible as an enemy as +he would be valuable as a friend and ally, was willing that he should +decide the quarrel between the Romans and Tarquin, and often proposed +that he should do so, feeling sure that he would discover him to be a +wretch who had been most deservedly dethroned. But Tarquin roughly +answered that he would submit his claims to no judge, and least of all +to Porsena, who had been his ally and now seemed inclined to desert him. +Porsena was angered at this, and, as his son Aruns also pleaded hard for +the Romans, put an end to the war upon condition that they should give +up the portion of Etruscan territory which they had seized, restore +their prisoners, and receive back their deserters. Upon this, ten youths +of the noblest families were given as hostages, and as many maidens, +among whom was Valeria, the daughter of Poplicola. + +XIX. While these negotiations were going on, and Porsena, through his +confidence in the good faith of the Romans, had relaxed the discipline +of his camp, these Roman maidens came down to bathe in the river at a +place where a bank, in the form of a crescent, makes the water smooth +and undisturbed. As they saw no guards, nor any one passing except in +boats, they determined to swim across, although the stream was strong +and deep. Some say that one of them, by name Cloelia, rode on a horse +across the river, encouraging the others as they swam. When they had got +safe across they went to Poplicola, but he was displeased with them +because it made him seem more faithless than Porsena, and he feared lest +this daring feat of the maidens might be suspected of being a +preconcerted plot of the Romans. For these reasons he sent them back to +Porsena. Now Tarquin and his party, foreseeing that this would be done, +laid an ambush on the further bank and attacked those who were +escorting the girls with superior numbers. Still they made a stout +defence, and meanwhile Valeria, the daughter of Poplicola, made her way +through the combatants and escaped, and three slaves who also got away +took care of her. The others were mixed up with the fight, and were in +considerable danger, when Aruns, Porsena's son, came to the rescue, put +the enemy to the rout, and saved the Romans. When the girls were brought +before Porsena, he asked which it was that had conceived the attempt to +escape and encouraged the others. Being told that it was Cloelia, he +smiled kindly upon her, and presented her with one of his own horses, +splendidly caparisoned. This is relied upon by those who say that it was +Cloelia alone who rode on horseback over the river, as proving their +case. Others say that it was not because she used a horse, but to honour +her manly spirit that the Etruscan king made her this present. A statue +of her, on horseback, stands in the Sacred Way as you go up to the +Palatine Hill, which by some is said not to be a statue of Cloelia, but +of Valeria. + +Porsena, after making peace with the Romans, among many other instances +of generosity, ordered his army to carry back nothing but their arms +when they retired, leaving the entrenched camp full of food and property +of every kind for the Romans. For this reason, at the present day, +whenever there is a sale of any public property, especially that which +is taken in war, proclamation is always made, "Porsena's goods for +sale," so that the Romans have never forgotten the kindness which they +received from him. A brazen statue of him used to stand near the senate +house, of plain and oldfashioned workmanship. + +XX. After this the Sabines invaded the country. Marcus Valerius, +Poplicola's brother, and Posthumius Tubertus were then consuls, and +Marcus, acting by the advice of Poplicola, who was present, won two +great battles, in the second of which he slew thirteen thousand of the +enemy without the Romans losing a man. He was rewarded for this, in +addition to his triumph, by having a house built for him upon the +Palatine Hill at the public expense. And whereas all other street doors +open inwards, the doors of that house were made to open outwards, as a +perpetual memorial of the honour paid him by the people, who thus made +way for him. It is said that all the doors in Greece used once to open +this way, arguing from the comedies, in which those who are coming out +of a house always knock at the door, to warn those who are passing or +standing near not to be struck by the leaves of the door, as they open. + +XXI. Next year Poplicola was consul for the fourth time. There was an +expectation of a war against the Latins and Sabines combined. + +Moreover the city seemed to have displeased the gods; for all the +pregnant women were delivered prematurely, and of imperfectly formed +children. Poplicola, after appeasing the gods below according to the +injunctions of the Sibylline books, re-established certain games in +accordance with an oracle, brought the city into a more hopeful state of +mind, and began to consider what he had to fear from earthly foes, for +the enemy's army was large and formidable. There was one Appius Clausus, +a Sabine, of great wealth and remarkable personal strength, and a +virtuous and eloquent man, who, like all great men, was the object of +envy and ill-will to many. He was accused by his enemies of having put +an end to the war, because he wished to increase the power of Rome, in +order to enable him the more easily to triumph over the liberties of his +own country, and make himself king of it. Perceiving that the populace +eagerly listened to these tales, and that he was an object of dislike to +the war party and the army, he began to fear impeachment: so, having +numerous followers, besides his personal friends and relatives, he was +able to divide the state into two parties. This caused great delay in +the Sabines' preparations for attacking the Romans, and Poplicola, +feeling it to be his duty not merely to watch but to assist Clausus, +sent envoys, who spoke to him as follows: "Poplicola feels that you are +a man of honour, who would be unwilling to take vengeance upon your +countrymen, although you have been shamefully treated by them. But if +you choose to put yourself in safety by leaving your country and a +people that hates you, he will receive you, both in his public and his +private capacity, in a manner worthy of your own high character and of +the dignity of Rome." After much deliberation, Clausus decided that he +could not do better than accept this offer, and assembled all his +friends. They in their turn influenced many others, so that he was able +to transplant to Rome five thousand of the most peaceful and respectable +families of the Sabine nation. Poplicola, who had notice of their +arrival, welcomed them kindly and graciously. He made them all citizens +of Rome, and gave each of them two acres of land along the river Anio. +He gave Clausus twenty-five acres, and enrolled him among the Senators. +Clausus afterwards became one of the first men in Rome for wisdom and +power, and his descendants, the Claudian family, was one of the most +illustrious in history. + +XXII. Though the disputes of the Sabines were settled by this migration, +yet their popular orators would not let them rest, but vehemently urged +that they ought not to let Appius, a deserter and an enemy, prevail upon +them to let the Romans go unpunished--a thing which he could not +persuade them to do when he was present among them. They proceeded to +Fidenae with a great army and encamped there, and laid two thousand men +in ambush before Rome, in wooded and broken ground, meaning in the +morning to send out a few horsemen to plunder ostentatiously. These men +were ordered to ride up close to Rome, and then to retire till their +pursuers were drawn into the snare. Poplicola heard of this plan the +same day from deserters, and quickly made all necessary arrangements. At +evening he sent Postumius Balbus, his son-in-law, with three thousand +men to occupy the tops of the hills under which the Sabine ambush was +placed. His colleague, Lucretius, was ordered to take the +swiftest-footed and noblest youth of the city, and pursue the plundering +horsemen, while he himself with the rest of the forces made a circuitous +march and outflanked the enemy. It chanced that a thick mist came on +about dawn, in the midst of which Postumius charged down from the hills +upon the men in ambush with a loud shout, while Lucretius sent his men +to attack the cavalry, and Poplicola fell upon the enemy's camp. The +Sabines were routed in every quarter, and even when fighting no longer +were cut down by the Romans, their rash confidence proving ruinous to +them. Each party thought that the others must be safe, and did not care +to stay and fight where they were, but those who were in the camp ran to +those in the ambush, and those in the ambush towards the camp, each of +them meeting those with whom they hoped to take refuge, and finding that +those who they had hoped would help them needed help themselves. The +Sabines would have been all put to the sword, had not the neighbouring +city of Fidenae afforded them a refuge, especially for the men from the +camp. Such as could not reach Fidenae were either put to death or taken +prisoners. + +XXIII. The Romans, accustomed as they are to refer all great success to +the intervention of Heaven, thought that the whole glory of this +achievement was due to the general. The first thing heard was the +victorious soldiers declaring that Poplicola had delivered up the enemy +to them blind and lame, and all but in chains, for them to slaughter at +their ease. The people were enriched by the plunder and the sale of the +prisoners for slaves. Poplicola enjoyed a triumph, and previously +delivering over the administration of the city to the two succeeding +consuls, died shortly afterwards, having attained to the highest pitch +of glory that man can reach. The people, as if they had done nothing +during his life to honour him as he deserved, and were now for the first +time to show their gratitude, decreed him a public funeral, and moreover +that every person should contribute the coin called _quadrans_, to show +him respect. The women also made a common agreement to wear mourning for +him for a whole year. He was buried by a decree of the people within the +city near the place called Velia, and all his family were given the +privilege of burial there. At the present day not one of the family is +actually buried there, but the corpse is carried thither, and laid down, +while some one places a lighted torch under it for a moment, after which +it is carried away. By this ceremony they claim the right, although they +forego it, and bury the corpse outside the city. + + + + +COMPARISON OF SOLON AND POPLICOLA. + + +I. It is a point peculiar to this comparison, and which does not occur +in any of the other Lives which I have written, that in turn one +imitates and the other bears witness to his fellow's deeds. Observe, for +instance, Solon's definition of happiness before Croesus, how much +better it suits Poplicola than Tellus. He says that Tellus was fortunate +because of his good luck, his virtue, and his noble children; but yet he +makes no mention of him or of his children in his poetry, and he never +was a man of any renown, or held any high office. + +Now Poplicola's virtues made him the most powerful and glorious of the +Romans during his life, and six hundred years after his death the very +noblest families of Rome, those named Publicola and Messala and +Valerius, are proud to trace their descent from him, even at the present +day. Tellus, it is true, died like a brave man fighting in the ranks, +but Poplicola slew his enemies, which is much better than being killed +oneself, and made his country victorious by skill as a general and a +statesman, and, after triumphing and enjoying honours of every kind, +died the death which Solon thought so enviable. Besides, Solon, in his +answer to Mimnermus about the time of life, has written the verses: + + "To me may favouring Heaven send, + That all my friends may mourn my end," + +in which he bears witness to the good fortune of Poplicola; for he, when +he died, was mourned not only by all his friends and relations but by +the whole city, in which thousands wept for him, while all the women +wore mourning for him as if he were a son or father of them all that +they had lost. + +Solon says in his poems, + + "I long for wealth, but not procured + By means unholy." + +Now Poplicola not only possessed wealth honourably acquired, but also +was able to spend it, much to his credit, in relieving the needy. Thus +if Solon was the wisest, Poplicola was certainly the most fortunate of +men; for what Solon prayed for as the greatest blessing, Poplicola +possessed and enjoyed to the end of his days. + +II. Thus has Solon done honour to Poplicola; and he again honoured Solon +by regarding him as the best model a man could follow in establishing a +free constitution: for he took away the excessive power and dignity of +the consuls and made them inoffensive to the people, and indeed made use +of many of Solon's own laws; as he empowered the people to elect their +own consuls, and gave defendants a right of appeal to the people from +other courts, just as Solon had done. He did not, like Solon, make two +senates, but he increased the existing one to nearly double its number. +His grounds for the appointment of quaestors was to give the consul +leisure for more important matters, if he was an honest man; and if he +was a bad man, to remove the opportunity of fraud which he would have +had if he were supreme over the state and the treasury at once. In +hatred of tyrants Poplicola exceeded Solon, for he fixed the penalty for +a man who might be proved to be attempting to make himself king, whereas +the Roman allowed any one to kill him without trial. And while Solon +justly prided himself upon his having been offered the opportunity to +make himself despot, with the full consent of his fellow-countrymen, and +yet having refused it, Poplicola deserves even greater credit for having +been placed in an office of almost despotic power, and having made it +more popular, not using the privileges with which he was entrusted. +Indeed Solon seems to have been the first to perceive that a people + + "Obeys its rulers best, + When not too free, yet not too much opprest." + +III. The relief of debtors was a device peculiar to Solon, which, more +than anything else confirmed the liberty of the citizens. For laws to +establish equality are of no use if poor men are prevented from enjoying +it because of their debts; and in the states which appear to be the most +free, men become mere slaves to the rich, and conduct the whole business +of the state at their dictation. It should be especially noted that +although an abolition of debt would naturally produce a civil war, yet +this measure of Solon's, like an unusual but powerful dose of medicine, +actually put an end to the existing condition of internal strife; for +the well-known probity of Solon's character outweighed the discredit of +the means to which he resorted. In fact Solon began his public life with +greater glory than Poplicola, for he was the leading spirit, and +followed no man, but entirely single handed effected the most important +reforms; while Poplicola was more enviable and fortunate at the close of +his career. + +Solon himself saw his own constitution overthrown, while that of +Poplicola preserved order in the city down to the time of the civil +wars; and the reason was that Solon, as soon as he had enacted his laws, +went on his travels, leaving them written on wooden tablets, defenceless +against all assailants; whereas Poplicola remained at home, acted as +consul, and by his statesmanship ensured the success and permanence of +the new constitution. Moreover, Solon could not stop Peisistratus, +although he perceived his designs, but was forced to see a despotism +established; while Poplicola destroyed a monarchy which had existed for +many years, showing equal virtue with Solon, but greater good fortune +and power to enable him to carry out his intentions. + +IV. With regard to warlike achievements, Daimachus of Plataea will not +even admit that Solon made the campaign against the Megarians, which we +have related; but Poplicola both by strategy and personal valour won +many great battles. As a statesman, Solon seems to have acted somewhat +childishly in pretending that he was mad, in order to make his speech +about Salamis, while Poplicola ran the very greatest risks in driving +out the tyrant and crushing the conspiracy. He was especially +responsible for the chief criminals being put to death, and thus not +only drove the Tarquins out of the city, but cut off and destroyed +their hopes of return. And while he showed such vigour in enterprises +that required spirit and courage, he was equally admirable in peaceful +negotiations and the arts of persuasion; for he skilfully won over the +formidable Porsena to be the friend instead of the enemy of Rome. + +Still we may be reminded that Solon stirred up the Athenians to capture +Salamis, which they had given up to the Megarians, while Poplicola +withdrew the Romans from a country which they had conquered. We must, +however, consider the circumstances under which these events took place. +A subtle politician deals with every thing so as to turn it to the +greatest advantage, and will often lose a part in order to save the +whole, and by sacrificing some small advantage gain another more +important one, as did Poplicola on that occasion; for he, by withdrawing +from a foreign country, preserved his own, gained the enemy's camp for +the Romans, who before were only too glad to save their city from ruin, +and at last, by converting his enemy into an arbitrator and winning his +cause, obtained all the fruits of victory: for Porsena put an end to the +war, and left behind him all his war material to show his respect for +the noble character of the consul. + + + + +LIFE OF THEMISTOKLES. + + +I. Themistokles came of a family too obscure to entitle him to +distinction. His father, Neokles, was a middle-class Athenian citizen, +of the township of Phrearri and the tribe Leontis. He was base born on +his mother's side, as the epigram tells us: + + "My name's Abrotonon from Thrace, + I boast not old Athenian race; + Yet, humble though my lineage be, + Themistokles was born of me." + +Phanias, however, says that the mother of Themistokles was a Carian, not +a Thracian, and that her name was not Abrotonon but Euterpe. Manthes +even tells us that she came from the city of Halikarnassus in Caria. All +base-born Athenians were made to assemble at Kynosarges, a gymnasium +outside the walls sacred to Herakles, who was regarded as base born +among the gods because his mother was a mortal; and Themistokles induced +several youths of noble birth to come to Kynosarges with him and join in +the wrestling there, an ingenious device for destroying the exclusive +privileges of birth. But, for all that, he evidently was of the blood of +Lykomedes; for when the barbarians burned down the temple of the +Initiation at Phlya, which belonged to the whole race of the descendants +of Lykomedes, it was restored by Themistokles, as we are told by +Simonides. + +II. He is agreed by all to have been a child of vigorous impulses, +naturally clever, and inclined to take an interest in important affairs +and questions of statesmanship. During his holidays and times of leisure +he did not play and trifle as other children do, but was always found +arranging some speech by himself and thinking it over. The speech was +always an attack on, or a defence of, some one of his playfellows. His +schoolmaster was wont to say, "You will be nothing petty, my boy; you +will be either a very good or a very bad man." + +In his learning, he cared nothing for the exercises intended to form the +character, and mere showy accomplishments and graces, but eagerly +applied himself to all real knowledge, trusting to his natural gifts to +enable him to master what was thought to be too abstruse for his time of +life. In consequence of this, when in society he was ridiculed by those +who thought themselves well mannered and well educated, he was obliged +to make the somewhat vulgar retort that he could not tune a lute or play +upon the harp, but he could make a small and obscure state great and +glorious. + +In spite of all this, Stesimbrotus says that Themistokles was a pupil of +Anaxagoras, and attended the lectures of Melissus the physicist; but +here he is wrong as to dates. Melissus was the general who was opposed +to Perikles, a much younger man than Themistokles, when he was besieging +Samos, and Anaxagoras was one of Perikles's friends. One is more +inclined to believe those who tell us that Themistokles was a follower +and admirer of Mnesiphilus of Phrearri, who was neither an orator nor a +natural philosopher, but a man who had deeply studied what went by the +name of wisdom, but was really political sharp practice and expedients +of statesmanship, which he had, as it were, inherited as a legacy from +Solon. Those who in later times mixed up this science with forensic +devices, and used it, not to deal with the facts of politics, but the +abstract ideas of speculative philosophy, were named Sophists. +Themistokles used to converse with this man when he had already begun +his political career. In his childhood he was capricious and unsteady, +his genius, as yet untempered by reason and experience, showing great +capacities both for good and evil, and after breaking out into vice, as +he himself used afterwards to admit, saying that the colts which are the +hardest to break in usually make the most valuable horses when properly +taught. But as for the stories which some have fabricated out of this, +about his being disinherited by his father, and about his mother +committing suicide through grief at her son's disgrace, they seem to be +untrue. On the other hand, some writers tell us that his father, wishing +to dissuade him from taking part in politics, pointed out to him the old +triremes lying abandoned on the beach, and told him that politicians, +when the people had no farther use for them, were cast aside in like +manner. + +III. Very early in life Themistokles took a vigorous part in public +affairs, possessed by vehement ambition. Determined from the very outset +that he would become the leading man in the state, he eagerly entered +into all the schemes for displacing those who where then at the head of +affairs, especially attacking Aristeides, the son of Lysimachus, whose +policy he opposed on every occasion. Yet his enmity with this man seems +to have had a very boyish commencement; for they both entertained a +passion for the beautiful Stesilaus, who, we are told by Ariston the +philosopher, was descended from a family residing in the island of Keos. +After this difference they espoused different parties in the state, and +their different temper and habits widened the breach between them. +Aristeides was of a mild and honourable nature, and as a statesman cared +nothing for popularity or personal glory, but did what he thought right +with great caution and strict rectitude. He was thus often brought into +collision with Themistokles, who was trying to engage the people in many +new schemes, and to introduce startling reforms, by which he would +himself have gained credit, and which Aristeides steadily opposed. + +He is said to have been so recklessly ambitious and so frenziedly eager +to take part in great events, that though he was very young at the time +of the battle of Marathon, when the country rang with the praises of the +generalship of Miltiades, he was often to be seen buried in thought, +passing sleepless nights and refusing invitations to wine-parties, and +that he answered those who asked him the cause of his change of habits, +that the trophies of Miltiades would not let him sleep. Other men +thought that the victory of Marathon had put an end to the war, but +Themistokles saw that it was but the prelude to a greater contest, in +which he prepared himself to stand forth as the champion of Greece, and, +foreseeing long before what was to come, endeavoured to make the city +of Athens ready to meet it. + +IV. First of all, he had the courage to propose that the Athenians, +instead of dividing amongst themselves the revenues derived from the +silver mines at Laurium, should construct ships out of this fund for the +war with Aegina. This was then at its height, and the Aeginetans, who +had a large navy, were masters of the sea. By this means Themistokles +was more easily enabled to carry his point, not trying to terrify the +people by alluding to Darius and the Persians, who lived a long way off, +and whom few feared would ever come to attack them, but by cleverly +appealing to their feelings of patriotism against the Aeginetans, to +make them consent to the outlay. + +With that money a hundred triremes were built, which were subsequently +used to fight against Xerxes. After this he kept gradually turning the +thoughts of the Athenians in the direction of the sea, because their +land force was unable even to hold its own against the neighbouring +states, while with a powerful fleet they could both beat off the +barbarians and make themselves masters of the whole of Greece. Thus, as +Plato says, instead of stationary soldiers as they were, he made them +roving sailors, and gave rise to the contemptuous remark that +Themistokles took away from the citizens of Athens the shield and the +spear, and reduced them to the oar and the rower's bench. This, we are +told by Stesimbrotus, he effected after quelling the opposition of +Miltiades, who spoke on the other side. Whether his proceedings at this +time were strictly constitutional or no I shall leave to others to +determine; but that the only safety of Greece lay in its fleet, and that +those triremes were the salvation of the Athenians after their city was +taken, can be proved by the testimony, among others, of Xerxes himself; +for although his land force was unbroken, he fled after his naval +defeat, as though no longer able to contend with the Greeks, and he left +Mardonius behind more to prevent pursuit, in my opinion, than with any +hopes of conquest. + +V. Some writers tell us that he was a keen man of business, and explain +that his grand style of living made this necessary; for he made costly +sacrifices, and entertained foreigners in a splendid manner, all of +which required a large expenditure; but some accuse him of meanness and +avarice, and even say that he sold presents which were sent for his +table. When Philides the horse-dealer refused to sell him a colt, he +threatened that he would soon make a wooden horse of the man's house; +meaning that he would stir up lawsuits and claims against him from some +of his relations. + +In ambition he surpassed every one. When yet a young and unknown man he +prevailed upon Epikles of Hermione, the admired performer on the harp, +to practise his art in his house, hoping thereby to bring many people to +it to listen. And he displeased the Greeks when he went to the Olympian +games by vying with Kimon in the luxury of his table, his tents, and his +other furniture. It was thought very proper for Kimon, a young man of +noble birth, to do so; but for a man who had not yet made himself a +reputation, and had not means to support the expense, such extravagance +seemed mere vulgar ostentation. In the dramatic contest, which even then +excited great interest and rivalry, the play whose expenses he paid for +won the prize. He put up a tablet in memory of his success bearing the +words: Themistokles of Phrearri was choragus, Phrynichus wrote the play, +Adeimantus was archon. Yet he was popular, for he knew every one of the +citizens by name, and gave impartial judgment in all cases referred to +him as arbitrator. Once, when Simonides of Keos asked him to strain a +point in his favour, Themistokles, who was a general at the time, +answered that Simonides would be a bad poet if he sang out of tune; and +he would be a bad magistrate if he favoured men against the law. At +another time he rallied Simonides on his folly in abusing the +Corinthians, who inhabited so fine a city, and in having his own statue +carved, though he was so ugly. He continued to increase in popularity by +judiciously courting the favour of the people, and was at length able to +secure the triumph of his own party, and the banishment of his rival +Aristeides. + +VI. As the Persians were now about to invade Greece, the Athenians +deliberated as to who should be their leader. It is said that most men +refused the post of General through fear, but that Epikydes, the son of +Euphemides, a clever mob-orator, but cowardly and accessible to bribes, +desired to be appointed, and seemed very likely to be elected. +Themistokles, fearing that the state would be utterly ruined if its +affairs fell into such hands, bribed him into forgetting his ambitious +designs, and withdrawing his candidature. + +He was much admired for his conduct when envoys came from the Persian +king to demand earth and water, in token of submission. He seized the +interpreter, and by a decree of the people had him put to death, because +he had dared to translate the commands of a barbarian into the language +of free Greeks. He acted in the same way to Arthmias of Zelea. This man, +at the instance of Themistokles, was declared infamous, he and his +children and his descendants for ever, because he brought Persian gold +among the Greeks. His greatest achievement of all, however, was, that he +put an end to all the internal wars in Greece, and reconciled the states +with one another, inducing them to defer the settlement of their feuds +until after the Persian war. In this he is said to have been greatly +assisted by Chileon the Arcadian. + +VII. On his appointment as General, he at once endeavoured to prevail +upon his countrymen to man their fleet, leave their city, and go to meet +the enemy by sea as far from Greece as possible. As this met with great +opposition, he, together with the Lacedaemonians, led a large force as +far as the Vale of Tempe, which they intended to make their first line +of defence, as Thessaly had not at that time declared for the Persians. +When, however, the armies were forced to retire from thence, and all +Greece, up to Boeotia, declared for the Persians, the Athenians became +more willing to listen to Themistokles about fighting by sea, and he was +sent with a fleet to guard the straits at Artemisium. Here the Greeks +chose the Lacedaemonians, and their general, Eurybiades, to take the +command; but the Athenians refused to submit to any other state, because +they alone furnished more ships than all the rest. Themistokles, at this +crisis perceiving the danger, gave up his claims to Eurybiades, and +soothed the wounded pride of the Athenians, telling them that if they +proved themselves brave men in the war, they would find that all the +other states in Greece would cheerfully recognise their supremacy. On +this account he seems more than any one else to deserve the credit of +having saved Greece, and to have covered the Athenians with glory by +teaching them to surpass their enemies in bravery, and their allies in +good sense. When the Persian fleet reached Aphetai, Eurybiades was +terrified at the number of ships at the mouth of the Straits, and, +learning that two hundred sail more were gone round the outside of +Euboea to take him in the rear, he at once wished to retire further into +Greece, and support the fleet by the land army in Peloponnesus, for he +regarded the Persian king's fleet as utterly irresistible at sea. Upon +this the Euboeans, who feared to be deserted by the Greeks, sent one +Pelagon with a large sum of money, to make secret proposals to +Themistokles. He took the money, Herodotus tells us, and gave it to +Eurybiades and his party. One of those who most vehemently opposed him +was Architeles, the captain of the Sacred Trireme, who had not +sufficient money to pay his crew, and therefore wished to sail back to +Athens. Themistokles stirred up the anger of his men to such a pitch +that they rushed upon him and took away his supper. At this, Architeles +was much vexed, but Themistokles sent him a basket containing bread and +meat, with a talent of silver hidden underneath it, with a message +bidding him eat his supper and pay his men the next day, but that, if he +did not, Themistokles would denounce him to his countrymen as having +received bribes from the enemy. This we are told by Phanias of Lesbos. + +VIII. The battles which took place in the Straits with the Persian +ships, were indeed indecisive, but the experience gained in them was of +the greatest value to the Greeks, as they were taught by their result +that multitudes of ships and splendid ensigns, and the boastful +war-cries of barbarians, avail nothing against men who dare to fight +hand to hand, and that they must disregard all these and boldly grapple +with their enemies. Pindar seems to have understood this when he says, +about the battle at Artemisium, that there + + "The sons of Athena laid + Their freedom's grand foundation." + +for indeed confidence leads to victory. This Artemisium is a promontory +of the island of Euboea, stretching northwards beyond Hestiaea; and +opposite to it is Olizon, which was once part of the dominions of +Philoktetes. There is upon it a small temple of Artemis (Diana), which +is called the "Temple towards the East." Round it stand trees and a +circle of pillars of white stone. This stone, when rubbed in the hand, +has the colour and smell of saffron. On one of these pillars were +written the following verses: + + "The sons of Athens once o'ercame in fight + All Asia's tribes, on yonder sea; + They raised these pillars round Diana's shrine, + To thank her for their victory." + +Even now a place is pointed out on the beach where, under a great heap +of sand, there is a deep bed of black ashes where it is thought the +wrecks and dead bodies were burned. + +IX. But when the news of Thermopylae was brought to the Greeks at +Artemisium, that Leonidas had fallen, and Xerxes was in possession of +the passes, they retired further into Greece, the Athenians protecting +the rear on account of their bravery, and full of pride at their +achievements. At all the harbours and landing-places along the coast, +Themistokles, as he passed by, cut conspicuous inscriptions on stones, +some of which he found on the spot, and others which he himself set up +at all the watering-places and convenient stations for ships. In these +inscriptions he besought the Ionians, if possible, to come over to the +Athenians, who were their fathers, and who were fighting for their +liberty; and if they could not do this, to throw the barbarian army into +confusion during battle. He hoped that these writings would either bring +the Ionians over to the side of the Greeks, or make them suspected of +treason by the Persians. + +Meanwhile Xerxes invaded Greece through Doris, and came into Phokis, +where he burned the city of the Phokaeans. The Greeks made no +resistance, although the Athenians begged them to make a stand in +Boeotia, and cover Attica, urging that they had fought in defence of the +whole of Greece at Artemisium. However, as no one would listen to them, +but all the rest of the Greeks determined to defend the Peloponnesus, +and were collecting all their forces within it, and building a wall +across the Isthmus from sea to sea, the Athenians were enraged at their +treachery, and disheartened at being thus abandoned to their fate. They +had no thoughts of resisting so enormous an army; and the only thing +they could do under the circumstances, to abandon their city and trust +to their ships, was distasteful to the people, who saw nothing to be +gained by victory, and no advantage in life, if they had to desert the +temples of their gods and the monuments of their fathers. + +X. At this crisis, Themistokles, despairing of influencing the populace +by human reasoning, just as a dramatist has recourse to supernatural +machinery, produced signs and wonders and oracles. He argued that it was +a portent that the sacred snake during those days deserted his usual +haunt. The priests, who found their daily offerings to him of the first +fruits of the sacrifices left untouched, told the people, at the +instigation of Themistokles, that the goddess Athena (Minerva) had left +the city, and was leading them to the sea. He also swayed the popular +mind by the oracle, in which he argued that by "wooden walls" ships were +alluded to; and that Apollo spoke of Salamis as "divine," not terrible +or sad, because Salamis would be the cause of great good fortune to the +Greeks. Having thus gained his point, he proposed a decree, that the +city be left to the care of the tutelary goddess of the Athenians, that +all able-bodied men should embark in the ships of war, and that each man +should take the best measures in his power to save the women and +children and slaves. + +When this decree was passed, most of the Athenians sent their aged folks +and women over to Troezen, where they were hospitably received by the +Troezenians, who decreed that they should be maintained at the public +expense, receiving each two obols a day, that the children should be +allowed to pick the fruit from any man's tree, and even that their +school expenses should be paid. This decree was proposed by Nikagoras. + +The Athenians at this time had no public funds, yet Aristotle tells us +that the Senate of the Areopagus, by supplying each fighting man with +eight drachmas, did good service in manning the fleet; and Kleidemus +tells us that this money was obtained by an artifice of Themistokles. +When the Athenians were going down to the Peiraeus, he gave out that the +Gorgon's head had been lost from the statue of the goddess. +Themistokles, under pretext of seeking for it, searched every man, and +found great stores of money hidden in their luggage, which he +confiscated, and thus was able to supply the crews of the ships with +abundance of necessaries. When the whole city put to sea, the sight +affected some to pity, while others admired their courage in sending +their families out of the way that they might not be disturbed by +weeping and wailing as they went over to Salamis. Yet many of the aged +citizens who were left behind at Athens afforded a piteous sight; and +even the domestic animals, as they ran howling to the sea-shore, +accompanying their masters, touched men's hearts. It is said that the +dog of Xanthippus, the father of Perikles, could not endure to be +separated from him, and jumping into the sea swam alongside of his +trireme, reached Salamis, and then at once died. His tomb is even now to +be seen at the place called Kynossema. + +XI. Besides these great achievements, Themistokles, perceiving that his +countrymen longed to have Aristeides back again, and fearing that he +might ally himself with the Persian, and work ruin to Greece out of +anger against his own country (for Aristeides had been banished from +Athens before the war when Themistokles came into power), proposed a +decree, that any citizen who had been banished for a term of years, +might return and do his best by word and deed to serve his country +together with the other citizens. + +Eurybiades, on account of the prestige of Sparta, held the chief command +of the fleet, but was unwilling to risk a battle, preferring to weigh +anchor and sail to the Isthmus where the land army of the Peloponnesians +was assembled. This project was opposed by Themistokles; and it was on +this occasion that he made use of the following well-known saying: When +Eurybiades said to him, "Themistokles, in the public games they whip +those who rise before their turn." "True," said Themistokles, "but they +do not crown those who lag behind." And when Eurybiades raised his +staff as if he would strike him, Themistokles said, "Strike, but hear +me." When Eurybiades, in wonder at his gentle temper, bade him speak, he +again urged Eurybiades to remain at Salamis. Some one then said, that a +man without a city had no right to tell those who still possessed one to +abandon it, but Themistokles turning upon him, answered, "Wretch, we +Athenians have indeed abandoned our walls and houses, because we scorn +to be slaves for the sake of mere buildings, but we have the greatest +city of all Greece, our two hundred ships of war, which now are ready to +help you if you choose to be saved by their means; but, if you betray us +and leave us, some of the Greeks will soon learn to their cost that the +Athenians have obtained a free city and a territory no worse than that +which they left behind." When Eurybiades heard Themistokles use this +language, he began to fear that the Athenians might really sail away and +leave him. + +When Eretrieus tried to say something to Themistokles, he answered, "Do +you too dare to say anything about war, you, who like a cuttle-fish, +have a sword but no heart." + +XII. It is said by some writers that while Themistokles was talking +about these matters upon the deck of his ship, an owl was seen to fly +from the right-hand side of the fleet, and to perch upon his mast; which +omen encouraged all the Athenians to fight. But when the Persian host +poured down to Phalerum, covering the whole sea-shore, and the king +himself was seen with all his forces, coming down to the beach with the +infantry, the Greeks forgot the words of Themistokles, and began to cast +eager glances towards the Isthmus and to be angry with any one who +proposed to do anything else than withdraw. They determined to retire by +night, and the steersmen were given orders to prepare for a voyage. +Themistokles, enraged at the idea of the Greek fleet dispersing, and +losing the advantage of the narrow waters, planned the affair of +Sikinnus. This Sikinnus was a Persian who had been taken prisoner, and +who was fond of Themistokles and took charge of his children. He sent +this man secretly to Xerxes, ordering him to say that Themistokles, the +general of the Athenians, has determined to come over to the king of the +Persians, and is the first to tell him that the Greeks are about to +retreat. He bids him not to allow them to fly, but to attack them while +they are disheartened at not being supported by a land force, and +destroy their fleet. + +Xerxes, who imagined this to be said for his advantage, was delighted, +and at once gave orders to the commanders of his ships to make ready for +battle at their leisure, all but two hundred, whom he ordered to put to +sea at once, surround the whole strait, and close up the passages +through the islands, so that no one of the enemy could escape. While +this was being done, Aristeides, the son of Lysimachus, who was the +first to perceive it, came to the tent of Themistokles, although the +latter was his enemy, and had driven him into exile. When Themistokles +came to meet him, he told him they were surrounded; knowing the frank +and noble character of Aristeides, Themistokles told him the whole plot, +and begged him as a man in whom the Greeks could trust, to encourage +them to fight a battle in the straits. Aristeides praised Themistokles +for what he had done, and went round to the other generals and captains +of ships, inciting them to fight. Yet they were inclined to doubt even +the word of Aristeides, when a trireme from the island of Tenos, under +the command of Panaitios, came in, having deserted from the enemy, and +brought the news that the Greeks were really surrounded. Then, in a +spirit of anger and despair, they prepared for the struggle. + +XIII. At daybreak Xerxes took his seat on a high cliff overlooking all +his host, just above the Temple of Herakles, we are told by Phanodemus, +where the strait between Salamis and Attica is narrowest, but according +to Akestodorus, close to the Megarian frontier, upon the mountains +called Horns. Here he sat upon the golden throne, with many scribes +standing near, whose duty it was to write down the events of the battle. + +While Themistokles was sacrificing on the beach, beside the admiral's +ship, three most beautiful captive boys were brought to him, splendidly +adorned with gold and fine clothes. They were said to be the children of +Sandauke, the sister of Xerxes, and Artäuktes. When Euphrantides the +prophet saw them, there shone at once from the victims on the altar a +great and brilliant flame, and at the same time some one was heard to +sneeze on the right hand, which is a good omen. Euphrantides now +besought Themistokles to sacrifice these young men as victims to +Dionysus, to whom human beings are sacrificed; so should the Greeks +obtain safety and victory. Themistokles was struck with horror at this +terrible proposal; but the multitude, who, as is natural with people in +great danger, hoped to be saved by miraculous rather than by ordinary +means, called upon the God with one voice, and leading the captives up +to the altar, compelled him to offer them up as the prophet bade him. +This story rests on the authority of Phanias of Lesbos, who was a man of +education, and well read in history. + +XIV. As for the numbers of the Persian fleet, the poet Aeschylus, as +though he knew it clearly, writes as follows in his tragedy of the +Persae: + + "And well I know a thousand sail + That day did Xerxes meet, + And seven and two hundred more, + The fastest of his fleet." + +The Athenian ships, a hundred and eighty in number, had each eighteen +men on deck, four of whom were archers, and the rest heavy-armed +soldiers. Themistokles now chose the time for the battle as judiciously +as he had chosen the place, and would not bring his triremes into line +of battle before the fresh wind off the sea, as is usual in the morning, +raised a heavy swell in the straits. This did not damage the low flat +ships of the Greeks, but it caught the high-sterned Persian ships, +over-weighted as they were with lofty decks, and presented their +broadsides to the Greeks, who eagerly attacked them, watching +Themistokles because he was their best example, and also because +Ariamenes, Xerxes's admiral, and the bravest and best of the king's +brothers, attacked him in a huge ship, from which, as if from a castle, +he poured darts and arrows upon him. + +But Ameinias of Dekeleia and Sokles of Pedia, who were both sailing in +the same vessel, met him stem to stem. Each ship crashed into the other +with its iron beak, and was torn open. Ariamenes attempted to board the +Greek ship, but these two men set upon him with their spears, and drove +him into the sea. His body was noticed by Queen Artemisia floating +amongst the other wreckage, and was by her brought to Xerxes. + +XV. At this period of the battle it is said that a great light was seen +to shine from Eleusis, and that a great noise was heard upon the +Thriasian plain near the sea, as though multitudes of men were escorting +the mystic Iacchus in procession. From the place where these sounds were +heard a mist seemed to spread over the sea and envelop the ships. Others +thought that they saw spirit-forms of armed men come from Aegina, and +hold their hands before the ships of the Greeks. These it was supposed +were the Aeakid heroes, to whom prayers for help had been offered just +before the battle. The first man to capture a ship was Lykomedes, an +Athenian captain, who cut off its ensign and dedicated it to Apollo with +the laurel crown at the Temple at Phlyae. + +In the narrow straits the Persians were unable to bring more than a part +of their fleet into action, and their ships got into each other's way, +so that the Greeks could meet them on equal terms, and, although they +resisted until evening, completely routed them, winning, as Simonides +calls it, that "glorious and famous victory," the greatest exploit ever +achieved at sea, which owed its success to the bravery of the sailors +and the genius of Themistokles. + +XVI. After this naval defeat, Xerxes, enraged at his failure, +endeavoured to fill up the strait with earth, and so to make a passage +for his land forces to Salamis, to attack the Greeks there. Now +Themistokles, in order to try the temper of Aristeides, proposed that +the fleet should sail to the Hellespont, and break the bridge of boats +there, "in order," said he, "that we may conquer Asia in Europe." But +Aristeides disapproved of this measure, saying, "Hitherto we have fought +against the Persian king, while he has been at his ease; but if we shut +him up in Greece, and drive the chief of so large an army to despair, he +will no longer sit quietly under a golden umbrella to look on at his +battles, but will strain every nerve and superintend every operation in +person, and so will easily retrieve his losses and form better plans for +the future." + +"Instead of breaking down the existing bridge for him, Themistokles," +said he, "we ought rather, if possible, at once to build another, and +send the man out of Europe as quickly as possible." "Well then," +answered Themistokles, "if you think that our interest lies in that +direction, we ought all to consider and contrive to send him out of +Greece as fast as we can." When this resolution was adopted, +Themistokles sent one of the king's eunuchs, whom he had found among the +prisoners, bidding him warn Xerxes that "the Greeks had determined after +their victory to sail to the Hellespont and break the bridge, but that +Themistokles, out of his regard for the king, advises him to proceed as +fast as he can to his own sea, and cross over it, while he +(Themistokles) gained time for him by delaying the allied fleet." +Xerxes, hearing thus, was much alarmed and retired in all haste. And +indeed the battle with Mardonius at Plataea shows us which of the two +was right; for the Greeks there could scarcely deal with a small part of +the Persian army, and what therefore could they have done with the +whole? + +XVII. Herodotus tells us that, of Greek States, Aegina received the +prize of valour, and that, of the generals, it was awarded to +Themistokles, though against the will of the voters. When the armies +retired to the Isthmus all the generals laid their votes on the altar +there, and each man declared himself to deserve the first prize for +valour, and Themistokles to deserve the second. However, the +Lacedaemonians brought him home with them to Sparta, and gave Eurybiades +the first prize for valour, but Themistokles that for wisdom, a crown of +olive-leaves. They also gave him the best chariot in their city, and +sent three hundred of their young men to escort him out of the country. +It is also related that at the next Olympian games, when Themistokles +appeared upon the race-course, all the spectators took no further +interest in the contests, but passed the whole day in admiring and +applauding him, and in pointing him out to such as were strangers; so +that he was delighted, and said to his friends that he had now received +his reward for all his labours on behalf of Greece. + +XVIII. He was by nature excessively fond of admiration, as we may judge +from the stories about him which have been preserved. Once, when he was +made admiral of the Athenian fleet, he put off all the necessary +business of his office until the day appointed for sailing, in order +that he might have a great many dealings with various people all at +once, and so appear to be a person of great influence and importance. +And when he saw the corpses floating in the sea with gold bracelets and +necklaces, he himself passed them by, but pointed them out to a friend +who was following, saying, "Do you pick them up and keep them; for you +are not Themistokles." A beautiful youth, named Antiphates, regarded him +coolly at first, but eventually became submissive to him because of his +immense reputation. "Young man," said Themistokles, "it has taken some +time, but we have at length both regained our right minds." He used to +say that the Athenians neither admired nor respected him, but used him +like a plane-tree under which they took shelter in storm, but which in +fair weather they lopped and stripped of its leaves. Once when a citizen +of Seriphos said to him that he owed his glory, not to himself but to +his city, he answered, "Very true; I should not have become a great man +if I had been a Seriphian, nor would you if you had been an Athenian." +When one of his fellow-generals, who thought that he had done the state +good service, was taking a haughty tone, and comparing his exploits with +those of Themistokles, he said, "The day after a feast, once upon a +time, boasted that it was better than the feast-day itself, because on +that day all men are full of anxiety and trouble, while upon the next +day every one enjoys what has been prepared at his leisure. But the +feast-day answered, 'Very true, only but for me you never would have +been at all.' So now," said he, "if I had not come first, where would +you all have been now?" His son, who was spoiled by his mother, and by +himself to please her, he said was the most powerful person in Greece; +for the Athenians ruled the Greeks, he ruled the Athenians, his wife +ruled him, and his son ruled his wife. Wishing to be singular in all +things, when he put up a plot of ground for sale, he ordered the crier +to announce that there were good neighbours next to it. When two men +paid their addresses to his daughter, he chose the more agreeable +instead of the richer of the two, saying that he preferred a man without +money to money without a man. Such was his character, as shown in his +talk. + +XIX. Immediately after the great war, he began to rebuild and fortify +the city. In order to succeed in this, Theopompus says that he bribed +the Spartan ephors into laying aside opposition, but most writers say +that he outwitted them by proceeding to Sparta nominally on an embassy. +Then when the Spartans complained to him that Athens was being +fortified, and when Poliarchus came expressly from Aegina to charge him +with it, he denied it, and bade them send commissioners to Athens to see +whether it was true, wishing both to obtain time for the fortifications +to be built, and also to place these commissioners in the hands of the +Athenians, as hostages for his own safety. His expectations were +realised; for the Lacedaemonians, on discovering the truth, did him no +harm, but dissembled their anger and sent him away. After this he built +Peiraeus, as he perceived the excellence of its harbours, and was +desirous to turn the whole attention of the Athenians to naval pursuits. +In this he pursued a policy exactly the opposite to that of the ancient +kings of Attica; for they are said to have endeavoured to keep their +subjects away from the sea, and to accustom them to till the ground +instead of going on board ships, quoting the legend that Athene and +Poseidon had a contest for the possession of the land, and that she +gained a decision in her favour by the production of the sacred olive. +Themistokles, on the other hand, did not so much "stick Peiraeus on to +Athens," as Aristophanes the comic poet said, as make the city dependent +upon Peiraeus, and the land dependent on the sea. By this means he +transferred power from the nobles to the people, because sailors and +pilots became the real strength of the State. For this reason the thirty +tyrants destroyed the bema, or tribune on the place of public assembly, +which was built looking towards the sea, and built another which looked +inland, because they thought that the naval supremacy of Athens had been +the origin of its democratic constitution, and that an oligarchy had +less to fear from men who cultivated the land. + +XX. Themistokles had even more extended views than these about making +the Athenians supreme at sea. When Xerxes was gone, the whole Greek +fleet was drawn up on shore for the winter at Pagasae. Themistokles then +publicly told the Athenians that he had a plan which would save and +benefit them all, but which must not be divulged. The Athenians bade him +tell Aristeides only, and to execute his designs if he approved. + +Themistokles then told Aristeides that his design was to burn the whole +Greek fleet as they lay on the beach. But Aristeides came forward and +told the people that no proposal could be more advantageous or more +villainous; so that the Athenians forbade Themistokles to proceed with +it. On another occasion the Lacedaemonians proposed, in a meeting of the +Amphiktyonic council, that all States that had taken no part in the +Persian war should be excluded from that council; Themistokles, fearing +that if the Lacedaemonians should exclude Thessaly, Argos, and Thebes, +they would have complete control over the votes, and be able to carry +what measures they pleased, made representations to the various States, +and influenced the votes of their deputies at the meeting, pointing out +to them that there were only thirty-one States which took any part in +the war, and that most of these were very small ones, so that it would +be unreasonable for one or two powerful States to pronounce the rest of +Greece outlawed, and be supreme in the council. After this he generally +opposed the Lacedaemonians; wherefore they paid special court to Kimon, +in order to establish him as a political rival to Themistokles. + +XXI. Moreover, he made himself odious to the allies by sailing about the +islands and wringing money from them. A case in point is the +conversation which Herodotus tells us he held with the people of Andros, +when trying to get money from them. He said that he was come, bringing +with him two gods, Persuasion and Necessity; but they replied that they +also possessed two equally powerful ones, Poverty and Helplessness, by +whom they were prevented from supplying him with money. The poet, +Timokreon of Rhodes, in one of his songs, writes bitterly of +Themistokles, saying that he was prevailed upon by the bribes which he +received from exiles to restore them to their native country, but +abandoned himself, who was his guest and friend. The song runs as +follows: + + "Though ye may sing Pausanias or Xanthippus in your lays, + Or Leotychides, 'tis Aristeides whom I praise, + The best of men as yet produced by holy Athens' State, + Since thus upon Themistokles has fall'n Latona's hate: + That liar and that traitor base, who for a bribe unclean, + Refused to reinstate a man who his own guest had been. + His friend too, in his native Ialysus, but who took + Three silver talents with him, and his friend forsook. + Bad luck go with the fellow, who unjustly some restores + From exile, while some others he had banished from our shores, + And some he puts to death; and sits among us gorged with pelf. + He kept an ample table at the Isthmian games himself, + And gave to every guest that came full plenty of cold meat, + The which they with a prayer did each and every of them eat, + But their prayer was 'Next year be there no Themistokles to meet.'" + +And after the exile and condemnation of Themistokles, Timokreon wrote +much more abusively about him in a song which begins, + + "Muse, far away, + Sound this my lay, + For it both meet and right is." + +It is said that Timokreon was exiled from home for having dealings with +the Persians, and that Themistokles confirmed his sentence. When, then, +Themistokles was charged with intriguing with the Persians, Timokreon +wrote upon him, + + "Timokreon is not the only Greek + That turned a traitor, Persian gold to seek; + I'm not the only fox without a tail, + But others put their honour up for sale." + +XXII. As the Athenians, through his unpopularity, eagerly listened to +any story to his discredit, he was obliged to weary them by constantly +repeating the tale of his own exploits to them. In answer to those who +were angry with him, he would ask, "Are you weary of always receiving +benefits from the same hand?" He also vexed the people by building the +Temple of Artemis of Good Counsel, as he called her, hinting that he had +taken good counsel for the Greeks. This temple he placed close to his +own house in Melite, at the place where at the present day the public +executioner casts out the bodies of executed criminals, and the clothes +and ropes of men who have hanged themselves. Even in our own times a +small statue of Themistokles used to stand in the Temple of Artemis of +Good Counsel; and he seems to have been a hero not only in mind, but in +appearance. The Athenians made use of ostracism to banish him, in order +to reduce his extravagant pretensions, as they always were wont to do in +the case of men whom they thought over powerful and unfit for living in +the equality of a democracy. For ostracism implied no censure, but was +intended as a vent for envious feelings, which were satisfied by seeing +the object of their hatred thus humbled. + +XXIII. When Themistokles was banished from Athens, he lived in Argos, +during which time the proceedings of Pausanias gave a great opportunity +to his enemies. He was impeached on a charge of treason by Leobotes, the +son of Alkmaeon of Agraulai, and the Spartans joined in the impeachment. +Pausanias, indeed, at first concealed his treacherous designs from +Themistokles, although he was his friend; but when he saw that +Themistokles was banished, and chafing at the treatment he had received, +he was encouraged to ask him to share his treason, and showed him the +letters which he had received from the Persian king, at the same time +inflaming his resentment against the Greeks, whom he spoke of as +ungrateful wretches. Themistokles refused utterly to join Pausanias, but +nevertheless told no one of his treasonable practices, either because he +hoped that he would desist, or that his visionary and impossible +projects would be disclosed by other means. And thus it was that when +Pausanias was put to death, certain letters and writings on this subject +were found, which threw suspicion upon Themistokles. The Lacedaemonians +loudly condemned him, and many of his own countrymen, because of the +enmity they bore him, brought charges against him. He did not appear in +person at first, but answered these attacks by letters. In these he told +his accusers that he had always sought to rule, and was not born to +obey; so that he never would sell himself and Greece to be a slave to +the Persians. But in spite of these arguments, his enemies prevailed +upon the Athenians to send men with orders to seize him, and bring him +to be tried by Greece. + +XXIV. He was apprised of this in time to take refuge in Korkyra, a State +which was under obligations to him. For once, when Korkyra was at +variance with Corinth, he had been chosen to arbitrate between them, and +had reconciled them, giving as his award that the Corinthians were to +pay down twenty talents, and each State to have an equal share in the +city and island of Leucas, as being a colony from both of them. From +thence he fled to Epirus; but, being still pursued by the Athenians and +Lacedaemonians, he adopted a desperate resolution. Admetus, the king of +the Molossians, had once made some request to the Athenians, which +Themistokles, who was then in the height of his power, insultingly +refused to grant. Admetus was deeply incensed, and eager for vengeance; +but now Themistokles feared the fresh fury of his countrymen more than +this old grudge of the king's, put himself at his mercy, and became a +suppliant to Admetus in a novel and strange fashion; for he lay down at +the hearth of Admetus, holding that prince's infant son, which is +considered among the Molossians to be the most solemn manner of becoming +a suppliant, and one which cannot be refused. Some say that Phthia, the +king's wife, suggested this posture to Themistokles, and placed her +infant on the hearth with him; while others say that Admetus, in order +to be able to allege religious reasons for his refusal to give up +Themistokles to his pursuers, himself arranged the scene with him. After +this, Epikrates, of the township of Acharnai, managed to convey his wife +and children out of Athens to join him, for which, we are told by +Stesimbrotus, Kimon subsequently had him condemned and executed. But, +singularly enough, afterwards Stesimbrotus either forgets his wife and +children, or makes Themistokles forget them, when he says that he sailed +to Sicily and demanded the daughter of the despot Hiero in marriage, +promising that he would make all Greece obey him. As Hiero rejected his +proposals, he then went to Asia. + +XXV. Now it is not probable that this ever took place. Theophrastus, in +his treatise on monarchy, relates that when Hiero sent race-horses to +Olympia and pitched a costly tent there, Themistokles said to the +assembled Greeks that they ought to destroy the despot's tent, and not +permit his horses to run. Thucydides too informs us that he crossed to +the Aegean sea, and set sail from Pydna, none of his fellow-travellers +knowing who he was until the ship was driven by contrary winds to Naxos, +which was then being besieged by the Athenians. Then he became alarmed, +and told the captain and the pilot who he was, and, partly by +entreaties, partly by threats that he would denounce them to the +Athenians, and say that they well knew who he was, but were carrying him +out of the country for a bribe, he prevailed on them to hold on their +course to the coast of Asia. + +Of his property, much was concealed by his friends and sent over to him +in Asia; but what was confiscated to the public treasury amounted, +according to Theopompus, to a hundred talents, and according to +Theophrastus to eighty, albeit Themistokles, before his entrance into +political life, did not possess property worth three talents. + +XXVI. When he sailed to Kyme, he found that many of the inhabitants of +the Ionic coast were watching for an opportunity to capture him, +especially Ergoteles and Pythodorus (for indeed, to men who cared not +how they made their money, he would have been a rich prize, as the +Persian king had offered a reward of two hundred talents for him), he +fled to Aegae, a little Aeolian city, where he was known by no one +except his friend Nikogenes, the richest of all the Aeolians, who was +well known to the Persians of the interior. In this man's house he lay +concealed for some days. Here, after the feast which followed a +sacrifice, Olbius, who took charge of Nikogenes's children, fell into a +kind of inspired frenzy, and spoke the following verse: + +"Night shall speak and give thee counsel, night shall give thee +victory." After this Themistokles dreamed a dream. He thought that a +snake was coiling itself upon his belly and crawling up towards his +throat. As soon as it reached his throat, it became an eagle and flapped +its wings, lifted him up, and carried him a long distance, until he saw +a golden herald's staff. The eagle set him down upon this securely, and +he felt free from all terror and anxiety. After this he was sent away by +Nikogenes, who made use of the following device. Most barbarian nations, +and the Persians especially, are violently jealous in their treatment of +women. They guard not only their wives, but their purchased slaves and +concubines, with the greatest care, not permitting them to be seen by +any one out of doors, but when they are at home they lock them up, and +when they are on a journey they place them in waggons with curtains all +round them. Such a waggon was prepared for Themistokles, and he +travelled in it, his escort telling all whom they met that they were +conveying a Greek lady from Ionia to one of the king's courtiers. + +XXVII. Thucydides and Charon of Lampsakus relate that Xerxes was now +dead, and that Themistokles gave himself up to his son; but Ephorus, +Deinon, Kleitarchus, Herakleides, and many others, say that it was to +Xerxes himself that he came. But the narrative of Thucydides agrees +better with the dates, although they are not thoroughly settled. + +At this perilous crisis Themistokles first applied to Artabanus, a +chiliarch, or officer in command of a regiment of a thousand men, whom +he told that he was a Greek, and that he wished to have an interview +with the king about matters of the utmost importance, and in which the +king was especially interested. He replied, "Stranger, the customs of +different races are different, and each has its own standard of right +and wrong; yet among all men it is thought right to honour, admire, and +to defend one's own customs. Now we are told that you chiefly prize +freedom and equality; we on the other hand think it the best of all our +laws to honour the king, and to worship him as we should worship the +statue of a god that preserves us all. Wherefore if you are come with +the intention of adopting our customs, and of prostrating yourself +before the king, you may be permitted to see the king, and speak with +him; but if not, you must use some other person to communicate with him; +for it is not the custom for the king to converse with any one who does +not prostrate himself before him." Themistokles, hearing this, said to +him, "Artabanus, I am come to increase the glory and power of the king, +and will both myself adopt your customs, since the god that has exalted +the Persians will have it so, and will also increase the number of those +who prostrate themselves before the king. So let this be no impediment +to the interview with him which I desire." "Whom of the Greeks," asked +Artabanus, "are we to tell him is come? for you do not seem to have the +manners of a man of humble station." "No one," answered Themistokles, +"must learn my name before the king himself." This is the story which we +are told by Phanias. But Eratosthenes, in his treatise on wealth, tells +us also that Themistokles was introduced to Artabanus by an Eretrian +lady with whom the latter lived. + +XXVIII. When he was brought into the king's presence he prostrated +himself, and stood silent. The king then told his interpreter to ask him +who he was; and when the interpreter had asked this question, he told +him to answer, "I am, O King, Themistokles the Athenian, an exile, a man +who has wrought much evil to the Persians, but more good than evil, in +that I stopped the pursuit when Greece was safe, and I was able to do +you a kindness as all was well at home. In my present fallen fortunes I +am prepared to be grateful for any mark of favour you may show me, or to +deprecate your anger, should you bear a grudge against me. You may see, +from the violence of my own countrymen against me, how great were the +benefits which I conferred upon the Persians; so now use me rather as a +means of proving your magnanimity than of glutting your wrath. Wherefore +save me, your suppliant, and do not destroy one who has become the enemy +of Greece." Themistokles also introduced a supernatural element into his +speech by relating the vision which he saw at the house of Nikogenes, +and also a prophecy which he received at the shrine of Jupiter of +Dodona, which bade him "go to the namesake of the god," from which he +concluded that the god sent him to the king, because they were both +great, and called kings. To this speech the Persian king made no answer, +although he was astonished at his bold spirit; but in conversation with +his friends he spoke as though this were the greatest possible piece of +good fortune, and in his prayers begged Arimanios to make his enemies +ever continue to banish their ablest men. He is said to have offered a +sacrifice to the gods and to have drunk wine at once, and during the +night in his soundest sleep he thrice cried out, "I have got +Themistokles the Athenian." + +XXIX. At daybreak he called together his friends and sent for +Themistokles, who augured nothing pleasant from the insults and abuse +which he received from the people at the palace gates, when they heard +his name. Moreover Roxanes the chiliarch, as Themistokles passed by him +in silence into the king's presence, whispered, "Thou subtle serpent of +Greece, the king's good genius has led thee hither." But when he was +come before the king and had prostrated himself a second time, the king +embraced him, and said in a friendly tone that he already owed him two +hundred talents: for as he had brought himself he was clearly entitled +to the reward which was offered to any one else who would do so. He also +promised him much more than this, and encouraged him to speak at length +upon the affairs of Greece. To this Themistokles answered, that human +speech was like embroidered tapestry, because when spread out it shows +all its figures, but when wrapped up it both conceals and spoils them, +wherefore he asked for time. The king was pleased with his simile, and +bade him take what time he chose. He asked for a year, during which he +learned the Persian language sufficiently to talk to the king without an +interpreter. This led the people to imagine that he discoursed about the +affairs of Greece; but many changes were made at that time in the great +officers of the court, and the nobles disliked Themistokles, imagining +that he dared to speak about them to the king. Indeed, he was honoured +as no other foreigner ever was, and went hunting with the king and lived +in his family circle, so that he came into the presence of the king's +mother, and became her intimate friend, and at the king's command was +instructed in the mysteries of the Magi. + +When Demaratus the Spartan was bidden to ask for a boon, he asked to be +allowed to drive through Sardis wearing his tiara upright like that of +the king. Mithropaustes, the king's cousin, took hold of Demaratus by +his tiara, saying, "You have no brains for the king's tiara to cover; +do you think you would become Zeus if you were given his thunderbolt to +wield?" The king was very angry with Demaratus because of this request, +but Themistokles by his entreaties restored him to favour. It is also +said that the later Persian kings, whose politics were more mixed up +with those of Greece, used to promise any Greek whom they wished to +desert to them that they would treat him better than Themistokles. We +are told that Themistokles himself, after he became a great man and was +courted by many, was seated one day at a magnificent banquet, and said +to his children, "My sons, we should have been ruined if it had not been +for our ruin." Most writers agree that three cities, Magnesia, +Lampsakus, and Myous, were allotted to him for bread, wine, and meat. To +these Neanthes of Kyzikus and Phanias add two more, Perkote and +Palaiskepsis, which were to supply bedding and clothing respectively. + +XXX. On one occasion, when he went down to the seaside on some business +connected with Greece, a Persian named Epixyes, Satrap of Upper Phrygia, +plotted his assassination. He had long kept some Pisidians who were to +kill him when he passed the night in the town of Leontokophalos, which +means 'Lion's Head.' It is said that the mother of the gods appeared to +him while he was sleeping at noon and said, "Themistokles, be late at +Lion's Head, lest you fall in with a lion. As a recompense for this +warning, I demand Mnesiptolema for my handmaid." Themistokles, disturbed +at this, after praying to the goddess, left the highway and made a +circuit by another road, avoiding that place; when it was night he +encamped in the open country. As one of the sumpter cattle that carried +his tent had fallen into a river, Themistokles's servants hung up the +rich hangings, which were dripping with wet, in order to dry them. The +Pisidians meanwhile came up to the camp with drawn swords, and, not +clearly distinguishing in the moonlight the things hung out to dry, +thought that they must be the tent of Themistokles, and that they would +find him asleep within it. When they came close to it and raised the +hangings, the servants who were on the watch fell upon them and seized +them. Having thus escaped from danger, he built a temple to Dindymene at +Magnesia to commemorate the appearance of the goddess, and appointed +his daughter Mnesiptolema to be its priestess. + +XXXI. When he came to Sardis, he leisurely examined the temples and the +offerings which they contained, and in the temple of the mother of the +gods, he found a bronze female figure called the Water-carrier, about +two cubits high, which he himself, when overseer of the water supply of +Athens, had made out of the fines imposed upon those who took water +illegally. + +Either feeling touched at the statue being a captive, or else willing to +show the Athenians how much power he possessed in Persia, he proposed to +the Satrap of Lydia to send it back to Athens. This man became angry at +his demand, and said that he should write to the king, and tell him of +it. Themistokles in terror applied himself to the harem of the Satrap, +and by bribing the ladies there induced them to pacify him, while he +himself took care to be more cautious in future, as he saw that he had +to fear the enmity of the native Persians. For this reason, Theopompus +tells us, he ceased to wander about Asia, but resided at Magnesia, +where, receiving rich presents and honoured equally with the greatest +Persian nobles, he lived for a long time in tranquillity; for the king's +attention was so entirely directed to the affairs of the provinces of +the interior that he had no leisure for operations against Greece. But +when Egypt revolted, and the Athenians assisted it, and Greek triremes +sailed as far as Cyprus and Cilicia, and Kimon was master of the sea, +then the king determined to attack the Greeks, and prevent their +development at his expense. Armies were put in motion, generals were +appointed, and frequent messages were sent to Themistokles from the +king, bidding him attack Greece and fulfil his promises. Themistokles, +unmoved by resentment against his countrymen, and uninfluenced by the +thought of the splendid position which he might occupy as +commander-in-chief, possibly too, thinking that his task was an +impossible one, as Greece possessed many great generals, especially +Kimon, who had a most brilliant reputation, but chiefly because he would +not soil his glory and disgrace the trophies which he had won, +determined, as indeed was his best course, to bring his life to a +fitting close. He offered sacrifice to the gods, called his friends +together, and, having taken leave of them, drank bull's blood, according +to the most common tradition, but according to others, some +quickly-operating poison, and died at Magnesia in the sixty-fifth year +of a life almost entirely spent in great political and military +employments. + +The King of Persia, when he heard of the manner of his death and his +reasons for dying, admired him more than ever, and