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diff --git a/old/14006-0.txt b/old/14006-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..911e865 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14006-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,17154 @@ +Project Gutenberg's An English Grammar, by W. M. Baskervill and J. W. Sewell + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: An English Grammar + +Author: W. M. Baskervill and J. W. Sewell + +Release Date: November 10, 2004 [EBook #14006] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR *** + + + + +Produced by Stephen Schulze and the Distributed Proofreaders Team + + + + + + +AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR + +FOR THE USE OF + +HIGH SCHOOL, ACADEMY, AND COLLEGE CLASSES + +BY + +W.M. BASKERVILL + +PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN VANDERBILT +UNIVERSITY NASHVILLE, TENN. + +AND + +J.W. SEWELL + +OF THE FOGG HIGH SCHOOL, NASHVILLE, TENN. + + +1895 + + + + +PREFACE. + +Of making many English grammars there is no end; nor should there be +till theoretical scholarship and actual practice are more happily +wedded. In this field much valuable work has already been +accomplished; but it has been done largely by workers accustomed to +take the scholar's point of view, and their writings are addressed +rather to trained minds than to immature learners. To find an advanced +grammar unencumbered with hard words, abstruse thoughts, and difficult +principles, is not altogether an easy matter. These things enhance the +difficulty which an ordinary youth experiences in grasping and +assimilating the facts of grammar, and create a distaste for the +study. It is therefore the leading object of this book to be both as +scholarly and as practical as possible. In it there is an attempt to +present grammatical facts as simply, and to lead the student to +assimilate them as thoroughly, as possible, and at the same time to do +away with confusing difficulties as far as may be. + +To attain these ends it is necessary to keep ever in the foreground +the _real basis of grammar_; that is, good literature. Abundant +quotations from standard authors have been given to show the student +that he is dealing with the facts of the language, and not with the +theories of grammarians. It is also suggested that in preparing +written exercises the student use English classics instead of "making +up" sentences. But it is not intended that the use of literary +masterpieces for grammatical purposes should supplant or even +interfere with their proper use and real value as works of art. It +will, however, doubtless be found helpful to alternate the regular +reading and æsthetic study of literature with a grammatical study, so +that, while the mind is being enriched and the artistic sense +quickened, there may also be the useful acquisition of arousing a keen +observation of all grammatical forms and usages. Now and then it has +been deemed best to omit explanations, and to withhold personal +preferences, in order that the student may, by actual contact with the +sources of grammatical laws, discover for himself the better way in +regarding given data. It is not the grammarian's business to +"correct:" it is simply to record and to arrange the usages of +language, and to point the way to the arbiters of usage in all +disputed cases. Free expression within the lines of good usage should +have widest range. + +It has been our aim to make a grammar of as wide a scope as is +consistent with the proper definition of the word. Therefore, in +addition to recording and classifying the facts of language, we have +endeavored to attain two other objects,--to cultivate mental skill and +power, and to induce the student to prosecute further studies in this +field. It is not supposable that in so delicate and difficult an +undertaking there should be an entire freedom from errors and +oversights. We shall gratefully accept any assistance in helping to +correct mistakes. + +Though endeavoring to get our material as much as possible at first +hand, and to make an independent use of it, we desire to express our +obligation to the following books and articles:-- + +Meiklejohn's "English Language," Longmans' "School Grammar," West's +"English Grammar," Bain's "Higher English Grammar" and "Composition +Grammar," Sweet's "Primer of Spoken English" and "New English +Grammar," etc., Hodgson's "Errors in the Use of English," Morris's +"Elementary Lessons in Historical English Grammar," Lounsbury's +"English Language," Champney's "History of English," Emerson's +"History of the English Language," Kellner's "Historical Outlines of +English Syntax," Earle's "English Prose," and Matzner's "Englische +Grammatik." Allen's "Subjunctive Mood in English," Battler's articles +on "Prepositions" in the "Anglia," and many other valuable papers, +have also been helpful and suggestive. + +We desire to express special thanks to Professor W.D. Mooney of Wall & +Mooney's Battle-Ground Academy, Franklin, Tenn., for a critical +examination of the first draft of the manuscript, and to Professor +Jno. M. Webb of Webb Bros. School, Bell Buckle, Tenn., and Professor +W.R. Garrett of the University of Nashville, for many valuable +suggestions and helpful criticism. + +W.M. BASKERVILL. + +J.W. SEWELL. + +NASHVILLE, TENN., January, 1896. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + INTRODUCTION + + PART I. + + _THE PARTS OF SPEECH_. + + NOUNS + PRONOUNS + ADJECTIVES + ARTICLES + VERBS AND VERBALS + Verbs + Verbals + How to Parse Verbs and Verbals + ADVERBS + CONJUNCTIONS + PREPOSITIONS + WORDS THAT NEED WATCHING + INTERJECTIONS + + PART II. + + _ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES_. + + CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORM + CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF STATEMENTS + Simple Sentences + Contracted Sentences + Complex Sentences + Compound Sentences + + + PART III. + + _SYNTAX_. + + INTRODUCTORY + NOUNS + PRONOUNS + ADJECTIVES + ARTICLES + VERBS + INDIRECT DISCOURSE + VERBALS + ADVERBS + CONJUNCTIONS + PREPOSITIONS + + INDEX + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + +So many slighting remarks have been made of late on the use of +teaching grammar as compared with teaching science, that it is plain +the fact has been lost sight of that grammar is itself a science. The +object we have, or should have, in teaching science, is not to fill a +child's mind with a vast number of facts that may or may not prove +useful to him hereafter, but to draw out and exercise his powers of +observation, and to show him how to make use of what he observes.... +And here the teacher of grammar has a great advantage over the teacher +of other sciences, in that the facts he has to call attention to lie +ready at hand for every pupil to observe without the use of apparatus +of any kind while the use of them also lies within the personal +experience of every one.--DR RICHARD MORRIS. + +The proper study of a language is an intellectual discipline of the +highest order. If I except discussions on the comparative merits of +Popery and Protestantism, English grammar was the most important +discipline of my boyhood.--JOHN TYNDALL. + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +What various opinions writers on English grammar have given in answer +to the question, _What is grammar?_ may be shown by the following-- + +[Sidenote: _Definitions of grammar._] + + English grammar is a description of the usages of the English + language by good speakers and writers of the present + day.--WHITNEY + + A description of account of the nature, build, constitution, or + make of a language is called its grammar--MEIKLEJOHN + + Grammar teaches the laws of language, and the right method of + using it in speaking and writing.--PATTERSON + + Grammar is the science of _letter_; hence the science of using + words correctly.--ABBOTT + + The English word _grammar_ relates only to the laws which govern + the significant forms of words, and the construction of the + sentence.--RICHARD GRANT WHITE + +These are sufficient to suggest several distinct notions about English +grammar-- + +[Sidenote: _Synopsis of the above._] + +(1) It makes rules to tell us how to use words. + +(2) It is a record of usage which we ought to follow. + +(3) It is concerned with the _forms_ of the language. + +(4) English _has_ no grammar in the sense of forms, or inflections, +but takes account merely of the nature and the uses of words in +sentences. + +[Sidenote: _The older idea and its origin._] + +Fierce discussions have raged over these opinions, and numerous works +have been written to uphold the theories. The first of them remained +popular for a very long time. It originated from the etymology of the +word _grammar_ (Greek _gramma_, writing, a letter), and from an effort +to build up a treatise on English grammar by using classical grammar +as a model. + +Perhaps a combination of (1) and (3) has been still more popular, +though there has been vastly more classification than there are forms. + +[Sidenote: _The opposite view_.] + +During recent years, (2) and (4) have been gaining ground, but they +have had hard work to displace the older and more popular theories. It +is insisted by many that the student's time should be used in studying +general literature, and thus learning the fluent and correct use of +his mother tongue. It is also insisted that the study and discussion +of forms and inflections is an inexcusable imitation of classical +treatises. + +[Sidenote: _The difficulty_.] + +Which view shall the student of English accept? Before this is +answered, we should decide whether some one of the above theories must +be taken as the right one, and the rest disregarded. + +The real reason for the diversity of views is a confusion of two +distinct things,--what the _definition_ of grammar should be, and what +the _purpose_ of grammar should be. + +[Sidenote: _The material of grammar_.] + +The province of English grammar is, rightly considered, wider than is +indicated by any one of the above definitions; and the student ought +to have a clear idea of the ground to be covered. + +[Sidenote: _Few inflections_.] + +It must be admitted that the language has very few inflections at +present, as compared with Latin or Greek; so that a small grammar will +hold them all. + +[Sidenote: _Making rules is risky_.] + +It is also evident, to those who have studied the language +historically, that it is very hazardous to make rules in grammar: what +is at present regarded as correct may not be so twenty years from now, +even if our rules are founded on the keenest scrutiny of the +"standard" writers of our time. Usage is varied as our way of thinking +changes. In Chaucer's time two or three negatives were used to +strengthen a negation; as, "Ther _nas no_ man _nowher_ so vertuous" +(There never was no man nowhere so virtuous). And Shakespeare used +good English when he said _more elder_ ("Merchant of Venice") and +_most unkindest_ ("Julius Cæsar"); but this is bad English now. + +If, however, we have tabulated the inflections of the language, and +stated what syntax is the most used in certain troublesome places, +there is still much for the grammarian to do. + +[Sidenote: _A broader view_.] + +Surely our noble language, with its enormous vocabulary, its peculiar +and abundant idioms, its numerous periphrastic forms to express every +possible shade of meaning, is worthy of serious study, apart from the +mere memorizing of inflections and formulation of rules. + +[Sidenote: _Mental training. An æsthetic benefit._] + +Grammar is eminently a means of mental training; and while it will +train the student in subtle and acute reasoning, it will at the same +time, if rightly presented, lay the foundation of a keen observation +and a correct literary taste. The continued contact with the highest +thoughts of the best minds will create a thirst for the "well of +English undefiled." + +[Sidenote: _What grammar is_.] + +Coming back, then, from the question, _What ground should grammar +cover?_ we come to answer the question, _What should grammar teach?_ +and we give as an answer the definition,-- + +_English grammar is the science which treats of the nature of words, +their forms, and their uses and relations in the sentence_. + +[Sidenote: _The work it will cover._] + +This will take in the usual divisions, "The Parts of Speech" (with +their inflections), "Analysis," and "Syntax." It will also require a +discussion of any points that will clear up difficulties, assist the +classification of kindred expressions, or draw the attention of the +student to everyday idioms and phrases, and thus incite his +observation. + +[Sidenote: _Authority as a basis_.] + +A few words here as to the _authority_ upon which grammar rests. + +[Sidenote: _Literary English_.] + +The statements given will be substantiated by quotations from the +leading or "standard" literature of modern times; that is, from the +eighteenth century on. This _literary English_ is considered the +foundation on which grammar must rest. + +[Sidenote: _Spoken English_.] + +Here and there also will be quoted words and phrases from _spoken_ or +_colloquial English_, by which is meant the free, unstudied +expressions of ordinary conversation and communication among +intelligent people. + +These quotations will often throw light on obscure constructions, +since they preserve turns of expressions that have long since perished +from the literary or standard English. + +[Sidenote: _Vulgar English_.] + +Occasionally, too, reference will be made to _vulgar English,_--the +speech of the uneducated and ignorant,--which will serve to illustrate +points of syntax once correct, or standard, but now undoubtedly bad +grammar. + +The following pages will cover, then, three divisions:-- + +Part I. The Parts of Speech, and Inflections. + +Part II. Analysis of Sentences. + +Part III. The Uses of Words, or Syntax. + + + + + +PART I. + +_THE PARTS OF SPEECH_. + + + + +NOUNS. + + +1. In the more simple _state_ of the _Arabs_, the _nation_ is free, +because each of her _sons_ disdains a base _submission_ to the _will_ +of a _master_.--GIBBON. + +[Sidenote: _Name words_] + +By examining this sentence we notice several words used as names. The +plainest name is _Arabs_, which belongs to a people; but, besides this +one, the words _sons_ and _master_ name objects, and may belong to any +of those objects. The words _state, submission,_ and _will_ are +evidently names of a different kind, as they stand for ideas, not +objects; and the word _nation_ stands for a whole group. + +When the meaning of each of these words has once been understood, the +word naming it will always call up the thing or idea itself. Such +words are called nouns. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition_.] + +2. A noun is a name word, representing directly to the mind an +object, substance, or idea. + + +[Sidenote: _Classes of nouns_.] + +3. Nouns are classified as follows:-- + +(1) Proper. + +(2) Common. (a) CLASS NAMES: i. Individual. + ii. Collective. + (b) MATERIAL. + +(3) Abstract. (a) ATTRIBUTE. + (b) VERBAL + + +[Sidenote: _Names for special objects._] + +4. A proper noun is a name applied to a particular object, whether +person, place, or thing. + +It specializes or limits the thing to which it is applied, reducing it +to a narrow application. Thus, _city_ is a word applied to any one of +its kind; but _Chicago_ names one city, and fixes the attention upon +that particular city. _King_ may be applied to any ruler of a kingdom, +but _Alfred the Great_ is the name of one king only. + +The word _proper_ is from a Latin word meaning _limited, belonging to +one_. This does not imply, however, that a proper name can be applied +to only one object, but that each time such a name is applied it is +fixed or proper to that object. Even if there are several Bostons or +Manchesters, the name of each is an individual or proper name. + + +[Sidenote: _Name for any individual of a class._] + +5. A common noun is a name possessed by _any_ one of a class of +persons, animals, or things. + +_Common_, as here used, is from a Latin word which means _general, +possessed by all_. + +For instance, _road_ is a word that names _any_ highway outside of +cities; _wagon_ is a term that names _any_ vehicle of a certain kind +used for hauling: the words are of the widest application. We may say, +_the man here_, or _the man in front of you_, but the word _man_ is +here hedged in by other words or word groups: the name itself is of +general application. + +[Sidenote: _Name for a group or collection of objects._] + +Besides considering persons, animals, and things separately, we may +think of them in groups, and appropriate names to the groups. + +Thus, men in groups may be called a _crowd_, or a _mob_, a +_committee_, or a _council_, or a _congress_, etc. + +These are called COLLECTIVE NOUNS. They properly belong under common +nouns, because each group is considered as a unit, and the name +applied to it belongs to any group of its class. + + +[Sidenote: _Names for things thought of in mass._] + +6. The definition given for common nouns applies more strictly to +class nouns. It may, however, be correctly used for another group of +nouns detailed below; for they are common nouns in the sense that the +names apply to _every particle of similar substance_, instead of to +each individual or separate object. + +They are called MATERIAL NOUNS. Such are _glass_, _iron_, _clay_, +_frost_, _rain_, _snow_, _wheat_, _wine_, _tea_, _sugar_, etc. + +They may be placed in groups as follows:-- + +(1) The metals: _iron_, _gold_, _platinum_, etc. + +(2) Products spoken of in bulk: _tea_, _sugar_, _rice_, _wheat_, etc. + +(3) Geological bodies: _mud_, _sand_, _granite_, _rock_, _stone_, etc. + +(4) Natural phenomena: _rain_, _dew_, _cloud_, _frost_, _mist_, etc. + +(5) Various manufactures: _cloth_ (and the different kinds of cloth), +_potash_, _soap_, _rubber_, _paint_, _celluloid_, etc. + +7. NOTE.--There are some nouns, such as _sun_, _moon_, _earth_, +which seem to be the names of particular individual objects, but which +are not called proper names. + +[Sidenote: _Words naturally of limited application not proper._] + +The reason is, that in proper names the intention is _to exclude_ all +other individuals of the same class, and fasten a special name to the +object considered, as in calling a city _Cincinnati_; but in the words +_sun_, _earth_, etc., there is no such intention. If several bodies +like the center of our solar system are known, they also are called +_suns_ by a natural extension of the term: so with the words _earth_, +_world_, etc. They remain common class names. + + +[Sidenote: _Names of ideas, not things._] + +8. Abstract nouns are names of qualities, conditions, or actions, +considered abstractly, or apart from their natural connection. + +When we speak of a _wise man_, we recognize in him an attribute or +quality. If we wish to think simply of that quality without describing +the person, we speak of the _wisdom_ of the man. The quality is still +there as much as before, but it is taken merely as a name. So +_poverty_ would express the condition of a poor person; _proof_ means +the act of proving, or that which shows a thing has been proved; and +so on. + +Again, we may say, "_Painting_ is a fine art," "_Learning_ is hard to +acquire," "a man of _understanding_." + + +9. There are two chief divisions of abstract nouns:-- + +(1) ATTRIBUTE NOUNS, expressing attributes or qualities. + +(2) VERBAL NOUNS, expressing state, condition, or action. + + +[Sidenote: _Attribute abstract nouns._] + +10. The ATTRIBUTE ABSTRACT NOUNS are derived from adjectives and +from common nouns. Thus, (1) _prudence_ from _prudent_, _height_ from +_high_, _redness_ from _red_, _stupidity_ from _stupid_, etc.; (2) +_peerage_ from _peer_, _childhood_ from _child_, _mastery_ from +_master_, _kingship_ from _king_, etc. + + + +[Sidenote: _Verbal abstract nouns._] + +II. The VERBAL ABSTRACT NOUNS Originate in verbs, as their name +implies. They may be-- + +(1) Of the same form as the simple verb. The verb, by altering its +function, is used as a noun; as in the expressions, "a long _run_" "a +bold _move_," "a brisk _walk_." + +(2) Derived from verbs by changing the ending or adding a suffix: +_motion_ from _move_, _speech_ from _speak_, _theft_ from _thieve_, +_action_ from _act_, _service_ from _serve_. + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +(3) Derived from verbs by adding _-ing_ to the simple verb. It must be +remembered that these words are _free from any verbal function_. They +cannot govern a word, and they cannot _express_ action, but are merely +_names_ of actions. They are only the husks of verbs, and are to be +rigidly distinguished from _gerunds_ (Secs. 272, 273). + +To avoid difficulty, study carefully these examples: + +The best thoughts and _sayings_ of the Greeks; the moon caused fearful +_forebodings_; in the _beginning_ of his life; he spread his +_blessings_ over the land; the great Puritan _awakening_; our birth is +but a sleep and a _forgetting_; a _wedding_ or a festival; the rude +_drawings_ of the book; masterpieces of the Socratic _reasoning_; the +_teachings_ of the High Spirit; those opinions and _feelings_; there +is time for such _reasonings_; the _well-being_ of her subjects; her +_longing_ for their favor; _feelings_ which their original _meaning_ +will by no means justify; the main _bearings_ of this matter. + + +[Sidenote: _Underived abstract nouns._] + +12. Some abstract nouns were not derived from any other part of +speech, but were framed directly for the expression of certain ideas +or phenomena. Such are _beauty_, _joy_, _hope_, _ease_, _energy_; +_day_, _night_, _summer_, _winter_; _shadow_, _lightning_, _thunder_, +etc. + +The adjectives or verbs corresponding to these are either themselves +derived from the nouns or are totally different words; as +_glad_--_joy_, _hopeful_--_hope_, etc. + + + +Exercises. + +1. From your reading bring up sentences containing ten common nouns, +five proper, five abstract. + +--NOTE.--Remember that all sentences are to be _selected_ from +standard literature. + +2. Under what class of nouns would you place (_a_) the names of +diseases, as _pneumonia_, _pleurisy_, _catarrh_, _typhus_, +_diphtheria_; (_b_) branches of knowledge, as _physics_, _algebra_, +_geology_, _mathematics_? + +3. Mention collective nouns that will embrace groups of each of the +following individual nouns:-- + + man + horse + bird + fish + partridge + pupil + bee + soldier + book + sailor + child + sheep + ship + ruffian + +4. Using a dictionary, tell from what word each of these abstract +nouns is derived:-- + + sight + speech + motion + pleasure + patience + friendship + deceit + bravery + height + width + wisdom + regularity + advice + seizure + nobility + relief + death + raid + honesty + judgment + belief + occupation + justice + service + trail + feeling + choice + simplicity + + +SPECIAL USES OF NOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Nouns change by use._] + +13. By being used so as to vary their usual meaning, nouns of one +class may be made to approach another class, or to go over to it +entirely. Since words alter their meaning so rapidly by a widening or +narrowing of their application, we shall find numerous examples of +this shifting from class to class; but most of them are in the +following groups. For further discussion see the remarks on articles +(p. 119). + + +[Sidenote: _Proper names transferred to common use._] + +14. Proper nouns are used as common in either of two ways:-- + +(1) _The origin of a thing is used for the thing itself_: that is, the +name of the inventor may be applied to the thing invented, as a +_davy_, meaning the miner's lamp invented by Sir Humphry Davy; the +_guillotine_, from the name of Dr. Guillotin, who was its inventor. Or +the name of the country or city from which an article is derived is +used for the article: as _china_, from China; _arras_, from a town in +France; _port_ (wine), from Oporto, in Portugal; _levant_ and +_morocco_ (leather). + +Some of this class have become worn by use so that at present we can +scarcely discover the derivation from the form of the word; for +example, the word _port_, above. Others of similar character are +_calico_, from Calicut; _damask_, from Damascus; _currants_, from +Corinth; etc. + +(2) _The name of a person or place noted for certain qualities is +transferred to any person or place possessing those qualities_; +thus,-- + + Hercules and Samson were noted for their strength, and we call a + very strong man _a Hercules_ or _a Samson_. Sodom was famous for + wickedness, and a similar place is called _a Sodom_ of sin. + + _A Daniel_ come to judgment!--SHAKESPEARE. + + If it prove a mind of uncommon activity and power, _a Locke_, _a + Lavoisier_, _a Hutton_, _a Bentham_, _a Fourier_, it imposes its + classification on other men, and lo! a new system.--EMERSON. + + +[Sidenote: _Names for things in bulk altered for separate portions._] + +15. Material nouns may be used as class names. Instead of +considering the whole body of material of which certain uses are made, +one can speak of particular uses or phases of the substance; as-- + +(1) _Of individual objects_ made from metals or other substances +capable of being wrought into various shapes. We know a number of +objects made of iron. The material _iron_ embraces the metal contained +in them all; but we may say, "The cook made the _irons_ hot," +referring to flat-irons; or, "The sailor was put in _irons_" meaning +chains of iron. So also we may speak of _a glass_ to drink from or to +look into; _a steel_ to whet a knife on; _a rubber_ for erasing marks; +and so on. + +(2) _Of classes_ or _kinds_ of the same substance. These are the same +in material, but differ in strength, purity, etc. Hence it shortens +speech to make the nouns plural, and say _teas_, _tobaccos_, _paints_, +_oils_, _candies_, _clays_, _coals_. + +(3) _By poetical use_, of certain words necessarily singular in idea, +which are made plural, or used as class nouns, as in the following:-- + + The lone and level _sands_ stretch far away.--SHELLEY. + + From all around-- + Earth and her _waters_, and the depths of air-- + Comes a still voice.--BRYANT. + + Their airy ears + _The winds_ have stationed on the mountain peaks. + --PERCIVAL. + +(4) _Of detached portions_ of matter used as class names; as _stones_, +_slates_, _papers_, _tins_, _clouds_, _mists_, etc. + + +[Sidenote: _Personification of abstract ideas._] + +16. Abstract nouns are frequently used as proper names by being +personified; that is, the ideas are spoken of as residing in living +beings. This is a poetic usage, though not confined to verse. + + Next _Anger_ rushed; his eyes, on fire, + In lightnings owned his secret stings.--COLLINS. + + _Freedom's_ fame finds wings on every wind.--BYRON. + + _Death_, his mask melting like a nightmare dream, smiled.--HAYNE. + + _Traffic_ has lain down to rest; and only _Vice_ and _Misery_, to + prowl or to moan like night birds, are abroad.--CARLYLE. + + +[Sidenote: _A halfway class of words. Class nouns in use, abstract in +meaning._] + +17. Abstract nouns are made half abstract by being spoken of in +the plural. + +They are not then pure abstract nouns, nor are they common class +nouns. For example, examine this:-- + + The _arts_ differ from the _sciences_ in this, that their power + is founded not merely on _facts_ which can be communicated, but + on _dispositions_ which require to be created.--RUSKIN. + +When it is said that _art_ differs from _science_, that the power of +art is founded on _fact_, that _disposition_ is the thing to be +created, the words italicized are pure abstract nouns; but in case _an +art_ or _a science_, or _the arts_ and _sciences_, be spoken of, the +abstract idea is partly lost. The words preceded by the article _a_, +or made plural, are still names of abstract ideas, not material +things; but they widen the application to separate kinds of _art_ or +different branches of _science_. They are neither class nouns nor pure +abstract nouns: they are more properly called _half abstract_. + +Test this in the following sentences:-- + + Let us, if we must have great _actions_, make our own + so.--EMERSON. + + And still, as each repeated _pleasure_ tired, Succeeding _sports_ + the mirthful band inspired.--GOLDSMITH. + + But ah! those _pleasures_, _loves_, and _joys_ + Which I too keenly taste, + The Solitary can despise.--BURNS. + + All these, however, were mere _terrors_ of the night.--IRVING. + + +[Sidenote: _By ellipses, nouns used to modify._] + +18. Nouns used as descriptive terms. Sometimes a noun is attached +to another noun to add to its meaning, or describe it; for example, "a +_family_ quarrel," "a _New York_ bank," "the _State Bank Tax_ bill," +"a _morning_ walk." + +It is evident that these approach very near to the function of +adjectives. But it is better to consider them as nouns, for these +reasons: they do not give up their identity as nouns; they do not +express quality; they cannot be compared, as descriptive adjectives +are. + +They are more like the possessive noun, which belongs to another word, +but is still a noun. They may be regarded as elliptical expressions, +meaning a walk _in the morning_, a bank _in New York_, a bill _as to +tax on the banks_, etc. + +NOTE.--If the descriptive word be a _material_ noun, it may be +regarded as changed to an adjective. The term "_gold_ pen" conveys the +same idea as "_golden_ pen," which contains a pure adjective. + + +WORDS AND WORD GROUPS USED AS NOUNS. + +[Sidenote: _The noun may borrow from any part of speech, or from any +expression._] + +19. Owing to the scarcity of distinctive forms, and to the +consequent flexibility of English speech, words which are usually +other parts of speech are often used as nouns; and various word groups +may take the place of nouns by being used as nouns. + +[Sidenote: _Adjectives, Conjunctions, Adverbs._] + +(1) _Other parts of speech_ used as nouns:-- + + _The great_, _the wealthy_, fear thy blow.--BURNS. + + Every _why_ hath a _wherefore_.--SHAKESPEARE. + + When I was young? Ah, woeful _When_! + Ah! for the change 'twixt _Now_ and _Then_! + --COLERIDGE. + +(2) _Certain word groups_ used like single nouns:-- + + _Too swift_ arrives as tardy as _too slow_.--SHAKESPEARE. + + Then comes the "_Why, sir_!" and the "_What then, sir_?" and the + "_No, sir_!" and the "_You don't see your way through the + question, sir_!"--MACAULAY + +(3) Any part of speech may be considered merely as a word, without +reference to its function in the sentence; also titles of books are +treated as simple nouns. + + The _it_, at the beginning, is ambiguous, whether it mean the sun + or the cold.--Dr BLAIR + + In this definition, is the word "_just_," or "_legal_," finally + to stand?--RUSKIN. + + There was also a book of Defoe's called an "_Essay on Projects_," + and another of Dr. Mather's called "_Essays to do Good_."--B. + FRANKLIN. + + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +20. It is to be remembered, however, that the above cases are +shiftings of the _use_, of words rather than of their _meaning_. We +seldom find instances of complete conversion of one part of speech +into another. + +When, in a sentence above, the terms _the great_, _the wealthy_, are +used, they are not names only: we have in mind the idea of persons and +the quality of being _great_ or _wealthy_. The words are used in the +sentence where nouns are used, but have an adjectival meaning. + +In the other sentences, _why_ and _wherefore_, _When_, _Now_, and +_Then_, are spoken of as if pure nouns; but still the reader considers +this not a natural application of them as name words, but as a figure +of speech. + +NOTE.--These remarks do not apply, of course, to such words as become +pure nouns by use. There are many of these. The adjective _good_ has +no claim on the noun _goods_; so, too, in speaking of the _principal_ +of a school, or a state _secret_, or a faithful _domestic_, or a +_criminal_, etc., the words are entirely independent of any adjective +force. + + +Exercise. + +Pick out the nouns in the following sentences, and tell to which class +each belongs. Notice if any have shifted from one class to another. + + +1. Hope springs eternal in the human breast. + +2. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of Fate. + +3. Stone walls do not a prison make. + Nor iron bars a cage. + +4. Truth-teller was our England's Alfred named. + +5. A great deal of talent is lost to the world for want of a little +courage. + +6. Power laid his rod aside, + And Ceremony doff'd her pride. + +7. She sweeps it through the court with troops of ladies. + +8. Learning, that cobweb of the brain. + +9. A little weeping would ease my heart; + But in their briny bed + My tears must stop, for every drop + Hinders needle and thread. + +10. A fool speaks all his mind, but a wise man reserves something for +hereafter. + +11. Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much; Wisdom is humble +that he knows no more. + +12. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast. + +13. And see, he cried, the welcome, + Fair guests, that waits you here. + +14. The fleet, shattered and disabled, returned to Spain. + +15. One To-day is worth two To-morrows. + +16. Vessels carrying coal are constantly moving. + +17. Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest, + Some Cromwell guiltless of his country's blood. + +18. And oft we trod a waste of pearly sands. + +19. A man he seems of cheerful yesterdays + And confident to-morrows. + +20. The hours glide by; the silver moon is gone. + +21. Her robes of silk and velvet came from over the sea. + +22. My soldier cousin was once only a drummer boy. + +23. But pleasures are like poppies spread, + You seize the flower, its bloom is shed. + +24. All that thou canst call thine own Lies in thy To-day. + + +INFLECTIONS OF NOUNS. + + +GENDER. + + +[Sidenote: _What gender means in English. It is founded on sex._] + +21. In Latin, Greek, German, and many other languages, some general +rules are given that names of male beings are usually masculine, and +names of females are usually feminine. There are exceptions even to +this general statement, but not so in English. Male beings are, in +English grammar, always masculine; female, always feminine. + +When, however, _inanimate_ things are spoken of, these languages are +totally unlike our own in determining the gender of words. For +instance: in Latin, _hortus_ (garden) is masculine, _mensa_ (table) is +feminine, _corpus_ (body) is neuter; in German, _das Messer_ (knife) +is neuter, _der Tisch_ (table) is masculine, _die Gabel_ (fork) is +feminine. + +The great difference is, that in English the gender follows the +_meaning_ of the word, in other languages gender follows the _form_; +that is, in English, gender depends on _sex_: if a thing spoken of is +of the male sex, the _name_ of it is masculine; if of the female sex, +the _name_ of it is feminine. Hence: + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +22. Gender is the mode of distinguishing sex by words, or +additions to words. + + +23. It is evident from this that English can have but two +genders,--masculine and feminine. + +[Sidenote: _Gender nouns. Neuter nouns._] + +All nouns, then, must be divided into two principal classes,--gender +nouns, those distinguishing the sex of the object; and neuter +nouns, those which do not distinguish sex, or names of things without +life, and consequently without sex. + +Gender nouns include names of persons and some names of animals; +neuter nouns include some animals and all inanimate objects. + + +[Sidenote: _Some words either gender or neuter nouns, according to +use._] + +24. Some words may be either gender nouns or neuter nouns, according +to their use. Thus, the word _child_ is neuter in the sentence, "A +little _child_ shall lead them," but is masculine in the sentence +from Wordsworth,-- + + I have seen + A curious _child_ ... applying to _his_ ear + The convolutions of a smooth-lipped shell. + +Of animals, those with which man comes in contact often, or which +arouse his interest most, are named by gender nouns, as in these +sentences:-- + + Before the barn door strutted the gallant _cock_, that pattern of + a husband, ... clapping _his_ burnished wings.--IRVING. + + _Gunpowder_ ... came to a stand just by the bridge, with a + suddenness that had nearly sent _his_ rider sprawling over _his_ + head--_id._ + +Other animals are not distinguished as to sex, but are spoken of as +neuter, the sex being of no consequence. + + Not a _turkey_ but he [Ichabod] beheld daintily trussed up, with + _its_ gizzard under _its_ wing.--IRVING. + + He next stooped down to feel the _pig_, if there were any signs + of life in _it_.--LAMB. + + +[Sidenote: _No "common gender._"] + +25. According to the definition, there can be no such thing as +"common gender:" words either distinguish sex (or the sex is +distinguished by the context) or else they do not distinguish sex. + +If such words as _parent_, _servant_, _teacher_, _ruler_, _relative_, +_cousin_, _domestic_, etc., do not show the sex to which the persons +belong, they are neuter words. + + +26. Put in convenient form, the division of words according to sex, +or the lack of it, is,-- + + (MASCULINE: Male beings. +Gender nouns { + (FEMININE: Female beings. + +Neuter nouns: Names of inanimate things, or of living beings whose +sex cannot be determined. + + +27. The inflections for gender belong, of course, only to masculine +and feminine nouns. _Forms_ would be a more accurate word than +_inflections_, since inflection applies only to the _case_ of nouns. + +There are three ways to distinguish the genders:-- + +(1) By prefixing a gender word to another word. + +(2) By adding a suffix, generally to a masculine word. + +(3) By using a different word for each gender. + + +I. Gender shown by Prefixes. + + +[Sidenote: _Very few of class I._] + +28. Usually the gender words _he_ and _she_ are prefixed to neuter +words; as _he-goat_--_she-goat_, _cock sparrow_--_hen sparrow_, +_he-bear_--_she-bear_. + +One feminine, _woman_, puts a prefix before the masculine _man_. +_Woman_ is a short way of writing _wifeman_. + + +II. Gender shown by Suffixes. + + +29. By far the largest number of gender words are those marked by +suffixes. In this particular the native endings have been largely +supplanted by foreign suffixes. + +[Sidenote: _Native suffixes._] + +The native suffixes to indicate the feminine were _-en_ and _-ster_. +These remain in _vixen_ and _spinster_, though both words have lost +their original meanings. + +The word _vixen_ was once used as the feminine of _fox_ by the +Southern-English. For _fox_ they said _vox_; for _from_ they said +_vram_; and for the older word _fat_ they said _vat_, as in _wine +vat_. Hence _vixen_ is for _fyxen_, from the masculine _fox_. + +_Spinster_ is a relic of a large class of words that existed in Old +and Middle English,[1] but have now lost their original force as +feminines. The old masculine answering to _spinster_ was _spinner_; +but _spinster_ has now no connection with it. + +The foreign suffixes are of two kinds:-- + +[Sidenote: _Foreign suffixes. Unaltered and little used._] + +(1) Those belonging to borrowed words, as _czarina_, _señorita_, +_executrix_, _donna_. These are attached to foreign words, and are +never used for words recognized as English. + +[Sidenote: _Slightly changed and widely used._] + +(2) That regarded as the standard or regular termination of the +feminine, _-ess_ (French _esse_, Low Latin _issa_), the one most used. +The corresponding masculine may have the ending _-er_ (_-or_), but in +most cases it has not. Whenever we adopt a new masculine word, the +feminine is formed by adding this termination _-ess_. + +Sometimes the _-ess_ has been added to a word already feminine by the +ending _-ster_; as _seam-str-ess_, _song-str-ess_. The ending _-ster_ +had then lost its force as a feminine suffix; it has none now in the +words _huckster_, _gamester_, _trickster_, _punster_. + + +[Sidenote: _Ending of masculine not changed._] + +30. The ending _-ess_ is added to many words without changing the +ending of the masculine; as,-- + + baron--baroness + count--countess + lion--lioness + Jew--Jewess + heir--heiress + host--hostess + priest--priestess + giant--giantess + +[Sidenote: _Masculine ending dropped._] + +The masculine ending may be dropped before the feminine _-ess_ is +added; as,-- + + abbot--abbess + negro--negress + murderer--murderess + sorcerer--sorceress + +[Sidenote: _Vowel dropped before adding_ -ess.] + +The feminine may discard a vowel which appears in the masculine; as +in-- + + actor--actress + master--mistress + benefactor--benefactress + emperor--empress + tiger--tigress + enchanter--enchantress + +_Empress_ has been cut down from _emperice_ (twelfth century) and +_emperesse_ (thirteenth century), from Latin _imperatricem_. + +_Master_ and _mistress_ were in Middle English +_maister_--_maistresse_, from the Old French _maistre_--_maistresse_. + + +31. When the older _-en_ and _-ster_ went out of use as the +distinctive mark of the feminine, the ending _-ess_, from the French +_-esse_, sprang into a popularity much greater than at present. + +[Sidenote: _Ending_ -ess _less used now than formerly._] + +Instead of saying _doctress_, _fosteress_, _wagoness_, as was said in +the sixteenth century, or _servauntesse_, _teacheresse_, +_neighboresse_, _frendesse_, as in the fourteenth century, we have +dispensed with the ending in many cases, and either use a prefix word +or leave the masculine to do work for the feminine also. + +Thus, we say _doctor_ (masculine and feminine) or _woman doctor_, +_teacher_ or _lady teacher_, _neighbor_ (masculine and feminine), etc. +We frequently use such words as _author_, _editor_, _chairman_, to +represent persons of either sex. + +NOTE.--There is perhaps this distinction observed: when we speak of a +female _as an active agent_ merely, we use the masculine termination, +as, "George Eliot is the _author_ of 'Adam Bede;'" but when we speak +purposely _to denote a distinction from a male_, we use the feminine, +as, "George Eliot is an eminent _authoress_." + + + +III. Gender shown by Different Words. + + +32. In some of these pairs, the feminine and the masculine are +entirely different words; others have in their origin the same root. +Some of them have an interesting history, and will be noted below:-- + + bachelor--maid + boy--girl + brother--sister + drake--duck + earl--countess + father--mother + gander--goose + hart--roe + horse--mare + husband--wife + king--queen + lord--lady + wizard--witch + nephew--niece + ram--ewe + sir--madam + son--daughter + uncle--aunt + bull--cow + boar--sow + +Girl originally meant a child of either sex, and was used for male +or female until about the fifteenth century. + +Drake is peculiar in that it is formed from a corresponding feminine +which is no longer used. It is not connected historically with our +word _duck_, but is derived from _ened_ (duck) and an obsolete suffix +_rake_ (king). Three letters of _ened_ have fallen away, leaving our +word _drake_. + +Gander and goose were originally from the same root word. _Goose_ +has various cognate forms in the languages akin to English (German +_Gans_, Icelandic _gás_, Danish _gaas_, etc.). The masculine was +formed by adding _-a_, the old sign of the masculine. This _gansa_ was +modified into _gan-ra_, _gand-ra_, finally _gander_; the _d_ being +inserted to make pronunciation easy, as in many other words. + +Mare, in Old English _mere_, had the masculine _mearh_ (horse), but +this has long been obsolete. + +Husband and wife are not connected in origin. _Husband_ is a +Scandinavian word (Anglo-Saxon _hūsbonda_ from Icelandic _hús-bóndi_, +probably meaning house dweller); _wife_ was used in Old and Middle +English to mean woman in general. + +King and queen are said by some (Skeat, among others) to be from +the same root word, but the German etymologist Kluge says they are +not. + +Lord is said to be a worn-down form of the Old English _hlāf-weard_ +(loaf keeper), written _loverd_, _lhauerd_, or _lauerd_ in Middle +English. Lady is from _hlœ̄̄fdige_ (_hlœ̄̄f_ meaning loaf, and +_dige_ being of uncertain origin and meaning). + +Witch is the Old English _wicce_, but wizard is from the Old +French _guiscart_ (prudent), not immediately connected with _witch_, +though both are ultimately from the same root. + +Sir is worn down from the Old French _sire_ (Latin _senior_). +Madam is the French _ma dame_, from Latin _mea domina_. + + +[Sidenote: _Two masculines from feminines._] + +33. Besides _gander_ and _drake_, there are two other masculine +words that were formed from the feminine:-- + +Bridegroom, from Old English _brȳd-guma_ (bride's man). The _r_ in +_groom_ has crept in from confusion with the word _groom_. + +Widower, from the weakening of the ending _-a_ in Old English to +_-e_ in Middle English. The older forms, _widuwa_--_widuwe_, became +identical, and a new masculine ending was therefore added to +distinguish the masculine from the feminine (compare Middle English +_widuer_--_widewe_). + + +Personification. + + +34. Just as abstract ideas are personified (Sec. 16), material +objects may be spoken of like gender nouns; for example,-- + + "Now, where the swift _Rhone_ cleaves _his_ way."--BYRON. + + The _Sun_ now rose upon the right: + Out of the sea came _he_. + --COLERIDGE. + + And haply the _Queen Moon_ is on _her_ throne, + Clustered around by all her starry Fays. + --KEATS, + + _Britannia_ needs no bulwarks, + No towers along the steep; + _Her_ march is o'er the mountain waves, + _Her_ home is on the deep. + --CAMPBELL + +This is not exclusively a poetic use. In ordinary speech +personification is very frequent: the pilot speaks of his boat as +feminine; the engineer speaks so of his engine; etc. + +[Sidenote: _Effect of personification._] + +In such cases the gender is marked by the pronoun, and not by the form +of the noun. But the fact that in English the distinction of gender is +confined to difference of sex makes these departures more effective. + + + +NUMBER. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +35. In nouns, number means the mode of indicating whether we are +speaking of one thing or of more than one. + + +36. Our language has two numbers,--_singular_ and _plural_. The +singular number denotes that one thing is spoken of; the plural, more +than one. + + +37. There are three ways of changing the singular form to the +plural:-- + +(1) By adding _-en_. + +(2) By changing the root vowel. + +(3) By adding _-s_ (or _-es_). + +The first two methods prevailed, together with the third, in Old +English, but in modern English _-s_ or _-es_ has come to be the +"standard" ending; that is, whenever we adopt a new word, we make its +plural by adding _-s_ or _-es._ + + +I. Plurals formed by the Suffix _-en_. + + +[Sidenote: _The_ -en _inflection._] + +38. This inflection remains only in the word oxen, though it was +quite common in Old and Middle English; for instance, _eyen_ (eyes), +_treen_ (trees), _shoon_ (shoes), which last is still used in Lowland +Scotch. _Hosen_ is found in the King James version of the Bible, and +_housen_ is still common in the provincial speech in England. + + +39. But other words were inflected afterwards, in imitation of the +old words in _-en_ by making a double plural. + +[Sidenote: -En _inflection imitated by other words._] + +Brethren has passed through three stages. The old plural was +_brothru_, then _brothre_ or _brethre_, finally _brethren_. The +weakening of inflections led to this addition. + +Children has passed through the same history, though the +intermediate form _childer_ lasted till the seventeenth century in +literary English, and is still found in dialects; as,-- + + "God bless me! so then, after all, you'll have a chance to see + your _childer_ get up like, and get settled."--QUOTED BY DE + QUINCEY. + +Kine is another double plural, but has now no singular. + + In spite of wandering _kine_ and other adverse + circumstance.--THOREAU. + + +II. Plurals formed by Vowel Change. + + +40. Examples of this inflection are,-- + + man--men + foot--feet + goose--geese + louse--lice + mouse--mice + tooth--teeth + +Some other words--as _book_, _turf_, _wight_, _borough_--formerly had +the same inflection, but they now add the ending _-s_. + + +41. Akin to this class are some words, originally neuter, that have +the singular and plural alike; such as _deer_, _sheep_, _swine_, etc. + +Other words following the same usage are, _pair_, _brace_, _dozen_, +after numerals (if not after numerals, or if preceded by the +prepositions _in_, _by_, etc, they add _-s_): also _trout_, _salmon_; +_head_, _sail_; _cannon_; _heathen_, _folk_, _people_. + +The words _horse_ and _foot_, when they mean soldiery, retain the +same form for plural meaning; as,-- + + The _foot_ are fourscore thousand, + The _horse_ are thousands ten. + --MACAULAY. + + Lee marched over the mountain wall,-- + Over the mountains winding down, + _Horse_ and _foot_, into Frederick town. + --WHITTIER. + + + +III. Plurals formed by Adding -s or -es. + + +42. Instead of _-s,_ the ending _-es_ is added-- + +(1) If a word ends in a letter which cannot add _-s_ and be +pronounced. Such are _box, cross, ditch, glass, lens, quartz_, etc. + +[Sidenote: _-Es added in certain cases_.] + +If the word ends in a _sound_ which cannot add _-s_, a new syllable is +made; as, _niche--niches, race--races, house--houses, prize--prizes, +chaise--chaises_, etc. + +_-Es_ is also added to a few words ending in -o, though this sound +combines readily with _-s_, and does not make an extra syllable: +_cargo--cargoes, negro--negroes, hero--heroes, volcano--volcanoes_, +etc. + +Usage differs somewhat in other words of this class, some adding _-s_, +and some _-es_. + +(2) If a word ends in _-y_ preceded by a consonant (the _y_ being then +changed to _i_); e.g., _fancies, allies, daisies, fairies_. + +[Sidenote: _Words in -ies._] + +Formerly, however, these words ended in _-ie_, and the real ending is +therefore _-s_. Notice these from Chaucer (fourteenth century):-- + +[Sidenote: _Their old form._] + + The _lilie_ on hir stalke grene. + Of _maladie_ the which he hadde endured. + +And these from Spenser (sixteenth century):-- + + Be well aware, quoth then that _ladie_ milde. + At last fair Hesperus in highest _skie_ + Had spent his lampe. + +(3) In the case of some words ending in -_f_ or -_fe_, which have +the plural in _-ves_: _calf_--_calves_, _half_--_halves_, +_knife_--_knives_, _shelf_--_shelves_, etc. + + +Special Lists. + + +43. Material nouns and abstract nouns are always singular. When +such words take a plural ending, they lose their identity, and go over +to other classes (Secs. 15 and 17). + + +44. Proper nouns are regularly singular, but may be made plural +when we wish to speak of several persons or things bearing the same +name; e.g., _the Washingtons_, _the Americas_. + + +45. Some words are usually singular, though they are plural in +form. Examples of these are, _optics_, _economics_, _physics_, +_mathematics_, _politics_, and many branches of learning; also _news_, +_pains_ (care), _molasses_, _summons_, _means_: as,-- + + _Politics_, in its widest extent, is both the science and the art + of government.--_Century Dictionary_. + + So live, that when thy _summons comes_, etc.--BRYANT. + + It served simply as _a means_ of sight.--PROF. DANA. + +[Sidenote: Means _plural_.] + +Two words, means and politics, _may be plural_ in their +construction with verbs and adjectives:-- + + Words, by strongly conveying the passions, by _those means_ which + we have already mentioned, fully compensate for their weakness in + other respects.--BURKE. + + With great dexterity _these means_ were now applied.--MOTLEY. + + By _these means_, I say, riches will accumulate.--GOLDSMITH. + +[Sidenote: Politics _plural_.] + + Cultivating a feeling that _politics_ are tiresome.--G.W. CURTIS. + + The _politics_ in which he took the keenest interest _were + politics_ scarcely deserving of the name.--MACAULAY. + + Now I read all the _politics_ that _come_ out.--GOLDSMITH. + + +46. Some words have no corresponding singular. + + aborigines + amends + annals + assets + antipodes + scissors + thanks + spectacles + vespers + victuals + matins + nuptials + oats + obsequies + premises + bellows + billiards + dregs + gallows + tongs + +[Sidenote: _Occasionally singular words_.] + +Sometimes, however, a few of these words have the construction of +singular nouns. Notice the following:-- + + They cannot get on without each other any more than one blade of + _a scissors_ can cut without the other.--J.L. LAUGHLIN. + + A relic which, if I recollect right, he pronounced to have been + _a tongs_.--IRVING. + + Besides this, it is furnished with _a forceps_.--GOLDSMITH. + + The air,--was it subdued when...the wind was trained only to turn + a windmill, carry off chaff, or work in _a bellows_?--PROF. DANA. + +In Early Modern English _thank_ is found. + + What _thank_ have ye?--_Bible_ + + +47. Three words were _originally singular_, the present ending _-s_ +not being really a plural inflection, but they are regularly construed +as plural: _alms, eaves, riches_. + + +[Sidenote: _two plurals_.] + +48. A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning. + + brother--brothers (by blood), brethren (of a society or church). + + cloth--cloths (kinds of cloth), clothes (garments). + + die--dies (stamps for coins, etc.), dice (for gaming). + + fish--fish (collectively), fishes (individuals or kinds). + + genius--geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits). + + index--indexes (to books), indices (signs in algebra). + + pea--peas (separately), pease (collectively). + + penny--pennies (separately), pence (collectively). + + shot--shot (collective balls), shots (number of times fired). + +In speaking of coins, _twopence_, _sixpence_, etc., may add _-s_, +making a double plural, as two _sixpences_. + + +[Sidenote: _One plural, two meanings._] + +49. Other words have one plural form with two meanings,--one +corresponding to the singular, the other unlike it. + + custom--customs: (1) habits, ways; (2) revenue duties. + + letter--letters: (1) the alphabet, or epistles; (2) literature. + + number--numbers: (1) figures; (2) poetry, as in the lines,-- + + I lisped in _numbers_, for the numbers came.--POPE. + + Tell me not, in mournful _numbers_.--LONGFELLOW. + +_Numbers_ also means issues, or copies, of a periodical. + + pain--pains: (1) suffering; (2) care, trouble, + + part--parts: (1) divisions; (2) abilities, faculties. + + +[Sidenote: _Two classes of compound words._] + +50. Compound words may be divided into two classes:-- + +(1) _Those whose parts are so closely joined as to constitute one +word._ These make the last part plural. + + courtyard + dormouse + Englishman + fellow-servant + fisherman + Frenchman + forget-me-not + goosequill + handful + mouthful + cupful + maidservant + pianoforte + stepson + spoonful + titmouse + +(2) _Those groups in which the first part is the principal one, +followed by a word or phrase making a modifier._ The chief member adds +_-s_ in the plural. + + aid-de-camp + attorney at law + billet-doux + commander in chief + court-martial + cousin-german + father-in-law + knight-errant + hanger-on + +NOTE.--Some words ending in _-man_ are not compounds of the English +word _man_, but add _-s_; such as _talisman_, _firman_, _Brahman_, +_German_, _Norman_, _Mussulman_, _Ottoman_. + + +51. Some groups pluralize both parts of the group; as _man singer_, +_manservant_, _woman servant_, _woman singer_. + + +[Sidenote: _Two methods in use for names with titles._] + +52. As to plurals of names with titles, there is some disagreement +among English writers. The title may be plural, as _the Messrs. +Allen_, _the Drs. Brown_, _the Misses Rich_; or the name may be +pluralized. + +The former is perhaps more common in present-day use, though the +latter is often found; for example,-- + + Then came Mr. and Mrs. Briggs, and then _the three Miss + Spinneys_, then Silas Peckham.--DR. HOLMES. + + Our immortal Fielding was of the younger branch of the _Earls of + Denbigh_, who drew their origin from the _Counts of + Hapsburgh_.--GIBBON. + + The _Miss Flamboroughs_ were reckoned the best dancers in the + parish.--GOLDSMITH. + + The _Misses Nettengall's_ young ladies come to the Cathedral + too.--DICKENS. + + The _Messrs. Harper_ have done the more than generous thing by + Mr. Du Maurier.--_The Critic_. + + +53. A number of foreign words have been adopted into English +without change of form. These are said to be _domesticated_, and +retain their foreign plurals. + +Others have been adopted, and by long use have altered their power so +as to conform to English words. They are then said to be +_naturalized_, or _Anglicized_, or _Englished_. + +[Sidenote: _Domesticated words._] + +The domesticated words may retain the original plural. Some of them +have a secondary English plural in _-s_ or _-es_. + + +Exercise. + +Find in the dictionary the plurals of these words:-- + +I. FROM THE LATIN. + + apparatus + appendix + axis + datum + erratum + focus + formula + genus + larva + medium + memorandum + nebula + radius + series + species + stratum + terminus + vertex + +II. FROM THE GREEK. + + analysis + antithesis + automaton + basis + crisis + ellipsis + hypothesis + parenthesis + phenomenon + thesis + +[Sidenote: _Anglicized words._] + +When the foreign words are fully naturalized, they form their plurals +in the regular way; as,-- + + bandits + cherubs + dogmas + encomiums + enigmas + focuses + formulas + geniuses + herbariums + indexes + seraphs + apexes + + +[Sidenote: _Usage varies in plurals of letters, figures, etc._] + +54. Letters, figures, etc., form their plurals by adding _-s_ or +_'s_. Words quoted merely as words, without reference to their +meaning, also add _-s_ or _'s_; as, "His _9's_ (or _9s_) look like +_7's_ (or _7s_)," "Avoid using too many _and's_ (or _ands_)," "Change +the _+'s_ (or _+s_) to _-'s_ (or _-s_)." + + +CASE. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +55. Case is an inflection or use of a noun (or pronoun) to show its +relation to other words in the sentence. + +In the sentence, "He sleeps in a felon's cell," the word _felon's_ +modifies _cell_, and expresses a relation akin to possession; _cell_ +has another relation, helping to express the idea of place with the +word _in_. + + +56. In the general wearing-away of inflections, the number of case +forms has been greatly reduced. + +[Sidenote: _Only two_ case forms.] + +There are now only two case forms of English nouns,--one for the +_nominative_ and _objective_, one for the _possessive_: consequently +the matter of inflection is a very easy thing to handle in learning +about cases. + +[Sidenote: _Reasons for speaking of_ three cases _of nouns_.] + +But there are reasons why grammars treat of _three_ cases of nouns +when there are only two forms:-- + +(1) Because the relations of all words, whether inflected or not, must +be understood for purposes of analysis. + +(2) Because pronouns still have three case forms as well as three case +relations. + + +57. Nouns, then, may be said to have three cases,--the +nominative, the objective, and the possessive. + + +I. Uses of the Nominative. + +58. The nominative case is used as follows:-- + +(1) _As the subject of a verb_: "_Water_ seeks its level." + +(2) _As a predicate noun_, completing a verb, and referring to or +explaining the subject: "A bent twig makes a crooked _tree_." + +(3) _In apposition_ with some other nominative word, adding to the +meaning of that word: "The reaper _Death_ with his sickle keen." + +(4) _In direct address_: "_Lord Angus_, thou hast lied!" + +(5) _With a participle in an absolute or independent phrase_ (there is +some discussion whether this is a true nominative): "The _work_ done, +they returned to their homes." + +(6) _With an infinitive in exclamations_: "_David_ to die!" + + +Exercise. + +Pick out the nouns in the nominative case, and tell which use of the +nominative each one has. + +1. Moderate lamentation is the right of the dead; excessive grief, the +enemy of the living. + +2. Excuses are clothes which, when asked unawares, + Good Breeding to naked Necessity spares. + +3. Human experience is the great test of truth. + +4. Cheerfulness and content are great beautifiers. + +5. Three properties belong to wisdom,--nature, learning, and +experience; three things characterize man,--person, fate, and merit. + +6. But of all plagues, good Heaven, thy wrath can send, + Save, save, oh save me from the candid friend! + +7. Conscience, her first law broken, wounded lies. + +8. They charged, sword in hand and visor down. + +9. O sleep! O gentle sleep! + Nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted thee? + + +II. Uses of the Objective. + +59. The objective case is used as follows:-- + +(1) _As the direct object of a verb_, naming the person or thing +directly receiving the action of the verb: "Woodman, spare that +_tree_!" + +(2) _As the indirect object of a verb_, naming the person or thing +indirectly affected by the action of the verb: "Give the _devil_ his +due." + +(3) _Adverbially_, defining the action of a verb by denoting _time_, +_measure_, _distance_, etc. (in the older stages of the language, this +took the regular accusative inflection): "Full _fathom_ five thy +father lies;" "Cowards die many _times_ before their deaths." + +(4) _As the second object_, completing the verb, and thus becoming +part of the predicate in acting upon an object: "Time makes the worst +enemies _friends_;" "Thou makest the storm a _calm_." In these +sentences the real predicates are _makes friends_, taking the object +_enemies_, and being equivalent to one verb, _reconciles_; and _makest +a calm_, taking the object _storm_, and meaning calmest. This is also +called the _predicate objective_ or the _factitive object_. + +(5) _As the object of a preposition_, the word toward which the +preposition points, and which it joins to another word: "He must have +a long spoon that would eat with the _devil_." + +The preposition sometimes takes the _possessive_ case of a noun, as +will be seen in Sec. 68. + +(6) _In apposition with another objective_: "The opinions of this +junto were completely controlled by Nicholas Vedder, a _patriarch_ of +the village, and _landlord_ of the inn." + + +Exercise. + +Point out the nouns in the objective case in these sentences, and tell +which use each has:-- + +1. Tender men sometimes have strong wills. + +2. Necessity is the certain connection between cause and effect. + +3. Set a high price on your leisure moments; they are sands of +precious gold. + +4. But the flood came howling one day. + +5. I found the urchin Cupid sleeping. + +6. Five times every year he was to be exposed in the pillory. + +7. The noblest mind the best contentment has. + +8. Multitudes came every summer to visit that famous natural +curiosity, the Great Stone Face. + +9. And whirling plate, and forfeits paid, + His winter task a pastime made. + +10. He broke the ice on the streamlet's brink, + And gave the leper to eat and drink. + + +III. Uses of the Possessive. + + +60. The possessive case always modifies another word, expressed or +understood. There are three forms of possessive showing how a word is +related in sense to the modified word:-- + +(1) _Appositional possessive_, as in these expressions,-- + + The blind old man of _Scio's_ rocky isle.--BYRON. + + Beside a pumice isle in _Baiæ's_ bay.--SHELLEY. + +In these sentences the phrases are equivalent to _of the rocky isle +[of] Scio_, and _in the bay [of] Baiæ_, the possessive being really +equivalent here to an appositional objective. It is a poetic +expression, the equivalent phrase being used in prose. + +(2) _Objective possessive_, as shown in the sentences,-- + + Ann Turner had taught her the secret before this last good lady + had been hanged for _Sir Thomas Overbury's_ murder.--HAWTHORNE. + + He passes to-day in building an air castle for to-morrow, or in + writing _yesterday's_ elegy.--THACKERAY + +In these the possessives are equivalent to an objective after a verbal +expression: as, _for murdering Sir Thomas Overbury_; _an elegy to +commemorate yesterday_. For this reason the use of the possessive here +is called objective. + +(3) _Subjective possessive_, the most common of all; as,-- + + The unwearied sun, from day to day, + Does his Creator's power display. + --ADDISON. + +If this were expanded into _the power which his Creator possesses_, +the word _Creator_ would be the subject of the verb: hence it is +called a subjective possessive. + + +61. This last-named possessive expresses a variety of relations. +_Possession_ in some sense is the most common. The kind of relation +may usually be found by expanding the possessive into an equivalent +phrase: for example, "_Winter's_ rude tempests are gathering now" +(i.e., tempests that winter is likely to have); "His beard was of +_several days'_ growth" (i.e., growth which several days had +developed); "The _forest's_ leaping panther shall yield his spotted +hide" (i.e., the panther which the forest hides); "Whoso sheddeth +_man's_ blood" (blood that man possesses). + + +[Sidenote: _How the possessive is formed._] + +62. As said before (Sec. 56), there are only two case forms. One is +the simple form of a word, expressing the relations of nominative and +objective; the other is formed by adding _'s_ to the simple form, +making the possessive singular. To form the possessive plural, only +the apostrophe is added if the plural nominative ends in _-s_; the +_'s_ is added if the plural nominative does not end in _-s_. + + +Case Inflection. + + +[Sidenote: _Declension or inflection of nouns._] + +63. The full declension of nouns is as follows:-- + + SINGULAR. PLURAL. + +1. _Nom. and Obj._ lady ladies + _Poss._ lady's ladies' + +2. _Nom. and Obj._ child children + _Poss._ child's children's + +[Sidenote: _A suggestion._] + +NOTE.--The difficulty that some students have in writing the +possessive plural would be lessened if they would remember there are +two steps to be taken:-- + +(1) Form the nominative plural according to Secs 39-53 + +(2) Follow the rule given in Sec. 62. + + +Special Remarks on the Possessive Case. + + +[Sidenote: _Origin of the possessive with its apostrophe._] + +64. In Old English a large number of words had in the genitive case +singular the ending _-es_; in Middle English still more words took +this ending: for example, in Chaucer, "From every _schires_ ende," +"Full worthi was he in his _lordes_ werre [war]," "at his _beddes_ +syde," "_mannes_ herte [heart]," etc. + +[Sidenote: _A false theory._] + +By the end of the seventeenth century the present way of indicating +the possessive had become general. The use of the apostrophe, however, +was not then regarded as standing for the omitted vowel of the +genitive (as _lord's_ for _lordes_): by a false theory the ending was +thought to be a contraction of _his_, as schoolboys sometimes write, +"George Jones _his_ book." + +[Sidenote: _Use of the apostrophe._] + +Though this opinion was untrue, the apostrophe has proved a great +convenience, since otherwise words with a plural in _-s_ would have +three forms alike. To the eye all the forms are now distinct, but to +the ear all may be alike, and the connection must tell us what form is +intended. + +The use of the apostrophe in the plural also began in the seventeenth +century, from thinking that _s_ was not a possessive sign, and from a +desire to have distinct forms. + + +[Sidenote: _Sometimes_ s _is left out in the possessive singular._] + +65. Occasionally the _s_ is dropped in the possessive singular if +the word ends in a hissing sound and another hissing sound follows, +but the apostrophe remains to mark the possessive; as, _for goodness' +sake, Cervantes' satirical work_. + +In other cases the _s_ is seldom omitted. Notice these three examples +from Thackeray's writings: "Harry ran upstairs to his _mistress's_ +apartment;" "A postscript is added, as by the _countess's_ command;" +"I saw what the _governess's_ views were of the matter." + + +[Sidenote: _Possessive with compound expressions._] + +66. In compound expressions, containing words in apposition, a word +with a phrase, etc., the possessive sign is usually last, though +instances are found with both appositional words marked. + +Compare the following examples of literary usage:-- + + Do not the Miss Prys, my neighbors, know the amount of my income, + the items of my _son's_, _Captain Scrapegrace's_, tailor's + bill--THACKERAY. + + The world's pomp and power sits there on this hand: on that, + stands up for God's truth one man, the _poor miner Hans Luther's_ + son.--CARLYLE. + + They invited me in the _emperor their master's_ name.--SWIFT. + + I had naturally possessed myself of _Richardson the painter's_ + thick octavo volumes of notes on the "Paradise Lost."--DE + QUINCEY. + + They will go to Sunday schools to teach classes of little + children the age of Methuselah or the dimensions of _Og the king + of Bashan's_ bedstead.--HOLMES. + +More common still is the practice of turning the possessive into an +equivalent phrase; as, _in the name of the emperor their master_, +instead of _the emperor their master's name_. + + +[Sidenote: _Possessive and no noun limited._] + +67. The possessive is sometimes used without belonging to any noun +in the sentence; some such word as _house_, _store_, _church_, +_dwelling_, etc., being understood with it: for example,-- + + Here at the _fruiterer's_ the Madonna has a tabernacle of fresh + laurel leaves.--RUSKIN. + + It is very common for people to say that they are disappointed in + the first sight of _St. Peter's_.--LOWELL. + + I remember him in his cradle at _St. James's_.--THACKERAY. + + Kate saw that; and she walked off from the _don's_.--DE QUINCEY. + + +[Sidenote: _The double possessive._] + +68. A peculiar form, a double possessive, has grown up and become a +fixed idiom in modern English. + +In most cases, a possessive relation was expressed in Old English by +the inflection _-es_, corresponding to _'s_. The same relation was +expressed in French by a phrase corresponding to _of_ and its object. +Both of these are now used side by side; sometimes they are used +together, as one modifier, making a double possessive. For this there +are several reasons:-- + +[Sidenote: _Its advantages: Euphony_.] + +(1) When a word is modified by _a_, _the_, _this_, _that_, _every_, +_no_, _any_, _each_, etc., and at the same time by a possessive noun, +it is distasteful to place the possessive before the modified noun, +and it would also alter the meaning: we place it after the modified +noun with _of_. + +[Sidenote: _Emphasis._] + +(2) It is more emphatic than the simple possessive, especially when +used with _this_ or _that_, for it brings out the modified word in +strong relief. + +[Sidenote: _Clearness._] + +(3) It prevents ambiguity. For example, in such a sentence as, "This +introduction _of Atterbury's_ has all these advantages" (Dr. Blair), +the statement clearly means only one thing,--the introduction which +Atterbury made. If, however, we use the phrase _of Atterbury_, the +sentence _might_ be understood as just explained, or it might mean +this act of introducing Atterbury. (See also Sec. 87.) + +The following are some instances of double possessives:-- + + This Hall _of Tinville's_ is dark, ill-lighted except where she + stands.--CARLYLE. + + Those lectures _of Lowell's_ had a great influence with me, and + I used to like whatever they bade me like.--HOWELLS + + Niebuhr remarks that no pointed sentences _of Cæsar's_ can have + come down to us.--FROUDE. + + Besides these famous books _of Scott's and Johnson's_, there is a + copious "Life" by Thomas Sheridan.--THACKERAY + + Always afterwards on occasions of ceremony, he wore that quaint + old French sword _of the Commodore's_.--E.E. HALE. + + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Pick out the possessive nouns, and tell whether each is +appositional, objective, or subjective. + +(_b_) Rewrite the sentence, turning the possessives into equivalent +phrases. + +1. I don't choose a hornet's nest about my ears. + +2. Shall Rome stand under one man's awe? + +3. I must not see thee Osman's bride. + +4. At lovers' perjuries, + They say, Jove laughs. + +5. The world has all its eyes on Cato's son. + +6. My quarrel and the English queen's are one. + +7. Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, + Comes dancing from the East. + +8. A man's nature runs either to herbs or weeds; therefore, let him +seasonably water the one, and destroy the other. + +9. 'Tis all men's office to speak patience + To those that wring under the load of sorrow. + +10. A jest's prosperity lies in the ear + Of him that hears it, never in the tongue + Of him that makes it. + +11. No more the juice of Egypt's grape shall moist his lip. + +12. There Shakespeare's self, with every garland crowned, + Flew to those fairy climes his fancy sheen. + +13. What supports me? dost thou ask? + The conscience, Friend, to have lost them [his eyes] overplied + In liberty's defence. + +14. Or where Campania's plain forsaken lies, + A weary waste expanding to the skies. + +15. Nature herself, it seemed, would raise + A minster to her Maker's praise! + + +HOW TO PARSE NOUNS. + + +69. Parsing a word is putting together all the facts about its +form and its relations to other words in the sentence. + +In parsing, some idioms--the double possessive, for example--do not +come under regular grammatical rules, and are to be spoken of merely +as idioms. + +70. Hence, in parsing a noun, we state,-- + +(1) The class to which it belongs,--common, proper, etc. + +(2) Whether a neuter or a gender noun; if the latter, which gender. + +(3) Whether singular or plural number. + +(4) Its office in the sentence, determining its case. + +[Sidenote: _The correct method._] + +71. In parsing any word, the following method should always be +followed: tell the facts about what the word _does_, then make the +grammatical statements as to its class, inflections, and relations. + + +MODEL FOR PARSING. + +"What is bolder than a miller's neckcloth, which takes a thief by the +throat every morning?" + +_Miller's_ is a name applied to every individual of its class, hence +it is a common noun; it is the name of a male being, hence it is a +gender noun, masculine; it denotes only one person, therefore +singular number; it expresses possession or ownership, and limits +_neckcloth_, therefore possessive case. + +_Neckcloth_, like _miller's_, is a common class noun; it has no sex, +therefore neuter; names one thing, therefore singular number; subject +of the verb _is_ understood, and therefore nominative case. + +_Thief_ is a common class noun; the connection shows a male is meant, +therefore masculine gender; singular number; object of the verb +_takes_, hence objective case. + +_Throat_ is neuter, of the same class and number as the word +_neckcloth_; it is the object of the preposition _by_, hence it is +objective case. + +NOTE.--The preposition sometimes takes the possessive case (see Sec. +68). + +_Morning_ is like _throat_ and _neckcloth_ as to class, gender, and +number; as to case, it expresses time, has no governing word, but is +the adverbial objective. + + +Exercise. + + +Follow the model above in parsing all the nouns in the following +sentences:-- + + +1. To raise a monument to departed worth is to perpetuate virtue. + +2. The greatest pleasure I know is to do a good action by stealth, and +to have it found out by accident. + +3. An old cloak makes a new jerkin; a withered serving man, a fresh +tapster. + +4. That in the captain's but a choleric word, + Which in the soldier is flat blasphemy. + +5. Now, blessings light on him that first invented ... sleep! + +6. Necker, financial minister to Louis XVI., and his daughter, Madame +de Staël, were natives of Geneva. + +7. He giveth his beloved sleep. + +8. Time makes the worst enemies friends. + +9. A few miles from this point, where the Rhone enters the lake, +stands the famous Castle of Chillon, connected with the shore by a +drawbridge,--palace, castle, and prison, all in one. + +10. Wretches! ye loved her for her wealth, + And hated her for her pride. + +11. Mrs. Jarley's back being towards him, the military gentleman shook +his forefinger. + + + + +PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _The need of pronouns._] + +72. When we wish to speak of a name several times in succession, it +is clumsy and tiresome to repeat the noun. For instance, instead of +saying, "_The pupil_ will succeed in _the pupil's_ efforts if _the +pupil_ is ambitious," we improve the sentence by shortening it thus, +"The pupil will succeed in _his_ efforts if _he_ is ambitious." + +Again, if we wish to know about the ownership of a house, we evidently +cannot state the owner's name, but by a question we say, "_Whose_ +house is that?" thus placing a word instead of the name till we learn +the name. + +This is not to be understood as implying that pronouns were _invented_ +because nouns were tiresome, since history shows that pronouns are as +old as nouns and verbs. The use of pronouns must have sprung up +naturally, from a necessity for short, definite, and representative +words. + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +A pronoun is a reference word, standing for a name, or for a person +or thing, or for a group of persons or things. + + +[Sidenote: _Classes of pronouns._] + +73. Pronouns may be grouped in five classes:-- + +(1) Personal pronouns, which distinguish person by their form (Sec. +76). + +(2) Interrogative pronouns, which are used to ask questions about +persons or things. + +(3) Relative pronouns, which relate or refer to a noun, pronoun, or +other word or expression, and at the same time connect two statements +They are also called conjunctive. + +(4) Adjective pronouns, words, primarily adjectives, which are +classed as adjectives when they modify nouns, but as pronouns when +they stand for nouns. + +(5) Indefinite pronouns, which cannot be used as adjectives, but +stand for an indefinite number of persons or things. + +Numerous examples of all these will be given under the separate +classes hereafter treated. + + +PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Person in grammar._] + +74. Since pronouns stand for persons as well as names, they must +represent the person talking, the person or thing spoken to, and the +person or thing talked about. + +This gives rise to a new term, "the distinction of _person_." + +[Sidenote: Person _of nouns_.] + +75. This distinction was not needed in discussing nouns, as nouns +have the _same form_, whether representing persons and things spoken +to or spoken of. It is evident that a noun could not represent the +person speaking, even if it had a special form. + +From analogy to pronouns, which have _forms_ for person, nouns are +sometimes spoken of as first or second person by their _use_; that is, +if they are in apposition with a pronoun of the first or second +person, they are said to have person by agreement. + +But usually nouns represent something spoken of. + + +[Sidenote: _Three persons of pronouns._] + +76. Pronouns naturally are of three persons:-- + +(1) First person, representing the person speaking. + +(2) Second person, representing a person or thing spoken to. + +(3) Third person, standing for a person or thing spoken of. + + + +FORMS OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + +77. Personal pronouns are inflected thus:-- + + FIRST PERSON. + _Singular._ +_Nom._ I +_Poss._ mine, my +_Obj._ me + + _Plural._ +_Nom._ we +_Poss._ our, ours +_Obj._ us + + + SECOND PERSON. + _Singular._ + _Old Form_ _Common Form._ +_Nom._ thou you +_Poss._ thine, thy your, yours +_Obj._ thee you + + _Plural._ +_Nom._ ye you +_Poss._ your, yours your, yours +_Obj._ you you + + THIRD PERSON. + _Singular._ + _Masc._ _Fem._ _Neut._. +_Nom._ he she it +_Poss._ his her, hers its +_Obj._ him her it + + _Plur. of all Three_. +_Nom._ they +_Poss._ their, theirs +_Obj._ them + + +Remarks on These Forms. + + +[Sidenote: _First and second persons without gender._] + +78. It will be noticed that the pronouns of the first and second +persons have no forms to distinguish gender. The speaker may be either +male or female, or, by personification, neuter; so also with the +person or thing spoken to. + +[Sidenote: _Third person_ singular _has gender_.] + +But the third person has, in the singular, a separate form for each +gender, and also for the neuter. + +[Sidenote: _Old forms_.] + +In Old English these three were formed from the same root; namely, +masculine _hē_, feminine _hēo_, neuter _hit_. + +The form _hit_ (for _it_) is still heard in vulgar English, and _hoo_ +(for _hēo_) in some dialects of England. + +The plurals were _hī_, _heora_, _heom_, in Old English; the forms +_they_, _their_, _them_, perhaps being from the English demonstrative, +though influenced by the cognate Norse forms. + + +[Sidenote: _Second person always plural in ordinary English._] + +79. _Thou_, _thee_, etc., are old forms which are now out of use in +ordinary speech. The consequence is, that we have no singular pronoun +of the second person in ordinary speech or prose, but make the plural +_you_ do duty for the singular. We use it with a plural verb always, +even when referring to a single object. + +[Sidenote: _Two uses of the old singulars._] + + +80. There are, however, two modern uses of _thou, thy_, etc.:-- + +(1) _In elevated style_, especially in poetry; as,-- + + With _thy_ clear keen joyance + Languor cannot be; + Shadow of annoyance + Never came near _thee_; + _Thou_ lovest; but ne'er knew love's sad satiety.--SHELLEY. + +(2) _In addressing the Deity_, as in prayers, etc.; for example,-- + + Oh, _thou_ Shepherd of Israel, that didst comfort _thy_ people of + old, to _thy_ care we commit the helpless.--BEECHER. + + +[Sidenote: _The form_ its.] + +81. It is worth while to consider the possessive _its_. This is of +comparatively recent growth. The old form was _his_ (from the +nominative _hit_), and this continued in use till the sixteenth +century. The transition from the old _his_ to the modern _its_ is +shown in these sentences:-- + + 1 He anointed the altar and all _his_ vessels.--_Bible_ + +Here _his_ refers to _altar_, which is a neuter noun. The quotation +represents the usage of the early sixteenth century. + + 2 It's had _it_ head bit off by _it_ young--SHAKESPEARE + +Shakespeare uses _his_, _it_, and sometimes _its_, as possessive of +_it_. + +In Milton's poetry (seventeenth century) _its_ occurs only three +times. + + 3 See heaven _its_ sparkling portals wide display--POPE + + +[Sidenote: _A relic of the olden time._] + +82. We have an interesting relic in such sentences as this from +Thackeray: "One of the ways to know '_em_ is to watch the scared looks +of the ogres' wives and children." + +As shown above, the Old English objective was _hem_ (or _heom_), which +was often sounded with the _h_ silent, just as we now say, "I saw +'_im_ yesterday" when the word _him_ is not emphatic. In spoken +English, this form '_em_ has survived side by side with the literary +_them_. + + +[Sidenote: _Use of the pronouns in personification._] + +83. The pronouns _he_ and _she_ are often used in poetry, and +sometimes in ordinary speech, to personify objects (Sec. 34). + + + +CASES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + + +I The Nominative. + + +[Sidenote: _Nominative forms._] + +84. The nominative forms of personal pronouns have the same uses as +the nominative of nouns (see Sec. 58). The case of most of these +pronouns can be determined more easily than the case of nouns, for, +besides a nominative _use_, they have a nominative form. The words +_I_, _thou_, _he_, _she_, _we_, _ye_, _they_, are very rarely anything +but nominative in literary English, though _ye_ is occasionally used +as objective. + + +[Sidenote: _Additional nominatives in spoken English._] + +85. In spoken English, however, there are some others that are added +to the list of nominatives: they are, _me_, _him_, _her_, _us_, +_them_, when they occur in the _predicate position_. That is, in such +a sentence as, "I am sure it was _him_," the literary language would +require _he_ after _was_; but colloquial English regularly uses as +predicate nominatives the forms _me_, _him_, _her_, _us_, _them_, +though those named in Sec. 84 are always subjects. Yet careful +speakers avoid this, and follow the usage of literary English. + + +II. The Possessive. + + +[Sidenote: _Not a separate class._] + +86. The forms _my_, _thy_, _his_, _her_, _its_, _our_, _your_, +_their_, are sometimes grouped separately as POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS, but +it is better to speak of them as the possessive case of personal +pronouns, just as we speak of the possessive case of nouns, and not +make more classes. + +[Sidenote: Absolute _personal pronouns._] + +The forms _mine_, _thine_, _yours_, _hers_, _theirs_, sometimes _his_ +and _its_, have a peculiar use, standing apart from the words they +modify instead of immediately before them. From this use they are +called ABSOLUTE PERSONAL PRONOUNS, or, some say, ABSOLUTE POSSESSIVES. + +As instances of the use of absolute pronouns, note the following:-- + + 'Twas _mine_, 'tis _his_, and has been slave to thousands. + --SHAKESPEARE. + + And since thou own'st that praise, I spare thee _mine_.--COWPER. + + My arm better than _theirs_ can ward it off.--LANDOR. + + _Thine_ are the city and the people of Granada.--BULWER. + +[Sidenote: _Old use of_ mine _and_ thine.] + +Formerly _mine_ and _thine_ stood before their nouns, if the nouns +began with a vowel or _h_ silent; thus,-- + + Shall I not take _mine_ ease in _mine_ inn?--SHAKESPEARE. + + Give every man _thine_ ear, but few thy voice.--_Id._ + + If _thine_ eye offend thee, pluck it out.--_Bible._ + + My greatest apprehension was for _mine_ eyes.--SWIFT. + +This usage is still preserved in poetry. + + +[Sidenote: _Double and triple possessives._] + +87. The forms _hers_, _ours_, _yours_, _theirs_, are really double +possessives, since they add the possessive _s_ to what is already a +regular possessive inflection. + +Besides this, we have, as in nouns, a possessive phrase made up of the +preposition _of_ with these double possessives, _hers_, _ours_, +_yours_, _theirs_, and with _mine_, _thine_, _his_, sometimes _its_. + +[Sidenote: _Their uses._] + +Like the noun possessives, they have several uses:-- + +(1) _To prevent ambiguity_, as in the following:-- + + I have often contrasted the habitual qualities of that gloomy + friend _of theirs_ with the astounding spirits of Thackeray and + Dickens.--J.T. FIELDS. + + No words _of ours_ can describe the fury of the conflict.--J.F. + COOPER. + +(2) _To bring emphasis_, as in these sentences:-- + + This thing _of yours_ that you call a Pardon of Sins, it is a bit + of rag-paper with ink.--CARLYLE. + + This ancient silver bowl _of mine_, it tells of good old times. + --HOLMES. + +(3) _To express contempt, anger, or satire_; for example,-- + + "Do you know the charges that unhappy sister _of mine_ and her + family have put me to already?" says the Master.--THACKERAY. + + He [John Knox] had his pipe of Bordeaux too, we find, in that old + Edinburgh house _of his_.--CARLYLE. + + "Hold thy peace, Long Allen," said Henry Woodstall, "I tell thee + that tongue _of thine_ is not the shortest limb about + _thee_."--SCOTT. + +(4) _To make a noun less limited in application_; thus,-- + + A favorite liar and servant _of mine_ was a man I once had to + drive a brougham.--THACKERAY. + + In New York I read a newspaper criticism one day, commenting upon + a letter _of mine_.--_Id._ + +What would the last two sentences mean if the word _my_ were written +instead of _of mine_, and preceded the nouns? + + +[Sidenote: _About the case of absolute pronouns._] + +88. In their function, or use in a sentence, the absolute possessive +forms of the personal pronouns are very much like adjectives used as +nouns. + +In such sentences as, "_The good_ alone are great," "None but _the +brave_ deserves _the fair_," the words italicized have an adjective +force and also a noun force, as shown in Sec. 20. + +So in the sentences illustrating absolute pronouns in Sec. 86: _mine_ +stands for _my property_, _his_ for _his property_, in the first +sentence; _mine_ stands for _my praise_ in the second. But the first +two have a nominative use, and _mine_ in the second has an objective +use. + +They may be spoken of as possessive in form, but nominative or +objective in use, according as the modified word is in the nominative +or the objective. + + + +III. The Objective. + + +[Sidenote: _The old_ dative _case._] + +89. In Old English there was one case which survives in use, but not +in form. In such a sentence as this one from Thackeray, "Pick _me_ out +a whip-cord thong with some dainty knots in it," the word _me_ is +evidently not the direct object of the verb, but expresses _for whom_, +_for whose benefit_, the thing is done. In pronouns, this dative +use, as it is called, was marked by a separate case. + +[Sidenote: _Now the objective._] + +In Modern English the same _use_ is frequently seen, but the _form_ is +the same as the objective. For this reason a word thus used is called +a dative-objective. + +The following are examples of the dative-objective:-- + + Give _me_ neither poverty nor riches.--_Bible._ + + Curse _me_ this people.--_Id._ + + Both joined in making _him_ a present.--MACAULAY + + Is it not enough that you have _burnt me_ down three houses with + your dog's tricks, and be hanged to you!--LAMB + + I give _thee_ this to wear at the collar.--SCOTT + + +[Sidenote: _Other uses of the objective._] + +90. Besides this use of the objective, there are others:-- + +(1) _As the direct object of a verb._ + + They all handled _it_.--LAMB + +(2) _As the object of a preposition._ + + Time is behind _them_ and before _them_.--CARLYLE. + +(3) _In apposition._ + + She sate all last summer by the bedside of the blind beggar, + _him_ that so often and so gladly I talked with.--DE QUINCEY. + + + +SPECIAL USES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Indefinite use of_ you _and_ your.] + +91. The word _you_, and its possessive case _yours_ are sometimes +used without reference to a particular person spoken to. They approach +the indefinite pronoun in use. + + _Your_ mere puny stripling, that winced at the least flourish of + the rod, was passed by with indulgence.--IRVING + + To empty here, _you_ must condense there.--EMERSON. + + The peasants take off their hats as _you_ pass; _you_ sneeze, and + they cry, "God bless you!" The thrifty housewife shows _you_ into + her best chamber. _You_ have oaten cakes baked some months + before.--LONGFELLOW + + +[Sidenote: _Uses of_ it.] + +92. The pronoun _it_ has a number of uses:-- + +(1) _To refer to some single word preceding_; as,-- + + Ferdinand ordered the _army_ to recommence _its_ march.--BULWER. + + _Society_, in this century, has not made _its_ progress, like + Chinese skill, by a greater acuteness of ingenuity in + trifles.--D. WEBSTER. + +(2) _To refer to a preceding word group_; thus,-- + + If any man should do wrong merely out of ill nature, why, yet + _it_ is but like the thorn or brier, which prick and scratch + because they can do no other.--BACON. + +Here _it_ refers back to the whole sentence before it, or to the idea, +"any man's doing wrong merely out of ill nature." + +(3) _As a grammatical subject, to stand for the real, logical +subject, which follows the verb_; as in the sentences,-- + + _It_ is easy in the world _to live after the world's opinion_. + --EMERSON. + + _It_ is this _haziness_ of intellectual vision which is the + malady of all classes of men by nature.--NEWMAN. + + _It_ is a pity _that he has so much learning, or that he has not + a great deal more_.--ADDISON. + +(4) _As an impersonal subject in certain expressions which need no +other subject_; as,-- + + _It_ is finger-cold, and prudent farmers get in their barreled + apples.--THOREAU. + + And when I awoke, _it_ rained.--COLERIDGE. + + For when _it_ dawned, they dropped their arms.--_Id._ + + _It_ was late and after midnight.--DE QUINCEY. + +(5) _As an impersonal or indefinite object of a verb or a +preposition_; as in the following sentences:-- + + (_a_) Michael Paw, who _lorded it_ over the fair regions of + ancient Pavonia.--IRVING. + + I made up my mind _to foot it_.--HAWTHORNE. + + A sturdy lad ... who in turn tries all the professions, who + _teams it, farms it, peddles it_, keeps a school.--EMERSON. + + (_b_) "Thy mistress leads thee a dog's life _of it_."--IRVING. + + There was nothing _for it_ but to return.--SCOTT. + + An editor has only to say "respectfully declined," and there is + an end _of it_.--HOLMES. + + Poor Christian was hard put _to it_.--BUNYAN. + + +[Sidenote: _Reflexive use of the personal pronouns._] + +93. The personal pronouns in the objective case are often used +_reflexively_; that is, referring to the same person as the subject of +the accompanying verb. For example, we use such expressions as, "I +found _me_ a good book," "He bought _him_ a horse," etc. This +reflexive use of the _dative_-objective is very common in spoken and +in literary English. + +The personal pronouns are not often used reflexively, however, when +they are _direct_ objects. This occurs in poetry, but seldom in prose; +as,-- + + Now I lay _me_ down to sleep.--ANON. + + I set _me_ down and sigh.--BURNS. + + And millions in those solitudes, since first + The flight of years began, have laid _them_ down + In their last sleep.