continued to treat +his family and friends with kindness. + +XXXII. Themistokles left five children, Neokles, Diokles, Archeptolis, +Polyeuktus, Kleophantus, by his first wife Archippe, who was the +daughter of Lysander, of the township of Alopekai. Of these Kleophantus +is mentioned by Plato the philosopher as being an excellent horseman, +but otherwise worthless. Of the elder ones, Neokles was bitten by a +horse and died while still a child, and Diokles was adopted by his +grandfather Lysander. He also had several daughters by his second wife, +of whom Mnesiptolema married Archeptolis, her father's half-brother; +Italia married Panthoides of the island of Chios, and Sybaris married +Nikomedes, an Athenian. After Themistokles's death, his nephew +Phrasikles sailed to Magnesia, and with her brother's consent married +Nicomache, and also took charge of the youngest child, who was named +Asia. + +The people of Magnesia show a splendid tomb of Themistokles in their +market-place; but with regard to the fate of his remains we must pay no +attention to Andokides, who in his address to his friends, tells us that +the Athenians stole them and tore them to pieces, because he would tell +any falsehood to excite the hatred of the nobles against the people. +Phylarchus, too, writes his history in such dramatic form that he all +but resorts to the actual machinery of the stage, bringing forward one +Neokles, and Demopolis as the children of Themistokles to make a +touching scene, which anyone can see is untrue. Diodorus the +topographer, in his treatise 'On Tombs' says, more as a conjecture than +as knowing it for a fact, that in the great harbour of Peiraeus a kind +of elbow juts out from the promontory of Alkimus, and that when one +sails past this, going inwards, where the sea is most sheltered, there +is a large foundation, and upon it the tomb of Themistokles, shaped like +an altar. It is thought that the comic poet Plato alludes to this in the +following verses: + + "By the sea's margin, by the watery strand, + Thy monument, Themistokles, shall stand; + By this directed to thy native shore + The merchant shall convey his freighted store; + And when our fleets are summoned to the fight, + Athens shall conquer with thy tomb in sight." + +The descendants of Themistokles are given certain privileges at Magnesia +even to the present day, for I know that Themistokles, an Athenian, my +friend and fellow-student in the school of Ammonias the philosopher, +enjoyed them. + + + + +LIFE OF CAMILLUS. + + +I. The strangest fact in the life of Furius Camillus is that, although +he was a most successful general and won great victories, though he was +five times appointed dictator, triumphed four times, and was called the +second founder of Rome, yet he never once was consul. The reason of this +is to be found in the political condition of Rome at that time; for the +people, being at variance with the senate, refused to elect consuls, and +chose military tribunes instead, who, although they had full consular +powers, yet on account of their number were less offensive to the people +than consuls. To have affairs managed by six men instead of two appears +to have been a consolation to those who had suffered from the arbitrary +rule of a few. It was during this period that Camillus reached the +height of power and glory, and yet he would not become consul against +the will of the people, although several occasions occurred when he +might have been elected, but in his various appointments he always +contrived, even when he had sole command, to share his power with +others, while even when he had colleagues he kept all the glory for +himself. His moderation prevented any one from grudging him power, while +his successes were due to his genius, in which he confessedly surpassed +all his countrymen. + +II. The family of the Furii was not a very illustrious one before +Camillus gained glory in the great battle with the Aequi and Volsci, +where he served under the dictator Postumius Tubertus. Riding out before +the rest of the army, he was struck in the thigh by a dart, but tore it +out, assailed the bravest of the enemy, and put them to flight. After +this, amongst other honours he was appointed censor, an office of great +dignity at that time. One admirable measure is recorded of his +censorship, that by arguments and threatening them with fines he +persuaded the unmarried citizens to marry the widow women, whose number +was very great on account of the wars. Another measure to which he was +forced was that of taxing orphans, who had hitherto been exempt from +taxation. This was rendered necessary by the constant campaigns which +were carried on at a great expense, and more especially by the siege of +Veii. Some call the inhabitants of this city Veientani. It was the +bulwark of Etruria, possessing as many fighting men as Rome itself; the +citizens were rich, luxurious, and extravagant in their habits, and +fought bravely many times for honour and for power against the Romans. +At this period, having been defeated in several great battles, the +people of Veii had given up any schemes of conquest, but had built +strong and high walls, filled their city with arms and provisions, and +all kinds of material of war, and fearlessly endured a siege, which was +long, no doubt, but which became no less irksome and difficult to the +besiegers. Accustomed as the Romans had been to make short campaigns in +summer weather, and to spend their winters at home, they were now for +the first time compelled by their tribunes to establish forts and +entrench their camp, and pass both summer and winter in the enemy's +country for seven years in succession. The generals were complained of, +and as they seemed to be carrying on the siege remissly, they were +removed, and others appointed, among them Camillus, who was then tribune +for the second time. But he effected nothing in the siege at that time, +because he was sent to fight the Faliscans and Capenates, who had +insulted the Roman territory throughout the war with Veii, when the +Roman army was engaged elsewhere, but were now driven by Camillus with +great loss to the shelter of their city walls. + +III. After this, while the war was at its height, much alarm was caused +by the strange phenomenon seen at the Alban lake, which could not be +accounted for on ordinary physical principles. The season was autumn, +and the summer had not been remarkable for rain or for moist winds, so +that many of the streams and marshes in Italy were quite dried up, and +others held out with difficulty, while the rivers, as is usual in +summer, were very low and deeply sunk in their bed. But the Alban lake, +which is self-contained, lying as it does surrounded by fertile hills, +began for no reason, except it may be the will of Heaven, to increase in +volume and to encroach upon the hillsides near it, until it reached +their very tops, rising quietly and without disturbance. At first the +portent only amazed the shepherds and herdsmen of the neighbourhood; but +when the lake by the weight of its waters broke through the thin isthmus +of land which restrained it, and poured down in a mighty stream through +the fertile plains below to the sea, then not only the Romans, but all +the people of Italy, thought it a portent of the gravest character. Much +talk about it took place in the camp before Veii, so that the besieged +also learned what was happening at the lake. + +IV. As always happens during a long siege, where there are frequent +opportunities of intercourse between the two parties, one of the Romans +had become intimate with a citizen of Veii, who was learned in legendary +lore, and was even thought to have supernatural sources of information. +When this man heard of the overflowing of the lake, his Roman friend +observed that he was overjoyed, and laughed at the idea of the siege +being successful. The Roman told him that these were not the only +portents which troubled the Romans at the present time, but that there +were others stranger than this, about which he should like to consult +him, and, if possible, save himself in the common ruin of his country. +The man eagerly attended to his discourse, imagining that he was about +to hear some great secrets. The Roman thus decoyed him away farther and +farther from the city gate, when he suddenly seized him and lifted him +from the ground. Being the stronger man, and being assisted by several +soldiers from the camp, he overpowered him, and brought him before the +generals. Here the man, seeing that there was no escape, and that no one +can resist his destiny, told them of the ancient oracles about his city, +how it could not be taken until its enemies drove back the waters of the +Alban lake, and prevented its joining the sea. When the senate heard +this they were at a loss what to do, and determined to send an embassy +to Delphi to enquire of the God. The embassy consisted of men of mark +and importance, being Licinius Cossus, Valerius Potitus, and Fabius +Ambustus. After a prosperous journey they returned with a response from +Apollo, pointing out certain ceremonies which had been neglected in the +feast of the Latin games, and bidding them, if possible, force the +waters of the Alban lake away from the sea into its ancient course, or, +if this could not be done, to divide the stream by canals and +watercourses, and so to expend it in the plain. When the answer was +brought back, the priests took the necessary steps about the sacrifices, +while the people turned their attention to the diversion of the water. + +V. In the tenth year of the war, the Senate recalled all the rest of the +generals, and made Camillus Dictator. He chose Cornelius Scipio to be +his Master of the Knights, and made a vow to the gods, that, if he +succeeded in bringing the war to a glorious close, he would celebrate a +great festival, and build a shrine to the goddess whom the Romans call +_Mater Matuta_. This goddess, from the rites with which she is +worshipped, one would imagine to be the same as the Greek Leukothea. For +they bring a slave girl into the temple and beat her, and then drive her +out; they take their brothers' children in their arms in preference to +their own, and generally their ceremonies seem to allude to the nursing +of Bacchus, and to the misfortunes which befell Ino because of her +husband's concubine. After this, Camillus invaded the Faliscan +territory, and in a great battle overthrew that people, and the +Capenates who came to their assistance. Next, he turned his attention to +the siege of Veii, and, perceiving that it would be a difficult matter +to take the city by assault, he ordered mines to be dug, as the ground +near the walls was easily worked, and the mines could be sunk to a +sufficient depth to escape the notice of the besieged. As this work +succeeded to his wish, he made a demonstration above ground to call the +enemy to the walls and distract their attention, while others made their +way unperceived through the mine to the Temple of Juno in the citadel, +the largest and most sacred edifice in the city. Here, it is said, was +the King of the Veientines, engaged in sacrificing. The soothsayer +inspected the entrails, and cried with a loud voice, that the goddess +would give the victory to whoever offered that victim. The Romans in the +mine, hearing these words, quickly tore up the floor, and burst through +it with shouts and rattling arms. The enemy fled in terror, and they +seized the victims and carried them to Camillus. However, this story +sounds rather fabulous. + +The city was stormed, and the Romans carried off an enormous mass of +plunder. Camillus, who viewed them from the citadel, at first stood +weeping, but when, congratulated by the bystanders, raised his hands to +heaven and said, "Great Jupiter, and all ye other gods, that see all +good and evil deeds alike, ye know that it is not in unrighteous +conquest, but in self-defence, that the Romans have taken this city of +their lawless enemies. If," he continued, "there awaits us any reverse +of fortune to counterbalance this good luck, I pray that it may fall, +not upon the city or army of Rome, but, as lightly as may be, upon my +own head." After these words he turned round to the right, as is the +Roman habit after prayer, and while turning, stumbled and fell. All +those present were terrified at the omen, but he recovered himself, +saying that, as he had prayed, he had received a slight hurt to temper +his great good fortune. + +VI. When the city was sacked, he determined to send the statue of Juno +to Rome, according to his vow. When workmen were assembled for this +purpose, he offered sacrifice, and prayed to the goddess to look kindly +on his efforts, and to graciously take up her abode among the gods of +Rome. It is said that the statue answered that it wished to do so, and +approved of his proceedings. But Livy tells us that Camillus offered his +prayers while touching the statue, and that some of the bystanders said, +"She consents, and is willing to come." However, those who insist on the +supernatural form of the story have one great argument in their favour, +in the marvellous fortune of Rome, which never could from such small +beginnings have reached, such a pitch of glory and power without many +direct manifestations of the favour of Heaven. Moreover, other +appearances of the same kind are to be compared with it, such as that +statues have often been known to sweat, have been heard to groan, and +have even turned away and shut their eyes, as has been related by many +historians before our own time. And I have heard of many miraculous +occurrences even at the present day, resting on evidence which cannot be +lightly impugned. However, the weakness of human nature makes it equally +dangerous to put too much faith in such matters or to entirely +disbelieve them, as the one leads to superstition and folly, and the +other to neglect and contempt of the gods. Our best course is caution, +and the "golden mean." + +VII. Camillus, either because he was elated by the magnificence of his +exploit in having taken a city as large as Rome after a ten years' +siege, or else because he had been so flattered by his admirers that his +pride overcame his sober judgment, conducted his triumph with great +ostentation, especially in driving through Rome in a chariot, drawn by +four white horses, which never was done by any general before or since, +for this carriage is thought to be sacred to Jupiter, the king and +father of the gods. The citizens, unaccustomed to splendour, were +displeased with him for this, and their dislike was increased by his +opposition to the law for a redistribution of the people. The tribunes +proposed that the Senate and people should be divided into two parts, +one of which should stay at Rome and the other remove to the captured +city, because they would be more powerful if they possessed two great +cities, instead of one, and held the land in common, still remaining one +nation. The lower classes, which were numerous and poor, eagerly took up +the scheme, and continually clamoured round the speakers at the rostra, +demanding to have it put to the vote. But the Senate and the nobles +thought that it was not a redistribution, but the absolute destruction +of Rome which the tribunes were demanding, and in their anger rallied +round Camillus. He, fearing to have a contest on the matter, kept +putting off the people and inventing reasons for delay, so as to prevent +the law being brought forward to be voted upon. This increased his +unpopularity; but the greatest and most obvious reason for the dislike +which the people bore him arose from his demand for the tenth part of +the spoils; very naturally, though perhaps he scarcely deserved it. On +his way to Veii it seems he had made a vow, that if he took the city he +would dedicate the tenth part of the spoil to Apollo. But when the city +was taken and plundered, he either was unwilling to interfere with his +countrymen, or else forgot his vow, and allowed them to enrich +themselves with the booty. Afterwards, when he had laid down his +dictatorship, he brought the matter before the Senate, and the +soothsayers declared that the victims for sacrifice showed, when +inspected, that the gods were angry and must be propitiated. + +VIII. The Senate decreed, not that the plunder should be given up, for +that would have been scarcely possible to carry out, but that those who +had taken any should be put on their oath, and contribute a tenth part +of its value. This measure bore very hardly upon the soldiers, poor +hard-working men, who were now compelled to repay so large a proportion +of what they had earned and spent. Camillus was clamorously assailed by +them, and, having no better excuse to put forward, made the +extraordinary statement that he had forgotten his vow when the city was +plundered. The people angrily said that he had vowed to offer up a tithe +of the enemy's property, but that he really was taking a tithe from the +citizens instead. However, all the contributions were made, and it was +determined that with them a golden bowl should be made and sent to +Apollo at Delphi. There was a scarcity of gold in the city, and while +the government were deliberating how it was to be obtained, the matrons +held a meeting among themselves, and offered their golden ornaments to +make the offering, which came to eight talents' weight of gold. The +Senate rewarded them by permitting them to have a funeral oration +pronounced over their graves the same as men; for hitherto it had not +been customary at Rome to make any speeches at the funerals of women. +They also chose three of the noblest citizens to travel with the +offering, and sent them in a well-manned ship of war, splendidly +equipped. Both storms and calms at sea are said to be dangerous, and +they chanced on this occasion to come very near destruction, and +miraculously escaped, for in a calm off the Aeolian Islands they were +assailed by Liparian triremes, who took them for pirates. At their +earnest entreaty these people forbore to run down their vessel, but took +it in tow and brought it into their harbour, where they treated it as a +piratical craft, and put up the crew and the property on board for sale +by public auction. With great difficulty, by the goodness and influence +of one man, Timesitheos, a general, they obtained their release, and +were allowed to proceed. Timesitheos even launched some ships of his +own, with which he escorted them to Delphi, where he also took part in +the ceremony of consecration. In return for his services, as was only +just, he received special honours at Rome. + +IX. The tribunes of the people again began to agitate about the +redistribution of land and occupation of Veii, but a war with the +Faliscans gave the leading men a seasonable opportunity to elect +magistrates after their own hearts for the coming year. Camillus was +appointed military tribune, with five others, as it was thought that the +State required a general of tried experience. At the decree of the +Senate, Camillus raised a force and invaded the Faliscan territory. He +now besieged Falerii, a strong city well provided with all munitions of +war, which he considered it would be a work of no small time and labour +to take; but he was desirous of employing the people in a long siege, to +prevent their having leisure for factious proceedings at home. This was +ever the policy of the Romans, to work off the elements of internal +strife in attacks on their neighbours. + +X. The Faliscans thought so little of the siege, from the strength of +their defences, that, except when on duty on the walls, they used to +walk about their city in their ordinary dress, and their children were +sent regularly to school, and used to be taken by their master to walk +and take exercise outside the walls. For the Faliscans, like the Greeks, +had one common school, as they wished all their children to be brought +up together. The schoolmaster determined to betray these boys to the +enemy, and led them outside the walls for exercise every day, and then +led them back again. By this means he gradually accustomed them to going +out as if there was no danger, until finally he took all the boys and +handed them over to the Roman pickets, bidding them bring him to +Camillus. When he was brought before him he said that he was a +schoolmaster, that he preferred the favour of Camillus to his duty, and +that he came to hand over to him the city of Falerii in the persons of +these boys. + +Camillus was very much shocked. He said that war is indeed harsh, and is +carried on by savage and unrighteous means, but yet there are laws of +war which are observed by good men, and one ought not so much to strive +for victory, as to forego advantages gained by wicked and villainous +means: thus a truly great general ought to succeed by his own warlike +virtues, not by the baseness of others. + +Having spoken thus, he ordered his slaves to tear the schoolmaster's +clothes, tie his hands behind his back, and give the boys sticks and +scourges with which to drive him back to the city. The Faliscans had +just discovered the treachery of their schoolmaster, and, as may be +expected, the whole city was filled with mourning at such a calamity, +men and women together running in confusion to the gates and walls of +the city, when the boys drove in their schoolmaster with blows and +insults, calling Camillus their saviour, their father, and their god. +Not only those who were parents, but all the citizens were struck with +admiration at the goodness of Camillus. They at once assembled, and +despatched ambassadors, putting themselves unreservedly in his hands. +These men Camillus sent on to Rome, where they stated before the Senate, +that the Romans, by preferring justice to conquest, had taught them to +prefer submission to freedom, although they did not think that they fell +short of the Romans in strength so much as in virtue. The Senate +referred the ambassadors to Camillus for their first answer; and he, +after receiving a contribution in money, and having made a treaty of +alliance with the Faliscans, drew off his forces. + +XI. But the soldiers, who had been looking forward to plundering +Falerii, when they returned to Rome empty handed, abused Camillus to the +other citizens, saying that he was a hater of the people, and grudged +poor men a chance of enriching themselves. When the tribunes +reintroduced the proposal of redistribution of the land, and removing +half the city to Veii, Camillus openly, without caring how unpopular he +became, opposed the measure. The people, sorely against their will, gave +up the measure, but hated Camillus so fiercely that even his domestic +afflictions (for he had just lost one of his two sons by sickness) could +not move them to pity. Being of a kind and loving nature, he was +dreadfully cast down at this misfortune, and spent all his time within +doors mourning with the women of his family, while his enemies were +preparing an impeachment against him. + +XII. His accuser was Lucius Apuleius, and the charge brought against him +was embezzlement of the spoils of Etruria. He was even said to have in +his possession some brazen gates which were taken in that country. The +people were much excited against him, and it was clear that, whatever +the charge against him might be, they would condemn him. Consequently he +assembled his friends and comrades, who were a great number in all, and +begged them not to permit him to be ruined by false accusations, and +made a laughing-stock to his enemies. But when his friends, after +consulting together, answered that they did not think that they could +prevent his being condemned, but that they would assist him to pay any +fine that might be imposed, he, unable to bear such treatment, +determined in a rage to leave Rome and go into exile. He embraced his +wife and son, and walked from his house silently as far as the gate of +the city. There he turned back, and, stretching out his hands towards +the Capitol, prayed to the gods that, if he was driven out of Rome +unjustly by the insolence and hatred of the people, the Romans might +soon repent of their conduct to him, and appear before the world begging +him to return, and longing for their Camillus back again. + +XIII. Like Achilles, he thus cursed his countrymen and left them. His +cause was undefended, and in his absence he was condemned to pay a fine +of fifteen thousand _ases_, which in Greek money is fifteen hundred +_drachmas_, for the _as_ was the Roman coin at that time, and +consequently ten copper _ases_ were called a _denarius_. + +Every Roman believes that the prayers of Camillus were quickly heard by +Justice, and that a terrible retribution was exacted for his wrongs, +which filled all men's mouths at that time; so terrible a fate befell +Rome, with such destruction, danger, and disgrace, whether it arose from +mere chance, or whether it be the office of some god to punish those who +requite virtue with ingratitude. + +XIV. The first omen of impending evil was the death of Julius the +Censor; for the Romans reverence the office of censor, and account it +sacred. Another omen was that, a short time before Camillus went into +exile, one Marcus Caedicius, a man of no particular note, and not even a +senator, but a thoroughly respectable man, communicated a matter of some +importance to the tribunes of the people. He said that the night before +he had been walking along what is called the New Road, when some one +called him by name. He turned round and could see no one, but heard a +voice louder than man's say, "Go, Marcus Caedicius, tell the government +early in the morning that in a short time they may expect the Gauls." +When the tribunes of the people heard this they laughed him to scorn, +and shortly afterwards Camillus left the city. + +XV. The Gauls are a people of the Celtic race, and are said to have +become too numerous for their own country, and consequently to have left +it to search for some other land to dwell in. As they consisted of a +large multitude of young warriors, they started in two bodies, one of +which, went towards the northern ocean, and, passing the Rhipaean +mountains, settled in the most distant part of Europe. The other body +established themselves between the Pyrenees and the Alps, and for a long +time dwelt near the Senones and Celtorii. At last they tasted wine, +which was then for the first time brought thither out of Italy. In an +ecstasy of delight at the drink they wildly snatched up their arms, took +their families with them, and rushed to the Alps in search of the +country which produced such fruits as this, considering all other +countries to be savage and uncultivated. The man who first introduced +wine among them and encouraged them to proceed to Italy was said to be +one Aruns, an Etruscan of some note, who, though a well-meaning man, had +met with the following misfortune. He had been left guardian to an +orphan named Lucumo, one of the richest and handsomest of his +countrymen. This boy lived in the house of Aruns from his childhood, and +when he grew up he would not leave it, but pretended to delight in his +society. It was long before Aruns discovered that Lucumo had debauched +his wife, and that their passion was mutual; but at length they were +unable any longer to conceal their intrigue, and the youth openly +attempted to carry off the woman from her husband. He went to law, but +was unable to contend with the numerous friends and great wealth of +Lucumo, and so left the country. Hearing about the Gauls, he went to +them and incited them to invade Italy. + +XVI. They immediately made themselves masters of the country, which +reaches from the Alps down to the sea on both sides of Italy, which in +ancient times belonged to the Etruscans, as we see by the names, for the +upper sea is called the Adriatic from Adria, an Etruscan city, and the +lower is called the Etruscan Sea. It is a thickly wooded country, with +plenty of pasturage, and well watered. At that period it contained +eighteen fair and large cities, with a thriving commercial population. +The Gauls took these cities, drove out their inhabitants, and occupied +them themselves. This, however, took place some time previously to our +story. + +XVII. The Gauls at this time marched against the Etruscan city of +Clusium and besieged it. The inhabitants appealed to the Romans to send +ambassadors and letters to the barbarians, and they sent three of the +Fabian family, men of the first importance in Rome. They were well +received, because of the name of Rome, by the Gauls, who desisted from +their siege and held a conference with them. The Romans inquired what +wrong the Gauls had suffered from the people of Clusium that they should +attack their city. To this Brennus, the king of the Gauls, answered with +a laugh, "The people of Clusium wrong us by holding a large territory, +although they can only inhabit and cultivate a small one, while they +will not give a share of it to us, who are numerous and poor. You Romans +were wronged in just the same way in old times by the people of Alba, +and Fidenae, and Ardea, and at the present day by the Veientines and +Capenates, and by many of the Faliscans and Volscians. You make +campaigns against these people if they will not share their good things +with you, you sell them for slaves and plunder their territory, and +destroy their cities; and in this you do nothing wrong, but merely obey +the most ancient of all laws, that the property of the weak belongs to +the strong, a law which prevails among the gods on the one hand, and +even among wild beasts, amongst whom the stronger always encroach upon +the weaker ones. So now cease to pity the besieged men of Clusium, for +fear you should teach the Gauls to become good-natured and pitiful +towards the nations that have been wronged by the Romans." + +This speech showed the Romans that Brennus had no thought of coming to +terms, and they in consequence went into Clusium and encouraged the +inhabitants to attack the barbarians under their guidance, either +because they wished to make trial of the valour of the Gauls, or to make +a display of their own. The people of Clusium made a sally, and a battle +took place near their wall. In this one of the Fabii, Quintus Ambustus +by name, was on horseback, and rode to attack a fine powerful Gaul who +was riding far in advance of the rest. At first the Roman was not +recognised because the fight was sharp, and the flashing of his arms +prevented his face being clearly seen. But when he slew his antagonist +and jumped down from his horse to strip his body of its spoils, Brennus +recognised him, and called the gods to witness his violation of the +common law of all nations, in coming to them as an ambassador and +fighting against them as an enemy. He immediately put a stop to the +battle and took no further heed of the people of Clusium, but directed +his army against Rome. However, as he did not wish it to be thought that +the bad conduct of the Romans pleased the Gauls, who only wanted a +pretext for hostilities, he sent and demanded that Fabius should be +delivered up to him to be punished, and at the same time led his army +slowly forwards. + +XVIII. At Rome the Senate was called together, and many blamed Fabius, +while those priests who are called Feciales urged the Senate in the +name of religion to throw the whole blame of what had happened upon one +guilty head, and, by delivering him up, to clear the rest of the city +from sharing his guilt. These Feciales were instituted by the mildest +and justest of the kings of Rome, Numa Pompilius, to be guardians of +peace, and examiners of the reasons which justify a nation in going to +war. However the Senate referred the matter to the people, and when the +priests repeated their charges against Fabius before them, the people so +despised and slighted religion as to appoint Fabius and his brothers +military tribunes. The Gauls, when they heard this, were enraged, and +hurried on, disregarding everything but speed. The nations through which +they passed, terrified at their glancing arms and their strength and +courage, thought that their land was indeed lost and that their cities +would at once be taken, but to their wonder and delight the Gauls did +them no hurt, and took nothing from their fields, but marched close by +their cities, calling out that they were marching against Rome, and were +at war with the Romans only, and held all other men to be their friends. +To meet this impetuous rush, the military tribunes led out the Romans, +who, in numbers indeed were quite a match for the Gauls, for they +amounted to no less than forty thousand heavy-armed men, but for the +most part untrained and serving for the first time. + +Besides this disadvantage, they neglected the duties of religion, for +they neither made the usual sacrifices nor consulted the soothsayers. +Confusion also was produced by the number of commanders, though +frequently before this, in much less important campaigns, they had +chosen single generals, whom they called dictators, as they knew that +nothing is so important at a dangerous crisis as that all should +unanimously and in good order obey the commands of one irresponsible +chief. And the unfair treatment which Camillus had received now bore +disastrous fruits, for no man dared to use authority except to flatter +and gain the favour of the people. + +They proceeded about eleven miles from the city, and halted for the +night on the banks of the river Allia, which joins the Tiber not far +from where their camp was pitched. Here the barbarians appeared, and, +after an unskilfully managed battle, the want of discipline of the +Romans caused their ruin. The Gauls drove the left wing into the river +and destroyed it, but the right of the army, which took refuge in the +hills to avoid the enemy's charge on level ground, suffered less, and +most of them reached the city safely. The rest, who survived after the +enemy were weary of slaughter, took refuge at Veii, imagining that all +was over with Rome. + +XIX. This battle took place about the summer solstice at the time of +full moon, on the very day on which in former times the great disaster +befel the Fabii, when three hundred of that race were slain by the +Etruscans. But this defeat wiped out the memory of the former one, and +the day was always afterwards called that of the Allia, from the river +of that name. + +It is a vexed question whether we ought to consider some days unlucky, +or whether Herakleitus was right in rebuking Hesiod for calling some +days good and some bad, because he knew not that the nature of all days +is the same. However the mention of a few remarkable instances is +germane to the matter of which we are treating. It happened that on the +fifth day of the Boeotian month Hippodromios, which the Athenians call +Hekatombeion,[A] two signal victories were won by the Boeotians, both of +which restored liberty to Greece; one, when they conquered the Spartans +at Leuktra, and the other, when, more than two hundred years before +this, they conquered the Thessalians under Lattamyas at Kerêssus. + +[Footnote A: Plutarch himself was a Boeotian.] + +Again, the Persians were beaten by the Greeks on the sixth of Boedromion +at Marathon, and on the third they were beaten both at Plataea and at +Mykale, and at Arbela on the twenty-fifth of the same month. The +Athenians too won their naval victory under Chabrias at Naxos on the +full moon of Boedromion, and that of Salamis on the twentieth of that +month, as I have explained in my treatise 'On Days.' + +The month of Thargelion evidently brings misfortune to the barbarians, +for Alexander defeated the Persian king's generals on the Granicus in +Thargelion, and the Carthaginians were defeated by Timoleon in Sicily +on the twenty-seventh of Thargelion, at which same time Troy is believed +to have been taken, according to Ephorus, Kallisthenes, Damastes and +Phylarchus. + +On the other hand, the month Metageitnion, which the Boeotians call +Panemos, is unfavourable to the Greeks, for on the seventh of that month +they were defeated by Antipater at Kranon and utterly ruined; and before +that, were defeated during that month by Philip at Chaeronea. And on +that same day and month and year Archidamus and his troops, who had +crossed over into Italy, were cut to pieces by the natives. The +twenty-first day of that month is also observed by the Carthaginians as +that which has always brought the heaviest misfortunes upon them. And I +am well aware that at the time of the celebration of the mysteries +Thebes was destroyed for the second time by Alexander, and that after +this Athens was garrisoned by Macedonian soldiers on the twentieth of +Boedromion, on which day they bring out the mystic Iacchus in +procession. And similarly the Romans, under the command of Caepio, on +that same day lost their camp to the Gauls, and afterwards, under +Lucullus, defeated Tigranes and the Armenians. King Attalus and Pompeius +the Great died on their own birthdays. And I could mention many others, +who have had both good and evil fortune on the same anniversaries. But +the Romans regard that day as especially unlucky, and on account of it, +two other days in every month are thought so, as superstitious feeling +is increased by misfortune. This subject I have treated at greater +length in my treatise on 'Roman Questions.' + +XX. If, after the battle, the Gauls had at once followed up the +fugitives, nothing could have prevented their taking Rome and destroying +every one who was left in it; such terror did the beaten troops produce +when they reached home, and such panic fear seized upon every one. +However the barbarians scarcely believed in the completeness of their +victory, and betook themselves to making merry over their success and to +dividing the spoils taken in the Roman camp, so that they afforded those +who left the city time to effect their escape, and those who remained in +it time to recover their courage and make preparations for standing a +siege. They abandoned all but the Capitol to the enemy, and fortified it +with additional ramparts and stores of missiles. One of their first acts +was to convey most of their holy things into the Capitol, while the +Vestal virgins took the sacred fire and their other sacred objects and +fled with them from the city. Some indeed say that nothing is entrusted +to them except the eternal fire, which King Numa appointed to be +worshiped as the origin of all things. For fire has the liveliest motion +of anything in nature; and everything is produced by motion or with some +kind of motion. All other parts of matter when heat is absent lie +useless and apparently dead, requiring the power of fire as the breath +of life, to call them into existence and make them capable of action. + +Numa therefore, being a learned man and commonly supposed on account of +his wisdom to hold communion with the Muses, consecrated fire, and +ordered it to be kept unquenched for ever as an emblem of the eternal +power that orders all things. Others say that, as among the Greeks, a +purificatory fire burns before the temple, but that within are other +holy things which no man may see, except only the virgins, who are named +Vestals; and a very wide-spread notion is, that the famous Trojan +Palladium, which was brought to Italy by Aeneas, is kept there. Others +say that the Samothracian gods are there, whom Dardanus brought to Troy +after he had founded it, and caused to be worshipped there, which, after +the fall of Troy, Aeneas carried off and kept until he settled in Italy. +But those who pretend to know most about such matters say that there are +two jars of no great size in the temple, one open and empty, and the +other full and sealed, and that these may be seen only by the holy +virgins. Others think that this is a mistake, arising from the fact +that, at the time of which we are treating, the Vestal virgins placed +most of their sacred things in two jars and concealed them in the earth +under the Temple of Quirinus, which place even to the present day is +called the _Doliola_, or place of the jars. + +XXI. However this may be, the Vestals took the most important of their +holy things and betook themselves to flight along the Tiber. Here Lucius +Albinus, a plebian, was journeying among the fugitives, with his wife +and infant children and their few necessaries in a waggon. When he saw +the Vestal virgins, without any attendants, journeying on foot and in +distress, carrying in their bosoms the sacred images of the gods, he at +once removed his wife, children, and property from the waggon and handed +it over to them, to escape into one of the Greek cities in Italy. The +piety of Albinus and his care for the duties of religion at so terrible +a crisis deserve to be recorded. + +The rest of the priests and the old men who had been consuls, and been +honoured with triumphs, could not bear to leave the city. At the +instance of Fabius, the Pontifex Maximus, they put on their sacred +vestments and robes of state, and after offering prayer to the gods, as +if they were consecrating themselves as victims to be offered on behalf +of their country, they sat down in their ivory chairs in the Forum in +full senatorial costume, and waited what fortune might befal them. + +XXII. On the third day after the battle Brennus appeared, leading his +army to attack the city. At first, seeing the gates open and no guards +on the walls, he feared some ambuscade, as he could not believe that the +Romans had so utterly despaired of themselves. When he discovered the +truth, he marched through the Colline Gate, and captured Rome, a little +more than three hundred and sixty years after its foundation, if we can +believe that any accurate record has been kept of those periods whose +confusion has produced such difficulties in the chronology of later +times. However, an indistinct rumour of the fall of Rome seems at once +to have reached Greece: for Herakleides of Pontus, who lived about that +time, speaks in his book 'On the Spirit,' of a rumour from the west that +an army had come from the Hyperboreans and had sacked a Greek colony +called Rome, which stood somewhere in that direction, near the great +ocean. Now, as Herakleides was fond of strange legends, I should not be +surprised if he adorned the original true tale of the capture of the +city with these accessories of "the Hyperboreans" and "the great ocean." +Aristotle, the philosopher, had evidently heard quite accurately that +the city was taken by the Gauls, but he says that it was saved by one +Lucius: now Camillus's name was Marcus, not Lucius. All this, however, +was pure conjecture. + +Brennus, after taking possession of Rome, posted a force to watch the +Capitol, and himself went down to the Forum, and wondered at the men who +sat there silent, with all their ornaments, how they neither rose from +their seats at the approach of the enemy, nor changed colour, but sat +leaning on their staffs with fearless confidence, quietly looking at one +another. The Gauls were astonished at so strange a sight, and for a long +time they forbore to approach and touch them, as if they were superior +beings. But when one of them ventured to draw near to Marcus Papirius +and gently stroke his long beard, Papirius struck him on the head with +his staff, at which the barbarian drew his sword and slew him. Upon this +they fell upon the rest and killed them, with any other Romans whom they +found, and spent many days in plundering the houses, after which they +burned them and pulled them down in their rage at the men in the +Capitol, because they would not surrender, but drove them back when they +assaulted it. For this reason they wreaked their vengeance on the city, +and put to death all their captives, men and women, old and young alike. + +XXIII. As the siege was a long one, the Gauls began to want for +provisions. They divided themselves into two bodies, one of which +remained with the king and carried on the siege, while the others +scoured the country, plundering and destroying the villages, not going +all together in a body, but scattered in small detachments in various +directions, as their elation at their success caused them to have no +fear about separating their forces. Their largest and best disciplined +body marched towards Ardea, where Camillus, since his banishment, had +lived as a private person. All his thoughts, however, were bent not upon +avoiding or fleeing from the Gauls, but upon defeating them if possible. +And so, seeing that the people of Ardea were sufficient in numbers, but +wanting in confidence because of the want of experience and remissness +of their leaders, he first began to tell the younger men that they ought +not to ascribe the misfortunes of the Romans to the bravery of the +Gauls, for the misconduct of the former had given them a triumph which +they did not deserve. It would, he urged, be a glorious thing, even at +the risk of some danger, to drive away a tribe of savage barbarians, who +if they were victorious always exterminated the vanquished: while, if +they only showed bravery and confidence, he could, by watching his +opportunity, lead them to certain victory. As the younger men eagerly +listened to these words, Camillus proceeded to confer with the chief +magistrates of the Ardeates. After obtaining their consent also, he +armed all those who were capable of service, but kept them within the +walls, as he wished to conceal their presence from the enemy who were +now close at hand. But when the Gauls after scouring the country +returned laden with plunder and carelessly encamped in the plain, and +when at night by the influence of wine and sleep all was quiet in their +camp, Camillus, who had learned the state of the case from spies, led +out the men of Ardea, and marching over the intervening ground in +silence, about midnight attacked their entrenched camp with loud shouts +and blasts of his trumpet, which threw the Gauls, half-drunk and heavy +with sleep as they were, into great confusion. Few recovered their +senses so far as to attempt to resist Camillus, and those few fell where +they stood; but most of them were slain as they lay helpless with wine +and sleep. Such as escaped from the camp and wandered about the fields +were despatched by cavalry the next day. + +XXIV. The fame of this action, when noised among the neighbouring +cities, called many men to arms, especially those Romans who had escaped +to Veii after the battle of the Allia. These men lamented their fate, +saying, "What a general has Providence removed from Rome in Camillus, +whose successes now bring glory to Ardea, while the city that produced +and brought up so great a man has utterly perished. And now we, for want +of a general to lead us, are sitting still inside the walls of a city +not our own, and giving up Italy to the enemy. Come, let us send to the +men of Ardea, and beg their general of them, or else ourselves take up +our arms and march to him. He is no longer an exile, nor are we any +longer his countrymen, for our country is ours no more, but is in the +hands of the enemy." + +This was agreed, and they sent to beg Camillus to become their general. +But he refused, saying that he would not do so without a decree from the +citizens in the Capitol; for they as long as they survived, represented +the city of Rome, and therefore although he would gladly obey their +commands, he would not be so officious as to interfere against their +will. The soldiers admired the honourable scruples of Camillus, but +there was a great difficulty in representing them to the garrison of the +Capitol; indeed, it seemed altogether impossible for a messenger to +reach the citadel while the city was in the possession of the enemy. + +XXV. One of the younger Romans, Pontius Cominius, of the middle class of +citizens, but with an honourable ambition to distinguish himself, +undertook the adventure. He would not take any writing to the garrison, +for fear that if he were taken the enemy might discover Camillus's +plans. He dressed himself in poor clothes, with corks concealed under +them, and performed most of the journey fearlessly by daylight, but when +he came near the city he went by night. As it was impossible to cross +the river by the bridge, which was held by the Gauls, he wrapped what +few clothes he had round his head, and trusted to his corks to float him +over to the city. After he had landed, he walked round, observing by the +lights and the noise where the Gauls were most wakeful, until he reached +the Carmentan Gate, where all was quiet. At this place the Capitolian +Hill forms a steep and precipitous crag, up which he climbed by a hollow +in the cliff, and joined the garrison. After greeting them and making +known his name, he proceeded to an interview with the leading men. A +meeting of the Senate was called, at which he recounted Camillus's +victory, which they had not heard of, and explained the determination of +the soldiers. He then begged them to confirm Camillus's appointment as +general, because the citizens without the walls would obey no other. + +When the Senate heard this, they deliberated, and finally appointed +Camillus dictator, and sent back Pontius by the same way that he came, +which he was able to accomplish as fortunately as before. He eluded the +Gauls, and brought the decree of the senate to the Romans outside the +walls. + +XXVI. They heard the news with enthusiasm, so that Camillus when he +came, found that they already numbered twenty thousand, while he drew +many additional troops from the neighbouring friendly cities. Thus was +Camillus a second time appointed dictator, and, proceeding to Veii, +joined the soldiers there, to whom he added many others from the allies, +and prepared to attack the enemy. But meanwhile at Rome, some of the +Gauls happening to pass by the place where Pontius climbed up the +Capitol, noticed in many places the marks of where he had clutched at +the rock with his hands and feet, torn off the plants which grew upon +it, and thrown down the mould. They brought the news to the king, who +came and viewed the place. He said nothing at the time, but in the +evening he called together those Gauls who were lightest and most +accustomed to climb mountains, and thus addressed them: "The road up the +rock, which we by ourselves could not discover, has been proved by our +enemies not to be impassable to men, and it would be disgraceful for us +after having begun so well to leave our enterprise incomplete, and to +give up the place as impregnable after the enemy themselves have shown +us how it may be taken. Where it is easy for one man to climb, it cannot +be hard for many to climb one by one, as their numbers will give them +confidence and mutual support. Suitable honours and presents will be +given to those who distinguish themselves." + +XXVII. After this speech of their king, the Gauls eagerly volunteered +for the assault, and about midnight many of them climbed silently up the +rock, which although rough and precipitous was easier of ascent than +they had imagined, so that the first of them reached the top, and were +on the point of preparing to attack the rampart and its sleeping +garrison, for neither men nor dogs noticed them. But there were sacred +geese kept in the temple of Juno, which in other times were fed without +stint, but which then, as there was scarcely food enough for the men, +were somewhat neglected. These birds are naturally quick of hearing and +timid, and now being rendered wakeful and wild by hunger, quickly +perceived the Gauls climbing up, and rushing noisily to the place woke +the garrison, while the Gauls feeling that they were discovered no +longer preserved silence, but violently assaulted the place. The Romans, +snatching up whatever arms came first to hand, ran to repulse them: and +first of all Manlius, a man of consular rank, strong of body and full of +courage, fell in with two of the enemy. As one of them lifted up his +battleaxe, Manlius cut off his right hand with his sword, while he +dashed his shield into the other's face, and threw him backwards down +the cliff. After this he stood upon the wall, and with the help of those +who assembled round him, beat off the rest, for not many had reached the +top, or effected anything commensurate with the boldness of the attempt. +Having thus escaped the danger, the Romans threw their sentinel down the +rock; while on Manlius they conferred by vote a reward for his bravery, +intended more for honour than advantage; for each man gave him a day's +rations, which consisted of half a Roman pound of meal, and the fourth +part of a Greek cotyle of wine. + +XXVIII. This affair disheartened the Gauls, who were also in want of +provisions, for they could not forage as before for fear of Camillus, +while disease also crept in among them, encamped as they were in the +ruins of Rome among heaps of dead bodies, while the deep layer of ashes +became blown by the wind into the air, making it dry and harsh, and the +vapours of the conflagrations were injurious to breathe. They were +especially distressed by the change from a cloudy country where there +are plenty of shady retreats, to the flat burning plains of Rome in +autumn, and their siege of the Capitol became wearisome, for they had +now beleaguered it for seven months; so that there was much sickness in +their camp, and so many died that they no longer buried the dead. Yet +for all this the besieged fared no better. Hunger pressed them, and +their ignorance of what Camillus was doing disheartened them; for no one +could reach them with news, because the city was strictly watched by +Gauls. As both parties were in these straits, proposals for a +capitulation took place; at first among the outposts on both sides; +afterwards the chief men on each side. Brennus, the Gaulish king, and +Sulpicius the Roman tribune, met, and it was agreed that the Romans +should pay a thousand pounds of gold, and that the Gauls should, on +receiving it, at once leave the country. Both parties swore to observe +these conditions, but when the gold was being weighed, the Gauls at +first tampered with the scales unperceived, and then openly pulled the +beam, so that the Romans became angry. But at this Brennus insolently +took off his sword and belt, and flung them into the scale; and when +Sulpicius asked, "What is this?" "What should it be," replied the Gaul; +"but woe to the vanquished!" At this some of the Romans were angry and +thought that they ought to take back their gold into the Capitol, and +again endure the siege; while others said that they must put up with +insults, provided they were not too outrageous, and not think that there +was any additional disgrace in paying more than they had agreed, because +in paying any ransom at all, they were acting from sheer necessity +rather than feelings of honour. + +XXIX. While the Romans were thus disputing with the Gauls, and with one +another, Camillus with his army was at the gates. Learning what was +being done, he ordered the mass of his soldiers to follow him quietly +and in good order, and himself pushed on with the picked troops to join +the Romans, who all made way for him, and received him as dictator with +silence and respect. He then took the gold from the scales and gave it +to his victors, and ordered the Gauls to take the scales and the beam, +and depart, "for," said he, "it is the custom of the Romans to defend +their country not with gold but with iron." At this Brennus became +angry, and said that he was being wronged by the treaty being broken; +and Camillus answered that the negotiations were illegal, because when +they began he was already dictator, and therefore, as no one else had +any authority, the treaty had been made by the Gauls with persons who +were not authorized to treat. But now, if they wished, they might make +fresh proposals, for he was come with full legal powers to pardon such +as made their submission, and to punish unrepentant evil-doers. Enraged +at this, Brennus began to skirmish, and the two parties, mixed up as +they were, in houses and lands where no military formation was +possible, did go so far as to draw their swords and push one another +about; but Brennus soon recovered his temper, and drew off the Gauls, +with but little loss, in their camp. + +During the night he got them all under arms, left the city, and, after a +march of about eight miles, encamped by the side of the Gabinian Road. +But at daybreak, Camillus was upon him, in glittering armour, leading on +the Romans who had now recovered their courage. After a long and +fiercely contested battle they routed the Gauls and took their camp. +Some of the fugitives were at once pursued and slain, but most of them +straggled about the country, and were put to death by the people of the +neighbouring towns and villages who sallied out upon them. + +XXX. Thus was Rome strangely taken, and yet more strangely preserved, +after having been for seven months in the possession of the Gauls, for +they entered it a few days after the Ides of Quintilis, and left it +about the Ides of February. Camillus, as we may easily imagine, entered +the city in a triumph, as the saviour of his lost country, and the +restorer of Rome to itself; for as he drove into the city he was +accompanied by those who had before left it, with their wives and +children, while those who had been besieged in the Capitol, and all but +starved there, came out to meet him embracing one another, weeping, and +scarcely believing in their present happiness. The priests and servants +of the gods also appeared with such of the sacred things as they had +saved, either by burying them on the spot, or by carrying them away, and +now displayed these images, which had not been seen for so long a time, +to the citizens, who greeted them with joy, as if the gods themselves +were again returning to Rome. Camillus performed a sacrifice to the +gods, and purified the city in the manner recommended by experts, and +then proceeded to restore all the previously existing temples, while he +himself added another to _Aius Loquutius_, or Rumour, having carefully +sought out the place at which the voice in the night miraculously +foretold the coming of the Gaulish host to Marcus Caedicius. + +XXXI. With great difficulty the sites of the temples were cleared of +rubbish by the zeal of Camillus and the labour of the priests; but as +the city was utterly destroyed, and required to be entirely rebuilt, the +people became disheartened at so great an undertaking. Men who had lost +their all were inclined to wait, and indeed required rest after their +misfortunes, rather than labours and toils, which neither their bodies +nor their purses were able to endure. And thus it came to pass that they +turned their thoughts a second time towards Veii, a city which stood +quite ready to be inhabited. This gave opportunities to their mob +orators to make speeches, as usual, which they knew would be pleasing to +the people, in which Camillus was disrespectfully spoken of as depriving +them of a city which stood ready to receive them, for his own prviate +ambition, and was said to be compelling them to live encamped in the +midst of ruins, and re-erect their houses in that vast heap of ashes, +all in order that he might be called, not merely the leader and general +of Rome, but might usurp the place of Romulus and be called her founder. +Fearing disturbances, the Senate would not permit Camillus to lay down +his dictatorship for a year, although he wished to do so, and although +no dictator before this had ever remained in office for more than six +months. In the meantime the senators themselves encouraged and consoled +the people by personal appeals, pointing to the tombs and monuments of +their ancestors, and recalling to their minds the temples and holy +places which Romulus and Numa and the other kings had consecrated and +left in charge to them. More especially they dwelt upon the omen of the +newly severed head which had been found when the foundations of the +Capitol were dug, by which it was proved that that spot was fated to +become the head of Italy, and the fire of Vesta which the virgins had +relighted after the war, and which it would be a disgrace for them to +extinguish, and to abandon the city, whether they were to see it +inhabited by foreigners or turned into fields for cattle to feed in. +While persistently urging these considerations both in public speeches +and in private interviews with the people, they were much affected by +the lamentations of the poor over their helpless condition. The people +begged that, as they had, like people after a shipwreck, saved their +lives and nothing else, they might not, in addition to this misfortune, +be compelled to put together the ruins of a city which had been utterly +destroyed, while another was standing ready to receive them. + +XXXII. Under these circumstances, Camillus determined to debate the +question publicly. He himself made a long appeal on behalf of his native +place, and many other speeches were delivered. Finally he rose, and bade +Lucius Lucretius, whose privilege it was, to vote first, and then after +him the rest in order. Silence was enforced, and Lucretius was just on +the point of voting when a centurion in command of a detachment of the +guard of the day marched by, and in a loud voice called to the +standard-bearer: "Pitch the standard here: here it is best for us to +stay." When these words were heard so opportunely in the midst of their +deliberations about the future, Lucretius reverently said that he +accepted the omen, and gave his vote in accordance with it, and his +example was followed by all the rest. The people now showed a strange +revulsion of feeling, for they encouraged one another to begin the work +of rebuilding, not on any regular plan, but just as each man happened to +find a convenient place for his work. Consequently they quickly rebuilt +the city, for within a year it is said that both the city walls and the +private houses were completed; but it was full of intricate, narrow +lanes and inconveniently placed houses. + +The priests, who had been ordered by Camillus to mark out the boundaries +where the temples had stood among the general wreck, when in their +circuit of the Palatine Hill they came upon the chapel of Mars, found +it, like every other building, destroyed and levelled to the ground by +the Gauls, but while thoroughly examining the place they found the +augur's staff of Romulus hidden under a deep heap of ashes. This staff +is curved at one end, and is called _lituus_. They use it to divide the +heavens into squares when taking the auspices, just as Romulus himself +did, as he was deeply skilled in divination. When he vanished from among +mankind, the priests kept his staff just like any other sacred object. +That at such a time, when all the other holy things perished, this +should have been preserved, gave them good hopes of Rome, which that +omen seemed to presage would be eternal. + +XXXIII. Before they had finished rebuilding the city they became +involved in a war, for the Aequians, Volscians, and Latins combined +their forces and invaded the country, while the Etruscans besieged +Sutrium, a city in alliance with Rome. The tribunes in command of the +Roman forces encamped near the Marcian heights, and were there besieged +by the Latins and in danger of having their camp taken. They sent to +Rome for assistance, and the Romans appointed Camillus dictator for the +third time. About this war there are two different accounts, of which I +will mention the legendary one first:--It is said that the Latins, +either merely as a pretext, or really wishing to amalgamate the two +races as before, sent a demand to Rome for free unmarried women to be +delivered up for them to marry. As the Romans were at their wits' ends +what to do, because they feared to go to war, being scarcely recovered +from their late mishap, while they suspected that the women would be +used as hostages if they gave them up, and that the proposal of +intermarriage was merely a feint, a slave girl named Tutula, or, as some +say, Philotis, advised the magistrates to send her and the best-looking +of the female slaves, dressed like brides of noble birth, and that she +would manage the rest. The magistrates approved of her proposal, chose +such girls as she thought suitable, and having dressed them in fine +clothes and jewellery, handed them over to the Latins, who were encamped +at no great distance from the city. At night the girls stole the daggers +of the enemies, and Tutula or Philotis climbed up a wild fig-tree, +stretched out her cloak behind her, and raised a torch as a signal, +which had been agreed upon between her and the magistrates, though no +other citizen knew of it. Wherefore, the soldiers rushed out of the +gates with a great clamour and disturbance, calling to one another and +scarcely able to keep their ranks as their chiefs hurried them along. +When they reached the enemy's camp, they found them asleep and not +expecting an attack, so that they took their camp and slew most of +them. This took place on the nones of the month Quintilis, now called +July, and the festival which then takes place is in memory of the events +of that day. First they march out of the gates in a mass, calling out +the common names of the country, such as Caius, Marcus, or Lucius, in +imitation of their hurried calling for each other on that occasion. +Next, female slaves splendidly dressed walk round laughing and romping +with all whom they meet. These girls also perform a sort of fight among +themselves, like those who on that day took their share in the fight +with the Latins: and afterwards they sit down to a feast, under the +shade of fig-tree boughs. They call this day the _nonae caprotinae_, +probably from the wild fig-tree from which the slave girl waved the +torch; for in Latin a wild fig-tree is called _caprificus_. Others say +that most of these things were said and done when Romulus disappeared, +for on this very day he was snatched away, outside the city gates, in a +sudden storm and darkness, or as some think during an eclipse of the +sun: and they say that the day is called _nonae caprotiae_ from the +place, because Romulus was carried off while holding a meeting of the +entire people at the place called the Goat's Marsh, as is written in his +life. + +XXXIV. The other story is approved by most writers, who relate it as +follows:--Camillus, after being appointed dictator for the third time, +and learning that the army under the command of the military tribunes +was being besieged by the Latins and Volscians, was compelled to arm +even those citizens who were past the age for service in the field. He +marched by a long circuit to the Marcian heights unnoticed by the enemy, +and established his army behind them. By lighting fires he announced his +arrival to the Romans in the camp, who took courage, and began to +meditate sallying out of their camp and attacking the enemy. But the +Latins and Volscians kept close within the rampart of their camp, which +they fortified with many additional palisades, on all sides, for they +now were between two hostile armies, and intended to await succour from +home, while they also expected a force from Etruria to come to their +aid. Camillus, perceiving this, and fearing that he might be surrounded +in his turn, vigorously used his opportunity. The rampart of the allies +was formed of wood, and as a strong wind blew down from the mountains at +daybreak, he prepared combustibles, and early in the morning got his +forces under arms. One division he sent to attack the enemy's camp with +darts, and missile weapons, and loud shouts, while he himself, with +those who were in charge of the fire, waited for his opportunity on that +side towards which the wind usually blew. When the other troops were +engaged with the enemy, the sun rose, and a strong wind got up. At this +Camillus gave the signal for attack, and at once enveloped the palisades +with lighted missiles. As the flames quickly spread in the thick wooden +palisades, the Latins, finding their camp girt with flames, were driven +into a small compass, and finally obliged to sally out of their +entrenchments, outside of which the Romans stood ready to receive them. +Few of those who broke out escaped, while all who remained in the camp +perished in the flames, until the Romans extinguished them and began to +plunder. + +XXXV. After this exploit, Camillus left his son Lucius in charge of the +camp, to guard the prisoners and the booty, and himself invaded the +enemy's country. He took the capital of the Aequi, reduced the Volsci to +subjection, and marched at once upon Sutrium to relieve that city, whose +inhabitants had not heard of his successes, but were still besieged by +the Etruscans. The Sutrians had just surrendered, and had been turned +out of their city by the enemy with nothing but the clothes they had on. +Camillus met them on the road with their wives and children, weeping +over their misfortune. He was greatly moved at so piteous a sight, and, +perceiving that the Romans were touched by the despairing entreaties of +the people of Sutrium, who clung to them with tears in their eyes, +determined that he would at once avenge their wrongs, and march upon +Sutrium that very day, arguing that men who were merry with success, +having just captured a wealthy city, with no enemy either left within +its walls or expected from without, would be found in careless disorder. +In this conjecture he was right; for he not only marched through the +country, but even obtained possession of the walls and gates unperceived +by the enemy, who had posted no guards, but were carousing in the +various private houses. Indeed when they learned that the Romans were in +possession of the town, they were in such a condition of intoxication +that most of them could not even attempt to escape, but shamefully +waited in the houses where they were until they were either killed or +taken prisoners. Thus was the city of Sutrium twice taken in one day, +and thus did the victors lose their prize, and the dispossessed +inhabitants regain their homes by Camillus's means. + +XXXVI. The triumph which he enjoyed after these campaigns added to his +popularity and glory as much as either of the former; for even those who +disliked him most, and who had insisted that all his successes were due +to good fortune more than to skill, were now forced to admit the +brilliancy of his generalship, and to give his genius its due. The chief +of his enemies and detractors was Marcus Manlius, he who had been the +first man to fling the Gauls down the cliff in the night attack on the +Capitol, and who in remembrance of this was surnamed Capitolinus. This +man, endeavouring to make himself the first man in Rome, and not being +able to surpass the fame of Camillus by fair means, made the accusation +against him usual in such cases, that he was intending to make himself +king. This falsehood he repeated in his addresses to the people, with +whom he was making himself popular, especially with those who were in +debt; some of whom he defended, and assisted in coming to terms with +their creditors, while others he forcibly rescued from the officers of +the law, so that many needy persons were attracted to him, and became +the terror of all respectable citizens by their riotous disturbances in +the Forum. To put an end to these disorders, Quintus Capitolinus was +created dictator, and he put Manlius in prison; but the people upon this +went into mourning, a thing only done on the occasion of some great +public disaster, and the Senate, terrified at this, ordered Manlius to +be acquitted. Manlius was not improved by his captivity, but was more +turbulent and disorderly in his conduct than he had been before. +Camillus was now again elected military tribune, and Manlius was +impeached: but the place in which he was tried told greatly against his +accusers. For the very spot on the Capitol on which Manlius fought with +the Gauls on that night was visible from the Forum, and the sight of it +raised a strong feeling in his favour; while he himself pointed to it, +and, with tears in his eyes, reminded them of how he had fought for +them, so that his judges were at their wits' end, and often adjourned +the trial, for they could not acquit him of a crime which was clearly +proved against him, and yet they could not bring themselves to let the +law take its course, when the scene before them reminded them constantly +of his great exploit. Camillus, perceiving this, removed the court to +the Petelian Grove outside the city gates, where, as the Capitol was not +visible, the prosecutor was able to press home his charges against +Manlius, while the judges were not prevented from punishing him for his +recent crimes by their remembrance of what he had done in former times. +He was convicted, led to the Capitol, and thrown down the cliff, which +thus witnessed both the most glorious deed of his life, and his +miserable end. The Romans destroyed his house, on the site of which they +built the Temple of Juno Moneta, and decreed that for the future no +patrician might dwell upon the Capitol. + +XXXVII. Camillus, when appointed military tribune for the sixth time, +begged to be excused, as he was growing old, and perhaps feared that +such unbroken success and glory would call down upon him the wrath of +the gods.[A] His most obvious reason for declining the appointment was +the state of his health, for at this time he was sick. However, the +people would not permit him to retire, but loudly urged that they did +not want him to ride on horseback or fight in the ranks, but merely to +advise and superintend. Thus they compelled him to accept the office, +and with one of his colleagues, Lucius Furius, at once to lead an army +against the enemy. He left the city and encamped near the enemy, where +he wished to remain inactive, in order that, if a battle should be +necessary, he might recover his health sufficiently to take part in it. +But as his colleague Lucius, who longed to distinguish himself, was so +eager for action that he could not be restrained, and excited the +subordinate officers, Camillus, fearing that it might be supposed that +he grudged younger men an opportunity of gaining laurels, agreed, sorely +against his will, to allow his colleague to lead out the army and offer +battle, while he with a few troops remained behind in the camp. But when +he heard that Lucius had rashly engaged and that the Romans were +defeated, he could not restrain himself, but leaping from his couch met +them with his followers at the gate of the camp. Here he forced his way +through the fugitives and attacked the pursuing force, so that those +Romans whom he had passed at once turned and followed him, while those +who were still outside the camp rallied round him, calling upon one +another not to desert their general. The enemy's pursuit was thus +checked, and on the following day Camillus marched out with his entire +force, entirely defeated them, and entering their camp together with the +fugitives, put most of them to the sword. After this, hearing that +Satria had been captured by the Etruscans, and all the Roman colonists +there put to death, he sent the greater part of his force back to Rome, +reserving only the youngest and most vigorous of the soldiers, with whom +he assaulted the Etruscans who held the city, and conquered them, +killing many, and putting the rest to flight. + +[Footnote A: The punishment of excessive and unbroken prosperity was +assigned by the Greeks to the goddess Nemesis. The idea of too great a +career of success exciting the anger of the gods is common throughout +the whole of ancient literature. A well-known instance is the story of +Polykrates of Samos, as told by Herodotus. Amasis the king of Egypt, +observing the unbroken good fortune of Polykrates, advised him +voluntarily to sacrifice some of his treasures. Polykrates, following +his friend's advice, cast his signet-ring into the sea. But the ring was +swallowed by a fish, and the fish was caught and presented to the king, +who thus recovered his ring. When Amasis heard of this, he refused to +ally himself with Polykrates, thinking that such good fortune presaged a +terrible disaster. Polykrates was put to death shortly afterwards by the +Persians, who conquered his kingdom.] + +XXXVIII. By his return to Rome with great spoils, he proved that those +men were right who had not feared that weakness or old age would impair +the faculties of a general of daring and experience, but who had chosen +him, ill and unwilling to act as he was, rather than men in the prime +of life, who were eager to hold military commands. For this reason, when +the people of Tusculum were reported to be in insurrection, they bade +Camillus take one of the other five tribunes as his colleague, and march +against them. Camillus, in spite of all that the rest of the tribunes +could urge, for they all wished to be taken, chose Lucius Furius, whom +no one could have supposed he would have chosen; for he it was who had +been so eager to fight, against the better judgment of Camillus, and so +had brought about the defeat in the late war; however, Camillus chose +him rather than any other, wishing, it would appear, to conceal his +misfortune and wipe out his disgrace. + +The people of Tusculum cleverly repaired their fault. When Camillus +marched to attack them they filled the country with men working in the +fields and tending cattle just as in time of peace; the city gates were +open, the boys at school, the lower classes plying various trades, and +the richer citizens walking in the market-place in peaceful dress. The +magistrates bustled about the city, pointing out where the Romans were +to be quartered, as if the thought of treachery had never entered their +minds. Camillus, though this conduct did not shake his belief in their +guilt, was moved to pity by their repentance. He ordered them to go to +Rome and beg the Senate to pardon them; and when they appeared, he +himself used his influence to procure their forgiveness, and the +admission of Tusculum to the Roman franchise. These were the most +remarkable events of his sixth tribuneship. + +XXXIX. After this, Licinius Stolo put himself at the head of the +plebeians in their great quarrel with the Senate. They demanded that +consuls should be re-established, one of whom should always be a +plebeian, and that they should never both be patricians. Tribunes of the +people were appointed, but the people would not suffer any election of +consuls to be held. As this want of chief magistrates seemed likely to +lead to still greater disorders, the Senate, much against the will of +the people, appointed Camillus dictator for the fourth time. He himself +did not wish for the post, for he was loth to oppose men who had been +his comrades in many hard-fought campaigns, as indeed he had spent much +more of his life in the camp with his soldiers than with the patrician +party in political intrigues, by one of which he was now appointed, as +that party hoped that if successful he would crush the power of the +plebeians, while in case of failure he would be ruined. However, he made +an effort to deal with the present difficulty. Knowing the day on which +the tribunes intended to bring forward their law, he published a +muster-roll of men for military service, and charged the people to leave +the Forum and meet him on the Field of Mars, threatening those who +disobeyed with a heavy fine. But when the tribunes answered his threats +by vowing that they would fine him fifty thousand _drachmas_ unless he +ceased his interference with the people's right of voting, he retired to +his own house, and after a few days laid down his office on pretence of +sickness. This he did, either because he feared a second condemnation +and banishment, which would be a disgrace to an old man and one who had +done such great deeds, or else because he saw that the people were too +strong to be overpowered, and he did not wish to make the attempt. + +The Senate appointed another dictator, but he made that very Licinius +Stolo, the leader of the popular party, his master of the horse, and +thus enabled him to pass a law which was especially distasteful to the +patricians, for it forbade any one to possess more than five hundred +_jugera_ of land. Stolo, after this success, became an important +personage; but, a short time afterwards, he was convicted of possessing +more land than his own law permitted, and was punished according to its +provisions. + +XL. There still remained the difficulty about the consular elections, +the most important point at issue between the two parties, and the +Senate was greatly disturbed at it, when news arrived that the Gauls, +starting from the Adriatic Sea, were a second time marching in great +force upon Rome. At the same time evident traces of their approach could +be seen, as the country was being plundered, and such of the inhabitants +as could not easily reach Rome were taking refuge in the mountains. + +This terrible tidings put an end to all internal disputes. The Senate +and people formed themselves into one assembly, and with one voice +appointed Camillus dictator for the fifth time. He was now a very old +man, being near his eightieth year; but at this pressing crisis he made +none of his former excuses, but at once took the chief command and +levied an army for the war. As he knew that the chief power of the Gauls +lay in their swords, with which they dealt heavy blows on the heads and +shoulders of their enemy, without any skill in fence, he prepared for +most of his soldiers helmets made entirely of smooth iron, so that the +swords would either break or glance off them, while he also had brass +rims fitted to their shields, because the wood by itself could not +endure a blow. He also instructed the soldiers to use long pikes, and to +thrust them forward to receive the sword-cuts of the enemy. + +XLI. When the Gauls were encamped on the banks of the Anio, near the +city, loaded with masses of plunder, Camillus led out his troops and +posted them in a glen from which many valleys branched out, so that the +greater part of the force was concealed, and that which was seen +appeared to be clinging in terror to the hilly ground. Camillus, wishing +to confirm the enemy in this idea, would not move to prevent the country +being plundered before his eyes, but palisaded his camp and remained +quiet within it, until he saw that the foraging parties of the Gauls +straggled in careless disorder, while those in the camp did nothing but +eat and drink. Then, sending forward his light troops before daybreak to +be ready to harass the Gauls and prevent their forming their ranks +properly as they came out of their camp, he marched the heavy-armed men +down into the plain at sunrise, a numerous and confident body, and not, +as the Gauls fancied, a few disheartened men. + +The very fact of his commencing the attack dashed the courage of the +Gauls; next, the attacks of the light troops, before they had got into +their wonted array and divided themselves into regiments, produced +disorder. When at last Camillus led on the heavy-armed troops, the Gauls +ran to meet them brandishing their swords, but the Romans with their +pikes advanced and met them, receiving their sword-cuts on their armour, +which soon made the Gaulish swords bend double, as they were made of +soft iron hammered out thin, while the shields of the Gauls were +pierced and weighed down by the pikes that stuck in them. They therefore +dropped their own arms, and endeavoured to seize the pikes and turn them +against their enemies. But the Romans, seeing them now defenceless, +began to use their swords, and slew many of the first ranks, while the +rest took to flight all over the flat country; for Camillus had taken +care to guard the hills and rough ground, while the Gauls knew that +they, in their over-confidence, had been at no pains to fortify their +camp, and that the Romans could easily take it. + +This battle is said to have been fought thirteen years after the capture +of Rome, and in consequence of it the Romans conceived a contempt for +these barbarians, whom they had before greatly dreaded, and even +believed that their former victories over the Gauls were due to their +being weakened by pestilence, and to fortunate circumstances, rather +than to their own valour. This raised so great a terror of them, that a +law was passed which relieved the priests from military service except +in case of a Gaulish invasion. + +XLII. This was the last of Camillus's military exploits, though during +this campaign he took the city of Velitrae, which yielded to him without +a battle. But his greatest political struggle was yet to come, for it +was harder to deal with the people now that they were elated with +victory. They insisted that the existing constitution should be +annulled, and that one of the two consuls should be chosen from among +them. They were opposed by the Senate, which would not permit Camillus +to lay down his office, as the patricians imagined that with the help of +his great power they could more easily defend their privileges. One day, +however, as Camillus was sitting publicly doing business in the Forum, a +viator or servant sent by the tribunes of the people bade him follow +him, and even laid his hand upon him as if to arrest him. At this such a +disturbance arose as had never been known before, as Camillus's party +endeavoured to push the officer down from the tribunal, while the people +clamoured to him to drag the dictator from his seat. Camillus himself, +not knowing what to do, would not lay down his office, but called the +Senate to meet. Before entering the Senate house, he turned round to +the Capitol and prayed that the gods would bring affairs to a happy +termination, vowing that when the present disorders were at an end he +would build a Temple of Concord. After a violent debate, the Senate +agreed to adopt the milder course of yielding to the popular demand, and +permitting one of the two consuls to be chosen from the people. When the +dictator announced this decision of the Senate to the people, they at +once, as was natural, were delighted with the Senate, and escorted +Camillus home with applause and shouts. On the next day they met and +decreed that the Temple of Concord which Camillus had vowed should be +erected on a spot facing the Forum, where these events had taken place; +moreover, that the Latin games should continue for four days instead of +three, and that all citizens of Rome should at once offer sacrifice and +crown themselves with garlands. + +In the assembly for the election of consuls, over which Camillus +presided there were elected Marcus Aemilius, a patrician, and Lucius +Sextius, the first plebeian ever elected consul. This was the result of +Camillus's administration. + +XLIII. In the following year a pestilence broke out in Rome which +destroyed enormous numbers of people, and among them most of the leading +men. And in this year died Camillus, at a ripe old age, full of years +and honours, more regretted by the Romans than all those who died of the +plague. + + + + +LIFE OF PERIKLES. + + +I. One day in Rome, Caesar, seeing some rich foreigners nursing and +petting young lapdogs and monkeys, enquired whether in their parts of +the world the women bore no children: a truly imperial reproof to those +who waste on animals the affection which they ought to bestow upon +mankind. May we not equally blame those who waste the curiosity and love +of knowledge which belongs to human nature, by directing it to +worthless, not to useful objects? It is indeed unavoidable that external +objects, whether good or bad, should produce some effect upon our +senses; but every man is able, if he chooses, to concentrate his mind +upon any subject he may please. For this reason we ought to seek virtue, +not merely in order to contemplate it, but that we may ourselves derive +some benefit from so doing. Just as those colours whose blooming and +pleasant hues refresh our sight are grateful to the eyes, so we ought by +our studies to delight in that which is useful for our own lives; and +this is to be found in the acts of good men, which when narrated incite +us to imitate them. The effect does not take place in other cases, for +we frequently admire what we do not wish to produce; indeed we often are +charmed with the work, but despise the workman, as in the case of dyes +and perfumery which we take pleasure in, although we regard dyers and +perfumers as vulgar artizans. That was a clever saying of Antisthenes, +who answered, when he heard that Ismenias was a capital flute-player, +"But he must be a worthless man, for if he were not, he would not be +such a capital flute-player!" and King Philip of Macedon, when his son +played brilliantly and agreeably on the harp at an entertainment, said +to him, "Are you not ashamed, to play so well?" + +It is enough for a king, if he sometimes employs his leisure in +listening to musicians, and it is quite a sufficient tribute from him to +the Muses, if he is present at the performances of other persons. + +II. If a man devotes himself to these trifling arts, the time which he +wastes upon them proves that he is incapable of higher things. No well +nurtured youth, on seeing the statue of Jupiter Olympius at Pisa, wishes +that he were a Pheidias, or that he were a Polykleitus on seeing the +statue of Juno at Argos, nor yet while he takes pleasure in poetry, does +he wish that he were an Anakreon, a Philetas, or an Archilochus; for it +does not necessarily follow that we esteem the workman because we are +pleased with the work. For this reason men are not benefited by any +spectacle which does not encourage them to imitation, and where +reflection upon what they have observed does not make them also wish to +do likewise; whereas we both admire the deeds to which virtue incites, +and long to emulate the doers of them. + +We enjoy the good things which we owe to fortune, but we admire virtuous +actions; and while we wish to receive the former, we wish ourselves to +benefit others by the latter. That which is in itself admirable kindles +in us a desire of emulation, whether we see noble deeds presented before +us, or read of them in history. It was with this purpose that I have +engaged in writing biography, and have arranged this tenth book to +contain the lives of Perikles and of Fabius Maximus, who fought against +Hannibal, men who especially resembled one another in the gentleness and +justice of their disposition, and who were both of the greatest service +to their native countries, because they were able to endure with +patience the follies of their governments and colleagues. Of my success, +the reader of the following pages will be able to judge for themself. + +III. Perikles was of the tribe Akamantis, and of the township of +Cholargos, and was descended from the noblest families in Athens, on +both his father's and mother's side. His father, Xanthippus, defeated +the Persian generals at Mykalé, while his mother, Agariste, was a +descendant of Kleisthenes, who drove the sons of Peisistratus out of +Athens, put an end to their despotic rule, and established a new +constitution admirably calculated to reconcile all parties and save the +country. She dreamed that she had brought forth a lion, and a few days +afterwards was delivered of Perikles. His body was symmetrical, but his +head was long out of all proportion; for which reason in nearly all his +statues he is represented wearing a helmet, as the sculptors did not +wish, I suppose, to reproach him with this blemish. The Attic poets +called him squill-head, and the comic poet, Kratinus, in his play +'Cheirones,' says, + + "From Kronos old and faction, + Is sprung a tyrant dread, + And all Olympus calls him, + The man-compelling head." + +And again in the play of 'Nemesis' + + "Come, hospitable Zeus, with lofty head." + +Telekleides, too, speaks of him as sitting + + "Bowed down + With a dreadful frown, + Because matters of state have gone wrong, + Until at last, + From his head so vast, + His ideas burst forth in a throng." + +And Eupolis, in his play of 'Demoi,' asking questions about each of the +great orators as they come up from the other world one after the other, +when at last Perikles ascends, says, + + "The great headpiece of those below." + +IV. Most writers tell us that his tutor in music was Damon, whose name +they say should be pronounced with the first syllable short. Aristotle, +however, says that he studied under Pythokleides. This Damon, it seems, +was a sophist of the highest order, who used the name of music to +conceal this accomplishment from the world, but who really trained +Perikles for his political contests just as a trainer prepares an +athlete for the games. However, Damon's use of music as a pretext did +not impose upon the Athenians, who banished him by ostracism, as a +busybody and lover of despotism. He was ridiculed by the comic poets; +thus Plato represents some one as addressing him, + + "Answer me this, I humbly do beseech, + For thou, like Cheiron, Perikles did'st teach." + +Perikles also attended the lectures of Zeno, of Elea, on natural +philosophy, in which that philosopher followed the method of Parmenides. +Zeno moreover had made an especial study of how to reduce any man to +silence who questioned him, and how to enclose him between the horns of +a dilemma, which is alluded to by Timon of Phlius in the following +verses: + + "Nor weak the strength of him of two-edged tongue, + Zeno that carps at all." + +But it was Anaxagoras of Klazomenae who had most to do with forming +Perikles's style, teaching him an elevation and sublimity of expression +beyond that of ordinary popular speakers, and altogether purifying and +ennobling his mind. This Anaxagoras was called Nous, or Intelligence, by +the men of that day, either because they admired his own intellect, or +because he taught that an abstract intelligence is to be traced in all +the concrete forms of matter, and that to this, and not to chance, the +universe owes its origin. + +V. Perikles greatly admired Anaxagoras, and became deeply interested in +these grand speculations, which gave him a haughty spirit and a lofty +style of oratory far removed from vulgarity and low buffoonery, and also +an imperturbable gravity of countenance, and a calmness of demeanour and +appearance which no incident could disturb as he was speaking, while the +tone of his voice never showed that he heeded any interruption. These +advantages greatly impressed the people. Once he sat quietly all day in +the market-place despatching some pressing business, reviled in the +foulest terms all the while by some low worthless fellow. Towards +evening he walked home, the man following him and heaping abuse upon +him. When about to enter his own door, as it was dark, he ordered one of +his servants to take a torch and light the man home. The poet Ion, +however, says that Perikles was overbearing and insolent in +conversation, and that his pride had in it a great deal of contempt for +others; while he praises Kimon's civil, sensible, and polished address. +But we may disregard Ion, as a mere dramatic poet who always sees in +great men something upon which to exercise his satiric vein; whereas +Zeno used to invite those who called the haughtiness of Perikles a mere +courting of popularity and affectation of grandeur, to court popularity +themselves in the same fashion, since the acting of such a part might +insensibly mould their dispositions until they resembled that of their +model. + +VI. These were not the only advantages which Perikles gained from his +intimacy with Anaxagoras, but he seems to have learned to despise those +superstitious fears which the common phenomena of the heavens produce in +those who, ignorant of their cause, and knowing nothing about them, +refer them all to the immediate action of the gods. Knowledge of +physical science, while it puts an end to superstitious terrors, +replaces them by a sound basis of piety. It is said that once a ram with +one horn was sent from the country as a present to Perikles, and that +Lampon the prophet, as soon as he saw this strong horn growing out of +the middle of the creature's forehead, said that as there were two +parties in the state, that of Thucydides and that of Perikles, he who +possessed this mystic animal would unite the two into one. Anaxagoras +cut open the beast's skull, and pointed out that its brain did not fill +the whole space, but was sunken into the shape of an egg, and all +collected at that part from which the horn grew. At the time all men +looked with admiration on Anaxagoras, but afterwards, when Thucydides +had fallen, and all the state had become united under Perikles, they +admired Lampon equally. + +There is, I imagine, no reason why both the prophet and the natural +philosopher should not have been right, the one discovering the cause, +and the other the meaning. The one considered why the horn grew so, and +for what reason; the other declared what it _meant_ by growing so, and +for what _end_ it took place. Those who say that when the cause of a +portent is found out the portent is explained away, do not reflect that +the same reasoning which explains away heavenly portents would also put +an end to the meaning of the conventional signals used by mankind. The +ringing of bells, the blaze of beacon fires, and the shadows on a dial +are all of them produced by natural causes, but have a further meaning. +But perhaps all this belongs to another subject. + +VII. Perikles when young greatly feared the people. He had a certain +personal likeness to the despot Peisistratus; and as his own voice was +sweet, and he was ready and fluent in speech, old men who had known +Peisistratus were struck by his resemblance to him. He was also rich, of +noble birth, and had powerful friends, so that he feared he might be +banished by ostracism, and consequently held aloof from politics, but +proved himself a brave and daring soldier in the wars. But when +Aristeides was dead, Themistokles banished, and Kimon generally absent +on distant campaigns, Perikles engaged in public affairs, taking the +popular side, that of the poor and many against that of the rich and +few, quite contrary to his own feelings, which were entirely +aristocratic. He feared, it seems, that he might be suspected of a +design to make himself despot, and seeing that Kimon took the side of +the nobility, and was much beloved by them, he betook himself to the +people, as a means of obtaining safety for himself, and a strong party +to combat that of Kimon. He immediately altered his mode of life; was +never seen in any street except that which led to the market-place and +the national assembly, and declined all invitations to dinner and such +like social gatherings, so utterly that during the whole of his long +political life he never dined with one of his friends, except when his +first cousin, Euryptolemus, was married. On this occasion he sat at +table till the libations were poured, upon which he at once got up and +went away. For solemnity is wont to unbend at festive gatherings, and a +majestic demeanour is hard to keep up when one is in familiar +intercourse with others. True virtue, indeed, appears more glorious the +more it is seen, and a really good man's life is never so much admired +by the outside world as by his own intimate friends. But Perikles feared +to make himself too common even with the people, and only addressed +them after long intervals--not speaking upon every subject, and, not +constantly addressing them, but, as Kritolaus says, keeping himself like +the Salaminian trireme for great crises, and allowing his friends and +the other orators to manage matters of less moment. One of these friends +is said to have been Ephialtes, who destroyed the power of the Council +of the Areopagus, "pouring out," as Plato, the comic poet, said, "a full +and unmixed draught of liberty for the citizens," under the influence of +which the poets of the time said that the Athenian people + + "Nibbled at Euboea, like a horse that spurns the rein, + And wantonly would leap upon the islands in the main." + +VIII. Wishing to adopt a style of speaking consonant with his haughty +manner and lofty spirit, Perikles made free use of the instrument which +Anaxagoras as it were put into his hand, and often tinged his oratory +with natural philosophy. He far surpassed all others by using this +"lofty intelligence and power of universal consummation," as the divine +Plato calls it;[A] in addition to his natural advantages, adorning his +oratory with apt illustrations drawn from physical science. + +[Footnote A: Plato, Phaedrus.] + +For this reason some think that he was nicknamed the Olympian; though +some refer this to his improvement of the city by new and beautiful +buildings, and others from his power both as a politician and a general. +It is not by any means unlikely that these causes all combined to +produce the name. Yet the comedies of that time, when they allude to +him, either in jest or earnest, always appear to think that this name +was given him because of his manner of speaking, as they speak of him as +"thundering and lightening," and "rolling fateful thunders from his +tongue." A saying of Thucydides, the son of Melesias, has been +preserved, which jestingly testifies to the power of Perikles's +eloquence. Thucydides was the leader of the conservative party, and for +a long time struggled to hold his own against Perikles in debate. One +day Archidamus, the King of Sparta, asked him whether he or Perikles was +the best wrestler. "When I throw him in wrestling," Thucydides answered, +"he beats me by proving that he never was down, and making the +spectators believe him." For all this Perikles was very cautious about +his words, and whenever he ascended the tribune to speak, used first to +pray to the gods that nothing unfitted for the present occasion might +fall from his lips. He left no writings, except the measures which he +brought forward, and very few of his sayings are recorded. One of these +was, that he called Aegina "the eyesore of the Peiraeus," and that "he +saw war coming upon Athens from Peloponnesus." Stesimbrotus tells us +that when he was pronouncing a public funeral oration over those who +fell in Samos, he said that they had become immortal, even as the gods: +for we do not see the gods, but we conceive them to be immortal by the +respect which we pay them, and the blessings which we receive from them; +and the same is the case with those who die for their country. + +IX. Thucydides represents the constitution under Perikles as a democracy +in name, but really an aristocracy, because the government was all in +the hands of one leading citizen. But as many other writers tell us that +during his administration the people received grants of land abroad, and +were indulged with dramatic entertainments, and payments for their +services, in consequence of which they fell into bad habits, and became +extravagant and licentious, instead of sober hard-working people as they +had been before, let us consider the history of this change, viewing it +by the light of the facts themselves. First of all, as we have already +said, Perikles had to measure himself with Kimon, and to transfer the +affections of the people from Kimon to himself. As he was not so rich a +man as Kimon, who used from his own ample means to give a dinner daily +to any poor Athenian who required it, clothe aged persons, and take away +the fences round his property, so that any one might gather the fruit, +Perikles, unable to vie with him in this, turned his attention to a +distribution of the public funds among the people, at the suggestion, we +are told by Aristotle, of Damonides of Oia. By the money paid for public +spectacles, for citizens acting as jurymen and other paid offices, and +largesses, he soon won over the people to his side, so that he was able +to use them in his attack upon the Senate of the Areopagus, of which he +himself was not a member, never having been chosen Archon, or +Thesmothete, or King Archon, or Polemarch. These offices had from +ancient times been obtained by lot, and it was only through them that +those who had approved themselves in the discharge of them were advanced +to the Areopagus. For this reason it was that Perikles, when he gained +strength with the populace, destroyed this Senate, making Ephialtes +bring forward a bill which restricted its judicial powers, while he +himself succeeded in getting Kimon banished by ostracism, as a friend of +Sparta and a hater of the people, although he was second to no Athenian +in birth or fortune, had won most brilliant victories over the Persians, +and had filled Athens with plunder and spoils of war, as will be found +related in his life. So great was the power of Perikles with the common +people. + +X. One of the provisions of ostracism was that the person banished +should remain in exile for ten years. But during this period the +Lacedaemonians with a great force invaded the territory of Tanagra, and, +as the Athenians at once marched out to attack them, Kimon came back +from exile, took his place in full armour among the ranks of his own +tribe, and hoped by distinguishing himself in the battle amongst his +fellow citizens to prove the falsehood of the Laconian sympathies with +which he had been charged. However, the friends of Perikles drove him +away, as an exile. On the other hand, Perikles fought more bravely in +that battle than he had ever fought before, and surpassed every one in +reckless daring. The friends of Kimon also, whom Perikles had accused of +Laconian leanings, fell, all together, in their ranks; and the Athenians +felt great sorrow for their treatment of Kimon, and a great longing for +his restoration, now that they had lost a great battle on the frontier, +and expected to be hard pressed during the summer by the Lacedaemonians. +Perikles, perceiving this, lost no time in gratifying the popular wish, +but himself proposed the decree for his recall; and Kimon on his return +reconciled the two States, for he was on familiar terms with the +Spartans, who were hated by Perikles and the other leaders of the common +people. Some say that, before Kimon's recall by Perikles, a secret +compact was made with him by Elpinike, Kimon's sister, that Kimon was +to proceed on foreign service against the Persians with a fleet of two +hundred ships, while Perikles was to retain his power in the city. It is +also said that, when Kimon was being tried for his life, Elpinike +softened the resentment of Perikles, who was one of those appointed to +impeach him. When Elpinike came to beg her brother's life of him, he +answered with a smile, "Elpinike, you are too old to meddle in affairs +of this sort." But, for all that, he spoke only once, for form's sake, +and pressed Kimon less than any of his other prosecutors. How, then, can +one put any faith in Idomeneus, when he accuses Perikles of procuring +the assassination of his friend and colleague Ephialtes, because he was +jealous of his reputation? This seems an ignoble calumny, which +Idomeneus has drawn from some obscure source to fling at a man who, no +doubt, was not faultless, but of a generous spirit and noble mind, +incapable of entertaining so savage and brutal a design. Ephialtes was +disliked and feared by the nobles, and was inexorable in punishing those +who wronged the people; wherefore his enemies had him assassinated by +means of Aristodikus of Tanagra. This we are told by Aristotle. Kimon +died in Cyprus, while in command of the Athenian forces. + +XI. The nobles now perceived that Perikles was the most important man in +the State, and far more powerful than any other citizen; wherefore, as +they still hoped to check his authority, and not allow him to be +omnipotent, they set up Thucydides, of the township of Alopekae, as his +rival, a man of good sense, and a relative of Kimon, but less of a +warrior and more of a politician, who, by watching his opportunities, +and opposing Perikles in debate, soon brought about a balance of power. +He did not allow the nobles to mix themselves up with the people in the +public assembly, as they had been wont to do, so that their dignity was +lost among the masses; but he collected them into a separate body, and +by thus concentrating their strength was able to use it to +counterbalance that of the other party. From the beginning these two +factions had been but imperfectly welded together, because their +tendencies were different; but now the struggle for power between +Perikles and Thucydides drew a sharp line of demarcation between them, +and one was called the party of the Many, the other that of the Few. +Perikles now courted the people in every way, constantly arranging +public spectacles, festivals, and processions in the city, by which he +educated the Athenians to take pleasure in refined amusements; and also +he sent out sixty triremes to cruise every year, in which many of the +people served for hire for eight months, learning and practising +seamanship. Besides this he sent a thousand settlers to the Chersonese, +five hundred to Naxos, half as many to Andros, a thousand to dwell among +the Thracian tribe of the Bisaltae, and others to the new colony in +Italy founded by the city of Sybaris, which was named Thurii. By this +means he relieved the state of numerous idle agitators, assisted the +necessitous, and overawed the allies of Athens by placing his colonists +near them to watch their behaviour. + +XII. The building of the temples, by which Athens was adorned, the +people delighted, and the rest of the world astonished, and which now +alone prove that the tales of the ancient power and glory of Greece are +no fables, was what particularly excited the spleen of the opposite +faction, who inveighed against him in the public assembly, declaring +that the Athenians had disgraced themselves by transferring the common +treasury of the Greeks from the island of Delos to their own custody. +"Perikles himself," they urged, "has taken away the only possible excuse +for such an act--the fear that it might be exposed to the attacks of the +Persians when at Delos, whereas it would be safe at Athens. Greece has +been outraged, and feels itself openly tyrannised over, when it sees us +using the funds which we extorted from it for the war against the +Persians, for gilding and beautifying our city, as if it were a vain +woman, and adorning it with precious marbles, and statues, and temples, +worth a thousand talents." To this Perikles replied, that the allies had +no right to consider how their money was spent, so long as Athens +defended them from the Persians; while they supplied neither horses, +ships, nor men, but merely money, which the Athenians had a right to +spend as they pleased, provided they afforded them that security which +it purchased. It was right, he argued, that, after the city had provided +all that was necessary for war, it should devote its surplus money to +the erection of buildings which would be a glory to it for all ages, +while these works would create plenty by leaving no man unemployed, and +encouraging all sorts of handicraft, so that nearly the whole city would +earn wages, and thus derive both its beauty and its profit from itself. +For those who were in the flower of their age, military service offered +a means of earning money from the common stock; while, as he did not +wish the mechanics and lower classes to be without their share, nor yet +to see them receive it without doing work for it, he had laid the +foundations of great edifices which would require industries of every +kind to complete them; and he had done this in the interests of the +lower classes, who thus, although they remained at home, would have just +as good a claim to their share of the public funds as those who were +serving at sea, in garrison, or in the field. The different materials +used, such as stone, brass, ivory, gold, ebony, cypress-wood, and so +forth, would require special artizans for each, such as carpenters, +modellers, smiths, stone masons, dyers, melters and moulders of gold, +and ivory painters, embroiderers, workers in relief; and also men to +bring them to the city, such as sailors and captains of ships and pilots +for such as came by sea; and, for those who came by land, carriage +builders, horse breeders, drivers, rope makers, linen manufacturers, +shoemakers, road menders, and miners. Each trade, moreover, employed a +number of unskilled labourers, so that, in a word, there would be work +for persons of every age and every class, and general prosperity would +be the result. + +XIII. These buildings were of immense size, and unequalled in beauty and +grace, as the workmen endeavoured to make the execution surpass the +design in beauty; but what was most remarkable was the speed with which +they were built. All these edifices, each of which one would have +thought, it would have taken many generations to complete, were all +finished during the most brilliant period of one man's administration. +We are told that Zeuxis, hearing Agatharchus, the painter, boasting how +easily and rapidly he could produce a picture, said, "I paint very +slowly." Ease, and speed of execution, seldom produces work of any +permanent value or delicacy. It is the time which is spent in laborious +production for which we are repaid by the durable character of the +result. And this makes Perikles's work all the more wonderful, because +it was built in a short time, and yet has lasted for ages. In beauty +each of them at once appeared venerable as soon as it was built; but +even at the present day the work looks as fresh as ever, for they bloom +with an eternal freshness which defies time, and seems to make the work +instinct with an unfading spirit of youth. + +The overseer and manager of the whole was Pheidias, although there were +other excellent architects and workmen, such as Kallikrates and Iktinus, +who built the Parthenon on the site of the old Hekatompedon, which had +been destroyed by the Persians, and Koroebus, who began to build the +Temple of Initiation at Eleusis, but who only lived to see the columns +erected and the architraves placed upon them. On his death, Metagenes, +of Xypete, added the frieze and the upper row of columns, and Xenokles, +of Cholargos, crowned it with the domed roof over the shrine. As to the +long wall, about which Sokrates says that he heard Perikles bring +forward a motion, Kallikrates undertook to build it. Kratinus satirises +the work for being slowly accomplished, saying + + "He builds in speeches, but he does no work." + +The Odeum, which internally consisted of many rows of seats and many +columns, and externally of a roof sloping on all sides from a central +point, was said to have been built in imitation of the king of Persia's +tent, and was built under Perikles's direction. For this reason Kratinus +alludes to him in his play of the 'Thracian Woman'-- + + "Our Jove with lofty skull appears; + The Odeum on his head he bears, + Because he fears the oyster-shell no more." + +Perikles at that period used his influence to pass a decree for +establishing a musical competition at the Panathenaic festival; and, +being himself chosen judge, he laid down rules as to how the candidates +were to sing, and play the flute or the harp. At that period, and ever +afterwards, all musical contests took place in the Odeum. + +The Propylaea, before the Acropolis, were finished in five years, by +Mnesikles the architect; and a miraculous incident during the work +seemed to show that the goddess did not disapprove, but rather +encouraged and assisted the building. The most energetic and active of +the workmen fell from a great height, and lay in a dangerous condition, +given over by his doctors. Perikles grieved much for him; but the +goddess appeared to him in a dream, and suggested a course of treatment +by which Perikles quickly healed the workman. In consequence of this, he +set up the brazen statue of Athene the Healer, near the old altar in the +Acropolis. The golden statue of the goddess was made by Pheidias, and +his name appears upon the basement in the inscription. Almost everything +was in his hands, and he gave his orders to all the workmen--as we have +said before--because of his friendship with Perikles. This led to their +both being envied and belied; for it was said that Perikles, with the +connivance of Pheidias, carried on intrigues with Athenian ladies, who +came ostensibly to see the works. This accusation was taken up by the +comic poets, who charged him with great profligacy, hinting that he had +an improper passion for the wife of Menippus, his friend, and a +lieutenant-general in the army. Even the bird-fancying of Pyrilampes, +because he was a friend of Perikles, was misrepresented, and he was said +to give peacocks to the ladies who granted their favours to Perikles. +But, indeed, how can we wonder at satirists bringing foul accusations +against their betters, and offering them up as victims to the spite of +the populace, when we find Stesimbrotus, of Thasos, actually inventing +that unnatural and abominable falsehood of Perikles's intrigue with his +own daughter-in-law. So hard is it to discover the truth, because the +history of past ages is rendered difficult by the lapse of time; while +in contemporary history the truth is always obscured, either by private +spite and hatred, or by a desire to curry favour with the chief men of +the time. + +XIV. When the speakers of Thucydides's party complained that Perikles +had wasted the public money, and destroyed the revenue, he asked the +people in the assembly whether they thought he had spent much. When they +answered "Very much indeed," he said in reply, "Do not, then, put it +down to the public account, but to mine; and I will inscribe my name +upon all the public buildings." When Perikles said this, the people, +either in admiration of his magnificence of manner, or being eager to +bear their share in the glory of the new buildings, shouted to him with +one accord to take what money he pleased from the treasury, and spend it +as he pleased, without stint. And finally, he underwent the trial of +ostracism with Thucydides, and not only succeeded in driving him into +exile, but broke up his party. + +XV. As now there was no opposition to encounter in the city, and all +parties had been blended into one, Perikles undertook the sole +administration of the home and foreign affairs of Athens, dealing with +the public revenue, the army, the navy, the islands and maritime +affairs, and the great sources of strength which Athens derived from her +alliances, as well with Greek as with foreign princes and states. +Henceforth he became quite a different man: he no longer gave way to the +people, and ceased to watch the breath of popular favour; but he changed +the loose and licentious democracy, which had hitherto existed, into a +stricter aristocratic, or rather monarchical, form of government. This +he used honourably and unswervingly for the public benefit, finding the +people, as a rule, willing to second the measures which he explained to +them to be necessary, and to which he asked their consent, but +occasionally having to use violence, and to force them, much against +their will, to do what was expedient; like a physician dealing with some +complicated disorder, who at one time allows his patient innocent +recreation, and at another inflicts upon him sharp pains and bitter, +though salutary, draughts. Every possible kind of disorder was to be +found among a people possessing so great an empire as the Athenians; and +he alone was able to bring them into harmony, by playing alternately +upon their hopes and fears, checking them when over-confident, and +raising their spirits when they were cast down and disheartened. Thus, +as Plato says, he was able to prove that oratory is the art of +influencing men's minds, and to use it in its highest application, when +it deals with men's passions and characters, which, like certain strings +of a musical instrument, require a skilful and delicate touch. The +secret of his power is to be found, however, as Thucydides says, not so +much in his mere oratory, as in his pure and blameless life, because he +was so well known to be incorruptible, and indifferent to money; for +though he made the city, which was a great one, into the greatest and +richest city of Greece, and though he himself became more powerful than +many independent sovereigns, who were able to leave their kingdoms to +their sons, yet Perikles did not increase by one single drachma the +estate which he received from his father. + +XVI. This is the clear account of his power which is given by Thucydides +the historian; though the comic poets misrepresent him atrociously, +calling his immediate followers the New Peisistratidae, and calling upon +him to swear that he never would make himself despot, as though his +pre-eminence was not to be borne in a free state. And Telekleides says, +that the Athenians delivered up into his hands + + "The tribute from the towns, the towns themselves, + The city walls, to build or to destroy, + The right of making either peace or war, + And all the wealth and produce of the land." + +And all this was not on any special occasion, or when his administration +was especially popular, but for forty years he held the first place +among such men as Ephialtes, Leokrates, Myronides, Kimon, Tolmides, and +Thucydides; and, after the fall and banishment of Thucydides by +ostracism, he united in himself for five-and-twenty years all the +various offices of state, which were supposed to last only for one year; +and yet during the whole of that period proved himself incorruptible by +bribes. As to his paternal estate, he was loth to lose it, and still +more to be troubled with the management of it; consequently, he adopted +what seemed to him the simplest and most exact method of dealing with +it. Every year's produce was sold all together, and with the money thus +obtained, he would buy what was necessary for his household in the +market, and thus regulate his expenditure. This did not make him +popular with his sons when they grew up; nor yet did the women of his +family think him a liberal manager, but blamed his exact regulation of +his daily expenses, which allowed none of the superfluities common in +great and wealthy households, but which made the debit and credit +exactly balance each other. One servant, Euangelos, kept all his +accounts, as no one else had either capacity or education enough to be +able to do so. These proceedings differed greatly from those of +Anaxagoras the philosopher, who left his house, and let his estate go to +ruin, while he pursued his lofty speculations. I conceive, however, that +the life of a philosopher and that of a practical politician are not the +same, as the one directs his thoughts to abstract ideas, while the other +devotes his genius to supplying the real wants of mankind, and in some +cases finds wealth not only necessary, but most valuable to him, as +indeed it was to Perikles, who assisted many of the poorer citizens. It +is said that, as Perikles was engaged in public affairs, Anaxagoras, who +was now an old man and in want, covered his head with his robe, and +determined to starve himself to death; but when Perikles heard of this, +he at once ran to him, and besought him to live, lamenting, not +Anaxagoras's fate, but his own, if he should lose so valuable a +political adviser. Then Anaxagoras uncovered his head, and said to him, +"Perikles, those who want to use a lamp supply it with oil." + +XVII. As the Lacedaemonians began to be jealous of the prosperity of the +Athenians, Perikles, wishing to raise the spirit of the people and to +make them feel capable of immense operations, passed a decree, inviting +all the Greeks, whether inhabiting Europe or Asia, whether living in +large cities or small ones, to send representatives to a meeting at +Athens to deliberate about the restoration of the Greek temples which +had been burned by the barbarians, about the sacrifices which were due +in consequence of the vows which they had made to the gods on behalf of +Greece before joining battle, and about the sea, that all men might be +able to sail upon it in peace and without fear. To carry out this decree +twenty men, selected from the citizens over fifty years of age, were +sent out, five of whom invited the Ionian and Dorian Greeks in Asia and +the islands as far as Lesbos and Rhodes, five went to the inhabitants of +the Hellespont and Thrace as far as Byzantium, and five more proceeded +to Boeotia, Phokis, and Peloponnesus, passing from thence through Lokris +to the neighbouring continent as far as Akarnania and Ambrakia; while +the remainder journeyed through Euboea to the Oetaeans and the Malian +gulf, and to the Achaeans of Phthia and the Thessalians, urging them to +join the assembly and take part in the deliberations concerning the +peace and well-being of Greece. However, nothing was effected, and the +cities never assembled, in consequence it is said of the covert +hostility of the Lacedaemonians, and because the attempt was first made +in Peloponnesus and failed there: yet I have inserted an account of it +in order to show the lofty spirit and the magnificent designs of +Perikles. + +XVIII. In his campaigns he was chiefly remarkable for caution, for he +would not, if he could help it, begin a battle of which the issue was +doubtful; nor did he wish to emulate those generals who have won +themselves a great reputation by running risks, and trusting to good +luck. But he ever used to say to his countrymen, that none of them +should come by their deaths through any act of his. Observing that +Tolmides, the son of Tolmaeus, elated by previous successes and by the +credit which he had gained as a general, was about to invade Boeotia in +a reckless manner, and had persuaded a thousand young men to follow him +without any support whatever, he endeavoured to stop him, and made that +memorable saying in the public assembly, that if Tolmides would not take +the advice of Perikles, he would at any rate do well to consult that +best of advisers, Time. This speech had but little success at the time; +but when, a few days afterwards, the news came that Tolmides had fallen +in action at Koronea, and many noble citizens with him, Perikles was +greatly respected and admired as a wise and patriotic man. + +XIX. His most successful campaign was that in the Chersonesus, which +proved the salvation of the Greeks residing there: for he not only +settled a thousand colonists there, and thus increased the available +force of the cities, but built a continuous line of fortifications +reaching across the isthmus from one sea to the other, by which he shut +off the Thracians, who had previously ravaged the peninsula, and put an +end to a constant and harassing border warfare to which the settlers +were exposed, as they had for neighbours tribes of wild plundering +barbarians. + +But that by which he obtained most glory and renown was when he started +from Pegae, in the Megarian territory, and sailed round the Peloponnesus +with a fleet of a hundred triremes; for he not only laid waste much of +the country near the coast, as Tolmides had previously done, but he +proceeded far inland, away from his ships, leading the troops who were +on board, and terrified the inhabitants so much that they shut +themselves up in their strongholds. The men of Sikyon alone ventured to +meet him at Nemea, and them he overthrew in a pitched battle, and +erected a trophy. Next he took on board troops from the friendly +district of Achaia, and, crossing over to the opposite side of the +Corinthian Gulf, coasted along past the mouth of the river Achelous, +overran Akarnania, drove the people of Oeneadae to the shelter of their +city walls, and after ravaging the country returned home, having made +himself a terror to his enemies, and done good service to Athens; for +not the least casualty, even by accident, befel the troops under his +command. + +XX. When he sailed into the Black Sea with a great and splendidly +equipped fleet, he assisted the Greek cities there, and treated them +with consideration; and showed the neighbouring savage tribes and their +chiefs the greatness of his force, and his confidence in his power, by +sailing where he pleased, and taking complete control over that sea. He +left at Sinope thirteen ships, and a land force under the command of +Lamachus, to act against Timesileon, who had made himself despot of that +city. When he and his party were driven out, Perikles passed a decree +that six hundred Athenian volunteers should sail to Sinope, and become +citizens there, receiving the houses and lands which had formerly been +in the possession of the despot and his party. But in other cases he +would not agree to the impulsive proposals of the Athenians, and he +opposed them when, elated by their power and good fortune, they talked +of recovering Egypt and attacking the seaboard of the Persian empire. +Many, too, were inflamed with that ill-starred notion of an attempt on +Sicily, which was afterwards blown into a flame by Alkibiades and other +orators. Some even dreamed of the conquest of Etruria and Carthage, in +consequence of the greatness which the Athenian empire had already +reached, and the full tide of success which seemed to attend it. + +XXI. Perikles, however, restrained these outbursts, and would not allow +the people to meddle with foreign states, but used the power of Athens +chiefly to preserve and guard her already existing empire, thinking it +to be of paramount importance to oppose the Lacedaemonians, a task to +which he bent all his energies, as is proved by many of his acts, +especially in connection with the Sacred War. In this war the +Lacedaemonians sent a force to Delphi, and made the Phokaeans, who held +it, give it up to the people of Delphi: but as soon as they were gone +Perikles made an expedition into the country, and restored the temple to +the Phokaeans; and as the Lacedaemonians had scratched the oracle which +the Delphians had given them, on the forehead of the brazen wolf there, +Perikles got a response from the oracle for the Athenians, and carved it +on the right side of the same wolf. + +XXII. Events proved that Perikles was right in confining the Athenian +empire to Greece. First of all Euboea revolted, and he was obliged to +lead an army to subdue that island. Shortly after this, news came that +the Megarians had become hostile, and that an army, under the command of +Pleistoanax, king of the Lacedaemonians, was menacing the frontier of +Attica. Perikles now in all haste withdrew his troops from Euboea, to +meet the invader. He did not venture on an engagement with the numerous +and warlike forces of the enemy, although repeatedly invited by them to +fight: but, observing that Pleistoanax was a very young man, and +entirely under the influence of Kleandrides, whom the Ephors had sent to +act as his tutor and counsellor because of his tender years, he opened +secret negotiations with the latter, who at once, for a bribe, agreed to +withdraw the Peloponnesians from Attica. When their army returned and +dispersed, the Lacedaemonians were so incensed that they imposed a fine +on their king, and condemned Kleandrides, who fled the country, to be +put to death. This Kleandrides was the father of Gylippus, who caused +the ruin of the Athenian expedition in Sicily. Avarice seems to have +been hereditary in the family, for Gylippus himself, after brilliant +exploits in war, was convicted of taking bribes, and banished from +Sparta in disgrace. This is more fully set forth in the Life of +Lysander. + +XXIII. When Perikles submitted the accounts of the campaign to the +people, there was an item of ten talents, "for a necessary purpose," +which the people passed without any questioning, or any curiosity to +learn the secret. Some historians, amongst whom is Theophrastus the +philosopher, say that Perikles sent ten talents annually to Sparta, by +means of which he bribed the chief magistrates to defer the war, thus +not buying peace, but time to make preparations for a better defence. He +immediately turned his attention to the insurgents in Euboea, and +proceeding thither with a fleet of fifty sail, and five thousand heavy +armed troops, he reduced their cities to submission. He banished from +Chalkis the "equestrian order," as it was called, consisting of men of +wealth and station; and he drove all the inhabitants of Hestiaea out of +their country, replacing them by Athenian settlers. + +He treated these people with this pitiless severity, because they had +captured an Athenian ship, and put its crew to the sword. + +XXIV. After this, as the Athenians and Lacedaemonians made a truce for +thirty years, Perikles decreed the expedition against Samos, on the +pretext that they had disregarded the commands of the Athenians, to +cease from their war with the Milesians. It was thought that he began +this war with the Samians to please Aspasia, and this is, therefore, a +good opportunity to discuss that person's character, and how she +possessed so great influence and ability that the leading politicians of +the day were at her feet, while philosophers discussed and admired her +discourse. It is agreed that she was of Milesian origin, and that her +father's name was Axiochus; and she is said to have reserved her favours +for the most powerful personages in Greece, in imitation of Thargelia, +an Ionian lady of ancient times, of great beauty, ability, and +attractions, who had many lovers among the Greeks, and brought them all +over to the Persian interest, by which means the seeds of the Persian +faction were sown in many cities of Greece, as they were all men of +great influence and position. + +Now some writers say that Perikles valued Aspasia only for her wisdom +and political ability. Indeed Sokrates and his friends used to frequent +her society; and those who listened to her discourse used to bring their +wives with them, that they too might profit by it, although her +profession was far from being honourable or decent, for she kept +courtesans in her house. Aeschines says that Lysikles, the sheep dealer, +a low-born and low-minded man, became one of the first men in Athens, +because he lived with Aspasia after Perikles's death. In Plato's +dialogue too, called 'Menexenus,' though the first part is written in a +humorous style, yet there is in it thus much of serious truth, that she +was thought to discuss questions of rhetoric with many Athenians. But +Perikles seems to have been more enamoured of Aspasia's person than her +intellect. He was married to a woman who was nearly related to him, who +had previously been the wife of Hipponikus, by whom she became the +mother of Kallias the rich. By her Perikles had two sons, Xanthippus and +Paralus; but afterwards, as they could not live comfortably together, +he, at his wife's wish, handed her over to another husband, and himself +lived with Aspasia, of whom he was passionately fond. It is said that he +never went in or out of his house during the day without kissing her. In +the comedies of the time, she is spoken of as the new Omphale and as +Deianeira, and sometimes as Hera (Juno). Kratinus plainly speaks of her +as a harlot in the following lines: + + "To him Vice bore a Juno new, + Aspasia, shameless harlot." + +He is thought to have had a bastard son by her, who is mentioned by +Eupolis in his play of 'The Townships,' where Perikles is introduced, +asking, "Lives then my son?" to which Myronides answers: + + "He lives, and long had claimed a manly name, + But that he feared his harlot mother's shame." + +It is said that Aspasia became so illustrious and well known that the +Cyrus who fought with his brother for the empire of Persia, called his +favourite concubine Aspasia, though she had before been named Milto. She +was a Phokaean by birth, the daughter of Hermotimus. After the death of +Cyrus in battle, she was taken into the king's harem, and acquired great +influence with him. These particulars about Aspasia occurred to my +memory, and I thought that perhaps I might please my readers by relating +them. + +XXV. Perikles is accused of going to war with Samos to save the +Milesians, at the request of Aspasia. These States were at war about the +possession of the city of Priéne, and the Samians, who were victorious, +would not lay down their arms and allow the Athenians to settle the +matter by arbitration, as they ordered them to do. For this reason +Perikles proceeded to Samos, put an end to the oligarchical form of +government there, and sent fifty hostages and as many children to +Lemnos, to ensure the good behaviour of the leading men. It is said that +each of these hostages offered him a talent for his own freedom, and +that much more was offered by that party which was loth to see a +democracy established in the city. Besides all this, Pissuthnes the +Persian, who had a liking for the Samians, sent and offered him ten +thousand pieces of gold if he would spare the city. Perikles, however, +took none of these bribes, but dealt with Samos as he had previously +determined, and returned to Athens. The Samians now at once revolted, as +Pissuthnes managed to get them back their hostages, and furnished them +with the means of carrying on the war. Perikles now made a second +expedition against them, and found them in no mind to submit quietly, +but determined to dispute the empire of the seas with the Athenians. +Perikles gained a signal victory over them in a sea-fight off the Goats' +Island, beating a fleet of seventy ships with only forty-four, twenty of +which were transports. + +XXVI. Simultaneously with his victory and the flight of the enemy he +obtained command of the harbour of Samos, and besieged the Samians in +their city. They, in spite of their defeat, still possessed courage +enough to sally out and fight a battle under the walls; but soon a +larger force arrived from Athens, and the Samians were completely +blockaded. + +Perikles now with sixty ships sailed out of the Archipelago into the +Mediterranean, according to the most current report intending to meet +the Phoenician fleet which was coming to help the Samians, but, +according to Stesimbrotus, with the intention of attacking Cyprus, which +seems improbable. Whatever his intention may have been, his expedition +was a failure, for Melissus, the son of Ithagenes, a man of culture, who +was then in command of the Samian forces, conceiving a contempt for the +small force of the Athenians and the want of experience of their leaders +after Perikles's departure, persuaded his countrymen to attack them. In +the battle the Samians proved victorious, taking many Athenians +prisoners, and destroying many of their ships. By this victory they +obtained command of the sea, and were able to supply themselves with +more warlike stores than they had possessed before. Aristotle even says +that Perikles himself was before this beaten by Melissus in a sea-fight. +The Samians branded the figure of an owl on the foreheads of their +Athenian prisoners, to revenge themselves for the branding of their own +prisoners by the Athenians with the figure of a _samaina_. This is a +ship having a beak turned up like a swine's snout, but with a roomy +hull, so as both to carry a large cargo and sail fast. This class of +vessel is called _samaina_ because it was first built at Samos by +Polykrates, the despot of that island. It is said that the verse of +Aristophanes, + + "The Samians are a deeply lettered race," + +alludes to this branding. + +XXVII. When Perikles heard of the disaster which had befallen his army, +he returned in all haste to assist them. He beat Melissus, who came out +to meet him, and, after putting the enemy to rout, at once built a wall +round their city, preferring to reduce it by blockade to risking the +lives of his countrymen in an assault. As time went on the Athenians +became impatient and eager to fight, and it was hard to restrain their +ardour. Perikles divided the whole force into eight divisions, and made +them all draw lots. The division which drew the white bean he permitted +to feast and take their ease, while the rest did their duty. For this +reason those who are enjoying themselves call it a "white day," in +allusion to the white bean. Ephorus tells us that Perikles made use of +battering engines in this siege, being attracted by their novelty, and +that Artemon the mechanician was present, who was surnamed Periphoretus +because he was lame, and carried in a litter to see such of the works as +required his superintendence. This story is proved to be false by +Herakleides of Pontus, he quoting Anakreon's poems, in which Artemon +Periphoretus is mentioned many generations before the revolt and siege +of Samos. He tells us that Artemon was an effeminate coward who spent +most of his time indoors, with two slaves holding a brazen shield over +his head for fear that anything should fall upon it, and if he was +obliged to go out, used to be carried in a hammock slung so low as +almost to touch the ground, from which he received the name of +Periphoretus. + +XXVIII. In the ninth month of the siege the Samians surrendered. +Perikles demolished their walls, confiscated their fleet, and imposed a +heavy fine upon them, some part of which was paid at once by the +Samians, who gave hostages for the payment of the remainder at fixed +periods. Douris, of Samos, makes a lamentable story of this, accusing +Perikles and the Athenians of great cruelty, no mention of which is to +be found in Thucydides, Ephorus, or Aristotle. He obviously does not +tell the truth when he says that Perikles took the captains and marine +soldiers of each ship to the market-place at Miletus, bound them to +planks, and after they had been so for ten days and were in a miserable +state, knocked them on the head with clubs and cast out their bodies +without burial. But Douris, even in cases where he has no personal bias, +prefers writing an exciting story to keeping to the exact truth, and in +this instance probably exaggerated the sufferings of his countrymen in +order to gratify his dislike of the Athenians. + +Perikles, after the reduction of Samos, returned to Athens, where he +buried those who had fallen in the war in a magnificent manner, and was +much admired for the funeral oration which, as is customary, was spoken +by him over the graves of his countrymen. When he descended from the +rostrum the women greeted him, crowning him with garlands and ribbons +like a victorious athlete, and Elpinike drawing near to him said, "A +fine exploit, truly, Perikles, and well worthy of a crown, to lose many +of our brave fellow-citizens, not fighting with Persians or Phoenicians, +as my brother Kimon did, but in ruining a city of men of our own blood +and our own allies." At these words of Elpinike, Perikles merely smiled +and repeated the verse of Archilochus-- + + "Too old thou art for rich perfumes." + +Ion says that his victory over the Samians wonderfully flattered his +vanity. Agamemnon, he was wont to say, took ten years to take a +barbarian city, but he in nine months had made himself master of the +first and most powerful city in Ionia. And the comparison was not an +unjust one, for truly the war was a very great undertaking, and its +issue quite uncertain, since, as Thucydides tells us, the Samians came +very near to wresting the empire of the sea from the Athenians. + +XXIX. After these events, as the clouds were gathering for the +Peloponnesian war, Perikles persuaded the Athenians to send assistance +to the people of Korkyra, who were at war with the Corinthians, and thus +to attach to their own side an island with a powerful naval force, at a +moment when the Peloponnesians had all but declared war against them. + +When the people passed this decree, Perikles sent only ten ships under +the command of Lacedaemonius, the son of Kimon, as if he designed a +deliberate insult; for the house of Kimon was on peculiarly friendly +terms with the Lacedaemonians. His design in sending Lacedaemonius out, +against his will, and with so few ships, was that if he performed +nothing brilliant he might be accused, even more than he was already, of +leaning to the side of the Spartans. Indeed, by all means in his power, +he always threw obstacles in the way of the advancement of Kimon's +family, representing that by their very names they were aliens, one son +being named Lacedaemonius, another Thessalus, another Eleius. Moreover, +the mother of all three was an Arcadian. + +Now Perikles was much reproached for sending these ten ships, which +were of little value to the Korkyreans, and gave a great handle to his +enemies to use against him, and in consequence sent a larger force after +them to Korkyra, which arrived there after the battle. The Corinthians, +enraged at this, complained in the congress of Sparta of the conduct of +the Athenians, as did also the Megarians, who said that they were +excluded from every market and every harbour which was in Athenian +hands, contrary to the ancient rights and common privileges of the +Hellenic race. The people of Aegina also considered themselves to be +oppressed and ill-treated, and secretly bemoaned their grievances in the +ears of the Spartans, for they dared not openly bring any charges +against the Athenians. At this time, too, Potidaea, a city subject to +Athens, but a colony of Corinth, revolted, and its siege materially +hastened the outbreak of the war. Archidamus, indeed, the king of the +Lacedaemonians, sent ambassadors to Athens, was willing to submit all +disputed points to arbitration, and endeavoured to moderate the +excitement of his allies, so that war probably would not have broken out +if the Athenians could have been persuaded to rescind their decree of +exclusion against the Megarians, and to come to terms with them. And, +for this reason, Perikles, who was particularly opposed to this, and +urged the people not to give way to the Megarians, alone bore the blame +of having begun the war. + +XXX. It is said, that when an embassy arrived at Athens from Lacedaemon +to treat upon these matters, Perikles argued that there was a law which +forbade the tablet, on which the decree against the Megarians was +written, to be taken down. "Then," said Polyalkes, one of the +ambassadors, "do not take it down, but turn it with its face to the +wall; for there is no law against that!" + +Clever as this retort was, it had no effect on Perikles. He had, it +seems, some private spite at the Megarians, though the ground of quarrel +which he put publicly forward was that the Megarians had applied to +their own use some of the sacred ground; and he passed a decree for a +herald to be sent to the Megarians, and then to go on to the +Lacedaemonians to complain of their conduct. This decree of Perikles is +worded in a candid and reasonable manner; but the herald, +Anthemokritus, was thought to have met his death at the hands of the +Megarians, and Charinus passed a decree to the effect that Athens should +wage war against them to the death, without truce or armistice; that any +Megarian found in Attica should be punished with death, and that the +generals, when taking the usual oath for each year, should swear in +addition that they would invade the Megarian territory twice every year; +and that Anthemokritus should be buried near the city gate leading into +the Thriasian plain, which is now called the Double Gate. + +Now, the Megarians say that they were not to blame for the murder of +Anthemokritus, and lay it upon Perikles and Aspasia, quoting the +hackneyed rhymes from the 'Acharnians,' of Aristophanes: + + "Some young Athenians in their drunken play, + From Megara Simaetha stole away, + The men of Megara next, with angered soul, + Two of Aspasia's choicest harlots stole." + +XXXI. How the dispute originated it is hard to say, but all writers +agree in throwing on Perikles the blame of refusing to reverse the +decree. Some attribute his firmness to a wise calculation, saying that +the demand was merely made in order to try him, and that any concessions +would have been regarded as a sign of weakness; while others say that he +treated the Lacedaemonians so cavalierly through pride and a desire to +show his own strength. But the worst motive of all, and that to which +most men attribute his conduct, was as follows: Pheidias, the sculptor, +was, as we have related, entrusted with the task of producing the statue +of the tutelary goddess of Athens. His intimacy with Perikles, with whom +he had great influence, gained for him many enemies, who, wishing to +experiment on the temper of the people towards Perikles himself, bribed +Menon, one of Pheidias's fellow-workmen, to seat himself in the +market-place as a suppliant who begged that he might receive protection +while he denounced and prosecuted Pheidias. The people took this man +under its protection, and Pheidias was prosecuted before the Senate. The +alleged charges of theft were not proved, for Pheidias, by the advice of +Perikles, had originally fashioned the golden part of the statue in +such a manner that it could all be taken off and weighed, and this +Perikles bade the prosecutor do on this occasion. But the glory which +Pheidias obtained by the reality of his work made him an object of envy +and hatred, especially when in his sculpture of the battle with the +Amazons on the shield of the goddess he introduced his own portrait as a +bald-headed old man lifting a great stone with both hands, and also a +very fine representation of Perikles, fighting with an Amazon. The +position of the hand, which was holding a spear before the face of +Perikles, was ingeniously devised as if to conceal the portrait, which, +nevertheless, could plainly be seen on either side of it. For this, +Pheidias was imprisoned, and there fell sick and died, though some say +that his enemies poisoned him in order to cast suspicion upon Perikles. +At the instance of Glykon, the people voted to Menon, the informer, an +immunity from public burdens, and ordered the generals of the State to +provide for the wretch's safety. + +XXXII. About the same time Aspasia was prosecuted for impiety, at the +suit of Hermippus, the comic playwright, who moreover accused her of +harbouring free-born Athenian ladies, with whom Perikles carried on +intrigues. Also Diopeithes proposed a decree, that prosecutions should +be instituted against all persons who disbelieved in religion, and held +theories of their own about heavenly phenomena. This was aimed at +Perikles through the philosopher Anaxagoras. As the people adopted this +decree, and eagerly listened to these slanderous accusations, another +decree was carried by Drakontides, that Perikles should lay the accounts +of his dealings with the public revenue before the Prytanes, and that +the judges should carry their suffrage from the altar in the Acropolis, +and go and determine the cause in the city. At the motion of Hagnon this +part of the decree was reversed, but he succeeded in having the action +conducted before fifteen hundred judges, in a form of trial which one +might call either one for theft, or taking of bribes, or for public +wrong-doing. Aspasia was acquitted, quite contrary to justice, according +to Aeschines, because Perikles shed tears and made a personal appeal to +the judges on her behalf. He feared that Anaxagoras would be convicted, +and sent him out of the city before his trial commenced. And now, as he +had become unpopular by means of Pheidias, he at once blew the war into +a flame, hoping to put an end to these prosecutions, and to restore his +own personal ascendancy by involving the State in important and +dangerous crises, in which it would have to rely for guidance upon +himself alone. + +These are the causes which are assigned for his refusal to permit the +Athenians to make any concession to the Lacedaemonians, but the real +history of the transaction will never be known. + +XXXIII. Now, as the Lacedaemonians knew that if he could be removed from +power they would find the Athenians much more easy to deal with, they +bade them, "drive forth the accursed thing," alluding to Perikles's +descent from the Alkmaeonidae by his mother's side, as we are told by +Thucydides the historian. But this attempt had just the contrary effect +to that which they intended; for, instead of suspicion and dislike, +Perikles met with much greater honour and respect from his countrymen +than before, because they saw that he was an object of especial dislike +to the enemy. For this reason, before the Peloponnesians, under +Archidamus, invaded Attica, he warned the Athenians that if Archidamus, +when he laid waste everything else, spared his own private estate +because of the friendly private relations existing between them, or in +order to give his personal enemies a ground for impeaching him, that he +should give both the land and the farm buildings upon it to the State. + +The Lacedaemonians invaded Attica with a great host of their own troops +and those of their allies, led by Archidamus, their king. They +proceeded, ravaging the country as they went, as far as Acharnae (close +to Athens), where they encamped, imagining that the Athenians would +never endure to see them there, but would be driven by pride and shame +to come out and fight them. However, Perikles thought that it would be a +very serious matter to fight for the very existence of Athens against +sixty thousand Peloponnesian and Boeotian[A] heavy-armed troops, and so +he pacified those who were dissatisfied at his inactivity by pointing +out that trees when cut down quickly grow again, but that when the men +of a State are lost, it is hard to raise up others to take their place. +He would not call an assembly of the people, because he feared that they +would force him to act against his better judgment, but, just as the +captain of a ship, when a storm comes on at sea, places everything in +the best trim to meet it, and trusting to his own skill and seamanship, +disregarding the tears and entreaties of the sea-sick and terrified +passengers; so did Perikles shut the gates of Athens, place sufficient +forces to ensure the safety of the city at all points, and calmly carry +out his own policy, taking little heed of the noisy grumblings of the +discontented. Many of his friends besought him to attack, many of his +enemies threatened him and abused him, and many songs and offensive +jests were written about him, speaking of him as a coward, and one who +was betraying the city to its enemies. Kleon too attacked him, using the +anger which the citizens felt against him to advance his own personal +popularity, as we see from the following lines of Hermippus: + + "King of Satyrs, wherefore fear you + Spear to wield, and only dare to + Talk in swelling phrase, while yet you + Cower, Teles like, + And when goaded on, past bearing, + By our Kleon's tongue so daring, + Only gnash your teeth despairing, + Still afraid to strike." + +[Footnote A: The Dorians of Boeotia and Peloponnesus were accounted the +best infantry soldiers of Greece.] + +XXXIV. Perikles was unmoved by any of these attacks, but quietly endured +all this storm of obloquy. He sent a fleet of a hundred ships to attack +Peloponnesus, but did not sail with it himself, remaining at home to +keep a tight hand over Athens until the Peloponnesians drew off their +forces. He regained his popularity with the common people, who suffered +much from the war, by giving them allowances of money from the public +revenue, and grants of land; for he drove out the entire population of +the island of Aegina, and divided the land by lot among the Athenians. A +certain amount of relief also was experienced by reflecting upon the +injuries which they were inflicting on the enemy; for the fleet as it +sailed round Peloponnesus destroyed many small villages and cities, and +ravaged a great extent of country, while Perikles himself led an +expedition into the territory of Megara and laid it all waste. By this +it is clear that the allies, although they did much damage to the +Athenians, yet suffered equally themselves, and never could have +protracted the war for such a length of time as it really lasted, but, +as Perikles foretold, must soon have desisted had not Providence +interfered and confounded human counsels. For now the pestilence fell +among the Athenians, and cut off the flower of their youth. Suffering +both in body and mind they raved against Perikles, just as people when +delirious with disease attack their fathers or their physicians. They +endeavoured to ruin him, urged on by his personal enemies, who assured +them that he was the author of the plague, because he had brought all +the country people into the city, where they were compelled to live +during the heat of summer, crowded together in small rooms and stifling +tents, living an idle life too, and breathing foul air instead of the +pure country breezes to which they were accustomed. The cause of this, +they said, was the man who, when the war began, admitted the masses of +the country people into the city, and then made no use of them, but +allowed them to be penned up together like cattle, and transmit