--BRYANT. + + + +REFLEXIVE OR COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Composed of the personal pronouns with_ -self, -selves.] + +94. The REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS, or COMPOUND PERSONAL, as they are also +called, are formed from the personal pronouns by adding the word +_self_, and its plural _selves_. + +They are _myself_, (_ourself_), _ourselves_, _yourself_, (_thyself_), +_yourselves_, _himself_, _herself_, _itself_, _themselves_. + +Of the two forms in parentheses, the second is the old form of the +second person, used in poetry. + +_Ourself_ is used to follow the word _we_ when this represents a +single person, especially in the speech of rulers; as,-- + + Methinks he seems no better than a girl; + As girls were once, as we _ourself_ have been.--TENNYSON. + + +[Sidenote: _Origin of these reflexives._] + +95. The question might arise, Why are _himself_ and _themselves_ not +_hisself_ and _theirselves_, as in vulgar English, after the analogy +of _myself_, _ourselves_, etc.? + +The history of these words shows they are made up of the +dative-objective forms, not the possessive forms, with _self_. In +Middle English the forms _meself_, _theself_, were changed into the +possessive _myself_, _thyself_, and the others were formed by analogy +with these. _Himself_ and _themselves_ are the only ones retaining a +distinct objective form. + +In the forms _yourself_ and _yourselves_ we have the possessive _your_ +marked as singular as well as plural. + + +[Sidenote: _Use of the reflexives._] + +96. There are three uses of reflexive pronouns:-- + +(1) _As object of a verb or preposition, and referring to the same +person or thing as the subject_; as in these sentences from Emerson:-- + + He who offers _himself_ a candidate for that covenant comes up + like an Olympian. + + I should hate _myself_ if then I made my other friends my asylum. + + We fill _ourselves_ with ancient learning. + + What do we know of nature or of _ourselves_? + +(2) _To emphasize a noun or pronoun_; for example,-- + + The great globe _itself_ ... shall dissolve.--SHAKESPEARE. + + Threats to all; + To _you yourself_, to us, to every one.--_Id._ + + Who would not sing for Lycidas! he knew + _Himself_ to sing, and build the lofty rhyme.--MILTON. + +NOTE.--In such sentences the pronoun is sometimes omitted, and the +reflexive modifies the pronoun understood; for example,-- + + Only _itself_ can inspire whom it will.--EMERSON. + + My hands are full of blossoms plucked before, Held dead within + them till _myself_ shall die.--E.B. BROWNING. + + As if it were _thyself_ that's here, I shrink with + pain.--WORDSWORTH. + +(3) _As the precise equivalent of a personal pronoun_; as,-- + + Lord Altamont designed to take his son and _myself_.--DE QUINCEY. + + Victories that neither _myself_ nor my cause always deserved.--B. + FRANKLIN. + + For what else have our forefathers and _ourselves_ been + taxed?--LANDOR. + + Years ago, Arcturus and _myself_ met a gentleman from China who + knew the language.--THACKERAY. + + + +Exercises on Personal Pronouns. + + +(_a_) Bring up sentences containing ten personal pronouns, some each +of masculine, feminine, and neuter. + +(_b_) Bring up sentences containing five personal pronouns in the +possessive, some of them being double possessives. + +(_c_) Tell which use each _it_ has in the following sentences:-- + +1. Come and trip it as we go, + On the light fantastic toe. + +2. Infancy conforms to nobody; all conform to it. + +3. It is an ill wind that blows nobody good. + +4. Courage, father, fight it out. + +5. And it grew wondrous cold. + +6. To know what is best to do, and how to do it, is wisdom. + +7. If any phenomenon remains brute and dark, it is because the +corresponding faculty in the observer is not yet active. + +8. But if a man do not speak from within the veil, where the word is +one with that it tells of, let him lowly confess it. + +9. It behooved him to keep on good terms with his pupils. + +10. Biscuit is about the best thing I know; but it is the soonest +spoiled; and one would like to hear counsel on one point, why it is +that a touch of water utterly ruins it. + + + +INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Three now in use._] + +97. The interrogative pronouns now in use are _who_ (with the forms +_whose_ and _whom_), _which_, and _what_. + +[Sidenote: _One obsolete._] + +There is an old word, _whether_, used formerly to mean which of two, +but now obsolete. Examples from the Bible:-- + + _Whether_ of them twain did the will of his father? + + _Whether_ is greater, the gold, or the temple? + +From Steele (eighteenth century):-- + + It may be a question _whether_ of these unfortunate persons had + the greater soul. + + +[Sidenote: _Use of_ who _and its forms._] + +98. The use of _who_, with its possessive and objective, is seen in +these sentences:-- + + _Who_ is she in bloody coronation robes from Rheims?--DE QUINCEY. + + _Whose_ was that gentle voice, that, whispering sweet, + Promised, methought, long days of bliss sincere?--BOWLES. + + What doth she look on? _Whom_ doth she behold?--WORDSWORTH. + +From these sentences it will be seen that interrogative _who_ refers +to _persons only_; that it is not inflected for gender or number, but +for case alone, having three forms; it is always third person, as it +always asks _about_ somebody. + + +[Sidenote: _Use of_ which.] + +99. Examples of the use of interrogative _which_:-- + + _Which_ of these had speed enough to sweep between the question + and the answer, and divide the one from the other?--DE QUINCEY. + + _Which_ of you, shall we say, doth love us most?--SHAKESPEARE. + + _Which_ of them [the sisters] shall I take?--_Id._ + +As shown here, _which_ is not inflected for gender, number, or case; +it refers to either persons or things; it is selective, that is, picks +out one or more from a number of known persons or objects. + + +[Sidenote: _Use of_ what.] + +100. Sentences showing the use of interrogative _what_:-- + + Since I from Smaylho'me tower have been, + _What_ did thy lady do?--SCOTT. + + _What_ is so rare as a day in June?--LOWELL. + + _What_ wouldst thou do, old man?--SHAKESPEARE. + +These show that _what_ is not inflected for case; that it is always +singular and neuter, referring to things, ideas, actions, etc., not to +persons. + + + +DECLENSION OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. + + +101. The following are all the interrogative forms:-- + + SING. AND PLUR. SING. AND PLUR. SINGULAR + +_Nom._ who? which? what? +_Poss._ whose? -- -- +_Obj._ whom? which? what? + +In spoken English, _who_ is used as objective instead of _whom_; as, +"_Who_ did you see?" "_Who_ did he speak to?" + + +[Sidenote: _To tell the case of interrogatives._] + +102. The interrogative _who_ has a separate form for each case, +consequently the case can be told by the form of the word; but the +case of _which_ and _what_ must be determined exactly as in nouns,--by +the _use_ of the words. + +For instance, in Sec. 99, _which_ is nominative in the first sentence, +since it is subject of the verb _had_; nominative in the second also, +subject of _doth love_; objective in the last, being the direct +object of the verb _shall take_. + + +[Sidenote: _Further treatment of_ who, which _and_ what.] + +103. _Who_, _which_, and _what_ are also relative pronouns; _which_ +and _what_ are sometimes adjectives; _what_ may be an adverb in some +expressions. + +They will be spoken of again in the proper places, especially in the +treatment of indirect questions (Sec. 127). + + + +RELATIVE PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Function of the relative pronoun_.] + +104. Relative pronouns differ from both personal and interrogative +pronouns in referring to an antecedent, and also in having a +conjunctive use. The advantage in using them is to unite short +statements into longer sentences, and so to make smoother discourse. +Thus we may say, "The last of all the Bards was he. These bards sang +of Border chivalry." Or, it may be shortened into,-- + + "The last of all the Bards was he, + _Who_ sung of Border chivalry." + +In the latter sentence, _who_ evidently refers to _Bards_, which is +called the antecedent of the relative. + + +[Sidenote: _The antecedent._] + +105. The antecedent of a pronoun is the noun, pronoun, or other +word or expression, for which the pronoun stands. It usually precedes +the pronoun. + +Personal pronouns of the third person may have antecedents also, as +they take the place usually of a word already used; as,-- + + The priest hath _his_ fee who comes and shrives us.--LOWELL + +In this, both _his_ and _who_ have the antecedent _priest_. + +The pronoun _which_ may have its antecedent following, and the +antecedent may be a word or a group of words, as will be shown in the +remarks on _which_ below. + + +[Sidenote: _Two kinds._] + +106. Relatives may be SIMPLE or INDEFINITE. + +When the word _relative_ is used, a simple relative is meant. +Indefinite relatives, and the indefinite use of simple relatives, will +be discussed further on. + +The SIMPLE RELATIVES are _who_, _which_, _that_, _what_. + + +[Sidenote: Who _and its forms._] + +107. Examples of the relative _who_ and its forms:-- + + 1. Has a man gained anything _who_ has received a hundred favors + and rendered none?--EMERSON. + + 2. That man is little to be envied _whose_ patriotism would not + gain force upon the plain of Marathon.--DR JOHNSON. + +3. For her enchanting son, + _Whom_ universal nature did lament.--MILTON. + + 4. The nurse came to us, _who_ were sitting in an adjoining + apartment.--THACKERAY. + +5. Ye mariners of England, + That guard our native seas; + _Whose_ flag has braved, a thousand years, + The battle and the breeze!--CAMPBELL. + + 6. The men _whom_ men respect, the women _whom_ women approve, + are the men and women _who_ bless their species.--PARTON + + +[Sidenote: Which _and its forms._] + +108. Examples of the relative _which_ and its forms:-- + + 1. They had not their own luster, but the look _which_ is not of + the earth.--BYRON. + + 2. The embattled portal arch he pass'd, + _Whose_ ponderous grate and massy bar + Had oft roll'd back the tide of war.--SCOTT. + + 3. Generally speaking, the dogs _which_ stray around the butcher + shops restrain their appetites.--COX. + + 4. The origin of language is divine, in the same sense in _which_ + man's nature, with all its capabilities ..., is a divine + creation.--W.D. WHITNEY. + + 5. (_a_) This gradation ... ought to be kept in view; else this + description will seem exaggerated, _which_ it certainly is + not.--BURKE. + + (_b_) The snow was three inches deep and still falling, _which_ + prevented him from taking his usual ride.--IRVING. + +[Sidenote: That.] + +109. Examples of the relative _that_:-- + + + 1. The man _that_ hath no music in himself,... + Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. + --SHAKESPEARE + + 2. The judge ... bought up all the pigs _that_ could be + had.--LAMB + + 3. Nature and books belong to the eyes _that_ see them.--EMERSON. + + 4. For the sake of country a man is told to yield everything + _that_ makes the land honorable.--H.W. BEECHER + + 5. Reader, _that_ do not pretend to have leisure for very much + scholarship, you will not be angry with me for telling you.--DE + QUINCEY. + + 6. The Tree Igdrasil, _that_ has its roots down in the kingdoms + of Hela and Death, and whose boughs overspread the highest + heaven!--CARLYLE. + +[Sidenote: What.] + +110. Examples of the use of the relative _what_:-- + + 1. Its net to entangle the enemy seems to be _what_ it chiefly + trusts to, and _what_ it takes most pains to render as complete + as possible.--GOLDSMITH. + + 2. For _what_ he sought below is passed above, Already done is + all that he would do.--MARGARET FULLER. + + 3. Some of our readers may have seen in India a crowd of crows + picking a sick vulture to death, no bad type of _what_ often + happens in that country.--MACAULAY + +[_To the Teacher._--If pupils work over the above sentences carefully, +and test every remark in the following paragraphs, they will get a +much better understanding of the relatives.] + + + +REMARKS ON THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. + +[Sidenote: Who.] + +111. By reading carefully the sentences in Sec. 107, the following +facts will be noticed about the relative _who_:-- + +(1) It usually refers to persons: thus, in the first sentence, Sec. +107, _a man...who_; in the second, _that man...whose_; in the third, +_son_, _whom_; and so on. + +(2) It has three case forms,--_who_, _whose_, _whom_. + +(3) The forms do not change for person or number of the antecedent. In +sentence 4, _who_ is first person; in 5, _whose_ is second person; the +others are all third person. In 1, 2, and 3, the relatives are +singular; in 4, 5, and 6, they are plural. + +[Sidenote: Who _referring to animals_.] + +112. Though in most cases _who_ refers to persons there are +instances found where it refers to animals. It has been seen (Sec. 24) +that animals are referred to by personal pronouns when their +characteristics or habits are such as to render them important or +interesting to man. Probably on the same principle the personal +relative _who_ is used not infrequently in literature, referring to +animals. + +Witness the following examples:-- + + And you, warm little housekeeper [the cricket], _who_ class With + those who think the candles come too soon.--LEIGH HUNT. + + The robins...have succeeded in driving off the bluejays _who_ + used to build in our pines.--LOWELL. + + The little gorilla, _whose_ wound I had dressed, flung its arms + around my neck.--THACKERAY. + + A lake frequented by every fowl _whom_ Nature has taught to dip + the wing in water.--DR. JOHNSON. + + While we had such plenty of domestic insects _who_ infinitely + excelled the former, because they understood how to weave as well + as to spin.--SWIFT. + + My horse, _who_, under his former rider had hunted the buffalo, + seemed as much excited as myself.--IRVING. + +Other examples might be quoted from Burke, Kingsley, Smollett, Scott, +Cooper, Gibbon, and others. + +[Sidenote: Which.] + +113. The sentences in Sec. 108 show that-- + +(1) _Which_ refers to animals, things, or ideas, not persons. + +(2) It is not inflected for gender or number. + +(3) It is nearly always third person, rarely second (an example of its +use as second person is given in sentence 32, p. 96). + +(4) It has two case forms,--_which_ for the nominative and objective, +_whose_ for the possessive. + +[Sidenote: _Examples of_ whose, _possessive case of_ which.] + +114. Grammarians sometimes object to the statement that _whose_ is +the possessive of _which_, saying that the phrase _of which_ should +always be used instead; yet a search in literature shows that the +possessive form _whose_ is quite common in prose as well as in poetry: +for example,-- + + I swept the horizon, and saw at one glance the glorious + elevations, on _whose_ tops the sun kindled all the melodies and + harmonies of light.--BEECHER. + + Men may be ready to fight to the death, and to persecute without + pity, for a religion _whose_ creed they do not understand, and + _whose_ precepts they habitually disobey.--MACAULAY + + Beneath these sluggish waves lay the once proud cities of the + plain, _whose_ grave was dug by the thunder of the + heavens.--SCOTT. + + Many great and opulent cities _whose_ population now exceeds that + of Virginia during the Revolution, and _whose_ names are spoken + in the remotest corner of the civilized world.--MCMASTER. + + Through the heavy door _whose_ bronze network closes the place of + his rest, let us enter the church itself.--RUSKIN. + + This moribund '61, _whose_ career of life is just coming to its + terminus.--THACKERAY. + +So in Matthew Arnold, Kingsley, Burke, and numerous others. + +[Sidenote: Which _and its antecedents_.] + +115. The last two sentences in Sec. 108 show that _which_ may have +other antecedents than nouns and pronouns. In 5 (_a_) there is a +participial adjective used as the antecedent; in 5 (_b_) there is a +complete clause employed as antecedent. This often occurs. + +Sometimes, too, the antecedent follows _which_; thus,-- + + And, which is worse, _all you have done + Hath been but for a wayward son_. + --SHAKESPEARE. + + Primarily, which is very notable and curious, I observe that _men + of business rarely know the meaning of the word "rich_."--RUSKIN. + + I demurred to this honorary title upon two grounds,--first, as + being one toward which I had no natural aptitudes or predisposing + advantages; secondly (which made her stare), _as carrying with it + no real or enviable distinction_.--DE QUINCEY. + +[Sidenote: That.] + +116. In the sentences of Sec. 109, we notice that-- + +(1) _That_ refers to persons, animals, and things. + +(2) It has only one case form, no possessive. + +(3) It is the same form for first, second, and third persons. + +(4) It has the same form for singular and plural. + +It sometimes borrows the possessive _whose_, as in sentence 6, Sec. +109, but this is not sanctioned as good usage. + +[Sidenote: What.] + +117. The sentences of Sec. 110 show that-- + +(1) _What_ always refers to things; is always neuter. + +(2) It is used almost entirely in the singular. + 1. The man _that_ hath no music in himself,... + Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. + --SHAKESPEARE +(3) Its antecedent is hardly ever expressed. When expressed, it +usually follows, and is emphatic; as, for example,-- + + What I would, _that_ do I not; but what I hate, _that_ do + I.--_Bible_ + + What fates impose, _that_ men must needs abide.--SHAKESPEARE. + + What a man does, _that_ he has.--EMERSON. + +Compare this:-- + + Alas! is _it_ not too true, what we said?--CARLYLE. + + + +DECLENSION OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. + + +118. These are the forms of the simple relatives:-- + + SINGULAR AND PLURAL. + + _Nom._ who which that what + _Poss._ whose whose -- -- + _Obj._ whom which that what + + +HOW TO PARSE RELATIVES. + +119. The _gender_, _number_, and _person_ of the relatives _who_, +_which_, and _that_ must be determined by those of the antecedent; the +_case_ depends upon the function of the relative in its own clause. + +For example, consider the following sentence: + + "He uttered truths _that_ wrought upon and molded the lives of + those _who_ heard him." + +Since the relatives hold the sentence together, we can, by taking them +out, let the sentence fall apart into three divisions: (1) "He uttered +truths;" (2) "The truths wrought upon and molded the lives of the +people;" (3) "These people heard him." + +_That_ evidently refers to _truths_, consequently is neuter, third +person, plural number. _Who_ plainly stands for _those_ or _the +people_, either of which would be neuter, third person, plural number. +Here the relative agrees with its antecedent. + +We cannot say the relative agrees with its antecedent in _case_. +_Truths_ in sentence (2), above, is subject of _wrought upon and +molded_; in (1), it is object of _uttered_. In (2), _people_ is the +object of the preposition _of_; in (3), it is subject of the verb +_heard_. Now, _that_ takes the case of _the truths_ in (2), not of +_truths_ which is expressed in the sentence: consequently _that_ is in +the nominative case. In the same way _who_, standing for _the people_ +understood, subject of _heard_, is in the nominative case. + +Exercise. + +First find the antecedents, then parse the relatives, in the following +sentences:-- + +1. How superior it is in these respects to the pear, whose blossoms +are neither colored nor fragrant! + +2. Some gnarly apple which I pick up in the road reminds me by its +fragrance of all the wealth of Pomona. + +3. Perhaps I talk with one who is selecting some choice barrels for +filling an order. + +4. Ill blows the wind that profits nobody. + +5. Alas! it is we ourselves that are getting buried alive under this +avalanche of earthly impertinences. + +6. This method also forces upon us the necessity of thinking, which +is, after all, the highest result of all education. + +7. I know that there are many excellent people who object to the +reading of novels as a waste of time. + +8. I think they are trying to outwit nature, who is sure to be +cunninger than they. + + +[Sidenote: _Parsing_ what, _the simple relative_.] + +120. The relative _what_ is handled differently, because it has +usually no antecedent, but is singular, neuter, third person. Its case +is determined exactly as that of other relatives. In the sentence, +"What can't be cured must be endured," the verb _must be endured_ is +the predicate of something. What must be endured? Answer, _What can't +be cured_. The whole expression is its subject. The word _what_, +however, is subject of the verb _can't be cured_, and hence is in the +nominative case. + +"What we call nature is a certain self-regulated motion or change." +Here the subject of _is_, etc., is _what we call nature_; but of this, +_we_ is the subject, and _what_ is the direct object of the verb +_call_, so is in the objective case. + +[Sidenote: _Another way._] + +Some prefer another method of treatment. As shown by the following +sentences, _what_ is equivalent to _that which_:-- + + It has been said that "common souls pay with _what_ they do, + nobler souls with _that which_ they are."--EMERSON. + + _That which_ is pleasant often appears under the name of evil; + and _what_ is disagreeable to nature is called good and + virtuous.--BURKE. + +Hence some take _what_ as a double relative, and parse _that_ in the +first clause, and _which_ in the second clause; that is, "common +souls pay with _that_ [singular, object of _with_] _which_ [singular, +object of _do_] they do." + + + +INDEFINITE RELATIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _List and examples._] + +121. INDEFINITE RELATIVES are, by meaning and use, not as direct as +the simple relatives. + +They are _whoever_, _whichever_, _whatever_, _whatsoever_; less common +are _whoso_, _whosoever_, _whichsoever_, _whatsoever_. The simple +relatives _who_, _which_, and _what_ may also be used as indefinite +relatives. Examples of indefinite relatives (from Emerson):-- + + 1. _Whoever_ has flattered his friend successfully must at once + think himself a knave, and his friend a fool. + + 2. It is no proof of a man's understanding, to be able to affirm + _whatever_ he pleases. + + 3. They sit in a chair or sprawl with children on the floor, or + stand on their head, or _what_ else _soever_, in a new and + original way. + + 4. _Whoso_ is heroic will always find crises to try his edge. + + 5. Only itself can inspire _whom_ it will. + + 6. God offers to every mind its choice between truth and repose. + Take _which_ you please,--you cannot have both. + + 7. Do _what_ we can, summer will have its flies. + +[Sidenote: _Meaning and use._] + +122. The fitness of the term _indefinite_ here cannot be shown +better than by examining the following sentences:-- + + 1. There is something so overruling in _whatever_ inspires us + with awe, in _all things which_ belong ever so remotely to + terror, that nothing else can stand in their presence.--BURKE. + + 2. Death is there associated, not with _everything that_ is most + endearing in social and domestic charities, but with _whatever_ + is darkest in human nature and in human destiny.--MACAULAY. + +It is clear that in 1, _whatever_ is equivalent to _all things +which_, and in 2, to _everything that_; no certain antecedent, no +particular thing, being referred to. So with the other indefinites. + +[Sidenote: What _simple relative and_ what _indefinite relative_.] + +123. The above helps us to discriminate between _what_ as a simple +and _what_ as an indefinite relative. + +As shown in Sec. 120, the simple relative _what_ is equivalent to +_that which_ or the _thing which_,--some particular thing; as shown by +the last sentence in Sec. 121, _what_ means _anything that_, +_everything that_ (or _everything which_). The difference must be seen +by the meaning of the sentence, as _what_ hardly ever has an +antecedent. + +The examples in sentences 5 and 6, Sec. 121, show that _who_ and +_which_ have no antecedent expressed, but mean _any one whom_, _either +one that_, etc. + + + +OTHER WORDS USED AS RELATIVES. + + +[Sidenote: But _and_ as.] + +124. Two words, but and as, are used with the force of relative +pronouns in some expressions; for example,-- + + 1. There is not a leaf rotting on the highway _but_ has force in + it: how else could it rot?--CARLYLE. + + 2. This, amongst such other troubles _as_ most men meet with in + this life, has been my heaviest affliction.--DE QUINCEY. + +[Sidenote: _Proof that they have the force of relatives._] + +Compare with these the two following sentences:-- + + 3. There is nothing _but_ is related to us, nothing _that_ does + _not_ interest us.--EMERSON. + + 4. There were articles of comfort and luxury such _as_ Hester + never ceased to use, but _which_ only wealth could have + purchased.--HAWTHORNE. + +Sentence 3 shows that _but_ is equivalent to the relative _that_ with +_not_, and that _as_ after _such_ is equivalent to _which_. + +For _as_ after _same_ see "Syntax" (Sec. 417). + +[Sidenote: _Former use of_ as.] + +125. In early modern English, _as_ was used just as we use _that_ or +_which_, not following the word _such_; thus,-- + + I have not from your eyes that gentleness + And show of love _as_ I was wont to have.--SHAKESPEARE + +This still survives in vulgar English in England; for example,-- + + "Don't you mind Lucy Passmore, _as_ charmed your warts for you + when you was a boy? "--KINGSLEY + +This is frequently illustrated in Dickens's works. + + +[Sidenote: _Other substitutes._] + +126. Instead of the phrases _in which_, _upon which_, _by which_, +etc., the conjunctions _wherein_, _whereupon_, _whereby_, etc., are +used. + + A man is the facade of a temple _wherein_ all wisdom and good + abide.--EMERSON. + + The sovereignty of this nature _whereof_ we speak.--_Id._ + + The dear home faces _whereupon_ + That fitful firelight paled and shone.--WHITTIER. + + + +PRONOUNS IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS. + + +[Sidenote: _Special caution needed here._] + +127. It is sometimes hard for the student to tell a relative from an +interrogative pronoun. In the regular direct question the +interrogative is easily recognized; so is the relative when an +antecedent is close by. But compare the following in pairs:-- + +1. (_a_) Like a gentleman of leisure _who_ is strolling out for + pleasure. + + (_b_) Well we knew _who_ stood behind, though the earthwork hid + them. + +2. (_a_) But _what_ you gain in time is perhaps lost in power. + + (_b_) But _what_ had become of them they knew not. + +3. (_a_) These are the lines _which_ heaven-commanded Toil shows on + his deed. + + (_b_) And since that time I thought it not amiss To judge _which_ + were the best of all these three. + +In sentences 1 (_a_), 2 (_a_) and 3 (_a_) the regular relative use is +seen; _who_ having the antecedent _gentleman_, _what_ having the +double use of pronoun and antecedent, _which_ having the antecedent +_lines_. + +But in 1 (_b_), 2 (_b_), and 3 (_b_), there are two points of +difference from the others considered: first, no antecedent is +expressed, which would indicate that they are not relatives; second, a +question is disguised in each sentence, although each sentence as a +whole is declarative in form. Thus, 1 (_b_), if expanded, would be, +"Who stood behind? We knew," etc., showing that _who_ is plainly +interrogative. So in 2 (_b_), _what_ is interrogative, the full +expression being, "But what had become of them? They knew not." +Likewise with _which_ in 3 (_b_). + +[Sidenote: _How to decide._] + +In studying such sentences, (1) see whether there is an antecedent of +_who_ or _which_, and whether _what_ = _that_ + _which_ (if so, it is +a simple relative; if not, it is either an indefinite relative or an +interrogative pronoun); (2) see if the pronoun introduces an indirect +question (if it does, it is an interrogative; if not, it is an +indefinite relative). + +[Sidenote: _Another caution._] + +128. On the other hand, care must be taken to see whether the +pronoun is the word that really _asks the question_ in an +interrogative sentence. Examine the following:-- + +1. Sweet rose! whence is this hue + _Which_ doth all hues excel? + --DRUMMOND + +2. And then what wonders shall you do + _Whose_ dawning beauty warms us so? + --WALKER + +3. Is this a romance? Or is it a faithful picture of _what_ has + lately been in a neighboring land?--MACAULAY + + +These are interrogative sentences, but in none of them does the +pronoun ask the question. In the first, _whence_ is the interrogative +word, _which_ has the antecedent _hue_. In the second, _whose_ has the +antecedent _you_, and asks no question. In the third, the question is +asked by the verb. + + + +OMISSION OF THE RELATIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _Relative omitted when_ object.] + +129. The relative is frequently omitted in spoken and in literary +English when it would be the object of a preposition or a verb. Hardly +a writer can be found who does not leave out relatives in this way +when they can be readily supplied in the mind of the reader. Thus,-- + + These are the sounds we feed upon.--FLETCHER. + + I visited many other apartments, but shall not trouble my reader + with all the curiosities I observed.--SWIFT. + + +Exercise. + +Put in the relatives _who_, _which_, or _that_ where they are omitted +from the following sentences, and see whether the sentences are any +smoother or clearer:-- + + 1. The insect I am now describing lived three years,--GOLDSMITH. + + 2. They will go to Sunday schools through storms their brothers + are afraid of.--HOLMES. + + 3. He opened the volume he first took from the shelf.--G. ELIOT. + + 4. He could give the coals in that queer coal scuttle we read of + to his poor neighbor.--THACKERAY. + + 5. When Goldsmith died, half the unpaid bill he owed to Mr. + William Filby was for clothes supplied to his nephew.--FORSTER + + 6. The thing I want to see is not Redbook Lists, and Court + Calendars, but the life of man in England.--CARLYLE. + + 7. The material they had to work upon was already democratical by + instinct and habitude.--LOWELL. + + +[Sidenote: _Relative omitted when_ subject.] + +130. We often hear in spoken English expressions like these:-- + + There isn't one here ‸ knows how to play ball. + + There was such a crowd ‸ went, the house was full. + +Here the omitted relative would be in the nominative case. Also in +literary English we find the same omission. It is rare in prose, and +comparatively so in poetry. Examples are,-- + + The silent truth that it was she was superior.--THACKERAY + + I have a mind presages me such thrift.--SHAKESPEARE. + + There is a nun in Dryburgh bower, + Ne'er looks upon the sun. + --SCOTT. + + And you may gather garlands there + Would grace a summer queen. + _Id._ + + 'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view.--CAMPBELL. + + +Exercises on the Relative Pronoun. + +(_a_) Bring up sentences containing ten instances of the relatives +_who_, _which_, _that_, and _what_. + +(_b_) Bring up sentences having five indefinite relatives. + +(_c_) Bring up five sentences having indirect questions introduced by +pronouns. + +(_d_) Tell whether the pronouns in the following are interrogatives, +simple relatives, or indefinite relatives:-- + +1. He ushered him into one of the wherries which lay ready to attend +the Queen's barge, which was already proceeding. + +2. The nobles looked at each other, but more with the purpose to see +what each thought of the news, than to exchange any remarks on what +had happened. + +3. Gracious Heaven! who was this that knew the word? + +4. It needed to be ascertained which was the strongest kind of men; +who were to be rulers over whom. + +5. He went on speaking to who would listen to him. + +6. What kept me silent was the thought of my mother. + + + +ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. + +[Sidenote: _Function of adjective pronouns._] + +131. Most of the words how to be considered are capable of a double +use,--they may be pure modifiers of nouns, or they may stand for +nouns. In the first use they are adjectives; in the second they retain +an adjective _meaning_, but have lost their adjective _use_. Primarily +they are adjectives, but in this function, or use, they are properly +classed as adjective pronouns. + +The following are some examples of these:-- + + _Some_ say that the place was bewitched.--IRVING. + + That mysterious realm where _each_ shall take + His chamber in the silent halls of death. + --BRYANT. + + How happy is he born or taught + That serveth not _another's_ will. + --WOTTON + + _That_ is more than any martyr can stand.--EMERSON. + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +[Sidenote: _Adjectives, not pronouns._] + +Hence these words are like adjectives used as nouns, which we have +seen in such expressions as, "_The dead_ are there;" that is, a word, +in order to be an adjective pronoun, _must not modify any word, +expressed or understood_. It must come under the requirement of +pronouns, and _stand for a noun_. For instance, in the following +sentences--"The cubes are of stainless ivory, and on _each_ is +written, in letters of gold, '_Truth_;'" "You needs must play such +pranks as _these_;" "They will always have one bank to sun themselves +upon, and _another_ to get cool under;" "Where two men ride on a +horse, _one_ must ride behind"--the words italicized modify nouns +understood, necessarily thought of: thus, in the first, "each _cube_;" +in the second, "these _pranks_," in the others, "another _bank_," "one +_man_." + + +[Sidenote: _Classes of adjective pronouns._] + +132. Adjective pronouns are divided into three classes:-- + +(1) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, such as _this_, _that_, _the former_, etc. + +(2) DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS, such as _each_, _either_, _neither_, etc. + +(3) NUMERAL PRONOUNS, as _some_, _any_, _few_, _many_, _none_, _all_, +etc. + + +DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. + +[Sidenote: _Definition and examples._] + +133. A DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN is one that definitely points out what +persons or things are alluded to in the sentence. + +The person or thing alluded to by the demonstrative may be in another +sentence, or may be the whole of a sentence. For example, "Be _that_ +as it may" could refer to a sentiment in a sentence, or an argument in +a paragraph; but the demonstrative clearly points to that thing. + +The following are examples of demonstratives:-- + + I did not say _this_ in so many words. + + All _these_ he saw; but what he fain had seen He could not see. + + Beyond _that_ I seek not to penetrate the veil. + + How much we forgive in _those_ who yield us the rare spectacle of + heroic manners! + + The correspondence of Bonaparte with his brother Joseph, when + _the latter_ was the King of Spain. + + _Such_ are a few isolated instances, accidentally preserved. + + Even as I have seen, they that plow iniquity, and sow wickedness, + reap _the same_. + + They know that patriotism has its glorious opportunities and its + sacred duties. They have not shunned _the one_, and they have + well performed _the other_. + +NOTE.--It will be noticed in the first four sentences that _this_ and +_that_ are inflected for number. + + + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Find six sentences using demonstrative adjective pronouns. + +(_b_) In which of the following is _these_ a pronoun?-- + + 1. Formerly the duty of a librarian was to keep people as much as + possible from the books, and to hand _these_ over to his + successor as little worn as he could.--LOWELL. + + 2. They had fewer books, but _these_ were of the best.--_Id._ + + 3. A man inspires affection and honor, because he was not lying + in wait for _these_.--EMERSON + + 4. Souls such as _these_ treat you as gods would.--_Id._ + + 5. _These_ are the first mountains that broke the uniform level + of the earth's surface.--AGASSIZ + + +DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS. + +[Sidenote: _Definition and examples._] + +134. The DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS are those which stand for the names +of persons or things considered singly. + +[Sidenote: _Simple._] + +Some of these are _simple_ pronouns; for example,-- + + They stood, or sat, or reclined, as seemed good to _each_. + + As two yoke devils sworn to _other's_ purpose. + + Their minds accorded into one strain, and made delightful music + which _neither_ could have claimed as all his own. + +[Sidenote: _Compound_.] + +Two are compound pronouns,--_each other_, _one another_. They may be +separated into two adjective pronouns; as, + + We violated our reverence _each_ for _the other's_ soul. + --HAWTHORNE. + +More frequently they are considered as one pronoun. + + They led one another, as it were, into a high pavilion of their + thoughts.--HAWTHORNE. + + Men take each other's measure when they react.--EMERSON. + +Exercise.--Find sentences containing three distributive pronouns. + + +NUMERAL PRONOUNS. + +[Sidenote: _Definition and examples_.] + +135. The NUMERAL PRONOUNS are those which stand for an uncertain +number or quantity of persons or things. + +The following sentences contain numeral pronouns:-- + + Trusting too much to _others'_ care is the ruin of _many_. + + 'Tis of no importance how large his house, you quickly come to + the end of _all_. + + _Another_ opposes him with sound argument. + + It is as if _one_ should be so enthusiastic a lover of poetry as + to care nothing for Homer or Milton. + + There were plenty _more_ for him to fall in company with, as + _some_ of the rangers had gone astray. + + The Soldan, imbued, as _most_ were, with the superstitions of his + time, paused over a horoscope. + + If those [taxes] were the only _ones_ we had to pay, we might the + more easily discharge them. + + _Much_ might be said on both sides. + + If hand of mine _another's_ task has lightened. + It felt the guidance that it does not claim. + So perish _all_ whose breast ne'er learned to glow + For _others_' good, or melt for _others_' woe. + + _None_ shall rule but the humble. + +[Sidenote: _Some inflected._] + +It will be noticed that some of these are inflected for case and +number; such as _one other_, _another_. + +The word _one_ has a reflexive form; for example,-- + +[Sidenote: One _reflexive_.] + + The best way to punish _oneself_ for doing ill seems to me to go + and do good.--KINGSLEY. + + The lines sound so prettily to _one's self_. HOLMES. + +Exercise.--Find sentences containing ten numeral pronouns. + + + +INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition and examples._] + +136. Indefinite pronouns are words which stand for an indefinite +number or quantity of persons or things; but, unlike adjective +pronouns, they are never used as adjectives. + +Most of them are compounds of two or more words:-- + +[Sidenote: _List._] + +_Somebody_, _some one_, _something_; _anybody_, _any one_ (or +_anyone_), _anything_; _everybody_, _every one_ (or _everyone_), +_everything_; _nobody_, _no one_, _nothing_; _somebody else_, _anyone +else_, _everybody else_, _every one else_, etc.; also _aught_, +_naught_; and _somewhat_, _what_, and _they_. + +The following sentences contain indefinite pronouns:-- + + As he had them of all hues, he hoped to fit _everybody's_ fancy. + + _Every one_ knows how laborious the usual method is of attaining + to arts and sciences. + + _Nothing_ sheds more honor on our early history than the + impression which these measures everywhere produced in America. + + Let us also perform _something_ worthy to be remembered. + + William of Orange was more than _anything else_ a religious man. + + Frederick was discerned to be a purchaser of _everything_ that + _nobody else_ would buy. + + These other souls draw me as _nothing else_ can. + + The genius that created it now creates _somewhat else_. + + _Every one else_ stood still at his post. + + That is perfectly true: I did not want _anybody else's_ authority + to write as I did. + +_They_ indefinite means people in general; as,-- + + At lovers' perjuries, _they_ say, Jove laughs.--SHAKESPEARE. + +_What_ indefinite is used in the expression "I tell you _what_." It +means _something_, and was indefinite in Old English. + + Now, in building of chaises, I tell you _what_, + There is always somewhere a weakest spot. + + +Exercise.--Find sentences with six indefinite pronouns. + + +137. Some indefinite pronouns are inflected for case, as shown in +the words _everybody's_, _anybody else's_, etc. + +See also "Syntax" (Sec. 426) as to the possessive case of the forms +with _else_. + + + +HOW TO PARSE PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _A reminder._] + +138. In parsing pronouns the student will need particularly to +guard against the mistake of parsing words according to _form_ instead +of according to function or use. + + +Exercise. + +Parse in full the pronouns in the following sentences:-- + + 1. She could not help laughing at the vile English into which + they were translated. + + 2. Our readers probably remember what Mrs. Hutchinson tells us of + herself. + + 3. Whoever deals with M. de Witt must go the plain way that he + pretends to, in his negotiations. + + 4. Some of them from whom nothing was to be got, were suffered to + depart; but those from whom it was thought that anything could be + extorted were treated with execrable cruelty. + + 5. All was now ready for action. + + 6. Scarcely had the mutiny broken up when he was himself again. + + 7. He came back determined to put everything to the hazard. + + 8. Nothing is more clear than that a general ought to be the + servant of his government, and of no other. + + 9. Others did the same thing, but not to quite so enormous an + extent. + + 10. On reaching the approach to this about sunset of a beautiful + evening in June, I first found myself among the mountains,--a + feature of natural scenery for which, from my earliest days, it + was not extravagant to say that I hungered and thirsted. + + 11. I speak of that part which chiefly it is that I know. + + 12. A smaller sum I had given to my friend the attorney (who was + connected with the money lenders as their lawyer), to which, + indeed, he was entitled for his unfurnished lodgings. + + 13. Whatever power the law gave them would be enforced against + me to the utmost. + + 14. O thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my fathers! + + 15. But there are more than you ever heard of who die of grief in + this island of ours. + + 16. But amongst themselves is no voice nor sound. + + 17. For this did God send her a great reward. + + 18. The table was good; but that was exactly what Kate cared + little about. + + 19. Who and what was Milton? That is to say, what is the place + which he fills in his own vernacular literature? + + 20. These hopes are mine as much as theirs. + + 21. What else am I who laughed or wept yesterday, who slept last + night like a corpse? + + 22. I who alone am, I who see nothing in nature whose existence I + can affirm with equal evidence to my own, behold now the + semblance of my being, in all its height, variety, and curiosity + reiterated in a foreign form. + + 23. What hand but would a garland cull + For thee who art so beautiful? + + 24. And I had done a hellish thing, + And it would work 'em woe. + + 25. Whatever he knows and thinks, whatever in his apprehension is + worth doing, that let him communicate. + + 26. Rip Van Winkle was one of those foolish, well-oiled + dispositions, who take the world easy, eat white bread or brown, + whichever can be got with least thought or trouble. + + + 27. And will your mother pity me, + Who am a maiden most forlorn? + + 28. They know not I knew thee, + Who knew thee too well. + + 29. I did remind thee of our own dear Lake, + By the old Hall which may be mine no more. + + 30. He sate him down, and seized a pen, and traced + Words which I could not guess of. + + 31. Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow: + Such as creation's dawn beheld, thou rollest now. + + 32. Wild Spirit which art moving everywhere; + Destroyer and preserver; hear, oh, hear! + + 33. A smile of hers was like an act of grace. + + 34. No man can learn what he has not preparation for learning. + + 35. What can we see or acquire but what we are? + + 36. He teaches who gives, and he learns who receives. + + 37. We are by nature observers; that is our permanent state. + + 38. He knew not what to do, and so he read. + + 39. Who hears me, who understands me, becomes mine. + + 40. The men who carry their points do not need to inquire of + their constituents what they should say. + + 41. Higher natures overpower lower ones by affecting them with a + certain sleep. + + 42. Those who live to the future must always appear selfish to + those who live to the present. + + 43. I am sorry when my independence is invaded or when a gift + comes from such as do not know my spirit. + + 44. Here I began to howl and scream abominably, which was no bad + step towards my liberation. + + 45. The only aim of the war is to see which is the stronger of + the two--which is the master. + + + + +ADJECTIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _Office of Adjectives._] + +139. Nouns are seldom used as names of objects without additional +words joined to them to add to their meaning. For example, if we wish +to speak of a friend's house, we cannot guide one to it by merely +calling it _a house_. We need to add some words to tell its color, +size, position, etc., if we are at a distance; and if we are near, we +need some word to point out the house we speak of, so that no other +will be mistaken for it. So with any object, or with persons. + +As to the kind of words used, we may begin with the common adjectives +telling the _characteristics_ of an object. If a chemist discovers a +new substance, he cannot describe it to others without telling its +qualities: he will say it is _solid_, or _liquid_, or _gaseous_; +_heavy_ or _light_; _brittle_ or _tough_; _white_ or _red_; etc. + +Again, in _pointing out_ an object, adjectives are used; such as in +the expressions "_this_ man," "_that_ house," "_yonder_ hill," etc. + +Instead of using nouns indefinitely, the _number_ is limited by +adjectives; as, "_one_ hat," "_some_ cities," "_a hundred_ men." + +The office of an adjective, then, is to narrow down or limit the +application of a noun. It may have this office alone, or it may at the +same time add to the meaning of the noun. + + +[Sidenote: _Substantives._] + +140. Nouns are not, however, the only words limited by adjectives: +pronouns and other words and expressions also have adjectives joined +to them. Any word or word group that performs the same office as a +noun may be modified by adjectives. + +To make this clear, notice the following sentences:-- + +[Sidenote: _Pronoun._] + + If _he_ be _thankful_ for small benefits, it shows that he weighs + men's minds, and their trash.--BACON. + +[Sidenote: _Infinitives._] + + _To err_ is _human_; _to forgive, divine_.--POPE. + + With exception of the "and then," the "and there," and the still + less _significant_ "_and so_," they constitute all his + connections.--COLERIDGE. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +141. An adjective is a word joined to a noun or other substantive +word or expression, to describe it or to limit its application. + + +[Sidenote: _Classes of adjectives._] + +142. Adjectives are divided into four classes:-- + +(1) Descriptive adjectives, which describe by expressing qualities +or attributes of a substantive. + +(2) Adjectives of quantity, used to tell how many things are spoken +of, or how much of a thing. + +(3) Demonstrative adjectives, pointing out particular things. + +(4) Pronominal adjectives, words primarily pronouns, but used +adjectively sometimes in modifying nouns instead of standing for them. +They include relative and interrogative words. + + + +DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES. + + +143. This large class includes several kinds of words:-- + +(1) SIMPLE ADJECTIVES expressing quality; such as _safe_, _happy_, +_deep_, _fair_, _rash_, _beautiful_, _remotest_, _terrible_, etc. + +(2) COMPOUND ADJECTIVES, made up of various words thrown together to +make descriptive epithets. Examples are, "_Heaven-derived_ power," +"this _life-giving_ book," "his spirit wrapt and _wonder-struck_," +"_ice-cold_ water," "_half-dead_ traveler," "_unlooked-for_ burden," +"_next-door_ neighbor," "_ivory-handled_ pistols," "the +_cold-shudder-inspiring_ Woman in White." + +(3) PROPER ADJECTIVES, derived from proper nouns; such as, "an old +_English_ manuscript," "the _Christian_ pearl of charity," "the +well-curb had a _Chinese_ roof," "the _Roman_ writer Palladius." + +(4) PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES, which are either pure participles used to +describe, or participles which have lost all verbal force and have no +function except to express quality. Examples are,-- + +_Pure participial adjectives_: "The _healing_ power of the Messiah," +"The _shattering_ sway of one strong arm," "_trailing_ clouds," "The +_shattered_ squares have opened into line," "It came on like the +_rolling_ simoom," "God tempers the wind to the _shorn_ lamb." + +_Faded participial adjectives_: "Sleep is a _blessed_ thing;" "One is +hungry, and another is _drunken_;" "under the _fitting_ drapery of the +jagged and trailing clouds;" "The clearness and quickness are +_amazing_;" "an _aged_ man;" "a _charming_ sight." + + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +144. Care is needed, in studying these last-named words, to +distinguish between a participle that forms part of a verb, and a +participle or participial adjective that belongs to a noun. + +For instance: in the sentence, "The work was well and rapidly +accomplished," _was accomplished_ is a verb; in this, "No man of his +day was more brilliant or more accomplished," _was_ is the verb, and +_accomplished_ is an adjective. + + + +Exercises. + +1. Bring up sentences with twenty descriptive adjectives, having some +of each subclass named in Sec. 143. + +2. Is the italicized word an adjective in this?-- + +The old sources of intellectual excitement seem to be well-nigh +_exhausted_. + + + +ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY. + + +145. Adjectives of quantity tell _how much_ or _how many_. They have +these three subdivisions:-- + +[Sidenote: _How much._] + +(1) QUANTITY IN BULK: such words as _little_, _much_, _some_, _no_, +_any_, _considerable_, sometimes _small_, joined usually to singular +nouns to express an indefinite measure of the thing spoken of. + +The following examples are from Kingsley:-- + + So he parted with _much_ weeping of the lady. + Which we began to do with _great_ labor and _little_ profit. + Because I had _some_ knowledge of surgery and blood-letting. + But ever she looked on Mr. Oxenham, and seemed to take _no_ + care as long as he was by. + +Examples of _small_ an adjective of quantity:-- + + "The deil's in it but I bude to anger him!" said the woman, and + walked away with a laugh of _small_ satisfaction.--MACDONALD. + + 'Tis midnight, but _small_ thoughts have I of sleep.--COLERIDGE. + + It gives _small_ idea of Coleridge's way of talking.--CARLYLE. + +When _some_, _any_, _no_, are used with plural nouns, they come under +the next division of adjectives. + +[Sidenote: _How many._] + +(2) QUANTITY IN NUMBER, which may be expressed exactly by numbers or +remotely designated by words expressing indefinite amounts. Hence the +natural division into-- + +(_a_) _Definite numerals_; as, "_one_ blaze of musketry;" "He found in +the pathway _fourteen_ Spaniards;" "I have lost _one_ brother, but I +have gained _fourscore_;" "_a dozen_ volunteers." + +(_b_) _Indefinite numerals_, as the following from Kingsley: "We gave +_several_ thousand pounds for it;" "In came some five and twenty more, +and with them _a few_ negroes;" "Then we wandered for _many_ days;" +"Amyas had evidently _more_ schemes in his head;" "He had lived by +hunting for _some_ months;" "That light is far too red to be the +reflection of _any_ beams of hers." + + +[Sidenote: _Single ones of any number of changes._] + +(3) DISTRIBUTIVE NUMERALS, which occupy a place midway between the +last two subdivisions of numeral adjectives; for they are indefinite +in telling how many objects are spoken of, but definite in referring +to the objects one at a time. Thus,-- + + _Every_ town had its fair; _every_ village, its wake.--THACKERAY. + + An arrow was quivering in _each_ body.--KINGSLEY. + + Few on _either_ side but had their shrewd scratch to show.--_Id._ + + Before I taught my tongue to wound + My conscience with a sinful sound, + Or had the black art to dispense + A _several_ sin to _every_ sense.--VAUGHAN. + + +Exercise.--Bring up sentences with ten adjectives of quantity. + + + +DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _Not primarily pronouns._] + +146. The words of this list are placed here instead of among +pronominal adjectives, for the reason that they are felt to be +primarily adjectives; their pronominal use being evidently a +shortening, by which the words point out but stand for words omitted, +instead of modifying them. Their natural and original use is to be +joined to a noun following or in close connection. + +[Sidenote: _The list._] + +The demonstrative adjectives are _this_, _that_, (plural _these_, +_those_), _yonder_ (or _yon_), _former_, _latter_; also the pairs +_one_ (or _the one_)--_the other_, _the former_--_the latter_, used to +refer to two things which have been already named in a sentence. + +[Sidenote: _Examples._] + +The following sentences present some examples:-- + + The bashful virgin's sidelong looks of love, The matron's glance + that would _those_ looks reprove.--GOLDSMITH. + + These were thy charms...but all _these_ charms are fled.--_Id._ + + About _this_ time I met with an odd volume of the + "Spectator."--B. FRANKLIN. + + _Yonder_ proud ships are not means of annoyance to you.--D. + WEBSTER. + + _Yon_ cloud with _that_ long purple cleft.--WORDSWORTH. + + I chose for the students of Kensington two characteristic + examples of early art, of equal skill; but in _the one_ case, + skill which was progressive--in _the other_, skill which was at + pause.--RUSKIN. + +Exercise.--Find sentences with five demonstrative adjectives. + + +[Sidenote: _Ordinal numerals classed under demonstratives._] + +147. The class of numerals known as ordinals must be placed here, +as having the same function as demonstrative adjectives. They point +out which thing is meant among a series of things mentioned. The +following are examples:-- + + The _first_ regular provincial newspapers appear to have been + created in the last decade of the _seventeenth_ century, and by + the middle of the _eighteenth_ century almost every important + provincial town had its local organ.--BANCROFT. + +These do not, like the other numerals, tell _how many_ things are +meant. When we speak of the seventeenth century, we imply nothing as +to how many centuries there may be. + + + +PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +148. As has been said, pronominal adjectives are primarily +pronouns; but, when they _modify_ words instead of referring to them +as antecedents, they are changed to adjectives. They are of two +kinds,--RELATIVE and INTERROGATIVE,--and are used to join sentences or +to ask questions, just as the corresponding pronouns do. + + +[Sidenote: _Modify names of persons or things._] + +149. The RELATIVE ADJECTIVES are _which_ and _what_; for example,-- + + It matters not _what_ rank he has, _what_ revenues or garnitures. + --CARLYLE. + + The silver and laughing Xenil, careless _what_ lord should + possess the banks that bloomed by its everlasting + course.--BULWER. + + The taking of _which_ bark. I verily believe, was the ruin of + every mother's son of us.--KINGSLEY. + + In _which_ evil strait Mr. Oxenham fought desperately.--_Id._ + + +[Sidenote: _Indefinite relative adjectives._] + +150. The INDEFINITE RELATIVE adjectives are _what_, _whatever_, +_whatsoever_, _whichever_, _whichsoever_. Examples of their use are,-- + + He in his turn tasted some of its flavor, which, make _what_ sour + mouths he would for pretense, proved not altogether displeasing + to him.--LAMB. + + _Whatever_ correction of our popular views from insight, nature + will be sure to bear us out in.--EMERSON. + + _Whatsoever_ kind of man he is, you at least give him full + authority over your son.--RUSKIN. + + Was there, as it rather seemed, a circle of ominous shadow moving + along with his deformity, _whichever_ way he turned + himself?--HAWTHORNE. + + New torments I behold, and new tormented + Around me, _whichsoever_ way I move, + And _whichsoever_ way I turn, and gaze. + --LONGFELLOW (FROM DANTE). + + +151. The INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES are _which_ and _what_. They may +be used in direct and indirect questions. As in the pronouns, _which_ +is selective among what is known; _what_ inquires about things or +persons not known. + +[Sidenote: _In direct questions._] + +Sentences with _which_ and _what_ in direct questions:-- + + _Which_ debt must I pay first, the debt to the rich, or the debt + to the poor?--EMERSON. + + But when the Trojan war comes, _which_ side will you take? + --THACKERAY. + + But _what_ books in the circulating library circulate?--LOWELL. + + _What_ beckoning ghost along the moonlight shade + Invites my steps, and points to yonder glade?--POPE. + +[Sidenote: _In indirect questions._] + +Sentences with _which_ and _what_ in indirect questions:-- + + His head...looked like a weathercock perched upon his spindle + neck to tell _which_ way the wind blew.--IRVING. + + A lady once remarked, he [Coleridge] could never fix _which_ side + of the garden walk would suit him best.--CARLYLE. + + He was turned before long into all the universe, where it was + uncertain _what_ game you would catch, or whether any.--_Id._ + + At _what_ rate these materials would be distributed and + precipitated in regular strata, it is impossible to + determine.--AGASSIZ. + + +[Sidenote: _Adjective_ what _in exclamations_.] + +152. In exclamatory expressions, _what_ (or _what a_) has a force +somewhat like a descriptive adjective. It is neither relative nor +interrogative, but might be called an EXCLAMATORY ADJECTIVE; as,-- + + Oh, _what a_ revolution! and _what a_ heart must I have, to + contemplate without emotion that elevation and that fall!--BURKE. + + _What a_ piece of work is man!--SHAKESPEARE. + + And yet, alas, the making of it right, _what a_ business for long + time to come!--CARLYLE + + Through _what_ hardships it may attain to bear a sweet + fruit!--THOREAU. + + +Exercise.--Find ten sentences containing pronominal adjectives. + + + +INFLECTIONS OF ADJECTIVES. + + +153 .Adjectives have two inflections,--number and comparison. + + +NUMBER.--_This_, _That_. + + +[Sidenote: _History of_ this--these _and_ that--those.] + +154. The only adjectives having a plural form are _this_ and _that_ +(plural _these_, _those_). + +_This_ is the old demonstrative; _that_ being borrowed from the forms +of the definite article, which was fully inflected in Old English. The +article _that_ was used with neuter nouns. + +In Middle English the plural of _this_ was _this_ or _thise_, which +changed its spelling to the modern form _these_. + +[Sidenote: Those _borrowed from_ this.] + +But _this_ had also another plural, _thās_ (modern _those_). The old +plural of _that_ was _tha_ (Middle English _tho_ or _thow_): +consequently _tho_ (plural of _that_) and _those_ (plural of _this_) +became confused, and it was forgotten that _those_ was really the +plural of _this_; and in Modern English we speak of _these_ as the +plural of _this_, and _those_ as the plural of _that_. + + +COMPARISON. + +155. Comparison is an inflection not possessed by nouns and +pronouns: it belongs to adjectives and adverbs. + +[Sidenote: _Meaning of comparison._] + +When we place two objects side by side, we notice some differences +between them as to size, weight, color, etc. Thus, it is said that a +cow is _larger_ than a sheep, gold is _heavier_ than iron, a sapphire +is _bluer_ than the sky. All these have certain qualities; and when we +compare the objects, we do so by means of their qualities,--cow and +sheep by the quality of largeness, or size; gold and iron by the +quality of heaviness, or weight, etc.,--but not the same degree, or +amount, of the quality. + +The degrees belong to any beings or ideas that may be known or +conceived of as possessing quality; as, "untamed thought, great, +giant-like, enormous;" "the commonest speech;" "It is a nobler valor;" +"the largest soul." + +Also words of quantity may be compared: for example, "more matter, +with less wit;" "no fewer than a hundred." + + +[Sidenote: _Words that cannot be compared._] + +156. There are some descriptive words whose meaning is such as not +to admit of comparison; for example,-- + + His company became very agreeable to the brave old professor of + arms, whose _favorite_ pupil he was.--THACKERAY. + + A _main_ difference betwixt men is, whether they attend their own + affair or not.--EMERSON + + It was his business to administer the law in its _final_ and + closest application to the offender--HAWTHORNE. + + Freedom is a _perpetual, organic, universal_ institution, in + harmony with the Constitution of the United States.--SEWARD. + +So with the words _sole_, _sufficient_, _infinite_, _immemorial_, +_indefatigable_, _indomitable_, _supreme_, and many others. + +It is true that words of comparison are sometimes prefixed to them, +but, strictly considered, they are not compared. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +157. Comparison means the changes that words undergo to express +degrees in quality, or amounts in quantity. + +[Sidenote: _The two forms._] + +158. There are two forms for this inflection: the comparative, +expressing a greater degree of quality; and the superlative, +expressing the greatest degree of quality. + +These are called degrees of comparison. + +These are properly the only degrees, though the simple, uninflected +form is usually called the positive degree. + + +159. The comparative is formed by adding _-er_, and the superlative +by adding _-est_, to the simple form; as, _red_, _redder_, _reddest_; +_blue_, _bluer_, _bluest_; _easy_, _easier_, _easiest_. + + +[Sidenote: _Substitute for inflection in comparison._] + +160. Side by side with these inflected forms are found comparative +and superlative expressions making use of the adverbs more and +most. These are often useful as alternative with the inflected +forms, but in most cases are used before adjectives that are never +inflected. + +They came into use about the thirteenth century, but were not common +until a century later. + + +[Sidenote: _Which rule_,-- -er _and_ -est _or_ more _and_ most?] + +161. The English is somewhat capricious in choosing between the +inflected forms and those with _more_ and _most_, so that no +inflexible rule can be given as to the formation of the comparative +and the superlative. + +The general rule is, that monosyllables and easily pronounced words of +two syllables add _-er_ and _-est_; and other words are preceded by +_more_ and _most_. + +But room must be left in such a rule for pleasantness of sound and for +variety of expression. + +To see how literary English overrides any rule that could be given, +examine the following taken at random:-- + +From Thackeray: "The _handsomest_ wives;" "the _immensest_ quantity of +thrashing;" "the _wonderfulest_ little shoes;" "_more odd, strange_, +and yet familiar;" "_more austere_ and _holy_." + +From Ruskin: "The sharpest, finest chiseling, and _patientest_ +fusing;" "_distantest_ relationships;" "_sorrowfulest_ spectacles." + +Carlyle uses _beautifulest_, _mournfulest_, _honestest_, +_admirablest_, _indisputablest_, _peaceablest_, _most small_, etc. + +These long, harsh forms are usually avoided, but _more_ and _most_ are +frequently used with monosyllables. + + +162. Expressions are often met with in which a superlative form does +not carry the superlative meaning. These are equivalent usually to +_very_ with the positive degree; as,-- + + To this the Count offers a _most wordy_ declaration of the + benefits conferred by Spain.--_The Nation_, No 1507 + + In all formulas that Johnson could stand by, there needed to be a + _most genuine_ substance.--CARLYLE + + A gentleman, who, though born in no very high degree, was _most + finished_, _polished_, _witty_, _easy_, _quiet_.--THACKERAY + + He had actually nothing else save a rope around his neck, which + hung behind in the _queerest_ way.--_Id._ + + "So help me God, madam, I will," said Henry Esmond, falling on + his knees, and kissing the hand of his _dearest_ mistress.--_Id._ + + +[Sidenote: _Adjectives irregularly compared._] + +163. Among the variously derived adjectives now in our language +there are some which may always be recognized as native English. These +are adjectives irregularly compared. + +Most of them have worn down or become confused with similar words, but +they are essentially the same forms that have lived for so many +centuries. + +The following lists include the majority of them:-- + + + LIST I. + + 1. Good or well Better Best + 2. Evil, bad, ill Worse Worst + 3. Little Less, lesser Least + 4. Much or many More Most + 5. Old Elder, older Eldest, oldest + 6. Nigh Nigher Nighest, next + 7. Near Nearer Nearest + 8. Far Farther, further Farthest, furthest + 9. Late Later, latter Latest, last + 10. Hind Hinder Hindmost, hindermost + + + LIST II. + + These have no adjective positive:-- + + 1. [In] Inner Inmost, innermost + 2. [Out] Outer, utter {Outmost, outermost + {Utmost, uttermost + 3. [Up] Upper Upmost, uppermost + + + LIST III. + + A few of comparative form but not comparative meaning:-- + + After Over Under Nether + +Remarks on Irregular Adjectives. + + +[Sidenote: _List I._] + +164. (1) The word good has no comparative or superlative, but takes +the place of a positive to _better_ and _best_. There was an old +comparative _bet_, which has gone out of use; as in the sentence (14th +century), "Ich singe _bet_ than thu dest" (I sing better than thou +dost). The superlative I form was _betst_, which has softened to the +modern _best_. + +(2) In Old English, evil was the positive to _worse_, _worst_; but +later _bad_ and _ill_ were borrowed from the Norse, and used as +positives to the same comparative and superlative. _Worser_ was once +used, a double comparative; as in Shakespeare,-- + + O, throw away the _worser_ part of it.--HAMLET. + +(3) Little is used as positive to _less_, _least_, though from a +different root. A double comparative, _lesser_, is often used; as,-- + + We have it in a much _lesser_ degree.--MATTHEW ARNOLD. + + Thrust the _lesser_ half by main force into the fists of Ho-ti. + --LAMB. + +(4) The words much and many now express quantity; but in former +times _much_ was used in the sense of _large_, _great_, and was the +same word that is found in the proverb, "Many a little makes _a +mickle_." Its spelling has been _micel_, _muchel_, _moche_, _much_, +the parallel form _mickle_ being rarely used. + +The meanings _greater_, _greatest_, are shown in such phrases as,-- + + The _more_ part being of one mind, to England we + sailed.--KINGSLEY. + + The _most_ part kept a stolid indifference.--_Id._ + +The latter, meaning _the largest part_, is quite common. + +(5) The forms elder, eldest, are earlier than _older_, _oldest_. A +few other words with the vowel _o_ had similar change in the +comparative and superlative, as _long_, _strong_, etc.; but these have +followed _old_ by keeping the same vowel _o_ in all the forms, instead +of _lenger_, _strenger_, etc., the old forms. + +(6) and (7) Both nigh and near seem regular in Modern English, +except the form _next_; but originally the comparison was _nigh_, +_near_, _next_. In the same way the word high had in Middle English +the superlative _hexte_. + +By and by the comparative _near_ was regarded as a positive form, and +on it were built a double comparative _nearer_, and the superlative +_nearest_, which adds _-est_ to what is really a comparative instead +of a simple adjective. + +(8) These words also show confusion and consequent modification, +coming about as follows: further really belongs to another +series,--_forth_, _further_, _first_. First became entirely +detached from the series, and _furthest_ began to be used to follow +the comparative _further_; then these were used as comparative and +superlative of _far_. + +The word far had formerly the comparative and superlative _farrer_, +_farrest_. In imitation of _further_, _furthest_, _th_ came into the +others, making the modern _farther_, _farthest_. Between the two sets +as they now stand, there is scarcely any distinction, except perhaps +_further_ is more used than _farther_ in the sense of _additional_; +as, for example,-- + + When that evil principle was left with no _further_ material to + support it.--HAWTHORNE. + +(9) Latter and last are the older forms. Since _later_, _latest_, +came into use, a distinction has grown up between the two series. +_Later_ and _latest_ have the true comparative and superlative force, +and refer to time; _latter_ and _last_ are used in speaking of +succession, or series, and are hardly thought of as connected in +meaning with the word _late_. + +(10) Hinder is comparative in form, but not in meaning. The form +_hindmost_ is really a double superlative, since the _m_ is for _-ma_, +an old superlative ending, to which is added _-ost_, doubling the +inflection. _Hind-er-m-ost_ presents the combination comparative + +superlative + superlative. + + +[Sidenote: _List II._] + +165. In List II. (Sec. 163) the comparatives and superlatives are +adjectives, but they have no adjective positives. + +The comparatives are so in form, but not in their meaning. + +The superlatives show examples again of double inflection, and of +comparative added to double-superlative inflection. + +Examples (from Carlyle) of the use of these adjectives: "revealing the +_inner_ splendor to him;" "a mind that has penetrated into the +_inmost_ heart of a thing;" "This of painting is one of the +_outermost_ developments of a man;" "The _outer_ is of the day;" +"far-seeing as the sun, the _upper_ light of the world;" "the +_innermost_ moral soul;" "their _utmost_ exertion." + + +[Sidenote: -Most _added to other words_.] + +166. The ending _-most_ is added to some words that are not usually +adjectives, or have no comparative forms. + + There, on the very _topmost_ twig, sits that ridiculous but + sweet-singing bobolink.--H.W. BEECHER. + + Decidedly handsome, having such a skin as became a young woman of + family in _northernmost_ Spain.--DE QUINCEY. + + Highest and _midmost_, was descried The royal banner floating + wide.--SCOTT. + + +[Sidenote: _List III._] + +167. The adjectives in List III. are like the comparative forms in +List II. in having no adjective positives. They have no superlatives, +and have no comparative force, being merely descriptive. + + Her bows were deep in the water, but her _after_ deck was still + dry.--KINGSLEY. + + Her, by the by, in _after_ years I vainly endeavored to + trace.--DE QUINCEY. + + The upper and the _under_ side of the medal of Jove.--EMERSON. + + Have you ever considered what a deep _under_ meaning there lies + in our custom of strewing flowers?--RUSKIN. + + Perhaps he rose out of some _nether_ region.--HAWTHORNE. + +_Over_ is rarely used separately as an adjective. + + + +CAUTION FOR ANALYZING OR PARSING. + +[Sidenote: _Think what each adjective belongs to._] + +168. Some care must be taken to decide what word is modified by an +adjective. In a series of adjectives in the same sentence, all may +belong to the same noun, or each may modify a different word or group +of words. + +For example, in this sentence, "The young pastor's voice was +tremulously sweet, rich, deep, and broken," it is clear that all four +adjectives after _was_ modify the noun _voice_. But in this sentence, +"She showed her usual prudence and her usual incomparable decision," +_decision_ is modified by the adjective _incomparable_; _usual_ +modifies _incomparable decision_, not _decision_ alone; and the +pronoun _her_ limits _usual incomparable decision_. + +Adjectives modifying the same noun are said to be of the _same rank_; +those modifying different words or word groups are said to be +adjectives of _different rank_. This distinction is valuable in a +study of punctuation. + +Exercise. + +In the following quotations, tell what each adjective modifies:-- + + 1. Whenever that look appeared in her wild, bright, deeply black + eyes, it invested them with a strange remoteness and + intangibility.--HAWTHORNE. + + 2. It may still be argued, that in the present divided state of + Christendom a college which is positively Christian must be + controlled by some religious denomination.--NOAH PORTER. + + 3. Every quaking leaf and fluttering shadow sent the blood + backward to her heart.--MRS. STOWE. + + 4. This, our new government, is the first in the history of the + world based upon this great physical, philosophical, and moral + truth.--A.H. STEPHENS + + 5. May we not, therefore, look with confidence to the ultimate + universal acknowledgment of the truths upon which our system + rests?--_Id._ + + 6. A few improper jests and a volley of good, round, solid, + satisfactory, and heaven-defying oaths.--HAWTHORNE. + + 7. It is well known that the announcement at any private rural + entertainment that there is to be ice cream produces an immediate + and profound impression.--HOLMES. + + + +ADVERBS USED AS ADJECTIVES. + +169. By a convenient brevity, adverbs are sometimes used as +adjectives; as, instead of saying, "the one who was then king," in +which _then_ is an adverb, we may say "the _then_ king," making _then_ +an adjective. Other instances are,-- + + My _then_ favorite, in prose, Richard Hooker.--RUSKIN. + + Our _sometime_ sister, now our queen.--SHAKESPEARE + + Messrs. Bradbury and Evans, the _then_ and _still_ owners. + --TROLLOPE. + + The _seldom_ use of it.--TRENCH. + + For thy stomach's sake, and thine _often_ infirmities.--_Bible._ + + + +HOW TO PARSE ADJECTIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _What to tell in parsing._] + +170. Since adjectives have no gender, person, or case, and very few +have number, the method of parsing is simple. + +In parsing an adjective, tell-- + +(1) The class and subclass to which it belongs. + +(2) Its number, if it has number. + +(3) Its degree of comparison, if it can be compared. + +(4) What word or words it modifies. + + +MODEL FOR PARSING. + +These truths are not unfamiliar to your thoughts. + +_These_ points out _what_ truths, therefore demonstrative; plural +number, having a singular, _this_; cannot be compared; modifies the +word _truths_. + +_Unfamiliar_ describes _truths_, therefore descriptive; not inflected +for number; compared by prefixing _more_ and _most_; positive degree; +modifies _truths_. + + +Exercise. + +Parse in full each adjective in these sentences:-- + + 1. A thousand lives seemed concentrated in that one moment to + Eliza. + + 2. The huge green fragment of ice on which she alighted pitched + and creaked. + + 3. I ask nothing of you, then, but that you proceed to your end + by a direct, frank, manly way. + + 4. She made no reply, and I waited for none. + + 5. A herd of thirty or forty tall ungainly figures took their + way, with awkward but rapid pace, across the plain. + + 6. Gallantly did the lion struggle in the folds of his terrible + enemy, whose grasp each moment grew more fierce and secure, and + most astounding were those frightful yells. + + 7. This gave the young people entire freedom, and they enjoyed it + to the fullest extent. + + 8. I will be as harsh as truth and as uncompromising as justice. + + 9. To every Roman citizen he gives, To every several man, + seventy-five drachmas. + + 10. Each member was permitted to entertain all the rest on his or + her birthday, on which occasion the elders of the family were + bound to be absent. + + 11. Instantly the mind inquires whether these fishes under the + bridge, yonder oxen in the pasture, those dogs in the yard, are + immutably fishes, oxen, and dogs. + + 12. I know not what course others may take. + + 13. With every third step, the tomahawk fell. + + 14. What a ruthless business this war of extermination is! + + 15. I was just emerging from that many-formed crystal country. + + 16. On what shore has not the prow of your ships dashed? + + 17. The laws and institutions of his country ought to have been + more to him than all the men in his country. + + 18. Like most gifted men, he won affections with ease. + + 19. His letters aim to elicit the inmost experience and outward + fortunes of those he loves, yet are remarkably self-forgetful. + + 20. Their name was the last word upon his lips. + + 21. The captain said it was the last stick he had seen. + + 22. Before sunrise the next morning they let us out again. + + 23. He was curious to know to what sect we belonged. + + 24. Two hours elapsed, during which time I waited. + + 25. In music especially, you will soon find what personal benefit + there is in being serviceable. + + 26. To say what good of fashion we can, it rests on reality, and + hates nothing so much as pretenders. + + 27. Here lay two great roads, not so much for travelers that were + few, as for armies that were too many by half. + + 28. On whichever side of the border chance had thrown Joanna, the + same love to France would have been nurtured. + + 29. What advantage was open to him above the English boy? + + 30. Nearer to our own times, and therefore more interesting to + us, is the settlement of our own country. + + 31. Even the topmost branches spread out and drooped in all + directions, and many poles supported the lower ones. + + 32. Most fruits depend entirely on our care. + + 33. Even the sourest and crabbedest apple, growing in the most + unfavorable position, suggests such thoughts as these, it is so + noble a fruit. + + 34. Let him live in what pomps and prosperities he like, he is no + literary man. + + 35. Through what hardships it may bear a sweet fruit! + + 36. Whatsoever power exists will have itself organized. + + 37. A hard-struggling, weary-hearted man was he. + + + + +ARTICLES. + +171. There is a class of words having always an adjectival use in +general, but with such subtle functions and various meanings that they +deserve separate treatment. In the sentence, "He passes an ordinary +brick house on the road, with an ordinary little garden," the words +_the_ and _an_ belong to nouns, just as adjectives do; but they cannot +be accurately placed under any class of adjectives. They are nearest +to demonstrative and numeral adjectives. + +[Sidenote: _Their origin._] + +172. The article the comes from an old demonstrative adjective +(_sē_, _sēo_, _ðat_, later _thē_, _thēo_, _that_) which was also an +article in Old English. In Middle English _the_ became an article, and +_that_ remained a demonstrative adjective. + +An or a came from the old numeral _ān_, meaning _one_. + +[Sidenote: _Two relics._] + +Our expressions _the one_, _the other_, were formerly _that one_, +_that other_; the latter is still preserved in the expression, in +vulgar English, _the tother_. Not only this is kept in the Scotch +dialect, but the former is used, these occurring as _the tane, the +tother_, or _the tane, the tither_; for example,-- + + We ca' her sometimes _the tane_, sometimes _the tother_.--SCOTT. + +[Sidenote: An _before vowel sounds_, a _before consonant sounds_.] + +173. Ordinarily _an_ is used before vowel sounds, and _a_ before +consonant sounds. Remember that a _vowel sound_ does not necessarily +mean beginning with a vowel, nor does _consonant sound_ mean +beginning with a consonant, because English spelling does not +coincide closely with the sound of words. Examples: "_a_ house," "_an_ +orange," "_a_ European," "_an_ honor," "_a_ yelling crowd." + +[Sidenote: An _with consonant sounds_.] + +174. Many writers use _an_ before _h_, even when not silent, when +the word is not accented on the first syllable. + + _An_ historian, such as we have been attempting to describe, + would indeed be an intellectual prodigy.--MACAULAY. + + The Persians were _an_ heroic people like the Greeks.--BREWER. + + He [Rip] evinced _an_ hereditary disposition to attend to + anything else but his business.--IRVING. + + _An_ habitual submission of the understanding to mere events and + images.--COLERIDGE. + + _An_ hereditary tenure of these offices.--THOMAS JEFFERSON. + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +175. An article is a limiting word, not descriptive, which cannot +be used alone, but always joins to a substantive word to denote a +particular thing, or a group or class of things, or any individual of +a group or class. + +[Sidenote: _Kinds._] + +176. Articles are either definite or indefinite. + +The is the definite article, since it points out a particular +individual, or group, or class. + +An or a is the indefinite article, because it refers to any one of +a group or class of things. + +An and a are different forms of the same word, the older _ān_. + + + +USES OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. + + +[Sidenote: _Reference to a known object._] + +177. The most common use of the definite article is to refer to an +object that the listener or reader is already acquainted with; as in +the sentence,-- + + Don't you remember how, when _the_ dragon was infesting _the_ + neighborhood of Babylon, _the_ citizens used to walk dismally out + of evenings, and look at _the_ valleys round about strewed with + _the_ bones?--THACKERAY. + + NOTE.--This use is noticed when, on opening a story, a person is + introduced by _a_, and afterwards referred to by _the_:-- + + By and by _a_ giant came out of the dark north, and lay down on + the ice near Audhumla.... _The_ giant frowned when he saw the + glitter of the golden hair.--_Heroes of Asgard._ + + +[Sidenote: _With names of rivers._] + +178. _The_ is often prefixed to the names of rivers; and when the +word _river_ is omitted, as "_the_ Mississippi," "_the_ Ohio," the +article indicates clearly that a river, and not a state or other +geographical division, is referred to. + + No wonder I could face _the_ Mississippi with so much courage + supplied to me.--THACKERAY. + + The Dakota tribes, doubtless, then occupied the country southwest + of _the_ Missouri.--G. BANCROFT. + + +[Sidenote: _To call attention to attributes._] + +179. When _the_ is prefixed to a proper name, it alters the force of +the noun by directing attention to _certain qualities_ possessed by +the person or thing spoken of; thus,-- + + _The_ Bacon, _the_ Spinoza, _the_ Hume, Schelling, Kant, or + whosoever propounds to you a philosophy of the mind, is only a + more or less awkward translator of things in your + consciousness.--EMERSON. + + +[Sidenote: _With plural of abstract nouns._] + +180. _The_, when placed before the pluralized abstract noun, marks +it as half abstract or a common noun. + +[Sidenote: _Common._] + + His messages to _the_ provincial _authorities_.--MOTLEY. + +[Sidenote: _Half abstract._] + + He was probably skilled in _the subtleties_ of Italian + statesmanship.--_Id._ + +[Sidenote: _With adjectives used as nouns._] + +181. When _the_ precedes adjectives of the positive degree used +substantively, it marks their use as common and plural nouns when they +refer to persons, and as singular and abstract when they refer to +qualities. + + 1. _The simple_ rise as by specific levity, not into a particular + virtue, but into the region of all the virtues.--EMERSON. + + 2. If _the good_ is there, so is _the evil_.--_Id._ + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +NOTE.--This is not to be confused with words that have shifted from +adjectives and become pure nouns; as,-- + + As she hesitated to pass on, _the gallant_, throwing his cloak + from his shoulders, laid it on the miry spot.--SCOTT. + + But De Soto was no longer able to abate the confidence or punish + the temerity of _the natives_.--G. BANCROFT. + +[Sidenote: _One thing for its class._] + +182. _The_ before class nouns may mark one thing as a representative +of the class to which it belongs; for example,-- + + The faint, silvery warblings heard over the partially bare and + moist fields from _the bluebird_, _the song sparrow_, and _the + redwing_, as if the last flakes of winter tinkled as they + fell!--THOREAU. + + In the sands of Africa and Arabia _the camel_ is a sacred and + precious gift.--GIBBON. + +[Sidenote: _For possessive person pronouns._] + +183. _The_ is frequently used instead of the possessive case of the +personal pronouns _his_, _her_, etc. + + More than one hinted that a cord twined around _the head_, or a + match put between _the fingers_, would speedily extract the + required information.--KINGSLEY. + + _The_ mouth, and the region of the mouth, were about the + strongest features in Wordsworth's face.--DE QUINCEY. + + +[Sidenote: The _for_ a.] + +184. In England and Scotland _the_ is often used where we use _a_, +in speaking of measure and price; as,-- + + Wheat, the price of which necessarily varied, averaged in the + middle of the fourteenth century tenpence _the bushel_, barley + averaging at the same time three shillings _the + quarter_.--FROUDE. + + +[Sidenote: _A very strong restrictive._] + +185. Sometimes _the_ has a strong force, almost equivalent to a +descriptive adjective in emphasizing a word,-- + + No doubt but ye are _the_ people, and wisdom shall die with + you.--_Bible._ + + As for New Orleans, it seemed to me _the_ city of the world where + you can eat and drink the most and suffer the least.--THACKERAY. + + He was _the_ man in all Europe that could (if any could) have + driven six-in-hand full gallop over Al Sirat.--DE QUINCEY. + + +[Sidenote: _Mark of a substantive._] + +186. _The_, since it belongs distinctively to substantives, is a +sure indication that a word of verbal form is not used participially, +but substantively. + + In the hills of Sacramento there is gold for _the + gathering_.--EMERSON. + + I thought _the writing_ excellent, and wished, if possible, to + imitate it.--FRANKLIN. + + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +187. There is one use of _the_ which is different from all the +above. It is an adverbial use, and is spoken of more fully in Sec. +283. Compare this sentence with those above:-- + + There was something ugly and evil in his face, which they had not + previously noticed, and which grew still _the more obvious_ to + the sight _the oftener_ they looked upon him.--HAWTHORNE. + +Exercise.--Find sentences with five uses of the definite article. + + + +USES OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. + + +[Sidenote: _Denotes any one of a class._] + +188. The most frequent use of the indefinite article is to denote +any one of a class or group of objects: consequently it belongs to +singular words; as in the sentence,-- + + Near the churchyard gate stands _a_ poor-box, fastened to _a_ + post by iron bands and secured by _a_ padlock, with _a_ sloping + wooden roof to keep off the rain.--LONGFELLOW + +[Sidenote: _Widens the scope of proper nouns._] + +189. When the indefinite article precedes proper names, it alters +them to class names. The qualities or attributes of the object are +made prominent, and transferred to any one possessing them; as,-- + + The vulgar riot and debauchery, which scarcely disgraced _an + Alcibiades_ or _a Cæsar_, have been exchanged for the higher + ideals of _a Bayard_ or _a Sydney_.--PEARSON + +[Sidenote: _With abstract nouns._] + +190. _An_ or _a_ before abstract nouns often changes them to half +abstract: the idea of quality remains, but the word now denotes only +one instance or example of things possessing the quality. + +[Sidenote: _Become half abstract._] + + The simple perception of natural forms is _a delight_.--EMERSON + + If thou hadst _a sorrow_ of thine own, the brook might tell thee + of it.--HAWTHORNE + +In the first sentence, instead of the general abstract notion of +delight, which cannot be singular or plural, _a delight_ means one +thing delightful, and implies others having the same quality. + +So _a sorrow_ means one cause of sorrow, implying that there are +other things that bring sorrow. + +[Sidenote: _Become pure class nouns._] + +NOTE.--Some abstract nouns become common class nouns with the +indefinite article, referring simply to persons; thus,-- + + If the poet of the "Rape of the Lock" be not _a wit_, who + deserves to be called so?--THACKERAY. + + He had a little brother in London with him at this time,--as + great _a beauty_, as great a dandy, as great a villain.--_Id._ + + _A youth_ to fortune and to fame unknown.--GRAY. + +[Sidenote: _Changes material to class nouns._] + +191. _An_ or _a_ before a material noun indicates the change to a +class noun, meaning one kind or a detached portion; as,-- + + They that dwell up in the steeple,... + Feel a glory in so rolling + On the human heart _a stone_. + --POE. + + When God at first made man, + Having _a glass_ of blessings standing by. + --HERBERT. + + The roofs were turned into arches of massy stone, joined by _a + cement_ that grew harder by time.--JOHNSON. + +[Sidenote: _Like the numeral adjective_ one.] + +192. In some cases _an_ or _a_ has the full force of the numeral +adjective _one_. It is shown in the following:-- + + To every room there was _an_ open and _a_ secret + passage.--JOHNSON. + + In a short time these become a small tree, _an_ inverted pyramid + resting on the apex of the other.--THOREAU. + + All men are at last of _a_ size.--EMERSON. + + At the approach of spring the red squirrels got under my house, + two at _a_ time.--THOREAU. + +[Sidenote: _Equivalent to the word_ each _or_ every.] + +193. Often, also, the indefinite article has the force of _each_ or +_every_, particularly to express measure or frequency. + + It would be so much more pleasant to live at his ease than to + work eight or ten hours _a day_.--BULWER + +[Sidenote: _Compare to Sec. 184._] + + Strong beer, such as we now buy for eighteenpence _a gallon_, was + then a penny _a gallon_.--FROUDE + + +[Sidenote: _With_ such, many, what.] + +194. _An_ or _a_ is added to the adjectives _such_, _many_, and +_what_, and may be considered a part of these in modifying +substantives. + + How was I to pay _such a_ debt?--THACKERAY. + + _Many a_ one you and I have had here below.--THACKERAY. + + _What a_ world of merriment then melody foretells!--POE. + +[Sidenote: _With_ not _and_ many.] + +195 LIST III. + + A few of comparative form but not comparative meaning:-- + + After Over Under Nether. + +_Not_ and _never_ with _a_ or _an_ are numeral adjectives, +instead of adverbs, which they are in general. + + _Not a_ drum was heard, _not a_ funeral note.--WOLFE + + My Lord Duke was as hot as a flame at this salute, but said + _never a_ word.--THACKERAY. + +NOTE.--All these have the function of adjectives; but in the last +analysis of the expressions, _such_, _many_, _not_, etc., might be +considered as adverbs modifying the article. + + +[Sidenote: _With_ few _or_ little.] + +196. The adjectives _few_ and _little_ have the negative meaning of +_not much_, _not many_, without the article; but when _a_ is put +before them, they have the positive meaning of _some_. Notice the +contrast in the following sentences:-- + + Of the country beyond the Mississippi _little_ more was known + than of the heart of Africa.--MCMASTER + + To both must I of necessity cling, supported always by the hope + that when _a little_ time, _a few_ years, shall have tried me + more fully in their esteem, I may be able to bring them + together.--_Keats's Letters_. + + _Few_ of the great characters of history have been so differently + judged as Alexander.--SMITH, _History of Greece_ + +[Sidenote: _With adjectives, changed to nouns_.] + +197. When _the_ is used before adjectives with no substantive +following (Sec. 181 and note), these words are adjectives used as +nouns, or pure nouns; but when _an_ or _a_ precedes such words, they +are always nouns, having the regular use and inflections of nouns; for +example,-- + + Such are the words _a brave_ should use.--COOPER. + + In the great society of wits, John Gay deserves to be _a + favorite_, and to have a good place.--THACKERAY + + Only the name of one obscure epigrammatist has been embalmed for + use in the verses of _a rival_.--PEARSON. + +Exercise.--Bring up sentences with five uses of the indefinite +article. + + + +HOW TO PARSE ARTICLES. + +198. In parsing the article, tell-- + + +(1) What word it limits. + +(2) Which of the above uses it has. + + +Exercise. + +Parse the articles in the following:-- + + 1. It is like gathering a few pebbles off the ground, or bottling + a little air in a phial, when the whole earth and the whole + atmosphere are ours. + + 2. Aristeides landed on the island with a body of Hoplites, + defeated the Persians and cut them to pieces to a man. + + 3. The wild fire that lit the eye of an Achilles can gleam no + more. + + 4. But it is not merely the neighborhood of the cathedral that is + mediæval; the whole city is of a piece. + + 5. To the herdsman among his cattle in remote woods, to the + craftsman in his rude workshop, to the great and to the little, a + new light has arisen. + + 6. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid become + intelligent, and the wavering, determined. + + 7. The student is to read history actively, and not passively. + + 8. This resistance was the labor of his life. + + 9. There was always a hope, even in the darkest hour. + + 10. The child had a native grace that does not invariably coexist + with faultless beauty. + + 11. I think a mere gent (which I take to be the lowest form of + civilization) better than a howling, whistling, clucking, + stamping, jumping, tearing savage. + + 12. Every fowl whom Nature has taught to dip the wing in water. + + 13. They seem to be lines pretty much of a length. + + 14. Only yesterday, but what a gulf between now and then! + + 15. Not a brick was made but some man had to think of the making + of that brick. + + 16. The class of power, the working heroes, the Cortes, the + Nelson, the Napoleon, see that this is the festivity and + permanent celebration of such as they; that fashion is funded + talent. + + + + +VERBS AND VERBALS.. + + + + +VERBS. + + +[Sidenote: _Verb,--the word of the sentence._] + +199. The term _verb_ is from the Latin _verbum_ meaning _word_: +hence it is _the_ word of a sentence. A thought cannot be expressed +without a verb. When the child cries, "Apple!" it means, _See_ the +apple! or I _have_ an apple! In the mariner's shout, "A sail!" the +meaning is, "Yonder _is_ a sail!" + +Sentences are in the form of declarations, questions, or commands; and +none of these can be put before the mind without the use of a verb. + +[Sidenote: _One group or a group of words._] + +200. The verb may not always be a single word. On account of the +lack of inflections, _verb phrases_ are very frequent. Hence the verb +may consist of: + +(1) _One word_; as, "The young man _obeyed_." + +(2) _Several words of verbal nature, making one expression_; as, (_a_) +"Some day it _may be considered_ reasonable," (_b_) "Fearing lest he +_might have been anticipated_." + +(3) _One or more verbal words united with other words to compose one +verb phrase_: as in the sentences, (_a_) "They knew well that this +woman _ruled over_ thirty millions of subjects;" (_b_) "If all the +flummery and extravagance of an army _were done away with_, the money +could be made to go much further;" (_c_) "It is idle cant to pretend +anxiety for the better distribution of wealth until we can devise +means by which this preying upon people of small incomes _can be put a +stop to_." + +In (_a_), a verb and a preposition are used as one verb; in (_b_), a +verb, an adverb, and a preposition unite as a verb; in (_c_), an +article, a noun, a preposition, are united with verbs as one verb +phrase. + +[Sidenote: _Definition and caution._] + +201. A verb is a word used as a predicate, to say something to or +about some person or thing. In giving a definition, we consider a verb +as one word. + +Now, it is indispensable to the nature of a verb that it is "a word +used as a predicate." Examine the sentences in Sec. 200: In (1), +_obeyed_ is a predicate; in (2, _a_), _may be considered_ is a unit in +doing the work of one predicate; in (2, _b_), _might have been +anticipated_ is also one predicate, but _fearing_ is not a predicate, +hence is not a verb; in (3, _b_), _to go_ is no predicate, and not a +verb; in (3, _c_), _to pretend_ and _preying_ have something of +verbal nature in expressing action in a faint and general way, but +cannot be predicates. + +In the sentence, "_Put_ money in thy purse," _put_ is the predicate, +with some word understood; as, "Put _thou_ money in thy purse." + + + +VERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO MEANING AND USE. + +TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. + + +[Sidenote: _The nature of the transitive verb._] + +202. By examining a few verbs, it may be seen that not all verbs are +used alike. All do not express action: some denote state or condition. +Of those expressing action, all do not express it in the same way; for +example, in this sentence from Bulwer,--"The proud lone _took_ care to +conceal the anguish she _endured_; and the pride of woman _has_ an +hypocrisy which _can deceive_ the most penetrating, and _shame_ the +most astute,"--every one of the verbs in Italics has one or more words +before or after it, representing something which it influences or +controls. In the first, lone _took_ what? answer, _care_; _endured_ +what? _anguish_; etc. Each influences some object, which may be a +person, or a material thing, or an idea. _Has_ takes the object +_hypocrisy_; _can deceive_ has an object, _the most penetrating_; +(can) _shame_ also has an object, _the most astute_. + +In each case, the word following, or the object, is necessary to the +completion of the action expressed in the verb. + +All these are called transitive verbs, from the Latin _transire_, +which means _to go over_. Hence + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +203. A transitive verb is one which must have an object to complete +its meaning, and to receive the action expressed. + +[Sidenote: _The nature of intransitive verbs._] + +204. Examine the verbs in the following paragraph:-- + + She _sprang up_ at that thought, and, taking the staff which + always guided her steps, she _hastened_ to the neighboring shrine + of Isis. Till she _had been_ under the guardianship of the kindly + Greek, that staff _had sufficed_ to conduct the poor blind girl + from corner to corner of Pompeii.--BULWER + +In this there are some verbs unlike those that have been examined. +_Sprang_, or _sprang up_, expresses action, but it is complete in +itself, does not affect an object; _hastened_ is similar in use; _had +been_ expresses condition, or state of being, and can have no object; +_had sufficed_ means _had been sufficient_, and from its meaning +cannot have an object. + +Such verbs are called intransitive (not crossing over). Hence + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +205. An intransitive verb is one which is complete in itself, or +which is completed by other words without requiring an object. + + +[Sidenote: _Study_ use, _not_ form, _of verbs here._] + +206. Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, according to +their use in the sentence, It can be said, "The boy _walked_ for two +hours," or "The boy _walked_ the horse;" "The rains _swelled_ the +river," or "The river _swelled_ because of the rain;" etc. + +The important thing to observe is, many words must be distinguished as +transitive or intransitive by _use_, not by _form_. + + +207. Also verbs are sometimes made transitive by prepositions. +These may be (1) compounded with the verb; or (2) may follow the verb, +and be used as an integral part of it: for example,-- + + Asking her pardon for having _withstood_ her.--SCOTT. + + I can wish myself no worse than to have it all to _undergo_ a + second time.--KINGSLEY. + + A weary gloom in the deep caverns of his eyes, as of a child that + has _outgrown_ its playthings.--HAWTHORNE. + + It is amusing to walk up and down the pier and _look at_ the + countenances passing by.--B. TAYLOR. + + He was at once so out of the way, and yet so sensible, that I + loved, _laughed at_, and pitied him.--GOLDSMITH. + + My little nurse told me the whole matter, which she had cunningly + _picked out_ from her mother.--SWIFT. + + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Pick out the transitive and the intransitive verbs in the +following:-- + +1. The women and children collected together at a distance. + +2. The path to the fountain led through a grassy savanna. + +3. As soon as I recovered my senses and strength from so sudden a +surprise, I started back out of his reach where I stood to view him; +he lay quiet whilst I surveyed him. + +4. At first they lay a floor of this kind of tempered mortar on the +ground, upon which they deposit a layer of eggs. + +5. I ran my bark on shore at one of their landing places, which was a +sort of neck or little dock, from which ascended a sloping path or +road up to the edge of the meadow, where their nests were; most of +them were deserted, and the great thick whitish eggshells lay broken +and scattered upon the ground. + +6. Accordingly I got everything on board, charged my gun, set sail +cautiously, along shore. As I passed by Battle Lagoon, I began to +tremble. + +7. I seized my gun, and went cautiously from my camp: when I had +advanced about thirty yards, I halted behind a coppice of orange +trees, and soon perceived two very large bears, which had made their +way through the water and had landed in the grove, and were advancing +toward me. + +(_b_) Bring up sentences with five transitive and five intransitive +verbs. + + + +VOICE, ACTIVE AND PASSIVE. + + +[Sidenote: _Meaning of active voice._] + +208. As has been seen, transitive verbs are the only kind that can +express action so as to go over to an object. This implies three +things,--the agent, or person or thing acting; the verb representing +the action; the person or object receiving the act. + +In the sentence, "We reached the village of Sorgues by dusk, and +accepted the invitation of an old dame to lodge at her inn," these +three things are found: the actor, or agent, is expressed by _we_; the +action is asserted by _reached_ and _accepted_; the things acted upon +are _village_ and _invitation_. Here the subject is represented as +doing something. The same word is the subject and the agent. This use +of a transitive verb is called the active voice. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +209. The active voice is that form of a verb which represents the +subject as acting; or + +The active voice is that form of a transitive verb which makes the +_subject_ and the _agent_ the same word. + + +[Sidenote: _A question._] + +210. Intransitive verbs are _always active voice_. Let the student +explain why. + + +[Sidenote: _Meaning of passive voice._] + +211. In the assertion of an action, it would be natural to suppose, +that, instead of always representing the subject as acting upon some +person or thing, it must often happen that the subject is spoken of as +_acted upon_; and the person or thing acting may or may not be +expressed in the sentence: for example,-- + + All infractions of love and equity in our social relations are + speedily punished. They are punished by fear.--EMERSON. + +Here the subject _infractions_ does nothing: it represents the object +toward which the action of _are punished_ is directed, yet it is the +subject of the same verb. In the first sentence the agent is not +expressed; in the second, _fear_ is the agent of the same action. + +So that in this case, instead of having the agent and subject the same +word, we have the _object_ and _subject_ the same word, and the agent +may be omitted from the statement of the action. + +_Passive_ is from the Latin word _patior_, meaning _to endure_ or +_suffer_; but in ordinary grammatical use _passive_ means _receiving +an action_. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +212. The passive voice is that form of the verb which represents the +subject as being acted upon; or-- + +The passive voice is that form of the verb which represents the +_subject_ and the _object_ by the same word. + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Pick out the verbs in the active and the passive voice:-- + +1. In the large room some forty or fifty students were walking about +while the parties were preparing. + +2. This was done by taking off the coat and vest and binding a great +thick leather garment on, which reached to the knees. + +3. They then put on a leather glove reaching nearly to the shoulder, +tied a thick cravat around the throat, and drew on a cap with a large +visor. + +4. This done, they were walked about the room a short time; their +faces all this time betrayed considerable anxiety. + +5. We joined the crowd, and used our lungs as well as any. + +6. The lakes were soon covered with merry skaters, and every afternoon +the banks were crowded with spectators. + +7. People were setting up torches and lengthening the rafts which had +been already formed. + +8. The water was first brought in barrels drawn by horses, till some +officer came and opened the fire plug. + +9. The exclusive in fashionable life does not see that he excludes +himself from enjoyment, in the attempt to appropriate it. + + +(_b_) Find sentences with five verbs in the active and five in the +passive voice. + + + +MOOD. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +213. The word _mood_ is from the Latin _modus_, meaning _manner_, +_way_, _method_. Hence, when applied to verbs,-- + +Mood means the manner of conceiving and expressing action or being +of some subject. + + +[Sidenote: _The three ways._] + +214. There are three chief ways of expressing action or being:-- + +(1) As a fact; this may be a question, statement, or assumption. + +(2) As doubtful, or merely conceived of in the mind. + +(3) As urged or commanded. + + + +INDICATIVE MOOD. + + +[Sidenote: _Deals with facts._] + +215. The term _indicative_ is from the Latin _indicare_ (to declare, +or assert). The indicative represents something as a fact,-- + +[Sidenote: _Affirms or denies._] + +(1) _By declaring a thing to be true or not to be true_; thus,-- + + Distinction _is_ the consequence, never the object, of a great + mind.--ALLSTON. + + I _do not remember_ when or by whom I _was taught_ to read; + because I _cannot_ and never _could recollect_ a time when I + _could not read_ my Bible.--D. WEBSTER. + +[Sidenote: _Assumed as a fact._] + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +(2) _By assuming a thing to be true_ without declaring it to be so. +This kind of indicative clause is usually introduced by _if_ (meaning +_admitting that, granting that_, etc.), _though, although_, etc. +Notice that the action is not merely conceived as possible; it is +assumed to be a fact: for example,-- + + If the penalties of rebellion hung over an unsuccessful contest; + if America was yet in the cradle of her political existence; if + her population little exceeded two millions; if she was without + government, without fleets or armies, arsenals or magazines, + without military knowledge,--still her citizens had a just and + elevated sense of her rights.--A. HAMILTON. + +(3) _By asking a question to find out some fact_; as,-- + + Is private credit the friend and patron of industry?--HAMILTON. + + With respect to novels what shall I say?--N. WEBSTER. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +216 .The indicative mood is that form of a verb which represents a +thing as a fact, or inquires about some fact. + + + +SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. + + +[Sidenote: _Meaning of the word._] + +217. _Subjunctive_ means _subjoined_, or joined as dependent or +subordinate to something else. + +[Sidenote: _This meaning is misleading._] + +If its original meaning be closely adhered to, we must expect every +dependent clause to have its verb in the subjunctive mood, and every +clause _not_ dependent to have its verb in some other mood. + +But this is not the case. In the quotation from Hamilton (Sec. 215, 2) +several subjoined clauses introduced by _if_ have the indicative mood, +and also independent clauses are often found having the verb in the +subjunctive mood. + +[Sidenote: _Cautions._] + +Three cautions will be laid down which must be observed by a student +who wishes to understand and use the English subjunctive:-- + +(1) You cannot tell it always by the form of the word. The main +difference is, that the subjunctive has no _-s_ as the ending of the +present tense, third person singular; as, "If he _come_." + +(2) The fact that its clause is dependent or is introduced by certain +words will not be a safe rule to guide you. + +(3) The _meaning_ of the verb itself must be keenly studied. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +218. The subjunctive mood is that form or use of the verb which +expresses action or being, not as a fact, but as merely conceived of +in the mind. + + +Subjunctive in Independent Clauses. + + +I. Expressing a Wish. + +219. The following are examples of this use:-- + + Heaven _rest_ her soul!--MOORE. + + God _grant_ you find one face there You loved when all was + young.--KINGSLEY. + + Now _tremble_ dimples on your cheek, Sweet _be_ your lips to + taste and speak.--BEDDOES. + + Long _die_ thy happy days before thy death.--SHAKESPEARE. + + +II. A Contingent Declaration or Question. + +220. This really amounts to the conclusion, or principal clause, in +a sentence, of which the condition is omitted. + + Our chosen specimen of the hero as literary man [if we were to + choose one] _would be_ this Goethe.--CARLYLE. + + I _could lie_ down like a tired child, + And _weep_ away the life of care + Which I have borne and yet must bear.--SHELLEY. + + Most excellent stranger, as you come to the lakes simply to see + their loveliness, _might_ it not _be_ as well to ask after the + most beautiful road, rather than the shortest?--DE QUINCEY. + + +Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses. + + +I. Condition or Supposition. + + +221. The most common way of representing the action or being as +merely thought of, is by putting it into the form of a _supposition_ +or _condition_; as,-- + + Now, if the fire of electricity and that of lightning _be_ the + same, this pasteboard and these scales may represent electrified + clouds.--FRANKLIN. + +Here no assertion is made that the two things _are_ the same; but, if +the reader merely _conceives_ them for the moment to be the same, the +writer can make the statement following. Again,-- + + If it _be_ Sunday [supposing it to be Sunday], the peasants sit + on the church steps and con their psalm books.--LONGFELLOW. + + + +STUDY OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. + + +222. There are three kinds of conditional sentences:-- + +[Sidenote: _Real or true._] + +(1) Those in which an assumed or admitted fact is placed before the +mind in the form of a condition (see Sec. 215, 2); for example,-- + + If they _were_ unacquainted with the works of philosophers and + poets, they were deeply read in the oracles of God. If their + names _were not found_ in the registers of heralds, they were + recorded in the Book of Life.--MACAULAY. + +[Sidenote: _Ideal,--may or may not be true._] + +(2) Those in which the condition depends on something uncertain, and +_may or may not be regarded true, or be fulfilled_; as,-- + + If, in our case, the representative system ultimately _fail_, + popular government must be pronounced impossible.--D. WEBSTER. + + If this _be_ the glory of Julius, the first great founder of the + Empire, so it is also the glory of Charlemagne, the second + founder.--BRYCE. + + If any man _consider_ the present aspects of what is called by + distinction society, he will see the need of these ethics. + --EMERSON. + +[Sidenote: _Unreal--cannot be true._] + +(3) Suppositions _contrary to fact_, which cannot be true, or +conditions that cannot be fulfilled, but are presented only in order +to suggest what _might be_ or _might have been_ true; thus,-- + + If these things _were_ true, society could not hold together. + --LOWELL. + + _Did not_ my writings _produce_ me some solid pudding, the great + deficiency of praise would have quite discouraged me.--FRANKLIN. + + _Had_ he for once _cast_ all such feelings aside, and _striven_ + energetically to save Ney, it _would have cast_ such an enhancing + light over all his glories, that we cannot but regret its + absence.--BAYNE. + + + NOTE.--Conditional sentences are usually introduced by _if_, + _though_, _except_, _unless_, etc.; but when the verb precedes + the subject, the conjunction is often omitted: for example, + "_Were I bidden_ to say how the highest genius could be most + advantageously employed," etc. + + +Exercise. + +In the following conditional clauses, tell whether each verb is +indicative or subjunctive, and what kind of condition:-- + + 1. The voice, if he speak to you, is of similar physiognomy, + clear, melodious, and sonorous.--CARLYLE. + + 2. Were you so distinguished from your neighbors, would you, do + you think, be any the happier?--THACKERAY. + + 3. Epaminondas, if he was the man I take him for, would have sat + still with joy and peace, if his lot had been mine.--EMERSON. + + 4. If a damsel had the least smattering of literature, she was + regarded as a prodigy.--MACAULAY. + + 5. I told him, although it were the custom of our learned in + Europe to steal inventions from each other,... yet I would take + such caution that he should have the honor entire.--SWIFT. + + 6. If he had reason to dislike him, he had better not have + written, since he [Byron] was dead.--N.P. WILLIS. + + 7. If it were prostrated to the ground by a profane hand, what + native of the city would not mourn over its fall?--GAYARRE. + + 8. But in no case could it be justified, except it be for a + failure of the association or union to effect the object for + which it was created.--CALHOUN. + + + +II. Subjunctive of Purpose. + + +223. The subjunctive, especially _be_, _may_, _might_, and _should_, +is used to express purpose, the clause being introduced by _that_ or +_lest_; as,-- + + It was necessary, he supposed, to drink strong beer, that he + _might be_ strong to labor.--FRANKLIN. + + I have been the more particular...that you _may compare_ such + unlikely beginnings with the figure I have since made + there.--_Id._ + + He [Roderick] with sudden impulse that way rode, To tell of what + had passed, lest in the strife They _should engage_ with Julian's + men.--SOUTHEY. + + + +III. Subjunctive of Result. + + +224. The subjunctive may represent the result toward which an action +tends:-- + + So many thoughts move to and fro, + That vain it _were_ her eyes to close. + --COLERIDGE. + + So live, that when thy summons comes to join + The innumerable caravan... + Thou _go_ not, like the quarry-slave at night. + --BRYANT. + + + +IV. In Temporal Clauses. + +225. The English subjunctive, like the Latin, is sometimes used in a +clause to express the time when an action is to take place. + + Let it rise, till it _meet_ the sun in his coming.--D. WEBSTER. + + Rise up, before it _be_ too late!--HAWTHORNE. + + But it will not be long + Ere this _be thrown_ aside. + --WORDSWORTH. + + + +V. In Indirect Questions. + + +226. The subjunctive is often found in indirect questions, the +answer being regarded as doubtful. + + Ask the great man if there _be_ none greater.--EMERSON + + What the best arrangement _were_, none of us could say.--CARLYLE. + + Whether it _were_ morning or whether it _were_ afternoon, in her + confusion she had not distinctly known.--DE QUINCEY. + + + +VI. Expressing a Wish. + + +227. After a verb of wishing, the subjunctive is regularly used in +the dependent clause. + + The transmigiation of souls is no fable. I would it _were_! + --EMERSON. + + Bright star! Would I _were_ steadfast as thou art!--KEATS. + + I've wished that little isle _had_ wings, + And we, within its fairy bowers, + _Were wafted_ off to seas unknown. + --MOORE. + + + +VII. In a Noun Clause. + + +[Sidenote: _Subject._] + +228. The noun clause, in its various uses as subject, object, in +apposition, etc., often contains a subjunctive. + + The essence of originality is not that it _be_ new.--CARLYLE + +[Sidenote: _Apposition or logical subject._] + + To appreciate the wild and sharp flavors of those October fruits, + it is necessary that you _be breathing_ the sharp October or + November air.--THOREAU. + +[Sidenote: _Complement._] + + The first merit, that which admits neither substitute nor + equivalent, is, that everything _be_ in its place.--COLERIDGE. + +[Sidenote: _Object._] + + As sure as Heaven shall rescue me, I have no thought what men + they _be_.--COLERIDGE. + + Some might lament that I _were_ cold.--SHELLEY. + +[Sidenote: _After verbs of commanding._] + +This subjunctive is very frequent after verbs of _commanding_. + + See that there _be_ no traitors in your camp.--TENNYSON. + + Come, tell me all that thou hast seen, + And look thou _tell_ me true. + --SCOTT. + + See that thy scepter _be_ heavy on his head.--DE QUINCEY. + + + +VIII. Concessive Clauses. + + +229. The concession may be expressed-- + +(1) In the nature of the verb; for example,-- + + _Be_ the matter how it may, Gabriel Grub was afflicted with + rheumatism to the end of his days.--DICKENS. + + _Be_ the appeal _made_ to the understanding or the heart, the + sentence is the same--that rejects it.--BROUGHAM + +(2) By an indefinite relative word, which may be + +(_a_) _Pronoun._ + + Whatever _betide_, we'll turn aside, + And see the Braes of Yarrow. + --WORDSWORTH. + +(_b_) _Adjective._ + + That hunger of applause, of cash, or whatsoever victual it _may + be_, is the ultimate fact of man's life.--CARLYLE. + +(_c_) _Adverb._ + + Wherever he _dream_ under mountain or stream, + The spirit he loves remains. + --SHELLEY. + + + +Prevalence of the Subjunctive Mood. + + +230. As shown by the wide range of literature from which these +examples are selected, the subjunctive is very much used in literary +English, especially by those who are artistic and exact in the +expression of their thought. + +At the present day, however, the subjunctive is becoming less and +less used. Very many of the sentences illustrating the use of the +subjunctive mood could be replaced by numerous others using the +indicative to express the same thoughts. + +The three uses of the subjunctive now most frequent are, to express a +wish, a concession, and condition contrary to fact. + +In spoken English, the subjunctive _were_ is much used in a wish or a +condition contrary to fact, but hardly any other subjunctive forms +are. + +It must be remembered, though, that many of the verbs in the +subjunctive have the same form as the indicative. Especially is this +true of unreal conditions in past time; for example,-- + + Were we of open sense as the Greeks were, we _had found_ [should + have found] a poem here.--CARLYLE. + + + +IMPERATIVE MOOD. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +231. The imperative mood is the form of the verb used in direct +commands, entreaties, or requests. + + +[Sidenote: _Usually second person._] + +232. The imperative is naturally used mostly with the second +person, since commands are directed to a person addressed. + +(1) _Command._ + + _Call up_ the shades of Demosthenes and Cicero to vouch for your + words; _point_ to their immortal works.--J.Q. ADAMS. + + _Honor_ all men; _love_ all men; _fear_ none.--CHANNING. + +(2) _Entreaty._ + + Oh, from these sterner aspects of thy face + _Spare_ me and mine, nor _let_ us need the wrath + Of the mad unchained elements. + --BRYANT. + +(3) _Request._ + + "_Hush_! mother," whispered Kit. "_Come_ along with me."--DICKENS + + _Tell_ me, how was it you thought of coming here?--_Id._ + +[Sidenote: _Sometimes with_ first person _in the plural_.] + +But the imperative may be used with the plural of the first person. +Since the first person plural person is not really I + I, but I + you, +or I + they, etc., we may use the imperative with _we_ in a command, +request, etc., to _you_ implied in it. This is scarcely ever found +outside of poetry. + + _Part we_ in friendship from your land, + And, noble earl, receive my hand. + --SCOTT. + + Then _seek we_ not their camp--for there + The silence dwells of my despair. + --CAMPBELL. + + _Break we_ our watch up.--SHAKESPEARE. + +Usually this is expressed by _let_ with the objective: "_Let_ us go." +And the same with the third person: "_Let_ him be accursed." + + +Exercises on the Moods. + +(_a_) Tell the mood of each verb in these sentences, and what special +use it is of that mood:-- + + 1. Wherever the standard of freedom and independence has been or + shall be unfurled, there will her heart and her prayers be. + + 2. Mark thou this difference, child of earth! + While each performs his part, + Not all the lip can speak is worth + The silence of the heart. + + 3. Oh, that I might be admitted to thy presence! that mine were + the supreme delight of knowing thy will! + + 4. 'Twere worth ten years of peaceful life, + One glance at their array! + + 5. Whatever inconvenience ensue, nothing is to be preferred + before justice. + + 6. The vigorous sun would catch it up at eve + And use it for an anvil till he had filled + The shelves of heaven with burning thunderbolts. + + 7. Meet is it changes should control + Our being, lest we rust in ease. + + 8. Quoth she, "The Devil take the goose, + And God forget the stranger!" + + 9. Think not that I speak for your sakes. + + 10. "Now tread we a measure!" said young Lochinvar. + + 11. Were that a just return? Were that Roman magnanimity? + + 12. Well; how he may do his work, whether he do it right or + wrong, or do it at all, is a point which no man in the world has + taken the pains to think of. + + 13. He is, let him live where else he like, in what pomps and + prosperities he like, no literary man. + + 14. Could we one day complete the immense figure which these + flagrant points compose! + + 15. "Oh, then, my dear madam," cried he, "tell me where I may + find my poor, ruined, but repentant child." + + 16. That sheaf of darts, will it not fall unbound, + Except, disrobed of thy vain earthly vaunt, + Thou bring it to be blessed where saints and angels haunt? + + 17. Forget thyself to marble, till + With a sad leaden downward cast + Thou fix them on the earth as fast. + + 18. He, as though an instrument, + Blew mimic hootings to the silent owls, + That they might answer him. + + 19. From the moss violets and jonquils peep, + And dart their arrowy odor through the brain, + Till you might faint with that delicious pain. + + 20. That a man parade his doubt, and get to imagine that debating + and logic is the triumph and true work of what intellect he has; + alas! this is as if you should overturn the tree. + + 21. The fat earth feed thy branchy root + That under deeply strikes! + The northern morning o'er thee shoot, + High up in silver spikes! + + 22. Though abyss open under abyss, and opinion displace opinion, + all are at last contained in the Eternal cause. + + 23. God send Rome one such other sight! + + 24. "Mr. Marshall," continued Old Morgan, "see that no one + mentions the United States to the prisoner." + + 25. If there is only one woman in the nation who claims the right + to vote, she ought to have it. + + 26. Though he were dumb, it would speak. + + 27. Meantime, whatever she did,--whether it were in display of + her own matchless talents, or whether it were as one member of a + general party,--nothing could exceed the amiable, kind, and + unassuming deportment of Mrs. Siddons. + + 28. It makes a great difference to the force of any sentence + whether there be a man behind it or no. + +(_b_) Find sentences with five verbs in the indicative mood, five in +the subjunctive, five in the imperative. + + +TENSE. + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +233. _Tense_ means _time_. The tense of a verb is the form or use +indicating the time of an action or being. + +[Sidenote: _Tenses in English._] + +Old English had only two tenses,--the present tense, which represented +present and future time; and the past tense. We still use the present +for the future in such expressions as, "I _go_ away to-morrow;" "If he +_comes_, tell him to wait." + +But English of the present day not only has a tense for each of the +natural time divisions,--present, past, and future,--but has other +tenses to correspond with those of highly inflected languages, such as +Latin and Greek. + +The distinct inflections are found only in the present and past +tenses, however: the others are compounds of verbal forms with +various helping verbs, called auxiliaries; such as _be_, _have_, +_shall_, _will_. + +[Sidenote: _The tenses in detail._] + +234. Action or being may be represented as occurring in present, +past, or future time, by means of the present, the past, and the +future tense. It may also be represented as _finished_ in present or +past or future time by means of the present perfect, past perfect, and +future perfect tenses. + +Not only is this so: there are what are called definite forms of +these tenses, showing more exactly the time of the action or being. +These make the English speech even more exact than other languages, as +will be shown later on, in the conjugations. + + +PERSON AND NUMBER. + +235. The English verb has never had full inflections for number and +person, as the classical languages have. + +When the older pronoun _thou_ was in use, there was a form of the verb +to correspond to it, or agree with it, as, "Thou walk_est_," present; +"Thou walked_st_," past; also, in the third person singular, a form +ending in -_eth_, as, "It is not in man that walk_eth_, to direct his +steps." + +But in ordinary English of the present day there is practically only +one ending for person and number. This is the third person, singular +number; as, "He walk_s_;" and this only in the present tense +indicative. This is important in questions of agreement when we come +to syntax. + + + +CONJUGATION. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +236. Conjugation is the regular arrangement of the forms of the +verb in the various voices, moods, tenses, persons, and numbers. + +In classical languages, conjugation means _joining together_ the +numerous endings to the stem of the verb; but in English, inflections +are so few that conjugation means merely the exhibition of the forms +and the different verb phrases that express the relations of voice, +mood, tense, etc. + +[Sidenote: _Few forms._] + +237. Verbs in modern English have only four or five forms; for +example, _walk_ has _walk_, _walks_, _walked_, _walking_, sometimes +adding the old forms _walkest_, _walkedst_, _walketh_. Such verbs as +_choose_ have five,--_choose_, _chooses_, _chose_, _choosing_, +_chosen_ (old, _choosest_, _chooseth_, _chosest_). + +The verb _be_ has more forms, since it is composed of several +different roots,--_am_, _are_, _is_, _were_, _been_, etc. + +238. INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB _BE_. + + + Indicative Mood. + + PRESENT TENSE. | PAST TENSE. + | + _Singular_ _Plural_ | _Singular_ _Plural_ + | +1. I am We are | 1. I was We were +2. You are You are | 2. You were You were + (thou art) | (thou wast, wert) +3. [He] is [They] are | 3. [He] was [They were] + + + Subjunctive Mood. + + PRESENT TENSE. | PAST TENSE. + | + _Singular_ _Plural_ | _Singular_ _Plural_ + | +1. I be We be | 1. I were We were +2. You (thou) be You be | 2. You were You were + | (thou wert) +3. [He] be [They] be | 3. [He] were [They] were + + + Imperative Mood. + + PRESENT TENSE, _Singular and Plural_, Be. + +[Sidenote: _Remarks on the verb_ be.] + +239. This conjugation is pieced out with three different roots: (1) +_am_, _is_; (2) _was_, _were_; (3) _be_. + +Instead of the plural _are_, Old English had _beoth_ and _sind_ or +_sindon_, same as the German _sind_. _Are_ is supposed to have come +from the Norse language. + +The old indicative third person plural _be_ is sometimes found in +literature, though it is usually a dialect form; for example,-- + + Where _be_ the sentries who used to salute as the Royal chariots + drove in and out?--THACKERAY + + Where _be_ the gloomy shades, and desolate mountains?--WHITTIER + +[Sidenote: _Uses of_ be.] + +240. The forms of the verb _be_ have several uses:-- + +(1) _As principal verbs._ + + The light that never _was_ on sea and land.--WORDSWORTH. + +(2) _As auxiliary verbs_, in four ways,-- + +(_a_) With verbal forms in _-ing_ (imperfect participle) to form the +definite tenses. + + Broadswords _are maddening_ in the rear,--Each broadsword bright + _was brandishing_ like beam of light.--SCOTT. + +(_b_) With the past participle in _-ed_, _-en_, etc., to form the +passive voice. + + By solemn vision and bright silver dream, + His infancy _was nurtured_. + --SHELLEY. + +(_c_) With past participle of intransitive verbs, being equivalent to +the present perfect and past perfect tenses active; as, + + When we _are gone_ + From every object dear to mortal sight. + --WORDSWORTH + + We drank tea, which _was_ now _become_ an occasional + banquet.--GOLDSMITH. + +(_d_) With the infinitive, to express intention, obligation, +condition, etc.; thus, + + It _was to have been called_ the Order of Minerva.--THACKERAY. + + Ingenuity and cleverness _are to be rewarded_ by State + prizes.--_Id._ + + If I _were to explain_ the motion of a body falling to the + ground.--BURKE + + +241. INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB _CHOOSE_. + + Indicative Mood. + + PRESENT TENSE. + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + + 1. I choose We choose + 2. You choose You choose + 3. [He] chooses [They] choose + + PAST TENSE. + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + + 1. I chose We chose + 2. You chose You chose + 3. [He] chose [They] chose + + Subjunctive Mood. + + PRESENT TENSE. + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + + 1. I choose We choose + 2. You choose You choose + 3. [He] choose [They] choose + + PAST TENSE. + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + + 1. I chose We chose + 2. You chose You chose + 3. [He] chose [They] chose + + Imperative Mood. + + PRESENT TENSE, _Singular and Plural_, Choose. + + +FULL CONJUGATION OF THE VERB _CHOOSE_. + + +[Sidenote: _Machinery of a verb in the voices, tenses, etc._] + +242. In addition to the above _inflected_ forms, there are many +periphrastic or _compound_ forms, made up of auxiliaries with the +infinitives and participles. Some of these have been indicated in +Sec. 240, (2). + +The ordinary tenses yet to be spoken of are made up as follows:-- + +(1) _Future tense_, by using _shall_ and _will_ with the simple or +root form of the verb; as, "I _shall be_," "He _will choose._" + +(2) _Present perfect_, _past perfect_, _future perfect_, tenses, by +placing _have_, _had_, and _shall_ (or _will_) _have_ before the past +participle of any verb; as, "I _have gone_" (present perfect), "I _had +gone_" (past perfect), "I _shall have gone_" (future perfect). + +(3) The _definite form_ of each tense, by using auxiliaries with the +imperfect participle active; as, "I _am running_," "They _had been +running_." + +(4) The _passive forms_, by using the forms of the verb _be_ before +the past participle of verbs; as, "I _was chosen_," "You _are +chosen_." + + +243. The following scheme will show how rich our language is in verb +phrases to express every variety of meaning. Only the third person, +singular number, of each tense, will be given. + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Indicative Mood. + + + _Present._ He chooses. + _Present definite._ He is choosing. + _Past._ He chose. + _Past definite._ He was choosing. + _Future._ He will choose. + _Future definite._ He will he choosing. + _Present perfect._ He has chosen. + _Present perfect definite._ He has been choosing. + _Past perfect._ He had chosen. + _Past perfect definite._ He had been choosing. + _Future perfect._ He will have chosen. + _Future perfect definite._ He will have been choosing. + + Subjunctive Mood. + + _Present._ [If, though, he choose. + _Present definite._ lest, etc.] he be choosing. + _Past._ " he chose (or were to choose). + _Past definite._ " he were choosing + (or were to be choosing). + _Present perfect._ " he have chosen. + _Present perfect definite._ " he have been choosing. + _Past perfect._ " Same as indicative. + _Past perfect definite._ " " " + + + + Imperative Mood. + + + _Present._ (2d per.) Choose. + _Present definite._ " Be choosing. + +NOTE.--Since participles and infinitives are not really verbs, but +verbals, they will be discussed later (Sec. 262). + + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + Indicative Mood. + + + _Present._ He is chosen. + _Present definite._ He is being chosen. + _Past._ He was chosen. + _Past definite._ He was being chosen. + _Future._ He will be chosen. + _Future definite._ None. + _Present perfect._ He has been chosen. + _Present perfect definite._ None. + _Past perfect._ He had been chosen. + _Past perfect definite._ None. + _Future perfect._ He will have been chosen. + _Future perfect definite._ None. + + Subjunctive Mood. + + + _Present._. [If, though, he be chosen. + _Present definite._ lest, etc.] None. + _Past._ " he were chosen + (or were to be chosen). + _Past definite._ " he were being chosen. + _Present perfect._ " he have been chosen. + _Present perfect definite._ " None. + _Past Perfect._ " he had been chosen. + _Past perfect definite._ " None. + + + Imperative Mood. + + + _Present tense._ (2d per.) Be chosen. + +Also, in _affirmative sentences_, the indicative present and past +tenses have emphatic forms made up of _do_ and _did_ with the +infinitive or simple form; as, "He _does strike_," "He _did strike_." + +[_Note to Teacher_.--This table is not to be learned now; if learned +at all, it should be as practice work on strong and weak verb forms. +Exercises should be given, however, to bring up sentences containing +such of these conjugation forms as the pupil will find readily in +literature.] + + + +VERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FORM. + +[Sidenote: _Kinds._] + +244. According to form, verbs are strong or weak. + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +A strong verb forms its past tense by changing the vowel of the +present tense form, but adds no ending; as, _run_, _ran_; _drive_, +_drove_. + +A weak verb always adds an ending to the present to form the past +tense, and _may_ or _may not_ change the vowel: as, _beg_, _begged_; +_lay_, _laid_; _sleep_, _slept_; _catch_, _caught_. + + +245. TABLE OF STRONG VERBS. + +NOTE. Some of these also have weak forms, which are in parentheses + + _Present Tense._ _Past Tense._ _Past Participle._ + + abide abode abode + arise arose arisen + awake awoke (awaked) awoke (awaked) + bear bore {borne (active) + {born (passive) + begin began begun + behold beheld beheld + bid bade, bid bidden, bid + bind bound {bound, + {[_adj._ bounden] + bite bit bitten, bit + blow blew blown + break broke broken + chide chid chidden, chid + choose chose chosen + cleave clove, clave (cleft) cloven (cleft) + climb [clomb] climbed climbed + cling clung clung + come came come + crow crew (crowed) (crowed) + dig dug dug + do did done + draw drew drawn + drink drank {drunk, drank + {[_adj._ drunken] + drive drove driven + eat ate, eat eaten, eat + fall fell fallen + fight fought fought + find found found + fling flung flung + fly flew flown + forbear forbore forborne + forget forgot forgotten + forsake forsook forsaken + freeze froze frozen + get got got [gotten] + give gave given + go went gone + grind ground ground + grow grew grown + hang hung (hanged) hung (hanged) + hold held held + know knew known + lie lay lain + ride rode ridden + ring rang rung + run ran run + see saw seen + shake shook shaken + shear shore (sheared) shorn (sheared) + shine shone shone + shoot shot shot + shrink shrank or shrunk shrunk + shrive shrove shriven + sing sang or sung sung + sink sank or sunk sunk _[adj._ sunken] + sit sat [sate] sat + slay slew slain + slide slid slidden, slid + sling slung slung + slink slunk slunk + smite smote smitten + speak spoke spoken + spin spun spun + spring sprang, sprung sprung + stand stood stood + stave stove (staved) (staved) + steal stole stolen + stick stuck stuck + sting stung stung + stink stunk, stank stunk + stride strode stridden + strike struck struck, stricken + string strung strung + strive strove striven + swear swore sworn + swim swam or swum swum + swing swung swung + take took taken + tear tore torn + thrive throve (thrived) thriven (thrived) + throw threw thrown + tread trod trodden, trod + wear wore worn + weave wove woven + win won won + wind wound wound + wring wrung wrung + write wrote written + + + +Remarks on Certain Verb Forms. + +246. Several of the perfect participles are seldom used except as +adjectives: as, "his _bounden_ duty," "the _cloven_ hoof," "a +_drunken_ wretch," "a _sunken_ snag." _Stricken_ is used mostly of +diseases; as, "_stricken_ with paralysis." + +The verb bear (to bring forth) is peculiar in having one participle +(_borne_) for the active, and another (_born_) for the passive. When +it means _to carry_ or to _endure_, _borne_ is also a passive. + +The form clomb is not used in prose, but is much used in vulgar +English, and sometimes occurs in poetry; as,-- + + Thou hast _clomb_ aloft.--WORDSWORTH + + Or pine grove whither woodman never _clomb_.--COLERIDGE + +The forms of cleave are really a mixture of two verbs,--one meaning +_to adhere_ or _cling_; the other, _to split_. The former used to be +_cleave_, _cleaved_, _cleaved_; and the latter, _cleave_, _clave_ or +_clove_, _cloven_. But the latter took on the weak form _cleft_ in the +past tense and past participle,--as (from Shakespeare), "O Hamlet! +thou hast _cleft_ my heart in twain,"--while _cleave_ (to cling) +sometimes has _clove_, as (from Holmes), "The old Latin tutor _clove_ +to Virgilius Maro." In this confusion of usage, only one set remains +certain,--_cleave_, _cleft_, _cleft_ (to split). + +Crew is seldom found in present-day English. + + Not a cock _crew_, nor a dog barked.--IRVING. + + Our cock, which always _crew_ at eleven, now told us it was time + for repose.--GOLDSMITH. + +Historically, drunk is the one correct past participle of the verb +_drink_. But _drunk_ is very much used as an adjective, instead of +_drunken_ (meaning intoxicated); and, probably to avoid confusion with +this, drank is a good deal used as a past participle: thus,-- + + We had each _drank_ three times at the well.--B. TAYLOR. + + This liquor _was_ generally _drank_ by Wood and Billings. + --THACKERAY. + +Sometimes in literary English, especially in that of an earlier +period, it is found that the verb eat has the past tense and past +participle _eat_ (ĕt), instead of _ate_ and _eaten_; as, for +example,-- + + It ate the food it ne'er had _eat_.--COLERIDGE. + + How fairy Mab the junkets _eat_.--MILTON. + + The island princes overbold + Have _eat_ our substance.--TENNYSON. + +This is also very much used in spoken and vulgar English. + +The form gotten is little used, _got_ being the preferred form of +past participle as well as past tense. One example out of many is,-- + + We _had_ all _got_ safe on shore.--DE FOE. + +Hung and hanged both are used as the past tense and past +participle of _hang_; but _hanged_ is the preferred form when we speak +of execution by hanging; as, + + The butler _was hanged_.--_Bible._ + +The verb sat is sometimes spelled _sate_; for example,-- + + Might we have _sate_ and talked where gowans blow.--WORDSWORTH. + + He _sate_ him down, and seized a pen.--BYRON. + + "But I _sate_ still and finished my plaiting."--KINGSLEY. + +Usually shear is a weak verb. _Shorn_ and _shore_ are not commonly +used: indeed, _shore_ is rare, even in poetry. + + This heard Geraint, and grasping at his sword, + _Shore_ thro' the swarthy neck.--TENNYSON. + +_Shorn_ is used sometimes as a participial adjective, as "a _shorn_ +lamb," but not much as a participle. We usually say, "The sheep were +_sheared_" instead of "The sheep were _shorn_." + +Went is borrowed as the past tense of _go_ from the old verb _wend_, +which is seldom used except in poetry; for example,-- + + If, maiden, thou would'st _wend_ with me + To leave both tower and town.--SCOTT. + +Exercises. + +(_a_) From the table (Sec. 245), make out lists of verbs having the +same vowel changes as each of the following:-- + + 1. Fall, fell, fallen. + + 2. Begin, began, begun. + + 3. Find, found, found. + + 4. Give, gave, given. + + 5. Drive, drove, driven. + + 6. Throw, threw, thrown. + + 7. Fling, flung, flung. + + 8. Break, broke, broken. + + 9. Shake, shook, shaken. + + 10. Freeze, froze, frozen. + +(_b_) Find sentences using ten past-tense forms of strong verbs. + +(_c_) Find sentences using ten past participles of strong verbs. + +[_To the Teacher_,--These exercises should be continued for several +lessons, for full drill on the forms.] + + + +DEFECTIVE STRONG VERBS. + + +247. There are several verbs which are lacking in one or more +principal parts. They are as follows:-- + + PRESENT. PAST. | PRESENT. PAST. + | + may might | [ought] ought + can could | shall should + [must] must | will would + + +248. May is used as either indicative or subjunctive, as it has two +meanings. It is indicative when it expresses _permission_, or, as it +sometimes does, _ability_, like the word _can_: it is subjunctive when +it expresses doubt as to the reality of an action, or when it +expresses wish, purpose, etc. + +[Sidenote: _Indicative Use: Permission. Ability._] + + If I _may_ lightly employ the Miltonic figure, "far off his + coming shines."--WINIER. + + A stripling arm _might_ sway + A mass no host could raise.--SCOTT. + + His superiority none _might_ question.--CHANNING. + +[Sidenote: _Subjunctive use._] + + In whatever manner the separate parts of a constitution _may_ be + arranged, there is one general principle, etc.--PAINE. + +[Sidenote: (_See also Sec. 223._)] + + And from her fair and unpolluted flesh + _May_ violets spring! + --SHAKESPEARE. + + +249. Can is used in the indicative only. The _l_ in _could_ did +not belong there originally, but came through analogy with _should_ +and _would_. _Could_ may be subjunctive, as in Sec. 220. + +250. Must is historically a past-tense form, from the obsolete +verb _motan_, which survives in the sentence, "So _mote_ it be." +_Must_ is present or past tense, according to the infinitive used. + + All _must concede_ to him a sublime power of action.--CHANNING + + This, of course, _must have been_ an ocular + deception.--HAWTHORNE. + +251. The same remarks apply to ought, which is historically the +past tense of the verb _owe_. Like _must_, it is used only in the +indicative mood; as, + + The just imputations on our own faith _ought_ first _to be + removed_.... Have we valuable territories and important + posts...which _ought_ long since _to have been surrendered_?--A. + HAMILTON. + +It will be noticed that all the other defective verbs take the pure +infinitive without _to_, while _ought_ always has _to_. + +Shall and Will. + +252. The principal trouble in the use of _shall_ and _will_ is the +disposition, especially in the United States, to use _will_ and +_would_, to the neglect of _shall_ and _should_, with pronouns of the +first person; as, "I think I _will_ go." + +[Sidenote: _Uses of_ shall _and_ should.] + +The following distinctions must be observed:-- + +(1) With the FIRST PERSON, shall and should are used,-- + +[Sidenote: _Futurity and questions--first person._] + +(_a_) In making simple statements or predictions about future time; +as,-- + + The time will come full soon, I _shall_ be gone.--L.C. MOULTON. + +(_b_) In questions asking for orders, or implying obligation or +authority resting upon the subject; as,-- + + With respect to novels, what _shall_ I say?--N. WEBSTER. + + How _shall_ I describe the luster which at that moment burst upon + my vision?--C. BROCKDEN BROWN. + +[Sidenote: _Second and third persons._] + +(2) With the SECOND AND THIRD PERSONS, _shall_ and _should_ are +used,-- + +(_a_) To express authority, in the form of command, promise, or +confident prediction. The following are examples:-- + + Never mind, my lad, whilst I live thou _shalt_ never want a + friend to stand by thee.--IRVING. + + They _shall_ have venison to eat, and corn to hoe.--COOPER. + + The sea _shall_ crush thee; yea, the ponderous wave up the loose + beach _shall_ grind and scoop thy grave.--THAXTER. + + She _should_ not walk, he said, through the dust and heat of + the noonday; + Nay, she _should_ ride like a queen, not plod along like a + peasant.--LONGFELLOW. + +(_b_) In _indirect quotations_, to express the same idea that the +original speaker put forth (i.e., future action); for example,-- + + He declares that he _shall_ win the purse from you.--BULWER. + + She rejects his suit with scorn, but assures him that she _shall_ + make great use of her power over him.--MACAULAY. + + Fielding came up more and more bland and smiling, with the + conviction that he _should_ win in the end.--A. LARNED. + + Those who had too presumptuously concluded that they _should_ + pass without combat were something disconcerted.--SCOTT. + +(_c_) With _direct questions_ of the second person, when the answer +expected would express simple futurity; thus,-- + + "_Should_ you like to go to school at Canterbury?"--DICKENS. + +[Sidenote: _First, second and third persons._] + +(3) With ALL THREE PERSONS,-- + +(_a_) _Should_ is used with the meaning of obligation, and is +equivalent to _ought_. + + I never was what I _should_ be.--H. JAMES, JR. + + Milton! thou _should'st_ be living at this hour.--WORDSWORTH. + + He _should_ not flatter himself with the delusion that he can + make or unmake the reputation of other men.--WINTER. + +(_b_) _Shall_ and _should_ are both used in _dependent clauses_ of +condition, time, purpose, etc.; for example,-- + + When thy mind + _Shall_ be a mansion for all stately forms.--WORDSWORTH. + + Suppose this back-door gossip _should_ be utterly blundering and + untrue, would any one wonder?--THACKERAY. + + Jealous lest the sky _should_ have a listener.--BYRON. + + If thou _should'st_ ever come by chance or choice to + Modena.--ROGERS. + + If I _should_ be where I no more can hear thy voice.--WORDSWORTH. + + That accents and looks so winning _should_ disarm me of my + resolution, was to be expected.--C.B. BROWN. + + +253. Will and would are used as follows:-- + +[Sidenote: _Authority as to future action--first person._] + +(1) With the FIRST PERSON, _will_ and _would_ are used to express +determination as to the future, or a promise; as, for example,-- + + I _will_ go myself now, and _will_ not return until all is + finished.--CABLE. + + And promised...that I _would_ do him justice, as the sole + inventor.--SWIFT. + +[Sidenote: _Disguising a command._] + +(2) With the SECOND PERSON, _will_ is used to express command. This +puts the order more mildly, as if it were merely expected action; +as,-- + + Thou _wilt_ take the skiff, Roland, and two of my people,... and + fetch off certain plate and belongings.--SCOTT. + + You _will_ proceed to Manassas at as early a moment as + practicable, and mark on the grounds the works, etc.--_War + Records._ + +[Sidenote: _Mere futurity._] + +(3) With both SECOND AND THIRD PERSONS, _will_ and _would_ are used to +express simple futurity, action merely expected to occur; for +example,-- + + All this _will_ sound wild and chimerical.--BURKE. + + She _would_ tell you that punishment is the reward of the + wicked.--LANDOR. + + When I am in town, _you'll_ always have somebody to sit with you. + To be sure, so you _will_.--DICKENS. + +(4) With FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD PERSONS, _would_ is used to express +a _wish_,--the original meaning of the word _will_; for example,-- + +[Sidenote: _Subject_ I _omitted: often so._] + + _Would_ that a momentary emanation from thy glory would visit + me!--C.B. BROWN. + + Thine was a dangerous gift, when thou wast born, The gift of + Beauty. _Would_ thou hadst it not.--ROGERS + + It shall be gold if thou _wilt_, but thou shalt answer to me for + the use of it.--SCOTT. + + What _wouldst_ thou have a good great man obtain?--COLERIDGE. + +(5) With the THIRD PERSON, _will_ and _would_ often denote an action +as customary, without regard to future time; as, + + They _will_ go to Sunday schools, through storms their brothers + are afraid of.... They _will_ stand behind a table at a fair all + day.--HOLMES + + On a slight suspicion, they _would_ cut off the hands of numbers + of the natives, for punishment or intimidation.--BANCROFT. + + In this stately chair _would_ he sit, and this magnificent pipe + _would_ he smoke, shaking his right knee with a constant + motion.--IRVING. + + +Conjugation of _Shall_ and _Will_ as Auxiliaries (with _Choose_). + + +254. To express simply expected action:-- + + ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Singular_. _Singular_. + + 1. I shall choose. I shall be chosen. + 2. You will choose. You will be chosen. + 3. [He] will choose. [He] will be chosen. + + _Plural_. _Plural_. + + 1. We shall choose. We shall be chosen. + 2. You will choose. You will be chosen. + 3. [They] will choose. [They] will be chosen. + + To express determination, promise, etc.:-- + + ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Singular_. _Singular_. + + 1. I will choose. I will be chosen. + 2. You shall choose. You shall be chosen. + 3. [He] shall choose. [He] shall be chosen. + + ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Plural_. _Plural_. + + 1. We will choose. 1. We will be chosen. + 2. You shall choose. 2. You shall be chosen. + 3. [They] shall choose. 3. [They] shall be chosen. + + +Exercises on _Shall_ and _Will_. + +(_a_) From Secs. 252 and 253, write out a summary or outline of the +various uses of _shall_ and _will_. + +(_b_) Examine the following sentences, and justify the use of _shall_ +and _will_, or correct them if wrongly used:-- + +1. Thou art what I would be, yet only seem. + +2. We would be greatly mistaken if we thought so. + +3. Thou shalt have a suit, and that of the newest cut; the wardrobe +keeper shall have orders to supply you. + +4. "I shall not run," answered Herbert stubbornly. + +5. He informed us, that in the course of another day's march we would +reach the prairies on the banks of the Grand Canadian. + +6. What shall we do with him? This is the sphinx-like riddle which we +must solve if we would not be eaten. + +7. Will not our national character be greatly injured? Will we not be +classed with the robbers and destroyers of mankind? + +8. Lucy stood still, very anxious, and wondering whether she should +see anything alive. + +9. I would be overpowered by the feeling of my disgrace. + +10. No, my son; whatever cash I send you is yours: you will spend it +as you please, and I have nothing to say. + +11. But I will doubtless find some English person of whom to make +inquiries. + +12. Without having attended to this, we will be at a loss to +understand several passages in the classics. + +13. "I am a wayfarer," the stranger said, "and would like permission +to remain with you a little while." + +14. The beast made a sluggish movement, then, as if he would have more +of the enchantment, stirred her slightly with his muzzle. + + +WEAK VERBS. + + +255. Those weak verbs which add _-d_ or _-ed_ to form the past tense +and past participle, and have no change of vowel, are so easily +recognized as to need no special treatment. Some of them are already +given as secondary forms of the strong verbs. + +But the rest, which may be called irregular weak verbs, need some +attention and explanation. + + +256. The irregular weak verbs are divided into two classes,-- + +[Sidenote: _The two classes of irregular weak verbs._] + +(1) Those which retain the _-d_ or _-t_ in the past tense, with some +change of form for the past tense and past participle. + +(2) Those which end in _-d_ or _-t_, and have lost the ending which +formerly was added to this. + +The old ending to verbs of Class II. was _-de_ or _-te_; as,-- + + This worthi man ful wel his wit _bisette_ [used].--CHAUCER. + + Of smale houndes _hadde_ she, that sche _fedde_ With rosted + flessh, or mylk and wastel breed.--_Id._ + +This ending has now dropped off, leaving some weak verbs with the same +form throughout: as set, set, set; put, put, put. + + +257. Irregular Weak Verbs.--Class I. + + _Present Tense_. _Past Tense_. _Past Participle_. + + bereave bereft, bereave bereft, bereaved + beseech besought besought + burn burned, burnt burnt + buy bought bought + catch caught caught + creep crept crept + deal dealt dealt + dream dreamt, dreamed dreamt, dreamed + dwell dwelt dwelt + feel felt felt + flee fled fled + have had had (_once_ haved) + hide hid hidden, hid + keep kept kept + kneel knelt knelt + lay laid laid + lean leaned, leant leaned, leant + leap leaped, leapt leaped, leapt + leave left left + lose lost lost + make made (_once_ maked) made + mean meant meant + pay paid paid + pen [inclose] penned, pen penned, pent + say said said + seek sought sought + sell sold sold + shoe shod shod + sleep slept slept + spell spelled, spelt spelt + spill spilt spilt + stay staid, stayed staid, stayed + sweep swept swept + teach taught taught + tell told told + think thought thought + weep wept wept + work worked, wrought worked, wrought + + +258. Irregular Weak Verbs.--Class II. + + _Present Tense_. _Past Tense_. _Past Participle_. + + bend bent, bended bent, bended + bleed bled bled + breed bred bred + build built built + cast cast cast + cost cost cost + feed fed fed + gild gilded, gilt gilded, gilt + gird girt, girded girt, girded + hit hit hit + hurt hurt hurt + knit knit, knitted knit, knitted + lead led led + let let let + light lighted, lit lighted, lit + meet met met + put put put + quit quit, quitted quit, quitted + read read read + rend rent rent + rid rid rid + send sent sent + set set set + shed shed shed + shred shred shred + shut shut shut + slit slit slit + speed sped sped + spend spent spent + spit spit [_obs._ spat] spit [_obs._ spat] + split split split + spread spread spread + sweat sweat sweat + thrust thrust thrust + wed wed, wedded wed, wedded + wet wet, wetted wet, wetted + + +[Sidenote: _Tendency to phonetic spelling._] + +250. There seems to be in Modern English a growing tendency toward +phonetic spelling in the past tense and past participle of weak verbs. +For example, _-ed_, after the verb _bless_, has the sound of _t_: +hence the word is often written _blest_. So with _dipt_, _whipt_, +_dropt_, _tost_, _crost_, _drest_, _prest_, etc. This is often seen in +poetry, and is increasing in prose. + + +Some Troublesome Verbs. + + +[Sidenote: Lie _and_ lay _in use and meaning._] + +260. Some sets of verbs are often confused by young students, weak +forms being substituted for correct, strong forms. + +Lie and lay need close attention. These are the forms:-- + + _Present Tense._ _Past Tense._ _Pres. Participle._ _Past Participle._ + + 1. Lie lay lying lain + 2. Lay laid laying laid + +The distinctions to be observed are as follows:-- + +(1) _Lie_, with its forms, is regularly _intransitive_ as to use. As +to meaning, _lie_ means to rest, to recline, to place one's self in a +recumbent position; as, "There _lies_ the ruin." + +(2) _Lay_, with its forms, is always _transitive_ as to use. As to +meaning, _lay_ means to put, to place a person or thing in position; +as, "Slowly and sadly we _laid_ him down." Also _lay_ may be used +without any object expressed, but there is still a transitive meaning; +as in the expressions, "to _lay_ up for future use," "to _lay_ on with +the rod," "to _lay_ about him lustily." + + +[Sidenote: Sit _and_ set.] + +261. Sit and set have principal parts as follows:-- + + _Present Tense._ _Past Tense._ _Pres. Participle._ _Past Participle._ + + 1. Sit sat sitting sat + 2. Set set setting set + +Notice these points of difference between the two verbs:-- + +(1) _Sit_, with its forms, is always _intransitive_ in use. In +meaning, _sit_ signifies (_a_) to place one's self on a seat, to rest; +(_b_) to be adjusted, to fit; (_c_) to cover and warm eggs for +hatching, as, "The hen _sits_." + +(2) _Set_, with its forms, is always _transitive_ in use when it has +the following meanings: (_a_) to put or place a thing or person in +position, as "He _set_ down the book;" (_b_) to fix or establish, as, +"He _sets_ a good example." + +_Set_ is _intransitive_ when it means (_a_) to go down, to decline, +as, "The sun has _set_;" (_b_) to become fixed or rigid, as, "His eyes +_set_ in his head because of the disease;" (_c_) in certain idiomatic +expressions, as, for example, "to _set_ out," "to _set_ up in +business," "to _set_ about a thing," "to _set_ to work," "to _set_ +forward," "the tide _sets_ in," "a strong wind _set_ in," etc. + + +Exercise. + +Examine the forms of _lie_, _lay_, _sit_ and _set_ in these sentences; +give the meaning of each, and correct those used wrongly. + +1. If the phenomena which lie before him will not suit his purpose, +all history must be ransacked. + +2. He sat with his eyes fixed partly on the ghost and partly on +Hamlet, and with his mouth open. + +3. The days when his favorite volume set him upon making wheelbarrows +and chairs,... can never again be the realities they were. + +4. To make the jacket sit yet more closely to the body, it was +gathered at the middle by a broad leathern belt. + +5. He had set up no unattainable standard of perfection. + +6. For more than two hundred years his bones lay undistinguished. + +7. The author laid the whole fault on the audience. + +8. Dapple had to lay down on all fours before the lads could bestride +him. + +9. And send'st him...to his gods where happy lies + His petty hope in some near port or bay, + And dashest him again to earth:--there let him lay. + +10. Achilles is the swift-footed when he is sitting still. + +11. It may be laid down as a general rule, that history begins in +novel, and ends in essay. + +12. I never took off my clothes, but laid down in them. + + + + +VERBALS. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +262. Verbals are words that express action in a general way, +without limiting the action to any time, or asserting it of any +subject. + +[Sidenote: _Kinds._] + +Verbals may be participles, infinitives, or gerunds. + + +PARTICIPLES. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +263. Participles are _adjectival_ verbals; that is, they either +belong to some substantive by expressing action in connection with it, +or they express action, and directly modify a substantive, thus having +a descriptive force. Notice these functions. + +[Sidenote: _Pure participle in function._] + + 1. At length, _wearied_ by his cries and agitations, and not + _knowing_ how to put an end to them, he addressed the animal as + if he had been a rational being.--DWIGHT. + +Here _wearied_ and _knowing_ belong to the subject _he_, and express +action in connection with it, but do not describe. + +[Sidenote: _Express action and also describe._] + + 2. Another name glided into her petition--it was that of the + _wounded_ Christian, whom fate had placed in the hands of + bloodthirsty men, his _avowed_ enemies.--SCOTT. + +Here _wounded_ and _avowed_ are participles, but are used with the +same adjectival force that _bloodthirsty_ is (see Sec. 143, 4). + +Participial adjectives have been discussed in Sec. 143 (4), but we +give further examples for the sake of comparison and distinction. + +[Sidenote: _Fossil participles as adjectives._] + + 3. As _learned_ a man may live in a cottage or a college + commmon-room.--THACKERAY + + 4. Not merely to the soldier are these campaigns _interesting_ + --BAYNE. + + 5. How _charming_ is divine philosophy!--MILTON. + + +[Sidenote: _Forms of the participle._] + +264. Participles, in expressing action, may be active or +passive, incomplete (or imperfect), complete (perfect or past), +and perfect definite. + +They cannot be divided into tenses (present, past, etc.), because they +have no tense of their own, but derive their tense from the verb on +which they depend; for example,-- + + 1. He walked conscientiously through the services of the day, + _fulfilling_ every section the minutest, etc.--DE QUINCEY. + +_Fulfilling_ has the form to denote continuance, but depends on the +verb _walked_, which is past tense. + + + 2. Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, + Comes _dancing_ from the East.--MILTON. + +_Dancing_ here depends on a verb in the present tense. + + +265. PARTICIPLES OF THE VERB _CHOOSE_. + + ACTIVE VOICE. + +_Imperfect._ Choosing. +_Perfect._ Having chosen. +_Perfect definite._ Having been choosing. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + +_Imperfect._ None +_Perfect._ Chosen, being chosen, having been chosen. +_Perfect definite._ None. + + +Exercise. + +Pick out the participles, and tell whether active or passive, +imperfect, perfect, or perfect definite. If pure participles, tell to +what word they belong; if adjectives, tell what words they modify. + +1. The change is a large process, accomplished within a large and +corresponding space, having, perhaps, some central or equatorial line, +but lying, like that of our earth, between certain tropics, or limits +widely separated. + +2. I had fallen under medical advice the most misleading that it is +possible to imagine. + +3. These views, being adopted in a great measure from my mother, were +naturally the same as my mother's. + +4. Endowed with a great command over herself, she soon obtained an +uncontrolled ascendency over her people. + +5. No spectacle was more adapted to excite wonder. + +6. Having fully supplied the demands of nature in this respect, I +returned to reflection on my situation. + +7. Three saplings, stripped of their branches and bound together at +their ends, formed a kind of bedstead. + +8. This all-pervading principle is at work in our system,--the +creature warring against the creating power. + +9. Perhaps I was too saucy and provoking. + +10. Nothing of the kind having been done, and the principles of this +unfortunate king having been distorted,... try clemency. + + + +INFINITIVES. + + +266. Infinitives, like participles, have no tense. When active, +they have an indefinite, an imperfect, a perfect, and a perfect +definite form; and when passive, an indefinite and a perfect form, to +express action unconnected with a subject. + + +267. INFINITIVES OF THE VERB _CHOOSE._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + +_Indefinite._ [To] choose. _Imperfect._ [To] be choosing. + _Perfect._ [To] have chosen. + _Perfect definite._ [To] have been choosing. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + +_Indefinite._ [To] be chosen. _Perfect._ [To] have been chosen. + + +[Sidenote: To _with the infinitive._] + +268. In Sec. 267 the word _to_ is printed in brackets because it is +not a necessary part of the infinitive. + +It originally belonged only to an inflected form of the infinitive, +expressing purpose; as in the Old English, "Ūt ēode se sǣdere his sæd +tō sāwenne" (Out went the sower his seed _to sow_). + +[Sidenote: _Cases when_ to _is omitted._] + +But later, when inflections became fewer, _to_ was used before the +infinitive generally, except in the following cases:-- + +(1) After the auxiliaries _shall_, _will_ (with _should_ and _would_). + +(2) After the verbs _may (might), can (could), must_; also _let_, +_make_, _do_ (as, "I _do go_" etc.), _see_, _bid_ (command), _feel_, +_hear_, _watch_, _please_; sometimes _need_ (as, "He _need_ not _go_") +and _dare_ (to venture). + +(3) After _had_ in the idiomatic use; as, "You _had_ better _go_" "He +_had_ rather _walk_ than _ride_." + +(4) In exclamations; as in the following examples:-- + + "He _find_ pleasure in doing good!" cried Sir + William.--GOLDSMITH. + + + + I _urge_ an address to his kinswoman! I _approach_ her when in a + base disguise! I _do_ this!--SCOTT. + + "She _ask_ my pardon, poor woman!" cried Charles.--MACAULAY. + + +269. _Shall_ and _will_ are not to be taken as separate verbs, but +with the infinitive as one tense of a verb; as, "He _will choose_," "I +_shall have chosen_," etc. + +Also _do_ may be considered an auxiliary in the interrogative, +negative, and emphatic forms of the present and past, also in the +imperative; as,-- + + What! _doth_ she, too, as the credulous imagine, _learn_ [_doth + learn_ is one verb, present tense] the love of the great stars? + --BULWER. + + _Do_ not _entertain_ so weak an imagination--BURKE. + + She _did_ not _weep_--she _did_ not _break forth_ into + reproaches.--IRVING. + + +270. The infinitive is sometimes active in form while it is passive +in meaning, as in the expression, "a house _to let_." Examples are,-- + + She was a kind, liberal woman; rich rather more than needed where + there were no opera boxes _to rent_.--DE QUINCEY. + + Tho' it seems my spurs are yet _to win_.--TENNYSON. + + But there was nothing _to do_.--HOWELLS. + + They shall have venison _to eat_, and corn _to hoe_.--COOPER. + + Nolan himself saw that something was _to pay_.--E.E. HALE. + + +271. The various offices which the infinitive and the participle +have in the sentence will be treated in Part II., under "Analysis," as +we are now learning merely to recognize the forms. + + + +GERUNDS. + + +272. The gerund is like the participle in form, and like a noun in +use. + +The participle has been called an adjectival verbal; the gerund may +be called a _noun verbal_. While the gerund expresses action, it has +several attributes of a noun,--it may be governed as a noun; it may be +the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or a preposition; it is +often preceded by the definite article; it is frequently modified by a +possessive noun or pronoun. + + +[Sidenote: _Distinguished from participle and verbal noun._] + +273. It differs from the participle in being always used as a noun: +it never belongs to or limits a noun. + +It differs from the verbal noun in having the property of governing a +noun (which the verbal noun has not) and of expressing action (the +verbal noun merely names an action, Sec. II). + +The following are examples of the uses of the gerund:-- + +(1) _Subject_: "The _taking_ of means not to see another morning had +all day absorbed every energy;" "Certainly _dueling_ is bad, and has +been put down." + +(2) _Object_: (_a_) "Our culture therefore must not omit the _arming_ +of the man." (_b_) "Nobody cares for _planting_ the poor fungus;" "I +announce the good of _being interpenetrated_ by the mind that made +nature;" "The guilt of _having been cured_ of the palsy by a Jewish +maiden." + +(3) _Governing and Governed_: "We are far from _having exhausted_ the +significance of the few symbols we use," also (2, _b_), above; "He +could embellish the characters with new traits without _violating_ +probability;" "He could not help _holding_ out his hand in return." + +Exercise.--Find sentences containing five participles, five +infinitives, and five gerunds. + + + +SUMMARY OF WORDS IN _-ING_. + + +274. Words in -ing are of six kinds, according to use as well as +meaning. They are as follows:-- + +(1) _Part of the verb_, making the definite tenses. + +(2) _Pure participles_, which express action, but do not assert. + +(3) _Participial adjectives_, which express action and also modify. + +(4) _Pure adjectives_, which have lost all verbal force. + +(5) _Gerunds_, which express action, may govern and be governed. + +(6) _Verbal nouns,_ which name an action or state, but cannot govern. + + +Exercise. + +Tell to which of the above six classes each _-ing_ word in the +following sentences belongs:-- + +1. Here is need of apologies for shortcomings. + +2. Then how pleasing is it, on your leaving the spot, to see the +returning hope of the parents, when, after examining the nest, they +find the nurslings untouched! + +3. The crowning incident of my life was upon the bank of the Scioto +Salt Creek, in which I had been unhorsed by the breaking of the saddle +girths. + +4. What a vast, brilliant, and wonderful store of learning! + +5. He is one of the most charming masters of our language. + +6. In explaining to a child the phenomena of nature, you must, by +object lessons, give reality to your teaching. + +7. I suppose I was dreaming about it. What is dreaming? + +8. It is years since I heard the laughter ringing. + +9. Intellect is not speaking and logicizing: it is seeing and +ascertaining. + +10. We now draw toward the end of that great martial drama which we +have been briefly contemplating. + +11. The second cause of failure was the burning of Moscow. + +12. He spread his blessings all over the land. + +13. The only means of ascending was by my hands. + +14. A marble figure of Mary is stretched upon the tomb, round which is +an iron railing, much corroded, bearing her national emblem. + +15. The exertion left me in a state of languor and sinking. + +16. Thackeray did not, like Sir Walter Scott, write twenty pages +without stopping, but, dictating from his chair, he gave out sentence +by sentence, slowly. + + + + +HOW TO PARSE VERBS AND VERBALS. + + +I. VERBS. + + +275. In parsing verbs, give the following points:-- + +(1) Class: (_a_) as to _form_,--strong or weak, giving principal +parts; (_b_) as to _use_,--transitive or intransitive. + +(2) Voice,--active or passive. + +(3) Mood,--indicative, subjunctive, or imperative. + +(4) Tense,--which of the tenses given in Sec. 234. + +(5) Person and number, in determining which you must tell-- + +(6) What the subject is, for the form of the verb may not show the +person and number. + + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +276. It has been intimated in Sec. 235, we must beware of the rule, +"A verb agrees with its subject in person and number." Sometimes it +does; usually it does not, if _agrees_ means that the verb changes its +form for the different persons and numbers. The verb _be_ has more +forms than other verbs, and may be said to _agree_ with its subject in +several of its forms. But unless the verb is present, and ends in +_-s_, or is an old or poetic form ending in _-st_ or _-eth_, it is +best for the student not to state it as a general rule that "the verb +agrees with its subject in person and number," but merely to _tell +what the subject of the verb is_. + + + +II. VERB PHRASES. + + +277. Verb phrases are made up of a principal verb followed by an +infinitive, and should always be analyzed as phrases, and not taken as +single verbs. Especially frequent are those made up of _should_, +_would_, _may_, _might_, _can_, _could_, _must_, followed by a pure +infinitive without _to_. Take these examples:-- + +1. Lee _should_ of himself _have replenished_ his stock. + +2. The government _might have been_ strong and prosperous. + +In such sentences as 1, call _should_ a weak verb, intransitive, +therefore active; indicative, past tense; has for its subject _Lee_. +_Have replenished_ is a perfect active infinitive. + +In 2, call _might_ a weak verb, intransitive, active, indicative (as +it means could), past tense; has the subject _government_. _Have been_ +is a perfect active infinitive. + +For fuller parsing of the infinitive, see Sec. 278(2). + + +III. VERBALS. + + +278. (1) Participle. Tell (_a_) from what verb it is derived; +(_b_) whether active or passive, imperfect, perfect, etc.; (_c_) to +what word it belongs. If a participial adjective, give points (_a_) +and (_b_), then parse it as an adjective. + +(2) Infinitive. Tell (_a_) from what verb it is derived; (_b_) +whether indefinite, perfect, definite, etc. + +(3) Gerund. (_a_) From what verb derived; (_b_) its use (Sec. 273). + + +Exercise. + +Parse the verbs, verbals, and verb phrases in the following +sentences:-- + +1. Byron builds a structure that repeats certain elements in nature or +humanity. + +2. The birds were singing as if there were no aching hearts, no sin +nor sorrow, in the world. + +3. Let it rise! let it rise, till it meet the sun in his coming; let +the earliest light of the morning gild it, and parting day linger and +play on its summit. + +4. You are gathered to your fathers, and live only to your country in +her grateful remembrance. + +5. Read this Declaration at the head of the army. + +6. Right graciously he smiled on us, as rolled from wing to wing, + Down all the line, a deafening shout, "God save our Lord the King!" + +7. When he arose in the morning, he thought only of her, and wondered +if she were yet awake. + +8. He had lost the quiet of his thoughts, and his agitated soul +reflected only broken and distorted images of things. + +9. So, lest I be inclined + To render ill for ill, + Henceforth in me instill, + O God, a sweet good will. + +10. The sun appears to beat in vain at the casements. + +11. Margaret had come into the workshop with her sewing, as usual. + +12. Two things there are with memory will abide-- + Whatever else befall--while life flows by. + +13. To the child it was not permitted to look beyond into the hazy +lines that bounded his oasis of flowers. + +14. With them, morning is not a new issuing of light, a new bursting +forth of the sun; a new waking up of all that has life, from a sort of +temporary death. + +15. Whatever ground you sow or plant, see that it is in good +condition. + +16. However that be, it is certain that he had grown to delight in +nothing else than this conversation. + +17. The soul having been often born, or, as the Hindoos say, +"traveling the path of existence through thousands of births," there +is nothing of which she has not gained knowledge. + +18. The ancients called it ecstasy or absence,--a getting-out of their +bodies to think. + +19. Such a boy could not whistle or dance. + +20. He had rather stand charged with the imbecility of skepticism than +with untruth. + +21. He can behold with serenity the yawning gulf between the ambition +of man and his power of performance. + +22. He passed across the room to the washstand, leaving me upon the +bed, where I afterward found he had replaced me on being awakened by +hearing me leap frantically up and down on the floor. + +23. In going for water, he seemed to be traveling over a desert plain +to some far-off spring. + +24. Hasheesh always brings an awakening of perception which magnifies +the smallest sensation. + +25. I have always talked to him as I would to a friend. + +26. Over them multitudes of rosy children came leaping to throw +garlands on my victorious road. + +27. Oh, had we some bright little isle of our own! + +28. Better it were, thou sayest, to consent; + Feast while we may, and live ere life be spent. + +29. And now wend we to yonder fountain, for the hour of rest is at +hand. + + + + +ADVERBS. + + +[Sidenote: _Adverbs modify._] + +279. The word _adverb_ means _joined to a verb_. The adverb is the +only word that can join to a verb to modify it. + +[Sidenote: _A verb._] + +When action is expressed, an adverb is usually added to define the +action in some way,--time, place, or manner: as, "He began _already_ +to be proud of being a Rugby boy [time];" "One of the young heroes +scrambled up _behind_ [place];" "He was absolute, but _wisely_ and +_bravely_ ruling [manner]." + +[Sidenote: _An adjective or an adverb._] + +But this does not mean that adverbs modify verbs _only_: many of them +express degree, and limit adjectives or adverbs; as, "William's +private life was _severely_ pure;" "Principles of English law are put +down _a little_ confusedly." + +[Sidenote: _Sometimes a noun or pronoun._] + +Sometimes an adverb may modify a noun or pronoun; for example,-- + + The young man reveres men of genius, because, to speak truly, + they are _more_ himself than he is.--EMERSON. + + Is it _only_ poets, and men of leisure and cultivation, who live + with nature?--_Id._ + + To the _almost_ terror of the persons present, Macaulay began + with the senior wrangler of 1801-2-3-4, and so on.--THACKERAY. + + Nor was it _altogether_ nothing.--CARLYLE. + + Sounds overflow the listener's brain So sweet that joy is + _almost_ pain.--SHELLEY. + + The condition of Kate is _exactly_ that of Coleridge's "Ancient + Mariner."--DE QUINCEY. + + He was _incidentally_ news dealer.--T.B. ALDRICH. + +NOTE.--These last differ from the words in Sec. 169, being adverbs +naturally and fitly, while those in Sec. 169 are felt to be +elliptical, and rather forced into the service of adjectives. + +Also these adverbs modifying nouns are to be distinguished from those +standing _after_ a noun by ellipsis, but really modifying, not the +noun, but some verb understood; thus,-- + + The gentle winds and waters [that are] near, Make music to the + lonely ear.--BYRON. + + With bowering leaves [that grow] _o'erhead_, to which the eye + Looked up half sweetly, and half awfully.--LEIGH HUNT. + +[Sidenote: _A phrase._] + +An adverb may modify a phrase which is equivalent to an adjective or +an adverb, as shown in the sentences,-- + + They had begun to make their effort much _at the same + time_.--TROLLOPE. + + I draw forth the fruit, all wet and glossy, maybe _nibbled by + rabbits and hollowed out by crickets_, and perhaps _with a leaf + or two cemented to it_, but still _with a rich bloom to + it_.--THOREAU. + +[Sidenote: _A clause or sentence._] + +It may also modify a sentence, emphasizing or qualifying the +statement expressed; as, for example,-- + + And _certainly_ no one ever entered upon office with so few + resources of power in the past.--LOWELL. + + _Surely_ happiness is reflective, like the light of heaven. + --IRVING. + + We are offered six months' credit; and that, _perhaps_, has + induced some of us to attend it.--FRANKLIN. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +280. An adverb, then, is a modifying word, which may qualify an +action word or a statement, and may add to the meaning of an adjective +or adverb, or a word group used as such. + +NOTE.--The expression _action word_ is put instead of _verb_, because +_any_ verbal word may be limited by an adverb, not simply the forms +used in predication. + + +281. Adverbs may be classified in two ways: (1) according to the +meaning of the words; (2) according to their use in the sentence. + + +ADVERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO MEANING. + + +282. Thus considered, there are six classes:-- + +(1) Time; as _now_, _to-day_, _ever_, _lately_, _before_, +_hitherto_, etc. + +(2) Place. These may be adverbs either of + +(_a_) PLACE WHERE; as _here_, _there_, _where_, _near_, _yonder_, +_above_, etc. + +(_b_) PLACE TO WHICH; as _hither_, _thither_, _whither_, +_whithersoever_, etc. + +(_c_) PLACE FROM WHICH; as _hence_, _thence_, _whence_, +_whencesoever_, etc. + +(3) Manner, telling _how_ anything is done; as _well_, _slowly_, +_better_, _bravely_, _beautifully_. Action is conceived or performed +in so many ways, that these adverbs form a very large class. + +(4) Number, telling _how many times_: _once_, _twice_, _singly_, +_two by two_, etc. + +(5) Degree, telling _how much_; as _little_, _slightly_, _too_, +_partly_, _enough_, _greatly_, _much_, _very_, _just_, etc. (see also +Sec. 283). + +(6) Assertion, telling the speaker's belief or disbelief in a +statement, or how far he believes it to be true; as _perhaps_, +_maybe_, _surely_, _possibly_, _probably_, _not_, etc. + + +[Sidenote: _Special remarks on adverbs of degree._] + +283. The is an adverb of degree when it limits an adjective or an +adverb, especially the comparative of these words; thus,-- + + But not _the_ less the blare of the tumultuous organ wrought its + own separate creations.--DE QUINCEY. + + _The_ more they multiply, _the_ more friends you will have; _the_ + more evidently they love liberty, _the_ more perfect will be + their obedience.--BURKE. + +This and that are very common as adverbs in spoken English, and +not infrequently are found in literary English; for example,-- + + The master...was for _this_ once of her opinion.--R. LOUIS + STEVENSON. + + Death! To die! I owe _that_ much To what, at least, I + was.--BROWNING. + + _This_ long's the text.--SHAKESPEARE. + +[Sidenote _The status of such_.] + +Such is frequently used as an equivalent of _so_: _such_ precedes an +adjective with its noun, while _so_ precedes only the adjective +usually. + + Meekness,...which gained him _such_ universal + popularity.--IRVING. + + _Such_ a glittering appearance that no ordinary man would have + been able to close his eyes there.--HAWTHORNE. + + An eye of _such_ piercing brightness and _such_ commanding power + that it gave an air of inspiration.--LECKY. + +So also in Grote, Emerson, Thackeray, Motley, White, and others. + +[Sidenote: _Pretty._] + +Pretty has a wider adverbial use than it gets credit for. + + I believe our astonishment is _pretty_ equal.--FIELDING. + + Hard blows and hard money, the feel of both of which you know + _pretty_ well by now.--KINGSLEY. + + The first of these generals is _pretty_ generally recognized as + the greatest military genius that ever lived.--BAYNE. + + A _pretty_ large experience.--THACKERAY. + +_Pretty_ is also used by Prescott, Franklin, De Quincey, Defoe, +Dickens, Kingsley, Burke, Emerson, Aldrich, Holmes, and other writers. + +[Sidenote: Mighty.] + +The adverb mighty is very common in colloquial English; for example,-- + + "_Mighty_ well, Deacon Gookin!" replied the solemn tones of the + minister.--HAWTHORNE. + + "Maybe you're wanting to get over?--anybody sick? Ye seem + _mighty_ anxious!"--H.B. STOWE. + +It is only occasionally used in literary English; for example,-- + + You are _mighty_ courteous.--BULWER. + + Beau Fielding, a _mighty_ fine gentleman.--THACKERAY. + + "Peace, Neville," said the king, "thou think'st thyself _mighty_ + wise, and art but a fool."--SCOTT. + + I perceived his sisters _mighty_ busy.--GOLDSMITH. + + +[Sidenote: _Notice meanings._] + +284. Again, the meaning of words must be noticed rather than their +form; for many words given above may be moved from one class to +another at will: as these examples,--"He walked too _far_ [place];" +"That were _far_ better [degree];" "He spoke _positively_ [manner];" +"That is _positively_ untrue [assertion];" "I have seen you _before_ +[time];" "The house, and its lawn _before_ [place]." + + + +ADVERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO USE. + + +[Sidenote: _Simple._] + +285. All adverbs which have no function in the sentence except to +modify are called simple adverbs. Such are most of those given +already in Sec. 282. + +[Sidenote: _Interrogative._] + +286. Some adverbs, besides modifying, have the additional function +of asking a question. + +[Sidenote: _Direct questions._] + +These may introduce direct questions of-- + +(1) Time. + + _When_ did this humane custom begin?--H. CLAY. + +(2) Place. + + _Where_ will you have the scene?--LONGFELLOW + +(3) Manner. + + And _how_ looks it now?--HAWTHORNE. + +(4) Degree. + + "_How_ long have you had this whip?" asked he.--BULWER. + +(5) Reason. + + _Why_ that wild stare and wilder cry?--WHITTIER + + Now _wherefore_ stopp'st thou me?--COLERIDGE + +[Sidenote: _Indirect questions._] + +Or they may introduce indirect questions of-- + +(1) Time. + + I do not remember _when_ I was taught to read.--D. WEBSTER. + +(2) Place. + + I will not ask _where_ thou liest low.--BYRON + +(3) Manner. + + Who set you to cast about what you should say to the select + souls, or _how_ to say anything to such?--EMERSON. + +(4) Degree. + + Being too full of sleep to understand + _How_ far the unknown transcends the what we know. + --LONGFELLOW + +(5) Reason. + + I hearkened, I know not _why_.--POE. + + +287. There is a class of words usually classed as conjunctive +adverbs, as they are said to have the office of conjunctions in +joining clauses, while having the office of adverbs in modifying; for +example,-- + + _When_ last I saw thy young blue eyes, they smiled.--BYRON. + +But in reality, _when_ does not express time and modify, but the whole +clause, _when_..._eyes_; and _when_ has simply the use of a +conjunction, not an adverb. For further discussion, see Sec. 299 under +"Subordinate Conjunctions." + + +Exercise.--Bring up sentences containing twenty adverbs, +representing four classes. + + + +COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. + + +288. Many adverbs are compared, and, when compared, have the same +inflection as adjectives. + +The following, irregularly compared, are often used as adjectives:-- + + _Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._ + + well better best + ill or badly worse worst + much more most + little less least + nigh or near nearer nearest or next + far farther, further farthest, furthest + late later latest, last + (rathe, _obs._) rather + + +289. Most monosyllabic adverbs add _-er_ and _-est_ to form the +comparative and superlative, just as adjectives do; as, _high_, +_higher_, _highest_; _soon_, _sooner_, _soonest_. + +Adverbs in _-ly_ usually have _more_ and _most_ instead of the +inflected form, only occasionally having _-er_ and _-est_. + + Its strings _boldlier_ swept.--COLERIDGE. + + None can deem _harshlier_ of me than I deem.--BYRON. + + Only that we may _wiselier_ see.--EMERSON. + + Then must she keep it _safelier_.--TENNYSON. + + I should _freelier_ rejoice in that absence.--SHAKESPEARE. + + +[Sidenote: _Form_ vs. _use._] + +290. The fact that a word ends in _-ly_ does not make it an adverb. +Many adjectives have the same ending, and must be distinguished by +their use in the sentence. + + +Exercise. + +Tell what each word in _ly_ modifies, then whether it is an adjective +or an adverb. + +1. It seems certain that the Normans were more cleanly in their +habits, more courtly in their manners. + +2. It is true he was rarely heard to speak. + +3. He would inhale the smoke slowly and tranquilly. + +4. The perfectly heavenly law might be made law on earth. + +5. The king winced when he saw his homely little bride. + +6. With his proud, quick-flashing eye, + And his mien of kingly state. + +7. And all about, a lovely sky of blue + Clearly was felt, or down the leaves laughed through. + +8. He is inexpressibly mean, curiously jolly, kindly and good-natured +in secret. + + +291. Again, many words without _-ly_ have the same form, whether +adverbs or adjectives. + +The reason is, that in Old and Middle English, adverbs derived from +adjectives had the ending _-e_ as a distinguishing mark; as,-- + + If men smoot it with a yerde _smerte_ [If men smote it with a rod + smartly].--CHAUCER. + +This _e_ dropping off left both words having the same form. + + Weeds were sure to grow _quicker_ in his fields.--IRVING. + + O _sweet_ and _far_ from cliff and scar The horns of Elfland + faintly blowing.--TENNYSON. + + But he must do his errand _right._--DRAKE + + _Long_ she looked in his tiny face.--_Id._ + + Not _near_ so black as he was painted.