the +contagion from one to another, without devising any remedy or +alleviation of their sufferings. + +XXXV. Hoping to relieve them somewhat, and also to annoy the enemy, +Perikles manned a hundred and fifty ships, placed on board, besides the +sailors, many brave infantry and cavalry soldiers, and was about to put +to sea. The Athenians conceived great hopes, and the enemy no less +terror from so large an armament. When all was ready, and Perikles +himself had just embarked in his own trireme, an eclipse of the sun took +place, producing total darkness, and all men were terrified at so great +a portent. Perikles, observing that his helmsman was alarmed and knew +not what to do, held his cloak over the man's eyes and asked him if he +thought that a terrible portent. As he answered that he did not, +Perikles said: "What is the difference, then, between it and an eclipse +of the sun, except that the eclipse is caused by something larger than +my cloak?" This subject is discussed by the philosophers in their +schools. + +Perikles sailed with the fleet, but did nothing worthy of so great a +force. He besieged the sacred city of Epidaurus, but, although he had +great hopes of taking it, he failed on account of the plague, which +destroyed not only his own men, but every one who came in contact with +them. After this he again endeavoured to encourage the Athenians, to +whom he had become an object of dislike. However, he did not succeed in +pacifying them, but they condemned him by a public vote to be general no +more, and to pay a fine which is stated at the lowest estimate to have +been fifteen talents, and at the highest fifty. This was carried, +according to Idomeneus, by Kleon, but according to Theophrastus by +Simmias; whilst Herakleides of Pontus says that it was effected by +Lakrateides. + +XXXVI. He soon regained his public position, for the people's outburst +of anger was quenched by the blow they had dealt him, just as a bee +leaves its sting in the wound; but his private affairs were in great +distress and disorder, as he had lost many of his relatives during the +plague, while others were estranged from him on political grounds. +Xanthippus too, the eldest of his legitimate sons, who was a spendthrift +by nature and married to a woman of expensive habits, a daughter of +Tisander, the son of Epilykus, could not bear with his father's stingy +ways and the small amount of money which he allowed him. He consequently +sent to one of his friends and borrowed money from him as if Perikles +had authorised him to do so. When the friend asked for his money back +again, Perikles prosecuted him, at which proceeding young Xanthippus was +enraged and abused his father, sneering at his way of life and his +discussions with the sophists. When some athlete accidentally killed +Epitimus of Pharsalus with a javelin, he said that Perikles spent the +whole day arguing with Protagoras whether in strict accuracy the +javelin, or the man who threw it, or the stewards of the games, ought to +be considered the authors of the mishap. And, besides this, Stesimbrotus +tells us that Xanthippus put about that scandal about his father and his +own wife, so that the father and son remained irreconcilable enemies +until Xanthippus's death, which happened during the plague, by an +attack of that disorder. At the same time Perikles lost his sister and +most of his relations, especially those who supported his policy. Yet he +would not yield, nor abate his firmness and constancy of spirit because +of these afflictions, but was not observed to weep or mourn, or attend +the funeral of any of his relations, until he lost Paralus, the last of +his legitimate offspring. Crushed by this blow, he tried in vain to keep +up his grand air of indifference, and when carrying a garland to lay +upon the corpse he was overpowered by his feelings, so as to burst into +a passion of tears and sobs, which he had never done before in his whole +life. + +XXXVII. Athens made trial of her other generals and public men to +conduct her affairs, but none appeared to be of sufficient weight or +reputation to have such a charge entrusted to him. The city longed for +Perikles, and invited him again to lead its counsels and direct its +armies; and he, although dejected in spirits and living in seclusion in +his own house, was yet persuaded by Alkibiades and his other friends to +resume the direction of affairs. The people apologised for their +ungrateful treatment of him, and when he was again in office and elected +as general, he begged of them to be released from the operations of the +law of bastardy, which he himself had originally introduced, in order +that his name and race might not altogether become extinct for want of +an heir. The provisions of the law were as follows:--Perikles many years +before, when he was at the height of his power and had children born to +him, as we have related, of legitimate birth, proposed a law that only +those born of an Athenian father and mother should be reckoned Athenian +citizens. But when the king of Egypt sent a present of forty thousand +_medimni_ of wheat to be divided among the citizens, many lawsuits arose +about the citizenship of men whose birth had never been questioned +before that law came into force, and many vexatious informations were +laid. Nearly five thousand men were convicted of illegitimacy of birth +and sold for slaves, while those who retained their citizenship and +proved themselves to be genuine Athenians amounted to fourteen thousand +and forty. It was indeed an unreasonable request that a law which had +been enforced in so many instances should now be broken in the person of +its own author, but Perikles's domestic misfortunes, in which he seemed +to have paid the penalty for his former haughtiness and pride, touched +the hearts of the Athenians so much that they thought his sorrows +deserving of their pity, and his request such as he was entitled to make +and they to grant in common charity, and they consented to his +illegitimate son being enrolled in his own tribe and bearing his own +name. This man was subsequently put to death by the people, together +with all his colleagues, for their conduct after the sea-fight at +Arginusae. + +XXXVIII. After this it appears that Perikles was attacked by the plague, +not acutely or continuously, as in most cases, but in a slow wasting +fashion, exhibiting many varieties of symptoms, and gradually +undermining his strength. Theophrastus, in his treatise on Ethics, +discusses whether a man's character can be changed by disease, and +whether virtue depends upon bodily health. As an example, he quotes a +story that Perikles, when one of his friends came to visit him during +his sickness, showed him a charm hung round his neck, as a proof that he +must be indeed ill to submit to such a piece of folly. As he was now on +his deathbed, the most distinguished of the citizens and his surviving +friends collected round him and spoke admiringly of his nobleness and +immense power, enumerating also the number of his exploits, and the +trophies which he had set up for victories gained; for while in chief +command he had won no less than nine victories for Athens. They were +talking thus to one another in his presence, imagining that he could no +longer understand them, but had lost his power of attending to them. He, +however, was following all that they said, and suddenly broke silence, +saying that he was surprised at their remembering and praising him for +the exploits which depended entirely upon fortune for their success, and +which many other generals had done as well as himself, while they did +not mention his greatest and most glorious title to fame. "No Athenian," +said he, "ever wore black because of me." + +XXXIX. Perikles was to be admired, not only for his gentleness and +mildness of spirit, which he preserved through the most violent +political crises and outbreaks of personal hatred to himself, but also +for his lofty disposition. He himself accounted it his greatest virtue +that he never gave way to feelings of envy or hatred, but from his own +exalted pinnacle of greatness never regarded any man as so much his +enemy that he could never be his friend. This alone, in my opinion, +justifies that outrageous nickname of his, and gives it a certain +propriety; for so serene and impartial a man, utterly uncorrupt though +possessed of great power, might naturally be called Olympian. Thus it is +that we believe that the gods, who are the authors of all good and of no +evil to men, rule over us and over all created things, not as the poets +describe them in their bewildering fashion, which their own poems prove +to be untrue. The poets describe the abode of the gods as a safe and +untroubled place where no wind or clouds are, always enjoying a mild air +and clear light, thinking such a place to be fittest for a life of +immortal blessedness; while they represent the gods themselves as full +of disorder and anger and spite and other passions, which are not +becoming even to mortal men of common sense. Those reflections, however, +perhaps belong to another subject. + +Events soon made the loss of Perikles felt and regretted by the +Athenians. Those who during his lifetime had complained that his power +completely threw them into the shade, when after his death they had made +trial of other orators and statesmen, were obliged to confess that with +all his arrogance no man ever was really more moderate, and that his +real mildness in dealing with men was as remarkable as his apparent +pride and assumption. His power, which had been so grudged and envied, +and called monarchy and despotism, now was proved to have been the +saving of the State; such an amount of corrupt dealing and wickedness +suddenly broke out in public affairs, which he before had crushed and +forced to hide itself, and so prevented its becoming incurable through +impunity and licence. + + + + +LIFE OF FABIUS MAXIMUS. + + +I. Such a man did Perikles show himself to be in his most memorable +acts, as far as they are extant. + +Let us now turn our attention to Fabius. + +The first of the family is said to descend from one of the nymphs, +according to some writers, according to others from an Italian lady who +became the mother of Fabius by Hercules near the river Tiber. From him +descended the family of the Fabii, one of the largest and most renowned +in Rome. Some say that the men of this race were the first to use +pitfalls in hunting, and were anciently named Fodii in consequence; for +up to the present day ditches are called _fossae_, and to dig is called +_fodere_ in Latin: and thus in time the two sounds became confused, and +they obtained the name of Fabii. The family produced many distinguished +men, the greatest of whom was Rullus, who was for that reason named +Maximus by the Romans. From him Fabius Maximus, of whom I am now +writing, was fourth in descent. His own personal nickname was +Verrucosus, because he had a little wart growing on his upper lip. The +name of Ovicula, signifying sheep, was also given him while yet a child, +because of his slow and gentle disposition. He was quiet and silent, +very cautious in taking part in children's games, and learned his +lessons slowly and with difficulty, which, combined with his easy +obliging ways with his comrades, made those who did not know him think +that he was dull and stupid. Few there were who could discern, hidden in +the depths of his soul, his glorious and lion-like character. Soon, +however, as time went on, and he began to take part in public affairs, +he proved that his apparent want of energy was really due to serenity of +intellect, that he was cautious because he weighed matters well +beforehand, and that while he was never eager or easily moved, yet he +was always steady and trustworthy. Observing the immense extent of the +empire, and the numerous wars in which it was engaged, he exercised his +body in warlike exercises, regarding it as his natural means of defence, +while he also studied oratory as the means by which to influence the +people, in a style suited to his own life and character. In his speeches +there were no flowery passages, no empty graces of style, but there was +a plain common sense peculiar to himself, and a depth of sententious +maxims which is said to have resembled Thucydides. One of his speeches +is extant, a funeral oration which he made in public over his son who +died after he had been consul. + +II. He was consul five times, and in his first consulship obtained a +triumph over the Ligurians. They were defeated by him and driven with +great loss to take refuge in the Alps, and thus were prevented from +ravaging the neighbouring parts of Italy as they had been wont to do. +When Hannibal invaded Italy, won his first battle at the Trebia, and +marched through Etruria, laying everything waste as he went, the Romans +were terribly disheartened and cast down, and terrible prodigies took +place, some of the usual kind, that is, by lightning, and others of an +entirely new and strange character. It was said that shields of their +own accord became drenched with blood: that at Antium standing corn bled +when it was cut by the reapers; that red-hot stones fell from heaven, +and that the sky above Falerii was seen to open and tablets to fall, on +one of which was written the words "Mars is shaking his arms." + +None of these omens had any effect upon Caius Flaminius, the consul, +for, besides his naturally spirited and ambitious nature, he was excited +by the successes which he had previously won, contrary to all reasonable +probability. Once, against the express command of the Senate, and in +spite of the opposition of his colleague, he engaged with the Gauls and +won a victory over them. Fabius also was but little disturbed by the +omens, because of their strange and unintelligible character, though +many were alarmed at them. Knowing how few the enemy were in numbers, +and their great want of money and supplies, he advised the Romans not +to offer battle to a man who had at his disposal an army trained by many +previous encounters to a rare pitch of perfection, but rather to send +reinforcements to their allies, keep a tight hand over their subject +cities, and allow Hannibal's brilliant little force to die away like a +lamp which flares up brightly with but little oil to sustain it. + +III. This reasoning had no effect upon Flaminius, who said that he would +not endure to see an enemy marching upon Rome, and would not, like +Camillus of old, fight in the streets of Rome herself. He ordered the +military tribunes to put the army in motion, and himself leaped upon his +horse's back. The horse for no visible reason shied in violent terror, +and Flaminius was thrown headlong to the ground. He did not, however, +alter his determination, but marched to meet Hannibal, and drew up his +forces for battle near the lake Thrasymenus, in Etruria. When the armies +met, an earthquake took place which destroyed cities, changed the +courses of rivers, and cast down the crests of precipices; but in spite +of its violence, no one of the combatants perceived it. Flaminius +himself, after many feats of strength and courage, fell dead, and around +him lay the bravest Romans. The rest fled, and the slaughter was so +great that fifteen thousand were killed, and as many more taken +prisoners. Hannibal generously desired to bury the body of Flaminius +with military honours, to show his esteem for the consul's bravery; but +it could not be found among the slain, and no one knew how it +disappeared. + +The defeat at the Trebia had not been clearly explained either by the +general who wrote the despatch, or by the messenger who carried it, as +they falsely represented it to have been a drawn battle; but as soon as +the praetor Pomponius heard the news of this second misfortune, he +assembled the people in the Forum, and said, without any roundabout +apologies whatever, "Romans, we have lost a great battle, the army is +destroyed, and the consul Flaminius has fallen. Now, therefore, take +counsel for your own safety." These words produced the same impression +on the people that a gust of wind does upon the sea. No one could calmly +reflect after such a sudden downfall of their hopes. All, however, +agreed that the State required one irresponsible ruler, which the Romans +call a dictatorship, and a man who would fulfil this office with +fearless energy. Such a man, they felt, was Fabius Maximus, who was +sufficiently qualified for the office by his abilities and the respect +which his countrymen bore him, and was moreover at that time of life +when the strength of the body is fully capable of carrying out the ideas +of the mind, but when courage is somewhat tempered by discretion. + +IV. As soon as the people had passed their decree, Fabius was appointed +dictator,[A] and appointed Marcus Minucius his master of the horse. +First, however, he begged of the Senate to allow him the use of a horse +during his campaigns. There was an ancient law forbidding this practice, +either because the main strength of the army was thought to lie in the +columns of infantry, and for that reason the dictator ought to remain +always with them, or else because, while in all other respects the +dictator's power is equal to that of a king, it was thought well that in +this one point he should have to ask leave of the people. Next, however, +Fabius, wishing at once to show the greatness and splendour of his +office, and so make the citizens more ready to obey him, appeared in +public with all his twenty-four lictors at once; and when the surviving +consul met him, he sent an officer to bid him dismiss his lictors, lay +aside his insignia of office, and come before him as a mere private +citizen. After this he began in the best possible way, that is, by a +religious ceremony, and assured the people that it was in consequence of +the impiety and carelessness of their late general, not by any fault of +the army, that they had been defeated. Thus he encouraged them not to +fear their enemies, but to respect the gods and render them propitious, +not that he implanted any superstitious observances among them, but he +confirmed their valour by piety, and took away from them all fear of the +enemy by the hopes which he held out to them of divine protection. At +this time many of the holy and mysterious books, which contain secrets +of great value to the State, were inspected. These are called the +Sibylline books. One of the sentences preserved in these was said to +have an evident bearing on contemporary events; what it was can only be +guessed at by what was done. The dictator appeared before the people and +publicly vowed to the gods a _ver sacrum_, that is, all the young which +the next spring should produce, from the goats, the sheep, and the kine +on every mountain, and plain, and river, and pasture within the bounds +of Italy. All these he swore that he would sacrifice, and moreover that +he would exhibit musical and dramatic shows, and expend upon them the +sum of three hundred and thirty-three _sestertia_, and three hundred and +thirty-three _denarii_, and one-third of a _denarius_. The sum total of +this in our Greek money is eighty-three thousand five hundred and +eighty-three drachmas and two obols. What the particular virtue of this +exact number may be it is hard to determine, unless it be on account of +the value of the number three, which is by nature perfect, and the first +of odd numbers, the first also of plurals, and containing within itself +all the elements of the qualities of number. + +[Footnote A: Liv., xxii. 8, _sq._] + +V. Fabius, by teaching the people to rest their hopes on religion, made +them view the future with a more cheerful heart. For his own part, he +trusted entirely to himself to win the victory, believing that Heaven +grants men success according to the valour and conduct which they +display. He marched against Hannibal, not with any design of fighting +him, but of wearing out his army by long delays, until he could, by his +superior numbers and resources, deal with him easily. With this object +in view he always took care to secure himself from Hannibal's cavalry, +by occupying the mountains overhanging the Carthaginian camp, where he +remained quiet as long as the enemy did, but when they moved he used to +accompany them, showing himself at intervals upon the heights at such a +distance as not to be forced to fight against his will, and yet, from +the very slowness of his movements, making the enemy fear that at every +moment he was about to attack. By these dilatory manoeuvres he incurred +general contempt, and was looked upon with disgust by his own soldiers, +while the enemy, with the exception of one man, thought him utterly +without warlike enterprise. That man was Hannibal himself. He alone +perceived Fabius's true generalship and thorough comprehension of the +war, and saw that either he must by some means be brought to fight a +battle, or else the Carthaginians were lost, if they could not make use +of their superiority in arms, but were to be worn away and reduced in +number and resources, in which they were already deficient. He put in +force every conceivable military stratagem and device, like a skilful +wrestler when he tries to lay hold of his antagonist, and kept attacking +Fabius, skirmishing round him, and drawing him from place to place, in +his endeavours to make him quit his policy of caution. But Fabius was +convinced that he was right, and steadily declined battle. His master of +the horse, Minucius, who longed for action, gave him much trouble. This +man made unseemly boasts, and harangued the army, filling it with wild +excitement and self-confidence. The soldiers in derision used to call +Fabius Hannibal's lacquey, because he followed him wherever he went, and +thought Minucius a really great general, and worthy of the name of +Roman. Minucius, encouraged in his arrogant vauntings, began to ridicule +the habit of encamping on the mountain-tops, saying that the dictator +always took care to provide them with good seats from which to behold +the spectacle of the burning and plundering of Italy, and used to ask +the friends of Fabius whether he took his army up so near the sky +because he had ceased to take any interest in what went on on the earth +below, or whether it was in order to conceal it from the enemy among the +clouds and mists. When Fabius was informed of these insults by his +friends, who begged him to wipe away this disgrace by risking a battle, +he answered, "If I did so, I should be more cowardly than I am now +thought to be, in abandoning the policy which I have determined on +because of men's slanders and sneers. It is no shame to fear for one's +country, but to regard the opinions and spiteful criticisms of the +people would be unworthy of the high office which I hold, and would show +me the slave of those whom I ought to govern and restrain when they +would fain do wrong." + +VI. After this, Hannibal made a blunder. Wishing to move his army +further from that of Fabius, and to gain an open part of the country +where he could obtain forage, he ordered his guides one night after +supper to lead the way at once to Casinatum. They, misunderstanding him +because of his foreign pronunciation, led his forces to the borders of +Campania, near the city of Casilinum, through the midst of which flows +the river Lothronus, which the Romans call Vulturnus. This country is +full of mountains, except one valley that runs towards the sea-coast, +where the river at the end of its course overflows into extensive +marshes, with deep beds of sand. The beach itself is rough and +impracticable for shipping. + +When Hannibal was marching down this valley, Fabius, by his superior +knowledge of the country, came up with him, placed four thousand men to +guard the narrow outlet, established the main body in a safe position in +the mountains, and with the light-armed troops fell upon and harassed +the rear of Hannibal's army, throwing it all into disorder, and killing +about eight hundred men. Upon this, Hannibal determined to retrace his +steps. Perceiving the mistake which he had made, and the danger he was +in, he crucified his guides, but still could not tell how to force his +way out through the Roman army which was in possession of the mountain +passes. While all were terrified and disheartened, believing themselves +to be beset on all sides by dangers from which there was no escape, +Hannibal decided on extricating himself by stratagem. Taking about two +thousand captured oxen, he ordered his soldiers to bind a torch or +faggot of dry wood to their horns, and at night at a given signal to set +them on fire, and drive the animals towards the narrow outlet near the +enemy's camp. While this was being done, he got the remainder of the +troops under arms and led them slowly forward. The cattle, while the +flame was moderate, and burned only the wood, walked steadily forward +towards the mountain side, astonishing the shepherds on the mountain, +who thought that it must be an army, marching in one great column, +carrying torches. But when their horns were burned to the quick, causing +them considerable pain, the beasts, now scorched by the fire from one +another as they shook their heads, set off in wild career over the +mountains, with their foreheads and tails blazing, setting fire to a +great part of the wood through which they passed. The Romans watching +the pass were terribly scared at the sight; for the flames looked like +torches carried by men running, and they fell into great confusion and +alarm, thinking that they were surrounded, and about to be attacked on +all sides by the enemy. They dared not remain at their post, but +abandoned the pass, and made for the main body. At that moment +Hannibal's light troops took possession of the heights commanding the +outlet, and the main army marched safely through, loaded with plunder. + +VII. It happened that while it was yet night Fabius perceived the trick; +for some of the oxen in their flight had fallen into the hands of the +Romans; but, fearing to fall into an ambuscade in the darkness, he kept +his men quiet under arms. When day broke he pursued and attacked the +rearguard, which led to many confused skirmishes in the rough ground, +and produced great confusion, till Hannibal sent back his practised +Spanish mountaineers from the head of his column. These men, being light +and active, attacked the heavily-armed Roman infantry and beat off +Fabius' attack with very considerable loss. Now Fabius's unpopularity +reached its highest pitch, and he was regarded with scorn and contempt. +He had, they said, determined to refrain from a pitched battle, meaning +to overcome Hannibal by superior generalship, and he had been defeated +in that too. And Hannibal himself, wishing to increase the dislike which +the Romans felt for him, though he burned and ravaged every other part +of Italy, forbade his men to touch Fabius's own estates, and even placed +a guard to see that no damage was done to them. This was reported at +Rome, greatly to his discredit; and the tribunes of the people brought +all kinds of false accusations against him in public harangues, +instigated chiefly by Metilius, who was not Fabius's personal enemy, but +being a relative of Minucius, the Master of the Horse, thought that he +was pressing the interests of the latter by giving currency to all these +scandalous reports about Fabius. He was also disliked by the Senate +because of the terms which he had arranged with Hannibal about the +exchange of prisoners. The two commanders agreed that the prisoners +should be exchanged man for man, and that if either party had more than +the other, he should redeem for two hundred and fifty drachmas per man. +When, then, this exchange took place, two hundred and forty Romans were +found remaining in Hannibal's hands. The Senate determined not to send +these men's ransom, and blamed Fabius for having acted improperly and +against the interests of the State in taking back men whose cowardice +had made them fall into the hands of the enemy. Fabius, on hearing this, +was not moved at the discontent of the citizens, but having no money, as +he could not bear to deceive Hannibal and give up his countrymen, sent +his son to Rome with orders to sell part of his estate, and bring him +the money at once to the camp. The young man soon sold the land, and +quickly returned. Fabius now sent the ransom to Hannibal and recovered +the prisoners, many of whom afterwards offered to repay him; but he +would take nothing, and forgave their debt to them all. + +VIII. After this the priests recalled him to Rome to perform certain +sacrifices. He now transferred the command to Minucius, and not merely +ordered him as dictator not to fight or entangle himself with the enemy, +but even gave him much advice and besought him not to do so, all of +which Minucius set at nought, and at once attacked the enemy. Once he +observed that Hannibal had sent the greater part of his army out to +forage for provisions, and, attacking the remaining troops, he drove +them into their intrenched camp, slew many, and terrified the rest, who +feared that he might carry the camp by assault. When Hannibal's forces +collected again, Minucius effected his retreat with safety, having +excited both himself and the army with his success, and filled them with +a spirit of reckless daring. Soon an inflated report of the action +reached Rome. Fabius, when he heard of it, said that with Minucius he +feared success more than failure; but the populace were delighted, and +joyfully collected in the Forum, where Metilius the tribune ascended the +rostra, and made a speech glorifying Minucius, and accusing Fabius not +merely of remissness or cowardice, but of actual treachery, accusing +also the other leading men of the city of having brought on the war from +the very beginning in order to destroy the constitution; and he also +charged them with having placed the city in the hands of one man as +dictator, who by his dilatory proceedings would give Hannibal time to +establish himself firmly and to obtain reinforcements from Africa to +enable him to conquer Italy. + +IX. When Fabius addressed the people, he did not deign to make any +defence against the accusations of the tribune, but said that he should +accomplish his sacrifices and sacred duties as quickly as possible, in +order to return to the army and punish Minucius for having fought a +battle against his orders. At this a great clamour was raised by the +people, who feared for their favourite Minucius, for a dictator has +power to imprison any man, and even to put him to death; and they +thought that Fabius, a mild-tempered man now at last stirred up to +wrath, would be harsh and inexorable. All refrained from speaking, but +Metilius, having nothing to fear because of the privileges of his office +of tribune (for that is the only office which does not lose its +prerogatives on the election of a dictator, but remains untouched though +all the rest are annulled), made a violent appeal to the people, begging +them not to give up Minucius, nor allow him to be treated as Manlius +Torquatus treated his son, who had him beheaded, although he had fought +most bravely and gained a crown of laurel for his victory. He asked them +to remove Fabius from his dictatorship, and to bestow it upon one who +was able and willing to save the country. Excited as they were by these +words, they yet did not venture upon removing Fabius from his post, in +spite of their feeling against him, but they decreed that Minucius +should conduct the war, having equal powers with the dictator, a thing +never before done in Rome, but which occurred shortly afterwards, after +the disaster at Cannae, when Marcus Junius was dictator in the camp, +and, as many members of the Senate had perished in the battle, they +chose another dictator, Fabius Buteo. However, he, after enrolling the +new senators, on the same day dismissed his lictors, got rid of the +crowd which escorted him, and mixed with the people in the Forum, +transacting some business of his own as a private man. + +X. Now the people, by placing Minucius on the same footing with the +dictator, thought to humble Fabius, but they formed a very false +estimate of his character. He did not reckon their ignorance to be his +misfortune, but as Diogenes the philosopher, when some one said "They +are deriding you," answered "But I am not derided," thinking that those +alone are derided who are affected and disturbed by it, so Fabius +quietly and unconcernedly endured all that was done, hereby affording an +example of the truth of that philosophic maxim that a good and honest +man can suffer no disgrace. Yet he grieved over the folly of the people +on public grounds, because they had given a man of reckless ambition an +opportunity for indulging his desire for battle; and, fearing that +Minucius would be altogether beside himself with pride and vain glory, +and would soon do some irreparable mischief, he left Rome unperceived by +any one. On reaching the camp, he found Minucius no longer endurable, +but insolent and overbearing, and demanding to have the sole command +every other day. To this Fabius would not agree, but divided his forces +with him, thinking it better to command a part than partly to command +the whole of the army. He took the first and fourth legion, and left the +second and third to Minucius, dividing the auxiliary troops equally with +him. + +As Minucius gave himself great airs, and was gratified at the thought +that the greatest officer in the State had been humbled and brought low +by his means, Fabius reminded him that if he judged aright, he would +regard Hannibal, not Fabius, as his enemy; but that if he persisted in +his rivalry with his colleagues, he must beware lest he, the honoured +victor, should appear more careless of the safety and success of his +countrymen, than he who had been overcome and ill-treated by them. + +XI. Minucius thought all this to be merely the expression of the old +man's jealousy. He took his allotted troops, and encamped apart from +him. Hannibal was not ignorant of what was passing, and watched all +their movements narrowly. + +There was a hill between the two armies, which it was not difficult to +take, which when taken would afford an army a safe position, and one +well supplied with necessaries. The plain by which it was surrounded +appeared to be perfectly smooth, but was nevertheless intersected with +ditches and other hollow depressions. On this account Hannibal would not +take the hill, although he could easily have done so, but preferred to +leave it untouched, in order to draw the enemy into fighting for its +possession. But as soon as he saw Fabius separated from Minucius, he +placed during the night some troops in the depressions and hollows which +we have mentioned, and at daybreak sent a few men to take the hill, in +order to draw Minucius into fighting for it, in which he succeeded. +Minucius first sent out his light troops, then his cavalry, and finally, +seeing that Hannibal was reinforcing the troops on the hill, he came +down with his entire force. He fought stoutly, and held his own against +the soldiers on the hill, who shot their missiles at him; when Hannibal, +seeing him thoroughly deceived, and offering an unprotected flank to the +troops in the ambush, gave them the signal to charge. Upon this they +attacked the Romans from all sides, rushing upon them with loud shouts, +cutting off the rearmost men, and throwing the whole army into confusion +and panic. Minucius himself lost heart and kept glancing first at one +and then at another of his officers, none of whom ventured to stand +their ground, but betook themselves in a confused mass to running away, +a proceeding which brought them no safety, for the Numidian horsemen, as +the day was now theirs, scoured the plain, encompassing the fugitives, +and cut off all stragglers. + +XII. Fabius had carefully watched the Romans, and saw in what danger +they were. Conscious, it would seem, of what was going to happen, he had +kept his troops under arms, and gained his information of what was going +on, not from the reports of scouts, but from his own eyesight, from a +convenient height outside of his camp. As soon as he saw the army +surrounded and panic-stricken, and heard the cries of the Romans, who no +longer fought, but were overcome by terror, and betaking themselves to +flight, he smote his thigh and with a deep sigh, said to his friends, +"By Hercules, now Minucius has ruined himself, quicker than I expected, +and yet slower than his manoeuvres warranted." Having given orders to +carry out the standards as quickly as possible, and for the whole army +to follow, he said aloud, "My men, hurry on your march: think of Marcus +Minucius; he is a brave man and loves his country. If he has made any +mistake in his haste to drive out the enemy, we will blame him for that +at another time." The appearance of Fabius scared and drove back the +Numidians, who were slaughtering the fugitives in the plain; next he +bore against those who were attacking the Roman rear, slaying all he +met, though most of them, before they were cut off and treated as they +had treated the Romans, betook themselves to flight. Hannibal seeing +that the fortune of the battle was changed, and how Fabius himself, with +a strength beyond his years, was forcing his way through the thickest +battle up the hill to reach Minucius, withdrew his troops, and, sounding +a retreat, led them back into his entrenched camp, affording a most +seasonable relief to the Romans. It is said that Hannibal as he retired, +spoke jokingly about Fabius to his friends in the words, "Did I not +often warn you that the dark cloud which has so long brooded on the +mountain tops, would at last break upon us with blasts of hail and +storm?" + +XIII. After the battle Fabius collected the spoils of such of the enemy +as were slain, and drew off his forces without letting fall a single +boastful or offensive expression about his colleague. But Minucius +assembled his own troops, and thus addressed them, "My fellow-soldiers, +it is beyond human skill to make no mistakes in matters of importance, +but it is the part of a man of courage and sense to use his mistakes as +warnings for the future. I myself confess that I have little fault to +find with Fortune, and great reason to thank her; for in the space of +one day I have learned what I never knew in all my previous life: that +is, that I am not able to command others, but myself require a +commander, and I have no ambition to conquer a man by whom it is more +glorious to be defeated. The dictator is your leader in everything +except in this, that I will lead you to express your thankfulness to +him, by being the first to offer myself to him as an example of +obedience and willingness to carry out his orders." After these words +he ordered the eagles to be raised aloft and all the soldiers to follow +them to the camp of Fabius. On entering it, he proceeded to the +General's tent, to the surprise and wonderment of all. When Fabius was +come out, he placed his standards in the ground before him, and himself +addressed him as father in a loud voice, while his soldiers greeted +those of Fabius by the name of their Patrons, which is the name by which +freed men address those who have set them free. Silence being enforced, +Minucius said: "Dictator, you have won two victories to-day, for you +have conquered Hannibal by your bravery, and your colleague by your +kindness and your generalship. By the one you have saved our lives, and +by the other you have taught us our duty, for we have been disgracefully +defeated by Hannibal, but beneficially and honourably by you. I call you +my excellent father, having no more honourable appellation to bestow, +since I owe a greater debt of gratitude to you than to him who begot me. +To him I merely owe my single life, but to you I owe not only that but +the lives of all my men." After these words he embraced Fabius, and the +soldiers followed his example, embracing and kissing one another, so +that the camp was full of joy and of most blessed tears. + +XIV. After this, Fabius laid down his office, and consuls were again +elected. Those who were first elected followed the defensive policy of +Fabius, avoiding pitched battles with Hannibal, but reinforcing the +allies and preventing defections. But when Terentius Varro was made +consul, a man of low birth, but notorious for his rash temper and his +popularity with the people, he made no secret, in his inexperience and +self-confidence, of his intention of risking everything on one cast. He +was always reiterating in his public speeches that under such generals +as Fabius the war made no progress, whereas he would conquer the enemy +the first day he saw him. By means of these boastful speeches he +enrolled as soldiers such a multitude as the Romans had never before had +at their disposal in any war, for there collected for the battle +eighty-eight thousand men. This caused great disquietude to Fabius and +other sensible Romans, who feared that if so many of the youth of Rome +were cut off, the city would never recover from the blow. They addressed +themselves therefore to the other consul, Paulus Aemilius, a man of +great experience in war, but disagreeable to the people and afraid of +them because he had once been fined by them. Fabius encouraged him to +attempt to hold the other consul's rashness in check, pointing out that +he would have to fight for his country's safety with Terentius Varro no +less than with Hannibal. Varro, he said, will hasten to engage because +he does not know his own strength, and Hannibal will do so because he +knows his own weakness. "I myself, Paulus," said he, "am more to be +believed than Varro as to the condition of Hannibal's affairs, and I am +sure that if no battle takes place with him for a year, he will either +perish in this country or be compelled to quit it; because even now, +when he seems to be victorious and carrying all before him, not one of +his enemies have come over to his side, while scarcely a third of the +force which he brought from home is now surviving." It is said that +Paulus answered as follows: "For my own part, Fabius, it is better for +me to fall by the spears of the enemy than be again condemned by the +votes of my own countrymen; but if public affairs are indeed in this +critical situation, I will endeavour rather to approve myself a good +general to you than to all those who are urging me to the opposite +course." With this determination Paulus began the campaign. + +XV. Varro induced his colleague to adopt the system of each consul +holding the chief command on alternate days. He proceeded to encamp near +Hannibal on the banks of the river Aufidus, close to the village of +Cannae. At daybreak he showed the signal of battle (a red tunic +displayed over the General's tent), so that the Carthaginians were at +first disheartened at the daring of the consul and the great number of +his troops, more than twice that of their own army. Hannibal ordered his +soldiers to get under arms, and himself rode with a few others to a +rising ground, from which he viewed the enemy, who were already forming +their ranks. When one Gisco, a man of his own rank, said to him that the +numbers of the enemy were wonderful, Hannibal with a serious air +replied, "Another circumstance much more wonderful than this has escaped +your notice, Gisco." When Gisco asked what it might be, Hannibal +answered, "It is, that among all those men before you there is not one +named Gisco." At this unexpected answer they all began to laugh, and as +they came down the hill they kept telling this joke to all whom they +met, so that the laugh became universal, and Hannibal's staff was quite +overpowered with merriment. The Carthaginian soldiers seeing this took +courage, thinking that their General must be in a position to despise +his enemy if he could thus laugh and jest in the presence of danger. + +XVI. In the battle Hannibal employed several stratagems: first, in +securing the advantage of position, by getting the wind at his back, for +it blew a hurricane, raising a harsh dust from the sandy plains, which +rose over the Carthaginians and blew in the faces of the Romans, +throwing them into confusion. Secondly, in his disposition of his forces +he showed great skill. The best troops were placed on the wings, and the +centre, which was composed of the worst, was made to project far beyond +the rest of the line. The troops on each wing were told that when the +Romans had driven in this part of the line and were so become partly +enclosed, that each wing must turn inwards, and attack them in the flank +and rear and endeavour to surround them. This was the cause of the +greatest slaughter; for when the centre gave way, and made room for the +pursuing Romans, Hannibal's line assumed a crescent form, and the +commanders of the select battalions charging from the right and left of +the Romans attacked them in flank, destroying every man except such as +escaped being surrounded. It is related that a similar disaster befel +the Roman cavalry. The horse of Paulus was wounded, and threw its rider, +upon which man after man of his staff dismounted and came to help the +consul on foot. The cavalry, seeing this, took it for a general order to +dismount, and at once attacked the enemy on foot. Hannibal, seeing this, +said, "I am better pleased at this than if he had handed them over to me +bound hand and foot." This anecdote is found in those writers who have +described the incidents of the battle in detail. Of the consuls, Varro +escaped with a few followers to Venusia. Paulus, in the whirling eddies +of the rout, covered with darts which still stuck in his wounds, and +overwhelmed with sorrow at the defeat, sat down on a stone to await his +death at the hands of the enemy. The blood with which his face and head +were covered made it hard for any one to recognise him; but even his own +friends and servants passed him by, taking no heed of him. Only +Cornelius Lentulus, a young patrician, saw and recognised him. +Dismounting from his horse and leading it up to him he begged him to +take it and preserve his life, at a time when the State especially +needed a wise ruler. But he refused, and forced the youth, in spite of +his tears, to remount his horse. He then took him by the hand, saying, +"Lentulus, tell Fabius Maximus, and bear witness yourself, that Paulus +Aemilius followed his instructions to the last, and departed from +nothing of what was agreed upon between us; but he was vanquished first +by Varro, and secondly by Hannibal." Having given Lentulus these +instructions he sent him away, and flinging himself on to the enemy's +swords perished. In that battle it is reckoned that fifty thousand +Romans fell, and four thousand were taken prisoners, besides not less +than ten thousand who were taken after the battle in the camps of the +two consuls. + +XVII. After this immense success, Hannibal was urged by his friends to +follow up his victory and enter Rome with the fugitives, promising that +five days thereafter he should sup in the Capitol. It is not easy to say +what reasons could have deterred him from doing so, and it seems rather +as if some divinity prevented his march, and inspired him with the +dilatory and timid policy which he followed. It is said that the +Carthaginian, Barca, said to him, "You know how to win a victory, but do +not know how to use one." Yet so great a change was effected by this +victory that he, who before it had not possessed a single city, market, +or harbour in Italy, and had to obtain his provisions with the utmost +difficulty by plunder, having no regular base of operations, but merely +wandering about with his army as though carrying on brigandage on a +large scale, now saw nearly the whole of Italy at his feet. Some of the +largest and most powerful States came over to him of their own accord, +and he attacked and took Capua, the most important city next to Rome +itself. + +It would appear that the saying of Euripides, that "adversity tries our +friends," applies also to good generals. That which before this battle +was called Fabius's cowardice and remissness, was now regarded as more +than human sagacity, and a foresight so wonderful as to be beyond +belief. Rome at once centred her last hopes upon Fabius, taking refuge +in his wisdom as men take sanctuary at an altar, believing his +discretion to be the chief cause of her surviving this present crisis, +even as in the old Gaulish troubles. For though he had been so cautious +and backward at a time when there seemed to be no imminent danger, yet +now when every one was giving way to useless grief and lamentation, he +alone walked through the streets at a calm pace, with a composed +countenance and kindly voice, stopped all womanish wailings and +assemblies in public to lament their losses, persuaded the Senate to +meet, and gave fresh courage to the magistrates, being really himself +the moving spirit and strength of the State, which looked to him alone +to command it. + +XVIII. He placed guards at the gates to prevent the mob from quitting +the city, and regulated the period of mourning, bidding every man mourn +for thirty days in his own house, after which all signs of mourning were +to be put away. As the feast of Ceres fell during those days, it was +thought better to omit both the sacrifices and the processions than to +have them marred by the consciousness of their misfortune, which would +be painfully evident in the small number of worshippers and their +downcast looks. However, everything that the soothsayers commanded to +appease the anger of the gods and to expiate prodigies was carried out. +Fabius Pictor, a relative of the great Fabius, was sent to Delphi, and +of two of the Vestal virgins who were found to have been seduced, one +was buried alive, as is the usual custom, while the other died by her +own hand. Especially admirable was the spirit and the calm composure of +the city when the consul Varro returned after his flight. He came +humbled to the dust, as a man would who had been the cause of a +terrible disaster, but at the gate the Senate and all the people went +out to greet him. The chief men and the magistrates, amongst whom was +Fabius, having obtained silence, spoke in praise of him "because he had +not despaired of the State after such a calamity, but had come back to +undertake the conduct of affairs and do what he could for his countrymen +as one who thought they might yet be saved." + +XIX. When they learned that Hannibal after the battle had turned away +from Rome to other parts of Italy, the Romans again took courage and +sent out armies and generals. Of those the most remarkable were Fabius +Maximus and Claudius Marcellus, both equally admirable, but from an +entirely different point of view. Marcellus, as has been related in his +Life, was a man of activity and high spirit, rejoicing in a hand-to-hand +fight, and just like the lordly warriors of Homer. With a truly +venturesome audacity, he in his first battles outdid in boldness even +the bold Hannibal himself; while Fabius, on the other hand, was +convinced that his former reasoning was true, and believed that without +any one fighting or even meddling with Hannibal, his army would wear +itself out and consume away, just as the body of an athlete when +overstrained and exerted soon loses its fine condition. For this reason +Poseidonius calls Fabius the shield, and Marcellus the sword of Rome, +because the steadiness of Fabius, combined with the warlike ardour of +Marcellus, proved the saving of the state. Hannibal, frequently meeting +Marcellus, who was like a raging torrent, had his forces shaken and +weakened; while Fabius, like a deep quiet river kept constantly +undermining them and wasting them away unperceived. Hannibal was at +length reduced to such extremities that he was weary of fighting +Marcellus, and feared Fabius even though he did not fight: for these +were the persons whom he generally had to deal with, as praetors, +consuls, or pro-consuls, for each of them was five times consul. He drew +Marcellus, when consul for the fifth time, into an ambuscade; but +although he tried every art and stratagem upon Fabius he could effect +nothing, except once, when he very nearly succeeded in ruining him. He +forged letters from the leading citizens of Metapontum, and then sent +them to Fabius. These letters were to the effect that the city would +surrender if he appeared before it, and that the conspirators were only +waiting for his approach. Fabius was so much moved by these letters as +to take a part of his army and commence a night march thither; but +meeting with unfavourable omens on the way he turned back, and soon +afterwards learned that the letters were a stratagem of Hannibal's, who +was waiting for him under the city walls. This escape one may attribute +to the favour of Heaven. + +XX. In the case of revolts and insurrections among the subject cities +and allies, Fabius thought it best to restrain them and discountenance +their proceedings in a gentle manner, not treating every suspected +person with harshness, or inquiring too strictly into every case of +suspected disloyalty. It is said that a Marsian soldier, one of the +chief men of the allies for bravery and nobility of birth, was +discovered by Fabius to be engaged in organizing a revolt. Fabius showed +no sign of anger, but admitted that he had not been treated with the +distinction he deserved, and said that in the present instance he should +blame his officers for distributing rewards more by favour than by +merit; but that in future he should be vexed with him if he did not +apply directly to himself when he had any request to make. Saying this, +he presented him with a war horse and other marks of honour, so that +thenceforth the man always served him with the utmost zeal and fidelity. +He thought it a shame that trainers of horses and dogs should be able to +tame the savage spirit of those animals by careful attention and +education rather than by whips and clogs, and yet that a commander of +men should not rely chiefly on mild and conciliatory measures, but treat +them more harshly than gardeners treat the wild fig-trees, wild pears, +and wild olives, which they by careful cultivation turn into trees +bearing good fruit. His captains informed him that a certain soldier, a +Lucanian by birth, was irregular and often absent from his duty. He made +inquiries as to what his general conduct was. All agreed that it would +be difficult to find a better soldier, and related some of his exploits. +Fabius at length discovered that the cause of his absence was that he +was in love with a certain girl, and that he continually ran the risk of +making long journeys from the camp to meet her. Without the knowledge of +the soldier, he sent and apprehended this girl, whom he concealed in his +own tent. Then he invited the Lucanian to a private interview, and +addressed him as follows:--"You have been observed frequently to pass +the night outside of the camp, contrary to the ancient practice and +discipline of the Roman army: but also, you have been observed to be a +brave man. Your crime is atoned for by your valiant deeds, but for the +future I shall commit you to the custody of another person." Then, to +the astonishment of the soldier, he led the girl forward, joined their +hands, and said: "This lady pledges her word that you will remain in the +camp with us. You must prove by your conduct that it was not from any +unworthy motive, for which she was the pretext, but solely through love +for her that you used to desert your post." This is the story which is +related about him. + +XXI. Fabius obtained possession of Tarentum by treachery in the +following manner. In his army was a young man of Tarentum whose sister +was devotedly attached to him. Her lover was a Bruttian, and one of the +officers of Hannibal's garrison there. This gave the Tarentine hopes of +effecting his purpose, and with the consent of Fabius he went into the +city, being commonly supposed to have run away to see his sister. For +the first few days the Bruttian remained in his quarters, as she wished +her amour with him not to be known to her brother. He then, however, +said: "There was a rumour in the army that you were intimate with one of +the chiefs of the garrison. Who is he? for if he is as they say, a man +of courage and distinction--war, which throws everything into confusion, +will care little what countryman he may be. Nothing is disgraceful which +we cannot avoid; but it is a blessing, at a time when justice has no +power, that we should yield to a not disagreeable necessity." Upon this +the lady sent for her Bruttian admirer and introduced him to her +brother. He, by encouraging the stranger in his passion, and assuring +him that he would induce his sister to look favourably on it, had no +difficulty in inducing the man, who was a mercenary soldier, to break +his faith in expectation of the great rewards which he was promised by +Fabius. This is the account given of the transaction by most writers, +though some say that the lady by whose means the Bruttian was seduced +from his allegiance was not a Tarentine, but a Bruttian by race, who was +on intimate terms with Fabius; and that as soon as she discovered that a +fellow-countryman and acquaintance of hers was in command of the +Bruttian garrison, told Fabius of it, and by interviews which she had +with the officer outside the walls gradually won him over to the Roman +interests. + +XXII. While these negotiations were in progress, Fabius, wishing to +contrive something to draw Hannibal away, sent orders to the troops at +Rhegium to ravage the Bruttian country and take Caulonia by storm. The +troops at Rhegium were a body of eight thousand men, mostly deserters: +and the most worthless of those disgraced soldiers whom Marcellus +brought from Sicily, so that their loss would not cause any sorrow or +harm to Rome; while he hoped that by throwing them out as a bait to +Hannibal he might draw him away from Tarentum, as indeed he did. +Hannibal at once started with his army to attack them, and meanwhile, on +the sixth day after Fabius arrived before Tarentum, the young man having +previously concerted measures with the Bruttian and his sister, came to +him by night and told him that all was ready; knowing accurately and +having well inspected the place where the Bruttian would be ready to +open the gate and let in the besiegers. Fabius would not depend entirely +upon the chance of treachery; but though he himself went quietly to the +appointed place, the rest of the army attacked the town both by sea and +land, with great clamour and disturbance, until, when most of the +Tarentines had run to repel the assault, the Bruttian gave the word to +Fabius, and, mounting his scaling ladders, he took the place. On this +occasion Fabius seems to have acted unworthily of his reputation, for he +ordered the chief Bruttian officers to be put to the sword, that it +might not be said that he gained the place by treachery. However, he +did not obtain this glory, and gained a reputation for faithlessness and +cruelty. Many of the Tarentines were put to death, thirty thousand were +sold for slaves, and the city was sacked by the soldiers. Three thousand +talents were brought into the public treasury. + +While everything else was being carried off, it is said that the clerk +who was taking the inventory asked Fabius what his pleasure was with +regard to the gods, meaning the statues and pictures. Fabius replied, +"Let us leave the Tarentines their angry gods." However, he took the +statue of Hercules from Tarentum and placed it in the Capitol, and near +to it he placed a brazen statue of himself on horseback, acting in this +respect much worse than Marcellus, or rather proving that Marcellus was +a man of extraordinary mildness and generosity of temper, as is shown in +his Life. + +XXIII. Hannibal is said to have been hastening to relieve Tarentum, and +to have been within five miles of it when it was taken. He said aloud: +"So then, the Romans also have a Hannibal; we have lost Tarentum just as +we gained it." Moreover in private he acknowledged to his friends that +he had long seen that it was very difficult, and now thought it +impossible for them to conquer Italy under existing circumstances. + +Fabius enjoyed a second triumph for this success, which was more +glorious than his first. He had contended with Hannibal and easily +baffled all his attempts just as a good wrestler disengages himself with +ease from the clutches of an antagonist whose strength is beginning to +fail him; for Hannibal's army was no longer what it had been, being +partly corrupted by luxury and plunder, and partly also worn out by +unremitting toils and battles. + +One Marcus Livius had been in command of Tarentum when Hannibal obtained +possession of it. In spite of this, he held the citadel, from which he +could not be dislodged, until Tarentum was recaptured by the Romans. +This man was vexed at the honours paid to Fabius, and once, in a +transport of envy and vain glory, he said before the Senate that he, not +Fabius, was the real author of the recapture of the town. Fabius with a +smile answered: "Very true; for if you had not lost the place, I could +never have recaptured it." + +XXIV. The Romans, among many other marks of respect for Fabius, elected +his son consul. When he had entered on this office and was making some +arrangements for the conduct of the war, his father, either because of +his age and infirmities or else intending to try his son, mounted on +horseback and rode towards him through the crowd of bystanders. The +young man seeing him at a distance would not endure this slight, but +sent a lictor to bid his father dismount and come on foot, if he wanted +anything of the consul. Those present were vexed at this order, and +looked on Fabius in silence, as if they thought that he was unworthily +treated, considering his great reputation: but he himself instantly +alighted, ran to his son, and embracing him, said: "You both think and +act rightly, my son; for you know whom you command, and how great an +office you hold. Thus it was that we and our ancestors made Rome great, +by thinking less of our parents and of our children than of the glory of +our country." It is even said to be true that the great grandfather of +Fabius, although he had been consul five times, had finished several +campaigns with splendid triumphs, and was one of the most illustrious +men in Rome, yet acted as lieutenant to his son when consul in the +field, and that in the subsequent triumph the son drove into Rome in a +chariot and four, while he with the other officers followed him on +horseback, glorying in the fact that although he was his son's master, +and although he was and was accounted the first citizen in Rome, yet he +submitted himself to the laws and the chief magistrate. Nor did he +deserve admiration for this alone. + +Fabius had the misfortune to lose his son, and this he bore with +fortitude, as became a man of sense and an excellent parent. He himself +pronounced the funeral oration which is always spoken by some relative +on the deaths of illustrious men, and afterwards he wrote a copy of his +speech and distributed it to his friends. + +XXV. Cornelius Scipio meanwhile had been sent to Spain, where he had +defeated the Carthaginians in many battles and driven them out of the +country, and had also overcome many tribes, taken many cities, and done +glorious deeds for Rome. On his return he was received with great honour +and respect, and, feeling that the people expected some extraordinary +exploit from him, he decided that it was too tame a proceeding to fight +Hannibal in Italy, and determined to pour troops into Africa, attack +Carthage, and transfer the theatre of war from Italy to that country. He +bent all his energies to persuade the people to approve of this project, +but was violently opposed by Fabius, who spread great alarm through the +city, pointing out that it was being exposed to great danger by a +reckless young man, and endeavouring by every means in his power to +prevent the Romans from adopting Scipio's plan. He carried his point +with the Senate, but the people believed that he was envious of Scipio's +prosperity and desired to check him, because he feared that if he did +gain some signal success, and either put an end to the war altogether or +remove it from Italy, he himself might be thought a feeble and dilatory +general for not having finished the war in so many campaigns. + +It appears that at first Fabius opposed him on grounds of prudence and +caution, really fearing the dangers of his project, but that the contest +gradually became a personal one, and he was moved by feelings of +jealousy to hinder the rise of Scipio; for he tried to induce Crassus, +Scipio's colleague, not to give up the province of Africa to Scipio, but +if the expedition were determined on, to go thither himself, and he +prevented his being supplied with funds for the campaign. Scipio being +thus compelled to raise funds himself, obtained them from the cities in +Etruria which were devoted to his interests. Crassus likewise was not +inclined to quarrel with him, and was also obliged to remain in Italy by +his office of Pontifex Maximus. + +XXVI. Fabius now tried another method to oppose Scipio. He dissuaded the +youth of the city from taking service with him by continually +vociferating in all public meetings that Scipio not only was himself +running away from Hannibal, but also was about to take all the remaining +forces of Italy out of the country with him, deluding the young men +with vain hopes, and so persuading them to leave their parents and +wives, and their city too, while a victorious and invincible enemy was +at its very gates. By these representations he alarmed the Romans, who +decreed that Scipio should only use the troops in Sicily, and three +hundred of the best men of his Spanish army. In this transaction Fabius +seems to have acted according to the dictates of his own cautious +disposition. + +However, when Scipio crossed over into Africa, news came to Rome at once +of great and glorious exploits performed and great battles won. As +substantial proof of these there came many trophies of war, and the king +of Numidia as a captive. Two camps were burned and destroyed, with great +slaughter of men, and loss of horses and war material in the flames. +Embassies also were sent to Hannibal from Carthage, begging him in +piteous terms to abandon his fruitless hopes in Italy and come home to +help them, while in Rome the name of Scipio was in every man's mouth +because of his successes. At this period Fabius proposed that a +successor to Scipio should be sent out, without having any reason to +allege for it except the old proverb that it is dangerous to entrust +such important operations to the luck of one man, because it is hard for +the same man always to be lucky. This proposal of his offended most of +his countrymen, who thought him a peevish and malignant old man, or else +that he was timid and spiritless from old age, and excessively terrified +at Hannibal; for, even when Hannibal quitted Italy and withdrew his +forces, Fabius would not permit the joy of his countrymen to be unmixed +with alarm, as he informed them that now the fortunes of Rome were in a +more critical situation than ever, because Hannibal would be much more +to be dreaded in Africa under the walls of Carthage itself, where he +would lead an army, yet reeking with the blood of many Roman dictators, +consuls and generals, to attack Scipio. By these words the city was +again filled with terror, and although the war had been removed to +Africa yet its alarms seemed to have come nearer to Rome. + +XXVII. However Scipio, after no long time, defeated Hannibal in a +pitched battle and crushed the pride of Carthage under foot. He gave +the Romans the enjoyment of a success beyond their hopes, and truly + + "Restored the city, shaken by the storm." + +Fabius Maximus did not survive till the end of the war, nor did he live +to hear of Hannibal's defeat, or see the glorious and lasting prosperity +of his country, for about the time when Hannibal left Italy he fell sick +and died. + +The Thebans, we are told, buried Epameinondas at the public expense, +because he died so poor that they say nothing was found in his house +except an iron spit. Fabius was not honoured by the Romans with a +funeral at the public expense, yet every citizen contributed the +smallest Roman coin towards the expenses, not that he needed the money, +but because they buried him as the father of the people, so that in his +death he received the honourable respect which he had deserved in his +life. + + + + +COMPARISON OF PERIKLES AND FABIUS MAXIMUS. + + +I. Such is the story of these men's lives. As they both gave many proofs +of ability in war and politics, let us first turn our attention to their +warlike exploits. And here we must notice that Perikles found the +Athenian people at the height of their power and prosperity, so that +from the flourishing condition of the State it could scarcely meet with +any great disaster, whereas Fabius performed his great services to Rome +when it was in the last extremity of danger, and did not merely, like +Perikles, confirm the prosperity of his country, but greatly improved +it, having found it in a lamentable condition. Moreover, the successes +of Kimon, the victories of Myronides and Leokrates, and the many +achievements of Tolmides rather gave Perikles when in chief command an +occasion for public rejoicing and festivity, than any opportunity for +either conquests abroad or defensive wars at home. Fabius, on the other +hand, had before his eyes the spectacle of many defeats and routs of +Roman armies, of many consuls and generals fallen in battle, of lakes, +plains and forests filled with the bodies of the slain, and of rivers +running with blood. Yet with his mature and unbending intellect he +undertook to extricate Rome from these dangers, and as it were by his +own strength alone supported the State, so that it was not utterly +overwhelmed by these terrible disasters. Nevertheless it would appear +not to be so hard a task to manage a State in adversity, when it is +humble and is compelled by its misfortunes to obey wise counsellors, as +it is to check and bridle a people excited and arrogant with good +fortune, which was especially the case with Perikles and the Athenians. +On the other hand, considering the terrible nature of the blows which +had fallen on the Romans, Fabius must have been a great and +strong-minded man not to be disconcerted by them, but still to be able +to carry out the policy upon which he had determined. + +II. We may set the capture of Samos by Perikles against the retaking of +Tarentum by Fabius, and also the conquest of Euboea by the one against +that of the Campanian cities by the other, though Capua itself was +recovered by the consuls, Fulvius and Appius. Fabius seems never to have +fought a pitched battle, except that one which gained him his first +triumph, while Perikles set up nine trophies for victories by sea and +land. But again, there is no action of Perikles which can be compared to +that of Fabius when he snatched away Minucius from the grasp of +Hannibal, and saved an entire Roman army from destruction. That was an +exploit glorious for the courage, generalship, and kindness of heart +displayed by Fabius; but, on the other hand Perikles, made no such +blunder as did Fabius, when out-generalled by Hannibal with the cattle. +Here, although Fabius caught his enemy in a defile which he had entered +by chance, yet he let him escape by night, and next day found his tardy +movements outstripped, and himself defeated by the man whom he had just +before so completely cut off. If it be the part of a good general, not +merely to deal with the present, but to make conjectures about the +future, we may remark that the Peloponnesian war ended just as Perikles +had foretold, for the Athenians frittered away their strength; whereas +the Romans, contrary to the expectation of Fabius, by sending Scipio to +attack Carthage gained a complete victory, not by chance, but by the +skill of their general and the courage of their troops, who overthrew +the enemy in a pitched battle. Thus the one was proved to be right by +the misfortunes of his country, and the other proved to be wrong by its +success, indeed it is just as much a fault in a general to receive a +check from want of foresight as to let slip an opportunity through +diffidence; and both these failings, excess of confidence and want of +confidence, are common to all except the most consummate generals. Thus +much for their military talents. + +III. In political matters, the Peloponnesian war is a great blot upon +the fame of Perikles; for it is said to have been caused by his refusal +to yield the least point to the Lacedaemonians. I do not imagine, +however, that Fabius Maximus would have yielded anything to the +Carthaginians, but would have bravely risked any danger in defence of +the Roman Empire. The kind treatment of Minucius by Fabius and his +mildness of character contrast very favourably with the bitter party +feud of Perikles with Kimon and Thucydides, who were men of good birth, +and belonging to the conservative party, and whom Perikles drove into +exile by the ostracism. Then, too, the power of Perikles was much +greater than that of Fabius. Perikles would not permit the State to +suffer disaster because of the bad management of her generals. One of +them alone, Tolmides, succeeded in having his own way, against the +wishes of Perikles, and perished in an attack on the Boeotians, while +all the rest, because of his immense influence and power, submitted +themselves to his authority and regulated their proceedings by his +ideas. Whereas Fabius, although he could avoid any error in managing his +own army, was thwarted by his being powerless to control the movements +of other generals. + +For the Romans would not have suffered so many defeats if Fabius had +enjoyed the same power that Perikles did in Athens. As to their +generosity with regard to money, the one was remarkable for never +receiving bribes, while the other spent much on ransoming prisoners at +his own expense; although this was not much above six talents, while it +is hard for any one to tell the amount of money which Perikles might +have taken from foreign princes and Greek allied states, all of which he +refused and kept his hands clean. As to the great public works, the +construction of the temples, and of the public buildings with which +Perikles adorned Athens, the whole of the edifices in Rome together, +before the time of the emperors, are not worthy to be compared to them, +for they far surpassed them both in largeness of scale and in beauty of +design. + + + + +LIFE OF ALKIBIADES. + + +I. The pedigree of Alkibiades is said to begin with Eurysakes the son of +Ajax, while on the mother's side he descended from Alkmaeon, being the +son of Deinomache, the daughter of Megakles. His father Kleinias fought +bravely at Artemisium in a trireme fitted out at his own expense, and +subsequently fell fighting the Boeotians, in the battle of Koronea. +Alkibiades after this was entrusted to Perikles and Ariphron, the two +sons of Xanthippus, who acted as his guardians because they were the +next of kin. It has been well remarked that the friendship of Sokrates +for him did not a little to increase his fame, seeing that Nikias, +Demosthenes, Lamakus, Phormio, Thrasybulus, and Theramenes, were all men +of mark in his lifetime, and yet we do not know the name of the mother +of any one of them, while we know the name even of the nurse of +Alkibiades, who was a Laconian, named Amykla, and that of Zopyrus, his +_paedagogus_, one of which pieces of information we owe to Antisthenes, +and the other to Plato. As to the beauty of Alkibiades, it is not +necessary to say anything except that it was equally fascinating when he +was a boy, a youth, and a man. The saying of Euripides, that all +beauties have a beautiful autumn of their charms, is not universally +true, but it was so in the case of Alkibiades and of a few other persons +because of the symmetry and vigour of their frames. Even his lisp is +said to have added a charm to his speech, and to have made his talk more +persuasive. His lisp is mentioned by Aristophanes in the verses in which +he satirises Theorus, in which Alkibiades calls him Theolus, for he +pronounced the letter _r_ like _l_. Archippus also gives a sneering +account of the son of Alkibiades, who, he said, swaggered in his walk, +trailing his cloak, that he might look as like his father as possible, +and + + "Bends his affected neck, and lisping speaks." + +II. His character, in the course of his varied and brilliant career, +developed many strange inconsistencies and contradictions. Emulation and +love of distinction were the most prominent of his many violent +passions, as is clear from the anecdotes of his childhood. Once when +hard pressed in wrestling, rather than fall, he began to bite his +opponent's hands. The other let go his hold, and said, "You bite, +Alkibiades, like a woman." "No," said he, "like a lion." While yet a +child, he was playing at knucklebones with other boys in a narrow +street, and when his turn came to throw, a loaded waggon was passing. He +at first ordered the driver to stop his team because his throw was to +take place directly in the path of the waggon. Then as the boor who was +driving would not stop, the other children made way; but Alkibiades +flung himself down on his face directly in front of the horses, and bade +him drive on at his peril. The man, in alarm, now stopped his horses, +and the others were terrified and ran up to him. + +In learning he was fairly obedient to all his teachers, except in +playing the flute, which he refused to do, declaring that it was unfit +for a gentleman. He said that playing on the harp or lyre did not +disfigure the face, but that when a man was blowing at a flute, his own +friends could scarcely recognise him. Besides, the lyre accompanies the +voice of the performer, while the flute takes all the breath of the +player and prevents him even from speaking. "Let the children of the +Thebans," he used to say, "learn to play the flute, for they know not +how to speak; but we Athenians according to tradition have the goddess +Athene (Minerva) for our patroness, and Apollo for our tutelary +divinity; and of these the first threw away the flute in disgust, and +the other actually flayed the flute player Marsyas." With such talk as +this, between jest and earnest, Alkibiades gave up flute-playing +himself, and induced his friends to do so, for all the youth of Athens +soon heard and approved of Alkibiades's derision of the flute and those +who learned it. In consequence of this the flute went entirely out of +fashion, and was regarded with contempt. + +III. In Antiphon's scandalous chronicle, we read that Alkibiades once +ran away from home to the house of one of his admirers. + +Ariphron, his other guardian, proposed to have him cried; but Perikles +forbade it, saying that, if he was dead, he would only be found one day +sooner because of it, while if he was safe, he would be disgraced for +life. Antiphon also tells us that he killed one of his servants by +striking him with a club, at the gymnasium of Sibyrtus. But perhaps we +ought not to believe these stories, which were written by an enemy with +the avowed purpose of defaming his character. + +IV. His youthful beauty soon caused him to be surrounded with noble +admirers, but the regard of Sokrates for him is a great proof of his +natural goodness of disposition, which that philosopher could discern in +him, but which he feared would wither away like a faded flower before +the temptations of wealth and position, and the mass of sycophants by +whom he was soon beset. For no one ever was so enclosed and enveloped in +the good things of this life as Alkibiades, so that no breath of +criticism or free speech could ever reach him. Yet, with all these +flatterers about him, trying to prevent his ever hearing a word of +wholesome advice or reproof, he was led by his own goodness of heart to +pay special attention to Sokrates, to whom he attached himself in +preference to all his rich and fashionable admirers. + +He soon became intimate with Sokrates, and when he discovered that this +man did not wish to caress and admire him, but to expose his ignorance, +search out his faults, and bring down his vain unreasoning conceit, he +then + + "Let fall his feathers like a craven cock." + +He considered that the conversation of Sokrates was really a divine +instrument for the discipline and education of youth; and thus learning +to despise himself, and to admire his friend, charmed with his good +nature, and full of reverence for his virtues, he became insensibly in +love with him, though not as the world loveth; so that all men were +astonished to see him dining with Sokrates, wrestling with him, and +sharing his tent, while he treated all his other admirers with harshness +and some even with insolence, as in the case of Anytus the son of +Anthemion. This man, who was an admirer of Alkibiades, was entertaining +a party of friends, and asked him to come. Alkibiades refused the +invitation, but got drunk that night at a riotous party at his own +house, in which state he proceeded in a disorderly procession to Anytus. +Here he looked into the room where the guests were, and seeing the +tables covered with gold and silver drinking-cups, ordered his slaves to +carry away half of them, and then, without deigning to enter the room, +went home again. Anytus' guests were vexed at this, and complained of +his being so arrogantly and outrageously treated. "Say rather, +considerately," answered Anytus, "for although he might have taken them +all, yet he has left us the half of them." + +V. In this same way he used to treat his other admirers, with the +exception, it is said, of one of the resident aliens,[A] a man of small +means who sold all that he had and carried the money, amounting to about +a hundred _staters_, to Alkibiades, begging him to accept it. Alkibiades +laughed at him, and invited him to dinner. After dinner he gave him back +his money, and ordered him next day to go and overbid those who were +about to bid for the office of farmer of the taxes. The poor man begged +to be excused, because the price was several talents, but Alkibiades +threatened to have him beaten if he did not do so, for he had some +private grudge of his own against the farmers of the taxes. Accordingly +the alien went next morning early into the market-place and bid a +talent. The tax farmers now clustered round him angrily, bidding him +name some one as security, imagining that he would not be able to find +one. The poor man was now in great trouble and was about to steal away, +when Alkibiades, who was at some distance, called out to the presiding +magistrates, "Write down my name. I am his friend, and I will be surety +for him." On hearing this, the tax farmers were greatly embarrassed, for +their habit was to pay the rent of each year with the proceeds of the +next, and they saw no way of doing so in this instance. Consequently +they begged the man to desist from bidding, and offered him money. +Alkibiades would not permit him to take less than a talent, and when +this was given him he let him go. This was the way in which he did him a +kindness. + +[Footnote A: [Greek: metoikikhon].] + +VI. The love of Sokrates, though he had many rivals, yet overpowered +them all, for his words touched the heart of Alkibiades and moved him to +tears. Sometimes his flatterers would bribe him by the offer of some +pleasure, to which he would yield and slip away from Sokrates, but he +was then pursued like a fugitive slave by the latter, of whom he stood +in awe, though he treated every one else with insolence and contempt. +Kleanthes used to say that Sokrates's only hold upon him was through his +ears, while he scorned to meddle with the rest of his body. And indeed +Alkibiades was very prone to pleasure, as one would gather from what +Thucydides says on the subject. Those too who played on his vanity and +love of distinction induced him to embark on vast projects before he was +ripe for them, assuring him that as soon as he began to take a leading +part in politics, he would not only eclipse all the rest of the generals +and orators, but would even surpass Perikles in power and renown. But +just as iron which has been softened in the fire is again hardened by +cold, and under its influence contracts its expanded particles, so did +Sokrates, when he found Alkibiades puffed up by vain and empty conceit, +bring him down to his proper level by his conversation, rendering him +humble minded by pointing out to him his many deficiencies. + +VII. After he had finished his education, he went into a school, and +asked the master for a volume of Homer. When the master said that he +possessed none of Homer's writings, he struck him with his fist, and +left him. Another schoolmaster told him that he had a copy of Homer +corrected by himself. "Do you," asked he, "you who are able to correct +Homer, teach boys to read! One would think that you could instruct men." + +One day he wished to speak to Perikles, and came to his house. Hearing +that he was not at leisure, but was engaged in considering how he was to +give in his accounts to the Athenians, Alkibiades, as he went away, +said, "It would be better if he considered how to avoid giving in any +accounts at all to the Athenians." + +While yet a lad he served in the campaign of Potidaea, where he shared +the tent of Sokrates, and took his place next him in the ranks. In an +obstinate engagement they both showed great courage, and when Alkibiades +was wounded and fell to the ground, Sokrates stood in front of him, +defending him, and so saved his life and arms from the enemy. Properly, +therefore, the prize for valour belonged to Sokrates; but when the +generals appeared anxious to bestow it upon Alkibiades because of his +great reputation, Sokrates, who wished to encourage his love for glory, +was the first to give his testimony in his favour, and to call upon them +to crown him as victor and to give him the suit of armour which was the +prize. And also at the battle of Delium, when the Athenians were routed, +Alkibiades, who was on horseback, when he saw Sokrates retreating on +foot with a few others, would not ride on, but stayed by him and +defended him, though the enemy were pressing them and cutting off many +of them. These things, however, happened afterwards. + +VIII. He once struck Hipponikus, the father of Kallias, a man of great +wealth and noble birth, a blow with his fist, not being moved to it by +anger, or any dispute, but having agreed previously with his friends to +do so for a joke. When every one in the city cried out at his indecent +and arrogant conduct, Alkibiades next morning at daybreak came to the +house of Hipponikus, knocked, and came to him. Here he threw off his +cloak, and offered him his body, bidding him flog him and punish him for +what he had done. Hipponikus, however, pardoned him, and they became +friends, so much so that Hipponikus chose him for the husband of his +daughter Hipparete. Some writers say that not Hipponikus but Kallias his +son gave Hipparete to Alkibiades to wife, with a dowry of ten talents, +and that when her first child was born Alkibiades demanded and received +ten more talents, as if he had made a previous agreement to that effect. +Upon this Kallias, fearing that Alkibiades might plot against his life, +gave public notice in the assembly that if he died childless, he would +leave his house and all his property to the State. + +Hipparete was a quiet and loving wife, but was so constantly insulted by +her husband's amours with foreign and Athenian courtesans, that she at +length left his house and went to her brother's. Alkibiades took no heed +of this, but continued in his debauchery. + +It was necessary for her to deliver her petition for separation to the +magistrate with her own hand, and when she came to do so, Alkibiades +laid hold of her, and took her home with him through the market-place, +no one daring to oppose him and take her from him. She lived with him +until her death, which took place not long after Alkibiades sailed for +Ephesus. In this instance his violence does not seem to have been +altogether lawless or without excuse, for the object of the law in +making a wife appear in person in public seems to be that she may have +an opportunity of meeting her husband and making up her quarrel with +him. + +IX. He had a dog of remarkable size and beauty, for which he had paid +seventy minae. It had a very fine tail, which he cut off. When his +friends blamed him, and said that every one was sorry for the dog and +angry with him for what he had done, he laughed and said, "Then I have +succeeded; for I wish the Athenians to gossip about this, for fear they +should say something worse about me." + +X. It is said that his first public act was on the occasion of a +voluntary subscription for the State. He did not intend doing anything +of the sort, but as he was passing he heard a great noise, and finding +that voluntary subscriptions were being made, went and subscribed. The +people cheered and applauded him, at which he was so much delighted as +to forget a quail which he had in his cloak. When it escaped and ran +about bewildered, the Athenians applauded all the more, and many rose +and chased it. It was caught by the pilot Antiochus, who restored it, +and became one of Alkibiades's greatest friends. Starting with great +advantages from his noble birth, his wealth, his recognised bravery in +battle, and his many friends and relatives, he relied upon nothing so +much as on his eloquence for making himself popular and influential. His +rhetorical powers are borne witness to by the comic dramatists; and the +greatest of orators, Demosthenes, in his speech against Meidias, speaks +of Alkibiades as being most eloquent, besides his other charms. If we +are to believe Theophrastus, who has inquired more diligently into these +various tales than any one else, Alkibiades excelled all men of his time +in readiness of invention and resource. However, as he wished not merely +to speak to the purpose, but also to clothe his thoughts in the most +appropriate language, he did not always succeed in combining the two, +and often hesitated and stopped, seeking for the right word, and not +continuing his speech until it occurred to him. + +XI. He was renowned for his stud, and for the number of his racing +chariots. No other person, king or commoner, ever entered seven +four-horse chariots for the race at Olympia except Alkibiades. His +winning the first, second, and fourth prizes with these, as Thucydides +tells us, though Euripides says that he won the third also, excels in +glory any other successes by other persons in these races. The poem of +Euripides runs as follows: + + "Son of Kleinias, thee I sing, + In truth it is a noble thing, + First, second, and third place + To win in chariot race, + To hear the herald thrice thy name proclaim, + And thrice to bear away the olive crown of fame." + +XII. His success was rendered all the more conspicuous by the manner in +which the various States vied with one another in showing him honour. +Ephesus pitched a magnificent tent for his accommodation, Chios +furnished his horses with provender, and himself with animals for +sacrifice; and Lesbos supplied him with wine, and every thing else +necessary for giving great entertainments. Yet even at this brilliant +period of his life he incurred discredit, either by his own fault or +through the spite of his enemies. The story is that an Athenian named +Diomedes, a respectable man and a friend of Alkibiades, was desirous of +winning a victory at Olympia. Hearing that there was a chariot and four +which belonged to the city of Argos, and knowing that Alkibiades had +great influence and many friends in that place, he persuaded him to buy +the chariot for him. Alkibiades, however, bought the chariot and entered +it for the race as his own, leaving Diomedes to call upon heaven and +earth to witness his ill-treatment. It appears that a trial took place +about this matter, and Isokrates wrote a speech about this chariot in +defence of the son of Alkibiades, in which Tisias, not Diomedes, is +mentioned as the prosecutor. + +XIII. When, as a mere boy, Alkibiades plunged into political life, he at +once surpassed most of the statesmen of the age. His chief rivals were +Phaeax, the son of Erasistratus, and Nikias, the son of Nikeratus, the +latter a man advanced in life, and bearing the reputation of being an +excellent general, while the former, like Alkibiades himself, was a +young man of good family, just rising into notice, but inferior to him +in many respects, particularly in oratory. Though affable and persuasive +in private circles, he could not speak equally well in public, for he +was, as Eupolis says, + + "At conversation best of men, at public speaking worst." + +In a certain attack on Alkibiades and Phaeax, we find, among other +charges, Alkibiades accused of using the gold and silver plate of the +city of Athens as his own for his daily use. + +There was at Athens one Hyperbolus, of the township of Peirithois, whom +Thucydides mentions as a worthless man, and one who was constantly +ridiculed by the comic dramatists. From his utter disregard of what was +said of him, and his carelessness for his honour, which, though it was +mere shameless impudence and apathy, was thought by some to show +firmness and true courage, he was pleasing to no party, but frequently +made use of by the people when they wished to have a scurrilous attack +made upon those in power. At this time he was about to resort to the +proceeding called ostracism, by which from time to time the Athenians +force into exile those citizens who are remarkable for influence and +power, rather because they envy them than because they fear them. + +But as it was clear that one of the three, Nikias, Phaeax, and +Alkibiades, would be ostracised, Alkibiades combined their several +parties, arranged matters with Nikias, and turned the ostracism against +Hyperbolus himself. Some say that it was not Nikias but Phaeax with whom +Alkibiades joined interest, and that with the assistance of his +political party he managed to expel Hyperbolus, who never expected any +such treatment; for before that time this punishment had never been +extended to low persons of no reputation, as Plato, the comic dramatist, +says in the lines where he mentions Hyperbolus: + + "Full worthy to be punished though he be, + Yet ostracism's not for such as he." + +We have elsewhere given a fuller account of this affair. + +XIV. Alkibiades was dissatisfied at the respect shown for Nikias, both +by enemies of the State and by the citizens of Athens. Alkibiades was +the proxenus[A] of the Lacedaemonians at Athens, and paid especial court +to those Spartans who had been captured at Pylos; yet, when the +Lacedaemonians discovered that it was chiefly by Nikias's means that +they obtained peace, and recovered their prisoners, they were lavish of +their attentions to him. The common phrase among the Greeks of that time +was that Perikles had begun the war, and Nikias had finished it; and the +peace was usually called the peace of Nikias. Alkibiades, irritated +beyond measure at his rival's success, began to meditate how he could +destroy the existing treaty. He perceived that the Argives, hating and +fearing Sparta, wished to break off from it, and he encouraged them by +secret assurances of an Athenian alliance, and also both by his agents +and in person he urged the leading men not to give way to the +Lacedaemonians, or yield any points to them, but to turn to Athens, and +await their co-operation, for the Athenians, he said, already began to +regret that they had made peace at all, and would soon break it. + +[Footnote A: An office resembling that of a modern consul for a foreign +nation.] + +When the Lacedaemonians made an alliance with the Boeotians, and +delivered up Panaktus to the Athenians in a dismantled condition, not +with its walls standing, as they ought to have done, Alkibiades +exasperated the rage of the Athenians by his speeches, and raised a +clamour against Nikias by the plausible accusation that he, when +general, had hung back from capturing the enemy's forces which were cut +off in the island of Sphakteria, and that when they had been captured by +another, he had released them and restored them to their homes, in order +to gain the favour of the Lacedaemonians. And for all that, although he +was such a friend of the Lacedaemonians, he had not dissuaded them from +forming alliances with Corinth and with the Boeotians, while he +prevented the Athenians from becoming allies of any Greek State which +might wish it, if the step did not happen to please the Lacedaemonians. + +Upon this, while Nikias was smarting under these accusations, +ambassadors arrived from Lacedaemon with instructions to propose +reasonable terms, and announcing that they came with full powers to +conclude the negotiations for peace on an equitable basis. The Senate +received them willingly, and next day they were to appear before the +people. Fearing that they would succeed, Alkibiades contrived to obtain +a private interview with them, in which he addressed them as follows: +"What is this that you do, men of Sparta! Do you not know that the +Senate always treats those who appear before it in a kindly and +reasonable manner, but the people are always full of pride and ambition? +If you say that you have plenary powers, they will bewilder you by their +violence and force great concessions from you. So come, cease this +folly, if you wish to negotiate with the Athenians in a moderate way, +and not to be forced into conceding points against your will. Discuss +all the points at issue, but do not say that you have full power to +decide them. I will do my best to assist you, as a friend to +Lacedaemon." After these words he confirmed his promise by an oath, and +thus completely detached them from Nikias and left them trusting him +only, and admiring him as a man of remarkable sense and intelligence. On +the following day the people assembled, and the ambassadors appeared +before them. When they were politely asked by Alkibiades in what +capacity they came, they said that they were not plenipotentiaries. +Immediately upon this Alkibiades assailed them with furious invective, +as though they, not he, were in the wrong, calling them faithless +equivocators, who had not come either to speak or to do anything honest. +The Senate was vexed at its treatment, and the people were excessively +enraged, while Nikias, who knew nothing of the trick, was astounded and +covered with confusion at the conduct of the ambassadors. + +XV. The Lacedaemonian alliance being put an end to by this means, +Alkibiades, who was now elected one of the generals of Athens, at once +formed an alliance with Argos, Elis and Mantinea. No one approved of the +way in which he effected this, but still the result was very important, +as it agitated all the States in Peloponnesus, and set them against one +another, brought so many men into line to fight the Lacedaemonians at +the battle of Mantinea, and removed the scene of conflict so far from +Athens, that the Lacedaemonians could gain no great advantage by +victory, whereas if they failed, they would have to struggle for their +very existence. After this battle the select regiment at Argos, called +the "Thousand," endeavoured to overthrow the government and establish +themselves as masters of the city; and with the assistance of the +Lacedaemonians they destroyed the constitution. But the people took up +arms again, and defeated the usurpers; and Alkibiades coming to their +aid, made the victory of the popular side more complete. He persuaded +the citizens to build long walls down to the sea, and to trust entirely +to the Athenian naval forces for support. He even sent them carpenters +and stonemasons from Athens, and showed great zeal on their behalf, +which tended to increase his personal interest and power no less than +that of his country. He advised the people of Patrae also to join their +city to the sea by long walls; and when some one said to the people of +Patrae, that the Athenians would swallow them up, he answered, "Perhaps +they may, but it will be by degrees and beginning with the feet, +whereas the Lacedaemonians will seize them by the head and do it at +once." + +However, Alkibiades ever pressed the Athenians to establish their empire +by land as well as by sea, reminding them of the oath which the young +men take in the Temple of Agraulos, and which it was their duty to +confirm by their deeds. This oath is, that they will regard wheat, +barley, vines and olives as the boundaries of Attica, by which it is +hinted that they ought to make all cultivated and fruitful lands their +own. + +XVI. In the midst of all this display of political ability, eloquence, +and statesmanlike prudence, he lived a life of great luxury, debauchery, +and profuse expenditure, swaggering through the market-place with his +long effeminate mantle trailing on the ground. He had the deck of his +trireme cut away, that he might sleep more comfortably, having his bed +slung on girths instead of resting on the planks; and he carried a +shield not emblazoned with the ancestral bearings of his family, but +with a Cupid wielding a thunderbolt. The leading men of Athens viewed +his conduct with disgust and apprehension, fearing his scornful and +overbearing manner, as being nearly allied to the demeanour of a despot, +while Aristophanes has expressed the feeling of the people towards him +in the line, + + "They love, they hate, they cannot live without him." + +And again he alludes to him in a bitterer spirit in the verse: + + "A lion's cub 'tis best you should not rear, + For if you do, your master he'll appear." + +His voluntary contributions of money to the State, his public +exhibitions and services, and displays of munificence, which could not +be equalled in splendour, his noble birth, his persuasive speech, his +strength, beauty, and bravery, and all his other shining qualities, +combined to make the Athenians endure him, and always give his errors +the mildest names, calling them youthful escapades and honourable +emulation. For example, he locked up Agatharchus the painter, and when +he had painted his house let him go with a present. He boxed Taurea's +ears because he was exhibiting shows in rivalry with him, and +contending with him for the prize. And he even took one of the captive +Melian women for his mistress, and brought up a child which he had by +her. This was thought to show his good nature; but this term cannot be +applied to the slaughter of all the males above puberty in the island of +Melos, which was done in accordance with a decree promoted by +Alkibiades. + +When Aristophon painted the courtesan Nemea embracing Alkibiades, all +men eagerly crowded to see it; but older men were vexed at these things +too, thinking them only fit for despots, and considering them to be open +violations of the laws. Indeed Archestratus spoke very much to the +purpose when he said that Greece could not bear more than one +Alkibiades. Once, when Alkibiades had made a successful speech in the +public assembly, and was being conducted home in triumph by his friends, +Timon the misanthrope met him, and did not get out of his way, as he did +to every one else, but came up to him and took him by the hand, saying, +"Go on, my boy, increase in glory; for your increase will bring ruin to +all this crowd." Some laughed, some cursed him, but others took his +words to heart. So various were the opinions formed about Alkibiades, +because of the inconsistency of his character. + +XVII. Even during the lifetime of Perikles, the Athenians had a +hankering after Sicily, and after his death they endeavoured to obtain +possession of it, by sending troops to the assistance of those cities +which were oppressed by the Syracusans, and thus paving the way for a +greater armament. It was, however, Alkibiades who fanned their desires +into a flame, and who persuaded them to abandon these half-hearted +attempts, to proceed with a great force to the island, and to endeavour +to subdue it. He raised great expectations among the people, but his own +aspirations were far more entensive; for he regarded the conquest of +Sicily not merely as an end, but as a stepping-stone to greater things. +While Nikias was dissuading the people from the attempt, on the ground +that it would be a difficult matter to capture the city of Syracuse, +Alkibiades was dreaming of Carthage and Libya; and after these were +gained, he meditated the conquest of Italy and of Peloponnesus, +regarding Sicily as little more than a convenient magazine and place of +arms. He greatly excited the younger Athenians by his vast designs, and +they listened eagerly to the marvellous stories of the old who had +served in that country; so that many of them would spend their time +sitting in the gymnasia and public seats, drawing sketches of the shape +of the island of Sicily, and of the position of Libya and Carthage. It +is said that Sokrates the philosopher, and Meton the astronomer, did not +expect that the state would gain any advantage from this expedition; the +former probably receiving a presentiment of disaster, as was his wont, +from his familiar spirit. Meton either made calculations which led him +to fear what was about to happen, or else gathered it from the art of +prophecy. He feigned madness, and seizing a torch, attempted to set his +house on fire. Some say that Meton made no pretence of madness, but that +he burned down his house one night, and next morning came and besought +the Athenians, after such a misfortune, to exempt his son from serving +with the expedition. Thus he deceived his fellow citizens and carried +his point. + +XVIII. Nikias, much against his will, was chosen to lead the expedition. +His unwillingness was in a great measure due to the fact that Alkibiades +was to act as his colleague; for the Athenians thought that the war +would be conducted better if the rashness of Alkibiades was tempered by +the prudence of Nikias, because the third general, Lamachus, although +advanced in years, yet had the reputation of being no less daring and +reckless a soldier than Alkibiades himself. + +When the public assembly were debating about the number of the troops +and the preparation for the armament, Nikias made another attempt to +oppose the whole measure and to put a stop to the war. Alkibiades, +however, took the other side and carried all before him. The orator +Demostratus moved, that the generals should be empowered to demand +whatever stores and war material they pleased, and have absolute power +to carry on the war at their own discretion. This was agreed to by the +people, and all was ready for setting sail, when unlucky omens occurred. +The festival of Adonis took place at that very time, and during it the +women carry about in many parts of the city figures dressed like corpses +going to be buried, and imitate the ceremony of a funeral by tearing +their hair and singing dirges. And besides this, the mutilation of the +Hermae in one night, when all of them had their faces disfigured, +disturbed many even of those who, as a rule, despised such things. A +story was put about that the Corinthians, of whom the Syracusans were a +colony, had done it, hoping that such an evil omen might make the +Athenians either postpone or give up their expedition. But the people +paid no heed to this insinuation, and still less to those who argued +that there was no omen in the matter at all, but that it was the work of +extravagant young men after their wine. They regarded the incident with +feelings of rage and fear, imagining that it proved the existence of an +organised plot aimed at greater matters. Both the Senate and the General +Assembly met several times during the next few days, and inquired +sharply into every thing that could throw any light upon it. + +XIX. During this time, Androkles, a popular speaker, brought forward +several slaves and resident aliens, who charged Alkibiades and his +friends with mutilating certain other statues, and with parodying the +ceremonies of initiation to the sacred mysteries when in their cups. +They said that the part of the Herald was taken by Theodorus, that of +the Torch-bearer by Polytion, and that of Hierophant by Alkibiades +himself, while the rest of the company were present and were initiated, +and were addressed by them as Mysts, which means persons who have been +initiated into the mysteries. These are the charges which we find +specified in the indictment drawn against Alkibiades by Thessalus the +son of Kimon, in which he accuses Alkibiades of sacrilege against the +two goddesses, Demeter (Ceres) and Proserpine. The people now became +very much enraged with Alkibiades, and were still more exasperated by +his personal enemy Androkles. Alkibiades was at first alarmed, but soon +perceived that all the sailors of the fleet about to sail to Sicily +were on his side, as were also the soldiers. A body of a thousand +Argives and Mantineans also were heard to say that they were going to +cross the seas and fight in a distant land all for the sake of +Alkibiades, and that if he did not meet with fair play, they would at +once desert. Encouraged by this, he appeared at the appointed time to +defend himself, which disconcerted and disheartened his enemies, who +feared that the people might deal leniently with him because they +required his services. Matters being in this posture, they prevailed +upon some of the orators who were not known to be enemies to Alkibiades, +but who hated him nevertheless, to move before the people that it was an +absurd proceeding for the irresponsible general of so great a force of +Athenians and their allies to waste his time while the court was drawing +lots for the jury, and filling water-clocks with water. "Let him sail, +and may good luck attend him, and when the war is finished let him +return and speak in his defence, for the laws will be the same then as +now." Alkibiades saw clearly their malicious object in postponing his +trial, and said publicly that it was very hard to leave such accusations +and slanders behind him, and to be sent out in command of a great +expedition with such a terrible fate hanging over him. If he could not +prove his innocence, he ought to be put to death; and if he could clear +himself of these charges, it was only just that he should be enabled to +attack the enemy with a light heart, without having to fear false +accusers at home. + +XX. He did not, however, succeed in this, but was ordered to sail, and +put to sea with his colleagues, having under their orders a fleet of +nearly one hundred and forty triremes, five thousand one hundred +heavy-armed troops, archers, slingers, and light-armed troops to the +number of about thirteen hundred, and all other stores and provisions in +proportion. After reaching Italy and capturing Rhegium, he gave his +opinion as to the manner in which the war ought to be conducted; but as +Nikias opposed him and was joined by Lamachus, he sailed over to Sicily +and induced the city of Catana to join them, but did nothing further, +because he was sent for at once to return and stand his trial at Athens. +At first, as we have stated, Alkibiades was only vaguely suspected, and +only the testimony of slaves and resident aliens could be obtained +against him; but afterwards, during his absence, his enemies had worked +hard to get up a case against him, and connected his sacrilegious +conduct about the mysteries with the mutilation of the Hermae, which +they argued were all the work of one body of conspirators, bent upon +revolution and the destruction of the existing form of government. All +those who were in any degree implicated were cast into prison without a +trial, and they were much vexed they had not immediately brought +Alkibiades to trial and obtained judgment against him on such grave +charges as these. Any of his friends, relations, or acquaintances who +fell into their hands received very harsh treatment. + +Thucydides has omitted the names of those who impeached him, but others +give their names as Diokleides and Teukrus, among whom is Phrynichus the +comic dramatist, who writes as follows:-- + + "And, dearest Hermes, do not fall + And break your head; and, worst of all, + To some new Diokleides show the way, + By slander base to swear men's lives away." + +And again Hermes says: + + "I will not fall. I will not for my pains + Let Teukrus fatten on informers' gains." + +Though really the informers brought no decided evidence forward for any +important charge, one of them, when asked how he recognised the faces of +the statue-breakers, answered that he saw them by the light of the moon: +a signal falsehood, because it was done on the night of the new moon. +This answer made the more thoughtful citizens unwilling to press the +charge, but had no effect whatever on the people, who were as eager as +ever, and continued to cast into prison any man who might be informed +against. + +XXI. One of those who was imprisoned was the orator Andokides, whom +Hellanikus, the historian, reckons as a descendant of Odysseus +(Ulysses). Andokides was thought to be a man of aristocratic and +antipopular sentiments, and what made him particularly suspected of +having taken part in the statue-breaking, was that the large statue of +Hermes, near his house, the gift of the tribe Aegeis, was one of the +very few which remained unbroken. Wherefore even at the present day it +is called the Hermes of Andokides, and everyone speaks of it by that +name in spite of the inscription on it. + +It happened that Andokides, while in custody, formed an acquaintance and +friendship for one of the other persons who were imprisoned on the same +charge, a man of the name of Timaeus, of inferior birth and position to +himself, but much cleverer and more courageous. This man persuaded +Andokides to inform against himself and some few others, because, by a +decree of the people, any one who acted as informer was to be given a +free pardon, whereas no one could count upon the results of a trial, +which the more prominent citizens had especial reasons for dreading. He +pointed out that it was better to save his life by a lie than to be put +to death with infamy as if he was really guilty; moreover, looking at +the whole affair, it was best to sacrifice a few persons of doubtful +character to the fury of the people, and thereby to save many good men +from becoming its victims. Andokides was convinced by these arguments of +Timaeus, and by informing against himself and some others obtained a +pardon for himself, while all those whose names he mentioned were put to +death, except such as had fled the country. + +To procure greater credit to his information, Andokides even accused his +own servants. However, the people did not abate their rage, but, ceasing +to take any further interest in the statue-breakers, they turned +savagely against Alkibiades. Finally, they despatched the Salaminian +trireme after him, ingeniously ordering its officers not to use any +personal violence, but to speak him fair and bid him return to stand his +trial and set himself right with the people. + +They were afraid of an outbreak, or even of a mutiny in the army in +Sicily, which Alkibiades could have raised with the greatest ease, if he +had wished to do so. Indeed, the soldiers became disheartened when he +left them, and looked forward to long delays and periods of dull +inaction under Nikias's command, now that he who used to spur matters +on was gone. Lamachus, indeed, was a brave and skilful soldier, but his +poverty prevented his opinions from carrying their due weight. + +XXII. Alkibiades the moment he sailed away lost Messina for the +Athenians. There was a party in that city ready to deliver it up, which +he knew well, and by disclosing their intentions to the Syracusan party +he effectually ruined the plot. At Thurii he landed, and concealed +himself so that he could not be found. When one of his friends said to +him, "Alkibiades, do you not trust your native country?" He answered, +"Yes, in other matters; but when my life is at stake I would not trust +my own mother, for fear that she might mistake a black bean for a white +one." Afterwards hearing that the Athenians had condemned him to death, +he said, "I will show them that I am still alive." + +The indictment against him is framed thus: + +"Thessalus, the son of Kimon, of the township of Lakia, accuses +Alkibiades, the son of Kleinias, of the township of the Skambonidae, of +sacrilege against the two goddesses, Demeter and Kora, by parodying the +sacred mysteries and giving a representation of them in his own house, +wearing himself such a robe as the Hierophant does when he shows the +holy things, and calling himself the Hierophant, Poulytion, the +Torch-bearer, Theodorus, of the township of Phegaea, the Herald, and +addressing the rest of the company as Mysts and Epopts (Initiates and +Novices), contrary to the rules and ceremonies established by the +Eumolpidae, and Kerykes, and the priests of Eleusis." As he did not +appear, they condemned him, forfeited his goods, and even caused all the +priests and priestesses to curse him publicly. It is said that Theano, +the daughter of Menon, the priestess of the temple of Agraulos, was the +only one who refused to carry out this decree, alleging that it was to +pray and not to curse that she had become a priestess. + +XXIII. While these terrible decrees and sentences were being passed +against Alkibiades, he was living at Argos; for as soon as he left +Thurii, he fled to the Peloponnesus, where, terrified at the violence of +his enemies, he determined to abandon his country, and sent to Sparta +demanding a safe asylum, on the strength of a promise that he would do +the Spartans more good than he had in time past done them harm. The +Spartans agreed to his request, and invited him to come. On his arrival, +he at once effected one important matter, by stirring up the dilatory +Spartans to send Gylippus at once to Syracuse with reinforcements for +that city, to destroy the Athenian army in Sicily. Next, he brought them +to declare war against the Athenians themselves; while his third and +most terrible blow to Athens was his causing the Lacedaemonians to seize +and fortify Dekeleia, which did more to ruin Athens than any other +measure throughout the war. With his great public reputation, Alkibiades +was no less popular in private life, and he deluded the people by +pretending to adopt the Laconian habits. When they saw him closely +shaved, bathing in cold water, eating dry bread and black broth, they +wondered, and began to doubt whether this man ever had kept a professed +cook, used perfumes, or endured to wear a Milesian mantle. For +Alkibiades, among his other extraordinary qualities, had this especial +art of captivating men by assimilating his own manners and habits to +theirs, being able to change, more quickly than the chameleon, from one +mode of life to another. The chameleon, indeed, cannot turn itself +white; but Alkibiades never found anything, good or bad, which he could +not imitate to the life. Thus at Sparta he was fond of exercise, frugal +and severe; in Ionia, luxurious, frivolous, and lazy; in Thrace, he +drank deep; in Thessaly he proved himself a good horseman; while, when +he was consorting with the satrap Tissaphernes, he outdid even the +Persian splendour and pomp. It was not his real character that he so +often and so easily changed, but as he knew that if he appeared in his +true colours, he would be universally disliked, he concealed his real +self under an apparent adoption of the ways and fashions of whatever +place he was in. In Lacedaemon you would say, looking at his appearance, + + "'Tis not Achilles' son, 'tis he himself." + +He was just such a man as Lykurgus himself would have trained; but if +you examined his habits and actions more closely, you would say: + + "'Tis the same woman still." + +For while King Agis was away in the wars, Alkibiades seduced his wife +Timaea, so that she became pregnant by him, and did not even deny the +fact. When her child was born it was called Leotychides in public, but +in her own house she whispered to her friends and attendants that his +name was Alkibiades, so greatly was she enamoured of him. He himself +used to say in jest that he had not acted thus out of wanton passion, +but in order that his race might one day rule in Lacedaemon. King Agis +heard of all this from many informants, but was most convinced of its +truth by a computation of the time before the birth of the child. +Terrified at an earthquake, he had once quitted his wife's chamber, and +for ten months afterwards had never conversed with her. As it was at the +end of this period that Leotychides was born, he declared that the child +was not his; and for this reason he never succeeded to the throne. + +XXIV. After the Athenian disaster in Sicily, ambassadors came to Sparta +from Chios, Lesbos, and Kyzikus. The claims of the Lesbians were +favoured by the Boeotians, and those of the people of Kyzikus by +Pharnabazus; but, at the recommendation of Alkibiades, the +Lacedaemonians decided to give the preference to the Chians. He himself +sailed to that island, caused nearly the whole of the cities of Ionia to +revolt from Athens, and injured the Athenian cause much by constantly +assisting the Lacedaemonian generals. King Agis, however, was already +his personal enemy, because of Alkibiades's intrigue with his wife, and +now was enraged at his successes; for it was said that scarcely anything +was done without Alkibiades. The other leading men in Sparta also hated +Alkibiades, because he had thrown them into the shade; and they had +sufficient influence with the home government to obtain an order for his +execution, to be sent to the generals in Ionia. + +Alkibiades received warning of this in good time. Alarmed at the news, +he still continued to co-operate with the Lacedaemonians, but utterly +refused to trust his person among them. To ensure his safety, he betook +himself to Tissaphernes, the satrap or viceroy for the king of Persia in +that province, and at once became the most important personage amongst +his followers. The barbarian being himself a lover of deceit and of +crooked ways, admired his cleverness and versatility; while no man's +nature could resist the fascinations and charms of the society of +Alkibiades, which Tissaphernes now enjoyed daily. Although he hated the +Greeks as much as any Persian, yet he was so overpowered by the +flatteries of Alkibiades, that he in his turn repaid him with +compliments even more excessive. He decreed that the pleasantest of his +parks, a place charmingly wooded and watered, with delightful walks and +summer-houses, should be called "the Alkibiades;" and all men from that +time forth spoke of it by that name. + +XXV. Now that Alkibiades had determined that the Spartans were not to be +trusted, and that he was in fear of Agis, their king, he began to speak +evil of them to Tissaphernes, withholding him from assisting them +thoroughly, and enabling them to conquer the Athenians, but advising him +rather to starve the Lacedaemonians forces by insufficient supplies, so +as to play one side off against the other, and thus encourage them to +wear each other out, in order that in the end both might be so weakened +as to fall an easy prey to the Persians. + +Tissaphernes at once adopted this policy, and made no secret of his +regard and admiration for Alkibiades, who was now looked up to by the +Greeks on both sides, while the Athenians repented of their decrees +against him. He also began to fear that if their city were to be utterly +destroyed he would necessarily fall into the hands of his enemies, the +Lacedaemonians. + +The most important post in the Athenian empire at this time was the +island of Samos. Here lay the greater part of their fleet, and it was +from this headquarters that they sent out expeditions to recover the +revolted cities of Ionia, and guarded those which they still retained, +as, in spite of their great losses, they still possessed a fleet capable +of holding its own against the Lacedaemonians. They were in great fear +of Tissaphernes and the Phoenician fleet of a hundred and fifty sail of +triremes, which was said to be on the point of arriving, because if it +really came all would be over with Athens. Alkibiades, knowing this, +sent a secret message to the Athenian leaders at Samos, holding out +hopes of bringing Tissaphernes over to the Athenian side. He would not, +he said, do this to please the populace of Athens, because he could not +trust them, but he would effect it if the nobility would, like brave +gentlemen, put an end to the insolent behaviour of the lower orders, and +would themselves undertake to save the city and empire of Athens. + +All were eager to adopt the proposal of Alkibiades, except Phrynichus of +the _demos_ or township of Deirades, who suspected the real truth, that +Alkibiades cared nothing about the form of government which might be +established at Athens, but was seeking for some excuse for being +restored to his native country, and thought, by his harsh language about +the people, to ingratiate himself with the nobles. He was, however, +overruled; and, being now clearly marked as the personal enemy of +Alkibiades, sent a secret message to Astyochus, the admiral of the +Lacedaemonian fleet, bidding him beware of Alkibiades, who was playing a +double game. However, he met his match in perfidy. Astyochus, desirous +of gaining the favour of Tissaphernes, and seeing that Alkibiades had +great influence with him, betrayed Phrynichus's letter to them. +Alkibiades upon this at once sent persons to Samos to charge Phrynichus +with this act of treason, and he, seeing that all men were shocked at +what he had done, and were indignant with him, and being at his wit's +end, endeavoured to heal one mischief by another. He sent a second +letter to Astyochus, reproaching him for his betrayal of confidence, and +promising that he would enable him to capture the fleet and camp of the +Athenians. However, the treachery of Phrynichus did no harm to the +Athenians, because of the counter treachery of Astyochus, who +communicated this letter also to Alkibiades. Now Phrynichus, expecting a +second charge of treason from Alkibiades, was beforehand with him, in +announcing to the Athenians that the enemy were about to attack them, +and advising them to keep near their ships, and to fortify their +camp.[A] This they proceeded to do, when there came a second letter from +Alkibiades, warning them against Phrynichus, who meditated betraying the +harbour to the enemy. This letter was not believed at the time, for men +imagined that Alkibiades, who knew perfectly well all the movements and +intentions of the enemy, was making use of that knowledge to destroy his +personal enemy Phrynichus, by exciting an undeserved suspicion against +him. Yet, when afterwards Hermon, one of the Athenian horse-patrol, +stabbed Phrynichus with his dagger in the market-place, the Athenians, +after trying the case, decided that the deceased was guilty of treason, +and crowned Hermon and his comrades with garlands. + +[Footnote A: The ancient trireme was not habitable, like a modern ship +of war. The crew always, if possible, landed for their meals, and when +stationed at any place, drew the ship up on the beach and lived entirely +on shore.] + +XXVI. The friends of Alkibiades being in a majority at Samos, now +despatched Peisander to Athens to attempt the subversion of the +republic, and to encourage the nobles to seize the government, and put +an end to the democratic constitution. If this was done, they conceived +that Alkibiades would make Tissaphernes their friend and ally, and this +was the pretext and excuse put forward by those who established the +oligarchy. When, however, the so-called Five Thousand, who really were +the Four Hundred, were at the head of affairs, they paid but little +attention to Alkibiades, and were very remiss in carrying on the war, +partly because they distrusted the citizens, who were not yet accustomed +to the new constitution, and partly because they thought that the +Lacedaemonians, who were always favourable to oligarchical governments, +would deal more tenderly with them on that account. The Athenian +populace remained quiet, though sorely against its will, because of the +terror inspired by the oligarchs, for no small number of citizens who +had opposed the Four Hundred had been put to death; but the men of +Samos, as soon as they heard the news, were indignant, and wished at +once to sail to Peiraeus. They sent at once for Alkibiades, elected him +their general, and bade him lead them on to crush this new despotism. +Alkibiades on this occasion acted like a really great commander, and not +at all as one would expect of a man who had suddenly been raised to +power by popular favour. + +He refused to curry favour with the soldiery by carrying out their +wishes, regardless of their having found him a homeless exile, and +having made him the commander of so many ships and so many men; but he +resisted their impulse, and by preventing their committing so great an +error, without doubt saved the Athenian empire. For if the fleet had +left Samos, the enemy could without a battle have made themselves +masters of the whole of Ionia, the Hellespont, and the islands in the +Aegean while Athenians would have fought with Athenians in their own +city. All this was prevented by Alkibiades alone, who not only persuaded +the populace, and pointed out the folly of such proceedings in public +speeches, but even entreated and commanded each individual man to remain +at Samos. He was assisted in this by Thrasybulus, of the township of +Steiria, who was present, and spoke in his loud voice, which was said to +be the loudest of any Athenian of his time. This was a noble achievement +of Alkibiades, and so, too, was his undertaking that the Phoenician +fleet, which the Lacedaemonians expected would be sent by the Persian +king to help them, should either be won over to the Athenian side, or at +any rate prevented from joining the Lacedaemonians. In order to effect +this, he sailed away in great haste, and, although the Phoenician fleet +was at Aspendus, yet Tissaphernes brought it no further, and deceived +the Lacedaemonians. Both parties gave Alkibiades the credit of having +detained it, and more especially the Lacedaemonians, who imagined that +he was teaching the Persians to allow the Greeks to destroy one another, +for it was perfectly clear that such a force, if added to either of the +contending parties, must have made them complete masters of the sea. + +XXVII. After this the government of the Four Hundred was dissolved, as +the friends of Alkibiades eagerly took the side of the popular party. +Although the Athenians now wished and even commanded Alkibiades to +return to his native city, yet he felt that he ought not to come home +emptyhanded, and owing his restoration to the good nature of the +people, but rather to return after some glorious achievement. With this +intention he at first left Samos with a few ships and cruised in the +seas near Knidus and Kôs; then, hearing that Mindarus, the Spartan +admiral, had gone to the Hellespont with all his fleet, and that the +Athenian fleet had followed him, he hurried to the assistance of the +Athenian commanders. + +Sailing northwards with eighteen triremes he chanced to arrive towards +evening, at the end of a sea-fight off Abydos, in which neither party +had won any decided advantage. The appearance of his squadron caused +very different feelings among the combatants, for the Athenians were +alarmed, and the enemy encouraged. However, he soon hoisted an Athenian +flag, and bore down upon that part of the Peloponnesian fleet which had +been hitherto victorious. He put them to flight, compelled them to run +their ships ashore, and then attacking them, disabled their ships, and +broke them to pieces, forcing the crews to swim ashore, where +Pharnabazus the satrap led a force to the water's edge to fight for the +preservation of the vessels. In the end the Athenians took thirty ships, +recovered those of their own which had been captured, and erected a +trophy, as victors. + +Alkibiades gained great glory by this splendid piece of good fortune, +and at once went off with rich presents and a gorgeous military retinue, +to display his fresh laurels to Tissaphernes. He met, however, with a +very different reception to that which he expected, for Tissaphernes, +whose mind had been poisoned against him by the Lacedaemonians, and who +feared that the king might be displeased with his own dealings with +Alkibiades, considered that he had arrived at a very opportune moment, +and at once seized him and imprisoned him at Sardis; thinking that this +arbitrary act would prove to the world that the other suspicions of an +understanding between them were unfounded. + +XXVIII. Thirty days afterwards, Alkibiades by some means obtained a +horse, eluded his guards, and fled for refuge to Klazomenae. He gave out +that he had been privately released by Tissaphernes himself, in order to +disgrace that satrap, and at once sailed to the Athenian fleet in the +Hellespont. Learning that Mindarus and Pharnabazus were both in the city +of Kyzikus, he encouraged his soldiers by a speech, in which he told +them that they would have to fight at sea, on land, and against the town +walls too, for that if they were not completely victorious they could +get no pay. He manned his ships and proceeded to Prokonessus, ordering +all small vessels which they met to be seized and detained in the +interior of the fleet, in order that the enemy might not learn his +movements. It happened also that a heavy thunderstorm with rain and +darkness assisted his design, as he not only was unseen by the enemy, +but was never suspected of any intention of attack by the Athenians +themselves, who had given up any idea of going to sea when he ordered +them on board. Little by little the clouds cleared away, and disclosed +the Peloponnesian fleet cruising off the harbour of Kyzikus. Alkibiades, +fearing that if the enemy saw how numerous his own fleet was, they would +take refuge on shore, ordered the other commanders to remain behind +under easy sail, and himself with forty ships went on ahead to entice +them to an engagement. The Peloponnesians, deceived by this manoeuvre, +at once attacked these few ships, despising their small numbers. But the +little squadron engaged them until the rest came up, when they fled +ashore in terror. Alkibiades with twenty of the fastest sailing ships +broke through the enemy's line, ran his ships ashore, landed their +crews, and attacked the fugitives from the enemy's fleet with terrible +slaughter. Mindarus and Pharnabazus now came to the rescue, but they +were beaten back; Mindarus died fighting bravely, and Pharnabazus only +saved himself by flight. By this battle the Athenians obtained +possession of many dead bodies of their enemies,[A] many stand of arms, +the whole of the hostile fleet, and the town of Kyzikus, which they took +by storm, putting its Peloponnesian garrison to the sword, as soon as +Pharnabazus withdrew his troops. They now not merely obtained a firm +hold on the Hellespont, but were able to drive the Lacedaemonians from +the sea in all quarters. A despatch was captured, written in the +Laconian fashion, informing the Ephors of the disaster. "Our ships are +gone; Mindarus is slain; the men are starving; we know not what to do." + +[Footnote A: The Greeks attached great importance to the burial of the +dead. The usual test of which party had won a battle was, which side +after it demanded a truce for the burial of the dead. Here the +possession of the dead bodies of the enemy is enumerated as one of the +proofs of victory.] + +XXIX. The men who had served under Alkibiades were so elated by this +victory that they disdained to mix with the rest of the army, alleging +that the others had often been defeated, and that they were invincible. +Indeed, not long before, Thrasyllus had received a defeat near Ephesus, +upon which the Ephesians erected the brazen trophy to the disgrace of +the Athenians; so that the soldiers of Alkibiades reproached those of +Thrasyllus with this, glorifying themselves and their commander, and +refusing to allow the others to make use of their places of exercise or +their quarters in camp. However, when Pharnabazus with a large force of +infantry and calvary attacked them while they were invading the +territory of Abydos, Alkibiades led them out to fight him, defeated him, +and, together with Thrasyllus, pursued him till nightfall. After this +the soldiers fraternised with each other and returned to their camp +rejoicing together. On the following day Alkibiades erected a trophy and +ravaged the country of Pharnabazus, no one daring to oppose him. He even +took priests and priestesses prisoners, but released them without +ransom. + +The city of Chalkedon had revolted from Athens, and received a +Lacedaemonian harmost[A] and garrison. Alkibiades was eager to attack +them, but, hearing that they had collected all the property[B] in their +country and placed it in the hands of the Bithynians, a friendly tribe, +he led his whole army to the Bithynian frontier and sent a herald to +that people reproaching them for what they had done. In terror, the +Bithynians gave up the property to him, and entered into an alliance +with him. + +[Footnote A: A "harmost," [Greek: harmostês], was an officer sent from +Sparta to administer a subject city. See p. 97.] + +[Footnote B: Probably consisting of corn and cattle, as Clough +translates it.] + +XXX. He now completely invested Chalkedon, by building a wall reaching +from sea to sea. Pharnabazus came down to raise the siege, and +Hippokrates, the harmost of the city, led out his forces and attacked +the Athenians at the same time. Alkibiades arranged his army so as to be +able to fight them both at once, forced Pharnabazus to retreat with +disgrace, killed Hippokrates, and put his force to flight with severe +loss. He now took a cruise round the Hellespont, to raise contributions +from the towns on the coast, during which he took Selymbria, where he, +very unnecessarily, was exposed to great personal risk. The party who +intended to betray the city had arranged to show a torch as a signal at +midnight, but were compelled to do so before the appointed time, fearing +one of the conspirators, who suddenly changed his mind. When then the +torch was raised, the army was not ready for the assault, but +Alkibiades, taking some thirty men with him, ran at full speed up to the +walls, giving orders to the rest to follow. The city gate was opened for +him, and, twenty peltasts[A] having joined his thirty soldiers, he +entered, when he perceived the men of Selymbria under arms marching down +the street to meet him. To await their onset would have been ruin, while +pride forbade a hitherto invincible general to retire. Ordering his +trumpet to sound, he bade one of those present proclaim aloud that the +Selymbrians ought not to appear in arms against the Athenians. This +speech made some of the townspeople less eager to fight, as they +imagined that their enemies were all within the walls, while it +encouraged others who hoped to arrange matters peaceably. While they +were standing opposite to one another and parleying, Alkibiades's army +came up, and he, truly conjecturing that the Selymbrians were really +disposed to be friendly, began to fear that his Thracian troops might +sack the city; for many of these barbarians were serving in his army as +volunteers, from a particular attachment they had to his person. He +therefore sent them all out of the city, and did not permit the +terrified people of Selymbria to suffer any violence, but, having +exacted a contribution of money and placed a garrison in the town, he +sailed away. + +[Footnote A: Peltasts were light-armed troops, so called because they +carried light round shields instead of the large unwieldy oblong shield +of the Hoplite, or heavy-armed infantry soldier. These light troops came +gradually into favour with the Greeks during the Peloponnesian war, and +afterward became very extensively used.] + +XXXI. Meanwhile the generals who were besieging Chalkedon made an +agreement with Pharnabazus, on these conditions. They were to receive a +sum of money; the people of Chalkedon were to become subjects of Athens +as before; Pharnabazus was not to lay waste the province; and he was to +provide an escort and a safe-conduct for an Athenian embassy to the +Persian king. On the return of Alkibiades, Pharnabazus desired him to +swear to observe these conditions, but Alkibiades refused to do so +unless Pharnabazus swore first. After this capitulation he proceeded to +Byzantium, which had revolted from Athens, and built a wall round that +city. Anaxilaus and Lykurgus, with some others, now offered to betray +the city if the lives and property of the inhabitants were spared. Upon +this Alkibiades put about a report that his presence was urgently +required on the Ionian coast, and sailed away by daylight with all his +fleet. The same night he landed with all his soldiers, and marched up to +the walls in silence, while the fleet, with a great clamour and +disturbance, forced its way into the harbour. The suddenness of this +assault, entirely unexpected as it was, terrified the people of +Byzantium, and gave those of them who inclined to the Athenian side an +opportunity of admitting Alkibiades quietly, while the attention of +every one was directed to the ships in the harbour. The town did not, +however, surrender altogether without fighting; for the Peloponnesians, +Megarians, and Boeotians who were in it drove the Athenians back into +their ships with loss, and when they heard that the land forces had +entered the town they formed in line and engaged them. A severe battle +took place, but Alkibiades on the right wing, and Theramenes on the +left, were at length victorious, and took prisoners the survivors, some +three hundred in number. After this battle no citizen of Byzantium was +either put to death or banished, those being the terms on which the +conspirators had delivered up the city, namely, that they should suffer +no loss of life or property. + +Anaxilaus was afterwards tried at Sparta for having betrayed the city, +and justified what he had done, saying that he was not a Lacedaemonian, +but a Byzantine, and that he saw Byzantium, not Sparta, in danger, as +the city was surrounded by the enemy's siege works, no provisions being +brought in to it, and what there was in it being consumed by the +Peloponnesians and Boeotians, while the people of Byzantium with their +wives and children were starving. He did not, he said, betray the city +to the enemy, but relieved it from the miseries of war, imitating +therein the noblest Lacedaemonians, whose only idea of what was noble +and just was what would serve their own country. The Lacedaemonians, on +hearing this speech, were ashamed to press the charge, and acquitted +him. + +XXXII. Now, at length, Alkibiades began to wish to see his native +country again, and still more to be seen and admired by his countrymen +after his splendid series of victories. He proceeded home with the +Athenian fleet, which was magnificently adorned with shields and +trophies, and had many prizes in tow, and the flags of many more which +he had captured and destroyed--all of them together amounting to not +less than two hundred. But we cannot believe the additions which Douris +the Samian, who says that he is a descendant of Alkibiades, makes to +this story, to the effect that Chrysogonus, the victor at the Pythian +games, played on the flute to mark the time for the rowers, while +Kallipides the tragedian, attired in his buskins, purple robe, and other +theatrical properties, gave them orders, and that the admiral's ship +came into harbour with purple sails, as if returning from a party of +pleasure. Neither Theopompus, nor Ephorus, nor Xenophon mentions these +circumstances, nor was it likely that he should present himself before +the Athenians in such a swaggering fashion, when he was returning home +from exile, after having suffered such a variety of misfortunes. The +truth is, he sailed to Athens with considerable misgivings, and on his +arrival would not leave his ship until from her deck he saw Euryptolemus +his cousin, with many of his friends and relatives, assembled to welcome +him. + +When he landed, the people seemed to have no eyes for the other +generals, but all rushed towards him, and escorted him on his way, +cheering him, embracing him, and crowning him with flowers. Those who +could not get near him gazed upon him from a distance, and the older men +pointed him out to the younger ones. Yet the joy of the citizens was +mingled with tears in the midst of their rejoicings, when they thought +of their past disasters, for they reflected that they would not have +failed in Sicily, or met with any of their other terrible +disappointments, if they had not parted with Alkibiades when in the full +tide of prosperity. He had found Athens barely able to hold her own at +sea, by land mistress of little more than the ground on which the city +stood, and torn by internal strife; from which miserable and forlorn +condition he had restored her so completely, that she was again not only +omnipotent at sea, but also victorious everywhere on land. + +XXXIII. Before his return a decree had been passed authorising him to do +so, at the instance of Kritias, the son of Kallaeschrus, who himself +alludes to it in his poems, mentioning the service which he performed +for Alkibiades in the following verse: + + "I moved your restoration by decree, + And that you're home again you owe to me." + +Immediately on the return of Alkibiades, the people assembled in the +Pnyx, where he addressed them. He spoke with tears of his misfortunes, +for which he partly reproached his countrymen, though he attributed them +chiefly to his own unlucky fortune, and he greatly raised their hopes by +speaking encouragingly about their probable successes in the future. He +was honoured with golden crowns, and elected sole general with absolute +power both by sea and land. A decree was also passed by which his +property was restored to him, and the Eumolpidae and Kerykes were +ordered to retract the curses which they had invoked upon him at the +instance of the people. When all the rest obeyed, Theodorus the +hierophant excused himself, saying, If he has done the State no wrong, I +never cursed him. + +XXXIV. While Alkibiades was in this glorious career of prosperity, some +persons in spite of his success foreboded evil from the day which he had +chosen for his return home; for on the day on which he sailed into the +harbour the statue of Athene on the Acropolis is stripped of its +garments and ornaments, which are cleaned, while it in the meanwhile is +covered up to conceal it from human eyes. This ceremony takes place on +the 25th of the month Thargelion, which day is considered by the +Athenians to be the unluckiest of all. Moreover, the goddess did not +appear to receive Alkibiades with a kindly welcome, but to turn away her +face from him and drive him from her presence. Be this as it may, all +went well and just as Alkibiades wished. A fleet of a hundred triremes +was manned, and placed at his disposal, but he with creditable pride +refused to set sail until after the celebration of the Eleusinian +mysteries. Since the permanent occupation of Dekeleia and of the passes +commanding the road to Eleusis by the enemy, the procession had been +necessarily shorn of many of its distinctive features, as it had to be +sent by sea. All the customary sacrifices, dances, and other rites which +used to be practised on the road, when Iacchus is carried along in +solemn procession, were of necessity omitted. It seemed therefore to +Alkibiades that it would both honour the gods and increase his own +reputation among men, if he restored the ancient form of this ceremony, +escorting the procession with his troops and protecting it from the +enemy; for he argued that Agis would lose prestige if he did not attack, +but allowed the procession to pass unmolested, whereas if he did attack, +Alkibiades would be able to fight in a holy cause, in defence of the +most sacred institutions of his country, with all his countrymen present +as witnesses of his own valour. When he determined to do this, after +concerting measures with the Eumolpidae and Kerykes, he placed vedettes +on the mountains and sent an advanced guard off at day-break, following +with the priests, novices, and initiators marching in the midst of his +army, in great good order and perfect silence. It was an august and +solemn procession, and all who did not envy him said that he had +performed the office of a high priest in addition of that of a general. +The enemy made no attack, and he led his troops safely back to Athens, +full of pride himself, and making his army proud to think itself +invincible while under his command. He had so won the affections of the +poor and the lower orders, that they were strangely desirous of living +under his rule. Many even besought him to put down the malignity of his +personal enemies, sweep away laws, decrees, and other pernicious +nonsense, and carry on the government without fear of a factious +opposition. + +XXXV. What his own views about making himself despot of Athens may have +been we cannot tell; but the leading citizens took alarm at this, and +hurried him away as quickly as possible to sea, voting whatever measures +he pleased, and allowing him to choose his own colleagues. He set sail +with his hundred ships, reached Andros, and defeated the inhabitants of +that island, and the Lacedaemonian garrison there. He did not, however, +capture the city, and this afterwards became one of the points urged +against him by his enemies. Indeed, if there ever was a man destroyed by +his reputation, it was Alkibiades. Being supposed to be such a prodigy +of daring and subtlety, his failures were regarded with suspicion, as if +he could have succeeded had he been in earnest; for his countrymen would +not believe that he could really fail in anything which he seriously +attempted. They expected to hear of the capture of Chios, and of the +whole Ionian coast, and were vexed at not at once receiving the news of +a complete success. They did not take into account the want of money +which Alkibiades felt, while warring against men who had the king of +Persia for their paymaster, and which made frequent absences from his +camp necessary to provide subsistence for his troops. It was one of +these expeditions, indeed, which exposed him to the last and most +important of the many charges brought against him. Lysander had been +sent by the Lacedaemonians to take the command of their fleet. On his +arrival, by means of the money paid by Cyrus, he raised the pay of his +sailors from three obols a day to four. Alkibiades, who could with +difficulty pay his men even three obols, went to Caria to levy +contributions, leaving in command of the fleet one Antiochus, a good +seaman, but a thoughtless and silly man. He had distinct orders from +Alkibiades not to fight even if the enemy attacked him, but such was his +insolent disregard of these instructions that he manned his own trireme +and one other, sailed to Ephesus, and there passed along the line of the +enemy's ships, as they lay on the beach, using the most scurrilous and +insulting language and gestures. At first Lysander put to sea with a few +ships to pursue him, but as the Athenians came out to assist him, the +action became general. The entire fleets engaged and Lysander was +victorious. He killed Antiochus, captured many ships and men, and set up +a trophy. When Alkibiades on his return to Samos heard of this, he put +to sea with all his ships, and offered battle to Lysander; but he was +satisfied with his previous victory, and refused the offer. + +XXXVI. Thrasybulus, the son of Thrason, a bitter personal enemy of +Alkibiades, now set sail for Athens to accuse him, and to exasperate his +enemies in the city against him. He made a speech to the people, +representing that Alkibiades had ruined their affairs and lost their +ships by insolently abusing his authority and entrusting the command, +during his own absence, to men who owed their influence with him to deep +drinking and cracking seamen's jokes, and that he securely traversed the +provinces to raise money, indulging in drunken debauches with Ionian +courtezans, while the enemy's fleet was riding close to his own. He was +also blamed for the construction of certain forts in Thrace, near +Bisanthe, which he destined as a place of refuge for himself, as if he +could not or would not live in his native city. + +The Athenians were so wrought upon by these charges against Alkibiades, +that they elected other generals to supersede him, thus showing their +anger and dislike for him. Alkibiades, on learning this, left the +Athenian camp altogether, got together a force of foreign troops, and +made war on the irregular Thracian tribes on his own account, thus +obtaining much plunder and freeing the neighbouring Greek cities from +the dread of the barbarians. Now when the generals Tydeus, Menander, and +Adeimantus came with the entire Athenian fleet to Aegospotamoi, they +used early every morning to go to Lampsakus to challenge the fleet of +Lysander, which lay there, to a sea-fight. After this ceremony they +would return and spend the whole day in careless indolence, as if +despising their enemy. Alkibiades, who lived close by, did not disregard +their danger, but even rode over on horseback and pointed out to the +generals that they were very badly quartered in a place where there was +no harbour and no city, having to obtain all their provisions from +Sestos, and, when the ships were once hauled up on shore, allowing the +men to leave them unguarded and straggle where they pleased, although +they were in the presence of a fleet which was trained to act in silence +and good order at the command of one man. + +XXXVII. Though Alkibiades gave this advice, and urged the generals to +remove to Sestos, they would not listen to him. Tydeus indeed rudely +bade him begone, for they, not he, were now generals. Alkibiades, too, +suspected that there was some treachery in the case, and retired, +telling his personal friends, who escorted him out of the camp, that if +he had not been so outrageously insulted by the generals, he could in a +few days have compelled the Lacedaemonians either to fight a battle at +sea against their will, or abandon their ships. To some this seemed mere +boasting, while others thought that he could very possibly effect it by +bringing many Thracian light-armed troops and cavalry to assault the +camp on the land side. However, the result soon proved that he had +rightly seen the fault of the Athenian position. Lysander suddenly and +unexpectedly assailed it, and except eight triremes which escaped under +Konon, took all the rest, nearly two hundred in number. Lysander also +put three thousand prisoners to the sword. He shortly afterwards +captured Athens, burned her ships, and pulled down her Long Walls. +Alkibiades, terrified at seeing the Lacedaemonians omnipotent by sea and +land, shifted his quarters to Bithynia, sending thither a great amount +of treasure, and taking much with him, but leaving much more in his +Thracian fortresses. In Bithynia, however, he suffered much loss at the +hands of the natives, and determined to proceed to the court of +Artaxerxes, thinking that the Persian king, if he would make trial of +him, would find that he was not inferior to Themistokles in ability, +while he sought him in a much more honourable way; for it was not to +revenge himself on his fellow-citizens, as Themistokles did, but to +assist his own country against its enemy that he meant to solicit the +king's aid. Imagining that Pharnabazus would be able to grant him a safe +passage to the Persian court, he went into Phrygia to meet him, and +remained there for some time, paying his court to the satrap, and +receiving from him marks of respect. + +XXXVIII. The Athenians were terribly cast down at the loss of their +empire; but when Lysander robbed them of their liberty as well, by +establishing the government of the Thirty Tyrants, they began to +entertain thoughts which never had occurred to them before, while it was +yet possible that the State might be saved from ruin. They bewailed +their past blunders and mistakes, and of these they considered their +second fit of passion with Alkibiades to have been the greatest. They +had cast him off for no fault of his own, but merely because