--THACKERAY. + +In some cases adverbs with _-ly_ are used side by side with those +without _-ly_, but with a different meaning. Such are _most_, +_mostly_; _near_, _nearly_; _even_, _evenly_; _hard_, _hardly_; etc. + + +[Sidenote: _Special use of_ there.] + +292. Frequently the word there, instead of being used adverbially, +merely introduces a sentence, and inverts the usual order of subject +and predicate. + +This is such a fixed idiom that the sentence, if it has the verb _be_, +seems awkward or affected without this "_there_ introductory." Compare +these:-- + + 1. _There_ are eyes, to be sure, that give no more admission into + the man than blueberries.--EMERSON. + + 2. Time was when field and watery cove With modulated echoes + rang.--WORDSWORTH. + + + +HOW TO PARSE ADVERBS. + + +293. In parsing adverbs, give-- + +(1) The class, according to meaning and also use. + +(2) Degree of comparison, if the word is compared. + +(3) What word or word group it modifies. + + +Exercise. + +Parse all the adverbs in the following sentences:-- + +1. Now the earth is so full that a drop overfills it. + +2. The higher we rise in the scale of being, the more certainly we +quit the region of the brilliant eccentricities and dazzling contrasts +which belong to a vulgar greatness. + +3. We sit in the warm shade and feel right well + How the sap creeps up and blossoms swell. + +4. Meanwhile the Protestants believed somewhat doubtfully that he was +theirs. + +5. Whence else could arise the bruises which I had received, but from +my fall? + +6. We somehow greedily gobble down all stories in which the characters +of our friends are chopped up. + +7. How carefully that blessed day is marked in their little calendars! + +8. But a few steps farther on, at the regular wine-shop, the Madonna +is in great glory. + +9. The foolish and the dead alone never change their opinion. + +10. It is the Cross that is first seen, and always, burning in the +center of the temple. + +11. For the impracticable, however theoretically enticing, is always +politically unwise. + +12. Whence come you? and whither are you bound? + +13. How comes it that the evil which men say spreads so widely and +lasts so long, whilst our good kind words don't seem somehow to take +root and blossom? + +14. At these carousals Alexander drank deep. + +15. Perhaps he has been getting up a little architecture on the road +from Florence. + +16. It is left you to find out why your ears are boxed. + +17. Thither we went, and sate down on the steps of a house. + +18. He could never fix which side of the garden walk would suit him +best, but continually shifted. + +19. But now the wind rose again, and the stern drifted in toward the +bank. + +20. He caught the scent of wild thyme in the air, and found room to +wonder how it could have got there. + +21. They were soon launched on the princely bosom of the Thames, upon +which the sun now shone forth. + +22. Why should we suppose that conscientious motives, feeble as they +are constantly found to be in a good cause, should be omnipotent for +evil? + +24. It was pretty bad after that, and but for Polly's outdoor +exercise, she would undoubtedly have succumbed. + + + + +CONJUNCTIONS. + + +294. Unlike adverbs, conjunctions do not modify: they are used +solely for the purpose of connecting. + +Examples of the use of conjunctions:-- + +[Sidenote: _They connect_ words.] + +(1) _Connecting words_: "It is the very necessity _and_ condition of +existence;" "What a simple _but_ exquisite illustration!" + +[Sidenote: Word groups: _Phrases._] + +[Sidenote: _Clauses._] + +(2) _Connecting word groups_: "Hitherto the two systems have existed +in different States, _but_ side by side within the American Union;" +"This has happened _because_ the Union is a confederation of States." + +[Sidenote: _Sentences._] + +(3) _Connecting sentences_: "Unanimity in this case can mean only a +very large majority. _But_ even unanimity itself is far from +indicating the voice of God." + +[Sidenote: _Paragraphs._] + +(4) _Connecting sentence groups_: Paragraphs would be too long to +quote here, but the student will readily find them, in which the +writer connects the divisions of narration or argument by such words +as _but_, _however_, _hence_, _nor_, _then_, _therefore_, etc. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +295. A conjunction is a linking word, connecting words, word +groups, sentences, or sentence groups. + + +[Sidenote: _Classes of conjunctions._] + +296. Conjunctions have two principal divisions:-- + +(1) Coördinate, joining words, word groups, etc., of the _same +rank_. + +(2) Subordinate, joining a subordinate or dependent clause to a +principal or independent clause. + + + +COÖRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. + +297. Coördinate conjunctions are of four kinds: + +(1) COPULATIVE, coupling or uniting words and expressions in the same +line of thought; as _and_, _also_, _as well as_, _moreover_, etc. + +(2) ADVERSATIVE, connecting words and expressions that are opposite in +thought; as _but_, _yet_, _still_, _however_, _while_, _only_, etc. + +(3) CAUSAL, introducing a reason or cause. The chief ones are, _for_, +_therefore_, _hence_, _then_. + +(4) ALTERNATIVE, expressing a choice, usually between two things. They +are _or_, _either_, _else_, _nor_, _neither_, _whether_. + +[Sidenote: _Correlatives._] + +298. Some of these go in pairs, answering to each other in the same +sentence; as, _both_..._and_; _not only_..._but_ (or _but also_); +_either_..._or_; _whether_..._or_; _neither_..._nor_; _whether_..._or +whether_. + +Some go in threes; as, _not only_..._but_... _and_; +_either_..._or_..._or_; _neither_..._nor_... _nor_. + +Further examples of the use of coördinate conjunctions:-- + +[Sidenote: _Copulative._] + +Your letter, _likewise_, had its weight; the bread was spent, the +butter _too_; the window being open, _as well as_ the room door. + +[Sidenote: _Adversative._] + +The assertion, _however_, serves but to show their ignorance. "Can +this be so?" said Goodman Brown. "_Howbeit_, I have nothing to do with +the governor and council." + +_Nevertheless_, in this mansion of gloom I now proposed to myself a +sojourn of some weeks. + +[Sidenote: _Alternative._] + +While the earth bears a plant, _or_ the sea rolls its waves. + + _Nor_ mark'd they less, where in the air + A thousand streamers flaunted fair. + +[Sidenote: _Causal._] + +_Therefore_ the poet is not any permissive potentate, but is emperor +in his own right. _For_ it is the rule of the universe that corn shall +serve man, and not man corn. + +Examples of the use of correlatives:-- + + He began to doubt whether _both_ he _and_ the world around him + were not bewitched.--IRVING. + + He is _not only_ bold and vociferous, _but_ possesses a + considerable talent for mimicry, _and_ seems to enjoy great + satisfaction in mocking and teasing other birds.--WILSON. + + It is...the same _whether_ I move my hand along the surface of a + body, _or whether_ such a body is moved along my hand.--BURKE. + + _Neither_ the place in which he found himself, _nor_ the + exclusive attention that he attracted, disturbed the + self-possession of the young Mohican.--COOPER. + + _Neither_ was there any phantom memorial of life, _nor_ wing of + bird, _nor_ echo, _nor_ green leaf, _nor_ creeping thing, that + moved or stirred upon the soundless waste.--DE QUINCEY. + + + +SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. + +299. Subordinate conjunctions are of the following kinds:-- + +(1) PLACE: _where_, _wherever_, _whither_, _whereto_, _whithersoever_, +_whence_, etc. + +(2) TIME: _when_, _before_, _after_, _since_, _as_, _until_, +_whenever_, _while_, _ere_, etc. + +(3) MANNER: _how_, _as_, _however_, _howsoever_. + +(4) CAUSE or REASON: _because_, _since_, _as_, _now_, _whereas_, +_that_, _seeing_, etc. + +(5) COMPARISON: _than_ and _as_. + +(6) PURPOSE: _that_, _so_, _so that_, _in order that_, _lest_, +_so_..._as_. + +(7) RESULT: _that_, _so that_, especially _that_ after _so_. + +(8) CONDITION or CONCESSION: _if_, _unless_, _so_, _except_, _though_, +_although_; _even if_, _provided_, _provided that_, _in case_, _on +condition that_, etc. + +(9) SUBSTANTIVE: _that_, _whether_, sometimes _if_, are used +frequently to introduce noun clauses used as _subject, object, in +apposition_, etc. + +Examples of the use of subordinate conjunctions:-- + +[Sidenote: _Place._] + + Where the treasure is, there will the heart be also.--_Bible._ + + To lead from eighteen to twenty millions of men _whithersoever_ + they will.--J. QUINCY. + + An artist will delight in excellence _wherever_ he meets it. + --ALLSTON. + +[Sidenote: _Time._] + + I promise to devote myself to your happiness _whenever_ you shall + ask it of me.--PAULDING. + + It is sixteen years _since_ I saw the Queen of France.--BURKE. + +[Sidenote: _Manner._] + + Let the world go _how_ it will.--CARLYLE + + Events proceed, not _as_ they were expected or intended, but _as_ + they are impelled by the irresistible laws.--AMES. + +[Sidenote: _Cause, reason._] + + I see no reason _why_ I should not have the same + thought.--EMERSON. + + Then Denmark blest our chief, + _That_ he gave her wounds repose. + --CAMPBELL. + + _Now_ he is dead, his martyrdom will reap + Late harvests of the palms he should have had in life. + --H.H. JACKSON + + Sparing neither whip nor spur, _seeing that_ he carried the + vindication of his patron's fame in his saddlebags.--IRVING. + +[Sidenote: _Comparison._] + + As a soldier, he was more solicitous to avoid mistakes _than_ to + perform exploits that are brilliant.--AMES. + + All the subsequent experience of our race had gone over him with + as little permanent effect _as_ [_as_ follows the semi-adverbs + _as_ and _so_ in expressing comparison] the passing + breeze.--HAWTHORNE. + +[Sidenote: _Purpose._] + + We wish for a thousand heads, a thousand bodies, _that_ we might + celebrate its immense beauty.--EMERSON. + +[Sidenote: _Result._] + + So many thoughts moved to and fro, + _That_ vain it were her eyes to close. + --COLERIDGE. + + I was again covered with water, but not so long _but_ I held it + out.--DEFOE. + +[Sidenote: _Condition._] + + A ridicule which is of no import _unless_ the scholar heed + it.--EMERSON. + + There flowers or weeds at will may grow, + _So_ I behold them not. + --BYRON. + +[Sidenote: _Concession_.] + + What _though_ the radiance which was once so bright + Be now forever taken from my sight.--WORDSWORTH. + +[Sidenote: _Substantive._] + + It seems a pity _that_ we can only spend it once.--EMERSON. + + We do not believe _that_ he left any worthy man his foe who had + ever been his friend.--AMES. + + Let us see _whether_ the greatest, the wisest, the purest-hearted + of all ages are agreed in any wise on this point.--RUSKIN. + + Who can tell _if_ Washington be a great man or no?--EMERSON. + +300. As will have been noticed, some words--for example, _since_, +_while_, _as_, _that_, etc.--may belong to several classes of +conjunctions, according to their meaning and connection in the +sentence. + + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Bring up sentences containing five examples of coördinate +conjunctions. + +(_b_) Bring up sentences containing three examples of correlatives. + +(_c_) Bring up sentences containing ten subordinate conjunctions. + +(_d_) Tell whether the italicized words in the following sentences are +conjunctions or adverbs; classify them if conjunctions:-- + +1. _Yet_ these were often exhibited throughout our city. + +2. No one had _yet_ caught his character. + +3. _After_ he was gone, the lady called her servant. + +4. And they lived happily forever _after_. + +5. They, _however_, hold a subordinate rank. + +6. _However_ ambitious a woman may be to command admiration abroad, +her real merit is known at home. + +7. _Whence_ else could arise the bruises which I had received? + +8. He was brought up for the church, _whence_ he was occasionally +called the Dominie. + +9. And _then_ recovering, she faintly pressed her hand. + +10. In what point of view, _then_, is war not to be regarded with +horror? + +11. The moth fly, _as_ he shot in air, Crept under the leaf, and hid +her there. + +12. Besides, _as_ the rulers of a nation are _as_ liable _as_ other +people to be governed by passion and prejudice, there is little +prospect of justice in permitting war. + +13. _While_ a faction is a minority, it will remain harmless. + +14. _While_ patriotism glowed in his heart, wisdom blended in his +speech her authority with her charms. + +15. _Hence_ it is highly important that the custom of war should be +abolished. + +16. The raft and the money had been thrown near her, none of the +lashings having given way; _only_ what is the use of a guinea amongst +tangle and sea gulls? + +17. _Only_ let his thoughts be of equal scope, and the frame will suit +the picture. + + +SPECIAL REMARKS. + +[Sidenote: As if.] + +301. _As if_ is often used as one conjunction of manner, but really +there is an ellipsis between the two words; thus,-- + + But thy soft murmuring + Sounds sweet _as if_ a sister's voice reproved. + --BYRON. + + +If analyzed, the expression would be, "sounds sweet _as_ [the sound +would be] _if_ a sister's voice reproved;" _as_, in this case, +expressing degree if taken separately. + +But the ellipsis seems to be lost sight of frequently in writing, as +is shown by the use of _as though_. + +[Sidenote: As though.] + +302. In Emerson's sentence, "We meet, and part _as though_ we parted +not," it cannot be said that there is an ellipsis: it cannot mean "we +part _as_ [we should part] _though_" etc. + +Consequently, _as if_ and _as though_ may be taken as double +conjunctions expressing manner. _As though_ seems to be in as wide use +as the conjunction _as if_; for example,-- + + Do you know a farmer who acts and lives _as though_ he believed + one word of this?--H GREELEY. + + His voice ... sounded _as though_ it came out of a + barrel.--IRVING. + + Blinded alike from sunshine and from rain, + _As though_ a rose should shut, and be a bud again. + --KEATS + +Examples might be quoted from almost all authors. + +[Sidenote: As _for_ as if.] + +303. In poetry, _as_ is often equivalent to _as if_. + + And their orbs grew strangely dreary, + Clouded, even _as_ they would weep. + --EMILY BRONTE. + + So silently we seemed to speak, + So slowly moved about, + _As_ we had lent her half our powers + To eke her living out. + --HOOD. + + +HOW TO PARSE CONJUNCTIONS. + +304. In parsing conjunctions, tell-- + +(1) To what class and subclass they belong. + +(2) What words, word groups, etc., they connect. + +[Sidenote: _Caution_.] + +In classifying them, particular attention must be paid to the +_meaning_ of the word. Some conjunctions, such as _nor, and, because, +when_, etc., are regularly of one particular class; others belong to +several classes. For example, compare the sentences,-- + + 1. It continued raining, _so_ that I could not stir + abroad.--DEFOE + + 2. There will be an agreement in whatever variety of actions, + _so_ they be each honest and natural in their hour.--EMERSON + + 3. It was too dark to put an arrow into the creature's eye; _so_ + they paddled on.--KINGSLEY + +In sentence 1, _so that_ expresses result, and its clause depends on +the other, hence it is a subordinate conjunction of result; in 2, _so_ +means provided,--is subordinate of condition; in 3, _so_ means +therefore, and its clause is independent, hence it is a coördinate +conjunction of reason. + + +Exercise. + +Parse all the conjunctions in these sentences:-- + +1. When the gods come among men, they are not known. + +2. If he could solve the riddle, the Sphinx was slain. + +3. A lady with whom I was riding in the forest said to me that the +woods always seemed to wait, as if the genii who inhabit them +suspended their deeds until the wayfarer had passed. + +4. The mountain of granite blooms into an eternal flower, with the +lightness and delicate finish as well as the aërial proportions and +perspective of vegetable scenery. + +5. At sea, or in the forest, or in the snow, he sleeps as warm, dines +with as good an appetite, and associates as happily, as beside his own +chimneys. + +6. Our admiration of the antique is not admiration of the old, but of +the natural. + +7. "Doctor," said his wife to Martin Luther, "how is it that whilst +subject to papacy we prayed so often and with such fervor, whilst now +we pray with the utmost coldness, and very seldom?" + +8. All the postulates of elfin annals,--that the fairies do not like +to be named; that their gifts are capricious and not to be trusted; +and the like,--I find them true in Concord, however they might be in +Cornwall or Bretagne. + +9. He is the compend of time; he is also the correlative of nature. + +10. He dismisses without notice his thought, because it is his. + +11. The eye was placed where one ray should fall, that it might +testify of that particular ray. + +12. It may be safely trusted, so it be faithfully imparted. + +13. He knows how to speak to his contemporaries. + +14. Goodness must have some edge to it,--else it is none. + +15. I hope it is somewhat better than whim at last. + +16. Now you have the whip in your hand, won't you lay on? + +17. I scowl as I dip my pen into the inkstand. + +18. I speak, therefore, of good novels only. + +19. Let her loose in the library as you do a fawn in a field. + +20. And whether consciously or not, you must be, in many a heart, +enthroned. + +21. It is clear, however, the whole conditions are changed. + +22. I never rested until I had a copy of the book. + +23. For, though there may be little resemblance otherwise, in this +they agree, that both were wayward. + +24. Still, she might have the family countenance; and Kate thought he +looked with a suspicious scrutiny into her face as he inquired for the +young don. + +25. He follows his genius whithersoever it may lead him. + +26. The manuscript indeed speaks of many more, whose names I omit, +seeing that it behooves me to hasten. + +27. God had marked this woman's sin with a scarlet letter, which had +such efficacy that no human sympathy could reach her, save it were +sinful like herself. + +28. I rejoice to stand here no longer, to be looked at as though I +had seven heads and ten horns. + +29. He should neither praise nor blame nor defend his equals. + +30. There was no iron to be seen, nor did they appear acquainted with +its properties; for they unguardedly took a drawn sword by the edge, +when it was presented to them. + + + + +PREPOSITIONS.. + +305. The word _preposition_ implies _place before_: hence it would +seem that a preposition is always _before_ its object. It may be so in +the majority of cases, but in a considerable proportion of instances +the preposition is _after_ its object. + +This occurs in such cases as the following:-- + +[Sidenote: Preposition not before its object.] + +(1) _After a relative pronoun_, a very common occurrence; thus,-- + + The most dismal Christmas fun _which_ these eyes ever looked + _on_.--THACKERAY. + + An ancient nation _which_ they know nothing _of_.--EMERSON. + + A foe, _whom_ a champion has fought _with_ to-day.--SCOTT. + + Some little toys _that_ girls are fond _of_.--SWIFT. + + "It's the man _that_ I spoke to you _about_" said Mr. + Pickwick.--DICKENS. + +(2) _After an interrogative adverb, adjective, or pronoun_, also +frequently found:-- + + _What_ God doth the wizard pray _to_?--HAWTHORNE. + + _What_ is the little one thinking about?--J.G. HOLLAND. + + _Where_ the Devil did it come _from_, I wonder?--DICKENS. + +(3) _With an infinitive_, in such expressions as these:-- + + A proper _quarrel_ for a Crusader to do battle _in_.--SCOTT. + + "You know, General, it was _nothing_ to joke _about_."--CABLE + + Had no harsh _treatment_ to reproach herself _with_.--BOYESEN + + A _loss of vitality_ scarcely to be accounted _for_.--HOLMES. + + Places for _horses_ to be hitched _to_.--_Id._ + +(4) _After a noun_,--the case in which the preposition is expected to +be, and regularly is, before its object; as,-- + + And unseen mermaids' pearly song + Comes bubbling up, the weeds _among_. + --BEDDOES. + + Forever panting and forever young, + All breathing human passion far _above_. + --KEATS. + +306. Since the object of a preposition is most often a noun, the +statement is made that the preposition usually precedes its object; as +in the following sentence, "Roused _by_ the shock, he started _from_ +his trance." + +Here the words _by_ and _from_ are connectives; but they do more than +connect. _By_ shows the relation in thought between _roused_ and +_shock_, expressing means or agency; _from_ shows the relation in +thought between _started_ and _trance_, and expresses separation. Both +introduce phrases. + +[Sidenote: _Definition_.] + +307. A preposition is a word joined to a noun or its equivalent to +make up a qualifying or an adverbial phrase, and to show the relation +between its object and the word modified. + +[Sidenote: _Objects, nouns and the following_.] + +308. Besides nouns, prepositions may have as objects-- + +(1) _Pronouns_: "Upon _them_ with the lance;" "With _whom_ I traverse +earth." + +(2) _Adjectives_: "On _high_ the winds lift up their voices." + +(3) _Adverbs_: "If I live wholly from _within_;" "Had it not been for +the sea from _aft_." + +(4) _Phrases_: "Everything came to her from _on high_;" "From _of old_ +they had been zealous worshipers." + +(5) _Infinitives_: "The queen now scarce spoke to him save _to convey_ +some necessary command for her service." + +(6) _Gerunds_: "They shrink from _inflicting_ what they threaten;" "He +is not content with _shining_ on great occasions." + +(7) _Clauses_: + + "Each soldier eye shall brightly turn + To _where thy sky-born glories burn_." + +[Sidenote: _Object usually objective case, if noun or pronoun_.] + +309. The object of a preposition, if a noun or pronoun, is usually +in the objective case. In pronouns, this is shown by the form of the +word, as in Sec. 308 (1). + +[Sidenote: _Often possessive_.] + +In the double-possessive idiom, however, the object is in the +possessive case after _of_; for example,-- + + There was also a book _of Defoe's_,... and another _of_ + _Mather's_.--FRANKLIN. + +See also numerous examples in Secs. 68 and 87. + +[Sidenote: _Sometimes nominative_.] + +And the prepositions _but_ and _save_ are found with the nominative +form of the pronoun following; as,-- + + Nobody knows _but_ my mate and _I_ + Where our nest and our nestlings lie. + --BRYANT. + + + +USES OF PREPOSITIONS. + + +[Sidenote: _Inseparable._] + +310. Prepositions are used in three ways:-- + +(1) _Compounded with verbs_, _adverbs_, or _conjunctions_; as, for +example, with verbs, _with_draw, _under_stand, _over_look, _over_take, +_over_flow, _under_go, _out_stay, _out_number, _over_run, _over_grow, +etc.; with adverbs, there_at_, there_in_, there_from_, there_by_, +there_with_, etc.; with conjunctions, where_at_, where_in_, where_on_, +where_through_, where_upon_, etc. + +[Sidenote: _Separable._] + +(2) _Following a verb_, and being really a part of the verb. This use +needs to be watched closely, to see whether the preposition belongs to +the verb or has a separate prepositional function. For example, in the +sentences, (_a_) "He broke a pane _from_ the window," (_b_) "He broke +_into_ the bank," in (_a_), the verb _broke_ is a predicate, modified +by the phrase introduced by _from_; in (_b_), the predicate is not +_broke_, modified by _into the bank_, but _broke into_--the object, +_bank_. + +Study carefully the following prepositions with verbs:-- + + Considering the space they _took up_.--SWIFT. + + I loved, _laughed at_, and pitied him.--GOLDSMITH. + + The sun _breaks through_ the darkest clouds.--SHAKESPEARE. + + They will _root up_ the whole ground.--SWIFT. + + A friend _prevailed upon_ one of the interpreters.--ADDISON + + My uncle _approved of_ it.--FRANKLIN. + + The robber who _broke into_ them.--LANDOR. + + This period is not obscurely _hinted at_.--LAMB. + + The judge _winked at_ the iniquity of the decision.--_Id._ + + The pupils' voices, _conning over_ their lessons.--IRVING. + + To _help out_ his maintenance.--_Id._ + + With such pomp is Merry Christmas _ushered in_.--LONGFELLOW. + +[Sidenote: _Ordinary use as connective, relation words._] + +(3) As _relation words_, introducing phrases,--the most common use, in +which the words have their own proper function. + + +[Sidenote: _Usefulness of prepositions._] + +311. Prepositions are the subtlest and most useful words in the +language for compressing a clear meaning into few words. Each +preposition has its proper and general meaning, which, by frequent and +exacting use, has expanded and divided into a variety of meanings more +or less close to the original one. + +Take, for example, the word _over_. It expresses place, with motion, +as, "The bird flew _over_ the house;" or rest, as, "Silence broods +_over_ the earth." It may also convey the meaning of _about_, +_concerning_; as, "They quarreled _over_ the booty." Or it may express +time: "Stay _over_ night." + +The language is made richer and more flexible by there being several +meanings to each of many prepositions, as well as by some of them +having the same meaning as others. + + + +CLASSES OF PREPOSITIONS. + + +312. It would be useless to attempt to classify all the +prepositions, since they are so various in meaning. + +The largest groups are those of place, time, and exclusion. + + + +PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE. + + +313. The following are the most common to indicate place:-- + +(1) PLACE WHERE: _abaft_, _about_, _above_, _across_, _amid_ +(_amidst_), _among_ (_amongst_), _at_, _athwart_, _below_, _beneath_, +_beside_, _between_ (_betwixt_), _beyond_, _in_, _on_, _over_, _under_ +(_underneath_), _upon_, _round_ or _around_, _without_. + +(2) PLACE WHITHER: _into_, _unto_, _up_, _through_, _throughout_, +_to_, _towards_. + +(3) PLACE WHENCE: _down_, _from_ (_away from_, _down from_, _from +out_, etc.), _off_, _out of_. + +Abaft is exclusively a sea term, meaning _back of_. + +Among (or amongst) and between (or betwixt) have a difference +in meaning, and usually a difference in use. _Among_ originally meant +in the crowd (_on gemong_), referring to several objects; _between_ +and _betwixt_ were originally made up of the preposition _be_ (meaning +_by_) and _twēon_ or _twēonum_ (modern _twain_), _by two_, and _be_ +with _twīh_ (or _twuh_), having the same meaning, _by two_ objects. + +As to modern use, see "Syntax" (Sec. 459). + + + +PREPOSITIONS OF TIME. + + +314. They are _after_, _during_, _pending_, _till_ or _until_; also +many of the prepositions of place express time when put before words +indicating time, such as _at_, _between_, _by_, _about_, _on_, +_within_, etc. + +These are all familiar, and need no special remark. + + + +EXCLUSION OR SEPARATION. + + +315. The chief ones are _besides_, _but_, _except_, _save_, +_without_. The participle _excepting_ is also used as a preposition. + + + +MISCELLANEOUS PREPOSITIONS. + + +316. Against implies opposition, sometimes place where. In +colloquial English it is sometimes used to express time, now and then +also in literary English; for example,-- + + She contrived to fit up the baby's cradle for me _against_ + night.--SWIFT + +About, and the participial prepositions concerning, respecting, +regarding, mean _with reference to_. + + +[Sidenote: _Phrase prepositions._] + +317. Many phrases are used as single prepositions: _by means of_, +_by virtue of_, _by help of_, _by dint of_, _by force of_; _out of_, +_on account of_, _by way of_, _for the sake of_; _in consideration +of_, _in spite of_, _in defiance of_, _instead of_, _in view of_, _in +place of_; _with respect to_, _with regard to_, _according to_, +_agreeably to_; and some others. + + +318. Besides all these, there are some prepositions that have so +many meanings that they require separate and careful treatment: _on_ +(_upon_), _at_, _by_, _for_, _from_, _of_, _to_, _with_. + +No attempt will be made to give _all_ the meanings that each one in +this list has: the purpose is to stimulate observation, and to show +how useful prepositions really are. + + +At. + + +319. The general meaning of at is _near_, _close to_, after a verb +or expression implying position; and _towards_ after a verb or +expression indicating motion. It defines position approximately, while +_in_ is exact, meaning _within_. + +Its principal uses are as follows:-- + +(1) _Place where._ + + They who heard it listened with a curling horror _at_ the + heart.--J.F. COOPER. + + There had been a strike _at_ the neighboring manufacturing + village, and there was to be a public meeting, _at_ which he was + besought to be present.--T.W. HIGGINSON. + +(2) _Time_, more exact, meaning the point of time at which. + + He wished to attack _at_ daybreak.--PARKMAN. + + They buried him darkly, _at_ dead of night.--WOLFE + +(3) _Direction._ + + The mother stood looking wildly down _at_ the unseemly + object.--COOPER. + + You are next invited...to grasp _at_ the opportunity, and take + for your subject, "Health."--HIGGINSON. + +Here belong such expressions as _laugh at_, _look at_, _wink at_, +_gaze at_, _stare at_, _peep at_, _scowl at_, _sneer at_, _frown at_, +etc. + + We _laugh at_ the elixir that promises to prolong life to a + thousand years.--JOHNSON. + + "You never mean to say," pursued Dot, sitting on the floor and + _shaking_ her head _at_ him.--DICKENS. + +(4) _Source_ or _cause_, meaning _because of_, _by reason of_. + + I felt my heart chill _at_ the dismal sound.--T.W. KNOX. + + Delighted _at_ this outburst against the Spaniards.--PARKMAN. + +(5) Then the idiomatic phrases _at last_, _at length_, _at any rate_, +_at the best_, _at the worst_, _at least_, _at most_, _at first_, _at +once_, _at all_, _at one_, _at naught_, _at random_, etc.; and phrases +signifying state or condition of being, as, _at work_, _at play_, _at +peace_, _at war_, _at rest_, etc. + + +Exercise.--Find sentences with three different uses of _at_. + + +By. + + +320. Like _at_, by means _near_ or _close to_, but has several +other meanings more or less connected with this,-- + +(1) The general meaning of _place_. + + Richard was standing _by_ the window.--ALDRICH. + + Provided always the coach had not shed a wheel _by_ the + roadside.--_Id._ + +(2) _Time._ + + But _by_ this time the bell of Old Alloway began tolling.--B. + TAYLOR + + The angel came _by_ night.--R.H. STODDARD. + +(3) _Agency_ or _means_. + + Menippus knew which were the kings _by_ their howling + louder.--M.D. CONWAY. + + At St. Helena, the first port made _by_ the ship, he stopped. + --PARTON. + +(4) _Measure of excess_, expressing the degree of difference. + + At that time [the earth] was richer, _by_ many a million of + acres.--DE QUINCEY. + + He was taller _by_ almost the breadth of my nail.--SWIFT. + +(5) It is also used in _oaths and adjurations_. + + _By_ my faith, that is a very plump hand for a man of + eighty-four!--PARTON. + + They implore us _by_ the long trials of struggling humanity; _by_ + the blessed memory of the departed; _by_ the wrecks of time; _by_ + the ruins of nations.--EVERETT. + + +Exercise.--Find sentences with three different meanings of _by_. + + +For. + + +321. The chief meanings of for are as follows:-- + +(1) _Motion towards_ a place, or a tendency or action toward the +attainment of any object. + + Pioneers who were opening the way _for_ the march of the + nation.--COOPER. + + She saw the boat headed _for_ her.--WARNER. + +(2) _In favor of_, _for the benefit of_, _in behalf of_, a person or +thing. + + He and they were _for_ immediate attack.--PARKMAN + + The people were then against us; they are now _for_ us.--W.L. + GARRISON. + +(3) _Duration of time_, or _extent of space_. + + _For_ a long time the disreputable element outshone the + virtuous.--H.H. BANCROFT. + + He could overlook all the country _for_ many a mile of rich + woodland.--IRVING. + +(4) _Substitution_ or _exchange_. + + There are gains _for_ all our losses.--STODDARD. + + Thus did the Spaniards make bloody atonement _for_ the butchery + of Fort Caroline.--PARKMAN. + +(5) _Reference_, meaning _with regard to_, _as to_, _respecting_, etc. + + _For_ the rest, the Colonna motto would fit you best.--EMERSON. + + _For_ him, poor fellow, he repented of his folly.--E.E. HALE + +This is very common with _as_--_as for_ me, etc. + +(6) Like _as_, meaning _in the character of_, _as being_, etc. + + "Nay, if your worship can accomplish that," answered Master + Brackett, "I shall own you _for_ a man of skill indeed!" + --HAWTHORNE. + + Wavering whether he should put his son to death _for_ an + unnatural monster.--LAMB. + +(7) _Concession_, meaning _although_, _considering that_ etc. + + "_For_ a fool," said the Lady of Lochleven, "thou hast counseled + wisely."--SCOTT + + By my faith, that is a very plump hand _for_ a man of + eighty-four!--PARTON. + +(8) Meaning _notwithstanding_, or _in spite of_. + + But the Colonel, _for_ all his title, had a forest of poor + relations.--HOLMES. + + Still, _for_ all slips of hers, + One of Eve's family.--HOOD. + +(9) _Motive, cause, reason, incitement to action._ + + The twilight being...hardly more wholesome _for_ its glittering + mists of midge companies.--RUSKIN. + + An Arab woman, but a few sunsets since, ate her child, _for_ + famine.--_Id._ + + Here Satouriona forgot his dignity, and leaped _for_ + joy.--PARKMAN. + +(10) _For_ with its object preceding the infinitive, and having the +same meaning as a noun clause, as shown by this sentence:-- + + It is by no means necessary _that he should devote his whole + school existence to physical science_; nay, more, it is not + necessary for _him to give up more than a moderate share of his + time to such studies_.--HUXLEY. + + +Exercise.--Find sentences with five meanings of _for_. + + +From. + + +322. The general idea in from is separation or source. It may be +with regard to-- + +(1) _Place._ + + Like boys escaped _from_ school.--H.H. BANCROFT + + Thus they drifted _from_ snow-clad ranges to burning + plain.--_Id._ + +(2) _Origin._ + + Coming _from_ a race of day-dreamers, Ayrault had inherited the + faculty of dreaming also by night.--HIGGINSON. + + _From_ harmony, _from_ heavenly harmony + This universal frame began.--DRYDEN. + +(3) _Time._ + + A distrustful, if not a desperate man, did he become _from_ the + night of that fearful dream--HAWTHORNE. + +(4) _Motive_, _cause_, or _reason_. + + It was _from_ no fault of Nolan's.--HALE. + + The young cavaliers, _from_ a desire of seeming valiant, ceased + to be merciful.--BANCROFT. + + +Exercise.--Find sentences with three meanings of _from_. + + +Of. + + +323. The original meaning of of was separation or source, like +_from_. The various uses are shown in the following examples:-- + +I. The _From_ Relation. + +(1) _Origin or source._ + + The king holds his authority _of_ the people.--MILTON. + + Thomas à Becket was born _of_ reputable parents in the city of + London.--HUME. + +(2) _Separation_: (_a_) After certain verbs, such as _ease_, _demand_, +_rob_, _divest_, _free_, _clear_, _purge_, _disarm_, _deprive_, +_relieve_, _cure_, _rid_, _beg_, _ask_, etc. + + Two old Indians cleared the spot _of_ brambles, weeds, and + grass.--PARKMAN. + + Asked no odds _of_, acquitted them _of,_ etc.--ALDRICH. + +(_b_) After some adjectives,--_clear of_, _free of_, _wide of_, _bare +of_, etc.; especially adjectives and adverbs of direction, as _north +of_, _south of_, etc. + + The hills were bare _of_ trees.--BAYARD TAYLOR. + + Back _of_ that tree, he had raised a little Gothic chapel. + --GAVARRE. + +(_c_) After nouns expressing lack, deprivation, etc. + + A singular want _of_ all human relation.--HIGGINSON. + +_(d)_ With words expressing distance. + + Until he had come within a staff's length _of_ the old dame. + --HAWTHORNE + + Within a few yards _of_ the young man's hiding place.--_Id._ + +(3) _With expressions of material_, especially _out of_. + + White shirt with diamond studs, or breastpin _of_ native + gold.--BANCROFT. + + Sandals, bound with thongs _of_ boar's hide.--SCOTT + + Who formed, _out of_ the most unpromising materials, the finest + army that Europe had yet seen.--MACAULAY + +(4) _Expressing cause, reason, motive._ + + The author died _of_ a fit of apoplexy.--BOSWELL. + + More than one altar was richer _of_ his vows.--LEW WALLACE. + + "Good for him!" cried Nolan. "I am glad _of_ that."--E.E. HALE. + +(5) _Expressing agency._ + + You cannot make a boy know, _of_ his own knowledge, that Cromwell + once ruled England.--HUXLEY. + + He is away _of_ his own free will.--DICKENS + + +II. Other Relations expressed by _Of_. + +(6) _Partitive_, expressing a part of a number or quantity. + + _Of_ the Forty, there were only twenty-one members present. + --PARTON. + + He washed out some _of_ the dirt, separating thereby as much of + the dust as a ten-cent piece would hold.--BANCROFT. + +[Sidenote: _See also Sec. 309._] + +(7) _Possessive_, standing, with its object, for the possessive, or +being used with the possessive case to form the double possessive. + + Not even woman's love, and the dignity _of_ a queen, could give + shelter from his contumely.--W.E. CHANNING. + + And the mighty secret _of_ the Sierra stood revealed.--BANCROFT. + + +(8) _Appositional_, which may be in the case of-- + +(_a_) Nouns. + + Such a book as that _of_ Job.--FROUDE. + + The fair city _of_ Mexico.--PRESCOTT. + + The nation _of_ Lilliput.--SWIFT. + +(_b_) Noun and gerund, being equivalent to an infinitive. + + In the vain hope _of_ appeasing the savages.--COOPER. + + Few people take the trouble _of_ finding out what democracy + really is.--LOWELL. + +(_c_) Two nouns, when the first is descriptive of the second. + + This crampfish _of_ a Socrates has so bewitched him.--EMERSON + + A sorry antediluvian makeshift _of_ a building you may think + it.--LAMB. + + An inexhaustible bottle _of_ a shop.--ALDRICH. + +(9) _Of time._ Besides the phrases _of old_, _of late_, _of a sudden_, +etc., _of_ is used in the sense of _during_. + + I used often to linger _of_ a morning by the high gate.--ALDRICH + + I delighted to loll over the quarter railing _of_ a calm day. + --IRVING. + +(10) _Of reference_, equal to _about_, _concerning_, _with regard to_. + + The Turk lay dreaming _of_ the hour.--HALLECK. + + Boasted _of_ his prowess as a scalp hunter and + duelist.--BANCROFT. + + Sank into reverie _of_ home and boyhood scenes.--_Id._ + +[Sidenote: _Idiomatic use with verbs._] + +_Of_ is also used as an appendage of certain verbs, such as _admit_, +_accept_, _allow_, _approve_, _disapprove_, _permit_, without adding +to their meaning. It also accompanies the verbs _tire_, _complain_, +_repent_, _consist_, _avail_ (one's self), and others. + + +Exercise.--Find sentences with six uses of _of_. + + +On, Upon. + + +324. The general meaning of on is position or direction. _On_ and +_upon_ are interchangeable in almost all of their applications, as +shown by the sentences below:-- + +(1) _Place_: (_a_) Where. + + Cannon were heard close _on_ the left.--PARKMAN. + + The Earl of Huntley ranged his host + _Upon_ their native strand.--MRS. SIGOURNEY. + +(_b_) With motion. + + It was the battery at Samos firing _on_ the boats.--PARKMAN. + + Thou didst look down _upon_ the naked earth.--BRYANT. + +(2) _Time._ + + The demonstration of joy or sorrow _on_ reading their letters. + --BANCROFT. + + _On_ Monday evening he sent forward the Indians.--PARKMAN. + +Upon is seldom used to express time. + +(3) _Reference_, equal to _about_, _concerning_, etc. + + I think that one abstains from writing _on_ the immortality of + the soul.--EMERSON. + + He pronounced a very flattering opinion _upon_ my brother's + promise of excellence.--DE QUINCEY. + +(4) _In adjurations._ + + _On_ my life, you are eighteen, and not a day more.--ALDRICH. + + _Upon_ my reputation and credit.--SHAKESPEARE + +(5) _Idiomatic phrases_: _on fire_, _on board_, _on high_, _on the +wing_, _on the alert_, _on a sudden_, _on view_, _on trial_, etc. + +Exercise.--Find sentences with three uses of _on_ or _upon_. + + +To. + +325. Some uses of to are the following:-- + +(1) _Expressing motion_: (_a_) To a place. + + Come _to_ the bridal chamber, Death!--HALLECK. + + Rip had scrambled _to_ one of the highest peaks.--IRVING. + +(_b_) Referring to time. + + Full of schemes and speculations _to_ the last.--PARTON. + + Revolutions, whose influence is felt _to_ this hour.--PARKMAN. + +(2) _Expressing result._ + + He usually gave his draft to an aid...to be written over,--often + _to_ the loss of vigor.--BENTON + + _To_ our great delight, Ben Lomond was unshrouded.--B. TAYLOR + +(3) _Expressing comparison._ + + But when, unmasked, gay Comedy appears, + 'Tis ten _to_ one you find the girl in tears. + --ALDRICH + + They are arrant rogues: Cacus was nothing _to_ them.--BULWER. + + Bolingbroke and the wicked Lord Littleton were saints _to_ + him.--WEBSTER + +(4) _Expressing concern, interest._ + + _To_ the few, it may be genuine poetry.--BRYANT. + + His brother had died, had ceased to be, _to_ him.--HALE. + + Little mattered _to_ them occasional privations--BANCROFT. + +(5) _Equivalent to_ according to. + + Nor, _to_ my taste, does the mere music...of your style fall far + below the highest efforts of poetry.--LANG. + + We cook the dish _to_ our own appetite.--GOLDSMITH. + +(6) _With the infinitive_ (see Sec. 268). + +Exercise.--Find sentences containing three uses of _to_. + + +With. + + +326. With expresses the idea of accompaniment, and hardly any of +its applications vary from this general signification. + +In Old English, _mid_ meant _in company with_, while _wið_ meant +_against_: both meanings are included in the modern _with_. + +The following meanings are expressed by _with_:-- + +(1) _Personal accompaniment._ + + The advance, _with_ Heyward at its head, had already reached the + defile.--COOPER. + + For many weeks I had walked _with_ this poor friendless girl.--DE + QUINCEY. + +(2) _Instrumentality._ + + _With_ my crossbow I shot the albatross.--COLERIDGE. + + Either _with_ the swingle-bar, or _with_ the haunch of our near + leader, we had struck the off-wheel of the little gig.--DE + QUINCEY. + +(3) _Cause, reason, motive._ + + He was wild _with_ delight about Texas.--HALE. + + She seemed pleased _with_ the accident.--HOWELLS. + +(4) _Estimation, opinion._ + + How can a writer's verses be numerous if _with_ him, as _with_ + you, "poetry is not a pursuit, but a pleasure"?--LANG. + + It seemed a supreme moment _with_ him.--HOWELLS. + +(5) _Opposition_. + + After battling _with_ terrific hurricanes and typhoons on every + known sea.--ALDRICH. + + The quarrel of the sentimentalists is not _with_ life, but _with_ + you.--LANG. + +(6) _The equivalent of_ notwithstanding, in spite of. + + _With_ all his sensibility, he gave millions to the + sword.--CHANNING. + + Messala, _with_ all his boldness, felt it unsafe to trifle + further.--WALLACE + +(7) _Time._ + + He expired _with_ these words.--SCOTT. + + _With_ each new mind a new secret of nature transpires.--EMERSON. + +Exercise.--Find sentences with four uses of _with_. + + +HOW TO PARSE PREPOSITIONS. + + +327. Since a preposition introduces a phrase and shows the relation +between two things, it is necessary, first of all, to find the object +of the preposition, and then to find what word the prepositional +phrase limits. Take this sentence:-- + + The rule adopted on board the ships on which I have met "the man + without a country" was, I think, transmitted from the + beginning.--E.E. HALE. + +The phrases are (1) _on board the ships_, (2) _on which_, (3) _without +a country_, (4) _from the beginning_. The object of _on board_ is +_ships_; of _on_, _which_; of _without_, _country_; of _from_, +_beginning_. + +In (1), the phrase answers the question _where_, and has the office of +an adverb in telling _where_ the rule is adopted; hence we say, _on +board_ shows the relation between _ships_ and the participle +_adopted_. + +In (2), _on which_ modifies the verb _have met_ by telling where: +hence _on_ shows the relation between _which_ (standing for _ships_) +and the verb _have met_. + +In (3), _without a country_ modifies _man_, telling what man, or the +verb _was_ understood: hence _without_ shows the relation between +_country_ and _man_, or _was_. And so on. + +The parsing of prepositions means merely telling between what words +or word groups they show relation. + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Parse the prepositions in these paragraphs:-- + + 1. I remember, before the dwarf left the queen, he followed us + one day into those gardens. I must needs show my wit by a silly + illusion between him and the trees, which happens to hold in + their language as it does in ours. Whereupon, the malicious + rogue, watching his opportunity when I was walking under one of + them, shook it directly over my head, by which a dozen apples, + each of them near as large as a Bristol barrel, came tumbling + about my ears; one of them hit me on the back as I chanced to + stoop, and knocked me down flat on my face; but I received no + other hurt, and the dwarf was pardoned at my desire, because I + had given the provocation.--SWIFT + + 2. Be that as it will, I found myself suddenly awakened with a + violent pull upon the ring, which was fastened at the top of my + box for the conveniency of carriage. I felt my box raised very + high in the air, and then borne forward with prodigious speed. + The first jolt had like to have shaken me out of my hammock. I + called out several times, but all to no purpose. I looked towards + my windows, and could see nothing but the clouds and the sky. I + heard a noise just over my head, like the clapping of wings, and + then began to perceive the woeful condition I was in; that some + eagle had got the ring of my box in his beak, with an intent to + let it fall on a rock: for the sagacity and smell of this bird + enabled him to discover his quarry at a great distance, though + better concealed than I could be within a two-inch board.--_Id._ + + +(_b_) Give the exact meaning of each italicized preposition in the +following sentences:-- + +1. The guns were cleared _of_ their lumber. + +2. They then left _for_ a cruise up the Indian Ocean. + +3. I speak these things _from_ a love of justice. + +4. _To_ our general surprise, we met the defaulter here. + +5. There was no one except a little sunbeam _of_ a sister. + +6. The great gathering in the main street was _on_ Sundays, when, +after a restful morning, though unbroken _by_ the peal of church +bells, the miners gathered _from_ hills and ravines _for_ miles around +_for_ marketing. + +7. The troops waited in their boats _by_ the edge of a strand. + +8. His breeches were _of_ black silk, and his hat was garnished _with_ +white and sable plumes. + +9. A suppressed but still distinct murmur of approbation ran through +the crowd _at_ this generous proposition. + +10. They were shriveled and colorless _with_ the cold. + +11. On every solemn occasion he was the striking figure, even _to_ the +eclipsing of the involuntary object of the ceremony. + +12. _On_ all subjects known to man, he favored the world with his +opinions. + +13. Our horses ran _on_ a sandy margin of the road. + +14. The hero of the poem is _of_ a strange land and a strange +parentage. + +15. He locked his door _from_ mere force of habit. + +16. The lady was remarkable _for_ energy and talent. + +17. Roland was acknowledged _for_ the successor and heir. + +18. _For_ my part, I like to see the passing, in town. + +19. A half-dollar was the smallest coin that could be tendered _for_ +any service. + +20. The mother sank and fell, grasping _at_ the child. + +21. The savage army was in war-paint, plumed _for_ battle. + +22. He had lived in Paris _for_ the last fifty years. + +23. The hill stretched _for_ an immeasurable distance. + +24. The baron of Smaylho'me rose _with_ day, + He spurred his courser on, + Without stop or stay, down the rocky way + That leads _to_ Brotherstone. + +25. _With_ all his learning, Carteret was far from being a pedant. + +26. An immense mountain covered with a shining green turf is nothing, +in this respect, _to_ one dark and gloomy. + +27. Wilt thou die _for_ very weakness? + +28. The name of Free Joe strikes humorously _upon_ the ear of memory. + +29. The shout I heard was _upon_ the arrival of this engine. + +30. He will raise the price, not merely _by_ the amount of the tax. + + + + +WORDS THAT NEED WATCHING. + + +328. If the student has now learned fully that words must be studied +in grammar according to their function or use, and not according to +form, he will be able to handle some words that are used as several +parts of speech. A few are discussed below,--a summary of their +treatment in various places as studied heretofore. + + +THAT. + + +329. That may be used as follows: + +(1) _As a demonstrative adjective._ + + _That_ night was a memorable one.--STOCKTON. + +(2) _As an adjective pronoun._ + + _That_ was a dreadful mistake.--WEBSTER. + +(3) _As a relative pronoun._ + + And now it is like an angel's song, + _That_ makes the heavens be mute.--COLERIDGE. + +(4) _As an adverb of degree._ + + _That_ far I hold that the Scriptures teach.--BEECHER. + +(5) _As a conjunction_: (_a_) Of purpose. + + Has bounteously lengthened out your lives, _that_ you might + behold this joyous day.--WEBSTER. + +(_b_) Of result. + + Gates of iron so massy _that_ no man could without the help of + engines open or shut them.--JOHNSON. + +(_c_) Substantive conjunction. + + We wish _that_ labor may look up here, and be proud in the midst + of its toil.--WEBSTER. + + +WHAT. + + +330. (1) _Relative pronoun._ + + That is _what_ I understand by scientific education.--HUXLEY. + +(_a_) Indefinite relative. + + Those shadowy recollections, + Which be they _what_ they may, + Are yet the fountain light of all our day.--WORDSWORTH. + +(2) _Interrogative pronoun_: (_a_) Direct question. + + _What_ would be an English merchant's character after a few such + transactions?--THACKERAY. + +(_b_) Indirect question. + + I have not allowed myself to look beyond the Union, to see _what_ + might be hidden.--WEBSTER. + +(3) _Indefinite pronoun:_ The saying, "I'll tell you _what_." + +(4) _Relative adjective._ + + But woe to _what_ thing or person stood in the way.--EMERSON. + +(_a_) Indefinite relative adjective. + + To say _what_ good of fashion we can, it rests on reality.--_Id._ + +(5) _Interrogative adjective_: (_a_) Direct question. + + _What_ right have you to infer that this condition was caused by + the action of heat?--AGASSIZ. + +(_b_) Indirect question. + + At _what_ rate these materials would be distributed,...it is + impossible to determine.--_Id._ + +(6) _Exclamatory adjective._ + + Saint Mary! _what_ a scene is here!--SCOTT. + +(7) _Adverb of degree._ + + If he has [been in America], he knows _what_ good people are to + be found there.--THACKERAY. + +(8) _Conjunction_, nearly equivalent to _partly_... _partly_, or _not +only...but_. + + _What_ with the Maltese goats, who go tinkling by to their + pasturage; _what_ with the vocal seller of bread in the early + morning;...these sounds are only to be heard...in Pera.--S.S. + Cox. + +(9) _As an exclamation._ + + _What_, silent still, and silent all!--BYRON. + + _What_, Adam Woodcock at court!--SCOTT. + + +BUT. + + +331. (1) _Coördinate conjunction_: (_a_) Adversative. + + His very attack was never the inspiration of courage, _but_ the + result of calculation.--EMERSON. + +(_b_) Copulative, after _not only_. + + Then arose not only tears, _but_ piercing cries, on all sides. + --CARLYLE. + +(2) _Subordinate conjunction_: (_a_) Result, equivalent to _that_ ... +_not_. + + Nor is Nature so hard _but_ she gives me this joy several + times.--EMERSON. + +(_b_) Substantive, meaning _otherwise_ ... _than_. + + Who knows _but_, like the dog, it will at length be no longer + traceable to its wild original--THOREAU. + +(3) _Preposition_, meaning _except_. + + Now there was nothing to be seen _but_ fires in every + direction.--LAMB. + +(4) _Relative pronoun_, after a negative, stands for _that_ ... _not_, +or _who_ ... _not_. + + There is not a man in them _but_ is impelled withal, at all + moments, towards order.--CARLYLE. + +(5) _Adverb_, meaning _only_. + + The whole twenty years had been to him _but_ as one + night.--IRVING. + + To lead _but_ one measure.--SCOTT. + + +AS. + + +332. (1) _Subordinate conjunction_: (_a_) Of time. + + Rip beheld a precise counterpart of himself _as_ he went up the + mountain.--IRVING. + +(_b_) Of manner. + + _As_ orphans yearn on to their mothers, + He yearned to our patriot bands.--MRS BROWNING. + +(_c_) Of degree. + + His wan eyes + Gaze on the empty scene _as_ vacantly + _As_ ocean's moon looks on the moon in heaven. + --SHELLEY. + +(_d_) Of reason. + + I shall see but little of it, _as_ I could neither bear walking + nor riding in a carriage.--FRANKLIN. + +(_e_) Introducing an appositive word. + + Reverenced _as_ one of the patriarchs of the village.--IRVING. + + Doing duty _as_ a guard.--HAWTHORNE. + +(2) _Relative pronoun_, after _such_, sometimes _same_. + + And was there such a resemblance _as_ the crowd had + testified?--HAWTHORNE. + + +LIKE. + + +[Sidenote: _Modifier of a noun or pronoun._] + +333. (1) _An adjective._ + + The aforesaid general had been exceedingly _like_ the majestic + image.--HAWTHORNE. + + They look, indeed, _liker_ a lion's mane than a Christian man's + locks.-SCOTT. + + No Emperor, this, _like_ him awhile ago.--ALDRICH. + + There is no statue _like_ this living man.--EMERSON. + + That face, _like_ summer ocean's.--HALLECK. + +In each case, _like_ clearly modifies a noun or pronoun, and is +followed by a dative-objective. + +[Sidenote: _Introduces a clause, but its verb is omitted._] + +(2) _A subordinate conjunction_ of manner. This follows a verb or a +verbal, but the verb of the clause introduced by _like_ is _regularly +omitted_. Note the difference between these two uses. In Old English +_gelic_ (like) was followed by the dative, and was clearly an +adjective. In this second use, _like_ introduces a shortened clause +modifying a verb or a verbal, as shown in the following sentences:-- + + Goodman Brown came into the street of Salem village, staring + _like_ a bewildered man.--HAWTHORNE. + + Give Ruskin space enough, and he grows frantic and beats the air + _like_ Carlyle.--HIGGINSON. + + They conducted themselves much _like_ the crew of a man-of-war. + --PARKMAN. + + [The sound] rang in his ears _like_ the iron hoofs of the steeds + of Time.--LONGFELLOW. + + Stirring it vigorously, _like_ a cook beating eggs.--ALDRICH. + +If the verb is expressed, _like_ drops out, and _as_ or _as if_ takes +its place. + + The sturdy English moralist may talk of a Scotch supper _as_ he + pleases.--CASS. + + Mankind for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw, + just _as_ they do in Abyssinia to this day.--LAMB. + + I do with my friends _as_ I do with my books.--EMERSON. + +NOTE.--Very rarely _like_ is found with a verb following, but this is +not considered good usage: for example,-- + + A timid, nervous child, _like_ Martin _was_.--MAYHEW. + + Through which they put their heads, _like_ the Gauchos _do_ + through their cloaks.--DARWIN. + + _Like_ an arrow shot + From a well-experienced archer _hits_ the mark.--SHAKESPEARE. + + + + +INTERJECTIONS. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +334. Interjections are exclamations used to express emotion, and +are not parts of speech in the same sense as the words we have +discussed; that is, entering into the structure of a sentence. + +Some of these are imitative sounds; as, tut! buzz! etc. + +_Humph_! attempts to express a contemptuous nasal utterance that no +letters of our language can really spell. + +[Sidenote: _Not all exclamatory words are interjections._] + +Other interjections are _oh_! _ah_! _alas_! _pshaw_! _hurrah_! etc. +But it is to be remembered that almost any word may be used as an +exclamation, but it still retains its identity as noun, pronoun, +verb, etc.: for example, "Books! lighthouses built on the sea of time +[noun];" "Halt! the dust-brown ranks stood fast [verb]," "Up! for +shame! [adverb]," "Impossible! it cannot be [adjective]." + + + + +PART II. + + + + +_ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES._ + + +CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORM. + + +[Sidenote: _What analysis is._.] + +335. All discourse is made up of sentences: consequently the +sentence is the unit with which we must begin. And in order to get a +clear and practical idea of the structure of sentences, it is +necessary to become expert in analysis; that is, in separating them +into their component parts. + +A general idea of analysis was needed in our study of the parts of +speech,--in determining case, subject and predicate, clauses +introduced by conjunctions, etc. + +[Sidenote: _Value of analysis._] + +A more thorough and accurate acquaintance with the subject is +necessary for two reasons,--not only for a correct understanding of +the principles of syntax, but for the study of punctuation and other +topics treated in rhetoric. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +336. A sentence is the expression of a thought in words. + + +[Sidenote: _Kinds of sentences as to form._] + +337. According to the way in which a thought is put before a +listener or reader, sentences may be of three kinds:-- + +(1) Declarative, which puts the thought in the form of a declaration +or assertion. This is the most common one. + +(2) Interrogative, which puts the thought in a question. + +(3) Imperative, which expresses command, entreaty, or request. + +Any one of these may be put in the form of an exclamation, but the +sentence would still be declarative, interrogative, or imperative; +hence, _according to form_, there are only the three kinds of +sentences already named. + +Examples of these three kinds are, declarative, "Old year, you must +not die!" interrogative, "Hath he not always treasures, always +friends?" imperative, "Come to the bridal chamber, Death!" + + + + +CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF STATEMENTS. + + + + +SIMPLE SENTENCES. + + +[Sidenote: _Division according to number of statements._] + +338. But the division of sentences most necessary to analysis is the +division, not according to the form in which a thought is put, but +according to how many statements there are. + +The one we shall consider first is the simple sentence. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +339. A simple sentence is one which contains a single statement, +question, or command: for example, "The quality of mercy is not +strained;" "What wouldst thou do, old man?" "Be thou familiar, but by +no means vulgar." + + +340. Every sentence must contain two parts,--a subject and a +predicate. + +[Sidenote: _Definition: Predicate._] + +The predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb phrase which says +something about the subject. + +In order to get a correct definition of the subject, let us examine +two specimen sentences:-- + +1. But now all is to be changed. + +2. A rare old plant is the ivy green. + +In the first sentence we find the subject by placing the word _what_ +before the predicate,--_What_ is to be changed? Answer, _all_. +Consequently, we say _all_ is the subject of the sentence. + +But if we try this with the second sentence, we have some +trouble,--_What_ is the ivy green? Answer, _a rare old plant_. But we +cannot help seeing that an assertion is made, not of _a rare old +plant_, but about _the ivy green_; and the real subject is the latter. +Sentences are frequently in this inverted order, especially in poetry; +and our definition must be the following, to suit all cases:-- + +[Sidenote: _Subject._] + +The subject is that which answers the question _who_ or _what_ +placed before the predicate, and which at the same time names that of +which the predicate says something. + + +[Sidenote: _The subject in interrogative and imperative simple +sentences._] + +341. In the interrogative sentence, the subject is frequently after +the verb. Either the verb is the first word of the sentence, or an +interrogative pronoun, adjective, or adverb that asks about the +subject. In analyzing such sentences, _always reduce them to the order +of a statement_. Thus,-- + +(1) "When should this scientific education be commenced?" + +(2) "This scientific education should be commenced when?" + +(3) "What wouldst thou have a good great man obtain?" + +(4) "Thou wouldst have a good great man obtain what?" + +In the imperative sentence, the subject (_you_, _thou_, or _ye_) is in +most cases omitted, and is to be supplied; as, "[You] behold her +single in the field." + + +Exercise. + +Name the subject and the predicate in each of the following +sentences:-- + + +1. The shadow of the dome of pleasure + Floated midway on the waves. + +2. Hence originated their contempt for terrestrial distinctions. + +3. Nowhere else on the Mount of Olives is there a view like this. + +4. In the sands of Africa and Arabia the camel is a sacred and +precious gift. + +5. The last of all the Bards was he. + +6. Slavery they can have anywhere. + +7. Listen, on the other hand, to an ignorant man. + +8. What must have been the emotions of the Spaniards! + +9. Such was not the effect produced on the sanguine spirit of the +general. + +10. What a contrast did these children of southern Europe present to +the Anglo-Saxon races! + + +ELEMENTS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. + +342. All the elements of the simple sentence are as follows:-- + +(1) The subject. + +(2) The predicate. + +(3) The object. + +(4) The complements. + +(5) Modifiers. + +(6) Independent elements. + +The subject and predicate have been discussed. + + +343. The object may be of two kinds:-- + +[Sidenote: _Definitions. Direct Object_.] + +(1) The DIRECT OBJECT is that word or expression which answers the +question _who_ or _what_ placed after the verb; or the direct object +names that toward which the action of the predicate is directed. + +It must be remembered that any verbal may have an object; but for the +present we speak of the object of the verb, and by _object_ we mean +the _direct_ object. + +[Sidenote: _Indirect object_.] + +(2) The INDIRECT OBJECT is a noun or its equivalent used as the +modifier of a verb or verbal to name the person or thing for whose +benefit an action is performed. + +Examples of direct and indirect objects are, direct, "She seldom saw +her _course_ at a glance;" indirect, "I give _thee_ this to wear at +the collar." + +[Sidenote: _Complement_:] + +344. A complement is a word added to a verb of incomplete +predication to complete its meaning. + +Notice that a verb of incomplete predication may be of two +kinds,--transitive and intransitive. + +[Sidenote: _Of a transitive verb_.] + +The _transitive verb_ often requires, in addition to the object, a +word to define fully the action that is exerted upon the object; for +example, "Ye call me chief." Here the verb _call_ has an object _me_ +(if we leave out _chief_), and means summoned; but _chief_ belongs to +the verb, and _me_ here is not the object simply of _call_, but of +_call chief_, just as if to say, "Ye _honor me_." This word completing +a transitive verb is sometimes called a _factitive object_, or _second +object_, but it is a true complement. + +The fact that this is a complement can be more clearly seen when the +verb is in the passive. See sentence 19, in exercise following Sec. +364. + +[Sidenote: _Complement of an intransitive verb_.] + +An _intransitive verb_, especially the forms of _be_, _seem_, +_appear_, _taste_, _feel_, _become_, etc., must often have a word to +complete the meaning: as, for instance, "Brow and head were _round, +and of massive weight_;" "The good man, he was now getting _old_, +above sixty;" "Nothing could be _more copious_ than his talk;" "But in +general he seemed _deficient in laughter_." + +All these complete intransitive verbs. The following are examples of +complements of transitive verbs: "Hope deferred maketh the heart +_sick_;" "He was termed _Thomas_, or, more familiarly, _Thom of the +Gills_;" "A plentiful fortune is reckoned _necessary_, in the popular +judgment, to the completion of this man of the world." + +345. The modifiers and independent elements will be discussed in +detail in Secs. 351, 352, 355. + +[Sidenote: _Phrases_.] + +346. A phrase is a group of words, not containing a verb, but used +as a single modifier. + +As to _form_, phrases are of three kinds:-- + +[Sidenote: _Three kinds_.] + +(1) PREPOSITIONAL, introduced by a preposition: for example, "Such a +convulsion is the struggle _of gradual suffocation_, as _in drowning_; +and, _in the original Opium Confessions_, I mentioned a case _of that +nature_." + +(2) PARTICIPIAL, consisting of a participle and the words dependent on +it. The following are examples: "Then _retreating into the warm +house_, and _barring the door_, she sat down to undress the two +youngest children." + +(3) INFINITIVE, consisting of an infinitive and the words dependent +upon it; as in the sentence, "She left her home forever in order _to +present herself at the Dauphin's court_." + + +Things used as Subject. + +347. The subject of a simple sentence may be-- + +(1) _Noun_: "There seems to be no _interval_ between greatness and +meanness." Also an expression used as a noun; as, "A cheery, '_Ay, ay, +sir_!' rang out in response." + +(2) _Pronoun_: "We are fortified by every heroic anecdote." + +(3) _Infinitive phrase_: "_To enumerate and analyze these relations_ +is to teach the science of method." + +(4) _Gerund_: "There will be _sleeping_ enough in the grave;" "What +signifies _wishing_ and _hoping_ for better things?" + +(5) _Adjective used as noun_: "_The good_ are befriended even by +weakness and defect;" "_The dead_ are there." + +(6) _Adverb_: "_Then_ is the moment for the humming bird to secure the +insects." + +348. The subject is often found _after the verb_-- + +(1) _By simple inversion_: as, "Therein has been, and ever will be, my +_deficiency_,--the talent of starting the game;" "Never, from their +lips, was heard one _syllable_ to justify," etc. + +(2) _In interrogative sentences_, for which see Sec. 341. + +(3) _After_ "it _introductory_:" "It ought not to need _to print_ in +a reading room a caution not to read aloud." + +In this sentence, _it_ stands in the position of a grammatical +subject; but the real or logical subject is _to print_, etc. _It_ +merely serves to throw the subject after a verb. + +[Sidenote: _Disguised infinitive subject_.] + +There is one kind of expression that is really an infinitive, though +disguised as a prepositional phrase: "It is hard _for honest men to +separate_ their country from their party, or their religion from their +sect." + +The _for_ did not belong there originally, but obscures the real +subject,--the infinitive phrase. Compare Chaucer: "No wonder is a +lewed man to ruste" (No wonder [it] is [for] a common man to rust). + +(4) _After_ "there _introductory_," which has the same office as _it_ +in reversing the order (see Sec. 292): "There was a _description_ of +the destructive operations of time;" "There are _asking eyes_, +_asserting eyes_, _prowling eyes_." + + +Things used as Direct Object. + +349. The words used as direct object are mainly the same as those +used for subject, but they will be given in detail here, for the sake +of presenting examples:-- + +(1) _Noun_: "Each man has his own _vocation_." Also expressions used +as nouns: for example, "'_By God, and by Saint George!_' said the +King." + +(2) _Pronoun_: "Memory greets _them_ with the ghost of a smile." + +(3) _Infinitive_: "We like _to see_ everything do its office." + +(4) _Gerund_: "She heard that _sobbing_ of litanies, or the +_thundering_ of organs." + +(5) _Adjective used as a noun_: "For seventy leagues through the +mighty cathedral, I saw _the quick_ and _the dead_." + + +Things used as Complement. + +[Sidenote: _Complement: Of an intransitive verb_.] + +350. As complement of an _intransitive_ verb,-- + +(1) _Noun_: "She had been an ardent _patriot_." + +(2) _Pronoun_: "_Who_ is she in bloody coronation robes from Rheims?" +"This is _she_, the shepherd girl." + +(3) _Adjective_: "Innocence is ever _simple_ and _credulous_." + +(4) _Infinitive_: "To enumerate and analyze these relations is _to +teach_ the science of method." + +(5) _Gerund_: "Life is a _pitching_ of this penny,--heads or tails;" +"Serving others is _serving_ us." + +(6) _A prepositional phrase_: "His frame is _on a larger scale_;" "The +marks were _of a kind_ not to be mistaken." + +It will be noticed that all these complements have a double +office,--completing the predicate, and explaining or modifying the +subject. + +[Sidenote: _Of a transitive verb_.] + +As complement of a _transitive_ verb,-- + +(1) _Noun_: "I will not call you _cowards_." + +(2) _Adjective_: "Manners make beauty _superfluous_ and _ugly_;" +"Their tempers, doubtless, are rendered _pliant_ and _malleable_ in +the fiery furnace of domestic tribulation." In this last sentence, the +object is made the subject by being passive, and the words italicized +are still complements. Like all the complements in this list, they are +adjuncts of the object, and, at the same time, complements of the +predicate. + +(3) _Infinitive_, or _infinitive phrase_: "That cry which made me +_look a thousand ways_;" "I hear the echoes _throng_." + +(4) _Participle_, or _participial phrase_: "I can imagine him _pushing +firmly on, trusting the hearts of his countrymen_." + +(5) _Prepositional phrase:_ "My antagonist would render my poniard and +my speed _of no use_ to me." + + + +Modifiers. + + +I. Modifiers of Subject, Object, or Complement. + + +351. Since the subject and object are either nouns or some +equivalent of a noun, the words modifying them must be adjectives or +some equivalent of an adjective; and whenever the complement is a +noun, or the equivalent of the noun, it is modified by the same words +and word groups that modify the subject and the object. + +These modifiers are as follows:-- + +(1) _A possessive_: "_My_ memory assures me of this;" "She asked her +_father's_ permission." + +(2) _A word in apposition_: "Theodore Wieland, the _prisoner_ at the +bar, was now called upon for his defense;" "Him, this young +_idolater_, I have seasoned for thee." + +(3) _An adjective_: "_Great_ geniuses have the _shortest_ +biographies;" "Her father was a prince in Lebanon,--_proud_, +_unforgiving_, _austere_." + +(4) _Prepositional phrase_: "Are the opinions _of a man on right and +wrong on fate and causation_, at the mercy of a broken sleep or an +indigestion?" "The poet needs a ground _in popular tradition_ to work +on." + +(5) _Infinitive phrase_: "The way _to know him_ is to compare him, not +with nature, but with other men;" "She has a new and unattempted +problem _to solve_;" "The simplest utterances are worthiest _to be +written_." + +(6) _Participial phrase_: "Another reading, _given at the request of a +Dutch lady_, was the scene from King John;" "This was the hour +_already appointed for the baptism_ of the new Christian daughter." + + +Exercise.--In each sentence in Sec. 351, tell whether the subject, +object, or complement is modified. + + +II. Modifiers of the Predicate. + + +352. Since the predicate is always a verb, the word modifying it +must be an adverb or its equivalent:-- + +(1) _Adverb:_ "_Slowly_ and _sadly_ we laid him down." + +(2) _Prepositional phrase_: "The little carriage is creeping on _at +one mile an hour_;" "_In the twinkling of an eye_, our horses had +carried us _to the termination of the umbrageous isle_." + +In such a sentence as, "He died like a God," the word group _like a +God_ is often taken as a phrase; but it is really a contracted clause, +the verb being omitted. + +[Sidenote: _Tells how._] + +(3) _Participial phrase:_ "She comes down from heaven to his help, +_interpreting for him the most difficult truths_, and _leading him +from star to star_." + +(4) _Infinitive phrase:_ "No imprudent, no sociable angel, ever +dropped an early syllable _to answer his longing_." + +(For participial and infinitive phrases, see further Secs. 357-363.) + +(5) _Indirect object:_ "I gave _every man_ a trumpet;" "Give _them_ +not only noble teachings, but noble teachers." + +These are equivalent to the phrases _to every man_ and _to them_, and +modify the predicate in the same way. + +[Sidenote: _Retained with passive; or_] + +When the verb is changed from active to passive, the indirect object +is retained, as in these sentences: "It is left _you_ to find out the +reason why;" "All such knowledge should be given _her_." + +[Sidenote: _subject of passive verb and direct object retained._] + +Or sometimes the indirect object of the active voice becomes the +subject of the passive, and the direct object is retained: for +example, "She is to be taught _to extend the limits of her sympathy_;" +"I was shown an immense _sarcophagus_." + +(6) _Adverbial objective._ These answer the question _when_, or _how +long_, _how far_, etc., and are consequently equivalent to adverbs in +modifying a predicate: "We were now running _thirteen miles an hour_;" +"_One way_ lies hope;" "_Four hours_ before midnight we approached a +mighty minster." + + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Pick out subject, predicate, and (direct) object:-- + +1. This, and other measures of precaution, I took. + +2. The pursuing the inquiry under the light of an end or final cause, +gives wonderful animation, a sort of personality to the whole writing. + +3. Why does the horizon hold me fast, with my joy and grief, in this +center? + +4. His books have no melody, no emotion, no humor, no relief to the +dead prosaic level. + +5. On the voyage to Egypt, he liked, after dinner, to fix on three or +four persons to support a proposition, and as many to oppose it. + +6. Fashion does not often caress the great, but the children of the +great. + +7. No rent roll can dignify skulking and dissimulation. + +8. They do not wish to be lovely, but to be loved. + + +(_b_) Pick out the subject, predicate, and complement: + +1. Evil, according to old philosophers, is good in the making. + +2. But anger drives a man to say anything. + +3. The teachings of the High Spirit are abstemious, and, in regard to +particulars, negative. + +4. Spanish diet and youth leave the digestion undisordered and the +slumbers light. + +5. Yet they made themselves sycophantic servants of the King of Spain. + +6. A merciless oppressor hast thou been. + +7. To the men of this world, to the animal strength and spirits, the +man of ideas appears out of his reason. + +8. I felt myself, for the first time, burthened with the anxieties of +a man, and a member of the world. + + +(_c_) Pick out the direct and the indirect object in each:-- + +1. Not the less I owe thee justice. + +2. Unhorse me, then, this imperial rider. + +3. She told the first lieutenant part of the truth. + +4. I promised her protection against all ghosts. + +5. I gave him an address to my friend, the attorney. + +6. Paint me, then, a room seventeen feet by twelve. + + +(_d_) Pick out the words and phrases in apposition:-- + +1. To suffer and to do, that was thy portion in life. + +2. A river formed the boundary,--the river Meuse. + +3. In one feature, Lamb resembles Sir Walter Scott; viz., in the +dramatic character of his mind and taste. + +4. This view was luminously expounded by Archbishop Whately, the +present Archbishop of Dublin. + +5. Yes, at length the warrior lady, the blooming cornet, this nun so +martial, this dragoon so lovely, must visit again the home of her +childhood. + + +(_e_) Pick out the modifiers of the predicate:-- + +1. It moves from one flower to another like a gleam of light, upwards, +downwards, to the right and to the left. + +2. And hark! like the roar of the billows on the shore, + The cry of battle rises along their changing line. + +3. Their intention was to have a gay, happy dinner, after their long +confinement to a ship, at the chief hotel. + +4. That night, in little peaceful Easedale, six children sat by a peat +fire, expecting the return of their parents. + + +Compound Subject, Compound Predicate, etc. + + +[Sidenote: _Not compound sentences._] + +353. Frequently in a simple sentence the writer uses two or more +predicates to the same subject, two or more subjects of the same +predicate, several modifiers, complements, etc.; but it is to be +noticed that, in all such sentences as we quote below, the writers of +them purposely combined them _in single statements_, and they are not +to be expanded into compound sentences. In a compound sentence the +object is to make two or more full statements. + +Examples of compound subjects are, "By degrees Rip's _awe_ and +_apprehension_ subsided;" "The _name of the child_, _the air of the +mother_, the _tone of her voice_,--all awakened a train of +recollections in his mind." + +Sentences with compound predicates are, "The company _broke up_, and +_returned_ to the more important concerns of the election;" "He +_shook_ his head, _shouldered_ the rusty firelock, and, with a heart +full of trouble and anxiety, _turned_ his steps homeward." + +Sentences with compound objects of the same verb are, "He caught his +_daughter_ and her _child_ in his arms;" "_Voyages_ and _travels_ I +would also have." + +And so with complements, modifiers, etc. + + +Logical Subject and Logical Predicate. + + +354. The logical subject is the simple or grammatical subject, +together with all its modifiers. + +The logical predicate is the simple or grammatical predicate (that +is, the verb), together with its modifiers, and its object or +complement. + +[Sidenote: _Larger view of a sentence._] + +It is often a help to the student to find the logical subject and +predicate first, then the grammatical subject and predicate. For +example, in the sentence, "The situation here contemplated exposes a +dreadful ulcer, lurking far down in the depths of human nature," the +logical subject is _the situation here contemplated_, and the rest is +the logical predicate. Of this, the simple subject is _situation_; the +predicate, _exposes_; the object, _ulcer_, etc. + + +Independent Elements of the Sentence. + + +355. The following words and expressions are grammatically +independent of the rest of the sentence; that is, they are not a +necessary part, do not enter into its structure:-- + +(1) _Person or thing addressed_: "But you know them, _Bishop_;" "_Ye +crags and peaks_, I'm with you once again." + +(2) _Exclamatory expressions_: "But the _lady_--! Oh, _heavens_! will +that spectacle ever depart from my dreams?" + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +The exclamatory expression, however, may be the person or thing +addressed, same as (1), above: thus, "Ah, _young sir_! what are you +about?" Or it may be an imperative, forming a sentence: "Oh, _hurry, +hurry_, my brave young man!" + +(3) _Infinitive phrase_ thrown in loosely: "_To make a long story +short_, the company broke up;" "_Truth to say_, he was a conscientious +man." + +(4) _Prepositional phrase_ not modifying: "Within the railing sat, _to +the best of my remembrance_, six quill-driving gentlemen;" "_At all +events_, the great man of the prophecy had not yet appeared." + +(5) _Participial phrase:_ "But, _generally speaking_, he closed his +literary toils at dinner;" "_Considering the burnish of her French +tastes_, her noticing even this is creditable." + +(6) _Single words_: as, "Oh, _yes_! everybody knew them;" "_No_, let +him perish;" "_Well_, he somehow lived along;" "_Why_, grandma, how +you're winking!" "_Now_, this story runs thus." + +[Sidenote: _Another caution._] + +There are some adverbs, such as _perhaps_, _truly_, _really_, +_undoubtedly_, _besides_, etc., and some conjunctions, such as +_however_, _then_, _moreover_, _therefore_, _nevertheless_, etc., that +have an office in the sentence, and should not be confused with the +words spoken of above. The words _well_, _now_, _why_, and so on, are +independent when they merely arrest the attention without being +necessary. + + +PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. + + +356. In their use, prepositional phrases may be, + +(1) _Adjectival_, modifying a noun, pronoun, or word used as a noun: +for example, "He took the road _to King Richard's pavilion_;" "I bring +reports _on that subject_ from Ascalon." + +(2) _Adverbial_, limiting in the same way an adverb limits: as, "All +nature around him slept _in calm moonshine_ or _in deep shadow_;" "Far +_from the madding crowd's ignoble strife_." + +(3) _Independent_, not dependent on any word in the sentence (for +examples, see Sec. 355, 4). + + +PARTICIPLES AND PARTICIPIAL PHRASES. + + +357. It will be helpful to sum up here the results of our study of +participles and participial phrases, and to set down all the uses +which are of importance in analysis:-- + +(1) _The adjectival use_, already noticed, as follows:-- + +(_a_) As a complement of a transitive verb, and at the same time a +modifier of the object (for an example, see Sec. 350, 4). + +(_b_) As a modifier of subject, object, or complement (see Sec. 351, +6). + +(2) _The adverbial use_, modifying the predicate, instances of which +were seen in Sec. 352, 3. In these the participial phrases connect +closely with the verb, and there is no difficulty in seeing that they +modify. + +[Sidenote: _These need close watching._] + +There are other participial phrases which are used adverbially, but +require somewhat closer attention; thus, "The letter of +introduction_, containing no matters of business_, was speedily run +through." + +In this sentence, the expression _containing no matters of business_ +does not describe _letter_, but it is equivalent to _because it +contained no matters of business_, and hence is adverbial, modifying +_was speedily run through_. + +Notice these additional examples:-- + +_Being a great collector of everything relating to Milton_ [reason, +"Because I was," etc.], I had naturally possessed myself of Richardson +the painter's thick octavo volumes. + +Neither the one nor the other writer was valued by the public, _both +having_ [since they had] _a long warfare to accomplish of contumely +and ridicule_. + +Wilt thou, therefore, _being now wiser_ [as thou art] _in thy +thoughts_, suffer God to give by seeming to refuse? + +(3) _Wholly independent_ in meaning and grammar. See Sec. 355, (5), +and these additional examples:-- + +_Assuming the specific heat to be the same as that of water_, the +entire mass of the sun would cool down to 15,000° Fahrenheit in five +thousand years. + +_This case excepted_, the French have the keenest possible sense of +everything odious and ludicrous in posing. + + +INFINITIVES AND INFINITIVE PHRASES. + + +358. The various uses of the infinitive give considerable trouble, +and they will be presented here in full, or as nearly so as the +student will require. + +I. The verbal use. (1) Completing an incomplete verb, but having no +other office than a verbal one. + +(_a_) With _may (might)_, _can (could)_, _should_, _would_, _seem_, +_ought_, etc.: "My weekly bill used invariably _to be_ about fifty +shillings;" "There, my dear, he should not _have known_ them at all;" +"He would _instruct_ her in the white man's religion, and _teach_ her +how to be happy and good." + +(_b_) With the forms of _be_, being equivalent to a future with +obligation, necessity, etc.: as in the sentences, "Ingenuity and +cleverness are _to be rewarded_ by State prizes;" "'The Fair Penitent' +was _to be acted_ that evening." + +(_c_) With the definite forms of _go_, equivalent to a future: "I was +going _to repeat_ my remonstrances;" "I am not going _to dissert_ on +Hood's humor." + +(2) Completing an incomplete transitive verb, but also belonging to a +subject or an object (see Sec. 344 for explanation of the complements +of transitive verbs): "I am constrained every moment _to acknowledge_ +a higher origin for events" (retained with passive); "Do they not +cause the heart _to beat_, and the eyes _to fill_?" + + +359. II. The substantive use, already examined; but see the +following examples for further illustration:-- + +(1) _As the subject: "To have_ the wall there, was to have the foe's +life at their mercy;" "_To teach_ is to learn." + +(2) _As the object_: "I like _to hear_ them tell their old stories;" +"I don't wish _to detract_ from any gentleman's reputation." + +(3) _As complement:_ See examples under (1), above. + +(4) _In apposition_, explanatory of a noun preceding: as, "She +forwarded to the English leaders a touching invitation _to unite_ with +the French;" "He insisted on his right _to forget_ her." + + +360. III. The adjectival use, modifying a noun that may be a +subject, object, complement, etc.: for example, "But there was no time +_to be lost_;" "And now Amyas had time _to ask_ Ayacanora the meaning +of this;" "I have such a desire _to be_ well with my public" (see also +Sec. 351, 5). + + +361. IV. The adverbial use, which may be to express-- + +(1) _Purpose:_ "The governor, Don Guzman, sailed to the eastward only +yesterday _to look_ for you;" "Isn't it enough to bring us to death, +_to please_ that poor young gentleman's fancy?" + +(2) _Result:_ "Don Guzman returns to the river mouth _to find_ the +ship a blackened wreck;" "What heart could be so hard as _not to take_ +pity on the poor wild thing?" + +(3) _Reason:_ "I am quite sorry _to part_ with them;" "Are you mad, +_to betray_ yourself by your own cries?" "Marry, hang the idiot, _to +bring me_ such stuff!" + +(4) _Degree:_ "We have won gold enough _to serve_ us the rest of our +lives;" "But the poor lady was too sad _to talk_ except to the boys +now and again." + +(5) _Condition:_ "You would fancy, _to hear_ McOrator after dinner, +the Scotch fighting all the battles;" "_To say_ what good of fashion +we can, it rests on reality" (the last is not a simple sentence, but +it furnishes a good example of this use of the infinitive). + + +362. The fact that the infinitives in Sec. 361 are used adverbially, +is evident from the meaning of the sentences. + +Whether each sentence containing an adverbial infinitive has the +meaning of purpose, result, etc., may be found out by turning the +infinitive into an equivalent clause, such as those studied under +subordinate conjunctions. + +To test this, notice the following:-- + +In (1), _to look_ means _that he might look_; _to please_ is +equivalent to _that he may please_,--both purpose clauses. + +In (2), _to find_ shows the result of the return; _not to take pity_ +is equivalent to _that it would not take pity_. + +In (3), _to part_ means _because I part_, etc.; and _to betray_ and +_to bring_ express the reason, equivalent to _that you betray_, etc. + +In (4), _to serve_ and _to talk_ are equivalent to [_as much gold_] +_as will serve us_; and "too sad _to talk_" also shows degree. + +In (5), _to hear_ means _if you should hear_, and _to say_ is +equivalent to _if we say_,--both expressing condition. + + +363. V. The independent use, which is of two kinds,-- + +(1) Thrown loosely into the sentence; as in Sec. 355, (3). + +(2) _Exclamatory:_ "I a philosopher! I _advance_ pretensions;" "'He +_to die_!' resumed the bishop." (See also Sec. 268, 4.) + + +OUTLINE OF ANALYSIS. + + +364. In analyzing simple sentences, give-- + +(1) The predicate. If it is an incomplete verb, give the complement +(Secs. 344 and 350) and its modifiers (Sec. 351). + +(2) The object of the verb (Sec. 349). + +(3) Modifiers of the object (Sec. 351). + +(4) Modifiers of the predicate (Sec. 352). + +(5) The subject (Sec. 347). + +(6) Modifiers of the subject (Sec. 351). + +(7) Independent elements (Sec. 355). + +This is not the same order that the parts of the sentence usually +have; but it is believed that the student will proceed more easily by +finding the predicate with its modifiers, object, etc., and then +finding the subject by placing the question _who_ or _what_ before it. + + +Exercise in Analyzing Simple Sentences. + +Analyze the following according to the directions given:-- + +1. Our life is March weather, savage and serene in one hour. + +2. I will try to keep the balance true. + +3. The questions of Whence? What? and Whither? and the solution of +these, must be in a life, not in a book. + +4. The ward meetings on election days are not softened by any +misgiving of the value of these ballotings. + +5. Our English Bible is a wonderful specimen of the strength and music +of the English language. + +6. Through the years and the centuries, through evil agents, through +toys and atoms, a great and beneficent tendency irresistibly streams. + +7. To be hurried away by every event, is to have no political system +at all. + +8. This mysticism the ancients called ecstasy,--a getting-out of their +bodies to think. + +9. He risked everything, and spared nothing, neither ammunition, nor +money, nor troops, nor generals, nor himself. + +10. We are always in peril, always in a bad plight, just on the edge +of destruction, and only to be saved by invention and courage. + +11. His opinion is always original, and to the purpose. + +12. To these gifts of nature, Napoleon added the advantage of having +been born to a private and humble fortune. + +13. The water, like a witch's oils, + Burnt green and blue and white. + +14. We one day descried some shapeless object floating at a distance. + +15. Old Adam, the carrion crow, + The old crow of Cairo; + He sat in the shower, and let it flow + Under his tail and over his crest. + +16. It costs no more for a wise soul to convey his quality to other +men. + +17. It is easy to sugar to be sweet. + +18. At times the black volume of clouds overhead seemed rent asunder +by flashes of lightning. + +19. The whole figure and air, good and amiable otherwise, might be +called flabby and irresolute. + +20. I have heard Coleridge talk, with eager energy, two stricken +hours, and communicate no meaning whatsoever to any individual. + +21. The word _conscience_ has become almost confined, in popular use, +to the moral sphere. + +22. You may ramble a whole day together, and every moment discover +something new. + +23. She had grown up amidst the liberal culture of Henry's court a +bold horsewoman, a good shot, a graceful dancer, a skilled musician, +an accomplished scholar. + +24. Her aims were simple and obvious,--to preserve her throne, to keep +England out of war, to restore civil and religious order. + +25. Fair name might he have handed down, + Effacing many a stain of former crime. + +26. Of the same grandeur, in less heroic and poetic form, was the +patriotism of Peel in recent history. + +27. Oxford, ancient mother! hoary with ancestral honors, time-honored, +and, haply, time-shattered power--I owe thee nothing! + +28. The villain, I hate him and myself, to be a reproach to such +goodness. + +29. I dare this, upon my own ground, and in my own garden, to bid you +leave the place now and forever. + +30. Upon this shore stood, ready to receive her, in front of all this +mighty crowd, the prime minister of Spain, the same Condé Olivarez. + +31. Great was their surprise to see a young officer in uniform +stretched within the bushes upon the ground. + +32. She had made a two days' march, baggage far in the rear, and no +provisions but wild berries. + +33. This amiable relative, an elderly man, had but one foible, or +perhaps one virtue, in this world. + +34. Now, it would not have been filial or ladylike. + +35. Supposing this computation to be correct, it must have been in the +latitude of Boston, the present capital of New England. + +36. The cry, "A strange vessel close aboard the frigate!" having +already flown down the hatches, the ship was in an uproar. + +37. But yield, proud foe, thy fleet + With the crews at England's feet. + +38. Few in number, and that number rapidly perishing away through +sickness and hardships; surrounded by a howling wilderness and savage +tribes; exposed to the rigors of an almost arctic winter,--their minds +were filled with doleful forebodings. + +39. List to the mournful tradition still sung by the pines of the +forest. + +40. In the Acadian land, on the shores of the Basin of Minas, + Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand-Pré + Lay in the fruitful valley. + +41. Must we in all things look for the how, and the why, and the +wherefore? + + + + +CONTRACTED SENTENCES. + + +[Sidenote: _Words left out after_ than _or_ as.] + +365. Some sentences look like simple ones in form, but have an +essential part omitted that is so readily supplied by the mind as not +to need expressing. Such are the following:-- + + "There is no country more worthy of our study than England [is + worthy of our study]." + + "The distinctions between them do not seem to be so marked as + [they are marked] in the cities." + +To show that these words are really omitted, compare with them the two +following:-- + + "The nobility and gentry are more popular among the inferior + orders than _they are_ in any other country." + + "This is not so universally the case at present as _it was_ + formerly." + + +[Sidenote: _Sentences with_ like.] + +366. As shown in Part I. (Sec. 333). the expressions _of manner_ +introduced by _like_, though often treated as phrases, are really +contracted clauses; but, if they were expanded, _as_ would be the +connective instead of _like_; thus,-- + + "They'll shine o'er her sleep, like [as] a smile from the west + [would shine]. + From her own loved island of sorrow." + +This must, however, be carefully discriminated from cases where _like_ +is an adjective complement; as,-- + + "She is _like_ some tender tree, the pride and beauty of the + grove;" "The ruby seemed _like_ a spark of fire burning upon her + white bosom." + +Such contracted sentences form a connecting link between our study of +simple and complex sentences. + + + + +COMPLEX SENTENCES. + + +[Sidenote: _The simple sentence the basis._] + +367. Our investigations have now included all the machinery of the +simple sentence, which is the _unit of speech_. + +Our further study will be in sentences which are combinations of +simple sentences, made merely for convenience and smoothness, to avoid +the tiresome repetition of short ones of monotonous similarity. + +Next to the simple sentence stands the complex sentence. The basis of +it is two or more simple sentences, which are so united that one +member is the main one,--the backbone,--the other members subordinate +to it, or dependent on it; as in this sentence,-- + + "When such a spirit breaks forth into complaint, we are aware how + great must be the suffering that extorts the murmur." + +The relation of the parts is as follows:-- + + we are aware + _______ _____ + | | + __| _when such a spirit breaks_ + | _forth into complaint_, + | + _how great must be the suffering_ + | + that extorts the murmur. + +This arrangement shows to the eye the picture that the sentence forms +in the mind,--how the first clause is held in suspense by the mind +till the second, we are aware, is taken in; then we recognize this +as the main statement; and the next one, _how great ... suffering_, +drops into its place as subordinate to _we are aware_; and the last, +_that ... murmur_, logically depends on _suffering_. + +Hence the following definition:-- + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +368. A complex sentence is one containing one main or independent +clause (also called the principal proposition or clause), and _one or +more_ subordinate or dependent clauses. + +369. The elements of a complex sentence are the same as those of +the simple sentence; that is, each clause has its subject, predicate, +object, complements, modifiers, etc. + +But there is this difference: whereas the simple sentence always has a +word or a phrase for subject, object, complement, and modifier, the +complex sentence has _statements_ or _clauses_ for these places. + + +CLAUSES. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +370. A clause is a division of a sentence, containing a verb with +its subject. + +Hence the term _clause_ may refer to the main division of the complex +sentence, or it may be applied to the others,--the dependent or +subordinate clauses. + + +[Sidenote: _Independent clause._] + +371. A principal, main, or independent clause is one making a +statement without the help of any other clause. + +[Sidenote: _Dependent clause._] + +A subordinate or dependent clause is one which makes a statement +depending upon or modifying some word in the principal clause. + + +[Sidenote: _Kinds._] + +372. As to their office in the sentence, clauses are divided into +NOUN, ADJECTIVE, and ADVERB clauses, according as they are equivalent +in use to nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. + + +Noun Clauses. + +373. Noun clauses have the following uses:-- + +(1) _Subject_: "_That such men should give prejudiced views of +America_ is not a matter of surprise." + +(2) _Object of a verb_, _verbal_, _or the equivalent of a verb_: (_a_) +"I confess _these stories, for a time, put an end to my fancies_;" +(_b_) "I am aware [I know] _that a skillful illustrator of the +immortal bard would have swelled the materials_." + +Just as the object noun, pronoun, infinitive, etc., is retained after +a passive verb (Sec. 352, 5), so the object clause is retained, and +should not be called an adjunct of the subject; for example, "We are +persuaded _that a thread runs through all things_;" "I was told _that +the house had not been shut, night or day, for a hundred years_." + +(3) _Complement_: "The terms of admission to this spectacle are, _that +he have a certain solid and intelligible way of living_." + +(4) _Apposition_. (_a_) Ordinary apposition, explanatory of some noun +or its equivalent: "Cecil's saying of Sir Walter Raleigh, '_I know +that he can toil terribly_,' is an electric touch." + +(_b_) After "it _introductory_" (logically this is a subject clause, +but it is often treated as in apposition with _it_): "_It_ was the +opinion of some, _that this might be the wild huntsman famous in +German legend_." + +(5) _Object of a preposition_: "At length he reached to _where the +ravine had opened through the cliffs_." + +Notice that frequently only the introductory word is the object of +the preposition, and the whole clause is not; thus, "The rocks +presented a high impenetrable wall, _over which_ the torrent came +tumbling." + +374. Here are to be noticed certain sentences seemingly complex, +with a noun clause in apposition with _it_; but logically they are +nothing but simple sentences. But since they are _complex in form_, +attention is called to them here; for example,-- + + "Alas! it is we ourselves that are getting buried alive under + this avalanche of earthly impertinences." + +To divide this into two clauses--(_a_) _It is we ourselves_, (_b_) +_that are ... impertinences_--would be grammatical; but logically the +sentence is, _We ourselves are getting ... impertinences_, and _it is +... that_ is merely a framework used to effect emphasis. The sentence +shows how _it_ may lose its pronominal force. + +Other examples of this construction are,-- + + "It is on the understanding, and not on the sentiment, of a + nation, that all safe legislation must be based." + + "Then it is that deliberative Eloquence lays aside the plain + attire of her daily occupation." + + +Exercise. + +Tell how each noun clause is used in these sentences:-- + +1. I felt that I breathed an atmosphere of sorrow. + +2. But the fact is, I was napping. + +3. Shaking off from my spirit what must have been a dream, I scanned +more narrowly the aspect of the building. + +4. Except by what he could see for himself, he could know nothing. + +5. Whatever he looks upon discloses a second sense. + +6. It will not be pretended that a success in either of these kinds is +quite coincident with what is best and inmost in his mind. + +7. The reply of Socrates, to him who asked whether he should choose a +wife, still remains reasonable, that, whether he should choose one or +not, he would repent it. + +8. What history it had, how it changed from shape to shape, no man +will ever know. + +9. Such a man is what we call an original man. + +10. Our current hypothesis about Mohammed, that he was a scheming +impostor, a falsehood incarnate, that his religion is a mere mass of +quackery and fatuity, begins really to be no longer tenable to any +one. + + +Adjective Clauses. + +375. As the office of an adjective is to modify, the only use of an +adjective clause is to limit or describe some noun, or equivalent of a +noun: consequently the adjective may modify _any_ noun, or equivalent +of a noun, in the sentence. + +The adjective clause may be introduced by the relative pronouns _who_, +_which_, _that_, _but_, _as_; sometimes by the conjunctions _when_, +_where_, _whither_, _whence_, _wherein_, _whereby_, etc. + +Frequently there is no connecting word, a relative pronoun being +understood. + +[Sidenote: _Examples of adjective clauses_.] + +376. Adjective clauses may modify-- + +(1) _The subject_: "The themes _it offers for contemplation_ are too +vast for their capacities;" "Those _who see the Englishman only in +town_, are apt to form an unfavorable opinion of his social +character." + +(2) _The object_: "From this piazza Ichabod entered the hall, _which +formed the center of the mansion_." + +(3) _The complement_: "The animal he bestrode was a broken-down +plow-horse, _that had outlived almost everything but his usefulness_;" +"It was such an apparition _as is seldom to be met with in broad +daylight_." + +(4) _Other words_: "He rode with short stirrups, _which brought his +knees nearly up to the pommel of the saddle_;" "No whit anticipating +the oblivion _which awaited their names and feats_, the champions +advanced through the lists;" "Charity covereth a multitude of sins, in +another sense than that _in which it is said to do so in Scripture_." + + +Exercise. + +Pick out the adjective clauses, and tell what each one modifies; i.e., +whether subject, object, etc. + +1. There were passages that reminded me perhaps too much of Massillon. + +2. I walked home with Calhoun, who said that the principles which I +had avowed were just and noble. + +3. Other men are lenses through which we read our own minds. + +4. In one of those celestial days when heaven and earth meet and adorn +each other, it seems a pity that we can only spend it once. + +5. One of the maidens presented a silver cup, containing a rich +mixture of wine and spice, which Rowena tasted. + +6. No man is reason or illumination, or that essence we were looking +for. + +7. In the moment when he ceases to help us as a cause, he begins to +help us more as an effect. + +8. Socrates took away all ignominy from the place, which could not be +a prison whilst he was there. + +9. This is perhaps the reason why we so seldom hear ghosts except in +our long-established Dutch settlements. + +10. From the moment you lose sight of the land you have left, all is +vacancy. + +11. Nature waited tranquilly for the hour to be struck when man should +arrive. + + +Adverbial Clauses. + +377. The adverb clause takes the place of an adverb in modifying a +verb, a verbal, an adjective, or an adverb. The student has met with +many adverb clauses in his study of the subjunctive mood and of +subordinate conjunctions; but they require careful study, and will be +given in detail, with examples. + +378. Adverb clauses are of the following kinds: + +(1) TIME: "_As we go_, the milestones are grave-stones;" "He had gone +but a little way _before he espied a foul fiend coming_;" "_When he +was come up to Christian_, he beheld him with a disdainful +countenance." + +(2) PLACE: "_Wherever the sentiment of right comes in_, it takes +precedence of everything else;" "He went several times to England, +_where he does not seem to have attracted any attention_." + +(3) REASON, or CAUSE: "His English editor lays no stress on his +discoveries, _since he was too great to care to be original_;" "I give +you joy _that truth is altogether wholesome_." + +(4) MANNER: "The knowledge of the past is valuable only _as it leads +us to form just calculations with respect to the future_;" "After +leaving the whole party under the table, he goes away _as if nothing +had happened_." + +(5) DEGREE, or COMPARISON: "They all become wiser _than they were_;" +"The right conclusion is, that we should try, so far _as we can_, to +make up our shortcomings;" "Master Simon was in as chirping a humor +_as a grasshopper filled with dew_ [is];" "_The broader their +education is_, the wider is the horizon of their thought." The first +clause in the last sentence is dependent, expressing the degree in +which the horizon, etc., is wider. + +(6) PURPOSE: "Nature took us in hand, shaping our actions, _so that we +might not be ended untimely by too gross disobedience_." + +(7) RESULT, or CONSEQUENCE: "He wrote on the scale of the mind itself, +_so that all things have symmetry in his tablet_;" "The window was so +far superior to every other in the church, _that the vanquished artist +killed himself from mortification_." + +(8) CONDITION: "_If we tire of the saints_, Shakespeare is our city of +refuge;" "Who cares for that, _so thou gain aught wider and nobler_?" +"You can die grandly, and as goddesses would die _were goddesses +mortal_." + +(9) CONCESSION, introduced by indefinite relatives, adverbs, and +adverbial conjunctions,--_whoever_, _whatever_, _however_, etc.: "But +still, _however good she may be as a witness_, Joanna is better;" +"_Whatever there may remain of illiberal in discussion_, there is +always something illiberal in the severer aspects of study." + +These mean _no matter how good, no matter what remains_, etc. + +Exercise. + +Pick out the adverbial clauses in the following sentences; tell what +kind each is, and what it modifies:-- + +1. As I was clearing away the weeds from this epitaph, the little +sexton drew me on one side with a mysterious air, and informed me in a +low voice that once upon a time, on a dark wintry night, when the wind +was unruly, howling and whistling, banging about doors and windows, +and twirling weathercocks, so that the living were frightened out of +their beds, and even the dead could not sleep quietly in their graves, +the ghost of honest Preston was attracted by the well-known call of +"waiter," and made its sudden appearance just as the parish clerk was +singing a stave from the "mirrie garland of Captain Death." + +2. If the children gathered about her, as they sometimes did, Pearl +would grow positively terrible in her puny wrath, snatching up stones +to fling at them, with shrill, incoherent exclamations, that made her +mother tremble because they had so much the sound of a witch's +anathemas. + +3. The spell of life went forth from her ever-creative spirit, and +communicated itself to a thousand objects, as a torch kindles a flame +wherever it may be applied. + + +ANALYZING COMPLEX SENTENCES. + + +379. These suggestions will be found helpful:-- + +(1) See that the sentence and all its parts are placed in the natural +order of subject, predicate, object, and modifiers. + +(2) First take the sentence _as a whole_; find the principal subject +and principal predicate; then treat noun clauses as nouns, adjective +clauses as adjectives modifying certain words, and adverb clauses as +single modifying adverbs. + +(3) Analyze each clause as a simple sentence. For example, in the +sentence, "Cannot we conceive that Odin was a reality?" _we_ is the +principal subject; _cannot conceive_ is the principal predicate; its +object is _that Odin was a reality_, of which clause _Odin_ is the +subject, etc. + + +380. It is sometimes of great advantage to map out a sentence after +analyzing it, so as to picture the parts and their relations. To take +a sentence:-- + + "I cannot help thinking that the fault is in themselves, and that + if the church and the cataract were in the habit of giving away + their thoughts with that rash generosity which characterizes + tourists, they might perhaps say of their visitors, 'Well, if you + are those men of whom we have heard so much, we are a little + disappointed, to tell the truth.'" + +This may be represented as follows:-- + + I cannot help thinking + ____________________ + | + _______________________| + | + | (_a_) THAT THE FAULT IS IN THEMSELVES, AND + | + | (_b_) [THAT] THEY MIGHT (PERHAPS) SAY OF THEIR VISITORS + | ___________________ + | | + | _____________________________|_________________________________ + | | | + | | (_a_) We are (a little) disappointed | + | O| ___________________________ | + O| b| ________________________| | + b| j| M| | + j| e| o| (_b_) If you are those men | + e| c| d| ___ | + c| t| i| _________________________| | + t| | f| M| | + | | i| o| Of whom we have heard so much. | + | | e| d. | + | \ r\ \ | + | _____________________________________________________| + | M| + | o| (_a_) If the church and ... that rash generosity + | d| __________ + | i| | + | f| _______________________________________________| + | i| | + | e| | (_b_) Which characterizes tourists. + | r| | + \ \ \ + + +OUTLINE + + +381. (1) Find the principal clause. + +(2) Analyze it according to Sec. 364. + +(3) Analyze the dependent clauses according to Sec. 364. This of +course includes dependent clauses that depend on other dependent +clauses, as seen in the "map" (Sec. 380). +107 | + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Analyze the following complex sentences:-- + +1. Take the place and attitude which belong to you. + +2. That mood into which a friend brings us is his dominion over us. + +3. True art is only possible on the condition that every talent has +its apotheosis somewhere. + +4. The deep eyes, of a light hazel, were as full of sorrow as of +inspiration. + +5. She is the only church that has been loyal to the heart and soul of +man, that has clung to her faith in the imagination. + +6. She has never lost sight of the truth that the product human nature +is composed of the sum of flesh and spirit. + +7. But now that she has become an establishment, she begins to +perceive that she made a blunder in trusting herself to the intellect +alone. + +8. Before long his talk would wander into all the universe, where it +was uncertain what game you would catch, or whether any. + +9. The night proved unusually dark, so that the two principals had to +tie white handkerchiefs round their elbows in order to descry each +other. + +10. Whether she would ever awake seemed to depend upon an accident. + +11. Here lay two great roads, not so much for travelers that were few, +as for armies that were too many by half. + +12. It was haunted to that degree by fairies, that the parish priest +was obliged to read mass there once a year. + +13. More than one military plan was entered upon which she did not +approve. + +14. As surely as the wolf retires before cities, does the fairy +sequester herself from the haunts of the licensed victualer. + +15. M. Michelet is anxious to keep us in mind that this bishop was but +an agent of the English. + +16. Next came a wretched Dominican, that pressed her with an +objection, which, if applied to the Bible, would tax every miracle +with unsoundness. + +17. The reader ought to be reminded that Joanna D'Arc was subject to +an unusually unfair trial. + +18. Now, had she really testified this willingness on the scaffold, it +would have argued nothing at all but the weakness of a genial nature. + +19. And those will often pity that weakness most, who would yield to +it least. + +20. Whether she said the word is uncertain. + +21. This is she, the shepherd girl, counselor that had none for +herself, whom I choose, bishop, for yours. + +22. Had _they_ been better chemists, had _we_ been worse, the mixed +result, namely, that, dying for _them_, th107 |e flower should revive for +_us_, could not have been effected. + +23. I like that representation they have of the tree. + +24. He was what our country people call _an old one_. + +25. He thought not any evil happened to men of such magnitude as false +opinion. +107 | +26. These things we are forced to say, if we must consider the effort +of Plato to dispose of Nature,--which will not be disposed of. + +27. He showed one who was afraid to go on foot to Olympia, that it was +no more than his daily walk, if continuously extended, would easily +reach. + +28. What can we see or acquire but what we are? + +29. Our eyes are holden that we cannot see things that stare us in the +face, until the hour arrives when the mind is ripened. + +30. There is good reason why we should prize this liberation. + + +_(b)_ First analyze, then map out as in Sec. 380, the following +complex sentences:-- + +1. The way to speak and write what shall not go out of fashion, is to +speak and write sincerely. + +2. The writer who takes his subject from his ear, and not from his +heart, should know that he has lost as much as he has gained. + +3. "No book," said Bentley, "was ever written down by any but itself." + +4. That which we do not believe, we cannot adequately say, though we +may repeat the words never so often. + +5. We say so because we feel that what we love is not in your will, +but above it. + +6. It makes no difference how many friends I have, and what content I +can find in conversing with each, if there be one to whom I am not +equal. + +7. In every troop of boys that whoop and run in each yard and square, +a new-comer is as well and accurately weighed in the course of a few +days, and stamped with his right number, as if he had undergone a +formal trial of his strength, speed, and temper. + + + + +COMPOUND SENTENCES. + + +[Sidenote: _How formed._] + +382. The compound sentence is a combination of two or more simple +or complex sentences. While the complex sentence has only _one_ main +clause, the compound has _two or more_ independent clauses making +statements, questions, or commands. Hence the definition,-- + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +383. A compound sentence is one which contains two or more +independent clauses. + +This leaves room for any number of subordinate clauses in a compound +sentence: the requirement is simply that it have at least two +independent clauses. + +Examples of compound sentences:-- + +[Sidenote: _Examples._] + +(1) _Simple sentences united:_ "He is a palace of sweet sounds and +sights; he dilates; he is twice a man; he walks with arms akimbo; he +soliloquizes." + +(2) _Simple with complex:_ "The trees of the forest, the waving grass, +and the peeping flowers have grown intelligent; and he almost fears to +trust them with the secret which they seem to invite." + +(3) _Complex with complex:_ "The power which resides in him is new in +nature, and none but he knows what that is which he can do, nor does +he know until he has tried." + + +384. From this it is evident that nothing new is added to the work +of analysis already done. + +The same analysis of simple sentences is repeated in (1) and (2) +above, and what was done in complex sentences is repeated in (2) and +(3). + +The division into members will be easier, for the coördinate +independent statements are readily taken apart with the subordinate +clauses attached, if there are any. + +Thus in (1), the semicolons cut apart the independent members, which +are simple statements; in (2), the semicolon separates the first, a +simple member, from the second, a complex member; in (3), _and_ +connects the first and second complex members, and _nor_ the second +and third complex members. + + +[Sidenote: _Connectives._] + +385. The coördinate conjunctions _and_, _nor_, _or_ _but_, etc., +introduce independent clauses (see Sec. 297). + +But the conjunction is often omitted in copulative and adversative +clauses, as in Sec. 383 (1). Another example is, "Only the star +dazzles; the planet has a faint, moon-like ray" (adversative). + + +[Sidenote: _Study the thought._] + +386. The one point that will give trouble is the variable use of +some connectives; as _but_, _for_, _yet_, _while_ (_whilst_), +_however_, _whereas_, etc. Some of these are now conjunctions, now +adverbs or prepositions; others sometimes coördinate, sometimes +subordinate conjunctions. + +The student must watch _the logical connection_ of the members of the +sentence, and not the form of the connective. + + +Exercise. + +Of the following illustrative sentences, tell which are compound, and +which complex:-- + +1. Speak your latent conviction, and it shall be the universal sense; +for the inmost in due time becomes the outmost. + +2. I no longer wish to meet a good I do not earn, for example, to find +a pot of buried gold. + +3. Your goodness must have some edge to it--else it is none. + +4. Man does not stand in awe of man, nor is his genius admonished to +stay at home, but it goes abroad to beg a cup of water of the urns of +other men. + +5. A man cannot speak but he judges himself. + +6. In your metaphysics you have denied personality to the Deity, yet +when the devout motions of the soul come, yield to them heart and +life. + +7. I thought that it was a Sunday morning in May; that it was Easter +Sunday, and as yet very early in the morning. + +8. We denote the primary wisdom as intuition, whilst all later +teachings are tuitions. + +9. Whilst the world is thus dual, so is every one of its parts. + +10. They measure the esteem of each other by what each has, and not by +what each is. + +11. For everything you have missed, you have gained something else; +and for everything you gain, you lose something. + +12. I sometimes seemed to have lived for seventy or one hundred years +in one night; nay, I sometimes had feelings representative of a +millennium, passed in that time, or, however, of a duration far beyond +the limits of experience. + +13. However some may think him wanting in zeal, the most fanatical +can find no taint of apostasy in any measure of his. + +14. In this manner, from a happy yet often pensive child, he grew up +to be a mild, quiet, unobtrusive boy, and sun-browned with labor in +the fields, but with more intelligence than is seen in many lads from +the schools. + + + +OUTLINE FOR ANALYZING COMPOUND SENTENCES. + +387. (i) Separate it into its main members. (2) Analyze each complex +member as in Sec. 381. (3) Analyze each simple member as in Sec. 364. + + +Exercise. + +Analyze the following compound sentences:-- + +1. The gain is apparent; the tax is certain. + +2. If I feel overshadowed and outdone by great neighbors, I can yet +love; I can still receive; and he that loveth maketh his own the +grandeur that he loves. + +3. Love, and thou shalt be loved. + +4. All loss, all pain, is particular; the universe remains to the +heart unhurt. + +5. Place yourself in the middle of the stream of power and wisdom +which animates all whom it floats, and you are without effort impelled +to truth. + +6. He teaches who gives, and he learns who receives. + +7. Whatever he knows and thinks, whatever in his apprehension is worth +doing, that let him communicate, or men will never know and honor him +aright. + +8. Stand aside; give those merits room; let them mount and expand. + +9. We see the noble afar off, and they repel us; why should we +intrude? + +10. We go to Europe, or we pursue persons, or we read books, in the +instinctive faith that these will call it out and reveal us to +ourselves. + +11. A gay and pleasant sound is the whetting of the scythe in the +mornings of June, yet what is more lonesome and sad than the sound of +a whetstone or mower's rifle when it is too late in the season to make +hay? + +12. "Strike," says the smith, "the iron is white;" "keep the rake," +says the haymaker, "as nigh the scythe as you can, and the cart as +nigh the rake." + +13. Trust men, and they will be true to you; treat them greatly, and +they will show themselves great, though they make an exception in your +favor to all their rules of trade. + +14. On the most profitable lie the course of events presently lays a +destructive tax; whilst frankness invites frankness, puts the parties +on a convenient footing, and makes their business a friendship. + +15. The sturdiest offender of your peace and of the neighborhood, if +you rip up his claims, is as thin and timid as any; and the peace of +society is often kept, because, as children, one is afraid, and the +other dares not. + +16. They will shuffle and crow, crook and hide, feign to confess here, +only that they may brag and conquer there, and not a thought has +enriched either party, and not an emotion of bravery, modesty, or +hope. + +17. The magic they used was the ideal tendencies, which always make +the Actual ridiculous; but the tough world had its revenge the moment +they put their horses of the sun to plow in its furrow. + +18. Come into port greatly, or sail with God the seas. + +19. When you have chosen your part, abide by it, and do not weakly try +to reconcile yourself with the world. + +20. Times of heroism are generally times of terror, but the day never +shines in which this element may not work. + +21. Life is a train of moods like a string of beads, and as we pass +through them they prove to be many-colored lenses which paint the +world their own hue, and each shows only what lies at its focus. + +22. We see young men who owe us a new world, so readily and lavishly +they promise, but they never acquit the debt; they die young, and +dodge the account; or, if they live, they lose themselves in the +crowd. + +23. So does culture with us; it ends in headache. + +24. Do not craze yourself with thinking, but go about your business +anywhere. + +25. Thus journeys the mighty Ideal before us; it never was known to +fall into the rear. + + + + +PART III. + +_SYNTAX_. + + + + +INTRODUCTORY. + + +[Sidenote: _By way of introduction._] + +388. Syntax is from a Greek word meaning _order_ or _arrangement_. + +Syntax deals with the relation of words to each other as component +parts of a sentence, and with their proper arrangement to express +clearly the intended meaning. + + +[Sidenote: _Ground covered by syntax._] + +380. Following the Latin method, writers on English grammar usually +divide syntax into the two general heads,--agreement and +government. + +Agreement is concerned with the following relations of words: words +in apposition, verb and subject, pronoun and antecedent, adjective and +noun. + +Government has to do with verbs and prepositions, both of which are +said to govern words by having them in the objective case. + + +390. Considering the scarcity of inflections in English, it is clear +that if we merely follow the Latin treatment, the department of syntax +will be a small affair. But there is a good deal else to watch in +addition to the few forms; for there is an important and marked +difference between Latin and English syntax. It is this:-- + +Latin syntax depends upon fixed rules governing the use of inflected +forms: hence the _position_ of words in a sentence is of little +grammatical importance. + +[Sidenote: _Essential point in English syntax._] + +English syntax follows the Latin to a limited extent; but its leading +characteristic is, that English syntax is founded upon _the meaning_ +and _the logical connection_ of words rather than upon their form: +consequently it is quite as necessary to place words properly, and to +think clearly of the meaning of words, as to study inflected forms. + +For example, the sentence, "The savage here the settler slew," is +ambiguous. _Savage_ may be the subject, following the regular order of +subject; or _settler_ may be the subject, the order being inverted. In +Latin, distinct forms would be used, and it would not matter which one +stood first. + + +[Sidenote: _Why study syntax?_] + +391. There is, then, a double reason for not omitting syntax as a +department of grammar,-- + +_First_, To study the rules regarding the use of inflected forms, some +of which conform to classical grammar, while some are idiomatic +(peculiar to our own language). + +_Second_, To find out the _logical methods_ which control us in the +arrangement of words; and particularly when the grammatical and the +logical conception of a sentence do not agree, or when they exist side +by side in good usage. + +As an illustration of the last remark, take the sentence, "Besides +these famous books of Scott's and Johnson's, there is a copious 'Life' +by Sheridan." In this there is a possessive form, and added to it the +preposition _of_, also expressing a possessive relation. This is not +logical; it is not consistent with the general rules of grammar: but +none the less it is good English. + +Also in the sentence, "None remained but he," grammatical rules would +require _him_ instead of _he_ after the preposition; yet the +expression is sustained by good authority. + + +[Sidenote: _Some rules not rigid._] + +392. In some cases, authorities--that is, standard writers--differ +as to which of two constructions should be used, or the same writer +will use both indifferently. Instances will be found in treating of +the pronoun or noun with a gerund, pronoun and antecedent, sometimes +verb and subject, etc. + +When usage varies as to a given construction, both forms will be given +in the following pages. + + +[Sidenote: _The basis of syntax._] + +393. Our treatment of syntax will be an endeavor to record the best +usage of the present time on important points; and nothing but +important points will be considered, for it is easy to confuse a +student with too many obtrusive _don'ts_. + +The constructions presented as general will be justified by quotations +from _modern writers of English_ who are regarded as "standard;" that +is, writers whose style is generally acknowledged as superior, and +whose judgment, therefore, will be accepted by those in quest of +authoritative opinion. + +Reference will also be made to spoken English when its constructions +differ from those of the literary language, and to vulgar English when +it preserves forms which were once, but are not now, good English. + +It may be suggested to the student that the only way to acquire +correctness is to watch good usage _everywhere_, and imitate it. + + + + +NOUNS. + + +394. Nouns have no distinct forms for the nominative and objective +cases: hence no mistake can be made in using them. But some remarks +are required concerning the use of the possessive case. + + +[Sidenote: _Use of the possessive. Joint possession._] + +395. When two or more possessives modify the same noun, or indicate +joint ownership or possession, the possessive sign is added to the +last noun only; for example,-- + + Live your _king and country's_ best support.--ROWE. + + Woman, _sense and nature's_ easy fool.--BYRON. + + _Oliver and Boyd's_ printing office.--MCCULLOCH. + + _Adam and Eve's_ morning hymn.--MILTON. + + In _Beaumont and Fletcher's_ "Sea Voyage," Juletta tells, + etc.--EMERSON. + + +[Sidenote: _Separate possession._] + +396. When two or more possessives stand before the same noun, but +imply separate possession or ownership, the possessive sign is used +with each noun; as,-- + + He lands us on a grassy stage, Safe from the _storm's_ and + _prelate's_ rage.--MARVELL + + Where were the sons of Peers and Members of Parliament in + _Anne's_ and _George's_ time?--THACKERAY. + + _Levi's_ station in life was the receipt of custom; and + _Peter's_, the shore of Galilee; and _Paul's_, the antechamber of + the High Priest.--RUSKIN. + + Swift did not keep _Stella's_ letters. He kept _Bolingbroke's,_ + and _Pope's_, and _Harley's_, and _Peterborough's_.--THACKERAY. + + An actor in one of _Morton's_ or _Kotzebue's_ plays.--MACAULAY. + + Putting _Mr. Mill's_ and _Mr. Bentham's_ principles together. + --_Id._ + + +397. The possessive preceding the gerund will be considered under +the possessive of pronouns (Sec. 408). + + + + +PRONOUNS. + + +PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + + +I. NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE FORMS. + + +398. Since most of the personal pronouns, together with the relative +_who_, have separate forms for nominative and objective use, there are +two general rules that require attention. + +[Sidenote: _General rules._] + +(1) The _nominative use_ is usually marked by the nominative form of +the pronoun. + +(2) The _objective use_ is usually marked by the objective form of the +pronoun. + +These simple rules are sometimes violated in spoken and in literary +English. Some of the violations are universally condemned; others are +generally, if not universally, sanctioned. + + +[Sidenote: _Objective for the nominative._] + + + +399. The objective is sometimes found instead of the nominative in +the following instances:-- + +(1) By a common vulgarism of ignorance or carelessness, no notice is +taken of the proper form to be used as subject; as,-- + + He and _me_ once went in the dead of winter in a one-hoss shay + out to Boonville.--WHITCHER, _Bedott Papers._ + + It seems strange to me that _them_ that preach up the doctrine + don't admire one who carrys it out.--_Josiah Allens Wife._ + +(2) By faulty analysis of the sentence, the true relation of the words +is misunderstood; for example, "_Whom_ think ye that I am?" (In this, +_whom_ is the complement after the verb _am_, and should be the +nominative form, _who_.) "The young Harper, _whom_ they agree was +rather nice-looking" (_whom_ is the subject of the verb _was_). + +Especially is this fault to be noticed after an ellipsis with _than_ +or _as_, the real thought being forgotten; thus,-- + + But the consolation coming from devotion did not go far with such + a one as _her_.--TROLLOPE. + +This should be "as _she_," because the full expression would be "such +a one as _she is_." + + +400. Still, the last expression has the support of many good +writers, as shown in the following examples:-- + + She was neither better bred nor wiser than you or + _me_.--THACKERAY. + + No mightier than thyself or _me_.--SHAKESPEARE. + + Lin'd with Giants deadlier than _'em_ all.--POPE. + + But he must be a stronger than _thee_.--SOUTHEY. + + Not to render up my soul to such as _thee_.--BYRON. + + I shall not learn my duty from such as _thee_.--FIELDING. + +[Sidenote: _A safe rule._] + +It will be safer for the student to follow the general rule, as +illustrated in the following sentences:-- + + If so, they are yet holier than _we_.--RUSKIN. + + Who would suppose it is the game of such as _he_?--DICKENS. + + Do we see + The robber and the murd'rer weak as _we_? + --MILTON. + + I have no other saint than _thou_ to pray to.--LONGFELLOW. + +[Sidenote: "_Than_ whom."] + +401. One exception is to be noted. The expression than whom seems +to be used universally instead of "than _who_." There is no special +reason for this, but such is the fact; for example,-- + + One I remember especially,--one _than whom_ I never met a bandit + more gallant.--THACKERAY. + + The camp of Richard of England, _than whom_ none knows better how + to do honor to a noble foe.--SCOTT. + + She had a companion who had been ever agreeable, and her estate a + steward _than whom_ no one living was supposed to be more + competent.--PARTON. + + +[Sidenote: "_It was_ he" _or_ "_It was_ him"?] + +402. And there is one question about which grammarians are not +agreed, namely, whether the nominative or the objective form should be +used in the predicate after _was_, _is_, _are_, and the other forms of +the verb _be_. + +It may be stated with assurance that the literary language _prefers +the nominative_ in this instance, as,-- + + For there was little doubt that it was _he_.--KINGSLEY. + + But still it is not _she_.--MACAULAY. + + And it was _he_ + That made the ship to go. + --COLERIDGE. + +In spoken English, on the other hand, both in England and America, the +objective form is regularly found, unless a special, careful effort is +made to adopt the standard usage. The following are examples of spoken +English from conversations:-- + + "Rose Satterne, the mayor's daughter?"--"That's + _her_."--KINGSLEY. + + "Who's there?"--"_Me_, Patrick the Porter."--WINTHROP. + + "If there is any one embarrassed, it will not be _me_."--WM. + BLACK. + +The usage is too common to need further examples. + + +Exercise. + +Correct the italicized pronouns in the following sentences, giving +reasons from the analysis of the sentence:-- + +1. _Whom_ they were I really cannot specify. + +2. Truth is mightier than _us_ all. + +3. If there ever was a rogue in the world, it is _me_. + +4. They were the very two individuals _whom_ we thought were far away. + +5. "Seems to me as if _them_ as writes must hev a kinder gift fur it, +now." + +6. The sign of the Good Samaritan is written on the face of +_whomsoever_ opens to the stranger. + +7. It is not _me_ you are in love with. + +8. You know _whom_ it is that you thus charge. + +9. The same affinity will exert its influence on _whomsoever_ is as +noble as these men and women. + +10. It was _him_ that Horace Walpole called a man who never made a bad +figure but as an author. + +11. We shall soon see which is the fittest object of scorn, you or +_me_. + + +[Sidenote: Me _in exclamations_.] + +403. It is to be remembered that the objective form is used in +exclamations which turn the attention upon a person; as,-- + + Unhappy _me!_ That I cannot risk my own worthless life.--KINGSLEY + + Alas! miserable _me_! Alas! unhappy Señors!--_Id._ + + Ay _me_! I fondly dream--had ye been there.--MILTON. + + +[Sidenote: Nominative for the objective.] + +404. The rule for the objective form is wrongly departed from-- + +(1) When the object is far removed from the verb, verbal, or +preposition which governs it; as, "_He_ that can doubt whether he be +anything or no, I speak not to" (_he_ should be _him_, the object of +_to_); "I saw men very like him at each of the places mentioned, but +not _he_" (_he_ should be _him_, object of _saw_). + +(2) In the case of certain pairs of pronouns, used after verbs, +verbals, and prepositions, as this from Shakespeare, "All debts are +cleared between you and I" (for _you_ and _me_); or this, "Let _thou_ +and _I_ the battle try" (for _thee_ and _me_, or _us_). + +(3) By forgetting the construction, in the case of words used in +apposition with the object; as, "Ask the murderer, _he_ who has +steeped his hands in the blood of another" (instead of "_him_ who," +the word being in apposition with _murderer_). + + +[Sidenote: _Exception 1_, who _interrogative_.] + +405. The interrogative pronoun who may be said to have no +objective form in spoken English. We regularly say, "_Who_ did you +see?" or, "_Who_ were they talking to?" etc. The more formal "To +_whom_ were they talking?" sounds stilted in conversation, and is +usually avoided. + +In literary English the objective form _whom_ is _preferred_ for +objective use; as,-- + + Knows he now to _whom_ he lies under obligation?--SCOTT. + + What doth she look on? _Whom_ doth she behold?--WORDSWORTH. + +Yet the nominative form is found quite frequently to divide the work +of the objective use; for example,-- + + My son is going to be married to I don't know _who_.--GOLDSMITH. + + _Who_ have we here?--_Id._ + + _Who_ should I meet the other day but my old friend.--STEELE. + + He hath given away half his fortune to the Lord knows + _who_.--KINGSLEY. + + _Who_ have we got here?--SMOLLETT. + + _Who_ should we find there but Eustache?--MARRVAT. + + _Who_ the devil is he talking to?--SHERIDAN. + + +[Sidenote: _Exception 2, but_ he, _etc._] + +406. It is a well-established usage to put the nominative form, as +well as the objective, after the preposition _but_ (sometimes _save_); +as,-- + + All were knocked down but _us_ two.--KINGSLEY. + + Thy shores are empires, changed in all save _thee._--BYRON. + + Rich are the sea gods:--who gives gifts but _they?_--EMERSON. + + The Chieftains then + Returned rejoicing, all but _he_. + --SOUTHEY + + No man strikes him but _I_.--KINGSLEY. + + None, save _thou_ and thine, I've sworn, + Shall be left upon the morn. + +BYRON. + + +Exercise. + +Correct the italicized pronouns in the following, giving reasons from +the analysis of the quotation:-- + +1. _Thou_, Nature, partial Nature, I arraign. + +2. Let you and _I_ look at these, for they say there are none such in +the world. + +3. "Nonsense!" said Amyas, "we could kill every soul of them in half +an hour, and they know that as well as _me_." + +4. Markland, _who_, with Jortin and Thirlby, Johnson calls three +contemporaries of great eminence. + +5. They are coming for a visit to _she_ and _I_. + +6. They crowned him long ago; + But _who_ they got to put it on + Nobody seems to know. + +7. I experienced little difficulty in distinguishing among the +pedestrians _they_ who had business with St. Bartholomew. + +8. The great difference lies between the laborer who moves to +Yorkshire and _he_ who moves to Canada. + +9. Besides my father and Uncle Haddock--_he_ of the silver plates. + +10. _Ye_ against whose familiar names not yet + The fatal asterisk of death is set, + _Ye_ I salute. + +11. It can't be worth much to _they_ that hasn't larning. + +12. To send me away for a whole year--_I_ who had never crept from +under the parental wing--was a startling idea. + + + +II. POSSESSIVE FORMS. + + +[Sidenote: _As antecedent of a relative._] + +407. The possessive forms of personal pronouns and also of nouns are +sometimes found as antecedents of relatives. This usage is not +frequent. The antecedent is usually nominative or objective, as the +use of the possessive is less likely to be clear. + + We should augur ill of any _gentleman's_ property to whom this + happened every other day in his drawing room.--RUSKIN. + + For _their_ sakes whose distance disabled them from knowing + me.--C.B. BROWN. + + Now by _His_ name that I most reverence in Heaven, and by _hers_ + whom I most worship on earth.--SCOTT. + + He saw her smile and slip money into the _man's_ hand who was + ordered to ride behind the coach.--THACKERAY. + + He doubted whether _his_ signature whose expectations were so + much more bounded would avail.--DE QUINCEY. + + For boys with hearts as bold + As _his_ who kept the bridge so well. + --MACAULAY. + + +[Sidenote: _Preceding a gerund,--possessive, or objective?_] + +408. Another point on which there is some variance in usage is such +a construction as this: "We heard of _Brown_ studying law," or "We +heard of _Brown's_ studying law." + +That is, should the possessive case of a noun or pronoun always be +used with the gerund to indicate the active agent? Closely +scrutinizing these two sentences quoted, we might find a difference +between them: saying that in the first one _studying_ is a participle, +and the meaning is, _We heard of Brown_, [who was] _studying law_; and +that in the second, _studying_ is a gerund, object of _heard of_, and +modified by the possessive case as any other substantive would be. + +[Sidenote: _Why both are found._] + +But in common use there is no such distinction. Both types of +sentences are found; both are gerunds; sometimes the gerund has the +possessive form before it, sometimes it has the objective. The use of +the objective is older, and in keeping with the old way of regarding +the _person_ as the chief object before the mind: the possessive use +is more modern, in keeping with the disposition to proceed from the +material thing to the _abstract idea_, and to make the action +substantive the chief idea before the mind. + +In the examples quoted, it will be noticed that the possessive of the +pronoun is more common than that of the noun. + +[Sidenote: _Objective_.] + + The last incident which I recollect, was my learned and worthy + _patron_ falling from a chair.--SCOTT. + + He spoke of _some one_ coming to drink tea with him, and asked + why it was not made.--THACKERAY. + + The old sexton even expressed a doubt as to _Shakespeare_ having + been born in her house.--IRVING. + + The fact of the _Romans_ not burying their dead within the city + walls proper is a strong reason, etc.--BREWER. + + I remember _Wordsworth_ once laughingly reporting to me a little + personal anecdote.--DE QUINCEY. + + Here I state them only in brief, to prevent the _reader_ casting + about in alarm for my ultimate meaning.--RUSKIN. + + We think with far less pleasure of _Cato_ tearing out his + entrails than of _Russell_ saying, as he turned away from his + wife, that the bitterness of death was past.--MACAULAY. + + There is actually a kind of sacredness in the fact of such a + _man_ being sent into this earth.--CARLYLE. + +[Sidenote: _Possessive_.] + + There is no use for any _man's_ taking up his abode in a house + built of glass.--CARLYLE. + + As to _his_ having good grounds on which to rest an action for + life.--DICKENS. + + The case was made known to me by a _man's_ holding out the + little creature dead.--DE QUINCEY. + + There may be reason for a _savage's_ preferring many kinds of + food which the civilized man rejects.--THOREAU. + + It informs me of the previous circumstances of _my_ laying aside + my clothes.--C. BROCKDEN BROWN. + + The two strangers gave me an account of _their_ once having been + themselves in a somewhat similar condition.--AUDUBON. + + There was a chance of _their_ being sent to a new school, where + there were examinations.--RUSKIN + + This can only be by _his_ preferring truth to his past + apprehension of truth.--EMERSON + + + +III. PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND THEIR ANTECEDENTS. + +409. The pronouns of the third person usually refer back to some +preceding noun or pronoun, and ought to agree with them in person, +number, and gender. + +[Sidenote: _Watch for the real antecedent._] + +There are two constructions in which the student will need to watch +the pronoun,--when the antecedent, in one person, is followed by a +phrase containing a pronoun of a different person; and when the +antecedent is of such a form that the pronoun following cannot +indicate exactly the gender. Examples of these constructions are,-- + + _Those_ of us who can only maintain _themselves_ by continuing in + some business or salaried office.--RUSKIN. + + Suppose the life and fortune of _every one_ of us would depend on + _his_ winning or losing a game of chess.--HUXLEY. + + If _any one_ did not know it, it was _his_ own fault.--CABLE. + + _Everybody_ had _his_ own life to think of.--DEFOE. + +410. In such a case as the last three sentences,--when the +antecedent includes both masculine and feminine, or is a distributive +word, taking in each of many persons,--the preferred method is to put +the pronoun following in the masculine singular; if the antecedent is +neuter, preceded by a distributive, the pronoun will be neuter +singular. + +The following are additional examples:-- + + The next _correspondent_ wants you to mark out a whole course of + life for _him_.--HOLMES. + + Every _city_ threw open _its_ gates.--DE QUINCEY. + + Every _person_ who turns this page has _his_ own little + diary.--THACKERAY. + + The pale realms of shade, where _each_ shall take + _His_ chamber in the silent halls of death. + --BRYANT. + +[Sidenote: _Avoided: By using both pronouns._] + +Sometimes this is avoided by using both the masculine and the feminine +pronoun; for example,-- + + Not the feeblest _grandame_, not a mowing _idiot_, but uses what + spark of perception and faculty is left, to chuckle and triumph + in _his or her_ opinion.--EMERSON. + + It is a game which has been played for untold ages, every _man_ + and _woman_ of us being one of the two players in a game of _his + or her_ own.--HUXLEY. + +_By using the plural pronoun._ + +411. Another way of referring to an antecedent which is a +distributive pronoun or a noun modified by a distributive adjective, +is to use the plural of the pronoun following. This is not considered +the best usage, the logical analysis requiring the singular pronoun in +each case; but the construction is frequently found _when the +antecedent includes or implies both genders_. The masculine does not +really represent a feminine antecedent, and the expression _his or +her_ is avoided as being cumbrous. + +Notice the following examples of the plural:-- + + _Neither_ of the sisters _were_ very much deceived.--THACKERAY. + + _Every one_ must judge of _their_ own feelings.--BYRON. + + Had the doctor been contented to take my dining tables, as + _anybody_ in _their_ senses would have done.--AUSTEN. + + If the part deserve any comment, every considering _Christian_ + will make it _themselves_ as they go.--DEFOE. + + _Every person's_ happiness depends in part upon the respect + _they_ meet in the world.--PALEY. + + _Every nation_ have _their_ refinements--STERNE. + + _Neither_ gave vent to _their_ feelings in words.--SCOTT. + + _Each_ of the nations acted according to _their_ national + custom.--PALGRAVE. + + The sun, which pleases _everybody_ with it and with + _themselves_.--RUSKIN. + + Urging _every one_ within reach of your influence to be neat, and + giving _them_ means of being so.--_Id._ + + _Everybody_ will become of use in _their_ own fittest way.--_Id._ + + _Everybody_ said _they_ thought it was the newest thing + there.--WENDELL PHILLIPS. + + Struggling for life, _each_ almost bursting _their_ sinews to + force the other off.--PAULDING. + + _Whosoever_ hath any gold, let _them_ break it off.--_Bible._ + + _Nobody_ knows what it is to lose a friend, till _they_ have lost + him.--FIELDING. + + Where she was gone, or what was become of her, _no one_ could + take upon _them_ to say.--SHERIDAN. + + I do not mean that I think _any one_ to blame for taking due care + of _their_ health.--ADDISON. + + +Exercise.--In the above sentences, _unless both genders are +implied_, change the pronoun to agree with its antecedent. + + +RELATIVE PRONOUNS. + +I. RESTRICTIVE AND UNRESTRICTIVE RELATIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _What these terms mean._] + +412. As to their conjunctive use, the definite relatives who, +which, and that may be coördinating or restrictive. + +A relative, when coördinating, or unrestrictive, is equivalent to a +conjunction (_and_, _but_, _because_, etc.) and a personal pronoun. +It adds a new statement to what precedes, that being considered +already clear; as, "I gave it to the beggar, _who_ went away." This +means, "I gave it to the beggar [we know which one], _and he_ went +away." + +A relative, when restrictive, introduces a clause to limit and make +clear some preceding word. The clause is restricted to the antecedent, +and does not add a new statement; it merely couples a thought +necessary to define the antecedent: as, "I gave it to a beggar _who_ +stood at the gate." It defines _beggar_. + + +413. It is sometimes contended that who and which should always +be coördinating, and that always restrictive; but, according to the +practice of every modern writer, the usage must be stated as +follows:-- + +[Sidenote: _A loose rule the only one to be formulated._] + +Who and which are either coördinating or restrictive, the taste of +the writer and regard for euphony being the guide. + +That is in most cases restrictive, the coördinating use not being +often found among careful writers. + + +Exercise. + +In the following examples, tell whether _who_, _which_, and _that_ are +restrictive or not, in each instance:-- + +[Sidenote: Who.] + + 1. "Here he is now!" cried those who stood near + Ernest.--HAWTHORNE. + + 2. He could overhear the remarks of various individuals, who were + comparing the features with the face on the mountain side.--_Id._ + + 3. The particular recording angel who heard it pretended not to + understand, or it might have gone hard with the tutor.--HOLMES. + + 4. Yet how many are there who up, down, and over England are + saying, etc.--H.W. BEECHER + + 5. A grizzly-looking man appeared, whom we took to be sixty or + seventy years old.--THOREAU. + +[Sidenote: Which.] + + 6. The volume which I am just about terminating is almost as much + English history as Dutch.--MOTLEY. + + 7. On hearing their plan, which was to go over the Cordilleras, + she agreed to join the party.--DE QUINCEY. + + 8. Even the wild story of the incident which had immediately + occasioned the explosion of this madness fell in with the + universal prostration of mind.--_Id._ + + 9. Their colloquies are all gone to the fire except this first, + which Mr. Hare has printed.--CARLYLE. + + 10. There is a particular science which takes these matters in + hand, and it is called logic.--NEWMAN. + +[Sidenote: That.] + + 11. So different from the wild, hard-mouthed horses at Westport, + that were often vicious.--DE QUINCEY. + + 12. He was often tempted to pluck the flowers that rose + everywhere about him in the greatest variety.--ADDISON. + + 13. He felt a gale of perfumes breathing upon him, that grew + stronger and sweeter in proportion as he advanced.--_Id._ + + 14. With narrow shoulders, long arms and legs, hands that dangled + a mile out of his sleeves.--IRVING. + + + +II. RELATIVE AND ANTECEDENT. + + +[Sidenote: _The rule._] + +414. The general rule is, that the relative pronoun agrees with its +antecedent in person and number. + +[Sidenote: _In what sense true._] + +This cannot be true as to the form of the pronoun, as that does not +vary for person or number. We say _I_, _you_, _he_, _they_, etc., +_who_; _these_ or _that_ _which_, etc. However, the relative _carries +over_ the agreement from the antecedent before to the verb following, +so far as the verb has forms to show its agreement with a substantive. +For example, in the sentence, "He that writes to himself writes to an +eternal public," _that_ is invariable as to person and number, but, +because of its antecedent, it makes the verb third person singular. + +Notice the agreement in the following sentences:-- + + There is not _one_ of the company, but _myself_, who rarely + _speak_ at all, but _speaks_ of him as that sort, etc.--ADDISON. + + O _Time!_ who _know'st_ a lenient hand to lay Softest on sorrow's + wound.--BOWLES. + + Let us be of good cheer, remembering that the misfortunes hardest + to bear are _those_ which never _come._--LOWELL. + + +[Sidenote: _A disputed point._] + +415. This prepares the way for the consideration of one of the vexed +questions,--whether we should say, "one of the finest books that _has_ +been published," or, "one of the finest books that _have_ been +published." + +[Sidenote: One of ... [_plural_] that who, _or_ which ... [_singular +or plural_.]] + + The pale realms of shade, where _each_ shall take + _His_ chamber in the silent halls of death. + --BRYANT. + +Both constructions are frequently found, the reason being a difference +of opinion as to the antecedent. Some consider it to be _one_ [book] +_of the finest books_, with _one_ as the principal word, the true +antecedent; others regard _books_ as the antecedent, and write the +verb in the plural. The latter is rather more frequent, but the former +has good authority. + +The following quotations show both sides:-- + +[Sidenote: _Plural._] + + He was one of the very few commanders who _appear_ to have shown + equal skill in directing a campaign, in winning a battle, and in + improving a victory.--LECKY. + + He was one of the most distinguished scientists who _have_ ever + lived.--J.T.MORSE, Jr., _Franklin._ + + It is one of those periods which _shine_ with an unnatural and + delusive splendor.--MACAULAY. + + A very little encouragement brought back one of those overflows + which _make_ one more ashamed, etc.--HOLMES. + + I am one of those who _believe_ that the real will never find an + irremovable basis till it rests on the ideal.--LOWELL. + + French literature of the eighteenth century, one of the most + powerful agencies that _have_ ever existed.--M. ARNOLD. + + What man's life is not overtaken by one or more of those + tornadoes that _send_ us out of our course?--THACKERAY. + + He is one of those that _deserve_ very well.--ADDISON. + +[Sidenote: _Singular._] + + The fiery youth ... struck down one of those who _was_ pressing + hardest.--SCOTT. + + He appeared to me one of the noblest creatures that ever _was_, + when he derided the shams of society.--HOWELLS. + + A rare Roundabout performance,--one of the very best that _has_ + ever appeared in this series.--THACKERAY. + + Valancourt was the hero of one of the most famous romances which + ever _was_ published in this country.--_Id._ + + It is one of the errors which _has_ been diligently propagated by + designing writers.--IRVING. + + "I am going to breakfast with one of these fellows who _is_ at + the Piazza Hotel."--DICKENS. + + The "Economy of the Animal Kingdom" is one of those books which + _is_ an honor to the human race.--EMERSON. + + Tom Puzzle is one of the most eminent immethodical disputants of + any that _has_ fallen under my observation.--ADDISON. + + The richly canopied monument of one of the most earnest souls + that ever gave _itself_ to the arts.--RUSKIN. + + +III. OMISSION OF THE RELATIVE. + +416. Although the omission of the relative is common when it would +be the object of the verb or preposition _expressed_, there is an +omission which is not frequently found in careful writers; that is, +when the relative word is a pronoun, object of a preposition +_understood_, or is equivalent to the conjunction _when_, _where_, +_whence_, and such like: as, "He returned by the same route [by which] +he came;" "India is the place [in which, or where] he died." Notice +these sentences:-- + + In the posture I lay, I could see nothing except the sky.--SWIFT. + + This is he that should marshal us the way we were + going.--EMERSON. + + But I by backward steps would move; + And, when this dust falls to the urn, + In that same state I came, return.--VAUGHAN. + + Welcome the hour my aged limbs + Are laid with thee to rest.--BURNS. + + The night was concluded in the manner we began the + morning.--GOLDSMITH. + + The same day I went aboard we set sail.--DEFOE. + + The vulgar historian of a Cromwell fancies that he had determined + on being Protector of England, at the time he was plowing the + marsh lands of Cambridgeshire.--CARLYLE. + + To pass under the canvas in the manner he had entered required + time and attention.--SCOTT. + + +Exercise.--In the above sentences, insert the omitted conjunction or +phrase, and see if the sentence is made clearer. + + + +IV. THE RELATIVE _AS_ AFTER _SAME_. + +417. It is very rarely that we find such sentences as,-- + + He considered...me as his apprentice, and accordingly expected + the same service from me _as_ he would from another.--FRANKLIN. + + This has the same effect in natural faults _as_ maiming and + mutilation produce from accidents.--BURKE. + +[Sidenote: _The regular construction_.] + +[Sidenote: _Caution_.] + +The usual way is to use the relative _as_ after _same_ if no verb +follows _as;_ but, if _same_ is followed by a complete clause, _as_ is +not used, but we find the relative _who, which,_ or _that_. Remember +this applies only to _as_ when used as a relative. + +Examples of the use of _as_ in a contracted clause:-- + + Looking to the same end _as_ Turner, and working in the same + spirit, he, with Turner, was a discoverer, etc.--R.W. CHURCH. + + They believe the same of all the works of art, _as_ of knives, + boats, looking-glasses.--ADDISON. + +Examples of relatives following _same_ in full clauses:-- + +[Sidenote: Who.] + + This is the very same rogue _who_ sold us the spectacles. + --GOLDSMITH. + + The same person _who_ had clapped his thrilling hands at the + first representation of the Tempest.--MACAULAY. + +[Sidenote: That.] + + I rubbed on some of the same ointment _that_ was given me at my + first arrival.--SWIFT. + +[Sidenote: Which.] + + For the same sound is in my ears + _Which_ in those days I heard.--WORDSWORTH. + + With the same minuteness _which_ her predecessor had exhibited, + she passed the lamp over her face and person.--SCOTT. + + + +V. MISUSE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Anacoluthic use of_ which.] + +418. There is now and then found in the pages of literature a +construction which imitates the Latin, but which is usually carefully +avoided. It is a use of the relative _which_ so as to make an +anacoluthon, or lack of proper connection between the clauses; for +example,-- + + _Which_, if I had resolved to go on with, I might as well have + staid at home.--DEFOE + + _Which_ if he attempted to do, Mr. Billings vowed that he would + follow him to Jerusalem.--THACKERAY. + + We know not the incantation of the heart that would wake + them;--_which_ if they once heard, they would start up to meet us + in the power of long ago.--RUSKIN. + + He delivered the letter, _which_ when Mr. Thornhill had read, he + said that all submission was now too late.--GOLDSMITH. + + But still the house affairs would draw her thence; + _Which_ ever as she could with haste dispatch, + She'd come again.--SHAKESPEARE. + +As the sentences stand, _which_ really has no office in the sentence: +it should be changed to a demonstrative or a personal pronoun, and +this be placed in the proper clause. + +Exercise.--Rewrite the above five sentences so as to make the proper +grammatical connection in each. + + +[Sidenote: And who, and which, _etc._] + +419. There is another kind of expression which slips into the lines +of even standard authors, but which is always regarded as an oversight +and a blemish. + +The following sentence affords an example: "The rich are now engaged +in distributing what remains among the poorer sort, _and who_ are now +thrown upon their compassion." The trouble is that such conjunctions +as _and_, _but_, _or_, etc., should connect expressions of the same +kind: _and who_ makes us look for a preceding _who_, but none is +expressed. There are three ways to remedy the sentence quoted: thus, +(1) "Among those _who_ are poor, _and who_ are now," etc.; (2) "Among +the poorer sort, _who_ are now thrown," etc.; (3) "Among the poorer +sort, now thrown upon their," etc. That is,-- + +[Sidenote: _Direction for rewriting._] + +Express both relatives, or omit the conjunction, or leave out both +connective and relative. + +Exercise. + +Rewrite the following examples according to the direction just +given:-- + +[Sidenote: And who.] + + 1. Hester bestowed all her means on wretches less miserable than + herself, and who not unfrequently insulted the hand that fed + them.--HAWTHORNE. + + 2. With an albatross perched on his shoulder, and who might be + introduced to the congregation as the immediate organ of his + conversion.--DE QUINCEY. + + 3. After this came Elizabeth herself, then in the full glow of + what in a sovereign was called beauty, and who would in the + lowest walk of life have been truly judged to possess a noble + figure.--SCOTT. + + 4. This was a gentleman, once a great favorite of M. le Conte, + and in whom I myself was not a little interested.--THACKERAY. + +[Sidenote: But who.] + + 5. Yonder woman was the wife of a certain learned man, English by + name, but who had long dwelt in Amsterdam.--HAWTHORNE. + + 6. Dr. Ferguson considered him as a man of a powerful capacity, + but whose mind was thrown off its just bias.--SCOTT. + +[Sidenote: Or who.] + + 7. "What knight so craven, then," exclaims the chivalrous + Venetian, "that he would not have been more than a match for the + stoutest adversary; or who would not have lost his life a + thousand times sooner than return dishonored by the lady of his + love?"--PRESCOTT. + +[Sidenote: And which.] + + 8. There are peculiar quavers still to be heard in that church, + and which may even be heard a mile off.--IRVING. + + 9. The old British tongue was replaced by a debased Latin, like + that spoken in the towns, and in which inscriptions are found in + the western counties.--PEARSON. + + 10. I shall have complete copies, one of signal interest, and + which has never been described.--MOTLEY. + +[Sidenote: But which.] + + 11. "A mockery, indeed, but in which the soul trifled with + itself!"--HAWTHORNE. + + 12. I saw upon the left a scene far different, but which yet the + power of dreams had reconciled into harmony.--DE QUINCEY. + +[Sidenote: Or which.] + + 13. He accounted the fair-spoken courtesy, which the Scotch had + learned, either from imitation of their frequent allies, the + French, or which might have arisen from their own proud and + reserved character, as a false and astucious mark, etc.--SCOTT. + + +[Sidenote: That ... and which, _etc._] + +420. Akin to the above is another fault, which is likewise a +variation from the best usage. Two different relatives are sometimes +found referring back to the same antecedent in one sentence; whereas +the better practice is to choose one relative, and repeat this for any +further reference. + + +Exercise. + +Rewrite the following quotations by repeating one relative instead of +using two for the same antecedent:-- + +[Sidenote: That ... who.] + + 1. Still in the confidence of children that tread without fear + every chamber in their father's house, and to whom no door is + closed.--DE QUINCEY. + + 2. Those renowned men that were our ancestors as much as yours, + and whose examples and principles we inherit.--BEECHER. + + 3. The Tree Igdrasil, that has its roots down in the kingdoms + of Hela and Death, and whose boughs overspread the highest + heaven!--CARLYLE. + +[Sidenote: That ... which.] + + 4. Christianity is a religion that reveals men as the object of + God's infinite love, and which commends him to the unbounded love + of his brethren.--W.E. CHANNING. + + 5. He flung into literature, in his Mephistopheles, the first + organic figure that has been added for some ages, and which will + remain as long as the Prometheus.--EMERSON. + + 6. Gutenburg might also have struck out an idea that surely did + not require any extraordinary ingenuity, and which left the most + important difficulties to be surmounted.--HALLAM. + + 7. Do me the justice to tell me what I have a title to be + acquainted with, and which I am certain to know more truly from + you than from others.--SCOTT. + + 8. He will do this amiable little service out of what one may + say old civilization has established in place of goodness of + heart, but which is perhaps not so different from it.--HOWELLS. + + 9. In my native town of Salem, at the head of what, half a + century ago, was a bustling wharf,--but which is now burdened + with decayed wooden warehouses.--HAWTHORNE. + + 10. His recollection of what he considered as extreme + presumption in the Knight of the Leopard, even when he stood high + in the roles of chivalry, but which, in his present condition, + appeared an insult sufficient to drive the fiery monarch into a + frenzy of passion.--SCOTT + +[Sidenote: That which ... what.] + + 11. He, now without any effort but that which he derived from the + sill, and what little his feet could secure the irregular + crevices, was hung in air.--W.G. SIMMS. + +[Sidenote: Such as ... which.] + + 12. It rose into a thrilling passion, such as my heart had always + dimly craved and hungered after, but which now first interpreted + itself to my ear.--DE QUINCEY. + + 13. I recommend some honest manual calling, such as they have + very probably been bred to, and which will at least give them a + chance of becoming President.--HOLMES. + +[Sidenote: Such as ... whom.] + + 14. I grudge the dollar, the dime, the cent, I give to such men + as do not belong to me, and to whom I do not belong.--EMERSON. + +[Sidenote: Which ... that ... that.] + + 15. That evil influence which carried me first away from my + father's house, that hurried me into the wild and undigested + notion of making my fortune, and that impressed these conceits so + forcibly upon me.--DEFOE. + + + +ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. + +[Sidenote: Each other, one another.] + +421. The student is sometimes troubled whether to use each other +or one another in expressing reciprocal relation or action. Whether +either one refers to a certain number of persons or objects, whether +or not the two are equivalent, may be gathered from a study of the +following sentences:-- + + They [Ernest and the poet] led _one another_, as it were, into + the high pavilion of their thoughts.--HAWTHORNE. + + Men take _each other's_ measure when they meet for the first + time.--EMERSON. + + You ruffian! do you fancy I forget that we were fond of _each + other_?--THACKERAY. + + England was then divided between kings and Druids, always at war + with _one another_, carrying off _each other's_ cattle and + wives.--BREWER + + The topics follow _each other_ in the happiest order.--MACAULAY. + + The Peers at a conference begin to pommel _each other_.--_Id._ + + We call ourselves a rich nation, and we are filthy and foolish + enough to thumb _each other's_ books out of circulating + libraries.--RUSKIN. + + The real hardships of life are now coming fast upon us; let us + not increase them by dissension among _each other_.--GOLDSMITH. + + In a moment we were all shaking hands with _one + another_.--DICKENS. + + The unjust purchaser forces the two to bid against _each + other._--RUSKIN. + + +[Sidenote: _Distributives_ either _and_ neither.] + +422. By their original meaning, either and neither refer to only +two persons or objects; as, for example,-- + + Some one must be poor, and in want of his gold--or his corn. + Assume that no one is in want of _either_.--RUSKIN + + Their [Ernest's and the poet's] minds accorded into one strain, + and made delightful music which _neither_ could have claimed as + all his own.--HAWTHORNE. + +[Sidenote: _Use of_ any.] + +Sometimes these are made to refer to several objects, in which case +any should be used instead; as,-- + + Was it the winter's storm? was it hard labor and spare meals? was + it disease? was it the tomahawk? Is it possible that _neither_ of + these causes, that not all combined, were able to blast this bud + of hope?--EVERETT. + + Once I took such delight in Montaigne ...; before that, in + Shakespeare; then in Plutarch; then in Plotinus; at one time in + Bacon; afterwards in Goethe; even in Bettine; but now I turn the + pages of _either_ of them languidly, whilst I still cherish their + genius.--EMERSON. + + +[Sidenote: Any _usually plural_.] + +423. The adjective pronoun any is nearly always regarded as +plural, as shown in the following sentences:-- + + If _any_ of you _have_ been accustomed to look upon these hours + as mere visionary hours, I beseech you, etc.--BEECHER + + Whenever, during his stay at Yuste, _any_ of his friends had + died, he had been punctual in doing honor to _their_ + memory.--STIRLING. + + But I enjoy the company and conversation of its inhabitants, when + _any_ of them _are_ so good as to visit me.--FRANKLIN. + + Do you think, when I spoke anon of the ghosts of Pryor's + children, I mean that _any_ of them _are_ dead?--THACKERAY. + +In earlier Modern English, _any_ was often singular; as,-- + + If _any_, speak; for _him_ have I offended.--SHAKESPEARE. + + If _any_ of you lack wisdom, let _him_ ask of God.--_Bible_. + +Very rarely the singular is met with in later times; as,-- + + Here is a poet doubtless as much affected by his own descriptions + as _any_ that _reads_ them can be.--BURKE. + +[Sidenote: _Caution_.] + +The above instances are to be distinguished from the adjective _any_, +which is plural as often as singular. + + +[Sidenote: None _usually plural_.] + +424. The adjective pronoun none is, in the prose of the present +day, usually plural, although it is historically a contraction of _ne +ān_ (not one). Examples of its use are,-- + + In earnest, if ever man was; as _none_ of the French philosophers + _were_.--CARLYLE. + + _None_ of Nature's powers _do_ better service.--PROF. DANA + + One man answers some question which _none_ of his contemporaries + _put_, and is isolated.--EMERSON. + + _None obey_ the command of duty so well as those who are free + from the observance of slavish bondage.--SCOTT. + + Do you think, when I spoke anon of the ghosts of Pryor's + children, I mean that any of them are dead? _None are_, that I + know of.--THACKERAY. + + Early apples begin to be ripe about the first of August; but I + think _none_ of them _are_ so good to eat as some to + smell.--THOREAU. + +The singular use of _none_ is often found in the Bible; as,-- + + _None_ of them _was_ cleansed, saving Naaman the Syrian.--LUKE iv + 27 + +Also the singular is sometimes found in present-day English in prose, +and less rarely in poetry; for example,-- + + Perhaps _none_ of our Presidents since Washington _has_ stood so + firm in the confidence of the people.--LOWELL + + In signal _none his_ steed should spare.--SCOTT + +Like the use of _any_, the pronoun _none_ should be distinguished from +the adjective _none_, which is used absolutely, and hence is more +likely to confuse the student. + +Compare with the above the following sentences having the adjective +_none_:-- + + Reflecting a summer evening sky in its bosom, though _none_ [no + sky] was visible overhead.--THOREAU + + The holy fires were suffered to go out in the temples, and _none_ + [no fires] were lighted in their own dwellings.--PRESCOTT + + +[Sidenote: All _singular and plural_.] + +425. The pronoun all has the singular construction when it means +_everything_; the plural, when it means _all persons_: for example,-- + +[Sidenote: _Singular_.] + + The light troops thought ... that _all was_ lost.--PALGRAVE + + _All was_ won on the one side, and _all was_ lost on the + other.--BAYNE + + Having done _all_ that _was_ just toward others.--NAPIER + +[Sidenote: _Plural_.] + + But the King's treatment of the great lords will be judged + leniently by _all_ who _remember_, etc.--PEARSON. + + When _all were_ gone, fixing his eyes on the mace, etc.--LINGARD + + _All_ who did not understand French _were_ compelled, + etc.--McMASTER. + + +[Sidenote: Somebody's else, _or_ somebody else's?] + +426. The compounds somebody else, any one else, nobody else, etc., +are treated as units, and the apostrophe is regularly added to the +final word _else_ instead of the first. Thackeray has the expression +_somebody's else_, and Ford has _nobody's else_, but the regular usage +is shown in the following selections:-- + + A boy who is fond of _somebody else's_ pencil case.--G. ELIOT. + + A suit of clothes like _somebody else's_.--THACKERAY. + + Drawing off his gloves and warming his hands before the fire as + benevolently as if they were _somebody else's_.--DICKENS. + + Certainly not! nor _any one else's_ ropes.--RUSKIN. + + Again, my pronunciation--like _everyone else's_--is in some cases + more archaic.--SWEET. + + Then everybody wanted some of _somebody else's_.--RUSKIN. + + His hair...curled once all over it in long tendrils, unlike + _anybody else's_ in the world.--N.P. WILLIS. + + "Ye see, there ain't nothin' wakes folks up like _somebody + else's_ wantin' what you've got."--MRS. STOWE. + + + + +ADJECTIVES. + + +AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES WITH NOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: These sort, all manner of, _etc._] + +427. The statement that adjectives agree with their nouns in number +is restricted to the words this and that (with these and +those), as these are the only adjectives that have separate forms +for singular and plural; and it is only in one set of expressions that +the concord seems to be violated,--in such as "_these sort_ of books," +"_those kind_ of trees," "_all manner_ of men;" the nouns being +singular, the adjectives plural. These expressions are all but +universal in spoken English, and may be found not infrequently in +literary English; for example,-- + + _These kind_ of knaves I know, which in this plainness + Harbor more craft, etc.--SHAKESPEARE + + All _these sort_ of things.--SHERIDAN. + + I hoped we had done with _those sort_ of things.--MULOCH. + + You have been so used to _those sort_ of impertinences.--SYDNEY + SMITH. + + Whitefield or Wesley, or some other such great man as a bishop, + or _those sort_ of people.--FIELDING. + + I always delight in overthrowing _those kind_ of + schemes.--AUSTEN. + + There are women as well as men who can thoroughly enjoy _those + sort_ of romantic spots.--_Saturday Review_, London. + + The library was open, with _all manner_ of amusing + books.--RUSKIN. + +According to the approved usage of Modern English, each one of the +above adjectives would have to be changed to the singular, or the +nouns to the plural. + +[Sidenote: _History of this construction._] + +The reason for the prevalence of these expressions must be sought in +the history of the language: it cannot be found in the statement that +the adjective is made plural by the attraction of a noun following. + +[Sidenote: _At the source._] + +In Old and Middle English, in keeping with the custom of looking at +things concretely rather than in the abstract, they said, not "all +_kinds_ of wild animals," but "alles cunnes wilde deor" (wild animals +of-every-kind). This the modern expression reverses. + +[Sidenote: _Later form._] + +But in early Middle English the modern way of regarding such +expressions also appeared, gradually displacing the old. + +[Sidenote: _The result._] + +Consequently we have a confused expression. We keep the form of +logical agreement in standard English, such as, "_This sort_ of trees +should be planted;" but at the same time the noun following _kind of_ +is felt to be the real subject, and the adjective is, in spoken +English, made to agree with it, which accounts for the construction, +"_These kind of_ trees are best." + +[Sidenote: _A question._] + +The inconvenience of the logical construction is seen when we wish to +use a predicate with number forms. Should we say, "This kind of rules +_are_ the best," or "This kind of rules _is_ the best?" _Kind_ or +_sort_ may be treated as a collective noun, and in this way may take a +plural verb; for example, Burke's sentence, "A _sort_ of uncertain +sounds _are_, when the necessary dispositions concur, more alarming +than a total silence." + + + +COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS. + + +[Sidenote: _Use of the comparative degree._] + +428. The comparative degree of the adjective (or adverb) is used +when we wish to compare two objects or sets of objects, or one object +with a class of objects, to express a higher degree of quality; as,-- + + Which is _the better_ able to defend himself,--a strong man with + nothing but his fists, or a paralytic cripple encumbered with a + sword which he cannot lift?--MACAULAY. + + Of two such lessons, why forget + The _nobler_ and the _manlier_ one? + --BYRON. + + We may well doubt which has the _stronger_ claim to civilization, + the victor or the vanquished.--PRESCOTT. + + A _braver_ ne'er to battle rode.--SCOTT. + + He is _taller,_ by almost the breadth of my nail, than any of his + court.--SWIFT. + + +[Sidenote: Other _after the comparative form._] + +429. When an object is compared with the class to which it belongs, +it is regularly excluded from that class by the word _other_; if not, +the object would really be compared with itself: thus,-- + + The character of Lady Castlewood has required more delicacy in + its manipulation than perhaps any _other_ which Thackeray has + drawn.--TROLLOPE. + + I used to watch this patriarchal personage with livelier + curiosity than any _other_ form of humanity.--HAWTHORNE. + + +Exercise. + +See if the word _other_ should be inserted in the following +sentences:-- + + 1. There was no man who could make a more graceful bow than Mr. + Henry.--WIRT. + + 2. I am concerned to see that Mr. Gary, to whom Dante owes more + than ever poet owed to translator, has sanctioned, + etc.--MACAULAY. + + 3. There is no country in which wealth is so sensible of its + obligations as our own.--LOWELL. + + 4. This is more sincerely done in the Scandinavian than in any + mythology I know.--CARLYLE. + + 5. In "Thaddeus of Warsaw" there is more crying than in any novel + I remember to have read.--THACKERAY. + + 6. The heroes of another writer [Cooper] are quite the equals of + Scott's men; perhaps Leather-stocking is better than any one in + "Scott's lot."--_Id._ + + +[Sidenote: _Use of the superlative degree._] + +430. The superlative degree of the adjective (or adverb) is used +regularly in comparing more than two things, but is also frequently +used in comparing only two things. + +Examples of superlative with several objects:-- + + It is a case of which the _simplest_ statement is the + _strongest_.--MACAULAY. + + Even Dodd himself, who was one of the _greatest_ humbugs who ever + lived, would not have had the face.--THACKERAY. + + To the man who plays well, the _highest_ stakes are + paid.--HUXLEY. + +[Sidenote: _Superlative with two objects._] + +Compare the first three sentences in Sec. 428 with the following:-- + + Which do you love _best_ to behold, the lamb or the lion? + --THACKERAY. + + Which of these methods has the _best_ effect? Both of them are + the same to the sense, and differ only in form.--DR BLAIR. + + Rip was one of those ... who eat white bread or brown, whichever + can be got _easiest_.--IRVING. + + It is hard to say whether the man of wisdom or the man of folly + contributed _most_ to the amusement of the party.--SCOTT. + + There was an interval of three years between Mary and Anne. The + _eldest_, Mary, was like the Stuarts--the _younger_ was a fair + English child.--MRS. OLIPHANT. + + Of the two great parties which at this hour almost share the + nation between them, I should say that one has the _best_ cause, + and the other contains the _best_ men.--EMERSON. + + In all disputes between States, though the _strongest_ is nearly + always mainly in the wrong, the _weaker_ is often so in a minor + degree.--RUSKIN. + + She thought him and Olivia extremely of a size, and would bid + both to stand up to see which was the _tallest_.--GOLDSMITH. + + These two properties seem essential to wit, more particularly the + _last_ of them.--ADDISON. + + "Ha, ha, ha!" roared Goodman Brown when the wind laughed at him. + "Let us see which will laugh _loudest_."--HAWTHORNE. + + +[Sidenote: _Double comparative and superlative._] + +431. In Shakespeare's time it was quite common to use a double +comparative and superlative by using _more_ or _most_ before the word +already having _-er_ or _-est_. Examples from Shakespeare are,-- + + How much _more elder_ art thou than thy looks!--_Merchant of + Venice._ + + Nor that I am _more better_ than Prospero.--_Tempest._ + + Come you _more nearer_.--_Hamlet._ + + With the _most boldest_ and best hearts of Rome.--_J. Cæsar._ + +Also from the same period,-- + + Imitating the manner of the _most ancientest_ and _finest_ + Grecians.--BEN JONSON. + + After the _most straitest_ sect of our religion.--_Bible_, 1611. + +Such expressions are now heard only in vulgar English. The following +examples are used purposely, to represent the characters as ignorant +persons:-- + + The artful saddler persuaded the young traveler to look at "the + _most convenientest_ and _handsomest_ saddle that ever was + seen."--BULWER. + + "There's nothing comes out but the _most lowest_ stuff in nature; + not a bit of high life among them."--GOLDSMITH. + + +_THREE FIRST_ OR _FIRST THREE_? + +432. As to these two expressions, over which a little war has so +long been buzzing, we think it not necessary to say more than that +both are in good use; not only so in popular speech, but in literary +English. Instances of both are given below. + +The meaning intended is the same, and the reader gets the same idea +from both: hence there is properly a perfect liberty in the use of +either or both. + +[Sidenote: First three, _etc._] + + For Carlyle, and Secretary Walsingham also, have been helping + them heart and soul for the _last two_ years.--KINGSLEY. + + The delay in the _first three_ lines, and conceit in the last, + jar upon us constantly.--RUSKIN. + + The _last dozen_ miles before you reach the suburbs.--DE QUINCEY. + + Mankind for the _first seventy thousand_ ages ate their meat + raw.--LAMB. + + The _first twenty_ numbers were expressed by a corresponding + number of dots. The _first five_ had specific names.--PRESCOTT. + +[Sidenote: Three first, _etc._] + + These are the _three first_ needs of civilized life.--RUSKIN. + + He has already finished the _three first_ sticks of it.--ADDISON. + + In my _two last_ you had so much of Lismahago that I suppose you + are glad he is gone.--SMOLLETT. + + I have not numbered the lines except of the _four first_ books. + --COWPER. + + The _seven first_ centuries were filled with a succession of + triumphs.--GIBBON. + + + + +ARTICLES. + +[Sidenote: _Definite article_.] + +433. The definite article is repeated before each of two modifiers +of the same noun, when the purpose is to call attention to the noun +expressed and the one understood. In such a case two or more separate +objects are usually indicated by the separation of the modifiers. +Examples of this construction are,-- + +[Sidenote: _With a singular noun_.] + + The merit of _the Barb_, _the Spanish_, and _the English_ breed + is derived from a mixture of Arabian blood.--GIBBON. + + _The righteous_ man is distinguished from _the unrighteous_ by + his desire and hope of justice.--RUSKIN. + + He seemed deficient in sympathy for concrete human things either + on _the sunny_ or _the stormy_ side.--CARLYLE. + + It is difficult to imagine a greater contrast than that between + _the first_ and _the second_ part of the volume.--_The Nation_, + No. 1508. + +[Sidenote: _With a plural noun_.] + + There was also a fundamental difference of opinion as to whether + the earliest cleavage was between _the Northern_ and _the + Southern_ languages.--TAYLOR, _Origin of the Aryans_. + +434. The same repetition of the article is sometimes found before +nouns alone, to distinguish clearly, or to emphasize the meaning; +as,-- + + In every line of _the Philip_ and _the Saul_, the greatest poems, + I think, of the eighteenth century.--MACAULAY. + + He is master of the two-fold Logos, _the thought_ and _the word_, + distinct, but inseparable from each other.--NEWMAN. + + _The flowers_, and _the presents_, and _the trunks and bonnet + boxes_ ... having been arranged, the hour of parting + came.--THACKERAY. + +[Sidenote: The _not repeated. One object and several modifiers, with a +singular noun_.] + +435. Frequently, however, the article is not repeated before each of +two or more adjectives, as in Sec. 433, but is used with one only; +as,-- + + Or fanciest thou _the red and yellow_ Clothes-screen yonder is + but of To-day, without a Yesterday or a To-morrow?--CARLYLE. + + _The lofty_, _melodious_, _and flexible_ language.--SCOTT. + + _The fairest and most loving_ wife in Greece.--TENNYSON. + +[Sidenote: _Meaning same as in Sec. 433, with a plural noun_.] + + Neither can there be a much greater resemblance between _the + ancient and modern_ general views of the + town.--HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS. + + At Talavera _the English and French_ troops for a moment + suspended their conflict.--MACAULAY. + + The Crusades brought to the rising commonwealths of _the Adriatic + and Tyrrhene_ seas a large increase of wealth.--_Id._ + + Here the youth of both sexes, of _the higher and middling_ + orders, were placed at a very tender age.--PRESCOTT. + +[Sidenote: _Indefinite article_.] + +436. The indefinite article is used, like the definite article, to +limit two or more modified nouns, only one of which is expressed. The +article is repeated for the purpose of separating or emphasizing the +modified nouns. Examples of this use are,-- + + We shall live _a better_ and _a higher_ and _a nobler_ + life.--BEECHER. + + The difference between the products of _a well-disciplined_ and + those of _an uncultivated_ understanding is often and admirably + exhibited by our great dramatist.--S.T. COLERIDGE. + + Let us suppose that the pillars succeed each other, _a round_ and + _a square_ one alternately.--BURKE. + + As if the difference between _an accurate_ and _an inaccurate_ + statement was not worth the trouble of looking into the most + common book of reference.--MACAULAY. + + To every room there was _an open_ and _a secret_ + passage.--JOHNSON. + +Notice that in the above sentences (except the first) the noun +expressed is in contrast with the modified noun omitted. + + +[Sidenote: _One article with several adjectives._] + +437. Usually the article is not repeated when the several adjectives +unite in describing one and the same noun. In the sentences of Secs. +433 and 436, one noun is expressed; yet the same word understood with +the other adjectives has a different meaning (except in the first +sentence of Sec. 436). But in the following sentences, as in the first +three of Sec. 435, the adjectives assist each other in describing the +same noun. It is easy to see the difference between the expressions +"_a red-and-white_ geranium," and "_a red and a white_ geranium." + +Examples of several adjectives describing the same object:-- + + To inspire us with _a free and quiet_ mind.--B. JONSON. + + Here and there _a desolate and uninhabited_ house.--DICKENS. + + James was declared _a mortal and bloody_ enemy.--MACAULAY. + + So wert thou born into a tuneful strain, + _An early, rich, and inexhausted_ vein. + --DRYDEN. + +[Sidenote: _For rhetorical effect._] + +438. The indefinite article (compare Sec. 434) is used to lend +special emphasis, interest, or clearness to each of several nouns; +as,-- + + James was declared _a_ mortal and bloody _enemy, a tyrant, a + murderer_, and _a usurper_.--MACAULAY. + + Thou hast spoken as _a patriot_ and _a Christian_.--BULWER. + + He saw him in his mind's eye, _a collegian, a parliament man--a + Baronet_ perhaps.--THACKERAY. + + + +VERBS. + + +CONCORD OF VERB AND SUBJECT IN NUMBER. + + +[Sidenote: _A broad and loose rule._] + +439. In English, the number of the verb follows the meaning rather +than the form of its subject. + +It will not do to state as a general rule that the verb agrees with +its subject in person and number. This was spoken of in Part I., Sec. +276, and the following illustrations prove it. + +The statements and illustrations of course refer to such verbs as have +separate forms for singular and plural number. + + +[Sidenote: _Singular verb._] + +440. The singular form of the verb is used-- + +[Sidenote: _Subject of singular form._] + +(1) When the subject has a singular form and a singular meaning. + + Such, then, _was_ the earliest American _land_.--AGASSIZ. + + _He was_ certainly a happy fellow at this time.--G. ELIOT. + + _He sees_ that it is better to live in peace.--COOPER. + +[Sidenote: _Collective noun of singular meaning._] + +(2) When the subject is a _collective noun_ which represents a number +of persons or things _taken as one unit_; as,-- + + The larger _breed_ [of camels] _is_ capable of transporting a + weight of a thousand pounds.--GIBBON. + + Another _school professes_ entirely opposite principles.--_The + Nation._ + + In this work there _was_ grouped around him _a score_ of men.--W. + PHILLIPS + + A _number_ of jeweled paternosters _was_ attached to her + girdle.--FROUDE. + + _Something like a horse load_ of books _has_ been written to + prove that it was the beauty who blew up the booby.--CARLYLE + +This usage, like some others in this series, depends mostly on the +writer's own judgment. Another writer might, for example, prefer a +plural verb after _number_ in Froude's sentence above. + +[Sidenote: _Singulars connected by_ or _or_ nor.] + +(3) When the subject consists of two or more singular nouns connected +by _or_ or _nor_; as,-- + + It is by no means sure that either our _literature_, or the great + intellectual _life_ of our nation, _has_ got already, without + academies, all that academies can give.--M. ARNOLD. + + _Jesus is_ not dead, nor _John_, nor _Paul_, nor _Mahomet_. + --EMERSON. + +[Sidenote: _Plural form and singular meaning._] + +(4) When the subject is _plural in form_, but represents a number of +things to be taken together as _forming one unit_; for example,-- + + Thirty-four years _affects_ one's remembrance of some + circumstances.--DE QUINCEY. + + Between ourselves, three pounds five shillings and two pence _is_ + no bad day's work.--GOLDSMITH. + + Every twenty paces _gives_ you the prospect of some villa; and + every four hours, that of a large town.--MONTAGUE + + Two thirds of this _is_ mine by right.--SHERIDAN + + The singular form is also used with book titles, other names, and + other singulars of plural form; as,-- + + Politics _is_ the only field now open for me.--WHITTIER. + + "Sesame and Lilies" _is_ Ruskin's creed for young + girls.--_Critic_, No. 674 + + The Three Pigeons _expects_ me down every moment.--GOLDSMITH. + +[Sidenote: _Several singular subjects to one singular verb._] + +(5) With _several singular subjects not_ disjoined by _or_ or _nor_, +in the following cases:-- + +(_a_) Joined by _and_, but considered as meaning about the same thing, +or as making up one general idea; as,-- + + In a word, all his conversation and knowledge _has been_ in the + female world--ADDISON. + + The strength and glare of each [color] _is_ considerably + abated.--BURKE + + To imagine that debating and logic _is_ the triumph.--CARLYLE + + In a world where even to fold and seal a letter adroitly _is_ not + the least of accomplishments.--DE QUINCEY + + The genius and merit of a rising poet _was_ celebrated.--GIBBON. + + When the cause of ages and the fate of nations _hangs_ upon the + thread of a debate.--J.Q. ADAMS. + +(_b_) Not joined by a conjunction, but each one emphatic, or +considered as appositional; for example,-- + + The unbought grace of life, the cheap defense of nations, the + nurse of manly sentiment and heroic enterprise, _is_ + gone.--BURKE. + + A fever, a mutilation, a cruel disappointment, a loss of wealth, + a loss of friends, _seems_ at the moment unpaid loss.--EMERSON + + The author, the wit, the partisan, the fine gentleman, _does_ not + take the place of the man.--_Id._ + + To receive presents or a bribe, to be guilty of collusion in any + way with a suitor, _was_ punished, in a judge, with + death.--PRESCOTT. + +[Sidenote: _Subjects after the verb._] + +This use of several subjects with a singular verb is especially +frequent when the subjects are after the verb; as,-- + + There _is_ a right and a wrong in them.--M ARNOLD. + + There _is_ a moving tone of voice, an impassioned countenance, an + agitated gesture.--BURKE + + There _was_ a steel headpiece, a cuirass, a gorget, and greaves, + with a pair of gauntlets and a sword hanging beneath.--HAWTHORNE. + + Then _comes_ the "Why, sir!" and the "What then, sir?" and the + "No, sir!"--MACAULAY. + + For wide _is_ heard the thundering fray, + The rout, the ruin, the dismay. + --SCOTT. + +(_c_) Joined by _as well as_ (in this case the verb agrees with the +first of the two, no matter if the second is plural); thus,-- + + Asia, as well as Europe, _was_ dazzled.--MACAULAY. + + The oldest, as well as the newest, wine + _Begins_ to stir itself. + --LONGFELLOW. + + Her back, as well as sides, _was_ like to crack.--BUTLER. + + The Epic, as well as the Drama, _is_ divided into tragedy and + Comedy.--FIELDING + +(_d_) When each of two or more singular subjects is preceded by +_every_, _each_, _no_, _many a_, and such like adjectives. + + Every fop, every boor, every valet, _is_ a man of wit.--MACAULAY. + + Every sound, every echo, _was_ listened to for five hours.--DE + QUINCEY + + Every dome and hollow _has_ the figure of Christ.--RUSKIN. + + Each particular hue and tint _stands_ by itself.--NEWMAN. + + Every law and usage _was_ a man's expedient.--EMERSON. + + Here _is_ no ruin, no discontinuity, no spent ball.--_Id._ + + Every week, nay, almost every day, _was_ set down in their + calendar for some appropriate celebration.--PRESCOTT. + + +[Sidenote: _Plural verb._] + +441. The plural form of the verb is used-- + +(1) When the subject is plural _in form and in meaning_; as,-- + + These _bits_ of wood _were_ covered on every square.--SWIFT. + + Far, far away thy children _leave_ the land.--GOLDSMITH. + + The Arabian poets _were_ the historians and moralists.--GIBBON. + +(2) When the subject is a _collective noun_ in which _the individuals_ +of the collection are thought of; as,-- + + A multitude _go_ mad about it.--EMERSON. + + A great number of people _were_ collected at a vendue.--FRANKLIN. + + All our household _are_ at rest.--COLERIDGE. + + A party of workmen _were_ removing the horses.--LEW WALLACE + + The fraternity _were_ inclined to claim for him the honors of + canonization.--SCOTT. + + The travelers, of whom there _were_ a number.--B. TAYLOR. + + (3) When the subject consists of _several singulars connected by + and_, making up a plural subject, for example,-- + + Only Vice and Misery _are_ abroad.--CARLYLE + + But its authorship, its date, and its history _are_ alike a + mystery to us.--FROUDE. + + His clothes, shirt, and skin _were_ all of the same color--SWIFT. + + Aristotle and Longinus _are_ better understood by him than + Littleton or Coke.--ADDISON. + +[Sidenote: _Conjunction omitted._] + +The conjunction may be omitted, as in Sec. 440 (5, _b_), but the verb +is plural, as with a subject of plural form. + + A shady grove, a green pasture, a stream of fresh water, _are_ + sufficient to attract a colony.--GIBBON. + + The Dauphin, the Duke of Berri, Philip of Anjou, _were_ men of + insignificant characters.--MACAULAY + + (4) When a singular is joined with a plural by a disjunctive + word, the verb agrees with the one nearest it; as,-- + + One or two of these perhaps _survive_.--THOREAU. + + One or two persons in the crowd _were_ insolent.--FROUDE. + + One or two of the ladies _were_ going to leave.--ADDISON + + One or two of these old Cromwellian soldiers _were_ still alive + in the village.--THACKERAY + + One or two of whom _were_ more entertaining.--DE QUINCEY. + + But notice the construction of this,-- + + A ray or two _wanders_ into the darkness.--RUSKIN. + + +AGREEMENT OF VERB AND SUBJECT IN PERSON. + + +[Sidenote: _General usage_.] + +442. If there is only one person in the subject, the ending of the +verb indicates the person of its subject; that is, in those few cases +where there are forms for different persons: as,-- + + Never once _didst_ thou revel in the vision.--DE QUINCEY. + + Romanism wisely _provides_ for the childish in men.--LOWELL. + + It _hath_ been said my Lord would never take the + oath.--THACKERAY. + +[Sidenote: _Second or third and first person in the subject_.] + + +443. If the subject is made up of the first person joined with the +second or third by _and_, the verb takes the construction of the first +person, the subject being really equivalent to _we_; as,-- + + I flatter myself you and I _shall_ meet again.--SMOLLETT. + + You and I _are_ farmers; we never talk politics.--D WEBSTER. + + Ah, brother! only I and thou + _Are_ left of all that circle now. + --WHITTIER. + + You and I _are_ tolerably modest people.--THACKERAY. + + Cocke and I _have_ felt it in our bones--_Gammer Gurton's Needle_ + + +[Sidenote: _With adversative or disjunctive connectives_.] + +444. When the subjects, of different persons, are connected by +adversative or disjunctive conjunctions, the verb usually agrees with +the pronoun nearest to it; for example,-- + + Neither you nor I _should_ be a bit the better or wiser.--RUSKIN. + + If she or you _are_ resolved to be miserable.--GOLDSMITH. + + Nothing which Mr. Pattison or I _have_ said.--M. ARNOLD. + + Not Altamont, but thou, _hadst_ been my lord.--ROWE. + + Not I, but thou, his blood _dost_ shed.--BYRON. + +This construction is at the best a little awkward. It is avoided +either by using a verb which has no forms for person (as, "He or I +_can_ go," "She or you _may_ be sure," etc.), or by rearranging the +sentence so as to throw each subject before its proper person form +(as, "You _would_ not be wiser, nor _should_ I;" or, "I _have_ never +said so, nor _has_ she"). + +[Sidenote: _Exceptional examples_.] + +445. The following illustrate exceptional usage, which it is proper +to mention; but the student is cautioned to follow the regular usage +rather than the unusual and irregular. + + +Exercise. + +Change each of the following sentences to accord with standard usage, +as illustrated above (Secs. 440-444):-- + + + 1. And sharp Adversity will teach at last + Man,--and, as we would hope,--perhaps the devil, + That neither of their intellects are vast. + --BYRON. + + 2. Neither of them, in my opinion, give so accurate an idea of + the man as a statuette in bronze.--TROLLOPE. + + 3. How each of these professions are crowded.--ADDISON. + + 4. Neither of their counselors were to be present.--_Id._ + + 5. Either of them are equally good to the person to whom they are + significant.--EMERSON. + + 6. Neither the red nor the white are strong and glaring.--BURKE. + + 7. A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or + murder.--ADDISON. + + 8. Neither of the sisters were very much deceived.--THACKERAY. + + 9. Nor wood, nor tree, nor bush are there, + Her course to intercept.--SCOTT. + + 10. Both death and I am found eternal.--MILTON. + + 11. In ascending the Mississippi the party was often obliged to + wade through morasses; at last they came upon the district of + Little Prairie.--G. BANCROFT. + + 12. In a word, the whole nation seems to be running out of their + wits.--SMOLLETT. + + +SEQUENCE OF TENSES (VERBS AND VERBALS). + + +[Sidenote: _Lack of logical sequence in verbs_.] + +446. If one or more verbs depend on some leading verb, each should +be in the tense that will convey the meaning intended by the writer. + +In this sentence from Defoe, "I expected every wave would have +swallowed us up," the verb _expected_ looks forward to something in +the future, while _would have swallowed_ represents something +completed in past time: hence the meaning intended was, "I expected +every wave _would swallow_" etc. + +[Sidenote: _Also in verbals_.] + +In the following sentence, the infinitive also fails to express the +exact thought:-- + + I had hoped never to have seen the statues again.--MACAULAY. + +The trouble is the same as in the previous sentence; _to have seen_ +should be changed to _to see_, for exact connection. Of course, if the +purpose were to represent a prior fact or completed action, the +perfect infinitive would be the very thing. + +It should be remarked, however, that such sentences as those just +quoted are in keeping with the older idea of the unity of the +sentence. The present rule is recent. + + +Exercise. + +Explain whether the verbs and infinitives in the following sentences +convey the right meaning; if not, change them to a better form:-- + + 1. I gave one quarter to Ann, meaning, on my return, to have + divided with her whatever might remain.--DE QUINCEY + + 2. I can't sketch "The Five Drapers," ... but can look and be + thankful to have seen such a masterpiece.--THACKERAY. + + 3. He would have done more wisely to have left them to find their + own apology than to have given reasons which seemed + paradoxes.--R.W. CHURCH. + + 4. The propositions of William are stated to have contained a + proposition for a compromise.--PALGRAVE + + 5. But I found I wanted a stock of words, which I thought I + should have acquired before that time.--FRANKLIN + + 6. I could even have suffered them to have broken Everet + Ducking's head.--IRVING. + + + + +INDIRECT DISCOURSE. + + +[Sidenote: _Definitions_.] + +_447_. Direct discourse--that is, a direct quotation or a direct +question--means the identical words the writer or speaker used; as,-- + + "I hope you have not killed him?" said Amyas.--KINGSLEY. + +Indirect discourse means reported speech,--the thoughts of a writer +or speaker put in the words of the one reporting them. + + +[Sidenote: _Two samples of indirect discourse_.] + +448. Indirect discourse may be of two kinds:-- + +(1) Following the thoughts and also the exact words as far as +consistent with the rules of logical sequence of verbs. + +(2) Merely a concise representation of the original words, not +attempting to follow the entire quotation. + +The following examples of both are from De Quincey:-- + +[Sidenote: _Indirect_.] + +1. Reyes remarked that it was not in his power to oblige the clerk as +to that, but that he could oblige him by cutting his throat. + +[Sidenote: _Direct_.] + +His exact words were, "I _cannot_ oblige _you_ ..., but I _can_ oblige +_you_ by cutting _your_ throat." + +[Sidenote: _Indirect_.] + +Her prudence whispered eternally, that safety there was none for her +until she had laid the Atlantic between herself and St. Sebastian's. + +[Sidenote: _Direct_.] + +She thought to herself, "Safety there _is_ none for _me_ until _I_ +have laid," etc. + +[Sidenote: _Summary of the expressions_.] + +2. Then he laid bare the unparalleled ingratitude of such a step. Oh, +the unseen treasure that had been spent upon that girl! Oh, the untold +sums of money that he had sunk in that unhappy speculation! + +[Sidenote: _Direct synopsis_.] + +The substance of his lamentation was, "Oh, unseen treasure _has_ been +spent upon that girl! Untold sums of money _have I_ sunk," etc. + + + +449. From these illustrations will be readily seen the grammatical +changes made in transferring from direct to indirect discourse. +Remember the following facts:-- + +(1) Usually the main, introductory verb is in the past tense. + +(2) The indirect quotation is usually introduced by _that_, and the +indirect question by _whether_ or _if_, or regular interrogatives. + +(3) Verbs in the present-tense form are changed to the past-tense +form. This includes the auxiliaries _be_, _have_, _will_, etc. The +past tense is sometimes changed to the past perfect. + +(4) The pronouns of the first and second persons are all changed to +the third person. Sometimes it is clearer to introduce the antecedent +of the pronoun instead. + +Other examples of indirect discourse have been given in Part I., +under interrogative pronouns, interrogative adverbs, and the +subjunctive mood of verbs. + + +Exercise. + +Rewrite the following extract from Irving's "Sketch Book," and change +it to a direct quotation:-- + +He assured the company that it was a fact, handed down from his +ancestor the historian, that the Catskill Mountains had always been +haunted by strange beings; that it was affirmed that the great +Hendrick Hudson, the first discoverer of the river and country, kept a +kind of vigil there every twenty years, with his crew of the +Half-moon, being permitted in this way to revisit the scenes of his +enterprise, and keep a guardian eye upon the river and the great city +called by his name; that his father had once seen them in their old +Dutch dresses playing at ninepins in a hollow of the mountain; and +that he himself had heard, one summer afternoon, the sound of their +balls, like distant peals of thunder. + + + + +VERBALS. + +PARTICIPLES. + + +[Sidenote: _Careless use of the participial phrase._] + +450. The following sentences illustrate a misuse of the participial +phrase:-- + + Pleased with the "Pilgrim's Progress," my first collection was of + John Bunyan's works.--B. FRANKLIN. + + My farm consisted of about twenty acres of excellent land, having + given a hundred pounds for my predecessor's goodwill.--GOLDSMITH. + + Upon asking how he had been taught the art of a cognoscente so + suddenly, he assured me that nothing was more easy.--_Id._ + + Having thus run through the causes of the sublime, my first + observation will be found nearly true.--BURKE + + He therefore remained silent till he had repeated a paternoster, + being the course which his confessor had enjoined.--SCOTT + +Compare with these the following:-- + +[Sidenote: _A correct example._] + + Going yesterday to dine with an old acquaintance, I had the + misfortune to find his whole family very much dejected.--ADDISON. + +[Sidenote: _Notice this._] + +The trouble is, in the sentences first quoted, that the main subject +of the sentence is not the same word that would be the subject of the +participle, if this were expanded into a verb. + +[Sidenote: _Correction._] + +Consequently one of two courses must be taken,--either change the +participle to a verb with its appropriate subject, leaving the +principal statement as it is; or change the principal proposition so +it shall make logical connection with the participial phrase. + +For example, the first sentence would be, either "_As I was_ pleased, +... my first collection was," etc., or "Pleased with the 'Pilgrim's +Progress,' I made my first collection John Bunyan's works." + +Exercise.--Rewrite the other four sentences so as to correct the +careless use of the participial phrase. + + + + +INFINITIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _Adverb between_ to _and the infinitive._] + +451. There is a construction which is becoming more and more common +among good writers,--the placing an adverb between _to_ of the +infinitive and the infinitive itself. The practice is condemned by +many grammarians, while defended or excused by others. Standard +writers often use it, and often, purposely or not, avoid it. + +The following two examples show the adverb before the infinitive:-- + +[Sidenote: _The more common usage._] + + He handled it with such nicety of address as sufficiently _to + show_ that he fully understood the business.--SCOTT. + + It is a solemn, universal assertion, deeply _to be kept_ in mind + by all sects.--RUSKIN. + +This is the more common arrangement; yet frequently the desire seems +to be to get the adverb snugly against the infinitive, to modify it as +closely and clearly as possible. + + +Exercise. + +In the following citations, see if the adverbs can be placed before or +after the infinitive and still modify it as clearly as they now do:-- + + 1. There are, then, many things _to be_ carefully _considered_, + if a strike is to succeed.--LAUGHLIN. + + 2. That the mind may not have to go backwards and forwards in + order _to_ rightly _connect_ them.--HERBERT SPENCER. + + 3. It may be easier to bear along all the qualifications of an + idea ... than _to_ first imperfectly _conceive_ such idea.--_id._ + + 4. In works of art, this kind of grandeur, which consists in + multitude, is _to be_ very cautiously _admitted_.--BURKE. + + 5. That virtue which requires _to be_ ever _guarded_ is + scarcely worth the sentinel.--GOLDSMITH. + + 6. Burke said that such "little arts and devices" were not _to + be_ wholly _condemned_.--_The Nation_, No. 1533. + + 7. I wish the reader _to_ clearly _understand_.--RUSKIN. + + 8. Transactions which seem _to be_ most widely _separated_ from + one another.--DR. BLAIR. + + 9. Would earnestly advise them for their good to order this + paper _to be_ punctually _served up_.--ADDISON. + + 10. A little sketch of his, in which a cannon ball is supposed + _to have_ just _carried off_ the head of an + aide-de-camp.--TROLLOPE. + + 11. The ladies seem _to have been_ expressly _created_ to form + helps meet for such gentlemen.--MACAULAY. + + 12. Sufficient to disgust a people whose manners were beginning + _to be_ strongly _tinctured_ with austerity.--_Id._ + + 13. The spirits, therefore, of those opposed to them seemed _to + be_ considerably _damped_ by their continued success.--SCOTT. + + + + +ADVERBS. + + +[Sidenote: _Position of_ only, even, _etc._] + +A very careful writer will so place the modifiers of a verb that the +reader will not mistake the meaning. + +The rigid rule in such a case would be, to put the modifier in such a +position that the reader not only can understand the meaning intended, +but _cannot misunderstand_ the thought. Now, when such adverbs as +_only_, _even_, etc., are used, they are usually placed in a strictly +correct position, if they modify single words; but they are often +removed from the exact position, if they modify phrases or clauses: +for example, from Irving, "The site is _only_ to be traced by +fragments of bricks, china, and earthenware." Here _only_ modifies the +phrase _by fragments of bricks_, etc., but it is placed before the +infinitive. This misplacement of the adverb can be detected only by +analysis of the sentence. + + +Exercise. + +Tell what the adverb modifies in each quotation, and see if it is +placed in the proper position:-- + + 1. Only the name of one obscure epigrammatist has been embalmed + for us in the verses of his rival.--PALGRAVE. + + 2. Do you remember pea shooters? I think we only had them on + going home for holidays.--THACKERAY. + + 3. Irving could only live very modestly. He could only afford + to keep one old horse.--_Id._ + + 4. The arrangement of this machinery could only be accounted + for by supposing the motive power to have been steam.--WENDELL + PHILLIPS. + + 5. Such disputes can only be settled by arms.--_Id._ + + 6. I have only noted one or two topics which I thought most + likely to interest an American reader.--N.P. WILLIS. + + 7. The silence of the first night at the farmhouse,--stillness + broken only by two whippoorwills.--HIGGINSON. + + 8. My master, to avoid a crowd, would suffer only thirty people + at a time to see me.--SWIFT. + + 9. In relating these and the following laws, I would only be + understood to mean the original institutions.--_Id._ + + 10. The perfect loveliness of a woman's countenance can only + consist in that majestic peace which is founded in the memory of + happy and useful years.--RUSKIN. + + 11. In one of those celestial days it seems a poverty that we can + only spend it once.--EMERSON. + + 12. My lord was only anxious as long as his wife's anxious face + or behavior seemed to upbraid him.--THACKERAY. + + 13. He shouted in those clear, piercing tones that could be even + heard among the roaring of the cannon.--COOPER. + + 14. His suspicions were not even excited by the ominous face of + Gérard.--MOTLEY. + + 15. During the whole course of his administration, he scarcely + befriended a single man of genius.--MACAULAY. + + 16. I never remember to have felt an event more deeply than his + death.--SYDNEY SMITH. + + 17. His last journey to Cannes, whence he was never destined to + return.--MRS. GROTE. + + + +USE OF DOUBLE NEGATIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _The old usage._] + +453. In Old and Middle English, two negatives strengthened a +negative idea; for example,-- + + He _nevere_ yet _no_ vileineye _ne_ sayde, + In al his lyf unto _no_ maner wight.--CHAUCER. + + _No_ sonne, were he never so old of yeares, might _not_ marry. + --ASCHAM. + +The first of these is equivalent to "He didn't never say no villainy +in all his life to no manner of man,"--four negatives. + +This idiom was common in the older stages of the language, and is +still kept in vulgar English; as,-- + + I tell you she _ain'_ been _nowhar_ ef she don' know we all. + --PAGE, in _Ole Virginia_. + + There _weren't no_ pies to equal hers.--MRS. STOWE. + + +[Sidenote: _Exceptional use._] + +There are sometimes found two negatives in modern English with a +negative effect, when one of the negatives is a connective. This, +however, is not common. + + I never did see him again, _nor never_ shall.--DE QUINCEY. + + However, I did _not_ act so hastily, _neither_.--DEFOE. + + The prosperity of no empire, _nor_ the grandeur of _no_ king, can + so agreeably affect, etc.--BURKE. + + +[Sidenote: _Regular law of negative in modern English._] + +But, under the influence of Latin syntax, the usual way of regarding +the question now is, that _two negatives are equivalent to an +affirmative_, denying each other. + +Therefore, if two negatives are found together, it is a sign of +ignorance or carelessness, or else a purpose to make an affirmative +effect. In the latter case, one of the negatives is often a prefix; as +_in_frequent, _un_common. + + +Exercise. + +Tell whether the two or more negatives are properly used in each of +the following sentences, and why:-- + + 1. The red men were not so infrequent visitors of the English + settlements.--HAWTHORNE. + + 2. "Huldy was so up to everything about the house, that the + doctor didn't miss nothin' in a temporal way."--MRS. STOWE. + + 3. Her younger sister was a wide-awake girl, who hadn't been to + school for nothing.--HOLMES. + + 4. You will find no battle which does not exhibit the most + cautious circumspection.--BAYNE. + + 5. Not only could man not acquire such information, but ought not + to labor after it.--GROTE. + + 6. There is no thoughtful man in America who would not consider a + war with England the greatest of calamities.--LOWELL. + + 7. In the execution of this task, there is no man who would not + find it an arduous effort.--HAMILTON. + + 8. "A weapon," said the King, "well worthy to confer honor, nor + has it been laid on an undeserving shoulder."--SCOTT. + + + + +CONJUNCTIONS. + + +[Sidenote: And who, and which.] + +454. The sentences given in Secs. 419 and 420 on the connecting of +pronouns with different expressions may again be referred to here, as +the use of the conjunction, as well as of the pronoun, should be +scrutinized. + +[Sidenote: _Choice and proper position of correlatives._] + +455. The most frequent mistakes in using conjunctions are in +handling correlatives, especially _both_ ... _and, neither_ ... _nor, +either_ ... _or, not_ _only_ ... _but, not merely_ ... _but_ (_also_). + +The following examples illustrate the correct use of correlatives as +to both choice of words and position:-- + + _Whether_ at war _or_ at peace, there we were, a standing menace + to all earthly paradises of that kind.--LOWELL. + + These idols of wood can _neither_ hear _nor_ feel.--PRESCOTT. + + _Both_ the common soldiery _and_ their leaders and commanders + lowered on each other as if their union had not been more + essential than ever, _not only_ to the success of their common + cause, _but_ to their own safety.--SCOTT. + + +[Sidenote: _Things to be watched._] + +In these examples it will be noticed that _nor_, not _or_ is the +proper correlative of _neither_; and that all correlatives in a +sentence ought to have corresponding positions: that is, if the last +precedes a verb, the first ought to be placed before a verb; if the +second precedes a phrase, the first should also. This is necessary to +make the sentence clear and symmetrical. + +[Sidenote: _Correction._] + +In the sentence, "I am _neither_ in spirits to enjoy it, _or_ to reply +to it," both of the above requirements are violated. The word +_neither_ in such a case had better be changed to _not_ ... +_either_,--"I am not in spirits _either_ to enjoy it, _or_ to reply to +it." + +Besides _neither ... or_, even _neither ... nor_ is often changed to +_not_--_either ... or_ with advantage, as the negation is sometimes +too far from the verb to which it belongs. + +A noun may be preceded by one of the correlatives, and an equivalent +pronoun by the other. The sentence, "This loose and inaccurate manner +of speaking has misled us _both_ in the theory of taste _and_ of +morals," may be changed to "This loose ... misled us _both_ in the +theory of taste _and_ in _that_ of morals." + + +Exercise. + +Correct the following sentences:-- + + 1. An ordinary man would neither have incurred the danger of + succoring Essex, nor the disgrace of assailing him.--MACAULAY. + + 2. Those ogres will stab about and kill not only strangers, but + they will outrage, murder, and chop up their own kin.--THACKERAY. + + 3. In the course of his reading (which was neither pursued with + that seriousness or that devout mind which such a study requires) + the youth found himself, etc.--_Id._ + + 4. I could neither bear walking nor riding in a carriage over its + pebbled streets.--FRANKLIN. + + 5. Some exceptions, that can neither be dissembled nor eluded, + render this mode of reasoning as indiscreet as it is + superfluous.--GIBBON. + + 6. They will, too, not merely interest children, but grown-up + persons.--_Westminster Review._ + + 7. I had even the satisfaction to see her lavish some kind looks + upon my unfortunate son, which the other could neither extort by + his fortune nor assiduity.--GOLDSMITH. + + 8. This was done probably to show that he was neither ashamed of + his name or family.--ADDISON. + + +[Sidenote: Try and _for_ try to.] + +456. Occasionally there is found the expression _try and_ instead of +the better authorized _try to_; as,-- + + We will try _and_ avoid personalities altogether.--THACKERAY. + + Did any of you ever try _and_ read "Blackmore's Poems"?--_Id._ + + Try _and_ avoid the pronoun.--BAIN. + + We will try _and_ get a clearer notion of them.--RUSKIN. + + +[Sidenote: But what.] + +457. Instead of the subordinate conjunction _that_, _but_, or _but +that_, or the negative relative _but_, we sometimes find the bulky and +needless _but what_. Now, it is possible to use _but what_ when _what_ +is a relative pronoun, as, "He never had any money _but what_ he +absolutely needed;" but in the following sentences _what_ usurps the +place of a conjunction. + + +Exercise. + +In the following sentences, substitute _that_, _but_, or _but that_ +for the words _but what_:-- + + 1. The doctor used to say 'twas her young heart, and I don't know + _but what_ he was right.--S.O. JEWETT. + + 2. At the first stroke of the pickax it is ten to one _but what_ + you are taken up for a trespass.--BULWER. + + 3. There are few persons of distinction _but what_ can hold + conversation in both languages.--SWIFT. + + 4. Who knows _but what_ there might be English among those + sun-browned half-naked masses of panting wretches?--KINGSLEY. + + 5. No little wound of the kind ever came to him _but what_ he + disclosed it at once.--TROLLOPE. + + 6. They are not so distant from the camp of Saladin _but what_ + they might be in a moment surprised.--SCOTT. + + + +PREPOSITIONS. + + +458. As to the placing of a preposition after its object in certain +cases, see Sec. 305. + + +[Sidenote: Between _and_ among.] + +459. In the primary meaning of between and among there is a +sharp distinction, as already seen in Sec. 313; but in Modern English +the difference is not so marked. + +Between is used most often with two things only, but still it is +frequently used in speaking of several objects, some relation or +connection between two at a time being implied. + +Among is used in the same way as _amid_ (though not with exactly the +same meaning), several objects being spoken of in the aggregate, no +separation or division by twos being implied. + +Examples of the distinctive use of the two words:-- + +[Sidenote: _Two things._] + + The contentions that arise _between_ the parson and the + squire.--ADDISON. + + We reckoned the improvements of the art of war _among_ the + triumphs of science.--EMERSON. + +Examples of the looser use of _between_:-- + +[Sidenote: _A number of things._] + + Natural objects affect us by the laws of that connection which + Providence has established _between_ certain motions of + bodies.--BURKE. + + Hence the differences _between_ men in natural endowment are + insignificant in comparison with their common wealth.--EMERSON. + + They maintain a good correspondence _between_ those wealthy + societies of men that are divided from one another by seas and + oceans.--ADDISON. + + Looking up at its deep-pointed porches and the dark places + _between_ their pillars where there were statues once.--RUSKIN + + What have I, a soldier of the Cross, to do with recollections of + war _betwixt_ Christian nations?--SCOTT. + +[Sidenote: _Two groups or one and a group._] + +Also _between_ may express relation or connection in speaking of two +groups of objects, or one object and a group; as,-- + + A council of war is going on beside the watch fire, _between_ the + three adventurers and the faithful Yeo.--KINGSLEY. + + The great distinction _between_ teachers sacred or + literary,--_between_ poets like Herbert and poets like + Pope,--_between_ philosophers like Spinoza, Kant, and Coleridge, + and philosophers like Locke, Paley, Mackintosh, and Stewart, etc. + --EMERSON. + +460. Certain words are followed by particular prepositions. + +Some of these words show by their composition what preposition should +follow. Such are _absolve_, _involve_, _different_. + +Some of them have, by custom, come to take prepositions not in keeping +with the original meaning of the words. Such are _derogatory_, +_averse_. + +Many words take one preposition to express one meaning, and another to +convey a different meaning; as, _correspond_, _confer_. + +And yet others may take several prepositions indifferently to express +the same meaning. + + +[Sidenote: _List I_.: _Words with particular prepositions_.] + +461. LIST I. + + Absolve _from_. Conversant _with_. + Abhorrent _to_. Dependent _on_ (_upon_). + Accord _with_. Different _from_. + Acquit _of_. Dissent _from_. + Affinity _between_. Derogatory _to_. + Averse _to_. Deprive _of_. + Bestow _on_ (_upon_). Independent _of_. + Conform _to_. Involve _in_. + Comply _with_. + +"Different _to_" is frequently heard in spoken English in England, +and sometimes creeps into standard books, but it is not good usage. + + +[Sidenote: _List II_.: _Words taking different prepositions for +different meanings._] + +462. LIST II. + + Agree _with_ (a person). Differ _from_ (note below). + Agree _to_ (a proposal). Differ _with_ (note below). + Change_ for_ (a thing). Disappointed _in_ (a thing + Change _with_ (a person). obtained). + Change _to_ (become). Disappointed _of_ (a thing not + Confer _with_ (talk with). obtained). + Confer _on_ (_upon_) (give to). Reconcile _to_ (note below). + Confide _in_ (trust in). Reconcile _with_ (note below). + Confide _to_ (intrust to). A taste _of_ (food). + Correspond _with_ (write to). A taste _for_ (art, etc.). + Correspond _to_ (a thing). + +"Correspond _with_" is sometimes used of things, as meaning _to be in +keeping with_. + +"Differ _from_" is used in speaking of unlikeness between things or +persons; "differ _from_" and "differ _with_" are both used in speaking +of persons disagreeing as to opinions. + +"Reconcile _to_" is used with the meaning of _resigned to_, as, "The +exile became reconciled _to_ his fate;" also of persons, in the sense +of making friends with, as, "The king is reconciled _to_ his +minister." "Reconcile _with_" is used with the meaning of _make to +agree with_, as, "The statement must be reconciled _with_ his previous +conduct." + + +[Sidenote: _List III_.: _Words taking anyone of several prepositions +for the same meaning_.] + +463. LIST III. + + Die _by_, die _for_, die _from_, die _of_, die _with_. + Expect _of_, expect _from_. + Part _from_, part _with_. + +Illustrations of "die _of_," "die _from_," etc.:-- + +[Sidenote: "_Die_ of."] + + The author died _of_ a fit of apoplexy.--BOSWELL. + + People do not die _of_ trifling little colds.--AUSTEN + + Fifteen officers died _of_ fever in a day.--MACAULAY. + + It would take me long to die _of_ hunger.--G. ELIOT. + + She died _of_ hard work, privation, and ill treatment.--BURNETT. + +[Sidenote: "_Die_ from."] + + She saw her husband at last literally die _from_ hunger.--BULWER. + + He died at last without disease, simply _from_ old age. + --_Athenæum._ + + No one _died from_ want at Longfeld.--_Chambers' Journal._ + +[Sidenote: "_Die_ with."] + + She would have been ready to die _with_ shame.--G. ELIOT. + + I am positively dying _with_ hunger.--SCOTT. + + I thought the two Miss Flamboroughs would have died _with_ + laughing.--GOLDSMITH. + + I wish that the happiest here may not die _with_ envy.--POPE. + +[Sidenote: "_Die_ for." (_in behalf of_).] + + Take thought and die _for_ Cæsar.--SHAKESPEARE. + + One of them said he would die _for_ her.--GOLDSMITH. + + It is a man of quality who dies _for_ her.--ADDISON. + +[Sidenote: "_Die_ for." (_because of_).] + + Who, as Cervantes informs us, died _for_ love of the fair + Marcella.--FIELDING. + + Some officers had died _for_ want of a morsel of + bread.--MACAULAY. + +[Sidenote: "_Die_ by." (_material cause, instrument_).] + + If I meet with any of 'em, they shall die _by_ this hand. + --THACKERAY. + + He must purge himself to the satisfaction of a vigilant tribunal + or die _by_ fire.--MACAULAY. + + He died _by_ suicide before he completed his eighteenth + year.--SHAW. + + +464. Illustrations of "expect _of_," "expect _from:_"-- + +[Sidenote: "_Expect_ of."] + + What do I expect _of_ Dublin?--_Punch._ + + That is more than I expected _of_ you.--SCOTT. + + _Of_ Doctor P. nothing better was to be expected.--POE. + + Not knowing what might be expected _of_ men in general.--G. + ELIOT. + +[Sidenote: "_Expect_ from."] + + She will expect more attention _from_ you, as my + friend.--WALPOLE. + + + + There was a certain grace and decorum hardly to be expected + _from_ a man.--MACAULAY. + + I have long expected something remarkable _from_ you.--G. ELIOT. + + +465. "Part _with_" is used with both persons and things, but "part +_from_" is less often found in speaking of things. + +Illustrations of "part _with_," "part _from_:"-- + +[Sidenote: "_Part_ with."] + + He was fond of everybody that he was used to, and hated to part + _with_ them.--AUSTEN. + + Cleveland was sorry to part _with_ him.--BULWER. + + I can part _with_ my children for their good.--DICKENS. + + I part _with_ all that grew so near my heart.--WALLER. + +[Sidenote: "_Part_ from."] + + To part _from_ you would be misery.--MARRYAT. + + I have just seen her, just parted _from_ her.--BULWER. + + Burke parted _from_ him with deep emotion.--MACAULAY. + + His precious bag, which he would by no means part _from_.--G. + ELIOT. + + +[Sidenote: _Kind_ in _you_, _kind_ of _you_.] + +466. With words implying behavior or disposition, either _of_ or +_in_ is used indifferently, as shown in the following quotations:-- + +[Sidenote: Of.] + + It was a little bad _of_ you.--TROLLOPE. + + How cruel _of_ me!--COLLINS. + + He did not think it handsome _of_ you.--BULWER. + + But this is idle _of_ you.--TENNYSON. + +[Sidenote: In.] + + Very natural _in_ Mr. Hampden.--CARLYLE. + + It will be anything but shrewd _in_ you.--DICKENS. + + That is very unreasonable _in_ a person so young.--BEACONSFIELD. + + I am wasting your whole morning--too bad _in_ me.--BULWER. + + +Miscellaneous Examples for Correction. + +1. Can you imagine Indians or a semi-civilized people engaged on a +work like the canal connecting the Mediterranean and the Red seas? + +2. In the friction between an employer and workman, it is commonly +said that his profits are high. + +3. None of them are in any wise willing to give his life for the life +of his chief. + +4. That which can be done with perfect convenience and without loss, +is not always the thing that most needs to be done, or which we are +most imperatively required to do. + +5. Art is neither to be achieved by effort of thinking, nor explained +by accuracy of speaking. + +6. To such as thee the fathers owe their fame. + +7. We tread upon the ancient granite that first divided the waters +into a northern and southern ocean. + +8. Thou tread'st, with seraphims, the vast abyss. + +9. Eustace had slipped off his long cloak, thrown it over Amyas's +head, and ran up the alley. + +10. This narrative, tedious perhaps, but which the story renders +necessary, may serve to explain the state of intelligence betwixt the +lovers. + +11. To the shame and eternal infamy of whomsoever shall turn back from +the plow on which he hath laid his hand! + +12. The noise of vast cataracts, raging storms, thunder, or artillery, +awake a great and awful sensation in the mind. + +13. The materials and ornaments ought neither to be white, nor green, +nor yellow, nor blue, nor of a pale red. + +14. This does not prove that an idea of use and beauty are the same +thing, or that they are any way dependent on each other. + + +15. And were I anything but what I am, + I would wish me only he. + +16. But every man may know, and most of us do know, what is a just and +unjust act. + +17. You have seen Cassio and she together. + +18. We shall shortly see which is the fittest object of scorn, you or +me. + +19. Richard glared round him with an eye that seemed to seek an enemy, +and from which the angry nobles shrunk appalled. + +20. It comes to whomsoever will put off what is foreign and proud. + +21. The difference between the just and unjust procedure does not lie +in the number of men hired, but in the price paid to them. + +22. The effect of proportion and fitness, so far at least as they +proceed from a mere consideration of the work itself, produce +approbation, the acquiescence of the understanding. + +23. When the glass or liquor are transparent, the light is sometimes +softened in the passage. + +24. For there nor yew nor cypress spread their gloom. + +25. Every one of these letters are in my name. + +26. Neither of them are remarkable for precision. + +27. Squares, triangles, and other angular figures, are neither +beautiful to the sight nor feeling. + +28. There is not one in a thousand of these human souls that cares to +think where this estate is, or how beautiful it is, or what kind of +life they are to lead in it. + +29. Dryden and Rowe's manner are quite out of fashion. + +30. We were only permitted to stop for refreshment once. + +31. The sight of the manner in which the meals were served were enough +to turn our stomach. + +32. The moody and savage state of mind of the sullen and ambitious man +are admirably drawn. + +33. Surely none of our readers are so unfortunate as not to know some +man or woman who carry this atmosphere of peace and good-will about +with them. (Sec. 411.) + +34. Friday, whom he thinks would be better than a dog, and almost as +good as a pony. + +35. That night every man of the boat's crew, save Amyas, were down +with raging fever. + +36. These kind of books fill up the long tapestry of history with +little bits of detail which give human interest to it. + +37. I never remember the heather so rich and abundant. + +38. These are scattered along the coast for several hundred miles, in +conditions of life that seem forbidding enough, but which are accepted +without complaint by the inhabitants themselves. + +39. Between each was an interval where lay a musket. + +40. He had four children, and it was confidently expected that they +would receive a fortune of at least $200,000 between them. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 1: More for convenience than for absolute accuracy, the +stages of our language have been roughly divided into three:-- + +(1) Old English (with Anglo-Saxon) down to the twelfth century. + +(2) Middle English, from about the twelfth century to the sixteenth +century. + +(3) Modern English, from about 1500 to the present time.] + + + + +INDEX. + +THE NUMBERS REFER TO PAGES. + + + A, origin of, 119. + syntax of, 310. + uses of, 124. + + Absolute, nominative, 47. + + Abstract nouns, 20. + with article, 25, 124. + + Active voice, 133. + + Address, nominative of, 47. + + Adjective clauses, 260. + + Adjective pronouns, demonstrative, 90. + distinguished from adjectives, 89. + distributive, 91. + numeral, 92. + + Adjectives, adverbs used as, 116. + as complements, 239. + comparison of, 107. + definition of, 98. + demonstrative, 102. + from nouns, used as nouns, 27. + function of, 97. + how to parse, 115, 116. + in predicate, 239. + not compared, 109. + of quality, 99. + of quantity, 101. + ordinal, 103. + plural of, 106. + pronominal, 104. + syntax of, 303. + + Adverbial clauses, 262. + + Adverbial objective, 48, 242. + + Adverbs, between _to_ and infinitive, 323. + classes of, 185, 187. + definition of, 184. + distinguished from adjectives, 190. + how to parse, 191. + position of, in sentence, 325. + same form as adjectives, 190. + syntax of, 325. + used as adjectives, 116. + used as nouns, 27. + what they modify, 183. + + Adversative conjunction, 194. + + _After_, uses of, 114, 195, 207. + + _Against_, uses of, 207. + + Agreement, kinds of, 275. + of adjective with noun, 303. + of personal pronoun with antecedent, 287. + of relative pronoun with antecedent, 291. + of verb with subject, 148, 316. + + _All_, syntax of, 302. + + _Alms_, 42. + + Alternative conjunctions, 194, 328. + + _Among, between_, 207, 331. + + _An_. See _A_. + + Anacoluthon with _which_, 295. + + Analysis, definition of, 231. + of complex sentences, 264. + of compound sentences, 271. + of simple sentences, 252. + + _And who_, _and which_, 296. + + Antecedent, agreement of pronoun and. See _Agreement_. + definition of, 74. + of _it_, 67. + of personal pronouns, 74, 287. + of _which_, 79. + + _Any_, as adjective, 101. + as pronoun, 90. + syntax of, 300. + + Apostrophe in possessive, 51. + + Apposition, words in, 47, 49, 67, 240. + + _Are_, derivation of, 150. + + Arrangement in syntax, 275. + + Articles, definite, 120. + definition of, 120. + how to parse, 127. + indefinite, 124. + syntax of, 309. + + _As_, after _same_, 294. + uses of, 84, 225. + + _As if_, _as though_, 198. + + _At_, uses of, 208. + + Auxiliary verbs, 148. + + + _Bad_, comparison of, 110. + + _Be_, conjugation of, 149. + uses of, 150. + + _Better_, _best_, 110, 111. + + _Between._ See _Among_. + + _Brethren_, 39. + + _Bridegroom_, 37. + + _But_, uses of, 84, 224. + with nominative of pronoun, 283. + + _But what_, 330. + + _By_, uses of, 210. + + + _Can_, _could_, 161. + + Case, definition of, 46. + + Case, double possessive, of nouns, 54. + of pronouns, 64. + forms, number of, in Old and Modern English, 46. + nominative, of nouns, 47. + of pronouns, 62, 279. + objective, of nouns, 48. + of pronouns, 66, 279. + possessive, of nouns, 49, 278. + of pronouns, 63. + syntax of, 278. + + Cause, clauses of, 262. + conjunctions of, 194, 195. + + _Cherub_, plurals of, 45. + + _Children_, 39. + + Clause, adjective, 260. + adverb, 262. + definition of, 257. + kinds of, 257. + noun, 258. + + _Cleave_, forms of, 158. + + _Clomb_, 157. + + _Cloths_, _clothes_, 43. + + Collective nouns, 18. + syntax of, and verb, 312, 315. + + Colloquial English, 12. + + Common nouns, 18. + derived from material, 24. + derived from proper, 23. + + Comparative and superlative, double, 113, 307. + syntax of, 307. + + Comparison, defective, 111. + definition of, 108. + degrees of, 108. + irregular, 110. + of adjectives, 107. + of adverbs, 189. + syntax of, 305. + + Complement of predicate, 239. + + Complementary infinitive, 248. + + Complex sentence, analysis of, 264. + definition of, 257. + + Compound nouns, plural of, 43. + possessive of, 53. + + Compound predicate and subject, 244. + + Compound sentence, 268. + analysis of, 271. + + Concessive clause, in analysis, 263. + with subjunctive, 143. + + Concord. See _Agreement_. + + Conditional clause, in analysis, 263. + with subjunctive, 138. + + Conditional conjunctions, 196. + + Conditional sentences, 139. + + Conjugation, definition of, 149. + of _be_, 149. + of other verbs, 151. + + Conjunctions, and other parts of speech, same words, 195, 207. + coördinate, 194. + correlative, 194. + definition of, 193. + how to parse, 199. + subordinate, 195. + syntax of, 328. + + Conjunctive adverbs, 188. + + Conjunctive pronoun. See _Relative pronoun_. + + Contracted sentences, analysis of, 255. + + Coördinate clauses, 269. + + Coördinate conjunctions. See _Conjunctions_. + + Coördinating _vs._ restrictive use of relative pronouns, 289. + + Copulative conjunction, 194. + + _Could._ See _Can_. + + + Dative case, in Old English, replaced by objective, 66. + + Declarative sentence, 231. + + Declension of interrogative pronouns, 73. + + Declension, of nouns, 51. + of personal pronouns, 60. + of relative pronouns, 80. + + Defective verbs, 160. + + Definite article. See _Articles_. + + Definite tenses, 148, 152. + + Degree, adverbs of, 185. + + Degrees. See _Comparison_. + + Demonstrative adjectives, 102. + syntax of, 303. + + Demonstrative pronouns, 90. + + Dependent clause. See _Subordinate clause_. + + Descriptive adjectives, 99. + + Descriptive use of nouns, 26. + + _Dice_, _dies_, 43. + + _Die by_, _for_, _from_, _of_, _with_, 333. + + Direct discourse, 320. + + Direct object, _vs._ indirect, 48, 242. + retained with passive verb, 242. + + Distributive adjectives, 102. + syntax of, 287, 315. + + Distributive pronouns, 91. + syntax of, 288, 300. + + Double comparative. See _Comparative_. + + Double possessive. See _Case_. + + _Drake_, _duck_, 35. + + _Drank_, _drunk_, 158. + + + _Each_, adjective, 102. + pronoun, 90, 92. + syntax of, 287. + + _Each other_, _one another_, 92, 299. + + _Eat_ (ĕt), 158. + + _Eaves_, 42. + + _Either_, as adjective, 102. + syntax of, 287. + as conjunction, 194. + syntax of, 328. + as pronoun, 90, 92. + syntax of, 300. + + _Elder_, _older_, 110, 112. + + Elements of the sentence, 234, 257. + + Ellipsis, a source of error in pronouns, 280. + in complex sentence, 255. + + _'Em_, origin of, 62. + + _Empress_, 34. + + _-En_, added to plural, 39. + feminine suffix, 32. + plural suffix, original, 38. + + English, literary, spoken, vulgar, 12. + periods of, 33. + + Enlargement of predicate, 241. + of subject, object, complement, 240. + + _-Es_ original of possessive ending, 51. + plural suffix, 40. + + _-Ess_, feminine suffix, 33. + + _Every_, adjective, 102. + syntax of, 287. + + _Expect of_, _expect from_, 334. + + _Expected to have gone_, etc., 319. + + + Factitive object, 48, 235. + + _Farther, further_, 110, 112, 189. + + Feminine, 30. + + _Few, a few_, 126. + + _First_, 103, 112. + + _First two_, _two first_, etc., 308. + + _Fish_, _fishes_, 43. + + _For_, redundant, with infinitive, used as a noun, 212, 238. + uses of, 211. + + Foreign plurals, 45. + + _Former, the_, adjective, 102. + pronoun, 91. + + _From_, uses of, 212. + + _Further._ See _Farther_. + + Future tense, 147, 152. + + Future perfect, 148, 152. + + + _Gander_, _goose_, 36. + + _Gender_, "common gender," 31. + definition of, 30. + distinguished from sex, 30. + in English, as compared with other languages, 29. + modes of marking, in nouns, 32. + of personal pronouns, 60. + of relative pronouns, 80. + + _Genii_, _geniuses_, 43. + + Gerund, distinguished from participle and verbal noun, 177. + forms of, 176. + in syntax, possessive case with, 285. + + _Girl_, 35. + + _Got_, 159. + + Government, definition of, kinds of, 275. + + Grammar, basis of, 12. + definition of, 12. + divisions of, 13. + opinions on, 9. + province of, 10. + + + H, _an_ before, 120. + + _Had better_, _had rather_, 175. + + _Hanged_, _hung_, 159. + + _He_, _she_, _it_, 61. + + _His_ for _its_, 61. + + _Husband_, 36. + + + _I_, personal pronoun, 60. + + Imperative mood, 144. + of first person, 145. + + Imperative sentence, 231. + + Imperfect participle, 173. + + Indefinite adjective, 101. + + Indefinite article. See _Articles_. + + Indefinite pronoun, 93. + + Indefinite use of _you_, _your_, 67. + + Independent clause, 257. + + Independent elements, 245. + + _Indexes_, _indices_, 43. + + Indicative mood, uses of, 136. + + Indirect discourse, 320. + + Indirect object. See _Direct object_. + + Indirect questions. See _Questions_. + + Infinitive, active, with passive meaning, 176. + not a mood, 153. + syntax of, 319, 323. + uses of, 248. + + _-Ing_ words, summary of, 178. + + Interjections, 227. + + Interrogative adjectives, 105. + + Interrogative adverbs, 188. + + Interrogative pronouns, 72. + declension of, 73. + in indirect questions, 85. + syntax of, 283. + + Interrogative sentence, 231, 233. + + Intransitive verbs, 131. + made transitive, 131. + + Irregularities in syntax, 276. + + Irregularly compared adjectives, 110. + adverbs, 189. + + _It_, uses of, 67. + + "It was _me_," etc., 63, 281. + + _Its_, history of, 61. + + + _Kind_, _these kind_, etc., 303. + + _Kine_, double plural, 39. + + _King_, _queen_, 36. + + + _Lady_, _lord_, 36. + + _Last_, _latest_, 110, 113. + + _Latter, the_, adjective, 102, 113. + pronoun, 91. + + _Lay_, _lie_, 170. + + _Less_, _lesser_, 110. + + _Lie_. See _Lay_. + + _Like_, syntax of, 227. + uses of, 226. + + Literary English, 12. + + _Little_, _a little_, 126. + + Logic _vs._ form, in syntax, 276. + + Logical subject and predicate, 245. + + _Lord._ See _Lady_. + + _-Ly_, words in, 190. + + + _Madam_, 36. + + Manner, adverbs of, 185, 188. + conjunctions of, 195. + + _Many_, comparison of, 110, 112. + + _Many a_, 126. + + Mapping out sentences, 256, 265. + + _Mare_, 36. + + _Master_, _mistress_, 34. + + _May_, _might_, 160. + + _Means_, construction of, 41. + + _Mighty_ as adverb, 187. + + _Mine_, of _mine_, 64. + + Modifier, adverb, position of, 325. + + Modifiers. See _Enlargement_. + + _Mood_, definition of, 135. + imperative, 144. + indicative, 136, 137. + subjunctive, 137-144. + + _-Most_, in superlatives, 113, 114, 189. + + _Much_, comparison of, 110, 112, 189. + + _Must_, 161. + + + _Near_, _nearer_, _nigh_, etc., 110, 112. + + Negative, double, 326. + + _Neither_, adjective, 102. + syntax of, 287. + conjunction, 194. + syntax of, 328. + pronoun, 90, 92. + syntax of, 300. + + Neuter nouns, definition of, 30. + or gender nouns, according to use, 30. + two kinds of, 32. + + _News_, 41. + + _No_ in analysis, 246. + + Nominative. See _Case_. + + _None_, syntax of, 301. + + _Nor_, 194, 328. + + _Not a_, etc. 126. + + Noun clause, 258. + + Nouns, 17. + abstract, 20. + become half abstract, 25, 124. + become proper, 25. + formation of, 21. + case of, 46. + collective, 19. + common, 18. + definition of, 17. + descriptive, 26. + gender of, 29. + how to parse, 56. + kinds of, 17 + material, 19. + become class nouns, 24, 125. + neuter, used as gender nouns, 30. + number in, 38. + once singular, now plural, 42. + other words used as, 27. + plural, how formed, 38-41. + of abstract, 41 + of compound, etc. 43. + of foreign, 45. + of letters and figures, 46. + of material, 41. + of proper, 41. + same as singular, 39. + two forms of, 42 + with titles, 44. + proper, 18. + become common, 23. + syntax of, 278. + use of possessive form of, 278, 285. + with definite article, 121. + with different meaning in plural, 42. + with indefinite article, 124. + + Nouns, with no singular, 42. + with one plural, two meanings, 43. + with plural form, singular meaning, 41. + with singular or plural construction, plural form, 41. + + _Now_ as conjunction, 195, 196. + + _Number_, definition of, etc., in nouns. + See _Nouns_. + in adjectives, 106. + in pronouns, personal, 60. + in verbs, 148. + + Numeral adjectives, definite, 101. + distributive, 102. + indefinite, 101. + + Numeral pronouns, 92. + + + Object, adverbial, 48. + definition of, 48. + direct and indirect, 48. + in analysis, 235. + of preposition. See _Preposition_. + modifiers of, 240. + retained with passive verb, 242. + + Objective case, adverbial, dative, 48, 242. + in spoken English, 281. + instead of nominative, 279. + nominative instead of, 282. + of nouns, 48. + of pronouns, 66. + syntax of, 279. + + _Of_, uses of, 213. + + _Older._ See _Elder_. + + Omission of relative pronoun, 87, 293. + + _On_, _upon_, uses of, 216. + + _One_, definite numeral adjective, 101. + indefinite pronoun, 94. + possessive of, 93 + + _One another._ See _Each other_. + + _One_ (_the_), the other, as adjective, 103. + as pronoun, 91. + + _Only_, as conjunction, 194. + position of, as adverb, 325 + + Order, a part of syntax, 275. + inverted, in analysis, 233, 237. + + Ordinal adjectives, treatment of, 103. + + _Other_ with comparatives, 306. + + _Ought_, 161. + + _Our_, _ours_, 64. + + _Ourself_, 69. + + _Oxen_, 38. + + + _Pains_, 41. + + Parsing, models for, 56, 117. + of adjectives, 115, 116. + of adverbs, 191. + of articles, 127. + of conjunctions, 199. + of nouns, 56. + of prepositions, 219. + of pronouns, 95. + of relatives, 80. + of verb phrases, 180. + of verbals, 181. + of verbs, 179. + some idioms not parsed, 56. + what it is, 56. + + _Part from_, _part with_, 335. + + Participial adjective, 100. + + Participial phrase, 247. + + Participle, definition of, 172. + distinguished from other _-ing_ words, 177. + forms of, 174. + kinds of, 173. + syntax of, 322. + uses of, 150, 172. + + Parts of speech, article included in, 119. + words used as various, 27, 28. + + Passive voice, 134. + + _Peas_, _pease_, 43. + + _Pence_, _pennies_, 43. + + Person, agreement of verb and subject in, 317. + of nouns, 59. + of pronouns, 59. + of verbs, 148. + + Personal pronoun, absolute use of, 63. + agreement of, with antecedent, 287. + as predicate nominative, 281. + case of, 62. + compound, or reflexive, 69. + uses of, 70. + definition of, 59. + double possessive of, 64. + _'em_ and _them_, 62. + history of, 61. + objective of, for nominative in spoken English, 63, 281. + syntax of, 281. + table of, 60. + triple possessive of, 64. + uses of _it_, 67. + + Personification, of abstract nouns, 25. + of other nouns, 37. + + Phrase, definition of, 236. + kinds of, 236. + infinitive, 248. + participial, 247. + prepositional, 247. + + Place, adverbs of, 185, 188. + conjunctions of, 195. + prepositions of, 206. + + Plural, of adjectives, 106. + syntax of, 303. + of nouns. See _Nouns_. + of pronouns, 60, 61. + + _Politics_, singular or plural, 41. + + Positive degree. See _Comparison_. + + Possessive, appositional, of nouns, 49. + as antecedent of relative, 285. + double, of nouns, 54. + double, of pronouns. See _Personal pronoun_. + objective and subjective, 50. + of compound nouns, 53. + of indefinite pronoun, 303. + omission of _s_ in singular, 52. + origin of _'s_, 51. + syntax of, 278. + with modified noun omitted, 53. + with two objects, 278. + + Predicate, complement of, 235. + complete, 245. + definition of, 232. + logical _vs._ simple, 245. + modifiers of, 241. + + Prefixes, gender shown by, 32. + + Prepositions, certain, with certain words, 332. + classification of, 206. + definition of, 203. + followed by possessive case, 54, 64. + by nominative case, 283. + how to parse, 219. + objects of, 203. + position of, 202. + relations expressed by certain, 208. + same words as other parts of speech, 187, 195, 207. + syntax of, 331. + uses of, 129, 132, 205. + various, with same meaning, 333. + + Present tense used as future, 147. + + _Pretty_ as adverb, 186. + + Pronominal adjectives, interrogative, 105. + relative, 104. + _what_, exclamatory, 105. + + Pronouns, 58. + adjective, 89. + _all_, singular and plural, 302. + _any_, usually plural, 300. + _each other_, _one another_, 299. + _either_, _neither_, with verbs, 300. + _none_, usually plural, 301. + _somebody else's_, 303. + definition of, 58. + how to parse, 95. + indefinite, 93. + interrogative, 72. + _who_ as objective, 283. + personal, 59. + after _than_, _as_, 280. + antecedents of, 287. + nominative and objective, forms of, 279. + nominative form of, after _but_, 284. + objective form of, for predicate nominative, 281. + objective form of, in exclamations, 282. + possessive form of, as antecedent of relative, 285. + possessive form of, with gerund, 286. + relative, 74. + agreement of, with antecedent, 291. + anacoluthon with _which_, 295. + _and who_, _and which_, 296. + _as_, _that_, _who_, and _which_ after _same_, 295. + how to parse, 80. + omission of, 87, 293. + restrictive and unrestrictive, 289. + two relatives, same antecedent, 297. + syntax of, 279. + usefulness of, 58. + + Proper nouns. See _Nouns_. + + Purpose, clauses of, 263. + conjunctions of, 195. + + Quality, adjectives of, 99. + + Quantity, adjectives of, 101. + + Questions, direct and indirect, adverbs in, 188. + pronominal adjectives in, 105. + pronouns in, 85. + indirect, subjunctive in, 142. + + Quotations. See _Direct discourse_. + + + Rank, adjectives of same and different, 115. + + _Rather_, 189. + + Reflexive pronouns, history of, 69. + how formed, 69. + + Reflexive use of personal pronoun, 68. + + Relative pronoun, 74. + _but_ and _as_, 84. + distinguished from interrogative, in indirect questions, 85. + function of, 74. + indefinite or compound, 83. + omission of, 87, 293. + restrictive use of, 289. + syntax of, 289. + use of, 74. + + Result, clauses of, 263. + conjunctions of, 196. + + Retained object, 242. + + _Riches_, 42. + + + _S_, plural suffix, 40. + + _'S_, possessive ending, 51. + + _Same as_, _that_, _who_, _which_, 294. + + _Sat_, _sate_, 159. + + _Seeing_, conjunction, 195, 196. + + _Self_ in reflexive pronoun, 69. + + Sentences, analysis of complex, 26 + of compound, 271. + of elliptical, 255. + of simple, 252. + complex in form, simple in effect, 259. + + Sentences, definition of, 231. + kinds of, 231. + + Sequence of tenses, 319. + + _Set_, _sit_, 170. + + Sex and gender, 29. + + _Shall_, _should_, _will_, _would_, 162. + + _Shear_, forms of, 159. + + _Shot_, _shots_, 43. + + Simple sentence. See _Sentences_. + + Singular number, 38. + + _Sir_, 36. + + _Somebody else's_, etc., 303. + + _Sort_, _these sort_, 303. + + Spelling becoming phonetic in verbs, 169. + + _Spinster_, 33. + + Split infinitive, 323. + + Spoken English, 12. + + -Ster, feminine suffix, use of, in Middle English, 32. + in Modern English, 33. + + Subject, complete, 245. + definition of, 233. + grammatical _vs._ logical, 67, 245, 258. + modifiers of, 240. + things used as, 237, 258. + + Subjunctive mood, definition of, 137. + gradual disuse of, 144. + uses of, in literary English, 138. + in spoken English, 144. + + Subordinate clause, 257. + adjective, 260. + adverb, 262. + definition of, 257. + how to distinguish, 270. + kinds of, 257. + noun, 258. + other names for, 257. + + _Such_ as adverb, 186. + + _Such a_, 126. + + Suffix _-en_. See _-En_. + _-s_, _-es_, 38. + + Suffixes, foreign, 33. + + Superlative degree, double, 307. + in meaning, not in form, 107. + not suggesting comparison, 109. + of adjectives, 108. + of adverbs, 189. + syntax of, 306. + with two objects, 306. + + Syntax, basis of, 277. + definition of, 275. + in English not same as in classical languages, 275. + + Tense, definition of, 147. + + Tenses, definite, meaning of, 148. + in Modern English, made up of auxiliaries, 147. + number of, in Old English, 147. + sequence of, 319. + table of, 152. + + _Than me_, _than whom_, 280. + + _That_, omission of, when subject, 88. + when object, 87. + relative, restrictive, and coördinating, 289, 290. + _that ... and which_, 297. + uses of, 222. + + _That_, _this_, as adjectives, 106. + as adverbs, 186. + history of plural of, 106. + + _The_, as article, 120. + as adverb, 123, 186. + history of, 119. + syntax of, 309. + + _Their_, _they_, 61. + + _Then_, "the _then_ king," etc., 116. + + _There_ introductory, 191. + + _These kind_, syntax of. See _Kind_. + + _These_, _this_, _those_. See _That_, history of. + + _Thou_, _thy_, _thee_, uses of, 61. + + _Time_, adverbs of, 185, 188. + conjunctions of, 195. + prepositions of, 207. + + _To_, before infinitive, 175. + in exclamations, 175. + omitted with certain verbs, 175. + uses of, as preposition, 217. + + _T'other_, _the tother_, 119. + + _-Trix_, feminine suffix, 33. + + _Try and_, _try to_, 330. + + _Two first_, _first two_, etc., 308. + + _Under_, adjective, 114. + + _Upon_, uses of. See _On_. + + _Upper_, 114. + + _Utter_, _uttermost_, 111, 114. + + Verb phrases, 128. + parsing of, 180. + + Verbal noun, 20. + distinguished from other _-ing_ words, 21, 173. + + Verbals, cleft infinitive, 323. + gerund, 176. + how to parse, 181. + infinitive, 174, 248. + kinds of, 172. + participle, 172. + carelessly used, 322. + uses of, in analysis, 247. + syntax of, 322. + + Verbs, agreement of, with subject in number, 312-316. + in person, 317. + auxiliary, 148. + conjugation of, 149. + defective, 160. + definition of, 129. + how to parse, 179. + in indirect discourse, 320. + intransitive, made transitive, 131. + mood of, 135. + of incomplete predication, 150, 236. + passive form, active meaning, 151. + person and number of, 148. + retained object with passive, 242. + strong, definition of, 154. + remarks on certain, 157. + table of, 155. + syntax of, 312. + tense of, 147. + sequence of, 319. + transitive and intransitive, 130. + voice of, 133. + weak, definition of, 154. + spelling of, 169. + table of irregular, 167. + + _Vixen_, 33. + + Vocative nominative, 47. + in analysis, 245. + + Voice, active, 133. + passive, 134. + + Vowel change, past tense of verbs formed by, 154. + plural formed by, 39. + + Vulgar English, 12. + + Weak verbs, regular, irregular, 167. + spelling of, becoming phonetic, 169. + + _Went_, 159. + + _What_, uses of, 223. + _but what_, 330. + _what a_, 105. 126. + + _Whereby_, _whereto_, etc., 85. + + _Whether_, conjunction, 194. + interrogative pronoun, 72. + + _Which_, antecedent of, 79. + as adjective, 104, 105. + as relative pronoun, 75. + in indirect questions, 85. + indefinite relative, 83. + interrogative pronoun in direct questions, 72. + syntax of, 295-299. + _whose_, possessive of, 78. + + _Who_, as relative, 75. + in direct questions, 72. + in indirect questions, 85. + indefinite relative, 83. + objective, in spoken English, 73. + referring to animals, 77. + syntax of, 296, 299. + + _Widower_, 37. + + _Wife_, 36. + + _Will_, _would_. See _Shall_. + + _Witch_, _wizard_, 36. + + _With_, uses of, 218. + + _Woman_, 32. + + Words in _-ing_, 178. + in _-ly_, 190. + + _Worse_, _worser_, 111. + + + _Y_, plural of nouns ending in. 40. + + _Yes_ in analysis, 246. + + _Yon_, _yonder_, 103. + + _You_, singular and plural, 61. + + _Yours_, _of yours_, 64. + + _Yourself_, _yourselves_, 70. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of An English Grammar +by W. M. Baskervill and J. W. 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Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/old/14006-0.zip b/old/14006-0.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..71c58eb --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14006-0.zip diff --git a/old/14006-8.txt b/old/14006-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e98e30f --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14006-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,17153 @@ +Project Gutenberg's An English Grammar, by W. M. Baskervill and J. W. Sewell + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: An English Grammar + +Author: W. M. Baskervill and J. W. Sewell + +Release Date: November 10, 2004 [EBook #14006] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR *** + + + + +Produced by Stephen Schulze and the Distributed Proofreaders Team + + + + + +AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR + +FOR THE USE OF + +HIGH SCHOOL, ACADEMY, AND COLLEGE CLASSES + +BY + +W.M. BASKERVILL + +PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN VANDERBILT +UNIVERSITY NASHVILLE, TENN. + +AND + +J.W. SEWELL + +OF THE FOGG HIGH SCHOOL, NASHVILLE, TENN. + + +1895 + + + + +PREFACE. + +Of making many English grammars there is no end; nor should there be +till theoretical scholarship and actual practice are more happily +wedded. In this field much valuable work has already been +accomplished; but it has been done largely by workers accustomed to +take the scholar's point of view, and their writings are addressed +rather to trained minds than to immature learners. To find an advanced +grammar unencumbered with hard words, abstruse thoughts, and difficult +principles, is not altogether an easy matter. These things enhance the +difficulty which an ordinary youth experiences in grasping and +assimilating the facts of grammar, and create a distaste for the +study. It is therefore the leading object of this book to be both as +scholarly and as practical as possible. In it there is an attempt to +present grammatical facts as simply, and to lead the student to +assimilate them as thoroughly, as possible, and at the same time to do +away with confusing difficulties as far as may be. + +To attain these ends it is necessary to keep ever in the foreground +the _real basis of grammar_; that is, good literature. Abundant +quotations from standard authors have been given to show the student +that he is dealing with the facts of the language, and not with the +theories of grammarians. It is also suggested that in preparing +written exercises the student use English classics instead of "making +up" sentences. But it is not intended that the use of literary +masterpieces for grammatical purposes should supplant or even +interfere with their proper use and real value as works of art. It +will, however, doubtless be found helpful to alternate the regular +reading and sthetic study of literature with a grammatical study, so +that, while the mind is being enriched and the artistic sense +quickened, there may also be the useful acquisition of arousing a keen +observation of all grammatical forms and usages. Now and then it has +been deemed best to omit explanations, and to withhold personal +preferences, in order that the student may, by actual contact with the +sources of grammatical laws, discover for himself the better way in +regarding given data. It is not the grammarian's business to +"correct:" it is simply to record and to arrange the usages of +language, and to point the way to the arbiters of usage in all +disputed cases. Free expression within the lines of good usage should +have widest range. + +It has been our aim to make a grammar of as wide a scope as is +consistent with the proper definition of the word. Therefore, in +addition to recording and classifying the facts of language, we have +endeavored to attain two other objects,--to cultivate mental skill and +power, and to induce the student to prosecute further studies in this +field. It is not supposable that in so delicate and difficult an +undertaking there should be an entire freedom from errors and +oversights. We shall gratefully accept any assistance in helping to +correct mistakes. + +Though endeavoring to get our material as much as possible at first +hand, and to make an independent use of it, we desire to express our +obligation to the following books and articles:-- + +Meiklejohn's "English Language," Longmans' "School Grammar," West's +"English Grammar," Bain's "Higher English Grammar" and "Composition +Grammar," Sweet's "Primer of Spoken English" and "New English +Grammar," etc., Hodgson's "Errors in the Use of English," Morris's +"Elementary Lessons in Historical English Grammar," Lounsbury's +"English Language," Champney's "History of English," Emerson's +"History of the English Language," Kellner's "Historical Outlines of +English Syntax," Earle's "English Prose," and Matzner's "Englische +Grammatik." Allen's "Subjunctive Mood in English," Battler's articles +on "Prepositions" in the "Anglia," and many other valuable papers, +have also been helpful and suggestive. + +We desire to express special thanks to Professor W.D. Mooney of Wall & +Mooney's Battle-Ground Academy, Franklin, Tenn., for a critical +examination of the first draft of the manuscript, and to Professor +Jno. M. Webb of Webb Bros. School, Bell Buckle, Tenn., and Professor +W.R. Garrett of the University of Nashville, for many valuable +suggestions and helpful criticism. + +W.M. BASKERVILL. + +J.W. SEWELL. + +NASHVILLE, TENN., January, 1896. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + INTRODUCTION + + PART I. + + _THE PARTS OF SPEECH_. + + NOUNS + PRONOUNS + ADJECTIVES + ARTICLES + VERBS AND VERBALS + Verbs + Verbals + How to Parse Verbs and Verbals + ADVERBS + CONJUNCTIONS + PREPOSITIONS + WORDS THAT NEED WATCHING + INTERJECTIONS + + PART II. + + _ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES_. + + CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORM + CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF STATEMENTS + Simple Sentences + Contracted Sentences + Complex Sentences + Compound Sentences + + + PART III. + + _SYNTAX_. + + INTRODUCTORY + NOUNS + PRONOUNS + ADJECTIVES + ARTICLES + VERBS + INDIRECT DISCOURSE + VERBALS + ADVERBS + CONJUNCTIONS + PREPOSITIONS + + INDEX + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + +So many slighting remarks have been made of late on the use of +teaching grammar as compared with teaching science, that it is plain +the fact has been lost sight of that grammar is itself a science. The +object we have, or should have, in teaching science, is not to fill a +child's mind with a vast number of facts that may or may not prove +useful to him hereafter, but to draw out and exercise his powers of +observation, and to show him how to make use of what he observes.... +And here the teacher of grammar has a great advantage over the teacher +of other sciences, in that the facts he has to call attention to lie +ready at hand for every pupil to observe without the use of apparatus +of any kind while the use of them also lies within the personal +experience of every one.--DR RICHARD MORRIS. + +The proper study of a language is an intellectual discipline of the +highest order. If I except discussions on the comparative merits of +Popery and Protestantism, English grammar was the most important +discipline of my boyhood.--JOHN TYNDALL. + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +What various opinions writers on English grammar have given in answer +to the question, _What is grammar?_ may be shown by the following-- + +[Sidenote: _Definitions of grammar._] + + English grammar is a description of the usages of the English + language by good speakers and writers of the present + day.--WHITNEY + + A description of account of the nature, build, constitution, or + make of a language is called its grammar--MEIKLEJOHN + + Grammar teaches the laws of language, and the right method of + using it in speaking and writing.--PATTERSON + + Grammar is the science of _letter_; hence the science of using + words correctly.--ABBOTT + + The English word _grammar_ relates only to the laws which govern + the significant forms of words, and the construction of the + sentence.--RICHARD GRANT WHITE + +These are sufficient to suggest several distinct notions about English +grammar-- + +[Sidenote: _Synopsis of the above._] + +(1) It makes rules to tell us how to use words. + +(2) It is a record of usage which we ought to follow. + +(3) It is concerned with the _forms_ of the language. + +(4) English _has_ no grammar in the sense of forms, or inflections, +but takes account merely of the nature and the uses of words in +sentences. + +[Sidenote: _The older idea and its origin._] + +Fierce discussions have raged over these opinions, and numerous works +have been written to uphold the theories. The first of them remained +popular for a very long time. It originated from the etymology of the +word _grammar_ (Greek _gramma_, writing, a letter), and from an effort +to build up a treatise on English grammar by using classical grammar +as a model. + +Perhaps a combination of (1) and (3) has been still more popular, +though there has been vastly more classification than there are forms. + +[Sidenote: _The opposite view_.] + +During recent years, (2) and (4) have been gaining ground, but they +have had hard work to displace the older and more popular theories. It +is insisted by many that the student's time should be used in studying +general literature, and thus learning the fluent and correct use of +his mother tongue. It is also insisted that the study and discussion +of forms and inflections is an inexcusable imitation of classical +treatises. + +[Sidenote: _The difficulty_.] + +Which view shall the student of English accept? Before this is +answered, we should decide whether some one of the above theories must +be taken as the right one, and the rest disregarded. + +The real reason for the diversity of views is a confusion of two +distinct things,--what the _definition_ of grammar should be, and what +the _purpose_ of grammar should be. + +[Sidenote: _The material of grammar_.] + +The province of English grammar is, rightly considered, wider than is +indicated by any one of the above definitions; and the student ought +to have a clear idea of the ground to be covered. + +[Sidenote: _Few inflections_.] + +It must be admitted that the language has very few inflections at +present, as compared with Latin or Greek; so that a small grammar will +hold them all. + +[Sidenote: _Making rules is risky_.] + +It is also evident, to those who have studied the language +historically, that it is very hazardous to make rules in grammar: what +is at present regarded as correct may not be so twenty years from now, +even if our rules are founded on the keenest scrutiny of the +"standard" writers of our time. Usage is varied as our way of thinking +changes. In Chaucer's time two or three negatives were used to +strengthen a negation; as, "Ther _nas no_ man _nowher_ so vertuous" +(There never was no man nowhere so virtuous). And Shakespeare used +good English when he said _more elder_ ("Merchant of Venice") and +_most unkindest_ ("Julius Csar"); but this is bad English now. + +If, however, we have tabulated the inflections of the language, and +stated what syntax is the most used in certain troublesome places, +there is still much for the grammarian to do. + +[Sidenote: _A broader view_.] + +Surely our noble language, with its enormous vocabulary, its peculiar +and abundant idioms, its numerous periphrastic forms to express every +possible shade of meaning, is worthy of serious study, apart from the +mere memorizing of inflections and formulation of rules. + +[Sidenote: _Mental training. An sthetic benefit._] + +Grammar is eminently a means of mental training; and while it will +train the student in subtle and acute reasoning, it will at the same +time, if rightly presented, lay the foundation of a keen observation +and a correct literary taste. The continued contact with the highest +thoughts of the best minds will create a thirst for the "well of +English undefiled." + +[Sidenote: _What grammar is_.] + +Coming back, then, from the question, _What ground should grammar +cover?_ we come to answer the question, _What should grammar teach?_ +and we give as an answer the definition,-- + +_English grammar is the science which treats of the nature of words, +their forms, and their uses and relations in the sentence_. + +[Sidenote: _The work it will cover._] + +This will take in the usual divisions, "The Parts of Speech" (with +their inflections), "Analysis," and "Syntax." It will also require a +discussion of any points that will clear up difficulties, assist the +classification of kindred expressions, or draw the attention of the +student to everyday idioms and phrases, and thus incite his +observation. + +[Sidenote: _Authority as a basis_.] + +A few words here as to the _authority_ upon which grammar rests. + +[Sidenote: _Literary English_.] + +The statements given will be substantiated by quotations from the +leading or "standard" literature of modern times; that is, from the +eighteenth century on. This _literary English_ is considered the +foundation on which grammar must rest. + +[Sidenote: _Spoken English_.] + +Here and there also will be quoted words and phrases from _spoken_ or +_colloquial English_, by which is meant the free, unstudied +expressions of ordinary conversation and communication among +intelligent people. + +These quotations will often throw light on obscure constructions, +since they preserve turns of expressions that have long since perished +from the literary or standard English. + +[Sidenote: _Vulgar English_.] + +Occasionally, too, reference will be made to _vulgar English,_--the +speech of the uneducated and ignorant,--which will serve to illustrate +points of syntax once correct, or standard, but now undoubtedly bad +grammar. + +The following pages will cover, then, three divisions:-- + +Part I. The Parts of Speech, and Inflections. + +Part II. Analysis of Sentences. + +Part III. The Uses of Words, or Syntax. + + + + + +PART I. + +_THE PARTS OF SPEECH_. + + + + +NOUNS. + + +1. In the more simple _state_ of the _Arabs_, the _nation_ is free, +because each of her _sons_ disdains a base _submission_ to the _will_ +of a _master_.--GIBBON. + +[Sidenote: _Name words_] + +By examining this sentence we notice several words used as names. The +plainest name is _Arabs_, which belongs to a people; but, besides this +one, the words _sons_ and _master_ name objects, and may belong to any +of those objects. The words _state, submission,_ and _will_ are +evidently names of a different kind, as they stand for ideas, not +objects; and the word _nation_ stands for a whole group. + +When the meaning of each of these words has once been understood, the +word naming it will always call up the thing or idea itself. Such +words are called nouns. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition_.] + +2. A noun is a name word, representing directly to the mind an +object, substance, or idea. + + +[Sidenote: _Classes of nouns_.] + +3. Nouns are classified as follows:-- + +(1) Proper. + +(2) Common. (a) CLASS NAMES: i. Individual. + ii. Collective. + (b) MATERIAL. + +(3) Abstract. (a) ATTRIBUTE. + (b) VERBAL + + +[Sidenote: _Names for special objects._] + +4. A proper noun is a name applied to a particular object, whether +person, place, or thing. + +It specializes or limits the thing to which it is applied, reducing it +to a narrow application. Thus, _city_ is a word applied to any one of +its kind; but _Chicago_ names one city, and fixes the attention upon +that particular city. _King_ may be applied to any ruler of a kingdom, +but _Alfred the Great_ is the name of one king only. + +The word _proper_ is from a Latin word meaning _limited, belonging to +one_. This does not imply, however, that a proper name can be applied +to only one object, but that each time such a name is applied it is +fixed or proper to that object. Even if there are several Bostons or +Manchesters, the name of each is an individual or proper name. + + +[Sidenote: _Name for any individual of a class._] + +5. A common noun is a name possessed by _any_ one of a class of +persons, animals, or things. + +_Common_, as here used, is from a Latin word which means _general, +possessed by all_. + +For instance, _road_ is a word that names _any_ highway outside of +cities; _wagon_ is a term that names _any_ vehicle of a certain kind +used for hauling: the words are of the widest application. We may say, +_the man here_, or _the man in front of you_, but the word _man_ is +here hedged in by other words or word groups: the name itself is of +general application. + +[Sidenote: _Name for a group or collection of objects._] + +Besides considering persons, animals, and things separately, we may +think of them in groups, and appropriate names to the groups. + +Thus, men in groups may be called a _crowd_, or a _mob_, a +_committee_, or a _council_, or a _congress_, etc. + +These are called COLLECTIVE NOUNS. They properly belong under common +nouns, because each group is considered as a unit, and the name +applied to it belongs to any group of its class. + + +[Sidenote: _Names for things thought of in mass._] + +6. The definition given for common nouns applies more strictly to +class nouns. It may, however, be correctly used for another group of +nouns detailed below; for they are common nouns in the sense that the +names apply to _every particle of similar substance_, instead of to +each individual or separate object. + +They are called MATERIAL NOUNS. Such are _glass_, _iron_, _clay_, +_frost_, _rain_, _snow_, _wheat_, _wine_, _tea_, _sugar_, etc. + +They may be placed in groups as follows:-- + +(1) The metals: _iron_, _gold_, _platinum_, etc. + +(2) Products spoken of in bulk: _tea_, _sugar_, _rice_, _wheat_, etc. + +(3) Geological bodies: _mud_, _sand_, _granite_, _rock_, _stone_, etc. + +(4) Natural phenomena: _rain_, _dew_, _cloud_, _frost_, _mist_, etc. + +(5) Various manufactures: _cloth_ (and the different kinds of cloth), +_potash_, _soap_, _rubber_, _paint_, _celluloid_, etc. + +7. NOTE.--There are some nouns, such as _sun_, _moon_, _earth_, +which seem to be the names of particular individual objects, but which +are not called proper names. + +[Sidenote: _Words naturally of limited application not proper._] + +The reason is, that in proper names the intention is _to exclude_ all +other individuals of the same class, and fasten a special name to the +object considered, as in calling a city _Cincinnati_; but in the words +_sun_, _earth_, etc., there is no such intention. If several bodies +like the center of our solar system are known, they also are called +_suns_ by a natural extension of the term: so with the words _earth_, +_world_, etc. They remain common class names. + + +[Sidenote: _Names of ideas, not things._] + +8. Abstract nouns are names of qualities, conditions, or actions, +considered abstractly, or apart from their natural connection. + +When we speak of a _wise man_, we recognize in him an attribute or +quality. If we wish to think simply of that quality without describing +the person, we speak of the _wisdom_ of the man. The quality is still +there as much as before, but it is taken merely as a name. So +_poverty_ would express the condition of a poor person; _proof_ means +the act of proving, or that which shows a thing has been proved; and +so on. + +Again, we may say, "_Painting_ is a fine art," "_Learning_ is hard to +acquire," "a man of _understanding_." + + +9. There are two chief divisions of abstract nouns:-- + +(1) ATTRIBUTE NOUNS, expressing attributes or qualities. + +(2) VERBAL NOUNS, expressing state, condition, or action. + + +[Sidenote: _Attribute abstract nouns._] + +10. The ATTRIBUTE ABSTRACT NOUNS are derived from adjectives and +from common nouns. Thus, (1) _prudence_ from _prudent_, _height_ from +_high_, _redness_ from _red_, _stupidity_ from _stupid_, etc.; (2) +_peerage_ from _peer_, _childhood_ from _child_, _mastery_ from +_master_, _kingship_ from _king_, etc. + + + +[Sidenote: _Verbal abstract nouns._] + +II. The VERBAL ABSTRACT NOUNS Originate in verbs, as their name +implies. They may be-- + +(1) Of the same form as the simple verb. The verb, by altering its +function, is used as a noun; as in the expressions, "a long _run_" "a +bold _move_," "a brisk _walk_." + +(2) Derived from verbs by changing the ending or adding a suffix: +_motion_ from _move_, _speech_ from _speak_, _theft_ from _thieve_, +_action_ from _act_, _service_ from _serve_. + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +(3) Derived from verbs by adding _-ing_ to the simple verb. It must be +remembered that these words are _free from any verbal function_. They +cannot govern a word, and they cannot _express_ action, but are merely +_names_ of actions. They are only the husks of verbs, and are to be +rigidly distinguished from _gerunds_ (Secs. 272, 273). + +To avoid difficulty, study carefully these examples: + +The best thoughts and _sayings_ of the Greeks; the moon caused fearful +_forebodings_; in the _beginning_ of his life; he spread his +_blessings_ over the land; the great Puritan _awakening_; our birth is +but a sleep and a _forgetting_; a _wedding_ or a festival; the rude +_drawings_ of the book; masterpieces of the Socratic _reasoning_; the +_teachings_ of the High Spirit; those opinions and _feelings_; there +is time for such _reasonings_; the _well-being_ of her subjects; her +_longing_ for their favor; _feelings_ which their original _meaning_ +will by no means justify; the main _bearings_ of this matter. + + +[Sidenote: _Underived abstract nouns._] + +12. Some abstract nouns were not derived from any other part of +speech, but were framed directly for the expression of certain ideas +or phenomena. Such are _beauty_, _joy_, _hope_, _ease_, _energy_; +_day_, _night_, _summer_, _winter_; _shadow_, _lightning_, _thunder_, +etc. + +The adjectives or verbs corresponding to these are either themselves +derived from the nouns or are totally different words; as +_glad_--_joy_, _hopeful_--_hope_, etc. + + + +Exercises. + +1. From your reading bring up sentences containing ten common nouns, +five proper, five abstract. + +--NOTE.--Remember that all sentences are to be _selected_ from +standard literature. + +2. Under what class of nouns would you place (_a_) the names of +diseases, as _pneumonia_, _pleurisy_, _catarrh_, _typhus_, +_diphtheria_; (_b_) branches of knowledge, as _physics_, _algebra_, +_geology_, _mathematics_? + +3. Mention collective nouns that will embrace groups of each of the +following individual nouns:-- + + man + horse + bird + fish + partridge + pupil + bee + soldier + book + sailor + child + sheep + ship + ruffian + +4. Using a dictionary, tell from what word each of these abstract +nouns is derived:-- + + sight + speech + motion + pleasure + patience + friendship + deceit + bravery + height + width + wisdom + regularity + advice + seizure + nobility + relief + death + raid + honesty + judgment + belief + occupation + justice + service + trail + feeling + choice + simplicity + + +SPECIAL USES OF NOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Nouns change by use._] + +13. By being used so as to vary their usual meaning, nouns of one +class may be made to approach another class, or to go over to it +entirely. Since words alter their meaning so rapidly by a widening or +narrowing of their application, we shall find numerous examples of +this shifting from class to class; but most of them are in the +following groups. For further discussion see the remarks on articles +(p. 119). + + +[Sidenote: _Proper names transferred to common use._] + +14. Proper nouns are used as common in either of two ways:-- + +(1) _The origin of a thing is used for the thing itself_: that is, the +name of the inventor may be applied to the thing invented, as a +_davy_, meaning the miner's lamp invented by Sir Humphry Davy; the +_guillotine_, from the name of Dr. Guillotin, who was its inventor. Or +the name of the country or city from which an article is derived is +used for the article: as _china_, from China; _arras_, from a town in +France; _port_ (wine), from Oporto, in Portugal; _levant_ and +_morocco_ (leather). + +Some of this class have become worn by use so that at present we can +scarcely discover the derivation from the form of the word; for +example, the word _port_, above. Others of similar character are +_calico_, from Calicut; _damask_, from Damascus; _currants_, from +Corinth; etc. + +(2) _The name of a person or place noted for certain qualities is +transferred to any person or place possessing those qualities_; +thus,-- + + Hercules and Samson were noted for their strength, and we call a + very strong man _a Hercules_ or _a Samson_. Sodom was famous for + wickedness, and a similar place is called _a Sodom_ of sin. + + _A Daniel_ come to judgment!--SHAKESPEARE. + + If it prove a mind of uncommon activity and power, _a Locke_, _a + Lavoisier_, _a Hutton_, _a Bentham_, _a Fourier_, it imposes its + classification on other men, and lo! a new system.--EMERSON. + + +[Sidenote: _Names for things in bulk altered for separate portions._] + +15. Material nouns may be used as class names. Instead of +considering the whole body of material of which certain uses are made, +one can speak of particular uses or phases of the substance; as-- + +(1) _Of individual objects_ made from metals or other substances +capable of being wrought into various shapes. We know a number of +objects made of iron. The material _iron_ embraces the metal contained +in them all; but we may say, "The cook made the _irons_ hot," +referring to flat-irons; or, "The sailor was put in _irons_" meaning +chains of iron. So also we may speak of _a glass_ to drink from or to +look into; _a steel_ to whet a knife on; _a rubber_ for erasing marks; +and so on. + +(2) _Of classes_ or _kinds_ of the same substance. These are the same +in material, but differ in strength, purity, etc. Hence it shortens +speech to make the nouns plural, and say _teas_, _tobaccos_, _paints_, +_oils_, _candies_, _clays_, _coals_. + +(3) _By poetical use_, of certain words necessarily singular in idea, +which are made plural, or used as class nouns, as in the following:-- + + The lone and level _sands_ stretch far away.--SHELLEY. + + From all around-- + Earth and her _waters_, and the depths of air-- + Comes a still voice.--BRYANT. + + Their airy ears + _The winds_ have stationed on the mountain peaks. + --PERCIVAL. + +(4) _Of detached portions_ of matter used as class names; as _stones_, +_slates_, _papers_, _tins_, _clouds_, _mists_, etc. + + +[Sidenote: _Personification of abstract ideas._] + +16. Abstract nouns are frequently used as proper names by being +personified; that is, the ideas are spoken of as residing in living +beings. This is a poetic usage, though not confined to verse. + + Next _Anger_ rushed; his eyes, on fire, + In lightnings owned his secret stings.--COLLINS. + + _Freedom's_ fame finds wings on every wind.--BYRON. + + _Death_, his mask melting like a nightmare dream, smiled.--HAYNE. + + _Traffic_ has lain down to rest; and only _Vice_ and _Misery_, to + prowl or to moan like night birds, are abroad.--CARLYLE. + + +[Sidenote: _A halfway class of words. Class nouns in use, abstract in +meaning._] + +17. Abstract nouns are made half abstract by being spoken of in +the plural. + +They are not then pure abstract nouns, nor are they common class +nouns. For example, examine this:-- + + The _arts_ differ from the _sciences_ in this, that their power + is founded not merely on _facts_ which can be communicated, but + on _dispositions_ which require to be created.--RUSKIN. + +When it is said that _art_ differs from _science_, that the power of +art is founded on _fact_, that _disposition_ is the thing to be +created, the words italicized are pure abstract nouns; but in case _an +art_ or _a science_, or _the arts_ and _sciences_, be spoken of, the +abstract idea is partly lost. The words preceded by the article _a_, +or made plural, are still names of abstract ideas, not material +things; but they widen the application to separate kinds of _art_ or +different branches of _science_. They are neither class nouns nor pure +abstract nouns: they are more properly called _half abstract_. + +Test this in the following sentences:-- + + Let us, if we must have great _actions_, make our own + so.--EMERSON. + + And still, as each repeated _pleasure_ tired, Succeeding _sports_ + the mirthful band inspired.--GOLDSMITH. + + But ah! those _pleasures_, _loves_, and _joys_ + Which I too keenly taste, + The Solitary can despise.--BURNS. + + All these, however, were mere _terrors_ of the night.