they were +angry with his follower for having lost a few ships disgracefully; they +had much more disgraced themselves by losing the services of the ablest +and bravest general whom they possessed. Even in their present abasement +a vague hope prevailed among them that Athens could not be utterly lost +while Alkibiades was alive; for he had not during his former exile been +satisfied with a quiet life, and surely now, however prosperous his +private circumstances might be, he would not endure to see the triumph +of the Lacedaemonians, and the arrogant tyranny of the Thirty. Indeed +this was proved to be no vain dream by the care which the Thirty took to +watch all the motions of Alkibiades. At last, Kritias informed Lysander, +that while Athens was governed by a democracy, the Lacedaemonian empire +in Greece could never be safe; and if the Athenians were ever so much +inclined to an oligarchical form of government, Alkibiades, if he lived, +would not long suffer them to submit to it. However, Lysander was not +prevailed upon by these arguments until a despatch came from Sparta +bidding him make away with Alkibiades, either because the home +government feared his ability and enterprise, or because they wished to +please his enemy, King Agis. + +XXXIX. Lysander now sent orders for his death to Pharnabazus, who +entrusted their execution to his brother Magaeus and his uncle +Susamithres. Alkibiades was at this time dwelling in a village in +Phrygia, with Timandra the courtezan, and one night he dreamed that he +was dressed in his mistress's clothes, and that she, holding his head in +her arms, was painting his face and adorning him like a woman. Others +say that he saw Magaeus in his dream cutting off his head, and his body +all in flames. All, however, agree that the dream took place shortly +before his death. His murderers did not dare to enter the house, but +stood round it in a circle and set it on fire. Alkibiades, on +discovering them, flung most of the bedding and clothes on to the fire, +wrapped his cloak round his left arm, and with his dagger in his right +dashed through the flames unhurt, not giving his clothes time to catch +fire. None of the barbarians dared to await his onset, but as soon as +they saw him they scattered, and from a distance shot at him with darts +and arrows. After he had fallen and the barbarians were gone, Timandra +took up his corpse, covered it with her own clothes, and, as far as was +in her power, showed it every mark of honour and respect. + +This Timandra is said to have been the mother of Lais, commonly called +the Corinthian, who really was brought as a captive from Hykkara, a +small town in Sicily. Some writers, although they agree in their account +of the manner of his death, differ as to its cause, alleging that it was +neither due to Pharnabazus nor to Lysander nor the Lacedaemonians, but +that Alkibiades had debauched a girl of noble birth and was living with +her, and that her relatives, enraged at this insult, during the night +set fire to the house in which Alkibiades was living, and, as has been +related, shot him as he leaped out through the flames. + + + + +LIFE OF CAIUS MARCIUS CORIOLANUS. + + +I. The patrician family of the Marcii at Rome produced many illustrious +men, amongst whom was Ancus Marcius, the grandson of Numa, who became +king after the death of Tullus Hostilius. To this family also belonged +Publius and Quintus Marcius, who supplied Rome with abundance of +excellent water, and Censorinus, twice appointed censor by the Roman +people, who afterwards passed a law that no one should hold that office +twice. + +Caius Marcius, the subject of this memoir, was an orphan, and brought up +by a widowed mother. He proved that, hard though the lot of an orphan +may be, yet it does not prevent a man's becoming great and +distinguished, and that the bad alone allege it as an excuse for an +intemperate life. He also proves to us that a naturally noble nature, if +it be not properly disciplined, will produce many good and bad qualities +together, just as a rich field, if not properly tilled, will produce +both weeds and good fruit. The immense energy and courage of his mind +used to urge him to attempt and to perform great exploits, but his harsh +and ambitious temper made it difficult for him to live on friendly terms +with his companions. They used to admire his indifference to pleasure +and pain, and his contempt for bribes, but in politics they were angered +by his morose and haughty manner, too proud for a citizen of a republic. +Indeed there is no advantage to be gained from a liberal education so +great as that of softening and disciplining the natural ferocity of our +disposition, by teaching it moderation, and how to avoid all extremes. +However, at that period warlike virtues were valued above all others at +Rome, which is proved by the Romans possessing only one word for virtue +and for bravery, so that virtue, a general term, is applied by them to +the particular form, courage. + +II. Marcius, having an especial passion for war, was familiar from +childhood with the use of arms. Reflecting that artificial weapons are +of little use without a body capable of wielding them, he so trained +himself for all possible emergencies that he was both able to run +swiftly and also to grapple with his foe so strongly that few could +escape from him. Those who entered into any contest with him, when +beaten, used to ascribe their defeat to his immense bodily strength, +which no exertions could tire out. + +III. He served his first campaign while yet a youth, when Tarquin, the +exiled King of Rome, after many battles and defeats, staked all upon one +last throw, and assembled an army to attack Rome. His force consisted +chiefly of Latins, but many other Italian states took his part in the +war, not from any attachment to his person, but through fear and dislike +of the growing power of Rome. In the battle which ensued, in which +various turns of fortune took place, Marcius, while fighting bravely +under the eye of the dictator himself, saw a Roman fallen and helpless +near him. He at once made for this man, stood in front of him, and +killed his assailant. After the victory, Marcius was among the first who +received the oak-leaf crown. This crown is given to him who has saved +the life of a citizen in battle, and is composed of oak-leaves, either +out of compliment to the Arcadians, whom the oracle calls 'acorn +eaters,' or because in any campaign in any country it is easy to obtain +oak-boughs, or it may be that the oak, sacred to Jupiter the protector +of cities, forms a suitable crown for one who has saved the life of a +citizen. The oak is the most beautiful of all wild trees, and the +strongest of those which are artificially cultivated. It afforded men in +early times both food and drink, by its acorns and the honey found in +it, while by the bird-lime which it produces, it enables them to catch +most kinds of birds and other creatures, as additional dainties. + +This was the battle in which they say that the Dioscuri, Castor and +Pollux, appeared, and immediately after the battle were soon in the +Forum at Rome announcing the victory, with their horses dripping with +sweat, at the spot where now there is a temple built in their honour +beside the fountain. In memory of this, the day of the victory, the 15th +of July, is kept sacred to the Dioscuri. + +IV. To win distinction early in life is said to quench and satisfy the +eagerness of some men whose desire for glory is not keen; but for those +with whom it is the ruling passion of their lives, the gaining of +honours only urges them on, as a ship is urged by a gale, to fresh +achievements. They do not regard themselves as having received a reward, +but as having given a pledge for the future, and they feel it their duty +not to disgrace the reputation which they have acquired, but to eclipse +their former fame by some new deed of prowess. Marcius, feeling this, +was ever trying to surpass himself in valour, and gained such prizes and +trophies that the later generals under whom he served were always +striving to outdo the former ones in their expressions of esteem for +him, and their testimony to his merits. Many as were the wars in which +Rome was then engaged, Marcius never returned from any without a prize +for valour or some especial mark of distinction. Other men were brave in +order to win glory, but Marcius won glory in order to please his mother. +That she should hear him praised, see him crowned, and embrace him +weeping for joy, was the greatest honour and happiness of his life. +Epameinondas is said to have had the same feelings, and to have +considered it to be his greatest good-fortune that his father and mother +were both alive to witness his triumphant success at the battle of +Leuktra. He, however, enjoyed the sympathy and applause of both parents, +but Marcius, being fatherless, lavished on his mother all that affection +which should have belonged to his father, besides her own share. So +boundless was his love for Volumnia that at her earnest desire he even +married a wife, but still continued to live in the house of his mother. + +V. At this time, when his reputation and influence were very +considerable because of his prowess, there was a party-quarrel going on +in Rome between the patricians, who wished to defend the privileges of +men of property, and the people, who were suffering terrible +ill-treatment at the hands of their creditors. Those who possessed a +small property were forced either to pledge or to sell it, while those +who were absolutely destitute were carried off and imprisoned, though +they might be scarred and enfeebled from the wars in which they had +served in defence of their country. The last campaign was that against +the Sabines, after which their rich creditors promised to treat them +with less harshness. In pursuance of a decree of the Senate, Marcus +Valerius the consul was the guarantee of this promise. But when, after +serving manfully in this campaign and conquering the enemy, they met +with no better treatment from their creditors, and the Senate seemed +unmindful of its engagements, allowing them to be imprisoned and +distresses to be levied upon their property as before, there were +violent outbreaks and riots in the city. This disturbed condition of the +commonwealth was taken advantage of by the enemy, who invaded the +country and plundered it. When the consuls called all men of military +age to arms, no one obeyed, and then at last the patricians hesitated. +Some thought that they ought to yield to the lower classes, and make +some concessions instead of enforcing the strict letter of the law +against them; while others, among whom was Marcius, opposed this idea, +not because he thought the money of great consequence, but because he +considered this to be the beginning of an outburst of democratic +insolence which a wise government would take timely measures to suppress +before it gathered strength. + +VI. As the Senate, although it frequently met, came to no decision on +this matter, the plebeians suddenly assembled in a body, left the city, +and established themselves on what was afterwards called the Mons Sacer, +or Sacred Hill, near the river Anio. They abstained from all factious +proceedings, and merely stated that they had been driven from the city +by the wealthy classes. Air and water and a place in which to be buried, +they said, could be obtained anywhere in Italy, and they could get +nothing more than this in Rome, except the privilege of being wounded or +slain in fighting battles on behalf of the rich. At this demonstration, +the Senate became alarmed, and sent the most moderate and popular of its +members to treat with the people. The spokesman of this embassy was +Menenius Agrippa, who, after begging the plebeians to come to terms, and +pleading the cause of the Senate with them, wound up his speech by the +following fable: Once upon a time, said he, all the members revolted +against the belly, reproaching it with lying idle in the body, and +making all the other members work in order to provide it with food; but +the belly laughed them to scorn, saying that it was quite true that it +took all the food which the body obtained, but that it afterwards +distributed it among all the members. "This," he said, "is the part +played by the Senate in the body politic. It digests and arranges all +the affairs of the State, and provides all of you with wholesome and +useful measures." + +VII. Upon this they came to terms, after stipulating that five men +should be chosen to defend the cause of the people, who are now known as +tribunes of the people. They chose for the first tribunes the leaders of +the revolt, the chief of whom were Junius Brutus and Sicinius Vellutus. +As soon as the State was one again, the people assembled under arms, and +zealously offered their services for war to their rulers. Marcius, +though but little pleased with these concessions which the plebeians had +wrung from the patricians, yet, noticing that many patricians were of +his mind, called upon them not to be outdone in patriotism by the +plebeians, but to prove themselves their superiors in valour rather than +in political strength. + +VIII. Corioli was the most important city of the Volscian nation, with +which Rome then was at war. The consul Cominius was besieging it, and +the Volscians, fearing it might be taken, gathered from all quarters, +meaning to fight a battle under the city walls, and so place the Romans +between two fires. Cominius divided his army, and led one part of it to +fight the relieving force, leaving Titus Lartius, a man of the noblest +birth in Rome, to continue the siege with the rest of his troops. The +garrison of Corioli, despising the small numbers of their besiegers, +attacked them and forced them to take shelter within their camp. But +there Marcius with a few followers checked their onset, slew the +foremost, and with a loud voice called on the Romans to rally. He was, +as Cato said a soldier should be, not merely able to deal weighty blows, +but struck terror into his enemies by the loud tones of his voice and +his martial appearance, so that few dared to stand their ground before +him. Many soldiers rallied round him and forced the enemy to retreat; +but he, not satisfied with this, followed them close and drove them in +headlong flight back to the city. On arriving there, although he saw +that the Romans were slackening their pursuit as many missiles were +aimed at them from the city walls, and none of them thought of daring to +enter together with the fugitives into a city full of armed men, yet he +stood and cheered them on, loudly telling them that fortune had opened +the city gates as much to the pursuers as to the pursued. Few cared to +follow him, but he, forcing his way through the crowd of fugitives, +entered the city with them, none daring at first to withstand him. Soon, +when the enemy saw how few of the Romans were within the gates, they +rallied and attacked them. Marcius, in the confused mass of friends and +foes, fought with incredible strength, swiftness, and courage, +overthrowing all whom he attacked, driving some to the further parts of +the town, and forcing others to lay down their arms, so that Lartius was +able to march the rest of the Roman army into the gates unmolested. + +IX. When the city was taken, the greater part of the soldiers fell to +plundering it, which greatly vexed Marcius. He loudly exclaimed that it +was a disgraceful thing, when the consul was on the point of engaging +with the enemy, that they should be plundering, or, on the pretext of +plunder, keeping themselves safe out of harm's way. Few paid any +attention to him, but with those few he marched on the track of the main +body, frequently encouraging his followers to greater speed, and not to +give way to fatigue, and frequently praying to Heaven that he might not +come too late for the battle, but arrive in time to share the labours +and perils of his countrymen. There was at that time a custom among the +Romans, when they were drawn up in order of battle, ready to take their +shields in their hands, and to gird themselves with the trabea, to make +their will verbally, naming their heir in the presence of three or four +witnesses. The Roman army was found by Marcius in the act of performing +this ceremony. At first some were alarmed at seeing him appear with only +a few followers, covered with blood and sweat; but when he ran joyously +up to the consul and told him that Corioli was taken, Cominius embraced +him, and all the ranks took fresh courage, some because they heard, and +others because they guessed the glorious news. They eagerly demanded to +be led to battle. Marcius now enquired of Cominius how the enemy's line +of battle was arranged, and where it was strongest. When the consul +answered that he believed that the men of Antium, the proudest and +bravest troops of the Volscians, were posted in the centre, he answered, +"I beg of you, place us opposite to those men." The consul, filled with +admiration for his spirit, placed him there. As soon as the armies met, +Marcius charged before the rest, and the Volscians gave way before his +onset. The centre, where he attacked, was quite broken, but the ranks on +either side wheeled round and surrounded him, so that the consul feared +for his safety, and despatched the choicest of his own troops to his +aid. They found a hot battle raging round Marcius, and many slain, but +by the shock of their charge they drove off the enemy in confusion. As +they began to pursue them, they begged Marcius, now weary with toil and +wounds, to retire to the camp, but he, saying that "it was not for +victors to be weary," joined in the pursuit. The rest of the Volscian +army was defeated, many were slain, and many taken. + +X. On the next day Lartius and the rest joined the consul. He ascended a +rostrum, and after returning suitable thanks to Heaven for such +unexampled successes, turned to Marcius. First he praised his conduct in +the highest terms, having himself witnessed some part of it, and having +learned the rest from Lartius. Next, as there were many prisoners, +horses, and other spoil, he bade him, before it was divided, choose a +tenth part for himself. He also presented him with a horse and +trappings, as a reward for his bravery. As all the Romans murmured their +approval, Marcius coming forward said that he gladly accepted the horse, +and was thankful for the praise which he had received from the consul. +As for the rest, he considered that to be mere pay, not a prize, and +refused it, preferring to take his share with the rest. "One especial +favour," said he, "I do beg of you. I had a friend among the Volscians, +who now is a captive, and from having been a rich and free man has +fallen to the condition of a slave. I wish to relieve him from one of +his many misfortunes--that of losing his liberty and being sold for a +slave." After these words, Marcius was cheered more than he had been +before, and men admired his disinterestedness more than they had admired +his bravery. Even those who grudged him his extraordinary honours now +thought that by his unselfishness he had shown himself worthy of them, +and admired his courage in refusing such presents more than the courage +by which he had won the right to them. Indeed, the right use of riches +is more glorious than that of arms, but not to desire them at all is +better even than using them well. + +XI. When the cheering caused by Marcius's speech had subsided, Cominius +said: "Fellow soldiers, we cannot force a man against his will to +receive these presents; but, unless his achievements have already won it +for him, let us give him the title of Coriolanus, which he cannot +refuse, seeing for what it is bestowed, and let us confirm it by a +general vote." + +Hence he obtained the third name of Coriolanus. From this we may clearly +see that his own personal name was Caius, and that Marcius was the +common name of his family, while the third name was added afterwards to +mark some particular exploit, peculiarity, or virtue in the bearer. So +also did the Greeks in former ages give men names derived from their +actions, such as Kallinikus (the Victor), or Soter (the Preserver); or +from their appearance, as Fusco (the Fat), or Gripus (the Hook-nosed); +or from their virtues, as Euergetes (the Benefactor), or Philadelphus +(the Lover of his Brethren), which were names of the Ptolemies: or from +their success, as Eudaemon (the Fortunate), a name given to the second +king of the race of Battus. Some princes have even had names given them +in jest, as Antigonus was called Doson (the Promiser), and Ptolemy +Lathyrus (the Vetch). + +The Romans used this sort of name much more commonly, as for instance +they named one of the Metelli Diadematus, or wearer of the diadem, +because he walked about for a long time with his head bound up because +of a wound in the forehead. + +Another of the same family was named Celer (the Swift), because of the +wonderful quickness with which he provided a show of gladiators on the +occasion of his father's funeral. Some even to the present day derive +their names from the circumstances of their birth, as for instance a +child is named Proculus if his father be abroad when he is born, and +Postumus if he be dead. If one of twins survive, he is named Vopiscus. +Of names taken from bodily peculiarities they use not only Sulla (the +Pimply), Niger (the Swarthy), Rufus (the Red-haired), but even such as +Caecus (the Blind), and Claudus (the Lame), wisely endeavouring to +accustom men to consider neither blindness nor any other bodily defect +to be any disgrace or matter of reproach, but to answer to these names +as if they were their own. However, this belongs to a different branch +of study. + +XII. When the war was over, the popular orators renewed the +party-quarrels, not that they had any new cause of complaint or any just +grievance to proceed upon; but the evil result which had necessarily +been produced by their former riotous contests were now made the ground +of attacks on the patricians. A great part of the country was left +unsown and untilled, while the war gave no opportunities for importation +from other countries. The demagogues, therefore, seeing that there was +no corn in the market, and that even if there had been any, the people +were not able to buy it, spread malicious accusations against the rich, +saying that they had purposely produced this famine in order to pay off +an old grudge against the people. At this juncture ambassadors arrived +from the town of Velitrae, who delivered up their city to the Romans, +desiring that they would send some new inhabitants to people it, as a +pestilence had made such havoc among the citizens that there was +scarcely a tenth part of them remaining alive. + +The wiser Romans thought that this demand of the people of Velitrae +would confer a most seasonable relief on themselves, and would put an +end to their domestic troubles, if they could only transfer the more +violent partizans of the popular party thither, and so purge the State +of its more disorderly elements. The consuls accordingly chose out all +these men and sent them to colonize Velitrae, and enrolled the rest for +a campaign against the Volsci, that they might not have leisure for +revolutionary plottings, but that when they were all gathered together, +rich and poor, patrician and plebeian alike, to share in the common +dangers of a camp, they might learn to regard one another with less +hatred and illwill. + +XIII. But Sicinnius and Brutus, the tribunes of the people, now +interposed, crying aloud that the consuls were veiling a most barbarous +action under the specious name of sending out colonists. They were +despatching many poor men to certain destruction by transporting them to +a city whose air was full of pestilence and the stench from unburied +corpses, where they were to dwell under the auspices of a god who was +not only not their own, but angry with them. And after that, as if it +was not sufficient for them that some of the citizens should be starved, +and others be exposed to the plague, they must needs plunge wantonly +into war, in order that the city might suffer every conceivable misery +at once, because it had refused any longer to remain in slavery to the +rich. Excited by these speeches, the people would not enrol themselves +as soldiers for the war, and looked with suspicion on the proposal for +the new colony. The Senate was greatly perplexed, but Marcius, now a +person of great importance and very highly thought of in the State, +began to place himself in direct opposition to the popular leaders, and +to support the patrician cause. In spite of the efforts of the +demagogues, a colony was sent out to Velitrae, those whose names were +drawn by lot being compelled by heavy penalties to go thither; but as +the people utterly refused to serve in the campaign against the +Volscians, Marcius made up a troop of his own clients, with which and +what others he could persuade to join him he made an inroad into the +territory of Antium. Here he found much corn, and captured many +prisoners and much cattle. He kept none of it for himself, but returned +to Rome with his troops loaded with plunder. This caused the others to +repent of their determination, when they saw the wealth which these men +had obtained, but it embittered their hatred of Marcius, whom they +regarded as gaining glory for himself at the expense of the people. + +XIV. Shortly after this, however, Marcius stood for the consulship, and +then the people relented and felt ashamed to affront such a man, first +in arms as in place, and the author of so many benefits to the State. It +was the custom at Rome for those who were candidates for any office to +address and ingratiate themselves with the people, going about the Forum +in a toga without any tunic underneath it, either in order to show their +humility by such a dress, or else in order to display the wounds which +they had received, in token of their valour. At that early period there +could be no suspicion of bribery, and it was not for that reason that +the citizens wished their candidates to come down among them ungirt and +without a tunic. It was not till long afterwards that votes were bought +and sold, and that a candidature became an affair of money. This habit +of receiving bribes, when once introduced, spread to the courts of +justice and to the armies of the commonwealth, and finally brought the +city under the despotic rule of the emperors, as the power of arms was +not equal to that of money. For it was well said that he who first +introduced the habit of feasting and bribing voters ruined the +constitution. This plague crept secretly and silently into Rome, and was +for a long time undiscovered. We cannot tell who was the first to bribe +the people or the courts of law at Rome. At Athens it is said that the +first man who gave money to the judges for his acquittal was Anytus the +son of Anthemion, when he was tried for treachery at Pylos towards the +end of the Peloponnesian War, a period when men of uncorrupted +simplicity and virtue were still to be found in the Forum at Rome. + +XV. Marcius displayed many scars, gained in the numerous battles in +which for seventeen years in succession he had always taken a prominent +part. The people were abashed at these evidences of his valour, and +agreed among themselves that they would return him as consul. But when, +on the day of election, he appeared in the Forum, escorted by a splendid +procession of the entire Senate, and all the patricians were seen +collected round him evidently intent upon obtaining his election, many +of the people lost their feeling of goodwill towards him, and regarded +him with indignation and envy; which passions were assisted by their +fear lest, if a man of such aristocratic tendencies and such influence +with the patricians should obtain power, he might altogether destroy the +liberties of the people. For these reasons they did not elect Marcius. +When two persons had been elected consuls, the Senate was much +irritated, considering that it, rather than its candidate Marcius, had +been insulted, while he was much enraged, and could not bear his +disgrace with any temper or patience, being accustomed always to yield +to the more violent and ferocious emotions as being the more spirited +course, without any mixture of gravity and self-restraint, virtues so +necessary for political life. He had never learned how essential it is +for one who undertakes to deal with men, and engage in public business, +to avoid above all things that self-will which, as Plato says, is of the +family of solitude, and to become longsuffering and patient, qualities +which some foolish people hold very cheap. Marcius, plain and +straightforward, thinking it to be the duty of a brave man to bear down +all opposition, and not reflecting that it is rather a sign of weakness +and feebleness of mind to be unable to restrain one's passion, flung +away in a rage, bitterly irritated against the people. The young +aristocracy of Rome, who had ever been his fast friends, now did him an +ill service by encouraging and exasperating his anger by their +expressions of sympathy; for he was their favourite leader and a most +kind instructor in the art of war when on a campaign, as he taught them +to delight in deeds of prowess without envying and grudging one another +their proper meed of praise. + +XVI. While this was the state of affairs at Rome, a large amount of corn +arrived there, some of which had been bought in Italy, but most of it +sent as a present from Sicily by Gelon the despot; which gave most men +hopes that the famine would come to an end, and that the quarrel between +the patricians and plebeians would, under these improved circumstances, +be made up. The Senate at once assembled, and the people eagerly waited +outside the doors of the senate house, expecting and hoping that prices +would be lowered, and that the present of corn would be distributed +gratis among them; and indeed some of the senators advised the adoption +of that course. Marcius, however, rose and bitterly inveighed against +those who favoured the people, calling them demagogues and betrayers of +their own order, alleging that by such gratification they did but +cherish that spirit of boldness and arrogance which had been spread +among the people against the patricians, which they would have done well +to crush upon its first appearance, and not suffer the plebeians to grow +so strong by giving so much power to the tribunes of the people. Now, he +urged, they had become formidable because every demand they made had +been agreed to, and nothing done against their wishes; they contemned +the authority of the consuls, and lived in defiance of the constitution, +governed only by their own seditious ringleaders, to whom they gave the +title of tribunes. For the Senate to sit and decree largesses of corn to +the populace, as is done in the most democratic States in Greece, would +merely be to pay them for their disobedience, to the common ruin of all +classes. "They cannot," he went on to say, "consider this largess of +corn to be a reward for the campaign in which they have refused to +serve, or for the secession by which they betrayed their country, or the +scandals which they have been so willing to believe against the Senate. +As they cannot be said to deserve this bounty, they will imagine that it +has been bestowed upon them by you because you fear them, and wish to +pay your court to them. In this case there will be no bounds to their +insubordination, and they never will cease from riots and disorders. To +give it them is clearly an insane proceeding; nay, we ought rather, if +we are wise, to take away from them this privilege of the tribuneship, +which is a distinct subversion of the consulate, and a cause of +dissension in the city, which now is no longer one, as before, but is +rent asunder in such a manner that there is no prospect of our ever +being reunited, and ceasing to be divided into two hostile factions." + +XVII. With much talk to this effect Marcius excited the young men, with +whom he was influential, and nearly all the richer classes, who loudly +declared that he was the only man in the State who was insensible both +to force and to flattery. Some of the elders, however, opposed him, +foreseeing what would be the result of his policy. Indeed, no good +resulted from it. The tribunes of the people, as soon as they heard that +Marcius had carried his point, rushed down into the forum and called +loudly upon the people to assemble and stand by them. A disorderly +assembly took place, and on a report being made of Marcius's speech, the +fury of the people was so great that it was proposed to break into the +senate house; but the tribunes turned all the blame upon Marcius alone, +and sent for him to come and speak in his own defence. As this demand +was insolently refused, the tribunes themselves, together with the +aediles, went to bring him by force, and actually laid hands upon him. +However, the patricians rallied round him, thrust away the tribunes of +the people, and even beat the aediles, their assistants in this quarrel. +Night put an end to the conflict, but at daybreak the consuls, seeing +the people terribly excited, and gathering in the forum from all +quarters, began to fear the consequences of their fury. They assembled +the senators and bade them endeavour, by mild language and healing +measures, to pacify the multitude, as it was no season for pride or for +standing upon their dignity, but if they were wise they would perceive +that so dangerous and critical a posture of affairs required a temperate +and popular policy. The majority of the senators yielded, and the +consuls proceeded to soothe the people in the best way they could, +answering gently such charges as had been brought against them, even +speaking with the utmost caution when blaming the people for their late +outrageous conduct, and declaring that there should be no difference of +opinion between them about the way in which corn should be supplied, and +about the price of provisions. + +XVIII. As the people now for the most part had cooled down, and from +their attentive and orderly demeanour were evidently much wrought upon +by the words of the consuls, the tribunes came forward and addressed +them. They said that now that the Senate had come to a better frame of +mind, the people would willingly make concessions in their turn; but +they insisted that Marcius should apologise for his conduct, or deny if +he could that he had excited the Senate to destroy the constitution, +that when summoned to appear he had disobeyed, and that finally he had, +by beating and insulting the aediles in the market-place, done all that +lay in his power to raise a civil war and make the citizens shed one +another's blood. Their object in saying this was either to humble +Marcius, by making him entreat the clemency of the people, which was +much against his haughty temper, or else expecting that he would yield +to his fiery nature and make the breach between himself and the people +incurable. The latter was what they hoped for from their knowledge of +his character. + +Marcius came forward to speak in his defence, and the people stood +listening in dead silence. But when, instead of the apologetic speech +which they expected, he began to speak with a freedom which seemed more +like accusing them than defending himself, while the tones of his voice +and the expression of his countenance showed a fearless contempt for his +audience, the people became angry, and plainly showed their +disapprobation of what he said. Upon this, Sicinnius, the boldest of the +tribunes, after a short consultation with his colleagues, came forward +and said that the tribunes had condemned Marcius to suffer the penalty +of death, and ordered the aediles to lead him at once to the Capitol, +and cast him down the Tarpeian rock. When the aediles laid hold of him, +many of the people themselves seemed struck with horror and remorse, and +the patricians in the wildest excitement, called upon one another to +rescue him, and by main force tore him from his assailants and placed +him in the midst of themselves. Some of them held out their hands and +besought the populace by signs, as no voice could be heard in such an +uproar. At last the friends and relations of the tribunes, seeing that +it was impossible to carry out their sentence on Marcius without much +bloodshed, persuaded them to alter the cruel and unprecedented part of +the sentence, and not to put him to death by violence, or without a +trial, but to refer the matter to the people, to be voted upon by them. +Upon this Sicinnius, turning to the patricians, demanded what they meant +by rescuing Marcius from the people when they intended to punish him. +They at once retorted, "Nay, what do you mean by dragging one of the +bravest and best men in Rome to a cruel and illegal death?" "You shall +not," answered Sicinnius, "make that a ground of quarrel with the +people, for we allow you what you demand, that this man be put on his +trial. You, Marcius, we summon to appear in the forum on the third +market-day ensuing, and prove your innocence if you can, as the votes of +your countrymen will be then taken about your conduct." + +XIX. The patricians were glad enough to terminate the affair in this +way, and retired rejoicing, bearing Marcius with them. During the time +which was to elapse before the third market-day (which the Romans hold +on every ninth day, and therefore call them nundinae), they had some +hope that a campaign against the people of Antium would enable them to +put off the trial until the people's anger had abated through length of +time and warlike occupations; afterwards, as they came to terms at once +with the Antiates, the patricians held frequent meetings, in which they +expressed their fear of the people, and considered by what means they +could avoid delivering Marcius up to them, and prevent their mob orators +from exciting them. Appius Claudius, who had the reputation of being the +bitterest enemy of the people in Rome, gave it as his opinion that the +Senate would destroy itself and ruin the State utterly if it permitted +the people to assume the power of trying patricians and voting on their +trials; while the older men, and those who were more inclined to the +popular side, thought that this power would render the people gentle and +temperate, and not savage and cruel. The people, they said, did not +despise the Senate, but imagined that they were despised by it, so that +this privilege of holding the trial would agreeably salve their wounded +vanity, and, as they exercised their franchise, they would lay aside +their anger. + +XX. Marcius, perceiving that the Senate, divided between their regard +for himself and their fear of the people, knew not what to do, himself +asked the tribunes of the people what it was that he was charged with, +and what indictment they intended to bring against him at his trial. +When they answered that the charge against him was one of treason, +because he had attempted to make himself absolute despot in Rome, and +that they would prove it, he at once rose, saying that he would at once +defend himself before the people on that score, and that if he were +convicted, he would not refuse to undergo any punishment whatever; +"Only," said he, "do not bring forward some other charge against me, and +deceive the Senate." When they had agreed upon these conditions, the +trial took place. + +The tribunes, however, when the people assembled, made them vote by +tribes, and not by centuries;[A] by which device the votes of rich +respectable men who had served the State in the wars would be swamped by +those of the needy rabble who cared nothing for truth or honour. In the +next place, they passed by the charge of treason, as being impossible to +prove, and repeated what Marcius had originally said before the Senate, +when he dissuaded them from lowering the price of corn, and advised the +abolition of the office of tribune. A new count in the indictment was +that he had not paid over the money raised by the sale of the plunder +after his expedition against Antium, but had divided it among his own +followers. This last accusation is said to have disturbed Marcius more +than all the rest, as he had never expected it, and was not prepared +with any answer that would satisfy the people, so that the praises which +he bestowed on those who had made that campaign with him only angered +the far greater number who had not done so. At last the people voted. +Marcius was condemned by a majority of the tribes, and was sentenced to +perpetual banishment. After sentence was passed, the people displayed +greater joy than if they had won a pitched battle, while the Senate was +downcast and filled with regret at not having run any risks rather than +allow the people to obtain so much power, and use it so insolently. Nor +was there any need for distinctions of dress or anything else to +distinguish the two parties, because a plebeian might be told at once by +his delight, a patrician by his sorrow. + +[Footnote A: See the article "Comitia" in Dr. Smith's Dictionary of +Antiquities.] + +XXI. Marcius himself, however, remained unmoved. Proud and haughty as +ever, he appeared not to be sorry for himself, and to be the only one of +the patricians who was not. This calmness, however, was not due to any +evenness of temper or any intention of bearing his wrongs meekly. It +arose from concentrated rage and fury, which many do not know to be an +expression of great grief. When the mind is inflamed with this passion, +it casts out all ideas of submission or of quiet. Hence an angry man is +courageous, just as a fever patient is hot, because of the inflamed +throbbing excitement of his mind. And Marcius soon showed that this was +his own condition. He went home, embraced his weeping wife and mother, +bade them bear this calamity with patience, and at once proceeded to the +city gates, escorted by the patricians in a body. Thence, taking nothing +with him, and asking no man for any thing, he went off, accompanied by +three or four of his clients. He remained for a few days at some farms +near the city, agitated deeply by conflicting passions. His anger +suggested no scheme by which he might benefit himself, but only how to +revenge himself on the Romans. At length he decided that he would raise +up a cruel war against them, and proceeded at once to make application +to the neighbouring nation of the Volscians, whom he knew to be rich and +powerful, and only to have suffered sufficiently by their late defeats +to make them desirous of renewing their quarrel with Rome. + +XXII. There was a certain citizen of Antium named Tullus Aufidius, who, +from his wealth, courage, and noble birth, was regarded as the most +important man in the whole Volscian nation. Marcius knew that this man +hated him more than any other Roman; for in battle they had often met, +and by challenging and defying one another, as young warriors are wont +to do, they had, in addition to their national antipathy, gained a +violent personal hatred for one another. In spite of this, however, +knowing the generous nature of Tullus, and longing more than any +Volscian to requite the Romans for their treatment, he justified the +verses, + + "'Tis hard to strive with rage, which aye, + Though life's the forfeit, gains its way." + +He disguised himself as completely as he could, and, like Ulysses, + + "Into the city of his foes he came." + +XXIII. It was evening when he entered Antium, and although many met him, +no one recognised him. He went to Tullus's house, and entering, sat down +by the hearth in silence, with his head wrapped in his cloak. The +domestics, astonished at his behaviour, did not dare to disturb him, as +there was a certain dignity about his appearance and his silence, but +went and told Tullus, who was at supper, of this strange incident. +Tullus rose, went to him, and inquired who he was and what he wanted. +Then at length Marcius uncovered his face, and, after a short pause, +said, "If you do not recognise me, Tullus, or if you do not believe your +eyes, I must myself tell you who I am. I am Caius Marcius, who has +wrought you and the Volscians more mischief than any one else, and who, +lest I should deny this, have received the additional title of +Coriolanus. This I cannot lose: every thing else has been taken from me +by the envious spite of the people, and the treacherous remissness of +the upper classes. I am an exile, and I now sit as a suppliant on your +hearth, begging you, not for safety or protection, for should I have +come hither if I feared to die, but for vengeance against those who +drove me forth, which I am already beginning to receive by putting +myself in your hands. If then, my brave Tullus, you wish to attack your +foes, make use of my misfortunes, and let my disgrace be the common +happiness of all the Volscians. I shall fight for you much better than I +have fought against you, because I have the advantage of knowing exactly +the strength and weakness of the enemy. If, however, you are tired of +war, I have no wish for life, nor is it to your credit to save the life +of one who once was your personal enemy, and who now is worn out and +useless." Tullus was greatly delighted with this speech, and giving him +his right hand, answered, "Rise, Marcius, and be of good courage. You +have brought us a noble present, yourself; rest assured that the +Volscians will not be ungrateful." He then feasted Marcius with great +hospitality, and for some days they conferred together as to the best +method of carrying on the war. + +XXIV. Rome meanwhile was disturbed by the anger of the patricians +towards the plebeians, especially on account of the banishment of +Marcius, and by many portents which were observed both by the priests +and by private persons, one of which was as follows. There was one Titus +Latinus, a man of no great note, but a respectable citizen and by no +means addicted to superstition. He dreamed that he saw Jupiter face to +face, and that the god bade him tell the Senate that "they had sent a +bad dancer before his procession, and one who was very displeasing to +him." + +On first seeing this vision he said that he disregarded it; but after it +had occurred a second and a third time he had the unhappiness to see his +son sicken and die, while he himself suddenly lost the use of his limbs. + +He told this story in the senate house, to which he had been carried on +a litter; and as soon as he had told it, he found his bodily strength +return, rose, and walked home. + +The senators, greatly astonished, inquired into the matter. It was found +that a slave, convicted of some crime, had been ordered by his master to +be flogged through the market-place, and then put to death. While this +was being done, and the wretch was twisting his body in every kind of +contortion as he writhed under the blows, the procession by chance was +following after him. Many of those who walked in it were shocked at the +unseemliness of the spectacle, and disgusted at its inhumanity, but no +one did anything more than reproach and execrate a man who treated his +slaves with so much cruelty. + +At that period men treated their slaves with great kindness, because +the master himself worked and ate in their company, and so could +sympathise more with them. The great punishment for a slave who had done +wrong was to make him carry round the neighbourhood the piece of wood on +which the pole of a waggon is rested. The slave who has done this and +been seen by the neighbours and friends, lost his credit, and was called +_furcifer_, for the Romans call that piece of timber _furca_, "a fork," +which the Greeks call _hypostates_, "a supporter." + +XXV. So when Latinus related his dream to the senators, and they were +wondering who the bad and unacceptable dancer could be who had led the +procession, some of them remembered the slave who had been flogged +through the market-place and there put to death. At the instance of the +priests, the master of the slave was punished for his cruelty, and the +procession and ceremonies were performed anew in honour of the gods. +Hence we may see how wisely Numa arranged this, among other matters of +ceremonial. Whenever the magistrates or priests were engaged in any +religious rite, a herald walked before them crying in a loud voice "_Hoc +age_." The meaning of the phrase is, "Do this," meaning to tell the +people to apply their minds entirely to the religious ceremony, and not +to allow any thought of worldly things to distract their attention, +because men as a rule only attend to such matters by putting a certain +constraint on their thoughts. + +It is the custom in Rome to begin a sacrifice, a procession, or a +spectacle, over again, not only when anything of this kind happens, but +for any trifling reason. Thus, if one of the horses drawing the sacred +car called Thensa stumbles, or the charioteer takes the reins in his +left hand, they have decreed that the procession must begin again. In +later times they have been known to perform one sacrifice thirty times, +because every time some slight omission or mistake took place. + +XXVI. Meanwhile Marcius and Tullus in Antium held private conferences +with the chief men of the Volscians, and advised them to begin the war +while Rome was divided by its domestic quarrels. They discountenanced +this proposal, because a truce and cessation of hostilities for two +years had been agreed upon: but the Romans themselves gave them a +pretext for breaking the truce, by a proclamation which was made at the +public games, that all Volscians should quit the city before sunset. +Some say this was effected by a stratagem of Marcius, who sent a false +accusation against the Volscians to the magistrates at Rome, saying that +during the public games they meant to attack the Romans and burn the +city. This proclamation made them yet bitterer enemies to the Romans +than before; and Tullus, wishing to bring the business to a climax, +induced his countrymen to send ambassadors to Rome to demand back the +cities and territory which the Romans had taken from the Volscians in +the late war. The Romans were very indignant when they heard these +demands, and made answer, that the Volscians might be the first to take +up arms, but that the Romans would be the last to lay them down. Upon +this, Tullus convoked a general assembly, in which, after determining +upon war, he advised them to summon Marcius to their aid, not owing him +any grudge for what they had suffered at his hands, but believing that +he would be more valuable to them as a friend than he had been dangerous +as an enemy. + +XXVII. Marcius was called before the assembly, and having addressed the +people, was thought by them to know how to speak as well as how to +fight, and was considered to be a man of great ability and courage. He, +together with Tullus, was nominated general with unlimited powers. As he +feared the Volscians would take a long time to prepare for the war, and +that meanwhile the opportunity for attack might pass away, he ordered +the leading men in the city to make all necessary preparations, and +himself taking the boldest and most forward as volunteers, without +levying any troops by compulsory conscription, made a sudden and +unexpected inroad into the Roman territory. Here he obtained so much +plunder that the Volscians were wearied with carrying it off and +consuming it in their camp. However, his least object was to obtain +plunder and lay waste the country; his main desire was to render the +patricians suspected by the people. While all else was ravaged and +destroyed, he carefully protected their farms, and would not allow any +damage to be done or anything to be carried off from them. This +increased the disorders at Rome, the patricians reproaching the people +for having unjustly banished so able a man, while the plebeians accused +them of having invited Marcius to attack in order to obtain their +revenge, and said that, while others fought, they sat as idle +spectators, having in the war itself a sure safeguard of their wealth +and estates. Having produced this new quarrel among the Romans, and, +besides loading the Volscians with plunder, having taught them to +despise their enemy, Marcius led his troops back in safety. + +XXVIII. By great and zealous exertions the entire Volscian nation was +soon assembled under arms. The force thus raised was very large; part +was left to garrison the cities, as a measure of precaution, while the +rest was to be used in the campaign against Rome. Marcius now left +Tullus to determine which corps he would command. Tullus, in answer, +said that as Marcius, he knew, was as brave a man as himself, and had +always enjoyed better fortune in all his battles, he had better command +the army in the field. He himself, he added, would remain behind, watch +over the safety of the Volscian cities, and supply the troops with +necessaries. Marcius, strengthened by this division of the command, +marched to the town of Circeii, a Roman colony. As it surrendered, he +did it no harm, but laid waste the country of Latium, where he expected +the Romans would fight a battle in defence of their allies the Latins, +who frequently sent to entreat their protection. But at Rome the people +were unwilling to fight, and the consuls were just at the expiry of +their term of office, so that they did not care to run any risks, and +therefore rejected the appeals of the Latins. Marcius now led his troops +against the Latian cities, Tolerium, Labici, Pedum, and Bola, all of +which he took by storm, sold the inhabitants for slaves, and plundered +the houses. Those cities, however, which voluntarily came to his side he +treated with the utmost consideration, even pitching his camp at a +distance, for fear they might be injured by the soldiery against his +will, and never plundering their territory. + +XXIX. When at last he took Bollae, a town not more than twelve miles +from Rome, obtaining immense booty and putting nearly all the adult +inhabitants to the sword, then not even those Volscians who had been +appointed to garrison the cities would any longer remain at their posts, +but seized their arms and joined the army of Marcius, declaring that he +was their only general, and that they would recognise no other leader. +His renown and glory spread throughout all Italy, and all men were +astonished that one man by changing sides should have produced so great +a change. The affairs of Rome were in the last disorder, the people +refusing to fight, while internal quarrels and seditious speeches took +place daily, until news came that Lavinium was being invested by the +enemy. This town contains the most ancient images and sacred things of +the tutelary deities of Rome, and is the origin of the Roman people, +being the first town founded by Aeneas. + +Upon this a very singular change of opinions befel both the people and +the Senate. The people were eager to annul their sentence against +Marcius, and to beg him to return, but the Senate, after meeting and +considering this proposal, finally rejected it, either out of a mere +spirit of opposition to anything proposed by the people, or because they +did not wish him to return by favour of the people; or it may be because +they themselves were now angry with him for having shown himself the +enemy of all classes alike, although he had only been injured by one, +and for having become the avowed enemy of his country, in which he knew +that the best and noblest all sympathised with him, and had suffered +along with him. When this resolution was made known to the people, they +were unable to proceed to vote or to pass any bill on the subject, +without a previous decree of the Senate. + +XXX. Marcius when he heard of this was more exasperated than ever. He +raised his siege of Lavinium, marched straight upon Rome, and pitched +his camp five miles from the city, at the place called _Fossae +Cluiliae_. The appearance of his army caused much terror and +disturbance, but nevertheless put an end to sedition, for no magistrate +or patrician dared any longer oppose the people's desire to recall him. +When they beheld the women running distractedly through the city, the +old men weeping and praying at the altars, and no one able to take +courage and form any plan of defence, it was agreed that the people had +been right in wishing to come to terms with Marcius, and that the Senate +had committed a fatal error in inflicting a new outrage upon him, just +at the time when all unkindness might have been buried. It was +determined, therefore, by the whole city that an embassy should be +despatched to Marcius, to offer him restoration to his own country, and +to beg of him to make peace. Those of the Senate who were sent were +relations of Marcius, and expected to be warmly welcomed by a man who +was their near relation and personal friend. Nothing of the kind, +however, happened. They were conducted through the enemy's camp, and +found him seated, and displaying insufferable pride and arrogance, with +the chiefs of the Volscians standing round him. He bade the ambassadors +deliver their message; and after they had, in a supplicatory fashion, +pronounced a conciliatory oration, he answered them, dwelling with +bitterness on his own unjust treatment; and then in his capacity of +general-in-chief of the Volscians, he bade them restore the cities and +territory which they had conquered in the late war, and to grant the +franchise to the Volscians on the same terms as enjoyed by the Latins. +These, he said, were the only conditions on which a just and lasting +peace could be made. He allowed them a space of thirty days for +deliberation, and on the departure of the ambassadors immediately drew +off his forces. + +XXXI. This affair gave an opportunity to several of the Volscians, who +had long envied and disliked his reputation, and the influence which he +had with the people. Among these was Tullus himself, who had not been +personally wronged by Marcius, but who, as it is natural he should, felt +vexed at being totally eclipsed and thrown into the shade, for the +Volscians now thought Marcius the greatest man in their whole nation, +and considered that any one else ought to be thankful for any measure of +authority that he might think fit to bestow. Hence secret hints were +exchanged, and private meetings held, in which his enemies expressed +their dissatisfaction, calling the retreat from Rome an act of treason, +not indeed that he had betrayed any cities or armies to the enemy, but +he had granted them time, by which all other things are won and lost. He +had given the enemy a breathing time, they said, of thirty days, being +no less than they required to put themselves in a posture of defence. + +Marcius during this time was not idle, for he attacked and defeated the +allies of the Romans, and captured seven large and populous towns. The +Romans did not venture to come to help their allies, but hung back from +taking the field, and seemed as if paralysed and benumbed. When the term +had expired, Marcius presented himself a second time before Rome, with +his entire army. The Romans now sent a second embassy, begging him to +lay aside his anger, withdraw the Volscians from the country, and then +to make such terms as would be for the advantage of both nations. The +Romans, they said, would yield nothing to fear; but if he thought that +special concessions ought to be made to the Volscians, they would be +duly considered if they laid down their arms. To this Marcius answered +that, as general of the Volscians, he could give them no answer; but +that as one who was still a citizen of Rome he would advise them to +adopt a humbler frame of mind, and come to him in three days with a +ratification of his proposals. If they should come to any other +determination, he warned them that it would not be safe for them to come +to his camp again with empty words. + +XXXII. When the ambassadors returned, and the Senate heard their report, +they determined in this dreadful extremity to let go their sheet anchor. +They ordered all the priests, ministers, and guardians of the sacred +mysteries, and all the hereditary prophets who watched the omens given +by the flight of birds, to go in procession to Marcius, dressed in their +sacred vestments, and beseech him to desist from the war, and then to +negotiate conditions of peace between his countrymen and the Volscians. +Marcius received the priests in his camp, but relaxed nothing of his +former harshness, bidding the Romans either accept his proposals or +continue the war. + +When the priests returned, the Romans resolved in future to remain +within the city, repulse any assault which might be made on the walls, +and trust to time and fortune, as it was evident that they could not be +saved by anything that they could do. The city was full of confusion, +excitement, and panic terror, until there happened something like what +is mentioned in Homer, but which men as a rule are unwilling to believe. +He observes that on great and important occasions + + "Athene placed a thought within his mind;" + +and again-- + + "But some one of th' immortals changed my mind, + And made me think of what the folk would say;" + +and-- + + "Because he thought it, or because the god + Commanded him to do so." + +Men despise the poet, as if, in order to carry out his absurd +mythological scheme, he denied each man his liberty of will. Now Homer +does nothing of this kind, for whatever is reasonable and likely he +ascribes to the exercise of our own powers, as we see in the common +phrase-- + + "But I reflected in my mighty soul;" + +and-- + + "Thus spoke he, but the son of Peleus raged, + Divided was his soul within his breast;" + +and again-- + + "But she persuaded not + The wise Bellerophon, of noble mind." + +But in strange and unlikely actions, where the actors must have been +under the influence of some supernatural impulse, he does speak of the +god not as destroying, but as directing the human will; nor does the god +directly produce any decision, but suggests ideas which influence that +decision. Thus the act is not an involuntary one, but opportunity is +given for a voluntary act, with confidence and good hope superadded. For +either we must admit that the gods have no dealings and influence at all +with men, or else it must be in this way that they act when they assist +and strengthen us, not of course by moving our hands and feet, but by +filling our minds with thoughts and ideas which either encourage us to +do what is right, or restrain us from what is wrong. + +XXXIII. At Rome at this time the women were praying in all the temples, +especially in that of Jupiter in the Capitol, where the noblest ladies +in Rome were assembled. Among them was Valeria, the sister of the great +Poplicola, who had done such great services to the State both in peace +and war. Poplicola died some time before, as has been related in his +Life, but his sister was held in great honour and esteem in Rome, as her +life did credit to her noble birth. She now experienced one of the +divine impulses of which I have spoken, and, inspired by Heaven to do +what was best for her country, rose and called on the other ladies to +accompany her to the house of Volumnia, the mother of Marcius. On +entering, and finding her sitting with her daughter-in-law, nursing the +children of Marcius, Valeria placed her companions in a circle round +them, and spoke as follows: "Volumnia, and you, Virgilia, we have come +to you, as women to women, without any decree of the Senate or +instructions from a magistrate; but Heaven, it would appear, has heard +our prayers, and has inspired us with the idea of coming hither to beg +of you to save our countrymen, and to gain for yourselves greater glory +than that of the Sabine women when they reconciled their husbands and +their fathers. Come with us to Marcius, join us in supplicating him for +mercy, and bear an honourable testimony to your country, that it never +has thought of hurting you, however terribly it has been injured by +Marcius, but that it restores you to him uninjured, although possibly it +will gain no better terms by so doing." When Valeria had spoken thus, +the other women applauded, and Volumnia answered in the following words: +"My friends, besides those sufferings which all are now undergoing, we +are especially to be pitied. We have lost the glory and goodness of our +Marcius, and now see him more imprisoned in than protected by the army +of the enemy. But the greatest misfortune of all is that our country +should have become so weak as to be obliged to rest its hopes of safety +on us. I cannot tell if he will pay any attention to us, seeing that he +has treated his native country with scorn, although he used to love it +better than his mother, his wife, and his children. However, take us, +and make what use of us you can. Lead us into his presence, and there, +if we can do nothing else, we can die at his feet supplicating for +Rome." + +XXXIV. Having spoken thus, she took Virgilia and her children, and +proceeded, in company with the other women, to the Volscian camp. Their +piteous appearance produced, even in their enemies, a silent respect. +Marcius himself was seated on his tribunal with the chief officers; and +when he saw the procession of women was at first filled with amazement; +but when he recognised his mother walking first, although he tried to +support his usual stern composure, he was overcome by his emotion. He +could not bear to receive her sitting, but descended and ran to meet +her. He embraced his mother first, and longest of all; and then his wife +and children, no longer restraining his tears and caresses, but +completely carried away by his feelings. + +XXXV. When he had taken his fill of embraces, perceiving that his mother +desired to address him, he called the chiefs of the Volscians together, +and listened to Volumnia, who addressed him as follows: + +"You may judge, my son, by our dress and appearance, even though we keep +silence, to what a miserable condition your exile has reduced us at +home. Think now, how unhappy we must be, beyond all other women, when +fortune has made the sight which ought to be most pleasing to us, most +terrible, when I see my son, and your wife here sees her husband, +besieging his native city. Even that which consoles people under all +other misfortunes, prayer to the gods, has become impossible for us. We +cannot beg of heaven to give us the victory and to save you, but our +prayers for you must always resemble the imprecations of our enemies +against Rome. Your wife and children are in such a position, that they +must either lose you or lose their native country. For my own part, I +cannot bear to live until fortune decides the event of this war. If I +cannot now persuade you to make a lasting peace, and so become the +benefactor instead of the scourge of the two nations, be well assured +that you shall never assail Rome without first passing over the corpse +of your mother. I cannot wait for that day on which I shall either see +my countrymen triumphing over my son, or my son triumphing over his +country. If indeed I were to ask you to betray the Volscians and save +your country, this would be a hard request for you to grant; for though +it is base to destroy one's own fellow citizens, it is equally wrong to +betray those who have trusted you. But we merely ask for a respite from +our sufferings, which will save both nations alike from ruin, and which +will be all the more glorious for the Volscians because their +superiority in the field has put them in a position to grant us the +greatest of blessings, peace and concord, in which they also will share +alike with us. You will be chiefly to be thanked for these blessings, if +we obtain them, and chiefly to be blamed if we do not. For though the +issue of war is always doubtful, this much is evident, that if you +succeed, you will become your country's evil genius, and if you fail, +you will have inflicted the greatest miseries on men who are your +friends and benefactors, merely in order to gratify your own private +spite." + +XXXVI. While Volumnia spoke thus, Marcius listened to her in silence. +After she had ceased, he stood for a long while without speaking, until +she again addressed him. "Why art thou silent, my son? Is it honourable +to make everything give way to your rancorous hatred, and is it a +disgrace to yield to your mother, when she pleads for such important +matters? Does it become a great man to remember that he has been ill +treated, and does it not rather become him to recollect the debt which +children owe to their parents. And yet no one ought to be more grateful +than you yourself, who punish ingratitude so bitterly: in spite of +which, though you have already taken a deep revenge on your country for +its ill treatment of you, you have not made your mother any return for +her kindness. It would have been right for me to gain my point without +any pressure, when pleading in such a just and honourable cause; but if +I cannot prevail by words, this resource alone is left me." Saying this, +she fell at his feet, together with his wife and children. Marcius, +crying out, "What have you done to me, mother?" raised her from the +ground, and pressing her hand violently, exclaimed, "You have conquered; +your victory is a blessed one for Rome, but ruinous to me, for I shall +retreat conquered by you alone." After speaking thus, and conferring for +a short time in private with his mother and his wife, he at their own +request sent them back to Rome, and the following night led away the +Volscian army. Various opinions were current among the Volscians about +what had taken place. Some blamed him severely, while others approved, +because they wished for peace. Others again, though they disliked what +he had done, yet did not regard him as a traitor, but as a soft-hearted +man who had yielded to overwhelming pressure. However, no one disobeyed +him, but all followed him in his retreat, though more out of regard for +his noble character than for his authority. + +XXXVII. The Roman people, when the war was at an end, showed even more +plainly than before what terror and despair they had been in. As soon as +they saw the Volscians retreating from their walls, all the temples were +opened, and filled with worshippers crowned with garlands and +sacrificing as if for a victory. The joy of the senate and people was +most conspicuously shown in their gratitude to the women, whom they +spoke of as having beyond all doubt saved Rome. The senate decreed that +the magistrates should grant to the women any mark of respect and esteem +which they themselves might choose. The women decided on the building of +the temple of Female Fortune, the expenses of which they themselves +offered to subscribe, only asking the state to undertake the maintenance +of the services in it. The senate praised their public spirit, but +ordered the temple and shrine to be built at the public expense. +Nevertheless, the women with their own money provided a second image of +the goddess, which the Romans say, when it was placed in the temple was +heard to say, + + "A pleasing gift have women placed me here." + +XXXVIII. The legend says that this voice was twice heard, which seems +impossible and hard for us to believe. It is not impossible for statues +to sweat, to shed tears, or to be covered with spots of blood, because +wood and stone often when mouldering or decaying, collect moisture +within them, and not only send it forth with many colours derived from +their own substance, but also receive other colours from the air; and +there is nothing that forbids us to believe that by such appearances as +these heaven may foreshadow the future. It is also possible that statues +should make sounds like moaning or sighing, by the tearing asunder of +the particles of which they are composed; but that articulate human +speech should come from inanimate things is altogether impossible, for +neither the human soul, nor even a god can utter words without a body +fitted with the organs of speech. Whenever therefore we find many +credible witnesses who force us to believe something of this kind, we +must suppose that the imagination was influenced by some sensation which +appeared to resemble a real one, just as in dreams we seem to hear when +we hear not, and to see when we see not. Those persons, however, who are +full of religious fervour and love of the gods, and who refuse to +disbelieve or reject anything of this kind, find in its miraculous +character, and in the fact that the ways of God are not as our ways, a +great support to their faith. For He resembles mankind in nothing, +neither in nature, nor movement, nor learning, nor power, and so it is +not to be wondered at if He does what seems to us impossible. Nay, +though He differs from us in every respect, it is in his works that He +is most unlike us. But, as Herakleitus says, our knowledge of things +divine mostly fails for want of faith. + +XXXIX. When Marcius returned to Antium, Tullus, who had long hated him +and envied his superiority, determined to put him to death, thinking +that if he let slip the present opportunity he should not obtain +another. Having suborned many to bear witness against him, he called +upon him publicly to render an account to the Volscians of what he had +done as their general. Marcius, fearing to be reduced to a private +station while his enemy Tullus, who had great influence with his +countrymen, was general, answered that he had been given his office of +commander-in-chief by the Volscian nation, and to them alone would he +surrender it, but that as to an account of what he had done, he was +ready at that moment, if they chose, to render it to the people of +Antium. Accordingly the people assembled, and the popular orators +endeavoured by their speeches to excite the lower classes against +Marcius. When, however, he rose to speak, the mob were awed to silence, +while the nobility, and those who had gained by the peace, made no +secret of their good will towards him, and of their intention to vote in +his favour. Under these circumstances, Tullus was unwilling to let him +speak, for he was a brilliant orator, and his former services far +outweighed his last offence. Indeed, the whole indictment was a proof of +how much they owed him, for they never could have thought themselves +wronged by not taking Rome, if Marcius had not brought them so near to +taking it. Tullus, therefore, thought that it would not do to wait, or +to trust to the mob, but he and the boldest of his accomplices, crying +out that the Volscians could not listen to the traitor, nor endure him +to play the despot over them by not laying down his command, rushed upon +him in a body and killed him, without any of the bystanders interfering +in his behalf. However, the most part of the nation was displeased at +this act, as was soon proved by the numbers who came from every city to +see his dead body, by the splendid funeral with which he was honoured, +and by the arms and trophies which were hung over his tomb, as that of a +brave man and a consummate general. + +The Romans, when they heard of his death, made no sign of either honour +or anger towards him, except that they gave permission to the women, at +their request, to wear mourning for him for ten months, as if they were +each mourning for her father, her brother, or her son. This was the +extreme limit of the period of mourning, which was fixed by Numa +Pompilius, as has been related in his Life. + +The loss of Marcius was at once felt by the Volscians. First of all, +they quarrelled with the Aequi, their friends and allies, and even came +to blows with them; next, they were defeated by the Romans in a battle +in which Tullus was slain, and the flower of the Volscian army perished. +After this disaster they were glad to surrender at discretion, and +become the subjects of Rome. + + + + +COMPARISON OF ALKIBIADES AND CORIOLANUS. + + +I. As all the most memorable achievements of both Alkibiades and +Coriolanus are now before us, we may begin our comparison by observing +that as to military exploits, the balance is nearly even; for both alike +gave proofs of great personal bravery and great skill in generalship, +unless it be thought that Alkibiades proved himself the more perfect +general because of his many victories both by sea and land. Both alike +obtained great success for their native countries while they remained in +command of their countrymen, and both succeeded even more remarkably +when fighting against them. As to their respective policy, that of +Alkibiades was disliked by the more respectable citizens, because of his +personal arrogance, and the arts to which he stooped to gain the favour +of the lower classes; while the proud ungracious haughtiness of +Coriolanus caused him to be hated by the people of Rome. In this respect +neither of them can be praised; yet he who tries to gain the favour of +the people is less to blame than he who insults them for fear he should +be thought to court them. Although it is wrong to flatter the people in +order to gain power, yet to owe one's power only to terror, and to ill +treat and keep down the masses is disgraceful as well as wrong. + +II. It is not difficult to see why Marcius is considered to have been a +simple-minded and straightforward character, while Alkibiades has the +reputation of a false and tricky politician. The latter has been +especially blamed for the manner in which he deceived and outwitted the +Lacedaemonian ambassadors, by which, as we learn from Thucydides, he +brought the truce between the two nations to an end. Yet that stroke of +policy, though it again involved Athens in war, rendered her strong and +formidable, through the alliance with Argos and Mantinea, which she owed +to Alkibiades. Marcius also, we are told by Dionysius, produced a +quarrel between the Romans and the Volscians by bringing a false +accusation against those Volscians who came to see the festival at Rome; +and in this case the wickedness of his object increased his guilt, +because he did not act from a desire of personal aggrandisement, or from +political rivalry, as did Alkibiades, but merely yielding to what Dion +calls the unprofitable passion of anger, he threw a large part of Italy +into confusion, and in his rage against his native country destroyed +many innocent cities. On the other hand, the anger of Alkibiades caused +great misfortune to his countrymen; yet