--IRVING. + + +[Sidenote: _By ellipses, nouns used to modify._] + +18. Nouns used as descriptive terms. Sometimes a noun is attached +to another noun to add to its meaning, or describe it; for example, "a +_family_ quarrel," "a _New York_ bank," "the _State Bank Tax_ bill," +"a _morning_ walk." + +It is evident that these approach very near to the function of +adjectives. But it is better to consider them as nouns, for these +reasons: they do not give up their identity as nouns; they do not +express quality; they cannot be compared, as descriptive adjectives +are. + +They are more like the possessive noun, which belongs to another word, +but is still a noun. They may be regarded as elliptical expressions, +meaning a walk _in the morning_, a bank _in New York_, a bill _as to +tax on the banks_, etc. + +NOTE.--If the descriptive word be a _material_ noun, it may be +regarded as changed to an adjective. The term "_gold_ pen" conveys the +same idea as "_golden_ pen," which contains a pure adjective. + + +WORDS AND WORD GROUPS USED AS NOUNS. + +[Sidenote: _The noun may borrow from any part of speech, or from any +expression._] + +19. Owing to the scarcity of distinctive forms, and to the +consequent flexibility of English speech, words which are usually +other parts of speech are often used as nouns; and various word groups +may take the place of nouns by being used as nouns. + +[Sidenote: _Adjectives, Conjunctions, Adverbs._] + +(1) _Other parts of speech_ used as nouns:-- + + _The great_, _the wealthy_, fear thy blow.--BURNS. + + Every _why_ hath a _wherefore_.--SHAKESPEARE. + + When I was young? Ah, woeful _When_! + Ah! for the change 'twixt _Now_ and _Then_! + --COLERIDGE. + +(2) _Certain word groups_ used like single nouns:-- + + _Too swift_ arrives as tardy as _too slow_.--SHAKESPEARE. + + Then comes the "_Why, sir_!" and the "_What then, sir_?" and the + "_No, sir_!" and the "_You don't see your way through the + question, sir_!"--MACAULAY + +(3) Any part of speech may be considered merely as a word, without +reference to its function in the sentence; also titles of books are +treated as simple nouns. + + The _it_, at the beginning, is ambiguous, whether it mean the sun + or the cold.--Dr BLAIR + + In this definition, is the word "_just_," or "_legal_," finally + to stand?--RUSKIN. + + There was also a book of Defoe's called an "_Essay on Projects_," + and another of Dr. Mather's called "_Essays to do Good_."--B. + FRANKLIN. + + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +20. It is to be remembered, however, that the above cases are +shiftings of the _use_, of words rather than of their _meaning_. We +seldom find instances of complete conversion of one part of speech +into another. + +When, in a sentence above, the terms _the great_, _the wealthy_, are +used, they are not names only: we have in mind the idea of persons and +the quality of being _great_ or _wealthy_. The words are used in the +sentence where nouns are used, but have an adjectival meaning. + +In the other sentences, _why_ and _wherefore_, _When_, _Now_, and +_Then_, are spoken of as if pure nouns; but still the reader considers +this not a natural application of them as name words, but as a figure +of speech. + +NOTE.--These remarks do not apply, of course, to such words as become +pure nouns by use. There are many of these. The adjective _good_ has +no claim on the noun _goods_; so, too, in speaking of the _principal_ +of a school, or a state _secret_, or a faithful _domestic_, or a +_criminal_, etc., the words are entirely independent of any adjective +force. + + +Exercise. + +Pick out the nouns in the following sentences, and tell to which class +each belongs. Notice if any have shifted from one class to another. + + +1. Hope springs eternal in the human breast. + +2. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of Fate. + +3. Stone walls do not a prison make. + Nor iron bars a cage. + +4. Truth-teller was our England's Alfred named. + +5. A great deal of talent is lost to the world for want of a little +courage. + +6. Power laid his rod aside, + And Ceremony doff'd her pride. + +7. She sweeps it through the court with troops of ladies. + +8. Learning, that cobweb of the brain. + +9. A little weeping would ease my heart; + But in their briny bed + My tears must stop, for every drop + Hinders needle and thread. + +10. A fool speaks all his mind, but a wise man reserves something for +hereafter. + +11. Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much; Wisdom is humble +that he knows no more. + +12. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast. + +13. And see, he cried, the welcome, + Fair guests, that waits you here. + +14. The fleet, shattered and disabled, returned to Spain. + +15. One To-day is worth two To-morrows. + +16. Vessels carrying coal are constantly moving. + +17. Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest, + Some Cromwell guiltless of his country's blood. + +18. And oft we trod a waste of pearly sands. + +19. A man he seems of cheerful yesterdays + And confident to-morrows. + +20. The hours glide by; the silver moon is gone. + +21. Her robes of silk and velvet came from over the sea. + +22. My soldier cousin was once only a drummer boy. + +23. But pleasures are like poppies spread, + You seize the flower, its bloom is shed. + +24. All that thou canst call thine own Lies in thy To-day. + + +INFLECTIONS OF NOUNS. + + +GENDER. + + +[Sidenote: _What gender means in English. It is founded on sex._] + +21. In Latin, Greek, German, and many other languages, some general +rules are given that names of male beings are usually masculine, and +names of females are usually feminine. There are exceptions even to +this general statement, but not so in English. Male beings are, in +English grammar, always masculine; female, always feminine. + +When, however, _inanimate_ things are spoken of, these languages are +totally unlike our own in determining the gender of words. For +instance: in Latin, _hortus_ (garden) is masculine, _mensa_ (table) is +feminine, _corpus_ (body) is neuter; in German, _das Messer_ (knife) +is neuter, _der Tisch_ (table) is masculine, _die Gabel_ (fork) is +feminine. + +The great difference is, that in English the gender follows the +_meaning_ of the word, in other languages gender follows the _form_; +that is, in English, gender depends on _sex_: if a thing spoken of is +of the male sex, the _name_ of it is masculine; if of the female sex, +the _name_ of it is feminine. Hence: + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +22. Gender is the mode of distinguishing sex by words, or +additions to words. + + +23. It is evident from this that English can have but two +genders,--masculine and feminine. + +[Sidenote: _Gender nouns. Neuter nouns._] + +All nouns, then, must be divided into two principal classes,--gender +nouns, those distinguishing the sex of the object; and neuter +nouns, those which do not distinguish sex, or names of things without +life, and consequently without sex. + +Gender nouns include names of persons and some names of animals; +neuter nouns include some animals and all inanimate objects. + + +[Sidenote: _Some words either gender or neuter nouns, according to +use._] + +24. Some words may be either gender nouns or neuter nouns, according +to their use. Thus, the word _child_ is neuter in the sentence, "A +little _child_ shall lead them," but is masculine in the sentence +from Wordsworth,-- + + I have seen + A curious _child_ ... applying to _his_ ear + The convolutions of a smooth-lipped shell. + +Of animals, those with which man comes in contact often, or which +arouse his interest most, are named by gender nouns, as in these +sentences:-- + + Before the barn door strutted the gallant _cock_, that pattern of + a husband, ... clapping _his_ burnished wings.--IRVING. + + _Gunpowder_ ... came to a stand just by the bridge, with a + suddenness that had nearly sent _his_ rider sprawling over _his_ + head--_id._ + +Other animals are not distinguished as to sex, but are spoken of as +neuter, the sex being of no consequence. + + Not a _turkey_ but he [Ichabod] beheld daintily trussed up, with + _its_ gizzard under _its_ wing.--IRVING. + + He next stooped down to feel the _pig_, if there were any signs + of life in _it_.--LAMB. + + +[Sidenote: _No "common gender._"] + +25. According to the definition, there can be no such thing as +"common gender:" words either distinguish sex (or the sex is +distinguished by the context) or else they do not distinguish sex. + +If such words as _parent_, _servant_, _teacher_, _ruler_, _relative_, +_cousin_, _domestic_, etc., do not show the sex to which the persons +belong, they are neuter words. + + +26. Put in convenient form, the division of words according to sex, +or the lack of it, is,-- + + (MASCULINE: Male beings. +Gender nouns { + (FEMININE: Female beings. + +Neuter nouns: Names of inanimate things, or of living beings whose +sex cannot be determined. + + +27. The inflections for gender belong, of course, only to masculine +and feminine nouns. _Forms_ would be a more accurate word than +_inflections_, since inflection applies only to the _case_ of nouns. + +There are three ways to distinguish the genders:-- + +(1) By prefixing a gender word to another word. + +(2) By adding a suffix, generally to a masculine word. + +(3) By using a different word for each gender. + + +I. Gender shown by Prefixes. + + +[Sidenote: _Very few of class I._] + +28. Usually the gender words _he_ and _she_ are prefixed to neuter +words; as _he-goat_--_she-goat_, _cock sparrow_--_hen sparrow_, +_he-bear_--_she-bear_. + +One feminine, _woman_, puts a prefix before the masculine _man_. +_Woman_ is a short way of writing _wifeman_. + + +II. Gender shown by Suffixes. + + +29. By far the largest number of gender words are those marked by +suffixes. In this particular the native endings have been largely +supplanted by foreign suffixes. + +[Sidenote: _Native suffixes._] + +The native suffixes to indicate the feminine were _-en_ and _-ster_. +These remain in _vixen_ and _spinster_, though both words have lost +their original meanings. + +The word _vixen_ was once used as the feminine of _fox_ by the +Southern-English. For _fox_ they said _vox_; for _from_ they said +_vram_; and for the older word _fat_ they said _vat_, as in _wine +vat_. Hence _vixen_ is for _fyxen_, from the masculine _fox_. + +_Spinster_ is a relic of a large class of words that existed in Old +and Middle English,[1] but have now lost their original force as +feminines. The old masculine answering to _spinster_ was _spinner_; +but _spinster_ has now no connection with it. + +The foreign suffixes are of two kinds:-- + +[Sidenote: _Foreign suffixes. Unaltered and little used._] + +(1) Those belonging to borrowed words, as _czarina_, _seorita_, +_executrix_, _donna_. These are attached to foreign words, and are +never used for words recognized as English. + +[Sidenote: _Slightly changed and widely used._] + +(2) That regarded as the standard or regular termination of the +feminine, _-ess_ (French _esse_, Low Latin _issa_), the one most used. +The corresponding masculine may have the ending _-er_ (_-or_), but in +most cases it has not. Whenever we adopt a new masculine word, the +feminine is formed by adding this termination _-ess_. + +Sometimes the _-ess_ has been added to a word already feminine by the +ending _-ster_; as _seam-str-ess_, _song-str-ess_. The ending _-ster_ +had then lost its force as a feminine suffix; it has none now in the +words _huckster_, _gamester_, _trickster_, _punster_. + + +[Sidenote: _Ending of masculine not changed._] + +30. The ending _-ess_ is added to many words without changing the +ending of the masculine; as,-- + + baron--baroness + count--countess + lion--lioness + Jew--Jewess + heir--heiress + host--hostess + priest--priestess + giant--giantess + +[Sidenote: _Masculine ending dropped._] + +The masculine ending may be dropped before the feminine _-ess_ is +added; as,-- + + abbot--abbess + negro--negress + murderer--murderess + sorcerer--sorceress + +[Sidenote: _Vowel dropped before adding_ -ess.] + +The feminine may discard a vowel which appears in the masculine; as +in-- + + actor--actress + master--mistress + benefactor--benefactress + emperor--empress + tiger--tigress + enchanter--enchantress + +_Empress_ has been cut down from _emperice_ (twelfth century) and +_emperesse_ (thirteenth century), from Latin _imperatricem_. + +_Master_ and _mistress_ were in Middle English +_maister_--_maistresse_, from the Old French _maistre_--_maistresse_. + + +31. When the older _-en_ and _-ster_ went out of use as the +distinctive mark of the feminine, the ending _-ess_, from the French +_-esse_, sprang into a popularity much greater than at present. + +[Sidenote: _Ending_ -ess _less used now than formerly._] + +Instead of saying _doctress_, _fosteress_, _wagoness_, as was said in +the sixteenth century, or _servauntesse_, _teacheresse_, +_neighboresse_, _frendesse_, as in the fourteenth century, we have +dispensed with the ending in many cases, and either use a prefix word +or leave the masculine to do work for the feminine also. + +Thus, we say _doctor_ (masculine and feminine) or _woman doctor_, +_teacher_ or _lady teacher_, _neighbor_ (masculine and feminine), etc. +We frequently use such words as _author_, _editor_, _chairman_, to +represent persons of either sex. + +NOTE.--There is perhaps this distinction observed: when we speak of a +female _as an active agent_ merely, we use the masculine termination, +as, "George Eliot is the _author_ of 'Adam Bede;'" but when we speak +purposely _to denote a distinction from a male_, we use the feminine, +as, "George Eliot is an eminent _authoress_." + + + +III. Gender shown by Different Words. + + +32. In some of these pairs, the feminine and the masculine are +entirely different words; others have in their origin the same root. +Some of them have an interesting history, and will be noted below:-- + + bachelor--maid + boy--girl + brother--sister + drake--duck + earl--countess + father--mother + gander--goose + hart--roe + horse--mare + husband--wife + king--queen + lord--lady + wizard--witch + nephew--niece + ram--ewe + sir--madam + son--daughter + uncle--aunt + bull--cow + boar--sow + +Girl originally meant a child of either sex, and was used for male +or female until about the fifteenth century. + +Drake is peculiar in that it is formed from a corresponding feminine +which is no longer used. It is not connected historically with our +word _duck_, but is derived from _ened_ (duck) and an obsolete suffix +_rake_ (king). Three letters of _ened_ have fallen away, leaving our +word _drake_. + +Gander and goose were originally from the same root word. _Goose_ +has various cognate forms in the languages akin to English (German +_Gans_, Icelandic _gs_, Danish _gaas_, etc.). The masculine was +formed by adding _-a_, the old sign of the masculine. This _gansa_ was +modified into _gan-ra_, _gand-ra_, finally _gander_; the _d_ being +inserted to make pronunciation easy, as in many other words. + +Mare, in Old English _mere_, had the masculine _mearh_ (horse), but +this has long been obsolete. + +Husband and wife are not connected in origin. _Husband_ is a +Scandinavian word (Anglo-Saxon _husbonda_ from Icelandic _hs-bndi_, +probably meaning house dweller); _wife_ was used in Old and Middle +English to mean woman in general. + +King and queen are said by some (Skeat, among others) to be from +the same root word, but the German etymologist Kluge says they are +not. + +Lord is said to be a worn-down form of the Old English _hlaf-weard_ +(loaf keeper), written _loverd_, _lhauerd_, or _lauerd_ in Middle +English. Lady is from _hloefdige_ (_hloef_ meaning loaf, and +_dige_ being of uncertain origin and meaning). + +Witch is the Old English _wicce_, but wizard is from the Old +French _guiscart_ (prudent), not immediately connected with _witch_, +though both are ultimately from the same root. + +Sir is worn down from the Old French _sire_ (Latin _senior_). +Madam is the French _ma dame_, from Latin _mea domina_. + + +[Sidenote: _Two masculines from feminines._] + +33. Besides _gander_ and _drake_, there are two other masculine +words that were formed from the feminine:-- + +Bridegroom, from Old English _bryd-guma_ (bride's man). The _r_ in +_groom_ has crept in from confusion with the word _groom_. + +Widower, from the weakening of the ending _-a_ in Old English to +_-e_ in Middle English. The older forms, _widuwa_--_widuwe_, became +identical, and a new masculine ending was therefore added to +distinguish the masculine from the feminine (compare Middle English +_widuer_--_widewe_). + + +Personification. + + +34. Just as abstract ideas are personified (Sec. 16), material +objects may be spoken of like gender nouns; for example,-- + + "Now, where the swift _Rhone_ cleaves _his_ way."--BYRON. + + The _Sun_ now rose upon the right: + Out of the sea came _he_. + --COLERIDGE. + + And haply the _Queen Moon_ is on _her_ throne, + Clustered around by all her starry Fays. + --KEATS, + + _Britannia_ needs no bulwarks, + No towers along the steep; + _Her_ march is o'er the mountain waves, + _Her_ home is on the deep. + --CAMPBELL + +This is not exclusively a poetic use. In ordinary speech +personification is very frequent: the pilot speaks of his boat as +feminine; the engineer speaks so of his engine; etc. + +[Sidenote: _Effect of personification._] + +In such cases the gender is marked by the pronoun, and not by the form +of the noun. But the fact that in English the distinction of gender is +confined to difference of sex makes these departures more effective. + + + +NUMBER. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +35. In nouns, number means the mode of indicating whether we are +speaking of one thing or of more than one. + + +36. Our language has two numbers,--_singular_ and _plural_. The +singular number denotes that one thing is spoken of; the plural, more +than one. + + +37. There are three ways of changing the singular form to the +plural:-- + +(1) By adding _-en_. + +(2) By changing the root vowel. + +(3) By adding _-s_ (or _-es_). + +The first two methods prevailed, together with the third, in Old +English, but in modern English _-s_ or _-es_ has come to be the +"standard" ending; that is, whenever we adopt a new word, we make its +plural by adding _-s_ or _-es._ + + +I. Plurals formed by the Suffix _-en_. + + +[Sidenote: _The_ -en _inflection._] + +38. This inflection remains only in the word oxen, though it was +quite common in Old and Middle English; for instance, _eyen_ (eyes), +_treen_ (trees), _shoon_ (shoes), which last is still used in Lowland +Scotch. _Hosen_ is found in the King James version of the Bible, and +_housen_ is still common in the provincial speech in England. + + +39. But other words were inflected afterwards, in imitation of the +old words in _-en_ by making a double plural. + +[Sidenote: -En _inflection imitated by other words._] + +Brethren has passed through three stages. The old plural was +_brothru_, then _brothre_ or _brethre_, finally _brethren_. The +weakening of inflections led to this addition. + +Children has passed through the same history, though the +intermediate form _childer_ lasted till the seventeenth century in +literary English, and is still found in dialects; as,-- + + "God bless me! so then, after all, you'll have a chance to see + your _childer_ get up like, and get settled."--QUOTED BY DE + QUINCEY. + +Kine is another double plural, but has now no singular. + + In spite of wandering _kine_ and other adverse + circumstance.--THOREAU. + + +II. Plurals formed by Vowel Change. + + +40. Examples of this inflection are,-- + + man--men + foot--feet + goose--geese + louse--lice + mouse--mice + tooth--teeth + +Some other words--as _book_, _turf_, _wight_, _borough_--formerly had +the same inflection, but they now add the ending _-s_. + + +41. Akin to this class are some words, originally neuter, that have +the singular and plural alike; such as _deer_, _sheep_, _swine_, etc. + +Other words following the same usage are, _pair_, _brace_, _dozen_, +after numerals (if not after numerals, or if preceded by the +prepositions _in_, _by_, etc, they add _-s_): also _trout_, _salmon_; +_head_, _sail_; _cannon_; _heathen_, _folk_, _people_. + +The words _horse_ and _foot_, when they mean soldiery, retain the +same form for plural meaning; as,-- + + The _foot_ are fourscore thousand, + The _horse_ are thousands ten. + --MACAULAY. + + Lee marched over the mountain wall,-- + Over the mountains winding down, + _Horse_ and _foot_, into Frederick town. + --WHITTIER. + + + +III. Plurals formed by Adding -s or -es. + + +42. Instead of _-s,_ the ending _-es_ is added-- + +(1) If a word ends in a letter which cannot add _-s_ and be +pronounced. Such are _box, cross, ditch, glass, lens, quartz_, etc. + +[Sidenote: _-Es added in certain cases_.] + +If the word ends in a _sound_ which cannot add _-s_, a new syllable is +made; as, _niche--niches, race--races, house--houses, prize--prizes, +chaise--chaises_, etc. + +_-Es_ is also added to a few words ending in -o, though this sound +combines readily with _-s_, and does not make an extra syllable: +_cargo--cargoes, negro--negroes, hero--heroes, volcano--volcanoes_, +etc. + +Usage differs somewhat in other words of this class, some adding _-s_, +and some _-es_. + +(2) If a word ends in _-y_ preceded by a consonant (the _y_ being then +changed to _i_); e.g., _fancies, allies, daisies, fairies_. + +[Sidenote: _Words in -ies._] + +Formerly, however, these words ended in _-ie_, and the real ending is +therefore _-s_. Notice these from Chaucer (fourteenth century):-- + +[Sidenote: _Their old form._] + + The _lilie_ on hir stalke grene. + Of _maladie_ the which he hadde endured. + +And these from Spenser (sixteenth century):-- + + Be well aware, quoth then that _ladie_ milde. + At last fair Hesperus in highest _skie_ + Had spent his lampe. + +(3) In the case of some words ending in -_f_ or -_fe_, which have +the plural in _-ves_: _calf_--_calves_, _half_--_halves_, +_knife_--_knives_, _shelf_--_shelves_, etc. + + +Special Lists. + + +43. Material nouns and abstract nouns are always singular. When +such words take a plural ending, they lose their identity, and go over +to other classes (Secs. 15 and 17). + + +44. Proper nouns are regularly singular, but may be made plural +when we wish to speak of several persons or things bearing the same +name; e.g., _the Washingtons_, _the Americas_. + + +45. Some words are usually singular, though they are plural in +form. Examples of these are, _optics_, _economics_, _physics_, +_mathematics_, _politics_, and many branches of learning; also _news_, +_pains_ (care), _molasses_, _summons_, _means_: as,-- + + _Politics_, in its widest extent, is both the science and the art + of government.--_Century Dictionary_. + + So live, that when thy _summons comes_, etc.--BRYANT. + + It served simply as _a means_ of sight.--PROF. DANA. + +[Sidenote: Means _plural_.] + +Two words, means and politics, _may be plural_ in their +construction with verbs and adjectives:-- + + Words, by strongly conveying the passions, by _those means_ which + we have already mentioned, fully compensate for their weakness in + other respects.--BURKE. + + With great dexterity _these means_ were now applied.--MOTLEY. + + By _these means_, I say, riches will accumulate.--GOLDSMITH. + +[Sidenote: Politics _plural_.] + + Cultivating a feeling that _politics_ are tiresome.--G.W. CURTIS. + + The _politics_ in which he took the keenest interest _were + politics_ scarcely deserving of the name.--MACAULAY. + + Now I read all the _politics_ that _come_ out.--GOLDSMITH. + + +46. Some words have no corresponding singular. + + aborigines + amends + annals + assets + antipodes + scissors + thanks + spectacles + vespers + victuals + matins + nuptials + oats + obsequies + premises + bellows + billiards + dregs + gallows + tongs + +[Sidenote: _Occasionally singular words_.] + +Sometimes, however, a few of these words have the construction of +singular nouns. Notice the following:-- + + They cannot get on without each other any more than one blade of + _a scissors_ can cut without the other.--J.L. LAUGHLIN. + + A relic which, if I recollect right, he pronounced to have been + _a tongs_.--IRVING. + + Besides this, it is furnished with _a forceps_.--GOLDSMITH. + + The air,--was it subdued when...the wind was trained only to turn + a windmill, carry off chaff, or work in _a bellows_?--PROF. DANA. + +In Early Modern English _thank_ is found. + + What _thank_ have ye?--_Bible_ + + +47. Three words were _originally singular_, the present ending _-s_ +not being really a plural inflection, but they are regularly construed +as plural: _alms, eaves, riches_. + + +[Sidenote: _two plurals_.] + +48. A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning. + + brother--brothers (by blood), brethren (of a society or church). + + cloth--cloths (kinds of cloth), clothes (garments). + + die--dies (stamps for coins, etc.), dice (for gaming). + + fish--fish (collectively), fishes (individuals or kinds). + + genius--geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits). + + index--indexes (to books), indices (signs in algebra). + + pea--peas (separately), pease (collectively). + + penny--pennies (separately), pence (collectively). + + shot--shot (collective balls), shots (number of times fired). + +In speaking of coins, _twopence_, _sixpence_, etc., may add _-s_, +making a double plural, as two _sixpences_. + + +[Sidenote: _One plural, two meanings._] + +49. Other words have one plural form with two meanings,--one +corresponding to the singular, the other unlike it. + + custom--customs: (1) habits, ways; (2) revenue duties. + + letter--letters: (1) the alphabet, or epistles; (2) literature. + + number--numbers: (1) figures; (2) poetry, as in the lines,-- + + I lisped in _numbers_, for the numbers came.--POPE. + + Tell me not, in mournful _numbers_.--LONGFELLOW. + +_Numbers_ also means issues, or copies, of a periodical. + + pain--pains: (1) suffering; (2) care, trouble, + + part--parts: (1) divisions; (2) abilities, faculties. + + +[Sidenote: _Two classes of compound words._] + +50. Compound words may be divided into two classes:-- + +(1) _Those whose parts are so closely joined as to constitute one +word._ These make the last part plural. + + courtyard + dormouse + Englishman + fellow-servant + fisherman + Frenchman + forget-me-not + goosequill + handful + mouthful + cupful + maidservant + pianoforte + stepson + spoonful + titmouse + +(2) _Those groups in which the first part is the principal one, +followed by a word or phrase making a modifier._ The chief member adds +_-s_ in the plural. + + aid-de-camp + attorney at law + billet-doux + commander in chief + court-martial + cousin-german + father-in-law + knight-errant + hanger-on + +NOTE.--Some words ending in _-man_ are not compounds of the English +word _man_, but add _-s_; such as _talisman_, _firman_, _Brahman_, +_German_, _Norman_, _Mussulman_, _Ottoman_. + + +51. Some groups pluralize both parts of the group; as _man singer_, +_manservant_, _woman servant_, _woman singer_. + + +[Sidenote: _Two methods in use for names with titles._] + +52. As to plurals of names with titles, there is some disagreement +among English writers. The title may be plural, as _the Messrs. +Allen_, _the Drs. Brown_, _the Misses Rich_; or the name may be +pluralized. + +The former is perhaps more common in present-day use, though the +latter is often found; for example,-- + + Then came Mr. and Mrs. Briggs, and then _the three Miss + Spinneys_, then Silas Peckham.--DR. HOLMES. + + Our immortal Fielding was of the younger branch of the _Earls of + Denbigh_, who drew their origin from the _Counts of + Hapsburgh_.--GIBBON. + + The _Miss Flamboroughs_ were reckoned the best dancers in the + parish.--GOLDSMITH. + + The _Misses Nettengall's_ young ladies come to the Cathedral + too.--DICKENS. + + The _Messrs. Harper_ have done the more than generous thing by + Mr. Du Maurier.--_The Critic_. + + +53. A number of foreign words have been adopted into English +without change of form. These are said to be _domesticated_, and +retain their foreign plurals. + +Others have been adopted, and by long use have altered their power so +as to conform to English words. They are then said to be +_naturalized_, or _Anglicized_, or _Englished_. + +[Sidenote: _Domesticated words._] + +The domesticated words may retain the original plural. Some of them +have a secondary English plural in _-s_ or _-es_. + + +Exercise. + +Find in the dictionary the plurals of these words:-- + +I. FROM THE LATIN. + + apparatus + appendix + axis + datum + erratum + focus + formula + genus + larva + medium + memorandum + nebula + radius + series + species + stratum + terminus + vertex + +II. FROM THE GREEK. + + analysis + antithesis + automaton + basis + crisis + ellipsis + hypothesis + parenthesis + phenomenon + thesis + +[Sidenote: _Anglicized words._] + +When the foreign words are fully naturalized, they form their plurals +in the regular way; as,-- + + bandits + cherubs + dogmas + encomiums + enigmas + focuses + formulas + geniuses + herbariums + indexes + seraphs + apexes + + +[Sidenote: _Usage varies in plurals of letters, figures, etc._] + +54. Letters, figures, etc., form their plurals by adding _-s_ or +_'s_. Words quoted merely as words, without reference to their +meaning, also add _-s_ or _'s_; as, "His _9's_ (or _9s_) look like +_7's_ (or _7s_)," "Avoid using too many _and's_ (or _ands_)," "Change +the _+'s_ (or _+s_) to _-'s_ (or _-s_)." + + +CASE. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +55. Case is an inflection or use of a noun (or pronoun) to show its +relation to other words in the sentence. + +In the sentence, "He sleeps in a felon's cell," the word _felon's_ +modifies _cell_, and expresses a relation akin to possession; _cell_ +has another relation, helping to express the idea of place with the +word _in_. + + +56. In the general wearing-away of inflections, the number of case +forms has been greatly reduced. + +[Sidenote: _Only two_ case forms.] + +There are now only two case forms of English nouns,--one for the +_nominative_ and _objective_, one for the _possessive_: consequently +the matter of inflection is a very easy thing to handle in learning +about cases. + +[Sidenote: _Reasons for speaking of_ three cases _of nouns_.] + +But there are reasons why grammars treat of _three_ cases of nouns +when there are only two forms:-- + +(1) Because the relations of all words, whether inflected or not, must +be understood for purposes of analysis. + +(2) Because pronouns still have three case forms as well as three case +relations. + + +57. Nouns, then, may be said to have three cases,--the +nominative, the objective, and the possessive. + + +I. Uses of the Nominative. + +58. The nominative case is used as follows:-- + +(1) _As the subject of a verb_: "_Water_ seeks its level." + +(2) _As a predicate noun_, completing a verb, and referring to or +explaining the subject: "A bent twig makes a crooked _tree_." + +(3) _In apposition_ with some other nominative word, adding to the +meaning of that word: "The reaper _Death_ with his sickle keen." + +(4) _In direct address_: "_Lord Angus_, thou hast lied!" + +(5) _With a participle in an absolute or independent phrase_ (there is +some discussion whether this is a true nominative): "The _work_ done, +they returned to their homes." + +(6) _With an infinitive in exclamations_: "_David_ to die!" + + +Exercise. + +Pick out the nouns in the nominative case, and tell which use of the +nominative each one has. + +1. Moderate lamentation is the right of the dead; excessive grief, the +enemy of the living. + +2. Excuses are clothes which, when asked unawares, + Good Breeding to naked Necessity spares. + +3. Human experience is the great test of truth. + +4. Cheerfulness and content are great beautifiers. + +5. Three properties belong to wisdom,--nature, learning, and +experience; three things characterize man,--person, fate, and merit. + +6. But of all plagues, good Heaven, thy wrath can send, + Save, save, oh save me from the candid friend! + +7. Conscience, her first law broken, wounded lies. + +8. They charged, sword in hand and visor down. + +9. O sleep! O gentle sleep! + Nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted thee? + + +II. Uses of the Objective. + +59. The objective case is used as follows:-- + +(1) _As the direct object of a verb_, naming the person or thing +directly receiving the action of the verb: "Woodman, spare that +_tree_!" + +(2) _As the indirect object of a verb_, naming the person or thing +indirectly affected by the action of the verb: "Give the _devil_ his +due." + +(3) _Adverbially_, defining the action of a verb by denoting _time_, +_measure_, _distance_, etc. (in the older stages of the language, this +took the regular accusative inflection): "Full _fathom_ five thy +father lies;" "Cowards die many _times_ before their deaths." + +(4) _As the second object_, completing the verb, and thus becoming +part of the predicate in acting upon an object: "Time makes the worst +enemies _friends_;" "Thou makest the storm a _calm_." In these +sentences the real predicates are _makes friends_, taking the object +_enemies_, and being equivalent to one verb, _reconciles_; and _makest +a calm_, taking the object _storm_, and meaning calmest. This is also +called the _predicate objective_ or the _factitive object_. + +(5) _As the object of a preposition_, the word toward which the +preposition points, and which it joins to another word: "He must have +a long spoon that would eat with the _devil_." + +The preposition sometimes takes the _possessive_ case of a noun, as +will be seen in Sec. 68. + +(6) _In apposition with another objective_: "The opinions of this +junto were completely controlled by Nicholas Vedder, a _patriarch_ of +the village, and _landlord_ of the inn." + + +Exercise. + +Point out the nouns in the objective case in these sentences, and tell +which use each has:-- + +1. Tender men sometimes have strong wills. + +2. Necessity is the certain connection between cause and effect. + +3. Set a high price on your leisure moments; they are sands of +precious gold. + +4. But the flood came howling one day. + +5. I found the urchin Cupid sleeping. + +6. Five times every year he was to be exposed in the pillory. + +7. The noblest mind the best contentment has. + +8. Multitudes came every summer to visit that famous natural +curiosity, the Great Stone Face. + +9. And whirling plate, and forfeits paid, + His winter task a pastime made. + +10. He broke the ice on the streamlet's brink, + And gave the leper to eat and drink. + + +III. Uses of the Possessive. + + +60. The possessive case always modifies another word, expressed or +understood. There are three forms of possessive showing how a word is +related in sense to the modified word:-- + +(1) _Appositional possessive_, as in these expressions,-- + + The blind old man of _Scio's_ rocky isle.--BYRON. + + Beside a pumice isle in _Bai's_ bay.--SHELLEY. + +In these sentences the phrases are equivalent to _of the rocky isle +[of] Scio_, and _in the bay [of] Bai_, the possessive being really +equivalent here to an appositional objective. It is a poetic +expression, the equivalent phrase being used in prose. + +(2) _Objective possessive_, as shown in the sentences,-- + + Ann Turner had taught her the secret before this last good lady + had been hanged for _Sir Thomas Overbury's_ murder.--HAWTHORNE. + + He passes to-day in building an air castle for to-morrow, or in + writing _yesterday's_ elegy.--THACKERAY + +In these the possessives are equivalent to an objective after a verbal +expression: as, _for murdering Sir Thomas Overbury_; _an elegy to +commemorate yesterday_. For this reason the use of the possessive here +is called objective. + +(3) _Subjective possessive_, the most common of all; as,-- + + The unwearied sun, from day to day, + Does his Creator's power display. + --ADDISON. + +If this were expanded into _the power which his Creator possesses_, +the word _Creator_ would be the subject of the verb: hence it is +called a subjective possessive. + + +61. This last-named possessive expresses a variety of relations. +_Possession_ in some sense is the most common. The kind of relation +may usually be found by expanding the possessive into an equivalent +phrase: for example, "_Winter's_ rude tempests are gathering now" +(i.e., tempests that winter is likely to have); "His beard was of +_several days'_ growth" (i.e., growth which several days had +developed); "The _forest's_ leaping panther shall yield his spotted +hide" (i.e., the panther which the forest hides); "Whoso sheddeth +_man's_ blood" (blood that man possesses). + + +[Sidenote: _How the possessive is formed._] + +62. As said before (Sec. 56), there are only two case forms. One is +the simple form of a word, expressing the relations of nominative and +objective; the other is formed by adding _'s_ to the simple form, +making the possessive singular. To form the possessive plural, only +the apostrophe is added if the plural nominative ends in _-s_; the +_'s_ is added if the plural nominative does not end in _-s_. + + +Case Inflection. + + +[Sidenote: _Declension or inflection of nouns._] + +63. The full declension of nouns is as follows:-- + + SINGULAR. PLURAL. + +1. _Nom. and Obj._ lady ladies + _Poss._ lady's ladies' + +2. _Nom. and Obj._ child children + _Poss._ child's children's + +[Sidenote: _A suggestion._] + +NOTE.--The difficulty that some students have in writing the +possessive plural would be lessened if they would remember there are +two steps to be taken:-- + +(1) Form the nominative plural according to Secs 39-53 + +(2) Follow the rule given in Sec. 62. + + +Special Remarks on the Possessive Case. + + +[Sidenote: _Origin of the possessive with its apostrophe._] + +64. In Old English a large number of words had in the genitive case +singular the ending _-es_; in Middle English still more words took +this ending: for example, in Chaucer, "From every _schires_ ende," +"Full worthi was he in his _lordes_ werre [war]," "at his _beddes_ +syde," "_mannes_ herte [heart]," etc. + +[Sidenote: _A false theory._] + +By the end of the seventeenth century the present way of indicating +the possessive had become general. The use of the apostrophe, however, +was not then regarded as standing for the omitted vowel of the +genitive (as _lord's_ for _lordes_): by a false theory the ending was +thought to be a contraction of _his_, as schoolboys sometimes write, +"George Jones _his_ book." + +[Sidenote: _Use of the apostrophe._] + +Though this opinion was untrue, the apostrophe has proved a great +convenience, since otherwise words with a plural in _-s_ would have +three forms alike. To the eye all the forms are now distinct, but to +the ear all may be alike, and the connection must tell us what form is +intended. + +The use of the apostrophe in the plural also began in the seventeenth +century, from thinking that _s_ was not a possessive sign, and from a +desire to have distinct forms. + + +[Sidenote: _Sometimes_ s _is left out in the possessive singular._] + +65. Occasionally the _s_ is dropped in the possessive singular if +the word ends in a hissing sound and another hissing sound follows, +but the apostrophe remains to mark the possessive; as, _for goodness' +sake, Cervantes' satirical work_. + +In other cases the _s_ is seldom omitted. Notice these three examples +from Thackeray's writings: "Harry ran upstairs to his _mistress's_ +apartment;" "A postscript is added, as by the _countess's_ command;" +"I saw what the _governess's_ views were of the matter." + + +[Sidenote: _Possessive with compound expressions._] + +66. In compound expressions, containing words in apposition, a word +with a phrase, etc., the possessive sign is usually last, though +instances are found with both appositional words marked. + +Compare the following examples of literary usage:-- + + Do not the Miss Prys, my neighbors, know the amount of my income, + the items of my _son's_, _Captain Scrapegrace's_, tailor's + bill--THACKERAY. + + The world's pomp and power sits there on this hand: on that, + stands up for God's truth one man, the _poor miner Hans Luther's_ + son.--CARLYLE. + + They invited me in the _emperor their master's_ name.--SWIFT. + + I had naturally possessed myself of _Richardson the painter's_ + thick octavo volumes of notes on the "Paradise Lost."--DE + QUINCEY. + + They will go to Sunday schools to teach classes of little + children the age of Methuselah or the dimensions of _Og the king + of Bashan's_ bedstead.--HOLMES. + +More common still is the practice of turning the possessive into an +equivalent phrase; as, _in the name of the emperor their master_, +instead of _the emperor their master's name_. + + +[Sidenote: _Possessive and no noun limited._] + +67. The possessive is sometimes used without belonging to any noun +in the sentence; some such word as _house_, _store_, _church_, +_dwelling_, etc., being understood with it: for example,-- + + Here at the _fruiterer's_ the Madonna has a tabernacle of fresh + laurel leaves.--RUSKIN. + + It is very common for people to say that they are disappointed in + the first sight of _St. Peter's_.--LOWELL. + + I remember him in his cradle at _St. James's_.--THACKERAY. + + Kate saw that; and she walked off from the _don's_.--DE QUINCEY. + + +[Sidenote: _The double possessive._] + +68. A peculiar form, a double possessive, has grown up and become a +fixed idiom in modern English. + +In most cases, a possessive relation was expressed in Old English by +the inflection _-es_, corresponding to _'s_. The same relation was +expressed in French by a phrase corresponding to _of_ and its object. +Both of these are now used side by side; sometimes they are used +together, as one modifier, making a double possessive. For this there +are several reasons:-- + +[Sidenote: _Its advantages: Euphony_.] + +(1) When a word is modified by _a_, _the_, _this_, _that_, _every_, +_no_, _any_, _each_, etc., and at the same time by a possessive noun, +it is distasteful to place the possessive before the modified noun, +and it would also alter the meaning: we place it after the modified +noun with _of_. + +[Sidenote: _Emphasis._] + +(2) It is more emphatic than the simple possessive, especially when +used with _this_ or _that_, for it brings out the modified word in +strong relief. + +[Sidenote: _Clearness._] + +(3) It prevents ambiguity. For example, in such a sentence as, "This +introduction _of Atterbury's_ has all these advantages" (Dr. Blair), +the statement clearly means only one thing,--the introduction which +Atterbury made. If, however, we use the phrase _of Atterbury_, the +sentence _might_ be understood as just explained, or it might mean +this act of introducing Atterbury. (See also Sec. 87.) + +The following are some instances of double possessives:-- + + This Hall _of Tinville's_ is dark, ill-lighted except where she + stands.--CARLYLE. + + Those lectures _of Lowell's_ had a great influence with me, and + I used to like whatever they bade me like.--HOWELLS + + Niebuhr remarks that no pointed sentences _of Csar's_ can have + come down to us.--FROUDE. + + Besides these famous books _of Scott's and Johnson's_, there is a + copious "Life" by Thomas Sheridan.--THACKERAY + + Always afterwards on occasions of ceremony, he wore that quaint + old French sword _of the Commodore's_.--E.E. HALE. + + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Pick out the possessive nouns, and tell whether each is +appositional, objective, or subjective. + +(_b_) Rewrite the sentence, turning the possessives into equivalent +phrases. + +1. I don't choose a hornet's nest about my ears. + +2. Shall Rome stand under one man's awe? + +3. I must not see thee Osman's bride. + +4. At lovers' perjuries, + They say, Jove laughs. + +5. The world has all its eyes on Cato's son. + +6. My quarrel and the English queen's are one. + +7. Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, + Comes dancing from the East. + +8. A man's nature runs either to herbs or weeds; therefore, let him +seasonably water the one, and destroy the other. + +9. 'Tis all men's office to speak patience + To those that wring under the load of sorrow. + +10. A jest's prosperity lies in the ear + Of him that hears it, never in the tongue + Of him that makes it. + +11. No more the juice of Egypt's grape shall moist his lip. + +12. There Shakespeare's self, with every garland crowned, + Flew to those fairy climes his fancy sheen. + +13. What supports me? dost thou ask? + The conscience, Friend, to have lost them [his eyes] overplied + In liberty's defence. + +14. Or where Campania's plain forsaken lies, + A weary waste expanding to the skies. + +15. Nature herself, it seemed, would raise + A minster to her Maker's praise! + + +HOW TO PARSE NOUNS. + + +69. Parsing a word is putting together all the facts about its +form and its relations to other words in the sentence. + +In parsing, some idioms--the double possessive, for example--do not +come under regular grammatical rules, and are to be spoken of merely +as idioms. + +70. Hence, in parsing a noun, we state,-- + +(1) The class to which it belongs,--common, proper, etc. + +(2) Whether a neuter or a gender noun; if the latter, which gender. + +(3) Whether singular or plural number. + +(4) Its office in the sentence, determining its case. + +[Sidenote: _The correct method._] + +71. In parsing any word, the following method should always be +followed: tell the facts about what the word _does_, then make the +grammatical statements as to its class, inflections, and relations. + + +MODEL FOR PARSING. + +"What is bolder than a miller's neckcloth, which takes a thief by the +throat every morning?" + +_Miller's_ is a name applied to every individual of its class, hence +it is a common noun; it is the name of a male being, hence it is a +gender noun, masculine; it denotes only one person, therefore +singular number; it expresses possession or ownership, and limits +_neckcloth_, therefore possessive case. + +_Neckcloth_, like _miller's_, is a common class noun; it has no sex, +therefore neuter; names one thing, therefore singular number; subject +of the verb _is_ understood, and therefore nominative case. + +_Thief_ is a common class noun; the connection shows a male is meant, +therefore masculine gender; singular number; object of the verb +_takes_, hence objective case. + +_Throat_ is neuter, of the same class and number as the word +_neckcloth_; it is the object of the preposition _by_, hence it is +objective case. + +NOTE.--The preposition sometimes takes the possessive case (see Sec. +68). + +_Morning_ is like _throat_ and _neckcloth_ as to class, gender, and +number; as to case, it expresses time, has no governing word, but is +the adverbial objective. + + +Exercise. + + +Follow the model above in parsing all the nouns in the following +sentences:-- + + +1. To raise a monument to departed worth is to perpetuate virtue. + +2. The greatest pleasure I know is to do a good action by stealth, and +to have it found out by accident. + +3. An old cloak makes a new jerkin; a withered serving man, a fresh +tapster. + +4. That in the captain's but a choleric word, + Which in the soldier is flat blasphemy. + +5. Now, blessings light on him that first invented ... sleep! + +6. Necker, financial minister to Louis XVI., and his daughter, Madame +de Stal, were natives of Geneva. + +7. He giveth his beloved sleep. + +8. Time makes the worst enemies friends. + +9. A few miles from this point, where the Rhone enters the lake, +stands the famous Castle of Chillon, connected with the shore by a +drawbridge,--palace, castle, and prison, all in one. + +10. Wretches! ye loved her for her wealth, + And hated her for her pride. + +11. Mrs. Jarley's back being towards him, the military gentleman shook +his forefinger. + + + + +PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _The need of pronouns._] + +72. When we wish to speak of a name several times in succession, it +is clumsy and tiresome to repeat the noun. For instance, instead of +saying, "_The pupil_ will succeed in _the pupil's_ efforts if _the +pupil_ is ambitious," we improve the sentence by shortening it thus, +"The pupil will succeed in _his_ efforts if _he_ is ambitious." + +Again, if we wish to know about the ownership of a house, we evidently +cannot state the owner's name, but by a question we say, "_Whose_ +house is that?" thus placing a word instead of the name till we learn +the name. + +This is not to be understood as implying that pronouns were _invented_ +because nouns were tiresome, since history shows that pronouns are as +old as nouns and verbs. The use of pronouns must have sprung up +naturally, from a necessity for short, definite, and representative +words. + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +A pronoun is a reference word, standing for a name, or for a person +or thing, or for a group of persons or things. + + +[Sidenote: _Classes of pronouns._] + +73. Pronouns may be grouped in five classes:-- + +(1) Personal pronouns, which distinguish person by their form (Sec. +76). + +(2) Interrogative pronouns, which are used to ask questions about +persons or things. + +(3) Relative pronouns, which relate or refer to a noun, pronoun, or +other word or expression, and at the same time connect two statements +They are also called conjunctive. + +(4) Adjective pronouns, words, primarily adjectives, which are +classed as adjectives when they modify nouns, but as pronouns when +they stand for nouns. + +(5) Indefinite pronouns, which cannot be used as adjectives, but +stand for an indefinite number of persons or things. + +Numerous examples of all these will be given under the separate +classes hereafter treated. + + +PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Person in grammar._] + +74. Since pronouns stand for persons as well as names, they must +represent the person talking, the person or thing spoken to, and the +person or thing talked about. + +This gives rise to a new term, "the distinction of _person_." + +[Sidenote: Person _of nouns_.] + +75. This distinction was not needed in discussing nouns, as nouns +have the _same form_, whether representing persons and things spoken +to or spoken of. It is evident that a noun could not represent the +person speaking, even if it had a special form. + +From analogy to pronouns, which have _forms_ for person, nouns are +sometimes spoken of as first or second person by their _use_; that is, +if they are in apposition with a pronoun of the first or second +person, they are said to have person by agreement. + +But usually nouns represent something spoken of. + + +[Sidenote: _Three persons of pronouns._] + +76. Pronouns naturally are of three persons:-- + +(1) First person, representing the person speaking. + +(2) Second person, representing a person or thing spoken to. + +(3) Third person, standing for a person or thing spoken of. + + + +FORMS OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + +77. Personal pronouns are inflected thus:-- + + FIRST PERSON. + _Singular._ +_Nom._ I +_Poss._ mine, my +_Obj._ me + + _Plural._ +_Nom._ we +_Poss._ our, ours +_Obj._ us + + + SECOND PERSON. + _Singular._ + _Old Form_ _Common Form._ +_Nom._ thou you +_Poss._ thine, thy your, yours +_Obj._ thee you + + _Plural._ +_Nom._ ye you +_Poss._ your, yours your, yours +_Obj._ you you + + THIRD PERSON. + _Singular._ + _Masc._ _Fem._ _Neut._. +_Nom._ he she it +_Poss._ his her, hers its +_Obj._ him her it + + _Plur. of all Three_. +_Nom._ they +_Poss._ their, theirs +_Obj._ them + + +Remarks on These Forms. + + +[Sidenote: _First and second persons without gender._] + +78. It will be noticed that the pronouns of the first and second +persons have no forms to distinguish gender. The speaker may be either +male or female, or, by personification, neuter; so also with the +person or thing spoken to. + +[Sidenote: _Third person_ singular _has gender_.] + +But the third person has, in the singular, a separate form for each +gender, and also for the neuter. + +[Sidenote: _Old forms_.] + +In Old English these three were formed from the same root; namely, +masculine _he_, feminine _heo_, neuter _hit_. + +The form _hit_ (for _it_) is still heard in vulgar English, and _hoo_ +(for _heo_) in some dialects of England. + +The plurals were _hi_, _heora_, _heom_, in Old English; the forms +_they_, _their_, _them_, perhaps being from the English demonstrative, +though influenced by the cognate Norse forms. + + +[Sidenote: _Second person always plural in ordinary English._] + +79. _Thou_, _thee_, etc., are old forms which are now out of use in +ordinary speech. The consequence is, that we have no singular pronoun +of the second person in ordinary speech or prose, but make the plural +_you_ do duty for the singular. We use it with a plural verb always, +even when referring to a single object. + +[Sidenote: _Two uses of the old singulars._] + + +80. There are, however, two modern uses of _thou, thy_, etc.:-- + +(1) _In elevated style_, especially in poetry; as,-- + + With _thy_ clear keen joyance + Languor cannot be; + Shadow of annoyance + Never came near _thee_; + _Thou_ lovest; but ne'er knew love's sad satiety.--SHELLEY. + +(2) _In addressing the Deity_, as in prayers, etc.; for example,-- + + Oh, _thou_ Shepherd of Israel, that didst comfort _thy_ people of + old, to _thy_ care we commit the helpless.--BEECHER. + + +[Sidenote: _The form_ its.] + +81. It is worth while to consider the possessive _its_. This is of +comparatively recent growth. The old form was _his_ (from the +nominative _hit_), and this continued in use till the sixteenth +century. The transition from the old _his_ to the modern _its_ is +shown in these sentences:-- + + 1 He anointed the altar and all _his_ vessels.--_Bible_ + +Here _his_ refers to _altar_, which is a neuter noun. The quotation +represents the usage of the early sixteenth century. + + 2 It's had _it_ head bit off by _it_ young--SHAKESPEARE + +Shakespeare uses _his_, _it_, and sometimes _its_, as possessive of +_it_. + +In Milton's poetry (seventeenth century) _its_ occurs only three +times. + + 3 See heaven _its_ sparkling portals wide display--POPE + + +[Sidenote: _A relic of the olden time._] + +82. We have an interesting relic in such sentences as this from +Thackeray: "One of the ways to know '_em_ is to watch the scared looks +of the ogres' wives and children." + +As shown above, the Old English objective was _hem_ (or _heom_), which +was often sounded with the _h_ silent, just as we now say, "I saw +'_im_ yesterday" when the word _him_ is not emphatic. In spoken +English, this form '_em_ has survived side by side with the literary +_them_. + + +[Sidenote: _Use of the pronouns in personification._] + +83. The pronouns _he_ and _she_ are often used in poetry, and +sometimes in ordinary speech, to personify objects (Sec. 34). + + + +CASES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + + +I The Nominative. + + +[Sidenote: _Nominative forms._] + +84. The nominative forms of personal pronouns have the same uses as +the nominative of nouns (see Sec. 58). The case of most of these +pronouns can be determined more easily than the case of nouns, for, +besides a nominative _use_, they have a nominative form. The words +_I_, _thou_, _he_, _she_, _we_, _ye_, _they_, are very rarely anything +but nominative in literary English, though _ye_ is occasionally used +as objective. + + +[Sidenote: _Additional nominatives in spoken English._] + +85. In spoken English, however, there are some others that are added +to the list of nominatives: they are, _me_, _him_, _her_, _us_, +_them_, when they occur in the _predicate position_. That is, in such +a sentence as, "I am sure it was _him_," the literary language would +require _he_ after _was_; but colloquial English regularly uses as +predicate nominatives the forms _me_, _him_, _her_, _us_, _them_, +though those named in Sec. 84 are always subjects. Yet careful +speakers avoid this, and follow the usage of literary English. + + +II. The Possessive. + + +[Sidenote: _Not a separate class._] + +86. The forms _my_, _thy_, _his_, _her_, _its_, _our_, _your_, +_their_, are sometimes grouped separately as POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS, but +it is better to speak of them as the possessive case of personal +pronouns, just as we speak of the possessive case of nouns, and not +make more classes. + +[Sidenote: Absolute _personal pronouns._] + +The forms _mine_, _thine_, _yours_, _hers_, _theirs_, sometimes _his_ +and _its_, have a peculiar use, standing apart from the words they +modify instead of immediately before them. From this use they are +called ABSOLUTE PERSONAL PRONOUNS, or, some say, ABSOLUTE POSSESSIVES. + +As instances of the use of absolute pronouns, note the following:-- + + 'Twas _mine_, 'tis _his_, and has been slave to thousands. + --SHAKESPEARE. + + And since thou own'st that praise, I spare thee _mine_.--COWPER. + + My arm better than _theirs_ can ward it off.--LANDOR. + + _Thine_ are the city and the people of Granada.--BULWER. + +[Sidenote: _Old use of_ mine _and_ thine.] + +Formerly _mine_ and _thine_ stood before their nouns, if the nouns +began with a vowel or _h_ silent; thus,-- + + Shall I not take _mine_ ease in _mine_ inn?--SHAKESPEARE. + + Give every man _thine_ ear, but few thy voice.--_Id._ + + If _thine_ eye offend thee, pluck it out.--_Bible._ + + My greatest apprehension was for _mine_ eyes.--SWIFT. + +This usage is still preserved in poetry. + + +[Sidenote: _Double and triple possessives._] + +87. The forms _hers_, _ours_, _yours_, _theirs_, are really double +possessives, since they add the possessive _s_ to what is already a +regular possessive inflection. + +Besides this, we have, as in nouns, a possessive phrase made up of the +preposition _of_ with these double possessives, _hers_, _ours_, +_yours_, _theirs_, and with _mine_, _thine_, _his_, sometimes _its_. + +[Sidenote: _Their uses._] + +Like the noun possessives, they have several uses:-- + +(1) _To prevent ambiguity_, as in the following:-- + + I have often contrasted the habitual qualities of that gloomy + friend _of theirs_ with the astounding spirits of Thackeray and + Dickens.--J.T. FIELDS. + + No words _of ours_ can describe the fury of the conflict.--J.F. + COOPER. + +(2) _To bring emphasis_, as in these sentences:-- + + This thing _of yours_ that you call a Pardon of Sins, it is a bit + of rag-paper with ink.--CARLYLE. + + This ancient silver bowl _of mine_, it tells of good old times. + --HOLMES. + +(3) _To express contempt, anger, or satire_; for example,-- + + "Do you know the charges that unhappy sister _of mine_ and her + family have put me to already?" says the Master.--THACKERAY. + + He [John Knox] had his pipe of Bordeaux too, we find, in that old + Edinburgh house _of his_.--CARLYLE. + + "Hold thy peace, Long Allen," said Henry Woodstall, "I tell thee + that tongue _of thine_ is not the shortest limb about + _thee_."--SCOTT. + +(4) _To make a noun less limited in application_; thus,-- + + A favorite liar and servant _of mine_ was a man I once had to + drive a brougham.--THACKERAY. + + In New York I read a newspaper criticism one day, commenting upon + a letter _of mine_.--_Id._ + +What would the last two sentences mean if the word _my_ were written +instead of _of mine_, and preceded the nouns? + + +[Sidenote: _About the case of absolute pronouns._] + +88. In their function, or use in a sentence, the absolute possessive +forms of the personal pronouns are very much like adjectives used as +nouns. + +In such sentences as, "_The good_ alone are great," "None but _the +brave_ deserves _the fair_," the words italicized have an adjective +force and also a noun force, as shown in Sec. 20. + +So in the sentences illustrating absolute pronouns in Sec. 86: _mine_ +stands for _my property_, _his_ for _his property_, in the first +sentence; _mine_ stands for _my praise_ in the second. But the first +two have a nominative use, and _mine_ in the second has an objective +use. + +They may be spoken of as possessive in form, but nominative or +objective in use, according as the modified word is in the nominative +or the objective. + + + +III. The Objective. + + +[Sidenote: _The old_ dative _case._] + +89. In Old English there was one case which survives in use, but not +in form. In such a sentence as this one from Thackeray, "Pick _me_ out +a whip-cord thong with some dainty knots in it," the word _me_ is +evidently not the direct object of the verb, but expresses _for whom_, +_for whose benefit_, the thing is done. In pronouns, this dative +use, as it is called, was marked by a separate case. + +[Sidenote: _Now the objective._] + +In Modern English the same _use_ is frequently seen, but the _form_ is +the same as the objective. For this reason a word thus used is called +a dative-objective. + +The following are examples of the dative-objective:-- + + Give _me_ neither poverty nor riches.--_Bible._ + + Curse _me_ this people.--_Id._ + + Both joined in making _him_ a present.--MACAULAY + + Is it not enough that you have _burnt me_ down three houses with + your dog's tricks, and be hanged to you!--LAMB + + I give _thee_ this to wear at the collar.--SCOTT + + +[Sidenote: _Other uses of the objective._] + +90. Besides this use of the objective, there are others:-- + +(1) _As the direct object of a verb._ + + They all handled _it_.--LAMB + +(2) _As the object of a preposition._ + + Time is behind _them_ and before _them_.--CARLYLE. + +(3) _In apposition._ + + She sate all last summer by the bedside of the blind beggar, + _him_ that so often and so gladly I talked with.--DE QUINCEY. + + + +SPECIAL USES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Indefinite use of_ you _and_ your.] + +91. The word _you_, and its possessive case _yours_ are sometimes +used without reference to a particular person spoken to. They approach +the indefinite pronoun in use. + + _Your_ mere puny stripling, that winced at the least flourish of + the rod, was passed by with indulgence.--IRVING + + To empty here, _you_ must condense there.--EMERSON. + + The peasants take off their hats as _you_ pass; _you_ sneeze, and + they cry, "God bless you!" The thrifty housewife shows _you_ into + her best chamber. _You_ have oaten cakes baked some months + before.--LONGFELLOW + + +[Sidenote: _Uses of_ it.] + +92. The pronoun _it_ has a number of uses:-- + +(1) _To refer to some single word preceding_; as,-- + + Ferdinand ordered the _army_ to recommence _its_ march.--BULWER. + + _Society_, in this century, has not made _its_ progress, like + Chinese skill, by a greater acuteness of ingenuity in + trifles.--D. WEBSTER. + +(2) _To refer to a preceding word group_; thus,-- + + If any man should do wrong merely out of ill nature, why, yet + _it_ is but like the thorn or brier, which prick and scratch + because they can do no other.--BACON. + +Here _it_ refers back to the whole sentence before it, or to the idea, +"any man's doing wrong merely out of ill nature." + +(3) _As a grammatical subject, to stand for the real, logical +subject, which follows the verb_; as in the sentences,-- + + _It_ is easy in the world _to live after the world's opinion_. + --EMERSON. + + _It_ is this _haziness_ of intellectual vision which is the + malady of all classes of men by nature.--NEWMAN. + + _It_ is a pity _that he has so much learning, or that he has not + a great deal more_.--ADDISON. + +(4) _As an impersonal subject in certain expressions which need no +other subject_; as,-- + + _It_ is finger-cold, and prudent farmers get in their barreled + apples.--THOREAU. + + And when I awoke, _it_ rained.--COLERIDGE. + + For when _it_ dawned, they dropped their arms.--_Id._ + + _It_ was late and after midnight.--DE QUINCEY. + +(5) _As an impersonal or indefinite object of a verb or a +preposition_; as in the following sentences:-- + + (_a_) Michael Paw, who _lorded it_ over the fair regions of + ancient Pavonia.--IRVING. + + I made up my mind _to foot it_.--HAWTHORNE. + + A sturdy lad ... who in turn tries all the professions, who + _teams it, farms it, peddles it_, keeps a school.--EMERSON. + + (_b_) "Thy mistress leads thee a dog's life _of it_."--IRVING. + + There was nothing _for it_ but to return.--SCOTT. + + An editor has only to say "respectfully declined," and there is + an end _of it_.--HOLMES. + + Poor Christian was hard put _to it_.--BUNYAN. + + +[Sidenote: _Reflexive use of the personal pronouns._] + +93. The personal pronouns in the objective case are often used +_reflexively_; that is, referring to the same person as the subject of +the accompanying verb. For example, we use such expressions as, "I +found _me_ a good book," "He bought _him_ a horse," etc. This +reflexive use of the _dative_-objective is very common in spoken and +in literary English. + +The personal pronouns are not often used reflexively, however, when +they are _direct_ objects. This occurs in poetry, but seldom in prose; +as,-- + + Now I lay _me_ down to sleep.--ANON. + + I set _me_ down and sigh.--BURNS. + + And millions in those solitudes, since first + The flight of years began, have laid _them_ down + In their last sleep.--BRYANT. + + + +REFLEXIVE OR COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Composed of the personal pronouns with_ -self, -selves.] + +94. The REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS, or COMPOUND PERSONAL, as they are also +called, are formed from the personal pronouns by adding the word +_self_, and its plural _selves_. + +They are _myself_, (_ourself_), _ourselves_, _yourself_, (_thyself_), +_yourselves_, _himself_, _herself_, _itself_, _themselves_. + +Of the two forms in parentheses, the second is the old form of the +second person, used in poetry. + +_Ourself_ is used to follow the word _we_ when this represents a +single person, especially in the speech of rulers; as,-- + + Methinks he seems no better than a girl; + As girls were once, as we _ourself_ have been.--TENNYSON. + + +[Sidenote: _Origin of these reflexives._] + +95. The question might arise, Why are _himself_ and _themselves_ not +_hisself_ and _theirselves_, as in vulgar English, after the analogy +of _myself_, _ourselves_, etc.? + +The history of these words shows they are made up of the +dative-objective forms, not the possessive forms, with _self_. In +Middle English the forms _meself_, _theself_, were changed into the +possessive _myself_, _thyself_, and the others were formed by analogy +with these. _Himself_ and _themselves_ are the only ones retaining a +distinct objective form. + +In the forms _yourself_ and _yourselves_ we have the possessive _your_ +marked as singular as well as plural. + + +[Sidenote: _Use of the reflexives._] + +96. There are three uses of reflexive pronouns:-- + +(1) _As object of a verb or preposition, and referring to the same +person or thing as the subject_; as in these sentences from Emerson:-- + + He who offers _himself_ a candidate for that covenant comes up + like an Olympian. + + I should hate _myself_ if then I made my other friends my asylum. + + We fill _ourselves_ with ancient learning. + + What do we know of nature or of _ourselves_? + +(2) _To emphasize a noun or pronoun_; for example,-- + + The great globe _itself_ ... shall dissolve.--SHAKESPEARE. + + Threats to all; + To _you yourself_, to us, to every one.--_Id._ + + Who would not sing for Lycidas! he knew + _Himself_ to sing, and build the lofty rhyme.--MILTON. + +NOTE.--In such sentences the pronoun is sometimes omitted, and the +reflexive modifies the pronoun understood; for example,-- + + Only _itself_ can inspire whom it will.--EMERSON. + + My hands are full of blossoms plucked before, Held dead within + them till _myself_ shall die.--E.B. BROWNING. + + As if it were _thyself_ that's here, I shrink with + pain.--WORDSWORTH. + +(3) _As the precise equivalent of a personal pronoun_; as,-- + + Lord Altamont designed to take his son and _myself_.--DE QUINCEY. + + Victories that neither _myself_ nor my cause always deserved.--B. + FRANKLIN. + + For what else have our forefathers and _ourselves_ been + taxed?--LANDOR. + + Years ago, Arcturus and _myself_ met a gentleman from China who + knew the language.--THACKERAY. + + + +Exercises on Personal Pronouns. + + +(_a_) Bring up sentences containing ten personal pronouns, some each +of masculine, feminine, and neuter. + +(_b_) Bring up sentences containing five personal pronouns in the +possessive, some of them being double possessives. + +(_c_) Tell which use each _it_ has in the following sentences:-- + +1. Come and trip it as we go, + On the light fantastic toe. + +2. Infancy conforms to nobody; all conform to it. + +3. It is an ill wind that blows nobody good. + +4. Courage, father, fight it out. + +5. And it grew wondrous cold. + +6. To know what is best to do, and how to do it, is wisdom. + +7. If any phenomenon remains brute and dark, it is because the +corresponding faculty in the observer is not yet active. + +8. But if a man do not speak from within the veil, where the word is +one with that it tells of, let him lowly confess it. + +9. It behooved him to keep on good terms with his pupils. + +10. Biscuit is about the best thing I know; but it is the soonest +spoiled; and one would like to hear counsel on one point, why it is +that a touch of water utterly ruins it. + + + +INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Three now in use._] + +97. The interrogative pronouns now in use are _who_ (with the forms +_whose_ and _whom_), _which_, and _what_. + +[Sidenote: _One obsolete._] + +There is an old word, _whether_, used formerly to mean which of two, +but now obsolete. Examples from the Bible:-- + + _Whether_ of them twain did the will of his father? + + _Whether_ is greater, the gold, or the temple? + +From Steele (eighteenth century):-- + + It may be a question _whether_ of these unfortunate persons had + the greater soul. + + +[Sidenote: _Use of_ who _and its forms._] + +98. The use of _who_, with its possessive and objective, is seen in +these sentences:-- + + _Who_ is she in bloody coronation robes from Rheims?--DE QUINCEY. + + _Whose_ was that gentle voice, that, whispering sweet, + Promised, methought, long days of bliss sincere?--BOWLES. + + What doth she look on? _Whom_ doth she behold?--WORDSWORTH. + +From these sentences it will be seen that interrogative _who_ refers +to _persons only_; that it is not inflected for gender or number, but +for case alone, having three forms; it is always third person, as it +always asks _about_ somebody. + + +[Sidenote: _Use of_ which.] + +99. Examples of the use of interrogative _which_:-- + + _Which_ of these had speed enough to sweep between the question + and the answer, and divide the one from the other?--DE QUINCEY. + + _Which_ of you, shall we say, doth love us most?--SHAKESPEARE. + + _Which_ of them [the sisters] shall I take?--_Id._ + +As shown here, _which_ is not inflected for gender, number, or case; +it refers to either persons or things; it is selective, that is, picks +out one or more from a number of known persons or objects. + + +[Sidenote: _Use of_ what.] + +100. Sentences showing the use of interrogative _what_:-- + + Since I from Smaylho'me tower have been, + _What_ did thy lady do?--SCOTT. + + _What_ is so rare as a day in June?--LOWELL. + + _What_ wouldst thou do, old man?--SHAKESPEARE. + +These show that _what_ is not inflected for case; that it is always +singular and neuter, referring to things, ideas, actions, etc., not to +persons. + + + +DECLENSION OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. + + +101. The following are all the interrogative forms:-- + + SING. AND PLUR. SING. AND PLUR. SINGULAR + +_Nom._ who? which? what? +_Poss._ whose? -- -- +_Obj._ whom? which? what? + +In spoken English, _who_ is used as objective instead of _whom_; as, +"_Who_ did you see?" "_Who_ did he speak to?" + + +[Sidenote: _To tell the case of interrogatives._] + +102. The interrogative _who_ has a separate form for each case, +consequently the case can be told by the form of the word; but the +case of _which_ and _what_ must be determined exactly as in nouns,--by +the _use_ of the words. + +For instance, in Sec. 99, _which_ is nominative in the first sentence, +since it is subject of the verb _had_; nominative in the second also, +subject of _doth love_; objective in the last, being the direct +object of the verb _shall take_. + + +[Sidenote: _Further treatment of_ who, which _and_ what.] + +103. _Who_, _which_, and _what_ are also relative pronouns; _which_ +and _what_ are sometimes adjectives; _what_ may be an adverb in some +expressions. + +They will be spoken of again in the proper places, especially in the +treatment of indirect questions (Sec. 127). + + + +RELATIVE PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Function of the relative pronoun_.] + +104. Relative pronouns differ from both personal and interrogative +pronouns in referring to an antecedent, and also in having a +conjunctive use. The advantage in using them is to unite short +statements into longer sentences, and so to make smoother discourse. +Thus we may say, "The last of all the Bards was he. These bards sang +of Border chivalry." Or, it may be shortened into,-- + + "The last of all the Bards was he, + _Who_ sung of Border chivalry." + +In the latter sentence, _who_ evidently refers to _Bards_, which is +called the antecedent of the relative. + + +[Sidenote: _The antecedent._] + +105. The antecedent of a pronoun is the noun, pronoun, or other +word or expression, for which the pronoun stands. It usually precedes +the pronoun. + +Personal pronouns of the third person may have antecedents also, as +they take the place usually of a word already used; as,-- + + The priest hath _his_ fee who comes and shrives us.--LOWELL + +In this, both _his_ and _who_ have the antecedent _priest_. + +The pronoun _which_ may have its antecedent following, and the +antecedent may be a word or a group of words, as will be shown in the +remarks on _which_ below. + + +[Sidenote: _Two kinds._] + +106. Relatives may be SIMPLE or INDEFINITE. + +When the word _relative_ is used, a simple relative is meant. +Indefinite relatives, and the indefinite use of simple relatives, will +be discussed further on. + +The SIMPLE RELATIVES are _who_, _which_, _that_, _what_. + + +[Sidenote: Who _and its forms._] + +107. Examples of the relative _who_ and its forms:-- + + 1. Has a man gained anything _who_ has received a hundred favors + and rendered none?--EMERSON. + + 2. That man is little to be envied _whose_ patriotism would not + gain force upon the plain of Marathon.--DR JOHNSON. + +3. For her enchanting son, + _Whom_ universal nature did lament.--MILTON. + + 4. The nurse came to us, _who_ were sitting in an adjoining + apartment.--THACKERAY. + +5. Ye mariners of England, + That guard our native seas; + _Whose_ flag has braved, a thousand years, + The battle and the breeze!--CAMPBELL. + + 6. The men _whom_ men respect, the women _whom_ women approve, + are the men and women _who_ bless their species.--PARTON + + +[Sidenote: Which _and its forms._] + +108. Examples of the relative _which_ and its forms:-- + + 1. They had not their own luster, but the look _which_ is not of + the earth.--BYRON. + + 2. The embattled portal arch he pass'd, + _Whose_ ponderous grate and massy bar + Had oft roll'd back the tide of war.--SCOTT. + + 3. Generally speaking, the dogs _which_ stray around the butcher + shops restrain their appetites.--COX. + + 4. The origin of language is divine, in the same sense in _which_ + man's nature, with all its capabilities ..., is a divine + creation.--W.D. WHITNEY. + + 5. (_a_) This gradation ... ought to be kept in view; else this + description will seem exaggerated, _which_ it certainly is + not.--BURKE. + + (_b_) The snow was three inches deep and still falling, _which_ + prevented him from taking his usual ride.--IRVING. + +[Sidenote: That.] + +109. Examples of the relative _that_:-- + + + 1. The man _that_ hath no music in himself,... + Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. + --SHAKESPEARE + + 2. The judge ... bought up all the pigs _that_ could be + had.--LAMB + + 3. Nature and books belong to the eyes _that_ see them.--EMERSON. + + 4. For the sake of country a man is told to yield everything + _that_ makes the land honorable.--H.W. BEECHER + + 5. Reader, _that_ do not pretend to have leisure for very much + scholarship, you will not be angry with me for telling you.--DE + QUINCEY. + + 6. The Tree Igdrasil, _that_ has its roots down in the kingdoms + of Hela and Death, and whose boughs overspread the highest + heaven!--CARLYLE. + +[Sidenote: What.] + +110. Examples of the use of the relative _what_:-- + + 1. Its net to entangle the enemy seems to be _what_ it chiefly + trusts to, and _what_ it takes most pains to render as complete + as possible.--GOLDSMITH. + + 2. For _what_ he sought below is passed above, Already done is + all that he would do.--MARGARET FULLER. + + 3. Some of our readers may have seen in India a crowd of crows + picking a sick vulture to death, no bad type of _what_ often + happens in that country.--MACAULAY + +[_To the Teacher._--If pupils work over the above sentences carefully, +and test every remark in the following paragraphs, they will get a +much better understanding of the relatives.] + + + +REMARKS ON THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. + +[Sidenote: Who.] + +111. By reading carefully the sentences in Sec. 107, the following +facts will be noticed about the relative _who_:-- + +(1) It usually refers to persons: thus, in the first sentence, Sec. +107, _a man...who_; in the second, _that man...whose_; in the third, +_son_, _whom_; and so on. + +(2) It has three case forms,--_who_, _whose_, _whom_. + +(3) The forms do not change for person or number of the antecedent. In +sentence 4, _who_ is first person; in 5, _whose_ is second person; the +others are all third person. In 1, 2, and 3, the relatives are +singular; in 4, 5, and 6, they are plural. + +[Sidenote: Who _referring to animals_.] + +112. Though in most cases _who_ refers to persons there are +instances found where it refers to animals. It has been seen (Sec. 24) +that animals are referred to by personal pronouns when their +characteristics or habits are such as to render them important or +interesting to man. Probably on the same principle the personal +relative _who_ is used not infrequently in literature, referring to +animals. + +Witness the following examples:-- + + And you, warm little housekeeper [the cricket], _who_ class With + those who think the candles come too soon.--LEIGH HUNT. + + The robins...have succeeded in driving off the bluejays _who_ + used to build in our pines.--LOWELL. + + The little gorilla, _whose_ wound I had dressed, flung its arms + around my neck.--THACKERAY. + + A lake frequented by every fowl _whom_ Nature has taught to dip + the wing in water.--DR. JOHNSON. + + While we had such plenty of domestic insects _who_ infinitely + excelled the former, because they understood how to weave as well + as to spin.--SWIFT. + + My horse, _who_, under his former rider had hunted the buffalo, + seemed as much excited as myself.--IRVING. + +Other examples might be quoted from Burke, Kingsley, Smollett, Scott, +Cooper, Gibbon, and others. + +[Sidenote: Which.] + +113. The sentences in Sec. 108 show that-- + +(1) _Which_ refers to animals, things, or ideas, not persons. + +(2) It is not inflected for gender or number. + +(3) It is nearly always third person, rarely second (an example of its +use as second person is given in sentence 32, p. 96). + +(4) It has two case forms,--_which_ for the nominative and objective, +_whose_ for the possessive. + +[Sidenote: _Examples of_ whose, _possessive case of_ which.] + +114. Grammarians sometimes object to the statement that _whose_ is +the possessive of _which_, saying that the phrase _of which_ should +always be used instead; yet a search in literature shows that the +possessive form _whose_ is quite common in prose as well as in poetry: +for example,-- + + I swept the horizon, and saw at one glance the glorious + elevations, on _whose_ tops the sun kindled all the melodies and + harmonies of light.--BEECHER. + + Men may be ready to fight to the death, and to persecute without + pity, for a religion _whose_ creed they do not understand, and + _whose_ precepts they habitually disobey.--MACAULAY + + Beneath these sluggish waves lay the once proud cities of the + plain, _whose_ grave was dug by the thunder of the + heavens.--SCOTT. + + Many great and opulent cities _whose_ population now exceeds that + of Virginia during the Revolution, and _whose_ names are spoken + in the remotest corner of the civilized world.--MCMASTER. + + Through the heavy door _whose_ bronze network closes the place of + his rest, let us enter the church itself.--RUSKIN. + + This moribund '61, _whose_ career of life is just coming to its + terminus.--THACKERAY. + +So in Matthew Arnold, Kingsley, Burke, and numerous others. + +[Sidenote: Which _and its antecedents_.] + +115. The last two sentences in Sec. 108 show that _which_ may have +other antecedents than nouns and pronouns. In 5 (_a_) there is a +participial adjective used as the antecedent; in 5 (_b_) there is a +complete clause employed as antecedent. This often occurs. + +Sometimes, too, the antecedent follows _which_; thus,-- + + And, which is worse, _all you have done + Hath been but for a wayward son_. + --SHAKESPEARE. + + Primarily, which is very notable and curious, I observe that _men + of business rarely know the meaning of the word "rich_."--RUSKIN. + + I demurred to this honorary title upon two grounds,--first, as + being one toward which I had no natural aptitudes or predisposing + advantages; secondly (which made her stare), _as carrying with it + no real or enviable distinction_.--DE QUINCEY. + +[Sidenote: That.] + +116. In the sentences of Sec. 109, we notice that-- + +(1) _That_ refers to persons, animals, and things. + +(2) It has only one case form, no possessive. + +(3) It is the same form for first, second, and third persons. + +(4) It has the same form for singular and plural. + +It sometimes borrows the possessive _whose_, as in sentence 6, Sec. +109, but this is not sanctioned as good usage. + +[Sidenote: What.] + +117. The sentences of Sec. 110 show that-- + +(1) _What_ always refers to things; is always neuter. + +(2) It is used almost entirely in the singular. + 1. The man _that_ hath no music in himself,... + Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. + --SHAKESPEARE +(3) Its antecedent is hardly ever expressed. When expressed, it +usually follows, and is emphatic; as, for example,-- + + What I would, _that_ do I not; but what I hate, _that_ do + I.--_Bible_ + + What fates impose, _that_ men must needs abide.--SHAKESPEARE. + + What a man does, _that_ he has.--EMERSON. + +Compare this:-- + + Alas! is _it_ not too true, what we said?--CARLYLE. + + + +DECLENSION OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. + + +118. These are the forms of the simple relatives:-- + + SINGULAR AND PLURAL. + + _Nom._ who which that what + _Poss._ whose whose -- -- + _Obj._ whom which that what + + +HOW TO PARSE RELATIVES. + +119. The _gender_, _number_, and _person_ of the relatives _who_, +_which_, and _that_ must be determined by those of the antecedent; the +_case_ depends upon the function of the relative in its own clause. + +For example, consider the following sentence: + + "He uttered truths _that_ wrought upon and molded the lives of + those _who_ heard him." + +Since the relatives hold the sentence together, we can, by taking them +out, let the sentence fall apart into three divisions: (1) "He uttered +truths;" (2) "The truths wrought upon and molded the lives of the +people;" (3) "These people heard him." + +_That_ evidently refers to _truths_, consequently is neuter, third +person, plural number. _Who_ plainly stands for _those_ or _the +people_, either of which would be neuter, third person, plural number. +Here the relative agrees with its antecedent. + +We cannot say the relative agrees with its antecedent in _case_. +_Truths_ in sentence (2), above, is subject of _wrought upon and +molded_; in (1), it is object of _uttered_. In (2), _people_ is the +object of the preposition _of_; in (3), it is subject of the verb +_heard_. Now, _that_ takes the case of _the truths_ in (2), not of +_truths_ which is expressed in the sentence: consequently _that_ is in +the nominative case. In the same way _who_, standing for _the people_ +understood, subject of _heard_, is in the nominative case. + +Exercise. + +First find the antecedents, then parse the relatives, in the following +sentences:-- + +1. How superior it is in these respects to the pear, whose blossoms +are neither colored nor fragrant! + +2. Some gnarly apple which I pick up in the road reminds me by its +fragrance of all the wealth of Pomona. + +3. Perhaps I talk with one who is selecting some choice barrels for +filling an order. + +4. Ill blows the wind that profits nobody. + +5. Alas! it is we ourselves that are getting buried alive under this +avalanche of earthly impertinences. + +6. This method also forces upon us the necessity of thinking, which +is, after all, the highest result of all education. + +7. I know that there are many excellent people who object to the +reading of novels as a waste of time. + +8. I think they are trying to outwit nature, who is sure to be +cunninger than they. + + +[Sidenote: _Parsing_ what, _the simple relative_.] + +120. The relative _what_ is handled differently, because it has +usually no antecedent, but is singular, neuter, third person. Its case +is determined exactly as that of other relatives. In the sentence, +"What can't be cured must be endured," the verb _must be endured_ is +the predicate of something. What must be endured? Answer, _What can't +be cured_. The whole expression is its subject. The word _what_, +however, is subject of the verb _can't be cured_, and hence is in the +nominative case. + +"What we call nature is a certain self-regulated motion or change." +Here the subject of _is_, etc., is _what we call nature_; but of this, +_we_ is the subject, and _what_ is the direct object of the verb +_call_, so is in the objective case. + +[Sidenote: _Another way._] + +Some prefer another method of treatment. As shown by the following +sentences, _what_ is equivalent to _that which_:-- + + It has been said that "common souls pay with _what_ they do, + nobler souls with _that which_ they are."--EMERSON. + + _That which_ is pleasant often appears under the name of evil; + and _what_ is disagreeable to nature is called good and + virtuous.--BURKE. + +Hence some take _what_ as a double relative, and parse _that_ in the +first clause, and _which_ in the second clause; that is, "common +souls pay with _that_ [singular, object of _with_] _which_ [singular, +object of _do_] they do." + + + +INDEFINITE RELATIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _List and examples._] + +121. INDEFINITE RELATIVES are, by meaning and use, not as direct as +the simple relatives. + +They are _whoever_, _whichever_, _whatever_, _whatsoever_; less common +are _whoso_, _whosoever_, _whichsoever_, _whatsoever_. The simple +relatives _who_, _which_, and _what_ may also be used as indefinite +relatives. Examples of indefinite relatives (from Emerson):-- + + 1. _Whoever_ has flattered his friend successfully must at once + think himself a knave, and his friend a fool. + + 2. It is no proof of a man's understanding, to be able to affirm + _whatever_ he pleases. + + 3. They sit in a chair or sprawl with children on the floor, or + stand on their head, or _what_ else _soever_, in a new and + original way. + + 4. _Whoso_ is heroic will always find crises to try his edge. + + 5. Only itself can inspire _whom_ it will. + + 6. God offers to every mind its choice between truth and repose. + Take _which_ you please,--you cannot have both. + + 7. Do _what_ we can, summer will have its flies. + +[Sidenote: _Meaning and use._] + +122. The fitness of the term _indefinite_ here cannot be shown +better than by examining the following sentences:-- + + 1. There is something so overruling in _whatever_ inspires us + with awe, in _all things which_ belong ever so remotely to + terror, that nothing else can stand in their presence.--BURKE. + + 2. Death is there associated, not with _everything that_ is most + endearing in social and domestic charities, but with _whatever_ + is darkest in human nature and in human destiny.--MACAULAY. + +It is clear that in 1, _whatever_ is equivalent to _all things +which_, and in 2, to _everything that_; no certain antecedent, no +particular thing, being referred to. So with the other indefinites. + +[Sidenote: What _simple relative and_ what _indefinite relative_.] + +123. The above helps us to discriminate between _what_ as a simple +and _what_ as an indefinite relative. + +As shown in Sec. 120, the simple relative _what_ is equivalent to +_that which_ or the _thing which_,--some particular thing; as shown by +the last sentence in Sec. 121, _what_ means _anything that_, +_everything that_ (or _everything which_). The difference must be seen +by the meaning of the sentence, as _what_ hardly ever has an +antecedent. + +The examples in sentences 5 and 6, Sec. 121, show that _who_ and +_which_ have no antecedent expressed, but mean _any one whom_, _either +one that_, etc. + + + +OTHER WORDS USED AS RELATIVES. + + +[Sidenote: But _and_ as.] + +124. Two words, but and as, are used with the force of relative +pronouns in some expressions; for example,-- + + 1. There is not a leaf rotting on the highway _but_ has force in + it: how else could it rot?--CARLYLE. + + 2. This, amongst such other troubles _as_ most men meet with in + this life, has been my heaviest affliction.--DE QUINCEY. + +[Sidenote: _Proof that they have the force of relatives._] + +Compare with these the two following sentences:-- + + 3. There is nothing _but_ is related to us, nothing _that_ does + _not_ interest us.--EMERSON. + + 4. There were articles of comfort and luxury such _as_ Hester + never ceased to use, but _which_ only wealth could have + purchased.--HAWTHORNE. + +Sentence 3 shows that _but_ is equivalent to the relative _that_ with +_not_, and that _as_ after _such_ is equivalent to _which_. + +For _as_ after _same_ see "Syntax" (Sec. 417). + +[Sidenote: _Former use of_ as.] + +125. In early modern English, _as_ was used just as we use _that_ or +_which_, not following the word _such_; thus,-- + + I have not from your eyes that gentleness + And show of love _as_ I was wont to have.--SHAKESPEARE + +This still survives in vulgar English in England; for example,-- + + "Don't you mind Lucy Passmore, _as_ charmed your warts for you + when you was a boy? "--KINGSLEY + +This is frequently illustrated in Dickens's works. + + +[Sidenote: _Other substitutes._] + +126. Instead of the phrases _in which_, _upon which_, _by which_, +etc., the conjunctions _wherein_, _whereupon_, _whereby_, etc., are +used. + + A man is the facade of a temple _wherein_ all wisdom and good + abide.--EMERSON. + + The sovereignty of this nature _whereof_ we speak.--_Id._ + + The dear home faces _whereupon_ + That fitful firelight paled and shone.--WHITTIER. + + + +PRONOUNS IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS. + + +[Sidenote: _Special caution needed here._] + +127. It is sometimes hard for the student to tell a relative from an +interrogative pronoun. In the regular direct question the +interrogative is easily recognized; so is the relative when an +antecedent is close by. But compare the following in pairs:-- + +1. (_a_) Like a gentleman of leisure _who_ is strolling out for + pleasure. + + (_b_) Well we knew _who_ stood behind, though the earthwork hid + them. + +2. (_a_) But _what_ you gain in time is perhaps lost in power. + + (_b_) But _what_ had become of them they knew not. + +3. (_a_) These are the lines _which_ heaven-commanded Toil shows on + his deed. + + (_b_) And since that time I thought it not amiss To judge _which_ + were the best of all these three. + +In sentences 1 (_a_), 2 (_a_) and 3 (_a_) the regular relative use is +seen; _who_ having the antecedent _gentleman_, _what_ having the +double use of pronoun and antecedent, _which_ having the antecedent +_lines_. + +But in 1 (_b_), 2 (_b_), and 3 (_b_), there are two points of +difference from the others considered: first, no antecedent is +expressed, which would indicate that they are not relatives; second, a +question is disguised in each sentence, although each sentence as a +whole is declarative in form. Thus, 1 (_b_), if expanded, would be, +"Who stood behind? We knew," etc., showing that _who_ is plainly +interrogative. So in 2 (_b_), _what_ is interrogative, the full +expression being, "But what had become of them? They knew not." +Likewise with _which_ in 3 (_b_). + +[Sidenote: _How to decide._] + +In studying such sentences, (1) see whether there is an antecedent of +_who_ or _which_, and whether _what_ = _that_ + _which_ (if so, it is +a simple relative; if not, it is either an indefinite relative or an +interrogative pronoun); (2) see if the pronoun introduces an indirect +question (if it does, it is an interrogative; if not, it is an +indefinite relative). + +[Sidenote: _Another caution._] + +128. On the other hand, care must be taken to see whether the +pronoun is the word that really _asks the question_ in an +interrogative sentence. Examine the following:-- + +1. Sweet rose! whence is this hue + _Which_ doth all hues excel? + --DRUMMOND + +2. And then what wonders shall you do + _Whose_ dawning beauty warms us so? + --WALKER + +3. Is this a romance? Or is it a faithful picture of _what_ has + lately been in a neighboring land?