as soon as he found that they +had relented towards him he returned cheerfully to his allegiance, and +after being banished for the second time, did not take any delight in +seeing their generals defeated, and could not sit still and let them +make mistakes and uselessly expose themselves to danger. He did just +what Aristeides is so much praised for doing to Themistokles; he went to +the generals, although they were not his friends, and pointed out to +them what ought to be done. + +Marcius, again, is to be blamed for having made the whole of Rome suffer +for what only a part of it had done, while the best and most important +class of citizens had been wronged equally with himself, and warmly +sympathised with him. Afterwards, although his countrymen sent him many +embassies, beseeching his forgiveness for their one act of ignorance and +passion, he would not listen to them, but showed that it was with the +intention of utterly destroying Rome, not of obtaining his own +restoration to it, that he had begun that terrible and savage war +against it. This, then, may be noted as the difference between their +respective positions: Alkibiades went back to the Athenian side when the +Spartans began to plot against him, because he both feared them and +hated them; but Marcius, who was in every respect well treated by the +Volscians, could not honourably desert their cause. He had been elected +their commander-in-chief, and besides this great power enjoyed their +entire confidence; while Alkibiades, though his assistance was found +useful by the Lacedaemonians, was never trusted by them, but remained +without any recognised position, first in Sparta and then in the camp in +Asia Minor, till he finally threw himself into the arms of Tissaphernes, +unless, indeed, he took this step to save Athens, hoping some day to be +restored to her. + +III. As to money, Alkibiades has been blamed for receiving it +discreditably in bribes, and for spending it in luxurious extravagance; +while the generals who offered Marcius money as an honourable reward for +his valour could not prevail upon him to accept it. This, however, made +him especially unpopular in the debates about freeing the people from +debt, because it was said that he pressed so hardly on the poor, not +because he wished to make money by them, but purely through arrogance +and pride. Antipater, in a letter to a friend on the death of Aristotle +the philosopher, observes, "Besides his other abilities, the man had the +art of persuasion." Now Marcius had not this art; and its absence made +all his exploits and all his virtues unpleasant even to those who +benefited by them, as they could not endure his pride and haughtiness, +which brooked no compeer. Alkibiades, on the other hand, knew how to +deal on friendly terms with every one, and we need not therefore be +surprised at the pleasure which men took in his successes, while even +some of his failures had a charm of their own for his friends. Hence it +was that Alkibiades, even after inflicting many grievous losses upon his +countrymen, was chosen by them as commander-in-chief, whereas Marcius, +when after a splendid display of courage and conduct he tried for the +consulship which he deserved, failed to obtain it. The one could not be +hated by his countrymen, even when they were ill treated by him; while +the other, though admired by all, was loved by none. + +IV. Marcius, indeed, effected nothing great when in command of his own +countrymen, but only when fighting against them, whereas the Athenians +frequently benefited by the successes of Alkibiades, when he was acting +as their commander-in-chief. Alkibiades when present easily triumphed +over his enemies, whereas Marcius, although present, was condemned by +the Romans, and put to death by the Volscians. Moreover, though he was +wrongfully slain, yet he himself furnished his enemies with a pretext +for his murder, by refusing the public offer of peace made by the +Romans, and then yielding to the private entreaties of his mother and +wife, so that he did not put an end to the enmity between the two +nations, but left them at war, and yet lost a favourable opportunity for +the Volscians. + +If he was influenced by a feeling of duty towards the Volscians, he +ought to have obtained their consent before withdrawing their forces +from before Rome; but if he cared nothing for them, or for anything +except the gratification of his own passion, and with this feeling made +war upon his country, and only paused in the moment of victory, it was +not creditable to him to spare his country for his mother's sake, but +rather he should have spared his country and his mother with it; for his +mother and his wife were but a part of Rome, which he was besieging. +That he should have treated the public supplications of ambassadors and +the prayers of priests with contempt, and afterwards have drawn off his +forces to please his mother, is not so much a credit to her as a +disgrace to his country, which was saved by the tears and entreaties of +one woman, as though it did not deserve to survive on its own merits. +The mercy which he showed the Romans was so harshly and offensively +granted that it pleased neither party; he withdrew his forces without +having either having come to an understanding with his friends or his +foes. All this must be attributed to his haughty, unbending temper, +which is in all cases odious, but which in an ambitious man renders him +savage and inexorable. Such men will not seek for popularity, thinking +themselves already sufficiently distinguished, and then are angry at +finding themselves unpopular. + +Indeed, neither Metellus, nor Aristeides, nor Epameinondas would stoop +to court the favour of the people, and had a thorough contempt for all +that the people can either give or take away; yet although they were +often ostracised, convicted, and condemned to pay fines, they were not +angry with their fellow countrymen for their folly, but came back and +became reconciled to them as soon as they repented. The man who will not +court the people, ought least of all to bear malice against them, +reflecting that anger at not being elected to an office in the state, +must spring from an excessive desire to obtain it. + +V. Alkibiades made no secret of his delight in being honoured and his +vexation when slighted, and in consequence endeavoured to make himself +acceptable to all with whom he had to do. Marcius was prevented by his +pride from courting those who could have bestowed honour and advancement +upon him, while his ambition tortured him if these were withheld. + +These are the points which we find to blame in his character, which in +all other respects was a noble one. With regard to temperance, and +contempt for money, he may be compared with the greatest and purest men +of Greece, not merely with Alkibiades, who cared only too little for +such things, and paid no regard to his reputation. + + + + +LIFE OF TIMOLEON. + + +It was for the sake of others that I first undertook to write +biographies, but I soon began to dwell upon and delight in them for +myself, endeavouring to the best of my ability to regulate my own life, +and to make it like that of those who were reflected in their history as +it were in a mirror before me. By the study of their biographies, we +receive each man as a guest into our minds, and we seem to understand +their character as the result of a personal acquaintance, because we +have obtained from their acts the best and most important means of +forming an opinion about them. "What greater pleasure could'st thou gain +than this?" What more valuable for the elevation of our own character? +Demokritus says, that we ought to pray that we may meet with propitious +phantasms, and that from the infinite space which surrounds us good and +congenial phantasms, rather than base and sinister ones, may be brought +into contact with us. He degrades philosophy by foisting into it a +theory which is untrue, and which leads to unbounded superstition; +whereas we, by our familiarity with history, and habit of writing it, so +train ourselves by constantly receiving into our minds the memorials of +the great and good, that should anything base or vicious be placed in +our way by the society into which we are necessarily thrown, we reject +it and expel it from our thoughts, by fixing them calmly and severely on +some of these great examples. Of these, I have chosen for you in this +present instance, the life of Timoleon the Corinthian, and that of +Aemilius Paulus, men who both laid their plans with skill, and carried +them out with good fortune, so as to raise a question whether it was +more by good luck or by good sense that they succeeded in their most +important achievements. + +I. The state of affairs at Syracuse, before the mission of Timoleon to +Sicily, was this. Dion had driven out the despot[A] Dionysius, but was +immediately afterwards slain by treachery, and those who, under Dion, +had freed the Syracusans, quarrelled amongst themselves. The city, which +received a constant succession of despots, was almost forsaken because +of its many troubles. Of the rest of Sicily, one part was rendered quite +ruined and uninhabited by the wars, and most of the cities were held by +barbarians of various nations, and soldiers who were under no paymaster. +As these men willingly lent their aid to effect changes of dynasty, +Dionysius, in the twelfth year of his exile, collected a body of foreign +troops, drove out Nysaeus, the then ruler of Syracuse, again restored +his empire, and was re-established as despot. He had strangely lost the +greatest known empire at the hands of a few men, and more strangely +still became again the lord of those who had driven him out, after +having been an exile and a beggar. Those then of the Syracusans who +remained in the city were the subjects of a despot not naturally humane, +and whose heart now had been embittered by misfortune:[B] but the better +class of citizens and the men of note fled to Hiketes, the ruler of +Leontini, swore allegiance to him, and chose him as their general for +the war. This man was nowise better than the avowed despots, but they +had no other resource, and they trusted him because he was a Syracusan +by birth, and had a force capable of encountering that of their own +despot. + +[Footnote A: [Greek: tyrannos], here and elsewhere translated _despot_, +means a man who had obtained irresponsible power by unconstitutional +means.] + +[Footnote B: Compare Tacitus, "eo immitior quia toleraverat."] + +II. Meanwhile the Carthaginians came to Sicily with a great fleet, and +were hovering off the island watching their opportunity. The Sicilians +in terror wished to send an embassy to Greece, and ask for help from the +Corinthians, not merely on account of their kinship with them, and of +the many kindnesses which they had received from them, but also because +they saw that the whole city loved freedom, and hated despots, and that +it had waged its greatest and most important wars, not for supremacy and +greed of power, but on behalf of the liberty of Greece. But Hiketes who +had obtained his post of commander-in-chief with a view, not to the +liberation of Syracuse, but the establishment of himself as despot +there, had already had secret negotiations with the Carthaginians, +though in public he commended the Syracusans, and sent ambassadors of +his own with the rest to Peloponnesus: not that he wished that any +assistance should come thence, but, in case the Corinthians, as was +probable, should refuse their help because of the disturbed state of +Greece, he hoped that he should more easily be able to bring matters +round to suit the Carthaginian interest, and to use them as allies +either against the Syracusan citizens, or against their despot. Of this +treacherous design he was shortly afterwards convicted. + +III. When the ambassadors arrived, the Corinthians, who had always been +in the habit of watching over the interests of their colonies, +especially Syracuse, and who were not at war with any of the Greek +States at that time, but living in peace and leisure, eagerly voted to +help them. A General was now sought for, and while the government was +nominating and proposing those who were eager for an opportunity of +distinguishing themselves, a man of the people stood up and named +Timoleon, the son of Timodemus, one who no longer took any part in +politics, and who had no hope or thought of obtaining the post: but some +god, it seems, put it into the man's mind to name him, such a kind +fortune was at once shown at his election, and such success attended his +actions, illustrating his noble character. He was of a good family, both +his father Timodemus, and his mother Demariste being of rank in the +city. He was a lover of his country, and of a mild temper, except only +that he had a violent hatred for despotism and all that is base. His +nature was so happily constituted, that in his campaigns he showed much +judgment when young, and no less daring when old. He had an elder +brother, Timophanes, who was in no respect like him, but rash, and +inflamed with a passion for monarchy by worthless friends and foreign +soldiers, with whom he spent all his time: he was reckless in a +campaign, and loved danger for its own sake, and by this he won the +hearts of his fellow-citizens, and was given commands, as being a man of +courage and of action. Timoleon assisted him in obtaining these +commands, by concealing his faults or making them appear small, and by +magnifying the clever things which he did. + +IV. Now in the battle which the Corinthians fought against the Argives +and Kleoneans, Timoleon was ranked among the hoplites,[A] and his +brother Timophanes, who was in command of the cavalry, fell into great +danger. His horse received a wound, and threw him off among the enemy. +Of his companions, some at once dispersed in panic, while those who +remained by him, being a few against many, with difficulty held their +own. When Timoleon saw what had happened, he ran to the rescue, and held +his shield in front of Timophanes as he lay, and, after receiving many +blows, both from missiles and in hand-to-hand fight, on his arms and +body, with difficulty drove back the enemy and saved his brother. + +[Footnote A: Heavy armed foot-soldiers, carrying a spear and shield.] + +When the Corinthians, fearing lest they might again suffer what they did +once before when their own allies took their city, decreed that they +would keep four hundred mercenary soldiers, they made Timophanes their +commander. + +But he, disdaining truth and honour, immediately took measures to get +the city into his own power, and showed his tyrannical disposition by +putting to death many of the leading citizens without a trial. Timoleon +was grieved at this, and, treating the other's crime as his own +misfortune, endeavoured to argue with him, and begged him to abandon his +foolish and wicked design, and to seek for some means of making amends +to his fellow-citizens. However, as he rejected his brother's advice, +and treated him with contempt, Timoleon took Aeschylus, his kinsman, +brother of the wife of Timophanes, and his friend the seer, whom +Theopompus calls Satyrus, but Ephorus and Timaeus call Orthagoras, and, +after an interval of a few days, again went to his brother. The three +men now stood round him, and besought him even now to listen to reason, +and repent of his ambition; but as Timophanes at first laughed at them, +and then became angry and indignant, Timoleon stepped a little aside, +and covering his face, stood weeping, while the other two drew their +swords and quickly despatched him. + +V. When this deed was noised abroad, the more generous of the +Corinthians praised Timoleon for his abhorrence of wickedness and his +greatness of soul, because, though of a kindly disposition, and fond of +his own family, he had nevertheless preferred his country to his family, +and truth and justice to his own advantage. He had distinguished himself +in his country's cause both by saving his brother's life, and by putting +him to death when he plotted to reduce her to slavery. However, those +who could not endure to live in a democracy, and who were accustomed to +look up to those in power, pretended to rejoice in the death of the +tyrant, but by their abuse of Timoleon for having done an unholy and +impious deed, reduced him to a state of great melancholy. Hearing that +his mother took it greatly to heart, and that she used harsh words and +invoked terrible curses upon him, he went to her to try to bring her to +another state of mind, but she would not endure the sight of him, but +shut the door against him. Then indeed he became very dejected, and +disordered in his mind, so as to form an intention of destroying himself +by starvation; but this his friends would not permit, but prevailed on +him by force and entreaty so that he determined to live, but alone by +himself. He gave up all interest in public affairs, and at first did not +even enter the city, but passed his time wandering in the wildest part +of the country in an agony of mind. + +VI. Thus our judgments, if they do not borrow from reason and philosophy +a fixity and steadiness of purpose in their acts, are easily swayed and +influenced by the praise or blame of others, which make us distrust our +own opinions. + +For not only, it seems, must the deed itself be noble and just, but also +the principle from which we do it must be stable and unchangeable, so +that we may make up our minds and then act from conviction. If we do +not, then like those epicures who most eagerly seize upon the daintiest +food and soonest become satiated and nauseate it, so we become filled +with sorrow and remorse when the deed is done, because the splendid +ideas of virtue and honour which led us to do it fade away in our minds +on account of our own moral weakness. A remorseful change of mind +renders even a noble action base, whereas the determination which is +grounded on knowledge and reason cannot change even if its actions fail. +Wherefore Phokion the Athenian, who opposed the measures of Leosthenes, +when Leosthenes seemed to have succeeded, and he saw the Athenians +sacrificing and priding themselves on their victory, said that he should +have wished that he had himself done what had been done, but he should +wish to have given the same counsel that he did give. Aristeides the +Lokrian, one of the companions of Plato, put this even more strongly +when Dionysius the elder asked for one of his daughters in marriage. "I +had rather," he said, "see the girl a corpse, than the consort of a +despot." A short time afterwards when Dionysius put his sons to death +and insultingly asked him whether he were still of the same mind about +the disposal of his daughter, he answered, that he was grieved at what +had happened, but had not changed his mind about what he had said. And +these words perhaps show a greater and more perfect virtue than +Phokion's. + +VII. Now Timoleon's misery, after the deed was done, whether it was +caused by pity for the dead or filial reverence for his mother, so broke +down and humbled his spirit that for nearly twenty years he took no part +in any important public affair. So when he was nominated as General, and +when the people gladly received his name and elected him, Telekleides, +who at that time was the first man in the city for power and reputation, +stood up and spoke encouragingly to Timoleon, bidding him prove himself +brave and noble in the campaign.[A] "If," said he, "you fight well, we +shall think that we slew a tyrant, but if badly, that we murdered your +brother." + +[Footnote A: From these words, Grote conjectures that Telekleides was +also present at the death of Timophanes.] + +While Timoleon was preparing for his voyage and collecting his soldiers, +letters were brought to the Corinthians from Hiketes plainly showing +that he had changed sides and betrayed them. + +For as soon as he had sent off his ambassadors to Corinth, he openly +joined the Carthaginians, and in concert with them attempted to drive +out Dionysius and establish himself as despot of Syracuse. + +Fearing that the opportunity would escape him if an army and general +came from Corinth before he had succeeded, he sent a letter to the +Corinthians to say that they need not incur the trouble and expense of +sending an expedition to Sicily and risking their lives, especially as +the Carthaginians would dispute their passage, and were now watching for +their expedition with a numerous fleet; and that, as they had been so +slow, he should be obliged to make these Carthaginians his allies to +attack the despot. + +When these letters were read, even if any of the Corinthians had been +lukewarm about the expedition, now their anger against Hiketes stirred +them up to co-operate vigorously with Timoleon and assist him in +equipping his force. + +VIII. When the ships were ready, and everything had been provided for +the soldiers, the priestesses of Proserpine had a dream that the two +goddesses appeared dressed for a journey, and said that they were going +to accompany Timoleon on his voyage to Sicily. + +Hereupon the Corinthians equipped a sacred trireme, and named it after +the two goddesses. Timoleon himself proceeded to Delphi and sacrificed +to the god, and when he came into the place where oracles were +delivered, a portent occurred to him. From among the various offerings +suspended there, a victor's wreath, embroidered with crowns and symbols +of victory slipped down and was carried by the air so as to alight upon +the head of Timoleon; so that it appeared that the god sent him forth to +his campaign already crowned with success. He started with only seven +ships from Corinth, two from Korkyra, and one from Leukadia; and as he +put to sea at night and was sailing with a fair wind, he suddenly saw +the heavens open above his ship and pour down a flood of brilliant +light. After this a torch like that used at the mysteries rose up before +them, and, proceeding on the same course, alighted on that part of Italy +for which the pilots were steering. The seers explained that this +appearance corroborated the dream of the priestesses, and that the light +from heaven showed that the two goddesses were joining the expedition; +for Sicily is sacred to Proserpine, as the myth tells us that she was +carried off there, and that the island itself was given her as a wedding +present. + +The fleet, encouraged by these proofs of divine favour, crossed the open +sea, and proceeded along the Italian coast. But the news from Sicily +gave Timoleon much concern, and dispirited his soldiers. For Hiketes had +conquered Dionysius, and taken the greater part of Syracuse; he had +driven him into the citadel and what is called the island, and was +besieging and blockading him there, and urging the Carthaginians to take +measures to prevent Timoleon from landing in Sicily, in order that, when +the Greeks were driven off, he and his new allies might partition the +island between themselves. + +IX. The Carthaginians sent twenty triremes to Rhegium, having on board +ambassadors from Hiketes to Timoleon charged with instructions as bad as +his deeds. For their proposals were plausible, though their plan was +base, being that Timoleon, if he chose, should come as an adviser to +Hiketes and partake of his conquests; but that he should send his ships +and soldiers back to Corinth, as the war was within a little of being +finished, and as the Carthaginians were determined to oppose his passage +by force if he attempted it. So the Corinthians, when they reached +Rhegium, found these ambassadors, and saw the Carthaginian fleet +cruising to intercept them. They were enraged at this treatment, and all +were filled with anger against Hiketes, and with fear for the people of +Sicily, who, they clearly saw, were to be the prize of the treachery of +Hiketes and the ambition of the Carthaginians. Yet it seemed impossible +that they should overcome both the fleet of the barbarians which was +riding there, double their own in number, and also the forces under +Hiketes at Syracuse, of which they had expected to be put in command. + +X. Nevertheless Timoleon met the ambassadors and the Carthaginian +admirals, and mildly informed them that "he would accede to their +proposals, for what could he do if he refused them? but that he wished, +before they parted, to listen to them, and to answer them publicly +before the people of Rhegium, a city of Greek origin and friendly to +both parties; as this would conduce to his own safety, and they also +would be the more bound to stand by their proposal about the Syracusans +if they took the people of Rhegium as their witnesses." He made this +overture to help a plot which he had of stealing a march upon them, and +the leading men of the Rhegines assisted him in it, as they wished the +Corinthian influence to prevail in Sicily, and feared to have the +barbarians for neighbours. Accordingly they called together an assembly +and shut the city gates, that the citizens might not attend to anything +else, and then, coming forward, they made speeches of great length, one +man treating the subject after another without coming to any conclusion, +but merely wasting the time, until the Corinthian triremes had put to +sea. The Carthaginians were kept at the assembly without suspecting +anything, because Timoleon himself was present and gave them to +understand that he was just upon the point of rising and making them a +speech. But when news was secretly conveyed to him that the fleet was +under way, and that his ship alone was left behind waiting for him, he +slipped through the crowd, the Rhegines who stood round the bema[A] +helping to conceal him, and, gaining the seashore, sailed off with all +haste. + +[Footnote A: Bema, the tribune from which the orators spoke.] + +They reached Tauromenium in Sicily, where they were hospitably received +by Andromachus, the ruler and lord of that city, who had long before +invited them thither. This Andromachus was the father of Timaeus, the +historian, and being as he was by far the most powerful of the +legitimate princes of Sicily, ruled his subjects according to law and +justice, and never concealed his dislike and hatred of the despots. For +this reason he permitted Timoleon to make his city his headquarters, and +prevailed on the citizens to cast in their lot with the Syracusans and +free their native land. + +XI. At Rhegium meanwhile, the Carthaginians, when the assembly broke up +and Timoleon was gone, were infuriated at being outwitted, and became a +standing joke to the people of Rhegium, because they, although they were +Phoenicians, yet did not seem to enjoy a piece of deceit when it was at +their own expense. They then sent an ambassador in a trireme to +Tauromenium, who made a long speech to Andromachus, threatening him in a +bombastic and barbarian style with their vengeance if he did not at once +turn the Corinthians out of his city. At last he pointed to his +outstretched hand, and turning it over threatened that he would so deal +with the city. Andromachus laughed, and made no other answer than to +hold out his own hand in the same way, now with one side up, and now +with the other, and bade him sail away unless he wished to have his ship +so dealt with. + +Hiketes, when he heard of Timoleon's arrival, in his terror sent for +many of the Carthaginian ships of war; and now the Syracusans began +utterly to despair of their safety, seeing the Carthaginians in +possession of the harbour, Hiketes holding the city, and Dionysius still +master of the promontory, while Timoleon was as it were hanging on the +outskirts of Sicily in that little fortress of Tauromenium, with but +little hope and a weak force, for he had no more than one thousand +soldiers and the necessary supplies for them. Nor had the cities of +Sicily any trust in him, as they were in great distress, and greatly +exasperated against those who pretended to lead armies to their succour, +on account of the treachery of Kallippus and Pharax; who, one an +Athenian and the other a Lacedaemonian, but both giving out that they +were come to fight for freedom and to put down despotism, did so +tyrannise themselves, that the reign of the despots in Sicily seemed to +have been a golden age, and those who died in slavery were thought more +happy than those who lived to see liberty. + +XII. So thinking that the Corinthian would be no better than these men, +and that the same plausible and specious baits would be held out to lure +them with hopes and pleasant promises under the yoke of a new master, +they all viewed the proposals of the Corinthians with suspicion and +shrank back from them except the Adranites. These were the inhabitants +of a small city, sacred to Adranus, a god whose worship extends +especially throughout Sicily. They were at feud with one another, as one +party invited Hiketes and the Carthaginians, while the other sent for +Timoleon to help them. And by some chance it happened that as each party +strove to get there first, they both arrived at the same time; Hiketes +with five thousand soldiers, whereas Timoleon altogether had no more +than twelve hundred. + +Starting with these men from Tauromenium, which is forty-two miles from +Adranum, he made but a short march on the first day, and then encamped. +On the next day he marched steadily forward, passed some difficult +country, and late in the day heard that Hiketas had just reached the +little fortress and was encamping before it. On this the officers halted +the van of the army, thinking that the men would be fresher after taking +food and rest; but Timoleon went to them and begged them not to do so, +but to lead them on as fast as they could, and fall upon the enemy while +they were in disorder, as it was probable they would be, having just +come off their march, and being busy about pitching their tents, and +cooking their supper. Saying this he seized his shield,[A] and led the +way himself as to an assured victory; and the rest, reassured, followed +him confidently. They were distant only about thirty furlongs. These +were soon passed, and they fell headlong upon the enemy, who were in +confusion, and fled as soon as they discovered their attack. For this +reason no more than three hundred of them were slain, but twice as many +were taken prisoners, and their camp was captured. The people of Adranum +now opened their gates, and made their submission to Timoleon, relating +with awe and wonder how, at the outset of the battle, the sacred doors +of the temple flew open of their own accord, and the spear of the god +was seen to quiver at the point, while his face was covered with a thick +sweat. + +[Footnote A: The shield of a General was habitually carried for him by +an orderly.] + +XIII. These portents, it seems, did not merely presage the victory, but +also the subsequent events, of which this was the prosperous beginning. +Immediately several cities sent ambassadors and joined Timoleon, as did +also Mamercus the despot of Katana, a man of warlike tastes and great +wealth, who made an alliance with him. But the most important thing of +all was that Dionysius himself, who had now lost all hope of success, +and was on the point of being starved out, despising Hiketes for being +so shamefully beaten, but admiring Timoleon, sent to him and offered to +deliver up both himself and the citadel to the Corinthians. + +Timoleon, accepting this unexpected piece of good fortune, sent +Eukleides and Telemachus, Corinthian officers, into the citadel, and +four hundred men besides, not all together nor openly, for that was +impossible in the face of the enemy, who were blockading it, but by +stealth, and in small bodies. So these soldiers took possession of the +citadel, and the palace with all its furniture, and all the military +stores. There were a good many horses, and every species of artillery +and missile weapon. Also there were arms and armour for seventy thousand +men, which had been stored up there for a long time, and Dionysius also +had two thousand soldiers, all of whom he handed over to Timoleon with +the rest of the fortress, and then, with his money and a few of his +friends, he put to sea, and passed unnoticed through Hiketes's cruisers. +He proceeded to the camp of Timoleon, appearing for the first time as a +private person in great humility, and was sent to Corinth in one ship, +and with a small allowance of money. He had been born and bred in the +most splendid and greatest of empires, and had reigned over it for ten +years, but for twelve more, since the time that Dion attacked him, he +had constantly been in troubles and wars, during which all the cruelties +which he had exercised on others, were more than avenged upon himself, +by the miserable death of his wife and family, which are more +particularly dwelt upon in the life of Dion. + +XIV. Now when Dionysius reached Corinth, there was no one in Greece who +did not wish to see him and speak to him. Some, who rejoiced in his +misfortunes, came to see him out of hatred, in order to trample on him +now that he was down, while others sympathised with him in his change of +fortune, reflecting on the inscrutable ways of the gods, and the +uncertainty of human affairs. For that age produced nothing in nature or +art so remarkable as that change of fortune which showed the man, who +not long before had been supreme ruler of Sicily, now dining at Corinth +at the cook's shop, lounging at the perfumer's, drinking at the taverns, +instructing female singers, and carefully arguing with them about their +songs in the theatre, and about the laws of music. Some thought that +Dionysius acted thus from folly, and indolent love of pleasure, but +others considered that it was in order that he might be looked down +upon, and not be an object of terror or suspicion to the Corinthians, as +he would have been if they thought that he ill brooked his reverse of +fortune, and still nourished ambitious designs, and that his foolish and +licentious mode of life was thus to be accounted for. + +XV. But for all that, certain of his sayings are remembered, which +sufficiently prove that he showed real greatness of mind in adapting +himself to his altered circumstances. When he arrived at Leukas, which, +like Syracuse, was a Corinthian colony, he said that he was like a young +man who has got into disgrace. They associate gaily with their brothers, +but are ashamed to meet their fathers, and avoid them: and so he was +ashamed to go to the parent city, but would gladly live there with them. +Another time in Corinth, when some stranger coarsely jeered at the +philosophic studies in which he used to delight when in power, and at +last asked him what good he had obtained from the wisdom of Plato, "Do +you think," answered he, "that I have gained nothing from Plato, when I +bear my reverse of fortune as I do." When Aristoxenus, the musician, and +some others asked him what fault he had found with Plato, and why, he +answered that absolute power, amongst its many evils, was especially +unfortunate in this, that none of a despot's so-called friends dare to +speak their mind openly. And he himself, he said, had been by such men +deprived of the friendship of Plato. A man, who thought himself witty, +once tried to make a joke of Dionysius by shaking out his cloak, when he +came into his presence, as is the custom before despots, to show that +one has no concealed weapons; but he repaid the jest by begging him to +do it when he left him, that he might be sure that he had not stolen any +of his property. + +Philip of Macedon once, when they were drinking together, made some +sneering remark about the poetry and tragedies which Dionysius the elder +had written, pretending to be at a loss to know how he found time for +such pursuits; but Dionysius cleverly answered, "He wrote them during +the time which you and I, and all who are thought such lucky fellows, +spend over our wine." + +Plato never saw Dionysius at Corinth, for he was dead at that time; but +Diogenes of Sinope, when he first met him, said, "How unworthily you +live, Dionysius." Dionysius answered him, "Thank you, Diogenes, for +sympathising with my misfortunes." "Why," said Diogenes; "do you suppose +that I sympathise with you, and am not rather grieved that a slave like +you, a man fit, like your father, to grow old and die on a miserable +throne, should be living in luxury and enjoyment amongst us?" So, when I +compare with these sayings of his the lamentations which Philistius +pours forth over the daughters of Leptines, that they had fallen from +the glories of sovereign power into a humble station, they seem to me +like the complainings of a woman who has lost her perfumes, her purple +dresses, or her jewels. + +These details, I think, for readers who are at leisure, are not foreign +to the design of biography, and not without value. + +XVI. If the fall of Dionysius seems strange, the good fortune of +Timoleon was no less wonderful. Within fifty days of his landing in +Sicily, he was master of the citadel of Syracuse, and sent back +Dionysius to Peloponnesus. Encouraged by his success, the Corinthians +sent him a reinforcement of two thousand hoplites and two hundred horse. +These men reached Thurii, but there found it impossible to cross over +into Sicily, as the Carthaginians held the sea with a great fleet. As it +was necessary for them to remain there for a time, they made use of +their leisure to perform a most excellent action. For the Thurians made +an expedition against the Bruttii,[A] and meanwhile these men took +charge of their city, and guarded it carefully and trustily as if it had +been their own. + +[Footnote A: The natives of Southern Italy.] + +Hiketes meanwhile was besieging the citadel of Syracuse, and preventing +corn from being brought by sea to the Corinthians. He also obtained two +strangers, whom he sent to assassinate Timoleon, who, trusting in the +favour shown him by the gods, was living carelessly and unsuspectingly +among the people of Adranum. These men, hearing that he was about to +offer sacrifice, came into the temple with daggers under their cloaks, +and mingling with the crowd round the altar, kept edging towards him. +They were just on the point of arranging their attack, when a man struck +one of them on the head with his sword, and he fell. Neither the +assailant nor the accomplice of the fallen man stood his ground, but the +one with his sword still in his hand ran and took refuge on a high rock, +while the other laid hold of the altar, and begged for pardon at +Timoleon's hands if he revealed the whole plot. When assured of his +safety he confessed that he and the man who had been killed had been +sent thither to assassinate Timoleon. Meanwhile others brought back the +man from the rock, who loudly declared that he had done no wrong, but +had justly slain him in vengeance for his father, whom this wretch had +killed at Leontini. Several of those present bore witness to the truth +of his story, and they marvelled much at the ways of Fortune, how she +makes the most incongruous elements work together to accomplish her +purposes. The Corinthians honoured the man with a present of ten minae, +because he had co-operated with the guardian angel of Timoleon, and had +put off the satisfaction of his private wrong until a time when it saved +the life of the general. This good fortune excited men's feelings so +that they guarded and reverenced Timoleon as a sacred person sent by +heaven to restore the liberties of Sicily. + +XVII. When Hiketes failed in this attempt on Timoleon, and saw that many +were joining him, he began to blame himself for only using the great +Carthaginian force that was present by stealth, and as if he was ashamed +of it, concealing his alliance and using them clandestinely, and he sent +for Mago, their General, to come with all the force at his disposal. He +sailed in with a formidable fleet of a hundred and fifty ships, and took +possession of the harbour, disembarked sixty thousand troops, and +encamped with them in the city of Syracuse, so that all men thought that +the long-talked-of and expected subjugation of Sicily to the barbarian +was imminent. For the Carthaginians during their endless wars in Sicily +had never before taken Syracuse, but now, by the invitation of the +traitor Hiketes, the city was turned into a barbarian camp. The +Corinthians in the citadel were in a position of great danger and +difficulty, as they no longer had sufficient provisions, because the +harbours were blockaded, and they perpetually had to divide their forces +for skirmishes and battles at the walls, and to repel every device and +method of attack known in sieges. + +XVIII. Timoleon, however, relieved them by sending corn from Katana in +small fishing-smacks and boats, which, chiefly in stormy weather, stole +in through the triremes of the barbarians when they were scattered by +the roughness of the sea. Mago and Hiketes, perceiving this, determined +to take Katana, from which place the besieged drew their supplies, and +they sailed from Syracuse with the best of their troops. The Corinthian +Neon, the General in command of the besieged force, observing from the +citadel that those of the enemy who were left behind kept careless +guard, suddenly fell upon them, and, slaying some and routing the rest +he made himself master of Achradina, which is the strongest and least +assailable part of the city of Syracuse, which, as it were, consists of +several towns. + +Being now in possession of abundance of provisions and money, he did not +leave the place, and go back to the citadel on the promontory, but +fortified the circuit of Achradina and held it conjointly with the +Acropolis, with which he connected its fortifications. A horseman from +Syracuse brought the news of the capture of Achradina to Mago and +Hiketes when they were close to Katana. Alarmed at the news they +returned with all speed, having neither taken the city they went to +take, nor kept the one which they had taken. + +XIX. It may be doubted whether these actions owe more to fortune than to +courage and conduct; but the next event can only be ascribed to fortune. +The Corinthian troops at Thurii were in fear of the Carthaginian +triremes under Hanno which were watching them, and as the sea had for +many days been excessively rough, in consequence of a gale, determined +to march on foot through the Bruttii. Partly by persuasion and partly +by force they made their way to Rhegium, while the sea was still very +stormy. The Carthaginian Admiral, who no longer expected the +Corinthians, and thought that he was waiting there to no purpose, +persuaded himself that he had invented a masterpiece of deceit. He +ordered his sailors to crown themselves with garlands, decked out his +triremes with Greek shields and wreaths of palm, and set out for +Syracuse. As he passed the citadel they cheered loudly, and with +uproarious merriment called out to the garrison that they had come back +after a complete victory over the Corinthians, hoping by this means to +dispirit the besieged. But while he was playing these silly tricks the +Corinthians had reached Rhegium, and as no one disputed their passage, +and the cessation of the gale had made the straits singularly smooth and +calm, they embarked in the passage boats and what fishing-smacks were to +be found, and crossed over into Sicily, so easily and in such calm +weather that they were able to make their horses swim alongside of the +vessels and tow them by their halters. + +XX. As soon as they had crossed, Timoleon met them, and at once obtained +possession of Messina, and, after reviewing them, marched on Syracuse at +once, confiding more in his good fortune and his former successes than +in the number of his troops, which amounted to no more than four +thousand. When Mago heard of this march, he was much disquieted, and his +suspicions of his allies were increased by the following circumstance. +In the marshes round the city, into which runs much fresh water from +springs and rivers which find their way into the sea, there was a great +quantity of eels, which afforded plenty of sport for those who cared to +fish for them; and the mercenary soldiers on both sides used to meet and +fish whenever there was a cessation of hostilities. As they were all +Greeks, and had no private grounds for hatred, they would cheerfully +risk their lives in battle against each other, but during times of truce +they conversed freely. So then, while engaged in fishing, they talked to +one another, and admired the beauty of the sea, and the fine situation +of the city. Then one of the Corinthian garrison said, "Can it be that +you, Greeks as you are, should be endeavouring to betray to the +barbarian so great and beautiful a city as this, and that you should be +trying to establish these base and cruel Carthaginians nearer to our +country? Rather ought you to wish that there were more Sicilies to act +as bulwarks of Greece. Do you suppose that these men have gathered +together their host from the pillars of Herakles and the Atlantic coast, +and risked their lives at sea, merely to support the dynasty of Hiketes? +He, if he had the spirit of a real prince, never would have turned out +his brethren, and invited the enemy into his native land, but would have +made terms with Timoleon and the Corinthians, and been honoured +accordingly." These words were noised abroad in the camp by the +mercenaries, and gave Mago the pretext which he had long been waiting +for, to abandon their cause on the plea of suspecting their fidelity. +Wherefore, although Hiketes begged him to remain, and pointed out how +far superior he was to the enemy, yet he, thinking that Timoleon's army +surpassed his in courage and good fortune as much as his did in numbers, +weighed anchor at once and sailed to Africa, letting Sicily slip through +his fingers, to his great disgrace, for no assignable reason. + +XXI. On the next day appeared Timoleon with his troops in battle array. +As soon as they learned their departure, and saw the harbour, they +proceeded to mock at the cowardice of Mago, and they sent a crier round +the city offering a reward to any one who would tell them to what place +the Carthaginian force had run away. Nevertheless, Hiketes still showed +a bold front, and did not relax his hold on the city, and, as the part +which was in his possession was strong and hard of access, Timoleon +divided his army, and himself led the assault on the most difficult side +of the position, by the river Anapus, ordering another body, under Isias +the Corinthian, to attack from Achradina. A third corps, consisting of +the newly arrived reinforcement under Deinarchus and Demaretus were to +attack Epipolae. The assault took place simultaneously on all sides. The +speedy rout of Hiketes and capture of the city may be justly ascribed to +the skill of the General; but the fact that not one of the Corinthians +was killed or wounded is due to Timoleon's good fortune, which seemed to +vie with his courage and try to make those who read of his exploits +wonder at their good luck more than their merit. + +In a few days not only was all Sicily and Italy ringing with his fame, +but throughout Greece his great successes were known, and the city of +Corinth, which scarcely thought that the expedition had reached Sicily, +heard at the same time that the troops were safe and victorious, so +prosperously did affairs turn out, and with such speed did fortune +publish the glory of his deeds. + +XXII. Timoleon, having thus gained possession of the fortified citadel +on the promontory, did not fall into the same snare as Dion, and was not +moved to spare the place for the sake of its beautiful and costly +architecture. Dion's jealousy of the people led him to distrust them, +and proved his ruin; but Timoleon took a very different course. He made +proclamation that any Syracusan who chose might come with a crowbar and +take part in the destruction of the despot's castle. When they had all +assembled, in order to mark that day and that proclamation as the real +beginning of liberty, they not only destroyed and subverted the castle, +but also the houses and tombs of the despots. Timoleon at once had the +place levelled, and built upon it courts of justice, delighting the +citizens by substituting a republic for a tyranny. + +Having taken the city, he was now at a loss for citizens, for some had +been killed in the wars and revolutions, and some had gone into exile to +avoid the despots, so that the market-place of Syracuse was overrun with +herbage so deep and thick that horses were pastured on it, while the +grooms lay on the grass near them. The other cities, except a very few, +had become the haunts of deer and wild boars, and persons at leisure +used to hunt them with dogs in the suburbs and round the walls. None of +those who had taken refuge in the various forts and castles would return +to the city, as they all felt a dread and hatred of public assemblies +and politics, which had produced the greater part of the tyrants under +whom they had suffered. In this difficulty it occurred to Timoleon and +the Syracusans to apply to the Corinthians, and ask them to send out +fresh colonists from Greece. Otherwise, they said, the land must lie +uncultivated, and, above all, they were looking forward to a great war +with Africa, as they heard that on Mago's return the Carthaginians were +so enraged at his failure, that, though he committed suicide to avoid a +worse fate, they had crucified his dead body, and were collecting a +great force, meaning next summer to invade Sicily. + +XXIII. When these letters from Timoleon reached them, together with +ambassadors from the Syracusans, who besought them to take upon them the +care of this their poor city, and once again become the founders of it, +the Corinthians were not tempted by greed to take unfair advantages and +seize the city for themselves, but first sent heralds to all the games +held in honour of the gods throughout Greece, and to all places where +people assembled, to proclaim that the Corinthians, having abolished +despotism at Syracuse and driven out the despot, invite all Syracusans +and other Sicilian Greeks who choose to go and dwell in the city under +free institutions, receiving an equal and just share of the land. Next +they sent messengers to Asia Minor and the islands, wherever they heard +that most of the scattered bands of exiles had settled, and invited them +all to come to Corinth, as the Corinthians would at their own expense +furnish them with vessels and commanders and a safe convoy to Syracuse. + +By these proclamations Corinth gained great and well-deserved renown, +seeing that she had forced Syracuse from its tyrants, saved it from the +barbarians, and given back the country to its own citizens. The exiles, +however, when assembled at Corinth found their numbers too small, and +begged to be allowed to receive among them others from Corinth and the +rest of Greece. When by this means they had raised their numbers to not +less than ten thousand, they sailed to Syracuse. Many citizens from +Italy and Sicily had already joined Timoleon, who, when he found their +numbers (according to Athanis) amount to sixty thousand, divided the +country among them, and sold the houses for a thousand talents, +affording the original citizens the option of purchasing their own +houses. At the same time, to relieve the financial distress of the +State, with a view to the approaching war, he even sold all the +statues. A vote of the assembly was taken about each one, and he was +condemned, like a criminal on his trial. On this occasion they say that +the Syracusans, though they condemned all the rest, decided on keeping +that of the ancient prince Gelo, because they admired and respected him +for his victory over the Carthaginians at Himera. + +XXIV. The life of Syracuse being rekindled by this influx of citizens +from all quarters, Timoleon determined to set free the other cities +also, and to exterminate the despots in Sicily. In the course of his +campaigns against them he compelled Hiketes to renounce his alliance +with the Carthaginians, to demolish his castle, and to live in Leontini +as a private citizen. Leptines, the despot of Apollonia and of several +smaller towns, fearing to be taken by him, surrendered. Timoleon spared +his life, and sent him to Corinth, as he thought that it reflected +credit upon his native city, that the despots of Sicily should be seen +by all Greece living there as humble exiles. As for the soldiers whom he +had in his pay, he determined not to keep them idle, but to support them +by the plunder of an enemy's country. So while he himself returned to +Syracuse, to superintend the reconstruction of the constitution, and to +assist the lawgivers Kephalus and Dionysius in framing the best form of +polity, he sent the troops under Deinarchus and Demaretus to subdue the +western portion of the island, which had fallen into the hands of the +Carthaginians. Here they induced several cities to revolt from the +barbarians, and not only gained abundant pay and plunder for themselves +from their conquests, but were able to furnish funds for the approaching +war. + +XXV. During this time the Carthaginian forces sailed to Lilybaeum with +seventy thousand men, two hundred ships of war, and a thousand +transports carrying engines of war, four horse chariots, provisions, and +other war material, as they meant no longer to use half measures, but at +one swoop to drive the Greeks out of Sicily. Their force indeed was +sufficient for the conquest of the Sikeliot Greeks even if they had not +been weakened by their internal strife. + +Hearing that their own part of the island was being ravaged, they at +once in great anger marched to attack the Corinthians, under the command +of Hasdrubal and Hamilcar. News of this quickly reached Syracuse, and +the great numbers of the enemy caused such panic among the citizens, +that, numerous as they were, Timoleon could only induce three thousand +to get under arms and follow him. Besides these, there was the paid +force, four thousand in number; and of these again about a thousand were +overcome by their fears on the march, and went back, declaring that +Timoleon could not be in his right senses, but must be insane to march +with five thousand foot and a thousand horse to attack seventy thousand +men, and to separate his force eight days' journey from Syracuse, in a +place where there was no hope of shelter for the fugitives or of +honourable burial for the dead. Timoleon treated it as an advantage that +these men disclosed their cowardice before the day of battle. He +encouraged the rest, and led them with all haste to the river Krimesus, +where he heard that the Carthaginians were concentrating. + +XXVI. As he was mounting a hill, beyond which he expected to see the +camp and army of the enemy, there met him some mules loaded with +parsley. It occurred to the soldiers that this was a bad omen, for we +generally use parsley for wreathing tombs; indeed from this practice +arises the proverb, when a man is dangerously ill, that he is ready for +his parsley. Wishing to rid them from this superstition and to stop +their fears, Timoleon halted them, and made a suitable speech, pointing +out that their crown of victory had come of its own accord into their +hands before the battle, for this is the herb with which the Corinthians +crown the victors at the Isthmian games, accounting it sacred and +peculiar to their own country. For then parsley was used for the crown +at the Isthmian games, as it is even to this day at those of Nemea, and +the pine has only been lately introduced. So Timoleon, having addressed +his soldiers, as has been said, first crowned himself with the parsley, +and then his officers and men did so likewise. But the prophets +perceiving two eagles flying towards them, one of whom carried a snake +in its talons, while the other flew along with loud and inspiriting +cries, pointed them out to the soldiers, who all began to pray and +invoke the gods. + +XXVII. The time of year was the beginning of summer, near the solstice +at the end of the month Thargelion.[A] A thick mist rose from the river, +and all the plain was concealed in fog, so that nothing could be seen of +the enemy, but only a confused murmur from the movement of that great +host reached the hill. The Corinthians, when they had reached the +summit, paused and piled their arms. Now the sun shone out, and the mist +rose from the valley. Gathering together, it hung in clouds about the +hill-tops, while below, the river Krimesus appeared, with the enemy +crossing it. + +[Footnote A: About May.] + +First went the four-horse chariots in terrible pomp, all drawn up in +battle array, while next to them followed ten thousand hoplites with +white shields. These they conjectured to be native Carthaginians by the +splendour of their equipments and their slow and orderly march. +Following these came the other nations, turbulently and confusedly +struggling across. Timoleon, seeing that the river kept off the mass of +the enemy, and allowed them to fight with just so many as they chose, +pointed out to his soldiers how the enemy's array was broken by the +stream, some having crossed, and some being still crossing. He ordered +Demaretus to take the cavalry and charge the Carthaginians, to prevent +their having time to form in order of battle. But he himself marched +down to the plain, having drawn up his force with the other Sicilian +Greeks and a few strangers on each of the wings, but with his Syracusans +and the best of the paid force under his own command in the centre. + +For a short time he held back, watching the effect of the cavalry +charge; but seeing that they were unable to come to blows with the +Carthaginians because of the chariots which careered about in front of +their ranks, and that they constantly had to fall back to avoid their +array being broken, and then to make short rushes as occasion served, he +himself took his shield, and called to the infantry to follow him and be +of good cheer. It seemed to them that his voice was more than man's, +and louder than was his wont, either from their faculties being strained +by the excitement of the contest, or else because, as most of them +believed, some god shouted with him. Quickly they raised their war-cry +in answer, and begged him to lead them on and wait no longer. Ordering +the cavalry to ride round the line of chariots and attack the infantry +in flank, he closed up the foremost ranks, and with the trumpet sounding +the charge, attacked the Carthaginians. + +XXVIII. They manfully encountered his first assault, and being armed +with iron cuirasses and brass helmets, and protected with large shields, +they were able to withstand the thrust of the Greek spears. But when the +struggle came to be decided with swords, where skill as well as strength +was employed, there suddenly broke upon them from the mountains a +terrible storm of thunder with vivid flashes of lightning. The mist, +which had hitherto hung about the mountain peaks, now rolled down on to +the field of battle, with violent gusts, hail, and rain. The Greeks +received it on their backs, while the rain beat into the faces of the +barbarians, and the lightning dazzled their eyes, as the storm swept +violently along with frequent flashes from the clouds. These were great +disadvantages, especially to inexperienced men, as the thunder and the +pattering of the rain and hail on their armour prevented their hearing +the commands of their officers. The Carthaginians, not being lightly +equipped, but, as has been narrated, in complete armour, slipped on the +muddy ground and were encumbered by the wet folds of their dress, which +rendered them less active in the fight, and easily overcome by the +Greeks, since when they fell in the slippery mud they could not rise +again with their shields. The river Krimesus, which had been held up by +the multitudes that were crossing it, was now swollen to a torrent by +the rain, and the plain through which it runs, lying as it does under +many steep glens and ravines, was now covered with streams not running +in the ordinary channels, in which the Carthaginians stumbled and were +hard bested. + +At last, from the violence of the storm, and the Greeks having cut to +pieces their front rank, a chosen body of four hundred men, the great +mass turned and fled. Many were overtaken and slain on the plain, and +many more perished in the river, while the light-armed troops prevented +most of them from gaining the shelter of the mountains. It was said that +among the myriads of slain there were three thousand citizens of +Carthage--a great loss and grief to that city, for they belonged to the +noblest and richest classes; nor do we ever hear of so many native +Carthaginians having perished in any one battle before this, as they +generally make use of Libyan, Spanish and Numidian troops, so that in +case of defeat the loss falls upon other nations. + +XXIX. The Greeks discovered the rank of the dead by the richness of +their spoil; for when they collected the booty no account was taken of +iron or brass, such an abundance was there of silver and gold; for they +crossed the river and captured the enemy's camp. Of the captives, the +greater part were stolen by the soldiers, and sold privately, but a body +of five thousand was brought into the common stock. Two hundred chariots +also were taken. The most glorious and magnificent spectacle of all was +the tent of Timoleon, round which booty of every kind was piled up in +heaps, among which were a thousand corslets of exquisite workmanship, +and ten thousand shields. As they were but few to gather the plunder of +so many, and as they fell in with such riches, it was only on the third +day that they managed to erect a trophy of their victory. Together with +the despatch announcing his success, Timoleon sent home to Corinth the +finest of the arms and armour, desiring to make his country envied by +all men, when they should see, in that alone of all Greek cities, that +the most important shrines were not adorned with Grecian spoils, nor +with offerings obtained by the slaughter of men of their own race and +blood, dismal memorials at best, but with spoils of the barbarian, whose +inscriptions bore noble testimony to the justice, as well as the courage +of the victors, telling how the Corinthians and their general, Timoleon, +having freed the Greeks who dwell in Sicily from the yoke of Carthage, +set up these thank-offerings to the gods. + +XXX. After the victory he left the paid force in the enemy's country, to +ravage and plunder the Carthaginian dominions, and himself proceeded to +Syracuse. He now ordered out of the island those mercenary troops by +whom he had been deserted before the battle; and even forced them to +quit Sicily before sunset. These men crossed into Italy and perished +there at the hands of the Bruttians, who broke their word to them and +betrayed them. This was the penalty which Heaven imposed on them for +their desertion. But Mamercus, the despot of Catana, and Hiketes, either +through disgust at Timoleon's successes, or else fearing him as a man +not likely to keep faith with despots, made an alliance with Carthage, +as they said that the Carthaginians, unless they wished to be utterly +driven out of Sicily, must send a competent force and a general. Gisco +the son of Hanno sailed thither with seventy ships, and also with a +force of Greek mercenary soldiers, whom the Carthaginians had never used +before; but now they were full of admiration for the Greeks, as being +the most warlike and invincible of men. Having effected a junction of +their forces in the territory of Messina, they cut to pieces a body of +four hundred foreign soldiers whom Timoleon sent against them; and in +the Carthaginian dominion they laid an ambush near the place called +Hietae, and cut off the hired troops of Euthymus the Leukadian. Both +these circumstances made the good fortune of Timoleon more renowned. For +these were some of the men who under Philomelus of Phokis and Onomarchus +sacrilegiously took Delphi, and shared in the plunder of the temple. As +all men loathed them and shrank from them as from men under a curse, +they wandered about Peloponnesus until Timoleon, being unable to get any +other soldiers, enlisted them in his service. When they reached Sicily, +they were victorious in every battle which they fought where he was +present. After the most important struggles of the war were over, they +were sent to reinforce others, and so perished and came to nought; and +not all at once, but piecemeal, as if their avenging fate had given way +to Timoleon's good fortune for a season, lest the good should suffer +from the punishment of the wicked. Thus the kindness of the gods towards +Timoleon was no less seen and wondered at in his failures than in his +successes. + +XXXI. The people of Syracuse were much nettled by the insulting jests +passed upon them by the despots. Mamercus, who plumed himself on his +poems and tragedies, gave himself great airs after conquering the +mercenaries, and when he hung up their shields as offerings to the gods, +he inscribed this insolent elegiac couplet upon them. + + "These, with purple wrought, and ivory, gold, and amber, + We with our simple shields conquered and laid in the dust." + +After these events, while Timoleon was on a campaign in the direction of +Kalauria, Hiketes invaded the Syracusan territory, did much damage and +insult, and retired loaded with spoil, past the very walls of Kalauria, +despising Timoleon, who had but a small force with him. He, however, let +him pass, but then pursued with his cavalry and light troops. Hiketes, +perceiving this, halted after crossing the river Damyrias, and drew up +his troops along the farther bank to dispute the passage, encouraged to +do so by the different nature of the ford, and the steepness of the +hills on either hand. Now a strange rivalry and contest arose among +Timoleon's captains, which delayed their onset. No one chose to let any +one else lead the way against the enemy, but each man wished to be +first; so that their crossing was conducted in a disorderly fashion, +each man trying to push by and outstrip the rest. Hereupon Timoleon, +wishing to choose the leaders by lot, took a ring from each. These he +threw into his own cloak, mixed them up, and showed the first which he +drew out, which happened to be engraved with the figure of a trophy of +victory. When the young men saw this they raised a shout of joy, and +would not wait for the rest to be drawn, but each man, as fast as he +could, rode through the river and set upon the enemy. Their assault was +irresistible; the enemy fled, all of them throwing away their shields, +and with the loss of a hundred men. + +XXXII. Soon after this, while Timoleon was campaigning in the Leontine +country, he took Hiketes alive, with his son Eupolemus, and Euthymus, +the commander of his cavalry. The soldiers seized and bound them, and +led them into Timoleon's presence. Hiketes and his son were put to death +as despots and traitors; nor did Euthymus meet with compassion, though +he was a man of renown in athletic contest, and of great personal +bravery, because of a scoffing speech of which he was accused against +the Corinthians. The story goes that he was addressing the people of +Leontini on the subject of the Corinthian invasion, and told them that +there was nothing to be alarmed at if + + "Corinthian ladies have come out from home."[A] + +Thus it is that most people seem to suffer more from hard words than +hard deeds, and are more excited by insult than by actual hurt. What we +do to our enemies in war is done of necessity, but the evil we say of +them seems to spring from an excess of spite. + +[Footnote A: A line in the Medea of Euripides. The point of the joke +depends on the punctuation, but cannot be kept in translation.] + +XXXIII. On Timoleon's return the Syracusans brought the family and +daughters of Hiketes before the public assembly for trial, and condemned +them to death. And this, methinks, is the most heartless of Timoleon's +actions, that for want of a word from him these poor creatures should +have perished. He seems not to have interfered, and to have let the +people give full vent to their desire to avenge Dion, who dethroned +Dionysius. For Hiketes was the man who threw Dion's wife Arete alive +into the sea, with her sister Aristomache and her little son, as is told +in the Life of Dion. + +XXXIV. After this he marched against Mamercus at Catana. He beat him in +a pitched battle near the river Abolus, routing him with a loss of two +thousand men, no small part of whom belonged to the Phoenician +contingent under Gisco. Hereupon, at the request of the Carthaginians, +he made peace, stipulating that they should hold the country beyond the +river Lykus, and that those who wished should be allowed to have it and +go to reside at Syracuse, with their families and property, and also +that they should give up their alliance with the despots. In despair at +this Mamercus sailed to Italy, to try to bring the Lucanians against +Timoleon and the Syracusans; but he was deserted by his followers, who +turned their ships back, sailed to Syracuse, and surrendered Catana to +Timoleon. Mamercus now was forced to take refuge in Messina with Hippo, +the despot there. But Timoleon came and besieged it both by sea and +land. Hippo endeavoured to escape on a ship, and was taken. The people +of Messina, to whom he was delivered up, brought every one, even the +boys from school, into the theatre, to witness that most salutary +spectacle, a tyrant meeting with his deserts. He was put to death with +torture; but Mamercus surrendered himself to Timoleon on condition that +he should have a fair trial before the people of Syracuse, and that +Timoleon should say nothing against him. When he was brought to Syracuse +he was brought before the people, and tried to deliver a long +premeditated speech to them, but meeting with interruptions and seeing +that the assembly was inexorable he flung away his cloak and rushed +across the theatre, striking his head against a stone step with the +intention of killing himself. However he failed, and paid the penalty of +his crimes by suffering the death of a pirate. + +XXXV. In this fashion the despotisms were put down by Timoleon, and the +wars finished. The whole island, which had become a mere wilderness +through the constant wars, and was grown hateful to the very natives, +under his administration became so civilized and desirable a country +that colonists sailed to it from those very places to which its own +citizens had formerly betaken themselves to escape from it. For Akragas +and Gela, large cities, which after the war with Athens had been +destroyed by the Carthaginians, were now repeopled; the former colonists +led by Megellus and Pheristus, from Elea on the south coast of Italy, +and the latter by a party led by Gorgus, who sailed from Keos and +collected together the former citizens. + +When these cities were being reorganised Timoleon not only afforded them +peace and safety, but also gave them great assistance, and showed so +great an interest in them as to be loved and respected by them as their +real Founder. The other cities also all of them looked upon him with the +same feelings, so that no peace could be made by them, no laws +established, no country divided among settlers, no constitutional +changes made that seemed satisfactory, unless he had a hand in them, +and arranged them just as an architect, when a building is finished, +gives some graceful touches which adorn the whole. + +XXXVI. There were many Greeks, in his lifetime, who became great, and +did great things, such as Timotheus, and Agesilaus, and Pelopidas, and +Timoleon's great model, Epameinondas. But these men's actions produced a +glory which was involved in much strain and toil, and some of their +deeds have incurred censure, and even been repented of. Whereas those of +Timoleon, if we except the terrible affair of his brother, have nothing +in them to which we cannot apply, like Timaeus, that verse of +Sophocles-- + + "Ye gods, what Venus or what grace divine + Took part in this." + +For as in the poetry of Antimachus, and the paintings of Dionysius, the +Kolophonians, we find a certain vigour and power, yet think them forced +in expression, and produced with much labour, while the paintings of +Nikomachus and the verses of Homer, besides their other graces and +merits, have the charm of seeming to have been composed easily and +without effort, so also the campaigns of Timoleon, when compared with +the laborious and hardly contested ones of Epameinondas or Agesilaus, +seem to have, besides their glory, a wonderful ease, which property is +not so much to be attributed to good luck as to prosperous valour. He, +however, ascribed all his successes to Fortune, for in writing to his +friends at home, and in his public speeches to the Syracusans, he +frequently expressed his thankfulness to this goddess, who, having +determined to save Sicily, had chosen to ascribe to him the credit of +doing it. In his house he built a chapel to Automatia,--the goddess +under whose auspices blessings and glory came as it were of themselves. +To her he offered sacrifices, and consecrated his house to her. He lived +in a house which the Syracusans had bestowed upon him as a special prize +for his successes as general, and also the most beautiful and pleasant +country seat, where indeed he spent most of his leisure time with his +wife and children, whom he had sent for from Corinth. For he never +returned to Corinth, nor mixed himself up in the troubles of Greece, nor +did he expose himself to the hatred of political faction, which is the +rock upon which great generals commonly split, in their insatiate thirst +for honour and power; but he remained in Sicily, enjoying the blessings +of which he was the author; the greatest of which was to see so many +cities, and so many tens of thousands, all made happy and prosperous by +his means. + +XXXVII. But since, as Simonides says, all larks must have crests, and +all republics sycophants, so two of the popular leaders, Laphystius and +Demaenetus, attacked Timoleon. When Laphystius was insisting on his +giving bail for some lawsuit, he would not permit the people to hoot at +him or stop him; for he said that all his labours and dangers had been +endured to obtain for every Syracusan the right of appealing to the +laws. Demaenetus made many attacks in the public assembly on his +generalship; but he made him no answer except to declare his +thankfulness to the gods for having granted his prayer that he might see +all Syracusans in possession of liberty of speech. + +Though he confessedly had performed the greatest and most glorious +actions of any Greek of his time, and though he had gained the glory of +having alone done that which the orators in their speeches at great +public meetings used to urge the entire nation to attempt, he was +fortunately removed from the troubles which fell upon ancient Greece, +and saved from defiling his hands with the blood of his countrymen. His +courage and conduct were shown at the expense of barbarians and despots; +his mildness of temper was experienced by Greeks; he was able to erect +the trophies for most of his victories, without causing tears and +mourning to the citizens; but nevertheless, within eight years, he +restored Sicily to its native inhabitants, freed from the scourges which +had afflicted it for so long a time and seemed so ineradicable. When +advanced in years he suffered from a dimness of sight, which soon became +total blindness. He had done nothing to cause it, and had met with no +accident, but the disease was congenital, and in time produced a +cataract. Many of his relatives are said in a similar fashion to have +lost their sight when advanced in years. But Athanis tells us that +during the war with Hippo and Mamercus, at the camp at Mylae, his +eyesight became affected, and that this was noticed by all, but that he +did not on that account desist from the siege, but persevered in the +war, till he captured the two despots; but as soon as he returned to +Syracuse he resigned his post of commander-in-chief, begging the +citizens to allow him to do so, as the war had been brought to a happy +conclusion. + +XXXVIII. That he endured his misfortune without repining is not to be +wondered at; but one must admire the respect and love shown him when +blind by the people of Syracuse. They constantly visited him, and +brought with them any strangers that might be staying with them, both to +his town and country house, to show them their benefactor, glorying in +the fact that he had chosen to spend his life amongst them, and had +scorned the magnificent reception which his exploits would have ensured +him, had he returned to Greece. Of the many important tributes to his +worth none was greater than the decree of the Syracusans that whenever +they should be engaged in war with foreign tribes, they would have a +Corinthian for their general. Great honour was also reflected upon him +by their conduct in the public assembly; for, though they managed +ordinary business by themselves, on the occasion of any important debate +they used to call him in. Then he would drive through the market-place +into the theatre; and when the carriage in which he sat was brought in, +the people would rise and salute him with one voice. Having returned +their greeting, and allowed a short time for their cheers and blessings, +he would hear the disputed point debated, and then give his opinion. +When this had been voted upon his servants would lead his carriage out +of the theatre, while the citizens, cheering and applauding him as he +went, proceeded to despatch their other business without him. + +XXXIX. Cherished in his old age with such respect and honour, as the +common father of his country, Timoleon at length, after a slight +illness, died. Some time was given for the Syracusans to prepare his +funeral, and for neighbours and foreigners to assemble, so that the +ceremony was performed with great splendour. The bier, magnificently +adorned, and carried by young men chosen by lot, passed over the place +where once the castle of Dionysius had been pulled down. The procession +was joined by tens of thousands of men and women, whose appearance was +gay enough for a festival, for they all wore garlands and white robes. +Their lamentations and tears mingled with their praises of the deceased +showed that they were not performing this as a matter of mere outward +respect and compliance with a decree, but that they expressed real +sorrow and loving gratitude. At last, when the bier was placed upon the +pyre, Demetrius, the loudest voiced of the heralds at that time, read +aloud the following:-- + +"The Syracusan people solemnise, at the cost of two hundred minae, the +funeral of this man, the Corinthian Timoleon, son of Timodemus. They +have passed a vote to honour him for all future time with festival +matches in music, horse and chariot races, and gymnastics, because, +after having put down the despots, subdued the foreign enemy, and +recolonized the greatest among the ruined cities, he restored to the +Sicilian Greeks their constitution and laws."[A] + +[Footnote A: Grote.] + +They buried him in the market-place, and afterwards surrounded the spot +with a colonnade, and built a palastra in it for the young men to +practise in, and called it the Timoleonteum; and, living under the +constitution and laws which he established, they passed many years in +prosperity. + + + + +LIFE OF AEMILIUS. + + +II.[A] Most writers agree that the Aemilian was one of the most noble +and ancient of the patrician families of Rome. Those who tell us that +King Numa was a pupil of Pythagoras, narrate also that Mamercus, the +founder of this family, was a son of that philosopher, who for his +singular grace and subtlety of speech was surnamed Aemilius. Most of the +members of the family who gained distinction by their valour, were also +fortunate, and even the mishap of Lucius Paullus at Cannae bore ample +testimony to his prudence and valour. For since he could not prevail +upon his colleague to refrain from battle, he, though against his better +judgment, took part in it, and disdained to fly; but when he who had +begun the contest fled from it, he stood firm, and died fighting the +enemy. This Aemilius had a daughter, who married Scipio the Great, and a +son who is the subject of this memoir. Born in an age which was rendered +illustrious by the valour and wisdom of many distinguished men, he +eclipsed them all, though he followed none of the studies by which young +men were then gaining themselves a reputation, but chose a different +path. He did not practise at the bar, nor could he bring himself to +court the favour of the people by the greetings, embraces, and +professions of friendship to which most men used to stoop to obtain +popularity. Not that he was by nature unfitted for such pursuits; but he +considered it better to gain a reputation for courage, justice, and +truth, in which he soon outshone his contemporaries. + +[Footnote A: In Sintenis's text the chapter with which this life usually +begins is prefixed to the Life of Timoleon.] + +III. The first honourable office for which he was a candidate was that +of aedile, for which he was elected against twelve others, who, they +say, all afterwards became consuls. When chosen a priest of the college +of Augurs, whom the Romans appoint to watch and register the omens +derived from the flight of birds, or the signs of the heavens, he so +carefully applied himself to learning the ancient customs and religion +of his ancestors, that the priesthood, hitherto merely considered as an +empty title of honour and sought after for that reason only, became +regarded as the sublimest craft of all, confirming the saying of the +philosophers, that holiness consists in a knowledge of how to serve the +gods. Under him everything was done with both zeal and skill. He +neglected all other duties, when engaged upon these, neither omitting +any part nor adding any, arguing with his companions, when they blamed +him for his care about trifles, that though a man might think that +heaven was merciful and forgiving of negligences, yet that habitual +disregard and overlooking of such points was dangerous for the state, +seeing that no one ever begins till some flagrant breach of the law to +disturb the constitution, but those who are careless of accuracy in +small things soon begin to neglect the most important. He was no less +severe in exacting and maintaining military discipline than with +religious observances, never forgetting the general in the demagogue, +nor, as many then did, endeavouring to make his first command lead to a +second by indulgence and affability to his troops, but, like a priest +expounding mysteries, he carefully taught them everything requisite for +a campaign, and, by his severity to the careless and disobedient, +restored the former glory to his country; for he seemed to think victory +over the enemy was merely a subordinate incident in the great work of +disciplining his fellow-citizens. + +IV. When the Romans were at war with Antiochus the Great, and all their +most experienced generals were employed against him, there arose another +war in the west of Europe, in consequence of revolutionary movements in +Spain. Aemilius was appointed commander to conduct this war, not with +six lictors only, like ordinary generals, but twelve, so as to give him +consular authority. He defeated the barbarians in two pitched battles, +with a loss of nearly thirty thousand. The credit of this exploit +belongs peculiarly to the general, who made such use of the advantage of +the ground, and the ford over a certain river, as to render victory an +easy matter for his soldiers. He also took two hundred and fifty cities, +which opened their gates to him. Having established a lasting peace in +his province he returned to Rome, not having gained a penny by his +command. For he was careless of money-making, though he spent his +fortune without stint; and it was so small, that after his death it +hardly sufficed to make up the dower of his wife. + +V. He married Papiria, the daughter of Papirius Maso, a consular; and +after living with her for a considerable time, divorced her, though he +had by her an illustrious family, for she was the mother of the renowned +Scipio, and of Fabius Maximus. No reason for their separation has come +down to us, but there is much truth in that other story about a divorce, +that some Roman put away his wife; and his friends then blamed him, +saying, "Is she not chaste? is she not beautiful? is she not fruitful?" +He, stretching out his shoe, said, "Is it not beautiful? is it not new? +But none of you can tell where it pinches me. In fact, some men divorce +their wives for great and manifest faults, yet the little but constant +irritation which proceeds from incompatible tempers and habits, though +unnoticed by the world at large, does gradually produce between married +people breaches which cannot be healed." + +So Aemilius put away Papiria, and married again. By his second marriage +he had two sons, whom he kept at home, but those by the former marriage +he had adopted into the greatest and noblest families of Rome, the elder +into that of Fabius Maximus, who had five times been consul, while the +younger was treated by Scipio Africanus as his cousin, and took the name +of Scipio. + +Of his two daughters, one married a son of Cato, the other Aelius +Tubero, an excellent man, who supported his poverty more gloriously than +any other Roman. There were sixteen in the family, all Aelii; and one +small house and estate sufficed for them all, with their numerous +offspring and their wives, among whom was the daughter of our Aemilius, +who, though her father had twice been consul and twice triumphed, was +not ashamed of the poverty of her husband, but was proud of the virtue +that kept him poor. But nowadays brothers and kinsmen, unless their +inheritances be divided by mountain ranges, rivers, and walls like +fortifications, with plenty of space between them, quarrel without +ceasing. These are the materials for reflection which history affords to +those who choose to make use of them. + +VI. Aemilius, when elected consul, marched against the sub-Alpine +Ligurians, called by some Ligustines, a brave and spirited nation, and +from their nearness to Rome, skilled in the arts of war. Mixed with the +Gauls, and the Iberians of the sea coast, they inhabit the extremity of +Italy where it dies away into the Alps, and also that part of the Alps +which is washed by the Tuscan Sea, opposite the Libyan coast. At this +time they took also to seafaring, and, sailing forth in small piratical +ships, they plundered and preyed upon commerce as far as the columns of +Heracles. On Aemilius's approach they opposed him, forty thousand +strong; but he, with only eight thousand, attacked five-fold his own +numbers, put them to rout, and having chased them into their fastnesses, +offered them reasonable and moderate terms; for it was not the Roman +policy utterly to exterminate the Ligurian race, but to leave them as an +outwork to protect Italy against the constant movements of the Gaulish +tribes. + +Trusting in Aemilius they surrendered all their ships and their cities +into his hands. He did the cities no hurt, or at most destroyed the +walls, and restored them to the owners, but he carried off all the +ships, leaving them nothing larger than a six-oared boat; while he set +free the numerous captives which they had taken both by sea and land, +among whom were some Roman citizens. These were his glorious exploits in +that consulship. Afterwards he frequently let his desire for re-election +be seen, and once became a candidate, but as he failed and was passed +over, he thenceforth remained in retirement, occupying himself with +religious matters, and teaching his children not only the Roman +education in which he himself had been brought up, but also the Greek, +and that more carefully. For not only were the grammarians, +philosophers, and orators Greek, but also the sculptors and painters, +and the young men kept Greeks to manage their horses and hounds, and +instruct them in hunting. Aemilius, unless hindered by public business, +always was present at the exercises and studies of his sons, and was the +kindest father in Rome. + +VII. This was the period during which the Romans, who were at war with +Perseus, King of Macedon, complained of their generals, whose ignorance +and cowardice had led to the most disgraceful and ridiculous failure, +and to the sustaining of much more loss than they inflicted. They, who +had just driven Antiochus, called the Great, out of Asia Minor, beyond +Taurus, and restricted him to Syria, making him glad to purchase peace +at the price of fifteen thousand talents; who, a little before, had +crushed Philip in Thessaly, and set free the Greeks from the power of +Macedon; and who had also utterly subdued Hannibal himself, a man whose +daring and immense resources rendered him far more dangerous an opponent +than any king, thought that it was not to be borne that Perseus should +wage war as if he were on equal terms with the Roman people, and that, +too, with only the remnants of his father's routed forces; for they did +not know that Philip, after his defeat, had greatly increased the power +and efficiency of the Macedonian army. To explain which, I shall briefly +relate the story from the beginning. + +VIII. Antigonus, who was the most powerful of the generals and +successors of Alexander, and who obtained for himself and his family the +title of king, had a son named Demetrius, whose son was Antigonus, +called Gonatas. His son again was named Demetrius, who, after reigning +some short time, died, leaving a son Philip, a mere boy in years. +Fearing disturbance during his minority, the Macedonian nobles made +Antigonus, a cousin of the deceased, Regent and commander-in-chief, +associating with him in this office the mother of Philip. Finding him a +moderate and useful ruler, they soon gave him the title of king. He had +the soubriquet of Doson, as though he were only a promiser, not a +performer of his engagements. After this man, Philip came to the throne, +and, while yet a boy, distinguished himself in all that becomes a king, +so as to raise men's hopes that he might restore the empire of Macedon +to its ancient glory, and be alone able to check the power of Rome, +which now menaced the whole world. Defeated in a great battle at +Scotussa by Titus Flamininus, he bent to the storm, surrendered all that +he had to the Romans, and was thankful for mild treatment. Afterwards, +chafing at his subordinate position, and thinking that to reign +dependent on the pleasure of the Romans was more worthy of a slave who +cares only for sensual pleasure, than of a man of spirit, he gave his +whole mind up to preparations for war, and secretly and unscrupulously +collected materials for it. Of the cities in his kingdom, he allowed +those on the sea-coast and the main roads to fall into partial decay, so +that his power might be despised, while he collected great forces in the +interior. Here he filled all the outposts, fortresses, and cities with +arms, money, and men fit for service, and thus trained the nation for +war, yet kept his preparations secret. In his arsenals were arms for +thirty thousand men; eight million medimni of corn were stored in his +fortresses, and such a mass of treasure as would pay an army of ten +thousand men for ten years. But before he could put all these forces in +motion and begin the great struggle, he died of grief and remorse, for +he had, as he admitted, unjustly put his other son Demetrius to death on +the calumnies of one far worse than he was. Perseus, the survivor, +inherited his father's hatred of the Romans with his kingdom, but was +not of a calibre to carry out his designs, as his small and degraded +mind was chiefly possessed by avarice. He is said not even to have been +legitimate, but that Philip's wife obtained him when a baby from his +real mother, a midwife of Argos, named Gnathaina, and palmed him off +upon her husband. And this seems to have been one reason for her putting +Demetrius to death, for fear that if the family had a legitimate heir, +this one's bastardy would be discovered. + +IX. However, low-born and low-minded though he was, yet having by the +force of circumstances drifted into war, he held his own and maintained +himself for a long time against the Romans, defeating generals of +consular rank with great armies, and even capturing some of them. +Publius Licinius, who first invaded Macedonia, was defeated in a cavalry +engagement, with a loss of two thousand five hundred brave men killed, +and six hundred prisoners. Perseus next by a sudden attack made himself +master of the Roman naval station at Oreus, took twenty store ships, +sunk the rest, which were loaded with grain, and took also four +quinqueremes.[A] He fought also a second battle, in which he drove back +the consular general Hostilius, who was trying to invade Macedonia near +Elimiae; and when he tried to steal in through Thessaly, he again +offered battle, which the Roman declined. As an accessory to the war he +now made a campaign against the Dardans, as if affecting to despise the +Romans and to be at leisure. Here he cut to pieces ten thousand of the +barbarians, and carried off much plunder. He also had secret +negotiations with the Gauls who dwell near the Ister, called Basternae, +a nation of warlike horsemen, and by means of Genthius their king he +endeavoured to induce the Illyrians to take part in the war. There was +even a report that the barbarians had been induced by his bribes to +march through the southern part of Gaul beside the Adriatic, and so +invade Italy. + +[Footnote A: Ships of war with five banks of oars.] + +X. The Romans, when they learnt all this, determined that they would +disregard political influence in their choice of a general, and choose +some man of sense and capable of undertaking great operations. Such a +one was Paulus Aemilius, a man of advanced age, being about sixty years +old, but still in full vigour of body, and surrounded by kinsmen, +grown-up sons, and friends, who all urged him to listen to the appeal of +his country and be consul. He at first treated the people with little +respect, and shunned their eager professions of zeal, on the plea that +he did not wish for the command; but as they waited on him daily, and +called for him to come into the forum and shouted his name, he was at +length prevailed upon. When a candidate, he seemed to enter the field +not with a view to getting office, but to giving victory and strength in +battle to his fellow-citizens; with such zeal and confidence did they +unanimously elect him consul for the second time, not permitting lots +to be cast for provinces by the two consuls, as is usual, but at once +decreeing to him the management of the Macedonian war. It is said that +when he was named general against Perseus, he was escorted home in +triumph by the people _en masse_, and found his daughter Tertia, who was +quite a little child, in tears. He embraced her, and asked her why she +was crying; and she, throwing her arms round him and kissing him, said, +"Do you not know, father, that our Perseus is dead?" meaning a little +dog which she had brought up, which was so named. Aemilius said, "May +this bring good luck, my daughter: I accept the omen." This story Cicero +the orator tells in his book on Divination. + +XI. It being the custom that the consuls-elect should return thanks, and +make a gracious speech to the people from the rostrum, Aemilius called +together the people and said that he had sought for his former +consulship because he wanted office, but for this one because they +wanted a general: wherefore he felt no gratitude towards them, but would +lay down his consulship if they thought that they would succeed better +in the war under some one else; but if they felt confidence in him, he +asked them not to interfere with his acts as general, nor to gossip +about him, but to furnish quietly what was wanted for the war; for if +they tried to command their commander they would afford even a more +sorry spectacle than they had already done. By these words he made the +citizens stand greatly in awe of him, and gave them great expectations +of what he would effect, while all rejoiced that they had passed over +those who used to flatter them, and had chosen a general of independence +and spirit. So much did the Roman people respect bravery and honour, +because it led to conquests, and to making them masters of the world. + +XII. I consider it to have been by divine favour that Aemilius Paulus on +starting for his campaign met with such a fortunate and calm voyage, and +so speedily and safely arrived at the camp; but as to the war itself, +and his conduct of it, accomplished as it was partly by swift daring, +partly by wise dispositions, by the valour of friends, confidence in the +midst of dangers, and reliance on sound plans, I cannot tell of any +glorious and distinguished exploit, which, as in the case of other +generals, owed its success to his good fortune; unless, indeed, any one +should count as good fortune for Aemilius the avarice of Perseus, which +destroyed the great and well-founded hopes of the Macedonians in the +war, and brought them to ruin by the meanness of their chief. At his +request there came a force of Basternae, a thousand horse and ten +thousand light troops who fought with them, all mercenary soldiers--men +who knew nothing of tilling the soil, or of sailing the sea, who did not +live from the produce of their flocks, but who studied one art and +business solely, ever to fight and overcome their antagonists. So, when +in the camp at Maedike, these men mixed with the king's troops, tall in +their person, admirable in their drill, boastful and haughty in their +defiance of the foe, they gave confidence to the Macedonians, and made +them think that the Romans never could withstand their attack, but would +be terrified at their appearance and march, outlandish and ferocious as +it was. But Perseus, now that he had got such auxiliaries as these, and +put his men into such heart, because he was asked for a thousand staters +for each officer, became bewildered at the amount of the sum which he +would have to pay, and his meanness prevailing over his reason, refused +their offers, and broke off the alliance, as if he had been steward of +his kingdom for the Romans rather than fighting against them, and had to +give an exact account of his expenses in the war to his enemies; though +he might have been taught by them, who had besides other war materials, +a hundred thousand soldiers collected together ready for use. Yet he, +when engaged in war with such a power as this, where such great forces +were kept on foot to contend with him, kept doling out and sparing his +money as if it were not his own. And still he was not a Lydian or +Phoenician, but a man who from his descent ought to have had a share of +the spirit of Philip and Alexander, who made all their conquests by the +principle that empire may be gained by gold, not gold by empire. It +used, indeed, to be a proverb that "It is not Philip, but Philip's gold +that takes the cities of Greece." Alexander, too, when beginning his +Indian campaign, seeing the Macedonians laboriously dragging along the +rich and unwieldy plunder of the Persians, first burned all the royal +carriages, and then persuaded the soldiers to do the like with their +own, and start for the war as light as if they had shaken off a burden. +But Perseus, when spending his own money to defend himself, his +children, and his kingdom, rather than sacrifice a little and win, +preferred to be taken to Rome with many others, a rich captive, and show +the Romans how much he had saved for them. + +XIII. For not only did he dismiss the Gauls and break his word to them, +but after inducing Genthius the Illyrian to take part in the war for a +bribe of three hundred talents, he lodged the money with that prince's +envoys, all counted, and let them put their seals upon it. Genthius then +thinking that he had got what he asked, did a wicked and impious deed in +seizing and throwing into prison some Roman ambassadors who were sent to +him. Perseus, thinking that Genthius no longer needed money to make him +hostile to Rome, since he had given him such a pledge of his hatred of +it, and had involved himself in war with it by such a crime, deprived +the poor man of his three hundred talents, and shortly afterwards looked +calmly on while he and his family were plucked out of their kingdom, +like birds out of a nest, by Lucius Anicius, who was sent with an army +against him. Aemilius, when he came to contend with such a rival as +this, despised him as a man, but was surprised at the force which he had +at his disposal. These were four thousand cavalry, and of infantry +soldiers of the Macedonian phalanx nearly forty thousand. Encamped by +the sea-shore, near the skirts of Mount Olympus, on ground nowhere +accessible, and strongly fortified by himself with outworks and defences +of wood, Perseus lived in careless security, thinking that by time and +expense he should wear out Aemilius's attack. But he, while he busied +his mind with every possible mode of assault, perceiving that his army +in consequence of its past want of discipline was impatient, and usurped +the general's province by proposing all sorts of wild schemes, severely +reprimanded the soldiers, and ordered them not to meddle with what was +not their concern, but only take care that they and their arms were +ready, and to use their swords as Romans should when their general +should give the word. He ordered the night sentries to go on guard +without their spears, that they might be more attentive and less +inclined to sleep, having no arms to defend themselves against the +enemy. + +XIV. The army was chiefly troubled by want of water; for only a very +little bad water ran or rather dripped out of a spring near the sea. +Aemilius perceiving that Olympus, immediately above him, was a large and +well-wooded mountain, and guessing from the greenness of the foliage +that it must contain some springs which had their courses underground, +dug many pits and wells along the skirts of the mountain, which +immediately were filled with pure water, which by the pressure above was +driven into these vacant spaces. Yet some say that there are no hidden +fountains of water, lying ready in such places as these, and say that it +is not because they are dug out or broken into that they flow, but that +they have their origin and cause in the saturation of the surrounding +earth which becomes saturated by its close texture and coldness, acting +upon the moist vapours, which when pressed together low down turn into +water. For just as women's breasts are not receptacles full of milk +ready to flow, but change the nutriment which is in them into milk, and +so supply it, so also the cold places which are full of springs have no +water concealed in them, nor any such reservoirs as would be needed to +send out deep rivers from any fixed point, but by their pressure they +convert the air and vapour which is in them into water. At any rate, +those places which are dug over break more into springs and run more +with water, in answer to this treatment of their surface, just as +women's breasts respond to sucking, for it moistens and softens the +vapour; whereas land which is not worked is incapable of producing +water, not having the motion by which moisture is obtained. Those who +argue thus have given sceptics the opportunity of saying, that if it be +true, there can be no blood in animals, but that it gathers about +wounds, and that the flow of blood is produced by the air, or some +change which takes place in the flesh. They are proved to be wrong by +those who sink shafts for mines, and meet with rivers in the depths of +the earth, which have not collected themselves by degrees, as would be +the case if they derived their origin from the sudden movements of the +earth, but flow with a full stream. Also, when mountains and rocks are +fissured by a blow, there springs out a gush of water, which afterwards +ceases. But enough of this. + +XV. Aemilius remained quiet for some days, and it is said two such great +hosts never were so near together and so quiet. After exploring and +trying every place he discovered that there was still one pass +unguarded, that, namely, through Perrhaebae by Pythium and Petra. He +called a council of war to consider this, being himself more hopeful of +success that way, as the place was not watched, than alarmed at the +precipices on account of which the enemy neglected it. First of those +present, Scipio, surnamed Nasica, son-in-law to Scipio Africanus, +afterwards a leading man in the Senate, volunteered to lead the party +which was to make this circuitous attack. And next Fabius Maximus, the +eldest of the sons of Aemilius, though still only a youth, rose and +spiritedly offered his services. Aemilius, delighted, placed under their +command not so many troops as Polybius says in his history, but so many +as Nasica himself tells us that he had, in a letter which he wrote to +one of the princes of that region about this affair. He had three +thousand Italians, besides his main body, and five thousand who composed +the left wing. Besides these, Nasica took a hundred and twenty horse, +and two hundred of Harpalus's light troops, Thracians and Cretans mixed. +He began his march along the road towards the sea, and encamped near the +temple of Herakles, as though he intended to sail round to the other +side of the enemy's camp, and so surround him: but when the soldiers had +supped, and it was dark, he explained his real plan to his officers, +marched all night away from the sea, and halted his men for rest near +the temple of Apollo. At this place Olympus is more than ten furlongs +high: and this is proved by the epigram which the measurer wrote as +follows: + + "The height of Olympus' crest at the temple of Pythian Apollo + consists of (measured by the plumb line) ten stades, and + besides a hundred feet all but four. It was Xenagoras, the son + of Eumelus, who discovered its height. King Apollo, hail to + thee; be thou propitious to us." + +And yet geometricians say that neither the height of any mountain nor +the depth of any sea is above ten stades (furlongs). However, Xenophanes +did not take its altitude conjecturally, but by a proper method with +instruments. + +XVI. Here then Nasica halted. Perseus in the morning saw Aemilius's army +quiet in its place, and would have had no idea of what was going on had +not a Cretan deserter come and told him of the flank march of the +Romans. Then he became alarmed, but still did not disturb his camp, but, +placing ten thousand foreign mercenaries and two thousand Macedonians +under the command of Milo, ordered him to march swiftly and occupy the +passes. Now Polybius says that the Romans fell upon these men when they +were in their beds, but Nasica tells us that a sharp and dangerous +conflict took place upon the heights. He himself was assailed by a +Thracian, but struck him through the breast with his spear. However, the +enemy were forced back; Milo most shamefully fled in his shirt, without +his arms, and Scipio was able to follow, and at the same time lead his +forces on to level ground. Perseus, terrified and despairing when he saw +them, at once broke up his camp and retreated. But still he was obliged +either to give battle before Pydna, or else to disperse his army among +the various cities of the kingdom, and so to await the Romans, who, +being once entered into his country, could not be driven out without +much slaughter and bloodshed. It was urged by his friends that he had a +great numerical superiority, and that the troops would fight desperately +in defence of their wives and families, especially if their king took +the command and shared their danger. He pitched his camp and prepared +for battle, viewed the ground, and arranged the commands, intending to +set upon the Romans as soon as they appeared. Now the position both +possessed a flat plain for the manoeuvres of the phalanx, which requires +level ground, and also hills rising one above another offered refuges +and means for outflanking the enemy to his light troops. Also two +rivers, the Aeson and Leukus, which ran across as it, though not very +deep at that season (late autumn), were expected to give some trouble to +the Romans. + +XVII. Aemilius, on effecting a junction with Nasica, marched in battle +array against the enemy. When, however, he saw their position and their +numbers, he halted in surprise, considering within himself what he +should do. His young officers, eager for battle, rode up to him and +begged him not to delay. Conspicuous among these was Nasica, excited by +his successful flank march round Olympus. Aemilius smiled at them and +answered, "I would do so if I were of your age, but many victories have +shown me the mistakes of the vanquished, and prevent my attacking a body +of men drawn up in a chosen position with troops on the march and +undeployed." He gave orders that those troops who were in front should +gather together and appear to be forming in battle array, while those +who were behind pitched their palisades and fortified a camp. Then by +wheeling off men by degrees from the front line, he gradually broke up +his line of battle, and quietly drew all his forces within the ramparts +of his camp. When night fell, and after supper the army had betaken +itself to sleep and rest, suddenly the moon, which was full and high in +the heavens, became obscured, changed colour, and became totally +eclipsed. The Romans, after their custom, called for her to shine again +by clattering with brass vessels, and uplifting blazing faggots and +torches. The Macedonians did nothing of the sort, but dismay spread over +their camp, and they muttered under their breath that this portended the +eclipse of their king. Now Aemilius was not unacquainted with the +phenomena of eclipses, which result from the moon being at fixed periods +brought into the shadow of the earth and darkened, until it passes the +obscured tract and is again enlightened by the sun, yet being very +devout and learned in divination, he offered to her a sacrifice of +eleven calves. At daybreak he sacrificed twenty oxen to Herakles without +obtaining a favourable response; but with the one-and-twentieth +favourable signs appeared and portents of victory for them, provided +they did not attack. He then vowed a hecatomb and sacred games in +honour of the god, and ordered his officers to arrange the men in line +of battle. But he waited till the sun declined and drew towards the +west, that his troops might not fight with the morning sun in their +eyes. He passed away the day sitting in his tent, which was pitched +looking towards the flat country and the camp of the enemy. + +XVIII. Some writers tell us, that about evening, by a device of +Aemilius, the battle was begun by the enemy, the Romans having driven a +horse without a bridle out of their camp and then tried to catch it, +from which pursuit the battle began; but others say that Roman soldiers +who were carrying fodder for the cattle were set upon by the Thracians +under Alexander, and that to repel them a vigorous sortie was made with +seven hundred Ligurians; that many on both sides came up to help their +comrades, and so the battle began. Aemilius, like a pilot, seeing by the +motion and disturbance of his camp that a storm was at hand, came out of +his tent, and going along the lines of the infantry spoke encouraging +words to them, while Nasica, riding up to the skirmishers, saw the whole +army of the enemy just on the point of attacking. First marched the +Thracians, whose aspect they saw was most terrible, as they were tall +men, dressed in dark tunics, with large oblong shields and greaves of +glittering white, brandishing aloft long heavy swords over their right +shoulders. Next to the Thracians were the mercenaries, variously armed, +and mixed with Paeonians. After these came a third corps, of +Macedonians, picked men of proved courage, and in the flower of their +age, glittering with gilded arms and new purple dresses. Behind them +again came the phalanxes from the camp with their brazen shields, +filling all the plain with the glittering of their armour, and making +the hills ring with their shouts. So swiftly and boldly did they advance +that those who were first slain fell two furlongs only from the Roman +camp. + +XIX. When the battle began, Aemilius came up, and found the front ranks +of the Macedonians had struck their spear-heads into the Roman shields, +so that they could not reach them with their swords. When also the other +Macedonians took their shields off their shoulders and placed them in +front, and then at the word of command all brought down their pikes, he, +viewing the great strength of that serried mass of shields, and the +menacing look of the spears that bristled before them, was amazed and +terrified, having never seen a more imposing spectacle--and often +afterwards he used to speak of that sight, and of his own feelings at +it. At the time, however, he put on a cheerful and hopeful look, and +rode along the ranks showing himself to the men without helmet or +cuirass. But the Macedonian king, according to Polybius, having joined +battle, was seized with a fit of cowardice, and rode off to the city on +the pretext that he was going to sacrifice to Herakles, a god unlikely +to receive the base offerings of cowards or to fulfil their unreasonable +prayers; for it is not reasonable that he who does not shoot should hit +the mark, nor that he who does not stand fast at his post should win the +day, or that the helpless man should succeed or the coward prosper. But +the god heard the prayers of Aemilius, for he prayed for victory whilst +fighting, sword in hand, and invited the god into the battle to aid him. +Not but what one Poseidonius, who says that he took part in these +transactions, and wrote a history of Perseus in many volumes, says that +it was not from cowardice, or on the pretext of offering sacrifice that +he left the field, but that on the day before the battle he was kicked +on the leg by a horse; that in the battle, though in great pain, and +entreated by his friends to desist, he ordered a horse to be brought, +and without armour rode up to the phalanx. Here as many missiles were +flying about from both sides, an iron javelin struck him, not fairly +with its point, but it ran obliquely down his left side, tearing his +tunic, and causing a dark bruise on his flesh, the scar of which was +long visible. This is what Poseidonius urges in defence of Perseus. + +XX. Now as the Romans when they met the phalanx could make no impression +upon it, Salovius, the leader of the Pelignians, seized the standard of +his regiment and threw it among the enemy. The Pelignians, as the loss +of a standard is thought to be a crime and an impiety by all Italians, +rushed to the place, and a fierce conflict began there with terrible +slaughter. The one party tried to dash aside the long spears with their +swords, and to push them with their shields, and to seize them away with +their very hands, while the Macedonians, wielding their spears with both +hands, drove them through their opponents, armour and all: for no shield +or corslet could resist their thrust. They then cast over their own +heads the bodies of these Pelignians and Marrucini, who pressed madly +like wild creatures up to the line of spears and certain death. When the +first rank fell in this manner, those behind gave way: it cannot be said +that they fled, but they retreated to a mountain called Olokrus. +Poseidonius tells us that Aemilius tore his clothes in despair at seeing +these men give ground, while the other Romans were confounded at the +phalanx, which could not be assailed, but with its close line of spears, +like a palisade, offered no point for attack. But when he saw that, from +the inequalities of the ground, and the length of their line, the +Macedonian phalanx did not preserve its alignment, and was breaking into +gaps and breaches, as is natural should happen in a great army, +according to the different attacks of the combatants, who made it bulge +inwards in one place, and outward in another, then he came swiftly up, +and dividing his men into companies, ordered them to force their way +into the spaces and intervals of the enemy's line, and to make their +attack, not in any one place all together, but in several, as they were +broken up into several bodies. As soon as Aemilius had given these +instructions to the officers, who communicated them to the men, they +charged into the spaces, and at once some attacked the now helpless +Macedonians in flank, while others got into their rear and cut them off. +The phalanx dissolved immediately, and with it was lost all the power +and mutual assistance which it gave. Fighting in single combats or small +groups, the Macedonians struck in vain with their little daggers at the +strong shields reaching to their feet carried by the Romans. Their light +targets could ill ward off the blows of the Roman sword, which cut right +through all their defensive armour. After a useless resistance they +turned and fled. + +XXI. But the fight was a sharp one. Here Marcus, the son of Cato, +Aemilius's son-in-law, whilst fighting with great valour let fall his +sword. Educated as he had been in the strictest principles of honour, +and owing it to such a father to give extraordinary proofs of courage, +he thought that life would be intolerable for him if he allowed an enemy +to carry off such a trophy from him, and ran about calling upon every +friend or acquaintance whom he saw to help him to recover it. Many brave +men thus assembled, and with one accord left the rest of the army and +followed him. After a sharp conflict and much slaughter, they succeeded +in driving the enemy from the ground, and having thus chased it, they +betook themselves to searching for the sword. When at last after much +trouble it was found among the heaps of arms and corpses, they were +overjoyed, and with a shout assailed those of the enemy who still +resisted. At length the three thousand picked men were all slain +fighting in their ranks. A great slaughter took place among the others +as they fled, so that the plain and the skirts of the hills were covered +with corpses, and the stream of the river Leukus ran red with blood even +on the day after the battle; for, indeed, it is said that more than +twenty-five thousand men perished. Of the Romans there fell a hundred, +according to Poseidonius, but Nasica says only eighty. + +XXII. This battle, fraught with such important issues, was decided in a +remarkably short time; beginning to fight at the ninth hour, the Romans +were victorious before the tenth. The remainder of the day was occupied +in pursuit, which being pressed for some fifteen (English) miles, it was +late before they returned to their camp. All the officers on their +return were met by their servants with torches, and conducted with songs +of triumph to their tents, which were illuminated and wreathed with ivy +and laurel; but the general himself was deeply dejected. The youngest of +the two sons who were serving under him--his own favourite, the noblest +of all his children in character--was nowhere to be found; and it was +feared that, being high-spirited and generous, though but a boy in +years, he must have become mixed up with the enemy, and so perished. The +whole army learned the cause of his sorrow and perplexity, and quitting +their suppers, ran about with torches, some to the tent of Aemilius, and +some outside the camp to look for him among the corpses. The whole camp +was filled with sorrow, and all the plain with noise, covered as it was +with men shouting for Scipio--for he had won all hearts from the very +beginning, having beyond all his kinsfolk the power of commanding the +affections of men. Very late at night, after he had been all but given +up for lost, he came in with two or three comrades, covered with the +blood of the enemies he had slain, having, like a well-bred hound, been +thoughtlessly carried along by the joy of the chase. This was that +Scipio who afterwards took by storm Carthage and Numantia, and became by +far the most famous and powerful of all the Romans of his time. So +fortune, deferring to another season the expression of her jealousy at +his success, now permitted Aemilius to take an unalloyed pleasure in his +victory. + +XXIII. Perseus fled from Pydna to Pella, his cavalry having, as one +would expect, all got safe out of the action. But when the infantry met +them, they abused them as cowards and traitors, and began to push them +from their horses and deal them blows, and so Perseus, terrified at the +disturbance, forsook the main road, and to avoid detection took off his +purple robe and laid it before him, and carried his crown in his hand; +and, that he might talk to his friends as he walked, he got off his +horse, and led him. But one of them made excuse that he must tie his +shoes, another that he must water his horse, another that he must get +himself a drink, and so they gradually fell off from him and left him, +not fearing the rage of the enemy so much as his cruelty: for, +exasperated by his defeat, he tried to fasten the blame of it upon +others instead of himself. When he came to Pella, his treasurers Euktus +and Eulaeus met him and blamed him for what had happened, and in an +outspoken and unseasonable way gave him advice: at which he was so much +enraged that he stabbed them both dead with his dagger. After this no +one stayed with him except Evander a Cretan, Archedamus an Aetolian, and +Neon a Boeotian. Of the common soldiers the Cretans followed him, not +from any love they bore him, but being as eager for his riches as bees +are for honey. For he carried great store of wealth with him, and out of +it distributed among the Cretans cups and bowls and other gold and +silver plate to the amount of fifty talents. But when he reached first +Amphipolis, and then Galepsus, and had got a little the better of his +fears, his old malady of meanness attacked him, and he would complain to +his friends that he had flung some of the drinking cups of Alexander the +Great to the Cretans by mistake, and entreated with tears those who had +them to give back and take the value in money. Those who understood his +character were not taken in by this attempt to play the Cretan with men +of Crete, but some believed him and lost their cups for nothing. For he +never paid the money, but having swindled his friends out of thirty +talents, which soon fell into the hands of the enemy, he sailed with the +money to Samothrace, and took sanctuary in the temple of the Dioskuri as +a suppliant. + +XXIV. The people of Macedon have always been thought to love their +kings, but now, as if some main prop had broken, and the whole edifice +of government fallen to the ground, they gave themselves up to Aemilius, +and in two days constituted him master of the entire kingdom. This seems +to confirm the opinion of those who say that these successes were owing +to especial good fortune: and the incident of the sacrifice also was +clearly sent from Heaven. For when Aemilius was offering sacrifice at +Amphipolis, when the sacred rites had been performed, lightning came +down upon the altar, and burned up the offering. But in its miraculous +character and good luck the swiftness with which the news spread +surpasses all these; for on the fourth day after Perseus had been +vanquished at Pydna, while the people at Rome were assembled at a horse +race, suddenly there arose amongst them a rumour that Aemilius had +defeated Perseus in a great battle and had subdued all Macedonia. This +report soon spread among the populace, who expressed their joy by +applause and shouts throughout the city all that day. Afterwards, as the +report could be traced to no trustworthy source, but was merely repeated +among them vaguely, it was disbelieved and came to nothing; but in a few +days they learned the real story, and wondered at the rumour which had +preceded it, combining truth with falsehood. + +XXV. There is a legend that the news of the battle on the river Sagra in +Italy against the natives was carried the same day into Peloponnesus, +and that of the battle of Mykale against the Medes was so carried to +Plataea. The victory of the Romans over the Latins under the exiled +Tarquins was reported at Rome a little after it took place, by two men, +tall and fair, who came from the army. These men they conjectured to +have been the Dioskuri (Castor and Pollux). The first man who fell in +with them as they stood in the forum, near the fountain, found them +washing their horses, which were covered with sweat. He marvelled much +at their tale of the victory; and then they are said to have smiled +serenely and stroked his beard, which instantly changed from black to +yellow, thus causing his story to be believed, besides winning for him +the soubriquet of Ahenobarbus, which means 'brazen beard.' But that +which happened in our own time will make all these credible. When +Antonius rebelled against Domitian, and a great war in Germany was +expected, Rome was greatly disturbed till suddenly there arose among the +people a rumour of victory, and a story ran through Rome that Antonius +himself was killed, and that the army under him had been utterly +exterminated. And this report was so clear and forcible, that many of +the magistrates offered sacrifice for the victory. When the originator +of it was sought for, as he could not be found, but the story when +traced from one man to another was lost in the vast crowd as if in the +sea, and appeared to have no solid foundation, all belief in it died +away: but when Domitian set out with his forces to the war, he was met +on the way by messengers with despatches describing the victory. The day +of this success was the same as that stated by the rumours, though the +places were more than two thousand five hundred (English) miles distant. +All men of our own time know this to be true. + +XXVI. Cnaeus Octavius, the admiral under Aemilius's orders, now cruised +round Samothrace. He did not, from religious motives, violate Perseus's +right of sanctuary, but prevented his leaving the island and escaping. +But nevertheless Perseus somehow outwitted him so far as to bribe one +Oroandes, a Cretan, who possessed a small vessel, to take him on board. +But this man like a true Cretan took the money away by night, and +bidding him come the next night with his family and attendants to the +harbour near the temple of Demeter, as soon as evening fell, set sail. +Now Perseus suffered pitiably in forcing himself, and his wife and +children, who were unused to hardships, through a narrow window in the +wall, and set up a most pititul wailing when some one who met him +wandering on the beach showed him the ship of Oroandes under sail far +away at sea. Day was now breaking, and having lost his last hope, he +made a hasty retreat to the town wall, and got into it with his wife, +before the Romans, though they saw him, could prevent him. But his +children he had entrusted to a man named Ion, who once had been a +favourite of his, but now betrayed him, and delivered them up to the +Romans, thus providing the chief means to compel him, like a wild +animal, to come and surrender himself into the hands of those who had +his children. He felt most confidence in Nasica, and inquired for him, +but as he was not present, after lamenting his fate, and reflecting on +the impossibility of acting otherwise, he surrendered himself to Cnaeus. + +Now he was able to prove that he had a vice yet more sordid than +avarice, namely, base love of life; by which he lost even his title to +pity, the only consolation of which fortune does not deprive the fallen. +He begged to be brought into the presence of Aemilius, who, to show +respect to a great man who had met with a terrible misfortune, rose, and +walked to meet him with his friends, with tears in his eyes. But Perseus +offered a degrading spectacle by flinging himself down upon his face and +embracing his knees, with unmanly cries and entreaties, which Aemilius +could not endure to listen to; but looking on him with a pained and sad +expression, said, "Wretched man: why do you by this conduct deprive +fortune of all blame, by making yourself seem to deserve your mishaps, +and to have been unworthy of your former prosperity, but worthy of your +present misery? And why do you depreciate the value of my victory, and +make my success a small one, by proving degenerate and an unworthy +antagonist for Romans? Valour, however unfortunate, commands great +respect even from enemies: but the Romans despise cowardice, even though +it be prosperous." + +XXVII. However, he raised him from the ground, and, having given him his +hand, he entrusted him to Tubero, and then taking into his own tent his +sons, sons-in-law, and most of the younger officers, he sat silent, +wrapt in thought for some time, to their astonishment. Then he said, +"Ought a man to be confident that he deserves his good fortune, and +think much of himself when he has overcome a nation, or city, or empire; +or does fortune give this as an example to the victor also of the +uncertainty of human affairs, which never continue in one stay? For what +time can there be for us mortals to feel confident, when our victories +over others especially compel us to dread fortune, and while we are +exulting, the reflection that the fatal day comes now to one, now to +another, in regular succession, dashes our joy. Can we, who in less than +an hour have trampled under our feet the successor of Alexander the +Great, who was so powerful and mighty, and who see these kings who but +lately were guarded by their tens of thousands of foot and thousands of +horse, now receiving their daily bread from the hands of their foes, can +we suppose that our present prosperity is likely to endure for all time? +You, young men, be sure that you lay aside your haughty looks and +vainglory in your victory, and await with humility what the future may +bring forth, ever considering what form of retribution Heaven may have +in store for us to set off against our present good fortune." They say +that Aemilius spoke long in this strain, and sent away his young +officers with their pride and boastfulness well curbed and restrained by +his words, as though with a bridle. + +XXVIII. After these events he sent the army into cantonments, to rest, +and he himself set out to visit Greece, making a progress which was both +glorious and beneficent; for in the cities to which he came he restored +the popular constitutions, and bestowed on them presents, from the +king's treasury, of corn and oil. For so much, they say, was found +stored up, that all those who received it and asked for it, were +satisfied before the mass could be exhausted. At Delphi, seeing a large +square column of white marble, on which a golden statue of Perseus was +to have been placed, he ordered his own to be placed there, as the +vanquished ought to give place to the victors. At Olympia, as the story +goes, he uttered that well-known saying, that Pheidias had carved the +very Zeus of Homer. + +When ten commissioners arrived from Rome, he restored to the Macedonians +their country to dwell in, and their cities free and independent, +imposing upon them a tribute of a hundred talents, only half what they +used to pay to their kings. He exhibited gymnastic spectacles of every +kind, and gave splendid sacrifices and feasts in honour of the gods, +having boundless resources for the purpose in the king's treasury; and +in ordering and arranging each man's place at table, and saluting him +according to his merit and degree, he showed such a delicate perception +of propriety, that the Greeks were astonished that he should carry his +administrative talent even into his amusements, and be so business-like +in trifles. But he was always delighted that though many splendid things +were prepared, he himself was the chief object of interest to his +guests, and when they expressed their surprise at his taking such pains, +he would answer that the same mind can array an army for battle in the +most terrific fashion, or a feast in the most acceptable one. All men +praised to the skies his generous magnanimity, because, when a great +mass of gold and silver was collected from the king's treasury, he would +not so much as look at it, but handed it over to the quaestors to be put +into the public treasury. Of all the spoil, he only allowed his sons, +who were fond of reading, to take the king's books; and when +distributing prizes for distinguished bravery in action, he gave Aelius +Tubero, his son-in-law, a silver cup of five pounds' weight. This Tubero +is he whom we said lived with fifteen other kinsfolk on a small farm, +which supported them all. And that, they say, was the first piece of +plate that ever was seen in the Aelian household, brought there by +honourable valour; for before that neither they nor their wives used +either gold or silver plate. + +XXIX. When he had settled all things properly he took leave of the +Greeks, and reminding the Macedonians to keep by orderly and unanimous +conduct the liberty which the Romans had bestowed upon them, he started +for Epirus, as the Senate had passed a decree that the soldiers who had +been present in the battle against Perseus should be gratified with the +spoil of the cities of Epirus. Desiring therefore to fall upon them all +at once and unexpectedly, he sent for ten of the chief men from each +city, and ordered them to bring together, on a fixed day, all the gold +and silver which they had in their houses and temples. With each party +he sent, as if for this purpose, a guard of soldiers and a captain, who +was to pretend that he came to seek for and receive the money. But when +day broke, they all at the same time fell to sacking and plundering the +cities, so that, in one hour, a hundred and fifty thousand people were +reduced to slavery, and seventy cities plundered; yet from such ruin and +destruction as this, there resulted no more than eleven drachmae for +each soldier, while all mankind shuddered at this termination of the +war, that a whole nation should be cut to pieces to produce such a +pitiful present. + +XXX. Aemilius, having performed this work, greatly against his real +nature, which was kind and gentle, proceeded to Oricum, and thence +crossed to Italy with his army. He himself sailed up the river Tiber in +the king's own ship of sixteen banks of oars, adorned with the arms of +the vanquished, and crowns of victory and crimson flags, so that all the +people of Rome came out in a body as if to a foretaste of the spectacle +of his triumphal entry, and walked beside his ship as she was gently +rowed up the river. But the soldiery, casting longing glances at the +king's treasure, like men who had not met with their deserts, were angry +and dissatisfied with Aemilius; for this reason really, though the +charge they openly put forward was that he was a harsh and tyrannical +ruler: so they showed no eagerness for the triumph. + +Servius Galba,[A] an enemy of Aemilius, who had once commanded a legion +under him, hearing this, plucked up spirit to propose openly that he +should not be allowed a triumph. He disseminated among the soldiers many +calumnies against their general, and so still more exasperately their +present temper; next he asked the tribunes of the plebs for another day, +as that day would not suffice for his speech, only four hours remaining +of it. However, the tribunes bade him speak, and he, beginning a long +and abusive speech, consumed all the time. At nightfall the tribunes +dismissed the assembly. But the soldiers, now grown bolder, assembled +round Galba, and, forming themselves into an organized body, again at +daybreak occupied the capitol; for it was thither that the tribunes had +summoned the people. + +[Footnote A: He had been military tribune of the second legion in +Macedonia. Liv. xlv. 35.] + +XXXI. The voting began as soon as it was day, and the first tribe voted +against the triumph. Soon the rumour of this spread to the rest of the +people and to the Senate. Though the masses were grieved at the shameful +treatment of Aemilius, they exhausted themselves in useless clamour, but +the leading men of the Senate crying out one to another that what was +going on was scandalous, encouraged each other to resist the licentious +violence of the soldiers, who, if not restrained, were ready to use any +kind of lawless violence to prevent Paulus Aemilius enjoying the reward +of his victory. These men pushed the mob aside, and mounting to the +capitol in a body, bade the tribunes stop the voting until they had said +what they wished to the people. When voting ceased and silence was +obtained, Marcus Servilius, a man of consular rank, who had challenged +and slain twenty-three enemies in single combat, spoke as +follows:--"What a commander Aemilius Paulus must be, you are now best +able to judge, seeing with what a disobedient and worthless army he has +succeeded in such great exploits; but I am surprised at the people's +being proud of the triumphs over the Illyrians and Ligurians, and +begrudging itself the sight of the king of Macedon brought alive, and +all the glories of Philip and Alexander carried captive to the arms of +Rome. Is it not a strange thing that on the unfounded rumour of this +victory being circulated, you sacrificed to the gods, praying that you +soon might behold this spectacle, yet now that the army has returned +after a real victory, you refuse the gods the honour and yourself the +pleasure of it, as if you feared to see the extent of your successes, or +wished to spare the feelings of your captive enemy; though it would show +a nobler feeling than pity for him, not to deprive your general of his +triumph for a mean grudge. Your baseness has reached such a pitch that a +man without a scar, with his body delicately nurtured in the shade, +dares to speak about generalship and triumphs before us who have learned +by so many wounds to judge of a general's vice and virtues." As he +spoke, he opened his clothes, and showed his breast with an incredible +number of scars upon it; then turning to Galba, who had made some +remarks not very decent "You laugh," said he, "at these other marks: but +I glory in them before my countrymen, for I got them by riding, night +and day, in their service. But come, bring them to vote; I will go +amongst them and follow them all to the poll, that I may know those who +are cowardly and ungrateful, and like rather to be ruled by a demagogue +than by a true general." + +XXXII. These words are said to have caused such remorse and repentance +among the soldiers, that all the tribes voted Aemilius his triumph. It +is said to have been celebrated thus. The people, dressed in white +robes, looked on from platforms erected in the horse course, which they +call the Circus, and round the Forum, and in all other places which gave +them a view of the procession. Every temple was open, and full of +flowers and incense, and many officials with staves drove off people who +formed disorderly mobs, and kept the way clear. The procession was +divided into three days. The first scarcely sufficed for the display of +the captured statues, sculptures, and paintings, which were carried on +two hundred and fifty carriages. On the following day the finest and +most costly of the Macedonian arms and armour were borne along in many +waggons, glittering with newly burnished brass and iron, and arranged in +a carefully studied disorder, helmets upon shields, and corslets upon +greaves, with Cretan targets, Thracian wicker shields and quivers mixed +with horses' bits, naked swords rising out of these, and the long spears +of the phalanx ranged in order above them, making a harmonious clash of +arms, as they were arranged to clatter when they were driven along, with +a harsh and menacing sound, so that the sight of them even after victory +was not without terror. After the waggons which bore the arms walked +three thousand men, carrying the silver coin in seven hundred and fifty +earthen vessels, each carrying three talents, and borne by four men. +Others carried the silver drinking horns, and goblets and chalices, each +of them disposed so that it could be well seen, and all remarkable for +their size and the boldness of their carving. + +XXXIII. On the third day, at earliest dawn, marched the trumpeters, not +playing the music of a march, but sounding the notes which animate the +Romans for a charge. After them were led along a hundred and twenty fat +oxen with gilded horns, adorned with crowns and wreaths. They were led +by youths clad in finely-fringed waistcloths in which to do the +sacrifice, while boys carried the wine for the libations in gold and +silver vessels. After these came men carrying the gold coin, divided +into vessels of three talents each like the silver. The number of these +vessels was eighty all but three. Then came those who carried the +consecrated bowl which Aemilius had made of ten talents of gold adorned +with jewels, and men carrying the plate of Antigonus and Seleukus, and +cups of Therikles-ware,[A] and all Perseus's own service of gold plate. + +[Footnote A: This was a particular kind of pottery, originally made at +Corinth.] + +Next came the chariot of Perseus with his armour; and his crown set upon +the top of his armour: and then after a little interval came the captive +children of the king, and with them a tearful band of nurses and +teachers, who held out their hands in supplication to the spectators, +and taught the children to beg them for mercy. There were two boys and +one girl, all too young to comprehend the extent of their misfortune. +This carelessness made their fallen state all the more pitiable, so that +Perseus himself walked almost unnoticed; for the Romans in their pity +had eyes only for the children, and many shed tears, while all felt that +the sight was more painful than pleasing till the children were gone by. + +XXXIV. Behind the children and their attendants walked Perseus himself, +dressed in a dark-coloured cloak with country boots, seeming to be dazed +and stupefied by the greatness of his fall. A band of his friends and +associates followed him with grief-laden countenances, and, by their +constantly looking at Perseus, and weeping, gave the spectators the idea +that they bewailed his fate without taking any thought about their own. +However, Perseus had sent to Aemilius asking to be excused the walking +in procession; but he, as it seems in mockery of his cowardice and love +of life, answered, "That was formerly in his own hands, and is now if he +pleases." Meaning that death was preferable to dishonour; but the +dastard had not spirit enough for that, but buoyed up by some hope, +became a part of his own spoils. + +After these were borne golden crowns, four hundred in number, which the +cities of Greece had sent to Aemilius with deputations, in recognition +of his success. Next he came himself, sitting in a splendid chariot, a +man worth looking upon even without his present grandeur, dressed in a +purple robe sprinkled with gold, and holding a branch of laurel in his +right hand. All the army was crowned with laurel and followed the car of +the general in military array, at one time singing and laughing over old +country songs, then raising in chorus the paean of victory and recital +of their deeds, to the glory of Aemilius, who was gazed upon and envied +by all, disliked by no good man. Yet it seems that some deity is charged +with tempering these great and excessive pieces of good fortune, and +skimming as it were the cream off human life, so that none may be +absolutely without his ills in this life; but as Homer says, they may +seem to fare best whose fortune partakes equally of good and evil. + +XXXV. For he had four sons, two, as has been already related, adopted +into other families, Scipio and Fabius; and two others who were still +children, by his second wife, who lived in his own house. Of these, one +died five days before Aemilius's triumph, at the age of fourteen, and +the other, twelve years old, died three days after it; so that there was +no Roman that did not grieve for him, and all trembled at the cruelty of +fortune, which had burst into a house filled with joy and gladness, and +mingled tears and funeral dirges with the triumphal paeans and songs of +victory. + +XXXVI. Yet Aemilius, rightly thinking that courage is as valuable in +supporting misfortunes as it is against the Macedonian phalanx, so +arranged matters as to show that for him the evil was overshadowed by +the good, and that his private sorrows were eclipsed by the successes of +the state, lest he should detract from the importance and glory of the +victory. He buried the first child, and immediately afterwards +triumphed, as we have said: and when the second died after the triumph, +he assembled the people and addressed them, not so much in the words of +one who needs consolation, as of one who would console his countrymen, +who were grieved at his misfortunes. He said, that he never had feared +what man could do to him, but always had feared Fortune, the most fickle +and variable of all deities; and in the late war she had been so +constantly present with him, like a favouring gale, that he expected now +to meet with some reverse by way of retribution. "In one day," said he, +"I crossed the Ionian sea from Brundisium to Corcyra; on the fifth day I +sacrificed at Delphi; in five more I entered upon my command in +Macedonia, performed the usual lustration of the army; and, at once +beginning active operations, in fifteen days more I brought the war to a +most glorious end. I did not trust in my good fortune as lasting, +because every thing favoured me, and there was no danger to be feared +from the enemy, but it was during my voyage that I especially feared +that the change of fortune would befall me, after I had conquered so +great a host, and was bearing with me such spoils and even kings as my +captives. However, I reached you safe, and saw the city full of gladness +and admiration and thanksgiving, but still I had my suspicions about +Fortune, knowing that she never bestows any great kindness unalloyed and +without exacting retribution for it. And no sooner had I dismissed this +foreboding about some misfortune being about to happen to the state, +than I met with this calamity in my own household, having during these +holydays had to bury my noble sons, one after the other, who, had they +lived, would alone have borne my name. + +"Now therefore I fear no further great mischance, and am of good cheer; +for a sufficient retribution has been exacted from me for my successes, +and the triumpher has been made as notable an example of the uncertainty +of human life as the victim; except that Perseus, though conquered, +still has his children, while Aemilius, his conqueror, has lost his." + +XXXVII. Such was the noble discourse which they say Aemilius from his +simple and true heart pronounced before the people. As to Perseus, +though he pitied his fallen fortunes and was most anxious to help him, +all he could do was to get him removed from the common prison, called +Carcer by the Romans, to a clean and habitable lodging, where, in +confinement, according to most authors, he starved himself to death; but +some give a strange and extraordinary account of how he died, saying +that the soldiers who guarded him became angry with him, and not being +able to vex him by any other means, they prevented his going to sleep, +watching him by turns, and so carefully keeping him from rest by all +manner of devices, that at last he was worn out and died. Two of his +children died also; but the third, Alexander, they say became +accomplished in repoussé work and other arts. He learned to speak and +write the Roman language well, and was employed by the magistrates as a +clerk, in which profession he was much esteemed. + +XXXVIII. The most popular thing which Aemilius did in connection with +Macedonia was that he brought back so much money that the people were +not obliged to pay any taxes till the consulship of Hirtius and Pausa, +during the first war between Antony and Augustus Caesar. This was +remarkable about Aemilius, that he was peculiarly respected and loved by +the people, though of the aristocratical party; and though he never said +or did anything to make himself popular, but always in politics acted +with the party of the nobles. Scipio Africanus was afterwards reproached +with this by Appius. These were the leading men in the city, and were +candidates for the office of Censor: the one with the Senate and nobles +to support him, that being the hereditary party of the Appii; the other +being a man of mark in himself, and one who ever enjoyed the greatest +love and favour with the people. So when Appius saw Scipio coming into +the forum surrounded by men of low birth and freed men, yet men who knew +the forum, and who could collect a mob and by their influence and noise +could get any measure passed, he called out, "O Paulus Aemilius, groan +in your grave, at your son being brought into the Censorship by Aemilius +the crier and Licinius Philonicus." But Scipio kept the people in good +humour by constantly augmenting their privileges, whereas Aemilius, +though of the aristocratic party, was no less loved by the people than +those who courted their favour and caressed them. They showed this by +electing him, amongst other dignities, to the Censorship; which office +is most sacred, and confers great power, especially in examining men's +lives; for the Censor can expel a senator of evil life from his place, +and elect the President of the Senate, and punish licentious young men +by taking away their horses. They also register the value of property, +and the census of the people. In his time they amounted to three hundred +and thirty-seven thousand four hundred and fifty-two. He appointed +Marcus Aemilius Lepidus President of the Senate, who four times already +had enjoyed that dignity, and he expelled three senators, not men of +mark. With regard to the Equites, he and his colleague Marcius Philippus +showed equal moderation. + +XXXIX. After most of the labours of his life were accomplished, he fell +sick of a disorder which at first seemed dangerous, but as time went on +appeared not to be mortal, but wearisome and hard to cure. + +At length he followed the advice of his physicians, and sailed to +Paestum, in Italy. There he passed his time chiefly in the peaceful +meadows near the sea-shore; but the people of Rome regretted his +absence, and in the public theatre often would pray for his return, and +speak of their longing to see him. When the time for some religious +ceremony at which he had to be present approached, and he also +considered himself sufficiently strong, he returned to Rome. He +performed the sacrifice, with the other priests, the people surrounding +him with congratulations. On the next day he again officiated, offering +a thank-offering to the gods for his recovery. When this sacrifice was +finished, he went home and lay down, and before any one noticed how +changed he was, he fell into a delirious trance, and died in three days, +having in his life wanted none of those things which are thought to +render men happy. Even his funeral procession was admirable and +enviable, and a noble tribute to his valour and goodness. I do not mean +gold, ivory, and other expensive and vain-glorious apparatus, but love, +honour, and respect, not only shown by his own countrymen, but also by +foreigners. For of the Iberians, Ligurians, and Macedonians who happened +to be in Rome, the strongest carried the bier, while the elder men +followed after, praising Aemilius as the saviour and benefactor of their +countries. For he not only during his period of conquest had treated +them mildly and humanely, but throughout the rest of his life was always +bestowing benefits upon them as persons peculiarly connected with +himself. His estate, they say, scarcely amounted to three hundred and +seventy thousand sesterces,[A] which he left to be shared between his +two sons; but Scipio, the younger, consented to give up his share to his +brother, as he was a member of a rich family, that of Africanus. Such is +said to have been the life and character of Aemilius Paulus. + +[Footnote A: Little more than £3000.] + + + + +COMPARISON OF PAULUS AEMILIUS AND TIMOLEON. + + +I. The characters of these men being such as is shown in their +histories, it is evident that in comparing them we shall find few +differences and points of variance. Even their wars were in both cases +waged against notable antagonists, the one with the Macedonians, the +other with the Carthaginians: while their conquests were glorious, as +the one took Macedonia, and crushed the dynasty of Antigonus in the +person of its seventh king, while the other drove all the despots from +Sicily and set the island free. Unless indeed any one should insinuate +that Aemilius attacked Perseus when he was in great strength and had +conquered the Romans before, whereas Timoleon fell upon Dionysius when +he was quite worn out and helpless: though again it might be urged on +behalf of Timoleon that he overcame many despots and the great power of +Carthage, with an army hastily collected from all sources, not, like +Aemilius, commanding men who were inured to war and knew how to obey, +but making use of disorderly mercenary soldiers who only fought when it +pleased them to do so. An equal success, gained with such unequal means, +reflects the greater credit on the general. + +II. Both were just and incorruptible in their conduct: but Aemilius +seems to have had the advantage of the customs and state of feeling +among his countrymen, by which he was trained to integrity, while +Timoleon without any such encouragement acted virtuously, from his own +nature. This is proved by the fact that the Romans of that period were +all submissive to authority, and carried out the traditions of the +state, respecting the laws and the opinions of their countrymen: +whereas, except Dion, no Greek leader or general of that time had +anything to do with Sicilian affairs who did not take bribes: though +many suspected than Dion was meditating making himself king, and that he +had dreams of an empire like that of Sparta. + +Timaeus tells us that the Syracusans sent away Gylippus in disgrace for +his insatiable covetousness, and the bribes which they discovered that +he received when in command. And many writers had dwelt upon the wicked +and treacherous acts which Pharax the Spartan and Kallippus the Athenian +committed, when they were endeavouring to make themselves masters of +Sicily. Yet, what were they, and what resources had they, that they +conceived such great designs: the one being only a follower of Dionysius +when he was banished from Syracuse, the other a captain of mercenaries +under Dion? But Timoleon, who was sent to the Syracusans as +generalissimo at their own request and prayer, did not seek for command, +but had a right to it. Yet when he received his power as general and +ruler from them of their own free will, he voluntarily decided to hold +it only till he should have expelled from Sicily all those who were +reigning despotically. In Aemilius again we must admire this, that he +subdued so great an empire and yet did not enrich himself by one +drachma, and never even saw or touched the king's treasures, although he +distributed much of them in presents to others. And still, I do not say +that Timoleon is to be blamed for having received a fine house and +estate; for there is no disgrace in receiving it by such means, though +not to take it is better, and shows almost superhuman virtue, which +cares not to take what is lawfully within its reach. Yet, as the +strongest bodies are those which can equally well support the extremes +of heat and cold, so the noblest minds are those which prosperity does +not render insolent and overbearing, nor ill fortune depress: and here +Aemilius appears more nearly to approach absolute perfection, as, when +in great misfortune and grief for his children, he showed the same +dignity and firmness as after the greatest success. Whereas Timoleon, +though he acted towards his brother as became a noble nature, yet could +not support himself against his sorrow by reason, but was so crushed by +remorse and grief that for twenty years he could not appear or speak in +the public assembly. We ought indeed to shrink from and feel shame at +what is base; but the nature which is over-cautious to avoid blame may +be gentle and kindly, but cannot be great. + + * * * * * + +LONDON: PRINTED BY WM. CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND +CHARING CROSS. + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14033 *** |