--MACAULAY + + +These are interrogative sentences, but in none of them does the +pronoun ask the question. In the first, _whence_ is the interrogative +word, _which_ has the antecedent _hue_. In the second, _whose_ has the +antecedent _you_, and asks no question. In the third, the question is +asked by the verb. + + + +OMISSION OF THE RELATIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _Relative omitted when_ object.] + +129. The relative is frequently omitted in spoken and in literary +English when it would be the object of a preposition or a verb. Hardly +a writer can be found who does not leave out relatives in this way +when they can be readily supplied in the mind of the reader. Thus,-- + + These are the sounds we feed upon.--FLETCHER. + + I visited many other apartments, but shall not trouble my reader + with all the curiosities I observed.--SWIFT. + + +Exercise. + +Put in the relatives _who_, _which_, or _that_ where they are omitted +from the following sentences, and see whether the sentences are any +smoother or clearer:-- + + 1. The insect I am now describing lived three years,--GOLDSMITH. + + 2. They will go to Sunday schools through storms their brothers + are afraid of.--HOLMES. + + 3. He opened the volume he first took from the shelf.--G. ELIOT. + + 4. He could give the coals in that queer coal scuttle we read of + to his poor neighbor.--THACKERAY. + + 5. When Goldsmith died, half the unpaid bill he owed to Mr. + William Filby was for clothes supplied to his nephew.--FORSTER + + 6. The thing I want to see is not Redbook Lists, and Court + Calendars, but the life of man in England.--CARLYLE. + + 7. The material they had to work upon was already democratical by + instinct and habitude.--LOWELL. + + +[Sidenote: _Relative omitted when_ subject.] + +130. We often hear in spoken English expressions like these:-- + + There isn't one here * knows how to play ball. + + There was such a crowd * went, the house was full. + +Here the omitted relative would be in the nominative case. Also in +literary English we find the same omission. It is rare in prose, and +comparatively so in poetry. Examples are,-- + + The silent truth that it was she was superior.--THACKERAY + + I have a mind presages me such thrift.--SHAKESPEARE. + + There is a nun in Dryburgh bower, + Ne'er looks upon the sun. + --SCOTT. + + And you may gather garlands there + Would grace a summer queen. + _Id._ + + 'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view.--CAMPBELL. + + +Exercises on the Relative Pronoun. + +(_a_) Bring up sentences containing ten instances of the relatives +_who_, _which_, _that_, and _what_. + +(_b_) Bring up sentences having five indefinite relatives. + +(_c_) Bring up five sentences having indirect questions introduced by +pronouns. + +(_d_) Tell whether the pronouns in the following are interrogatives, +simple relatives, or indefinite relatives:-- + +1. He ushered him into one of the wherries which lay ready to attend +the Queen's barge, which was already proceeding. + +2. The nobles looked at each other, but more with the purpose to see +what each thought of the news, than to exchange any remarks on what +had happened. + +3. Gracious Heaven! who was this that knew the word? + +4. It needed to be ascertained which was the strongest kind of men; +who were to be rulers over whom. + +5. He went on speaking to who would listen to him. + +6. What kept me silent was the thought of my mother. + + + +ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. + +[Sidenote: _Function of adjective pronouns._] + +131. Most of the words how to be considered are capable of a double +use,--they may be pure modifiers of nouns, or they may stand for +nouns. In the first use they are adjectives; in the second they retain +an adjective _meaning_, but have lost their adjective _use_. Primarily +they are adjectives, but in this function, or use, they are properly +classed as adjective pronouns. + +The following are some examples of these:-- + + _Some_ say that the place was bewitched.--IRVING. + + That mysterious realm where _each_ shall take + His chamber in the silent halls of death. + --BRYANT. + + How happy is he born or taught + That serveth not _another's_ will. + --WOTTON + + _That_ is more than any martyr can stand.--EMERSON. + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +[Sidenote: _Adjectives, not pronouns._] + +Hence these words are like adjectives used as nouns, which we have +seen in such expressions as, "_The dead_ are there;" that is, a word, +in order to be an adjective pronoun, _must not modify any word, +expressed or understood_. It must come under the requirement of +pronouns, and _stand for a noun_. For instance, in the following +sentences--"The cubes are of stainless ivory, and on _each_ is +written, in letters of gold, '_Truth_;'" "You needs must play such +pranks as _these_;" "They will always have one bank to sun themselves +upon, and _another_ to get cool under;" "Where two men ride on a +horse, _one_ must ride behind"--the words italicized modify nouns +understood, necessarily thought of: thus, in the first, "each _cube_;" +in the second, "these _pranks_," in the others, "another _bank_," "one +_man_." + + +[Sidenote: _Classes of adjective pronouns._] + +132. Adjective pronouns are divided into three classes:-- + +(1) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, such as _this_, _that_, _the former_, etc. + +(2) DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS, such as _each_, _either_, _neither_, etc. + +(3) NUMERAL PRONOUNS, as _some_, _any_, _few_, _many_, _none_, _all_, +etc. + + +DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. + +[Sidenote: _Definition and examples._] + +133. A DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN is one that definitely points out what +persons or things are alluded to in the sentence. + +The person or thing alluded to by the demonstrative may be in another +sentence, or may be the whole of a sentence. For example, "Be _that_ +as it may" could refer to a sentiment in a sentence, or an argument in +a paragraph; but the demonstrative clearly points to that thing. + +The following are examples of demonstratives:-- + + I did not say _this_ in so many words. + + All _these_ he saw; but what he fain had seen He could not see. + + Beyond _that_ I seek not to penetrate the veil. + + How much we forgive in _those_ who yield us the rare spectacle of + heroic manners! + + The correspondence of Bonaparte with his brother Joseph, when + _the latter_ was the King of Spain. + + _Such_ are a few isolated instances, accidentally preserved. + + Even as I have seen, they that plow iniquity, and sow wickedness, + reap _the same_. + + They know that patriotism has its glorious opportunities and its + sacred duties. They have not shunned _the one_, and they have + well performed _the other_. + +NOTE.--It will be noticed in the first four sentences that _this_ and +_that_ are inflected for number. + + + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Find six sentences using demonstrative adjective pronouns. + +(_b_) In which of the following is _these_ a pronoun?-- + + 1. Formerly the duty of a librarian was to keep people as much as + possible from the books, and to hand _these_ over to his + successor as little worn as he could.--LOWELL. + + 2. They had fewer books, but _these_ were of the best.--_Id._ + + 3. A man inspires affection and honor, because he was not lying + in wait for _these_.--EMERSON + + 4. Souls such as _these_ treat you as gods would.--_Id._ + + 5. _These_ are the first mountains that broke the uniform level + of the earth's surface.--AGASSIZ + + +DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS. + +[Sidenote: _Definition and examples._] + +134. The DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS are those which stand for the names +of persons or things considered singly. + +[Sidenote: _Simple._] + +Some of these are _simple_ pronouns; for example,-- + + They stood, or sat, or reclined, as seemed good to _each_. + + As two yoke devils sworn to _other's_ purpose. + + Their minds accorded into one strain, and made delightful music + which _neither_ could have claimed as all his own. + +[Sidenote: _Compound_.] + +Two are compound pronouns,--_each other_, _one another_. They may be +separated into two adjective pronouns; as, + + We violated our reverence _each_ for _the other's_ soul. + --HAWTHORNE. + +More frequently they are considered as one pronoun. + + They led one another, as it were, into a high pavilion of their + thoughts.--HAWTHORNE. + + Men take each other's measure when they react.--EMERSON. + +Exercise.--Find sentences containing three distributive pronouns. + + +NUMERAL PRONOUNS. + +[Sidenote: _Definition and examples_.] + +135. The NUMERAL PRONOUNS are those which stand for an uncertain +number or quantity of persons or things. + +The following sentences contain numeral pronouns:-- + + Trusting too much to _others'_ care is the ruin of _many_. + + 'Tis of no importance how large his house, you quickly come to + the end of _all_. + + _Another_ opposes him with sound argument. + + It is as if _one_ should be so enthusiastic a lover of poetry as + to care nothing for Homer or Milton. + + There were plenty _more_ for him to fall in company with, as + _some_ of the rangers had gone astray. + + The Soldan, imbued, as _most_ were, with the superstitions of his + time, paused over a horoscope. + + If those [taxes] were the only _ones_ we had to pay, we might the + more easily discharge them. + + _Much_ might be said on both sides. + + If hand of mine _another's_ task has lightened. + It felt the guidance that it does not claim. + So perish _all_ whose breast ne'er learned to glow + For _others_' good, or melt for _others_' woe. + + _None_ shall rule but the humble. + +[Sidenote: _Some inflected._] + +It will be noticed that some of these are inflected for case and +number; such as _one other_, _another_. + +The word _one_ has a reflexive form; for example,-- + +[Sidenote: One _reflexive_.] + + The best way to punish _oneself_ for doing ill seems to me to go + and do good.--KINGSLEY. + + The lines sound so prettily to _one's self_. HOLMES. + +Exercise.--Find sentences containing ten numeral pronouns. + + + +INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition and examples._] + +136. Indefinite pronouns are words which stand for an indefinite +number or quantity of persons or things; but, unlike adjective +pronouns, they are never used as adjectives. + +Most of them are compounds of two or more words:-- + +[Sidenote: _List._] + +_Somebody_, _some one_, _something_; _anybody_, _any one_ (or +_anyone_), _anything_; _everybody_, _every one_ (or _everyone_), +_everything_; _nobody_, _no one_, _nothing_; _somebody else_, _anyone +else_, _everybody else_, _every one else_, etc.; also _aught_, +_naught_; and _somewhat_, _what_, and _they_. + +The following sentences contain indefinite pronouns:-- + + As he had them of all hues, he hoped to fit _everybody's_ fancy. + + _Every one_ knows how laborious the usual method is of attaining + to arts and sciences. + + _Nothing_ sheds more honor on our early history than the + impression which these measures everywhere produced in America. + + Let us also perform _something_ worthy to be remembered. + + William of Orange was more than _anything else_ a religious man. + + Frederick was discerned to be a purchaser of _everything_ that + _nobody else_ would buy. + + These other souls draw me as _nothing else_ can. + + The genius that created it now creates _somewhat else_. + + _Every one else_ stood still at his post. + + That is perfectly true: I did not want _anybody else's_ authority + to write as I did. + +_They_ indefinite means people in general; as,-- + + At lovers' perjuries, _they_ say, Jove laughs.--SHAKESPEARE. + +_What_ indefinite is used in the expression "I tell you _what_." It +means _something_, and was indefinite in Old English. + + Now, in building of chaises, I tell you _what_, + There is always somewhere a weakest spot. + + +Exercise.--Find sentences with six indefinite pronouns. + + +137. Some indefinite pronouns are inflected for case, as shown in +the words _everybody's_, _anybody else's_, etc. + +See also "Syntax" (Sec. 426) as to the possessive case of the forms +with _else_. + + + +HOW TO PARSE PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _A reminder._] + +138. In parsing pronouns the student will need particularly to +guard against the mistake of parsing words according to _form_ instead +of according to function or use. + + +Exercise. + +Parse in full the pronouns in the following sentences:-- + + 1. She could not help laughing at the vile English into which + they were translated. + + 2. Our readers probably remember what Mrs. Hutchinson tells us of + herself. + + 3. Whoever deals with M. de Witt must go the plain way that he + pretends to, in his negotiations. + + 4. Some of them from whom nothing was to be got, were suffered to + depart; but those from whom it was thought that anything could be + extorted were treated with execrable cruelty. + + 5. All was now ready for action. + + 6. Scarcely had the mutiny broken up when he was himself again. + + 7. He came back determined to put everything to the hazard. + + 8. Nothing is more clear than that a general ought to be the + servant of his government, and of no other. + + 9. Others did the same thing, but not to quite so enormous an + extent. + + 10. On reaching the approach to this about sunset of a beautiful + evening in June, I first found myself among the mountains,--a + feature of natural scenery for which, from my earliest days, it + was not extravagant to say that I hungered and thirsted. + + 11. I speak of that part which chiefly it is that I know. + + 12. A smaller sum I had given to my friend the attorney (who was + connected with the money lenders as their lawyer), to which, + indeed, he was entitled for his unfurnished lodgings. + + 13. Whatever power the law gave them would be enforced against + me to the utmost. + + 14. O thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my fathers! + + 15. But there are more than you ever heard of who die of grief in + this island of ours. + + 16. But amongst themselves is no voice nor sound. + + 17. For this did God send her a great reward. + + 18. The table was good; but that was exactly what Kate cared + little about. + + 19. Who and what was Milton? That is to say, what is the place + which he fills in his own vernacular literature? + + 20. These hopes are mine as much as theirs. + + 21. What else am I who laughed or wept yesterday, who slept last + night like a corpse? + + 22. I who alone am, I who see nothing in nature whose existence I + can affirm with equal evidence to my own, behold now the + semblance of my being, in all its height, variety, and curiosity + reiterated in a foreign form. + + 23. What hand but would a garland cull + For thee who art so beautiful? + + 24. And I had done a hellish thing, + And it would work 'em woe. + + 25. Whatever he knows and thinks, whatever in his apprehension is + worth doing, that let him communicate. + + 26. Rip Van Winkle was one of those foolish, well-oiled + dispositions, who take the world easy, eat white bread or brown, + whichever can be got with least thought or trouble. + + + 27. And will your mother pity me, + Who am a maiden most forlorn? + + 28. They know not I knew thee, + Who knew thee too well. + + 29. I did remind thee of our own dear Lake, + By the old Hall which may be mine no more. + + 30. He sate him down, and seized a pen, and traced + Words which I could not guess of. + + 31. Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow: + Such as creation's dawn beheld, thou rollest now. + + 32. Wild Spirit which art moving everywhere; + Destroyer and preserver; hear, oh, hear! + + 33. A smile of hers was like an act of grace. + + 34. No man can learn what he has not preparation for learning. + + 35. What can we see or acquire but what we are? + + 36. He teaches who gives, and he learns who receives. + + 37. We are by nature observers; that is our permanent state. + + 38. He knew not what to do, and so he read. + + 39. Who hears me, who understands me, becomes mine. + + 40. The men who carry their points do not need to inquire of + their constituents what they should say. + + 41. Higher natures overpower lower ones by affecting them with a + certain sleep. + + 42. Those who live to the future must always appear selfish to + those who live to the present. + + 43. I am sorry when my independence is invaded or when a gift + comes from such as do not know my spirit. + + 44. Here I began to howl and scream abominably, which was no bad + step towards my liberation. + + 45. The only aim of the war is to see which is the stronger of + the two--which is the master. + + + + +ADJECTIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _Office of Adjectives._] + +139. Nouns are seldom used as names of objects without additional +words joined to them to add to their meaning. For example, if we wish +to speak of a friend's house, we cannot guide one to it by merely +calling it _a house_. We need to add some words to tell its color, +size, position, etc., if we are at a distance; and if we are near, we +need some word to point out the house we speak of, so that no other +will be mistaken for it. So with any object, or with persons. + +As to the kind of words used, we may begin with the common adjectives +telling the _characteristics_ of an object. If a chemist discovers a +new substance, he cannot describe it to others without telling its +qualities: he will say it is _solid_, or _liquid_, or _gaseous_; +_heavy_ or _light_; _brittle_ or _tough_; _white_ or _red_; etc. + +Again, in _pointing out_ an object, adjectives are used; such as in +the expressions "_this_ man," "_that_ house," "_yonder_ hill," etc. + +Instead of using nouns indefinitely, the _number_ is limited by +adjectives; as, "_one_ hat," "_some_ cities," "_a hundred_ men." + +The office of an adjective, then, is to narrow down or limit the +application of a noun. It may have this office alone, or it may at the +same time add to the meaning of the noun. + + +[Sidenote: _Substantives._] + +140. Nouns are not, however, the only words limited by adjectives: +pronouns and other words and expressions also have adjectives joined +to them. Any word or word group that performs the same office as a +noun may be modified by adjectives. + +To make this clear, notice the following sentences:-- + +[Sidenote: _Pronoun._] + + If _he_ be _thankful_ for small benefits, it shows that he weighs + men's minds, and their trash.--BACON. + +[Sidenote: _Infinitives._] + + _To err_ is _human_; _to forgive, divine_.--POPE. + + With exception of the "and then," the "and there," and the still + less _significant_ "_and so_," they constitute all his + connections.--COLERIDGE. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +141. An adjective is a word joined to a noun or other substantive +word or expression, to describe it or to limit its application. + + +[Sidenote: _Classes of adjectives._] + +142. Adjectives are divided into four classes:-- + +(1) Descriptive adjectives, which describe by expressing qualities +or attributes of a substantive. + +(2) Adjectives of quantity, used to tell how many things are spoken +of, or how much of a thing. + +(3) Demonstrative adjectives, pointing out particular things. + +(4) Pronominal adjectives, words primarily pronouns, but used +adjectively sometimes in modifying nouns instead of standing for them. +They include relative and interrogative words. + + + +DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES. + + +143. This large class includes several kinds of words:-- + +(1) SIMPLE ADJECTIVES expressing quality; such as _safe_, _happy_, +_deep_, _fair_, _rash_, _beautiful_, _remotest_, _terrible_, etc. + +(2) COMPOUND ADJECTIVES, made up of various words thrown together to +make descriptive epithets. Examples are, "_Heaven-derived_ power," +"this _life-giving_ book," "his spirit wrapt and _wonder-struck_," +"_ice-cold_ water," "_half-dead_ traveler," "_unlooked-for_ burden," +"_next-door_ neighbor," "_ivory-handled_ pistols," "the +_cold-shudder-inspiring_ Woman in White." + +(3) PROPER ADJECTIVES, derived from proper nouns; such as, "an old +_English_ manuscript," "the _Christian_ pearl of charity," "the +well-curb had a _Chinese_ roof," "the _Roman_ writer Palladius." + +(4) PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES, which are either pure participles used to +describe, or participles which have lost all verbal force and have no +function except to express quality. Examples are,-- + +_Pure participial adjectives_: "The _healing_ power of the Messiah," +"The _shattering_ sway of one strong arm," "_trailing_ clouds," "The +_shattered_ squares have opened into line," "It came on like the +_rolling_ simoom," "God tempers the wind to the _shorn_ lamb." + +_Faded participial adjectives_: "Sleep is a _blessed_ thing;" "One is +hungry, and another is _drunken_;" "under the _fitting_ drapery of the +jagged and trailing clouds;" "The clearness and quickness are +_amazing_;" "an _aged_ man;" "a _charming_ sight." + + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +144. Care is needed, in studying these last-named words, to +distinguish between a participle that forms part of a verb, and a +participle or participial adjective that belongs to a noun. + +For instance: in the sentence, "The work was well and rapidly +accomplished," _was accomplished_ is a verb; in this, "No man of his +day was more brilliant or more accomplished," _was_ is the verb, and +_accomplished_ is an adjective. + + + +Exercises. + +1. Bring up sentences with twenty descriptive adjectives, having some +of each subclass named in Sec. 143. + +2. Is the italicized word an adjective in this?-- + +The old sources of intellectual excitement seem to be well-nigh +_exhausted_. + + + +ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY. + + +145. Adjectives of quantity tell _how much_ or _how many_. They have +these three subdivisions:-- + +[Sidenote: _How much._] + +(1) QUANTITY IN BULK: such words as _little_, _much_, _some_, _no_, +_any_, _considerable_, sometimes _small_, joined usually to singular +nouns to express an indefinite measure of the thing spoken of. + +The following examples are from Kingsley:-- + + So he parted with _much_ weeping of the lady. + Which we began to do with _great_ labor and _little_ profit. + Because I had _some_ knowledge of surgery and blood-letting. + But ever she looked on Mr. Oxenham, and seemed to take _no_ + care as long as he was by. + +Examples of _small_ an adjective of quantity:-- + + "The deil's in it but I bude to anger him!" said the woman, and + walked away with a laugh of _small_ satisfaction.--MACDONALD. + + 'Tis midnight, but _small_ thoughts have I of sleep.--COLERIDGE. + + It gives _small_ idea of Coleridge's way of talking.--CARLYLE. + +When _some_, _any_, _no_, are used with plural nouns, they come under +the next division of adjectives. + +[Sidenote: _How many._] + +(2) QUANTITY IN NUMBER, which may be expressed exactly by numbers or +remotely designated by words expressing indefinite amounts. Hence the +natural division into-- + +(_a_) _Definite numerals_; as, "_one_ blaze of musketry;" "He found in +the pathway _fourteen_ Spaniards;" "I have lost _one_ brother, but I +have gained _fourscore_;" "_a dozen_ volunteers." + +(_b_) _Indefinite numerals_, as the following from Kingsley: "We gave +_several_ thousand pounds for it;" "In came some five and twenty more, +and with them _a few_ negroes;" "Then we wandered for _many_ days;" +"Amyas had evidently _more_ schemes in his head;" "He had lived by +hunting for _some_ months;" "That light is far too red to be the +reflection of _any_ beams of hers." + + +[Sidenote: _Single ones of any number of changes._] + +(3) DISTRIBUTIVE NUMERALS, which occupy a place midway between the +last two subdivisions of numeral adjectives; for they are indefinite +in telling how many objects are spoken of, but definite in referring +to the objects one at a time. Thus,-- + + _Every_ town had its fair; _every_ village, its wake.--THACKERAY. + + An arrow was quivering in _each_ body.--KINGSLEY. + + Few on _either_ side but had their shrewd scratch to show.--_Id._ + + Before I taught my tongue to wound + My conscience with a sinful sound, + Or had the black art to dispense + A _several_ sin to _every_ sense.--VAUGHAN. + + +Exercise.--Bring up sentences with ten adjectives of quantity. + + + +DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _Not primarily pronouns._] + +146. The words of this list are placed here instead of among +pronominal adjectives, for the reason that they are felt to be +primarily adjectives; their pronominal use being evidently a +shortening, by which the words point out but stand for words omitted, +instead of modifying them. Their natural and original use is to be +joined to a noun following or in close connection. + +[Sidenote: _The list._] + +The demonstrative adjectives are _this_, _that_, (plural _these_, +_those_), _yonder_ (or _yon_), _former_, _latter_; also the pairs +_one_ (or _the one_)--_the other_, _the former_--_the latter_, used to +refer to two things which have been already named in a sentence. + +[Sidenote: _Examples._] + +The following sentences present some examples:-- + + The bashful virgin's sidelong looks of love, The matron's glance + that would _those_ looks reprove.--GOLDSMITH. + + These were thy charms...but all _these_ charms are fled.--_Id._ + + About _this_ time I met with an odd volume of the + "Spectator."--B. FRANKLIN. + + _Yonder_ proud ships are not means of annoyance to you.--D. + WEBSTER. + + _Yon_ cloud with _that_ long purple cleft.--WORDSWORTH. + + I chose for the students of Kensington two characteristic + examples of early art, of equal skill; but in _the one_ case, + skill which was progressive--in _the other_, skill which was at + pause.--RUSKIN. + +Exercise.--Find sentences with five demonstrative adjectives. + + +[Sidenote: _Ordinal numerals classed under demonstratives._] + +147. The class of numerals known as ordinals must be placed here, +as having the same function as demonstrative adjectives. They point +out which thing is meant among a series of things mentioned. The +following are examples:-- + + The _first_ regular provincial newspapers appear to have been + created in the last decade of the _seventeenth_ century, and by + the middle of the _eighteenth_ century almost every important + provincial town had its local organ.--BANCROFT. + +These do not, like the other numerals, tell _how many_ things are +meant. When we speak of the seventeenth century, we imply nothing as +to how many centuries there may be. + + + +PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +148. As has been said, pronominal adjectives are primarily +pronouns; but, when they _modify_ words instead of referring to them +as antecedents, they are changed to adjectives. They are of two +kinds,--RELATIVE and INTERROGATIVE,--and are used to join sentences or +to ask questions, just as the corresponding pronouns do. + + +[Sidenote: _Modify names of persons or things._] + +149. The RELATIVE ADJECTIVES are _which_ and _what_; for example,-- + + It matters not _what_ rank he has, _what_ revenues or garnitures. + --CARLYLE. + + The silver and laughing Xenil, careless _what_ lord should + possess the banks that bloomed by its everlasting + course.--BULWER. + + The taking of _which_ bark. I verily believe, was the ruin of + every mother's son of us.--KINGSLEY. + + In _which_ evil strait Mr. Oxenham fought desperately.--_Id._ + + +[Sidenote: _Indefinite relative adjectives._] + +150. The INDEFINITE RELATIVE adjectives are _what_, _whatever_, +_whatsoever_, _whichever_, _whichsoever_. Examples of their use are,-- + + He in his turn tasted some of its flavor, which, make _what_ sour + mouths he would for pretense, proved not altogether displeasing + to him.--LAMB. + + _Whatever_ correction of our popular views from insight, nature + will be sure to bear us out in.--EMERSON. + + _Whatsoever_ kind of man he is, you at least give him full + authority over your son.--RUSKIN. + + Was there, as it rather seemed, a circle of ominous shadow moving + along with his deformity, _whichever_ way he turned + himself?--HAWTHORNE. + + New torments I behold, and new tormented + Around me, _whichsoever_ way I move, + And _whichsoever_ way I turn, and gaze. + --LONGFELLOW (FROM DANTE). + + +151. The INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES are _which_ and _what_. They may +be used in direct and indirect questions. As in the pronouns, _which_ +is selective among what is known; _what_ inquires about things or +persons not known. + +[Sidenote: _In direct questions._] + +Sentences with _which_ and _what_ in direct questions:-- + + _Which_ debt must I pay first, the debt to the rich, or the debt + to the poor?--EMERSON. + + But when the Trojan war comes, _which_ side will you take? + --THACKERAY. + + But _what_ books in the circulating library circulate?--LOWELL. + + _What_ beckoning ghost along the moonlight shade + Invites my steps, and points to yonder glade?--POPE. + +[Sidenote: _In indirect questions._] + +Sentences with _which_ and _what_ in indirect questions:-- + + His head...looked like a weathercock perched upon his spindle + neck to tell _which_ way the wind blew.--IRVING. + + A lady once remarked, he [Coleridge] could never fix _which_ side + of the garden walk would suit him best.--CARLYLE. + + He was turned before long into all the universe, where it was + uncertain _what_ game you would catch, or whether any.--_Id._ + + At _what_ rate these materials would be distributed and + precipitated in regular strata, it is impossible to + determine.--AGASSIZ. + + +[Sidenote: _Adjective_ what _in exclamations_.] + +152. In exclamatory expressions, _what_ (or _what a_) has a force +somewhat like a descriptive adjective. It is neither relative nor +interrogative, but might be called an EXCLAMATORY ADJECTIVE; as,-- + + Oh, _what a_ revolution! and _what a_ heart must I have, to + contemplate without emotion that elevation and that fall!--BURKE. + + _What a_ piece of work is man!--SHAKESPEARE. + + And yet, alas, the making of it right, _what a_ business for long + time to come!--CARLYLE + + Through _what_ hardships it may attain to bear a sweet + fruit!--THOREAU. + + +Exercise.--Find ten sentences containing pronominal adjectives. + + + +INFLECTIONS OF ADJECTIVES. + + +153 .Adjectives have two inflections,--number and comparison. + + +NUMBER.--_This_, _That_. + + +[Sidenote: _History of_ this--these _and_ that--those.] + +154. The only adjectives having a plural form are _this_ and _that_ +(plural _these_, _those_). + +_This_ is the old demonstrative; _that_ being borrowed from the forms +of the definite article, which was fully inflected in Old English. The +article _that_ was used with neuter nouns. + +In Middle English the plural of _this_ was _this_ or _thise_, which +changed its spelling to the modern form _these_. + +[Sidenote: Those _borrowed from_ this.] + +But _this_ had also another plural, _thas_ (modern _those_). The old +plural of _that_ was _tha_ (Middle English _tho_ or _thow_): +consequently _tho_ (plural of _that_) and _those_ (plural of _this_) +became confused, and it was forgotten that _those_ was really the +plural of _this_; and in Modern English we speak of _these_ as the +plural of _this_, and _those_ as the plural of _that_. + + +COMPARISON. + +155. Comparison is an inflection not possessed by nouns and +pronouns: it belongs to adjectives and adverbs. + +[Sidenote: _Meaning of comparison._] + +When we place two objects side by side, we notice some differences +between them as to size, weight, color, etc. Thus, it is said that a +cow is _larger_ than a sheep, gold is _heavier_ than iron, a sapphire +is _bluer_ than the sky. All these have certain qualities; and when we +compare the objects, we do so by means of their qualities,--cow and +sheep by the quality of largeness, or size; gold and iron by the +quality of heaviness, or weight, etc.,--but not the same degree, or +amount, of the quality. + +The degrees belong to any beings or ideas that may be known or +conceived of as possessing quality; as, "untamed thought, great, +giant-like, enormous;" "the commonest speech;" "It is a nobler valor;" +"the largest soul." + +Also words of quantity may be compared: for example, "more matter, +with less wit;" "no fewer than a hundred." + + +[Sidenote: _Words that cannot be compared._] + +156. There are some descriptive words whose meaning is such as not +to admit of comparison; for example,-- + + His company became very agreeable to the brave old professor of + arms, whose _favorite_ pupil he was.--THACKERAY. + + A _main_ difference betwixt men is, whether they attend their own + affair or not.--EMERSON + + It was his business to administer the law in its _final_ and + closest application to the offender--HAWTHORNE. + + Freedom is a _perpetual, organic, universal_ institution, in + harmony with the Constitution of the United States.--SEWARD. + +So with the words _sole_, _sufficient_, _infinite_, _immemorial_, +_indefatigable_, _indomitable_, _supreme_, and many others. + +It is true that words of comparison are sometimes prefixed to them, +but, strictly considered, they are not compared. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +157. Comparison means the changes that words undergo to express +degrees in quality, or amounts in quantity. + +[Sidenote: _The two forms._] + +158. There are two forms for this inflection: the comparative, +expressing a greater degree of quality; and the superlative, +expressing the greatest degree of quality. + +These are called degrees of comparison. + +These are properly the only degrees, though the simple, uninflected +form is usually called the positive degree. + + +159. The comparative is formed by adding _-er_, and the superlative +by adding _-est_, to the simple form; as, _red_, _redder_, _reddest_; +_blue_, _bluer_, _bluest_; _easy_, _easier_, _easiest_. + + +[Sidenote: _Substitute for inflection in comparison._] + +160. Side by side with these inflected forms are found comparative +and superlative expressions making use of the adverbs more and +most. These are often useful as alternative with the inflected +forms, but in most cases are used before adjectives that are never +inflected. + +They came into use about the thirteenth century, but were not common +until a century later. + + +[Sidenote: _Which rule_,-- -er _and_ -est _or_ more _and_ most?] + +161. The English is somewhat capricious in choosing between the +inflected forms and those with _more_ and _most_, so that no +inflexible rule can be given as to the formation of the comparative +and the superlative. + +The general rule is, that monosyllables and easily pronounced words of +two syllables add _-er_ and _-est_; and other words are preceded by +_more_ and _most_. + +But room must be left in such a rule for pleasantness of sound and for +variety of expression. + +To see how literary English overrides any rule that could be given, +examine the following taken at random:-- + +From Thackeray: "The _handsomest_ wives;" "the _immensest_ quantity of +thrashing;" "the _wonderfulest_ little shoes;" "_more odd, strange_, +and yet familiar;" "_more austere_ and _holy_." + +From Ruskin: "The sharpest, finest chiseling, and _patientest_ +fusing;" "_distantest_ relationships;" "_sorrowfulest_ spectacles." + +Carlyle uses _beautifulest_, _mournfulest_, _honestest_, +_admirablest_, _indisputablest_, _peaceablest_, _most small_, etc. + +These long, harsh forms are usually avoided, but _more_ and _most_ are +frequently used with monosyllables. + + +162. Expressions are often met with in which a superlative form does +not carry the superlative meaning. These are equivalent usually to +_very_ with the positive degree; as,-- + + To this the Count offers a _most wordy_ declaration of the + benefits conferred by Spain.--_The Nation_, No 1507 + + In all formulas that Johnson could stand by, there needed to be a + _most genuine_ substance.--CARLYLE + + A gentleman, who, though born in no very high degree, was _most + finished_, _polished_, _witty_, _easy_, _quiet_.--THACKERAY + + He had actually nothing else save a rope around his neck, which + hung behind in the _queerest_ way.--_Id._ + + "So help me God, madam, I will," said Henry Esmond, falling on + his knees, and kissing the hand of his _dearest_ mistress.--_Id._ + + +[Sidenote: _Adjectives irregularly compared._] + +163. Among the variously derived adjectives now in our language +there are some which may always be recognized as native English. These +are adjectives irregularly compared. + +Most of them have worn down or become confused with similar words, but +they are essentially the same forms that have lived for so many +centuries. + +The following lists include the majority of them:-- + + + LIST I. + + 1. Good or well Better Best + 2. Evil, bad, ill Worse Worst + 3. Little Less, lesser Least + 4. Much or many More Most + 5. Old Elder, older Eldest, oldest + 6. Nigh Nigher Nighest, next + 7. Near Nearer Nearest + 8. Far Farther, further Farthest, furthest + 9. Late Later, latter Latest, last + 10. Hind Hinder Hindmost, hindermost + + + LIST II. + + These have no adjective positive:-- + + 1. [In] Inner Inmost, innermost + 2. [Out] Outer, utter {Outmost, outermost + {Utmost, uttermost + 3. [Up] Upper Upmost, uppermost + + + LIST III. + + A few of comparative form but not comparative meaning:-- + + After Over Under Nether + +Remarks on Irregular Adjectives. + + +[Sidenote: _List I._] + +164. (1) The word good has no comparative or superlative, but takes +the place of a positive to _better_ and _best_. There was an old +comparative _bet_, which has gone out of use; as in the sentence (14th +century), "Ich singe _bet_ than thu dest" (I sing better than thou +dost). The superlative I form was _betst_, which has softened to the +modern _best_. + +(2) In Old English, evil was the positive to _worse_, _worst_; but +later _bad_ and _ill_ were borrowed from the Norse, and used as +positives to the same comparative and superlative. _Worser_ was once +used, a double comparative; as in Shakespeare,-- + + O, throw away the _worser_ part of it.--HAMLET. + +(3) Little is used as positive to _less_, _least_, though from a +different root. A double comparative, _lesser_, is often used; as,-- + + We have it in a much _lesser_ degree.--MATTHEW ARNOLD. + + Thrust the _lesser_ half by main force into the fists of Ho-ti. + --LAMB. + +(4) The words much and many now express quantity; but in former +times _much_ was used in the sense of _large_, _great_, and was the +same word that is found in the proverb, "Many a little makes _a +mickle_." Its spelling has been _micel_, _muchel_, _moche_, _much_, +the parallel form _mickle_ being rarely used. + +The meanings _greater_, _greatest_, are shown in such phrases as,-- + + The _more_ part being of one mind, to England we + sailed.--KINGSLEY. + + The _most_ part kept a stolid indifference.--_Id._ + +The latter, meaning _the largest part_, is quite common. + +(5) The forms elder, eldest, are earlier than _older_, _oldest_. A +few other words with the vowel _o_ had similar change in the +comparative and superlative, as _long_, _strong_, etc.; but these have +followed _old_ by keeping the same vowel _o_ in all the forms, instead +of _lenger_, _strenger_, etc., the old forms. + +(6) and (7) Both nigh and near seem regular in Modern English, +except the form _next_; but originally the comparison was _nigh_, +_near_, _next_. In the same way the word high had in Middle English +the superlative _hexte_. + +By and by the comparative _near_ was regarded as a positive form, and +on it were built a double comparative _nearer_, and the superlative +_nearest_, which adds _-est_ to what is really a comparative instead +of a simple adjective. + +(8) These words also show confusion and consequent modification, +coming about as follows: further really belongs to another +series,--_forth_, _further_, _first_. First became entirely +detached from the series, and _furthest_ began to be used to follow +the comparative _further_; then these were used as comparative and +superlative of _far_. + +The word far had formerly the comparative and superlative _farrer_, +_farrest_. In imitation of _further_, _furthest_, _th_ came into the +others, making the modern _farther_, _farthest_. Between the two sets +as they now stand, there is scarcely any distinction, except perhaps +_further_ is more used than _farther_ in the sense of _additional_; +as, for example,-- + + When that evil principle was left with no _further_ material to + support it.--HAWTHORNE. + +(9) Latter and last are the older forms. Since _later_, _latest_, +came into use, a distinction has grown up between the two series. +_Later_ and _latest_ have the true comparative and superlative force, +and refer to time; _latter_ and _last_ are used in speaking of +succession, or series, and are hardly thought of as connected in +meaning with the word _late_. + +(10) Hinder is comparative in form, but not in meaning. The form +_hindmost_ is really a double superlative, since the _m_ is for _-ma_, +an old superlative ending, to which is added _-ost_, doubling the +inflection. _Hind-er-m-ost_ presents the combination comparative + +superlative + superlative. + + +[Sidenote: _List II._] + +165. In List II. (Sec. 163) the comparatives and superlatives are +adjectives, but they have no adjective positives. + +The comparatives are so in form, but not in their meaning. + +The superlatives show examples again of double inflection, and of +comparative added to double-superlative inflection. + +Examples (from Carlyle) of the use of these adjectives: "revealing the +_inner_ splendor to him;" "a mind that has penetrated into the +_inmost_ heart of a thing;" "This of painting is one of the +_outermost_ developments of a man;" "The _outer_ is of the day;" +"far-seeing as the sun, the _upper_ light of the world;" "the +_innermost_ moral soul;" "their _utmost_ exertion." + + +[Sidenote: -Most _added to other words_.] + +166. The ending _-most_ is added to some words that are not usually +adjectives, or have no comparative forms. + + There, on the very _topmost_ twig, sits that ridiculous but + sweet-singing bobolink.--H.W. BEECHER. + + Decidedly handsome, having such a skin as became a young woman of + family in _northernmost_ Spain.--DE QUINCEY. + + Highest and _midmost_, was descried The royal banner floating + wide.--SCOTT. + + +[Sidenote: _List III._] + +167. The adjectives in List III. are like the comparative forms in +List II. in having no adjective positives. They have no superlatives, +and have no comparative force, being merely descriptive. + + Her bows were deep in the water, but her _after_ deck was still + dry.--KINGSLEY. + + Her, by the by, in _after_ years I vainly endeavored to + trace.--DE QUINCEY. + + The upper and the _under_ side of the medal of Jove.--EMERSON. + + Have you ever considered what a deep _under_ meaning there lies + in our custom of strewing flowers?--RUSKIN. + + Perhaps he rose out of some _nether_ region.--HAWTHORNE. + +_Over_ is rarely used separately as an adjective. + + + +CAUTION FOR ANALYZING OR PARSING. + +[Sidenote: _Think what each adjective belongs to._] + +168. Some care must be taken to decide what word is modified by an +adjective. In a series of adjectives in the same sentence, all may +belong to the same noun, or each may modify a different word or group +of words. + +For example, in this sentence, "The young pastor's voice was +tremulously sweet, rich, deep, and broken," it is clear that all four +adjectives after _was_ modify the noun _voice_. But in this sentence, +"She showed her usual prudence and her usual incomparable decision," +_decision_ is modified by the adjective _incomparable_; _usual_ +modifies _incomparable decision_, not _decision_ alone; and the +pronoun _her_ limits _usual incomparable decision_. + +Adjectives modifying the same noun are said to be of the _same rank_; +those modifying different words or word groups are said to be +adjectives of _different rank_. This distinction is valuable in a +study of punctuation. + +Exercise. + +In the following quotations, tell what each adjective modifies:-- + + 1. Whenever that look appeared in her wild, bright, deeply black + eyes, it invested them with a strange remoteness and + intangibility.--HAWTHORNE. + + 2. It may still be argued, that in the present divided state of + Christendom a college which is positively Christian must be + controlled by some religious denomination.--NOAH PORTER. + + 3. Every quaking leaf and fluttering shadow sent the blood + backward to her heart.--MRS. STOWE. + + 4. This, our new government, is the first in the history of the + world based upon this great physical, philosophical, and moral + truth.--A.H. STEPHENS + + 5. May we not, therefore, look with confidence to the ultimate + universal acknowledgment of the truths upon which our system + rests?--_Id._ + + 6. A few improper jests and a volley of good, round, solid, + satisfactory, and heaven-defying oaths.--HAWTHORNE. + + 7. It is well known that the announcement at any private rural + entertainment that there is to be ice cream produces an immediate + and profound impression.--HOLMES. + + + +ADVERBS USED AS ADJECTIVES. + +169. By a convenient brevity, adverbs are sometimes used as +adjectives; as, instead of saying, "the one who was then king," in +which _then_ is an adverb, we may say "the _then_ king," making _then_ +an adjective. Other instances are,-- + + My _then_ favorite, in prose, Richard Hooker.--RUSKIN. + + Our _sometime_ sister, now our queen.--SHAKESPEARE + + Messrs. Bradbury and Evans, the _then_ and _still_ owners. + --TROLLOPE. + + The _seldom_ use of it.--TRENCH. + + For thy stomach's sake, and thine _often_ infirmities.--_Bible._ + + + +HOW TO PARSE ADJECTIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _What to tell in parsing._] + +170. Since adjectives have no gender, person, or case, and very few +have number, the method of parsing is simple. + +In parsing an adjective, tell-- + +(1) The class and subclass to which it belongs. + +(2) Its number, if it has number. + +(3) Its degree of comparison, if it can be compared. + +(4) What word or words it modifies. + + +MODEL FOR PARSING. + +These truths are not unfamiliar to your thoughts. + +_These_ points out _what_ truths, therefore demonstrative; plural +number, having a singular, _this_; cannot be compared; modifies the +word _truths_. + +_Unfamiliar_ describes _truths_, therefore descriptive; not inflected +for number; compared by prefixing _more_ and _most_; positive degree; +modifies _truths_. + + +Exercise. + +Parse in full each adjective in these sentences:-- + + 1. A thousand lives seemed concentrated in that one moment to + Eliza. + + 2. The huge green fragment of ice on which she alighted pitched + and creaked. + + 3. I ask nothing of you, then, but that you proceed to your end + by a direct, frank, manly way. + + 4. She made no reply, and I waited for none. + + 5. A herd of thirty or forty tall ungainly figures took their + way, with awkward but rapid pace, across the plain. + + 6. Gallantly did the lion struggle in the folds of his terrible + enemy, whose grasp each moment grew more fierce and secure, and + most astounding were those frightful yells. + + 7. This gave the young people entire freedom, and they enjoyed it + to the fullest extent. + + 8. I will be as harsh as truth and as uncompromising as justice. + + 9. To every Roman citizen he gives, To every several man, + seventy-five drachmas. + + 10. Each member was permitted to entertain all the rest on his or + her birthday, on which occasion the elders of the family were + bound to be absent. + + 11. Instantly the mind inquires whether these fishes under the + bridge, yonder oxen in the pasture, those dogs in the yard, are + immutably fishes, oxen, and dogs. + + 12. I know not what course others may take. + + 13. With every third step, the tomahawk fell. + + 14. What a ruthless business this war of extermination is! + + 15. I was just emerging from that many-formed crystal country. + + 16. On what shore has not the prow of your ships dashed? + + 17. The laws and institutions of his country ought to have been + more to him than all the men in his country. + + 18. Like most gifted men, he won affections with ease. + + 19. His letters aim to elicit the inmost experience and outward + fortunes of those he loves, yet are remarkably self-forgetful. + + 20. Their name was the last word upon his lips. + + 21. The captain said it was the last stick he had seen. + + 22. Before sunrise the next morning they let us out again. + + 23. He was curious to know to what sect we belonged. + + 24. Two hours elapsed, during which time I waited. + + 25. In music especially, you will soon find what personal benefit + there is in being serviceable. + + 26. To say what good of fashion we can, it rests on reality, and + hates nothing so much as pretenders. + + 27. Here lay two great roads, not so much for travelers that were + few, as for armies that were too many by half. + + 28. On whichever side of the border chance had thrown Joanna, the + same love to France would have been nurtured. + + 29. What advantage was open to him above the English boy? + + 30. Nearer to our own times, and therefore more interesting to + us, is the settlement of our own country. + + 31. Even the topmost branches spread out and drooped in all + directions, and many poles supported the lower ones. + + 32. Most fruits depend entirely on our care. + + 33. Even the sourest and crabbedest apple, growing in the most + unfavorable position, suggests such thoughts as these, it is so + noble a fruit. + + 34. Let him live in what pomps and prosperities he like, he is no + literary man. + + 35. Through what hardships it may bear a sweet fruit! + + 36. Whatsoever power exists will have itself organized. + + 37. A hard-struggling, weary-hearted man was he. + + + + +ARTICLES. + +171. There is a class of words having always an adjectival use in +general, but with such subtle functions and various meanings that they +deserve separate treatment. In the sentence, "He passes an ordinary +brick house on the road, with an ordinary little garden," the words +_the_ and _an_ belong to nouns, just as adjectives do; but they cannot +be accurately placed under any class of adjectives. They are nearest +to demonstrative and numeral adjectives. + +[Sidenote: _Their origin._] + +172. The article the comes from an old demonstrative adjective +(_se_, _seo_, _at_, later _the_, _theo_, _that_) which was also an +article in Old English. In Middle English _the_ became an article, and +_that_ remained a demonstrative adjective. + +An or a came from the old numeral _an_, meaning _one_. + +[Sidenote: _Two relics._] + +Our expressions _the one_, _the other_, were formerly _that one_, +_that other_; the latter is still preserved in the expression, in +vulgar English, _the tother_. Not only this is kept in the Scotch +dialect, but the former is used, these occurring as _the tane, the +tother_, or _the tane, the tither_; for example,-- + + We ca' her sometimes _the tane_, sometimes _the tother_.--SCOTT. + +[Sidenote: An _before vowel sounds_, a _before consonant sounds_.] + +173. Ordinarily _an_ is used before vowel sounds, and _a_ before +consonant sounds. Remember that a _vowel sound_ does not necessarily +mean beginning with a vowel, nor does _consonant sound_ mean +beginning with a consonant, because English spelling does not +coincide closely with the sound of words. Examples: "_a_ house," "_an_ +orange," "_a_ European," "_an_ honor," "_a_ yelling crowd." + +[Sidenote: An _with consonant sounds_.] + +174. Many writers use _an_ before _h_, even when not silent, when +the word is not accented on the first syllable. + + _An_ historian, such as we have been attempting to describe, + would indeed be an intellectual prodigy.--MACAULAY. + + The Persians were _an_ heroic people like the Greeks.--BREWER. + + He [Rip] evinced _an_ hereditary disposition to attend to + anything else but his business.--IRVING. + + _An_ habitual submission of the understanding to mere events and + images.--COLERIDGE. + + _An_ hereditary tenure of these offices.--THOMAS JEFFERSON. + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +175. An article is a limiting word, not descriptive, which cannot +be used alone, but always joins to a substantive word to denote a +particular thing, or a group or class of things, or any individual of +a group or class. + +[Sidenote: _Kinds._] + +176. Articles are either definite or indefinite. + +The is the definite article, since it points out a particular +individual, or group, or class. + +An or a is the indefinite article, because it refers to any one of +a group or class of things. + +An and a are different forms of the same word, the older _an_. + + + +USES OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. + + +[Sidenote: _Reference to a known object._] + +177. The most common use of the definite article is to refer to an +object that the listener or reader is already acquainted with; as in +the sentence,-- + + Don't you remember how, when _the_ dragon was infesting _the_ + neighborhood of Babylon, _the_ citizens used to walk dismally out + of evenings, and look at _the_ valleys round about strewed with + _the_ bones?--THACKERAY. + + NOTE.--This use is noticed when, on opening a story, a person is + introduced by _a_, and afterwards referred to by _the_:-- + + By and by _a_ giant came out of the dark north, and lay down on + the ice near Audhumla.... _The_ giant frowned when he saw the + glitter of the golden hair.--_Heroes of Asgard._ + + +[Sidenote: _With names of rivers._] + +178. _The_ is often prefixed to the names of rivers; and when the +word _river_ is omitted, as "_the_ Mississippi," "_the_ Ohio," the +article indicates clearly that a river, and not a state or other +geographical division, is referred to. + + No wonder I could face _the_ Mississippi with so much courage + supplied to me.--THACKERAY. + + The Dakota tribes, doubtless, then occupied the country southwest + of _the_ Missouri.--G. BANCROFT. + + +[Sidenote: _To call attention to attributes._] + +179. When _the_ is prefixed to a proper name, it alters the force of +the noun by directing attention to _certain qualities_ possessed by +the person or thing spoken of; thus,-- + + _The_ Bacon, _the_ Spinoza, _the_ Hume, Schelling, Kant, or + whosoever propounds to you a philosophy of the mind, is only a + more or less awkward translator of things in your + consciousness.--EMERSON. + + +[Sidenote: _With plural of abstract nouns._] + +180. _The_, when placed before the pluralized abstract noun, marks +it as half abstract or a common noun. + +[Sidenote: _Common._] + + His messages to _the_ provincial _authorities_.--MOTLEY. + +[Sidenote: _Half abstract._] + + He was probably skilled in _the subtleties_ of Italian + statesmanship.--_Id._ + +[Sidenote: _With adjectives used as nouns._] + +181. When _the_ precedes adjectives of the positive degree used +substantively, it marks their use as common and plural nouns when they +refer to persons, and as singular and abstract when they refer to +qualities. + + 1. _The simple_ rise as by specific levity, not into a particular + virtue, but into the region of all the virtues.--EMERSON. + + 2. If _the good_ is there, so is _the evil_.--_Id._ + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +NOTE.--This is not to be confused with words that have shifted from +adjectives and become pure nouns; as,-- + + As she hesitated to pass on, _the gallant_, throwing his cloak + from his shoulders, laid it on the miry spot.--SCOTT. + + But De Soto was no longer able to abate the confidence or punish + the temerity of _the natives_.--G. BANCROFT. + +[Sidenote: _One thing for its class._] + +182. _The_ before class nouns may mark one thing as a representative +of the class to which it belongs; for example,-- + + The faint, silvery warblings heard over the partially bare and + moist fields from _the bluebird_, _the song sparrow_, and _the + redwing_, as if the last flakes of winter tinkled as they + fell!--THOREAU. + + In the sands of Africa and Arabia _the camel_ is a sacred and + precious gift.--GIBBON. + +[Sidenote: _For possessive person pronouns._] + +183. _The_ is frequently used instead of the possessive case of the +personal pronouns _his_, _her_, etc. + + More than one hinted that a cord twined around _the head_, or a + match put between _the fingers_, would speedily extract the + required information.--KINGSLEY. + + _The_ mouth, and the region of the mouth, were about the + strongest features in Wordsworth's face.--DE QUINCEY. + + +[Sidenote: The _for_ a.] + +184. In England and Scotland _the_ is often used where we use _a_, +in speaking of measure and price; as,-- + + Wheat, the price of which necessarily varied, averaged in the + middle of the fourteenth century tenpence _the bushel_, barley + averaging at the same time three shillings _the + quarter_.--FROUDE. + + +[Sidenote: _A very strong restrictive._] + +185. Sometimes _the_ has a strong force, almost equivalent to a +descriptive adjective in emphasizing a word,-- + + No doubt but ye are _the_ people, and wisdom shall die with + you.--_Bible._ + + As for New Orleans, it seemed to me _the_ city of the world where + you can eat and drink the most and suffer the least.--THACKERAY. + + He was _the_ man in all Europe that could (if any could) have + driven six-in-hand full gallop over Al Sirat.--DE QUINCEY. + + +[Sidenote: _Mark of a substantive._] + +186. _The_, since it belongs distinctively to substantives, is a +sure indication that a word of verbal form is not used participially, +but substantively. + + In the hills of Sacramento there is gold for _the + gathering_.--EMERSON. + + I thought _the writing_ excellent, and wished, if possible, to + imitate it.--FRANKLIN. + + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +187. There is one use of _the_ which is different from all the +above. It is an adverbial use, and is spoken of more fully in Sec. +283. Compare this sentence with those above:-- + + There was something ugly and evil in his face, which they had not + previously noticed, and which grew still _the more obvious_ to + the sight _the oftener_ they looked upon him.--HAWTHORNE. + +Exercise.--Find sentences with five uses of the definite article. + + + +USES OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. + + +[Sidenote: _Denotes any one of a class._] + +188. The most frequent use of the indefinite article is to denote +any one of a class or group of objects: consequently it belongs to +singular words; as in the sentence,-- + + Near the churchyard gate stands _a_ poor-box, fastened to _a_ + post by iron bands and secured by _a_ padlock, with _a_ sloping + wooden roof to keep off the rain.--LONGFELLOW + +[Sidenote: _Widens the scope of proper nouns._] + +189. When the indefinite article precedes proper names, it alters +them to class names. The qualities or attributes of the object are +made prominent, and transferred to any one possessing them; as,-- + + The vulgar riot and debauchery, which scarcely disgraced _an + Alcibiades_ or _a Csar_, have been exchanged for the higher + ideals of _a Bayard_ or _a Sydney_.--PEARSON + +[Sidenote: _With abstract nouns._] + +190. _An_ or _a_ before abstract nouns often changes them to half +abstract: the idea of quality remains, but the word now denotes only +one instance or example of things possessing the quality. + +[Sidenote: _Become half abstract._] + + The simple perception of natural forms is _a delight_.--EMERSON + + If thou hadst _a sorrow_ of thine own, the brook might tell thee + of it.--HAWTHORNE + +In the first sentence, instead of the general abstract notion of +delight, which cannot be singular or plural, _a delight_ means one +thing delightful, and implies others having the same quality. + +So _a sorrow_ means one cause of sorrow, implying that there are +other things that bring sorrow. + +[Sidenote: _Become pure class nouns._] + +NOTE.--Some abstract nouns become common class nouns with the +indefinite article, referring simply to persons; thus,-- + + If the poet of the "Rape of the Lock" be not _a wit_, who + deserves to be called so?--THACKERAY. + + He had a little brother in London with him at this time,--as + great _a beauty_, as great a dandy, as great a villain.--_Id._ + + _A youth_ to fortune and to fame unknown.--GRAY. + +[Sidenote: _Changes material to class nouns._] + +191. _An_ or _a_ before a material noun indicates the change to a +class noun, meaning one kind or a detached portion; as,-- + + They that dwell up in the steeple,... + Feel a glory in so rolling + On the human heart _a stone_. + --POE. + + When God at first made man, + Having _a glass_ of blessings standing by. + --HERBERT. + + The roofs were turned into arches of massy stone, joined by _a + cement_ that grew harder by time.--JOHNSON. + +[Sidenote: _Like the numeral adjective_ one.] + +192. In some cases _an_ or _a_ has the full force of the numeral +adjective _one_. It is shown in the following:-- + + To every room there was _an_ open and _a_ secret + passage.--JOHNSON. + + In a short time these become a small tree, _an_ inverted pyramid + resting on the apex of the other.--THOREAU. + + All men are at last of _a_ size.--EMERSON. + + At the approach of spring the red squirrels got under my house, + two at _a_ time.--THOREAU. + +[Sidenote: _Equivalent to the word_ each _or_ every.] + +193. Often, also, the indefinite article has the force of _each_ or +_every_, particularly to express measure or frequency. + + It would be so much more pleasant to live at his ease than to + work eight or ten hours _a day_.--BULWER + +[Sidenote: _Compare to Sec. 184._] + + Strong beer, such as we now buy for eighteenpence _a gallon_, was + then a penny _a gallon_.--FROUDE + + +[Sidenote: _With_ such, many, what.] + +194. _An_ or _a_ is added to the adjectives _such_, _many_, and +_what_, and may be considered a part of these in modifying +substantives. + + How was I to pay _such a_ debt?--THACKERAY. + + _Many a_ one you and I have had here below.--THACKERAY. + + _What a_ world of merriment then melody foretells!--POE. + +[Sidenote: _With_ not _and_ many.] + +195 LIST III. + + A few of comparative form but not comparative meaning:-- + + After Over Under Nether. + +_Not_ and _never_ with _a_ or _an_ are numeral adjectives, +instead of adverbs, which they are in general. + + _Not a_ drum was heard, _not a_ funeral note.--WOLFE + + My Lord Duke was as hot as a flame at this salute, but said + _never a_ word.--THACKERAY. + +NOTE.--All these have the function of adjectives; but in the last +analysis of the expressions, _such_, _many_, _not_, etc., might be +considered as adverbs modifying the article. + + +[Sidenote: _With_ few _or_ little.] + +196. The adjectives _few_ and _little_ have the negative meaning of +_not much_, _not many_, without the article; but when _a_ is put +before them, they have the positive meaning of _some_. Notice the +contrast in the following sentences:-- + + Of the country beyond the Mississippi _little_ more was known + than of the heart of Africa.--MCMASTER + + To both must I of necessity cling, supported always by the hope + that when _a little_ time, _a few_ years, shall have tried me + more fully in their esteem, I may be able to bring them + together.--_Keats's Letters_. + + _Few_ of the great characters of history have been so differently + judged as Alexander.--SMITH, _History of Greece_ + +[Sidenote: _With adjectives, changed to nouns_.] + +197. When _the_ is used before adjectives with no substantive +following (Sec. 181 and note), these words are adjectives used as +nouns, or pure nouns; but when _an_ or _a_ precedes such words, they +are always nouns, having the regular use and inflections of nouns; for +example,-- + + Such are the words _a brave_ should use.--COOPER. + + In the great society of wits, John Gay deserves to be _a + favorite_, and to have a good place.--THACKERAY + + Only the name of one obscure epigrammatist has been embalmed for + use in the verses of _a rival_.--PEARSON. + +Exercise.--Bring up sentences with five uses of the indefinite +article. + + + +HOW TO PARSE ARTICLES. + +198. In parsing the article, tell-- + + +(1) What word it limits. + +(2) Which of the above uses it has. + + +Exercise. + +Parse the articles in the following:-- + + 1. It is like gathering a few pebbles off the ground, or bottling + a little air in a phial, when the whole earth and the whole + atmosphere are ours. + + 2. Aristeides landed on the island with a body of Hoplites, + defeated the Persians and cut them to pieces to a man. + + 3. The wild fire that lit the eye of an Achilles can gleam no + more. + + 4. But it is not merely the neighborhood of the cathedral that is + medival; the whole city is of a piece. + + 5. To the herdsman among his cattle in remote woods, to the + craftsman in his rude workshop, to the great and to the little, a + new light has arisen. + + 6. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid become + intelligent, and the wavering, determined. + + 7. The student is to read history actively, and not passively. + + 8. This resistance was the labor of his life. + + 9. There was always a hope, even in the darkest hour. + + 10. The child had a native grace that does not invariably coexist + with faultless beauty. + + 11. I think a mere gent (which I take to be the lowest form of + civilization) better than a howling, whistling, clucking, + stamping, jumping, tearing savage. + + 12. Every fowl whom Nature has taught to dip the wing in water. + + 13. They seem to be lines pretty much of a length. + + 14. Only yesterday, but what a gulf between now and then! + + 15. Not a brick was made but some man had to think of the making + of that brick. + + 16. The class of power, the working heroes, the Cortes, the + Nelson, the Napoleon, see that this is the festivity and + permanent celebration of such as they; that fashion is funded + talent. + + + + +VERBS AND VERBALS.. + + + + +VERBS. + + +[Sidenote: _Verb,--the word of the sentence._] + +199. The term _verb_ is from the Latin _verbum_ meaning _word_: +hence it is _the_ word of a sentence. A thought cannot be expressed +without a verb. When the child cries, "Apple!" it means, _See_ the +apple! or I _have_ an apple! In the mariner's shout, "A sail!" the +meaning is, "Yonder _is_ a sail!" + +Sentences are in the form of declarations, questions, or commands; and +none of these can be put before the mind without the use of a verb. + +[Sidenote: _One group or a group of words._] + +200. The verb may not always be a single word. On account of the +lack of inflections, _verb phrases_ are very frequent. Hence the verb +may consist of: + +(1) _One word_; as, "The young man _obeyed_." + +(2) _Several words of verbal nature, making one expression_; as, (_a_) +"Some day it _may be considered_ reasonable," (_b_) "Fearing lest he +_might have been anticipated_." + +(3) _One or more verbal words united with other words to compose one +verb phrase_: as in the sentences, (_a_) "They knew well that this +woman _ruled over_ thirty millions of subjects;" (_b_) "If all the +flummery and extravagance of an army _were done away with_, the money +could be made to go much further;" (_c_) "It is idle cant to pretend +anxiety for the better distribution of wealth until we can devise +means by which this preying upon people of small incomes _can be put a +stop to_." + +In (_a_), a verb and a preposition are used as one verb; in (_b_), a +verb, an adverb, and a preposition unite as a verb; in (_c_), an +article, a noun, a preposition, are united with verbs as one verb +phrase. + +[Sidenote: _Definition and caution._] + +201. A verb is a word used as a predicate, to say something to or +about some person or thing. In giving a definition, we consider a verb +as one word. + +Now, it is indispensable to the nature of a verb that it is "a word +used as a predicate." Examine the sentences in Sec. 200: In (1), +_obeyed_ is a predicate; in (2, _a_), _may be considered_ is a unit in +doing the work of one predicate; in (2, _b_), _might have been +anticipated_ is also one predicate, but _fearing_ is not a predicate, +hence is not a verb; in (3, _b_), _to go_ is no predicate, and not a +verb; in (3, _c_), _to pretend_ and _preying_ have something of +verbal nature in expressing action in a faint and general way, but +cannot be predicates. + +In the sentence, "_Put_ money in thy purse," _put_ is the predicate, +with some word understood; as, "Put _thou_ money in thy purse." + + + +VERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO MEANING AND USE. + +TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. + + +[Sidenote: _The nature of the transitive verb._] + +202. By examining a few verbs, it may be seen that not all verbs are +used alike. All do not express action: some denote state or condition. +Of those expressing action, all do not express it in the same way; for +example, in this sentence from Bulwer,--"The proud lone _took_ care to +conceal the anguish she _endured_; and the pride of woman _has_ an +hypocrisy which _can deceive_ the most penetrating, and _shame_ the +most astute,"--every one of the verbs in Italics has one or more words +before or after it, representing something which it influences or +controls. In the first, lone _took_ what? answer, _care_; _endured_ +what? _anguish_; etc. Each influences some object, which may be a +person, or a material thing, or an idea. _Has_ takes the object +_hypocrisy_; _can deceive_ has an object, _the most penetrating_; +(can) _shame_ also has an object, _the most astute_. + +In each case, the word following, or the object, is necessary to the +completion of the action expressed in the verb. + +All these are called transitive verbs, from the Latin _transire_, +which means _to go over_. Hence + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +203. A transitive verb is one which must have an object to complete +its meaning, and to receive the action expressed. + +[Sidenote: _The nature of intransitive verbs._] + +204. Examine the verbs in the following paragraph:-- + + She _sprang up_ at that thought, and, taking the staff which + always guided her steps, she _hastened_ to the neighboring shrine + of Isis. Till she _had been_ under the guardianship of the kindly + Greek, that staff _had sufficed_ to conduct the poor blind girl + from corner to corner of Pompeii.--BULWER + +In this there are some verbs unlike those that have been examined. +_Sprang_, or _sprang up_, expresses action, but it is complete in +itself, does not affect an object; _hastened_ is similar in use; _had +been_ expresses condition, or state of being, and can have no object; +_had sufficed_ means _had been sufficient_, and from its meaning +cannot have an object. + +Such verbs are called intransitive (not crossing over). Hence + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +205. An intransitive verb is one which is complete in itself, or +which is completed by other words without requiring an object. + + +[Sidenote: _Study_ use, _not_ form, _of verbs here._] + +206. Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, according to +their use in the sentence, It can be said, "The boy _walked_ for two +hours," or "The boy _walked_ the horse;" "The rains _swelled_ the +river," or "The river _swelled_ because of the rain;" etc. + +The important thing to observe is, many words must be distinguished as +transitive or intransitive by _use_, not by _form_. + + +207. Also verbs are sometimes made transitive by prepositions. +These may be (1) compounded with the verb; or (2) may follow the verb, +and be used as an integral part of it: for example,-- + + Asking her pardon for having _withstood_ her.--SCOTT. + + I can wish myself no worse than to have it all to _undergo_ a + second time.--KINGSLEY. + + A weary gloom in the deep caverns of his eyes, as of a child that + has _outgrown_ its playthings.--HAWTHORNE. + + It is amusing to walk up and down the pier and _look at_ the + countenances passing by.--B. TAYLOR. + + He was at once so out of the way, and yet so sensible, that I + loved, _laughed at_, and pitied him.--GOLDSMITH. + + My little nurse told me the whole matter, which she had cunningly + _picked out_ from her mother.--SWIFT. + + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Pick out the transitive and the intransitive verbs in the +following:-- + +1. The women and children collected together at a distance. + +2. The path to the fountain led through a grassy savanna. + +3. As soon as I recovered my senses and strength from so sudden a +surprise, I started back out of his reach where I stood to view him; +he lay quiet whilst I surveyed him. + +4. At first they lay a floor of this kind of tempered mortar on the +ground, upon which they deposit a layer of eggs. + +5. I ran my bark on shore at one of their landing places, which was a +sort of neck or little dock, from which ascended a sloping path or +road up to the edge of the meadow, where their nests were; most of +them were deserted, and the great thick whitish eggshells lay broken +and scattered upon the ground. + +6. Accordingly I got everything on board, charged my gun, set sail +cautiously, along shore. As I passed by Battle Lagoon, I began to +tremble. + +7. I seized my gun, and went cautiously from my camp: when I had +advanced about thirty yards, I halted behind a coppice of orange +trees, and soon perceived two very large bears, which had made their +way through the water and had landed in the grove, and were advancing +toward me. + +(_b_) Bring up sentences with five transitive and five intransitive +verbs. + + + +VOICE, ACTIVE AND PASSIVE. + + +[Sidenote: _Meaning of active voice._] + +208. As has been seen, transitive verbs are the only kind that can +express action so as to go over to an object. This implies three +things,--the agent, or person or thing acting; the verb representing +the action; the person or object receiving the act. + +In the sentence, "We reached the village of Sorgues by dusk, and +accepted the invitation of an old dame to lodge at her inn," these +three things are found: the actor, or agent, is expressed by _we_; the +action is asserted by _reached_ and _accepted_; the things acted upon +are _village_ and _invitation_. Here the subject is represented as +doing something. The same word is the subject and the agent. This use +of a transitive verb is called the active voice. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +209. The active voice is that form of a verb which represents the +subject as acting; or + +The active voice is that form of a transitive verb which makes the +_subject_ and the _agent_ the same word. + + +[Sidenote: _A question._] + +210. Intransitive verbs are _always active voice_. Let the student +explain why. + + +[Sidenote: _Meaning of passive voice._] + +211. In the assertion of an action, it would be natural to suppose, +that, instead of always representing the subject as acting upon some +person or thing, it must often happen that the subject is spoken of as +_acted upon_; and the person or thing acting may or may not be +expressed in the sentence: for example,-- + + All infractions of love and equity in our social relations are + speedily punished. They are punished by fear.--EMERSON. + +Here the subject _infractions_ does nothing: it represents the object +toward which the action of _are punished_ is directed, yet it is the +subject of the same verb. In the first sentence the agent is not +expressed; in the second, _fear_ is the agent of the same action. + +So that in this case, instead of having the agent and subject the same +word, we have the _object_ and _subject_ the same word, and the agent +may be omitted from the statement of the action. + +_Passive_ is from the Latin word _patior_, meaning _to endure_ or +_suffer_; but in ordinary grammatical use _passive_ means _receiving +an action_. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +212. The passive voice is that form of the verb which represents the +subject as being acted upon; or-- + +The passive voice is that form of the verb which represents the +_subject_ and the _object_ by the same word. + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Pick out the verbs in the active and the passive voice:-- + +1. In the large room some forty or fifty students were walking about +while the parties were preparing. + +2. This was done by taking off the coat and vest and binding a great +thick leather garment on, which reached to the knees. + +3. They then put on a leather glove reaching nearly to the shoulder, +tied a thick cravat around the throat, and drew on a cap with a large +visor. + +4. This done, they were walked about the room a short time; their +faces all this time betrayed considerable anxiety. + +5. We joined the crowd, and used our lungs as well as any. + +6. The lakes were soon covered with merry skaters, and every afternoon +the banks were crowded with spectators. + +7. People were setting up torches and lengthening the rafts which had +been already formed. + +8. The water was first brought in barrels drawn by horses, till some +officer came and opened the fire plug. + +9. The exclusive in fashionable life does not see that he excludes +himself from enjoyment, in the attempt to appropriate it. + + +(_b_) Find sentences with five verbs in the active and five in the +passive voice. + + + +MOOD. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +213. The word _mood_ is from the Latin _modus_, meaning _manner_, +_way_, _method_. Hence, when applied to verbs,-- + +Mood means the manner of conceiving and expressing action or being +of some subject. + + +[Sidenote: _The three ways._] + +214. There are three chief ways of expressing action or being:-- + +(1) As a fact; this may be a question, statement, or assumption. + +(2) As doubtful, or merely conceived of in the mind. + +(3) As urged or commanded. + + + +INDICATIVE MOOD. + + +[Sidenote: _Deals with facts._] + +215. The term _indicative_ is from the Latin _indicare_ (to declare, +or assert). The indicative represents something as a fact,-- + +[Sidenote: _Affirms or denies._] + +(1) _By declaring a thing to be true or not to be true_; thus,-- + + Distinction _is_ the consequence, never the object, of a great + mind.--ALLSTON. + + I _do not remember_ when or by whom I _was taught_ to read; + because I _cannot_ and never _could recollect_ a time when I + _could not read_ my Bible.--D. WEBSTER. + +[Sidenote: _Assumed as a fact._] + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +(2) _By assuming a thing to be true_ without declaring it to be so. +This kind of indicative clause is usually introduced by _if_ (meaning +_admitting that, granting that_, etc.), _though, although_, etc. +Notice that the action is not merely conceived as possible; it is +assumed to be a fact: for example,-- + + If the penalties of rebellion hung over an unsuccessful contest; + if America was yet in the cradle of her political existence; if + her population little exceeded two millions; if she was without + government, without fleets or armies, arsenals or magazines, + without military knowledge,--still her citizens had a just and + elevated sense of her rights.--A. HAMILTON. + +(3) _By asking a question to find out some fact_; as,-- + + Is private credit the friend and patron of industry?--HAMILTON. + + With respect to novels what shall I say?--N. WEBSTER. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +216 .The indicative mood is that form of a verb which represents a +thing as a fact, or inquires about some fact. + + + +SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. + + +[Sidenote: _Meaning of the word._] + +217. _Subjunctive_ means _subjoined_, or joined as dependent or +subordinate to something else. + +[Sidenote: _This meaning is misleading._] + +If its original meaning be closely adhered to, we must expect every +dependent clause to have its verb in the subjunctive mood, and every +clause _not_ dependent to have its verb in some other mood. + +But this is not the case. In the quotation from Hamilton (Sec. 215, 2) +several subjoined clauses introduced by _if_ have the indicative mood, +and also independent clauses are often found having the verb in the +subjunctive mood. + +[Sidenote: _Cautions._] + +Three cautions will be laid down which must be observed by a student +who wishes to understand and use the English subjunctive:-- + +(1) You cannot tell it always by the form of the word. The main +difference is, that the subjunctive has no _-s_ as the ending of the +present tense, third person singular; as, "If he _come_." + +(2) The fact that its clause is dependent or is introduced by certain +words will not be a safe rule to guide you. + +(3) The _meaning_ of the verb itself must be keenly studied. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +218. The subjunctive mood is that form or use of the verb which +expresses action or being, not as a fact, but as merely conceived of +in the mind. + + +Subjunctive in Independent Clauses. + + +I. Expressing a Wish. + +219. The following are examples of this use:-- + + Heaven _rest_ her soul!--MOORE. + + God _grant_ you find one face there You loved when all was + young.--KINGSLEY. + + Now _tremble_ dimples on your cheek, Sweet _be_ your lips to + taste and speak.--BEDDOES. + + Long _die_ thy happy days before thy death.--SHAKESPEARE. + + +II. A Contingent Declaration or Question. + +220. This really amounts to the conclusion, or principal clause, in +a sentence, of which the condition is omitted. + + Our chosen specimen of the hero as literary man [if we were to + choose one] _would be_ this Goethe.--CARLYLE. + + I _could lie_ down like a tired child, + And _weep_ away the life of care + Which I have borne and yet must bear.--SHELLEY. + + Most excellent stranger, as you come to the lakes simply to see + their loveliness, _might_ it not _be_ as well to ask after the + most beautiful road, rather than the shortest?--DE QUINCEY. + + +Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses. + + +I. Condition or Supposition. + + +221. The most common way of representing the action or being as +merely thought of, is by putting it into the form of a _supposition_ +or _condition_; as,-- + + Now, if the fire of electricity and that of lightning _be_ the + same, this pasteboard and these scales may represent electrified + clouds.--FRANKLIN. + +Here no assertion is made that the two things _are_ the same; but, if +the reader merely _conceives_ them for the moment to be the same, the +writer can make the statement following. Again,-- + + If it _be_ Sunday [supposing it to be Sunday], the peasants sit + on the church steps and con their psalm books.--LONGFELLOW. + + + +STUDY OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. + + +222. There are three kinds of conditional sentences:-- + +[Sidenote: _Real or true._] + +(1) Those in which an assumed or admitted fact is placed before the +mind in the form of a condition (see Sec. 215, 2); for example,-- + + If they _were_ unacquainted with the works of philosophers and + poets, they were deeply read in the oracles of God. If their + names _were not found_ in the registers of heralds, they were + recorded in the Book of Life.--MACAULAY. + +[Sidenote: _Ideal,--may or may not be true._] + +(2) Those in which the condition depends on something uncertain, and +_may or may not be regarded true, or be fulfilled_; as,-- + + If, in our case, the representative system ultimately _fail_, + popular government must be pronounced impossible.--D. WEBSTER. + + If this _be_ the glory of Julius, the first great founder of the + Empire, so it is also the glory of Charlemagne, the second + founder.--BRYCE. + + If any man _consider_ the present aspects of what is called by + distinction society, he will see the need of these ethics. + --EMERSON. + +[Sidenote: _Unreal--cannot be true._] + +(3) Suppositions _contrary to fact_, which cannot be true, or +conditions that cannot be fulfilled, but are presented only in order +to suggest what _might be_ or _might have been_ true; thus,-- + + If these things _were_ true, society could not hold together. + --LOWELL. + + _Did not_ my writings _produce_ me some solid pudding, the great + deficiency of praise would have quite discouraged me.--FRANKLIN. + + _Had_ he for once _cast_ all such feelings aside, and _striven_ + energetically to save Ney, it _would have cast_ such an enhancing + light over all his glories, that we cannot but regret its + absence.--BAYNE. + + + NOTE.--Conditional sentences are usually introduced by _if_, + _though_, _except_, _unless_, etc.; but when the verb precedes + the subject, the conjunction is often omitted: for example, + "_Were I bidden_ to say how the highest genius could be most + advantageously employed," etc. + + +Exercise. + +In the following conditional clauses, tell whether each verb is +indicative or subjunctive, and what kind of condition:-- + + 1. The voice, if he speak to you, is of similar physiognomy, + clear, melodious, and sonorous.--CARLYLE. + + 2. Were you so distinguished from your neighbors, would you, do + you think, be any the happier?--THACKERAY. + + 3. Epaminondas, if he was the man I take him for, would have sat + still with joy and peace, if his lot had been mine.--EMERSON. + + 4. If a damsel had the least smattering of literature, she was + regarded as a prodigy.--MACAULAY. + + 5. I told him, although it were the custom of our learned in + Europe to steal inventions from each other,... yet I would take + such caution that he should have the honor entire.--SWIFT. + + 6. If he had reason to dislike him, he had better not have + written, since he [Byron] was dead.--N.P. WILLIS. + + 7. If it were prostrated to the ground by a profane hand, what + native of the city would not mourn over its fall?--GAYARRE. + + 8. But in no case could it be justified, except it be for a + failure of the association or union to effect the object for + which it was created.--CALHOUN. + + + +II. Subjunctive of Purpose. + + +223. The subjunctive, especially _be_, _may_, _might_, and _should_, +is used to express purpose, the clause being introduced by _that_ or +_lest_; as,-- + + It was necessary, he supposed, to drink strong beer, that he + _might be_ strong to labor.--FRANKLIN. + + I have been the more particular...that you _may compare_ such + unlikely beginnings with the figure I have since made + there.--_Id._ + + He [Roderick] with sudden impulse that way rode, To tell of what + had passed, lest in the strife They _should engage_ with Julian's + men.--SOUTHEY. + + + +III. Subjunctive of Result. + + +224. The subjunctive may represent the result toward which an action +tends:-- + + So many thoughts move to and fro, + That vain it _were_ her eyes to close. + --COLERIDGE. + + So live, that when thy summons comes to join + The innumerable caravan... + Thou _go_ not, like the quarry-slave at night. + --BRYANT. + + + +IV. In Temporal Clauses. + +225. The English subjunctive, like the Latin, is sometimes used in a +clause to express the time when an action is to take place. + + Let it rise, till it _meet_ the sun in his coming.--D. WEBSTER. + + Rise up, before it _be_ too late!--HAWTHORNE. + + But it will not be long + Ere this _be thrown_ aside. + --WORDSWORTH. + + + +V. In Indirect Questions. + + +226. The subjunctive is often found in indirect questions, the +answer being regarded as doubtful. + + Ask the great man if there _be_ none greater.--EMERSON + + What the best arrangement _were_, none of us could say.--CARLYLE. + + Whether it _were_ morning or whether it _were_ afternoon, in her + confusion she had not distinctly known.--DE QUINCEY. + + + +VI. Expressing a Wish. + + +227. After a verb of wishing, the subjunctive is regularly used in +the dependent clause. + + The transmigiation of souls is no fable. I would it _were_! + --EMERSON. + + Bright star! Would I _were_ steadfast as thou art!--KEATS. + + I've wished that little isle _had_ wings, + And we, within its fairy bowers, + _Were wafted_ off to seas unknown. + --MOORE. + + + +VII. In a Noun Clause. + + +[Sidenote: _Subject._] + +228. The noun clause, in its various uses as subject, object, in +apposition, etc., often contains a subjunctive. + + The essence of originality is not that it _be_ new.--CARLYLE + +[Sidenote: _Apposition or logical subject._] + + To appreciate the wild and sharp flavors of those October fruits, + it is necessary that you _be breathing_ the sharp October or + November air.--THOREAU. + +[Sidenote: _Complement._] + + The first merit, that which admits neither substitute nor + equivalent, is, that everything _be_ in its place.--COLERIDGE. + +[Sidenote: _Object._] + + As sure as Heaven shall rescue me, I have no thought what men + they _be_.--COLERIDGE. + + Some might lament that I _were_ cold.--SHELLEY. + +[Sidenote: _After verbs of commanding._] + +This subjunctive is very frequent after verbs of _commanding_. + + See that there _be_ no traitors in your camp.--TENNYSON. + + Come, tell me all that thou hast seen, + And look thou _tell_ me true. + --SCOTT. + + See that thy scepter _be_ heavy on his head.--DE QUINCEY. + + + +VIII. Concessive Clauses. + + +229. The concession may be expressed-- + +(1) In the nature of the verb; for example,-- + + _Be_ the matter how it may, Gabriel Grub was afflicted with + rheumatism to the end of his days.--DICKENS. + + _Be_ the appeal _made_ to the understanding or the heart, the + sentence is the same--that rejects it.--BROUGHAM + +(2) By an indefinite relative word, which may be + +(_a_) _Pronoun._ + + Whatever _betide_, we'll turn aside, + And see the Braes of Yarrow. + --WORDSWORTH. + +(_b_) _Adjective._ + + That hunger of applause, of cash, or whatsoever victual it _may + be_, is the ultimate fact of man's life.--CARLYLE. + +(_c_) _Adverb._ + + Wherever he _dream_ under mountain or stream, + The spirit he loves remains. + --SHELLEY. + + + +Prevalence of the Subjunctive Mood. + + +230. As shown by the wide range of literature from which these +examples are selected, the subjunctive is very much used in literary +English, especially by those who are artistic and exact in the +expression of their thought. + +At the present day, however, the subjunctive is becoming less and +less used. Very many of the sentences illustrating the use of the +subjunctive mood could be replaced by numerous others using the +indicative to express the same thoughts. + +The three uses of the subjunctive now most frequent are, to express a +wish, a concession, and condition contrary to fact. + +In spoken English, the subjunctive _were_ is much used in a wish or a +condition contrary to fact, but hardly any other subjunctive forms +are. + +It must be remembered, though, that many of the verbs in the +subjunctive have the same form as the indicative. Especially is this +true of unreal conditions in past time; for example,-- + + Were we of open sense as the Greeks were, we _had found_ [should + have found] a poem here.--CARLYLE. + + + +IMPERATIVE MOOD. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +231. The imperative mood is the form of the verb used in direct +commands, entreaties, or requests. + + +[Sidenote: _Usually second person._] + +232. The imperative is naturally used mostly with the second +person, since commands are directed to a person addressed. + +(1) _Command._ + + _Call up_ the shades of Demosthenes and Cicero to vouch for your + words; _point_ to their immortal works.--J.Q. ADAMS. + + _Honor_ all men; _love_ all men; _fear_ none.--CHANNING. + +(2) _Entreaty._ + + Oh, from these sterner aspects of thy face + _Spare_ me and mine, nor _let_ us need the wrath + Of the mad unchained elements. + --BRYANT. + +(3) _Request._ + + "_Hush_! mother," whispered Kit. "_Come_ along with me."--DICKENS + + _Tell_ me, how was it you thought of coming here?--_Id._ + +[Sidenote: _Sometimes with_ first person _in the plural_.] + +But the imperative may be used with the plural of the first person. +Since the first person plural person is not really I + I, but I + you, +or I + they, etc., we may use the imperative with _we_ in a command, +request, etc., to _you_ implied in it. This is scarcely ever found +outside of poetry. + + _Part we_ in friendship from your land, + And, noble earl, receive my hand. + --SCOTT. + + Then _seek we_ not their camp--for there + The silence dwells of my despair. + --CAMPBELL. + + _Break we_ our watch up.--SHAKESPEARE. + +Usually this is expressed by _let_ with the objective: "_Let_ us go." +And the same with the third person: "_Let_ him be accursed." + + +Exercises on the Moods. + +(_a_) Tell the mood of each verb in these sentences, and what special +use it is of that mood:-- + + 1. Wherever the standard of freedom and independence has been or + shall be unfurled, there will her heart and her prayers be. + + 2. Mark thou this difference, child of earth! + While each performs his part, + Not all the lip can speak is worth + The silence of the heart. + + 3. Oh, that I might be admitted to thy presence! that mine were + the supreme delight of knowing thy will! + + 4. 'Twere worth ten years of peaceful life, + One glance at their array! + + 5. Whatever inconvenience ensue, nothing is to be preferred + before justice. + + 6. The vigorous sun would catch it up at eve + And use it for an anvil till he had filled + The shelves of heaven with burning thunderbolts. + + 7. Meet is it changes should control + Our being, lest we rust in ease. + + 8. Quoth she, "The Devil take the goose, + And God forget the stranger!" + + 9. Think not that I speak for your sakes. + + 10. "Now tread we a measure!" said young Lochinvar. + + 11. Were that a just return? Were that Roman magnanimity? + + 12. Well; how he may do his work, whether he do it right or + wrong, or do it at all, is a point which no man in the world has + taken the pains to think of. + + 13. He is, let him live where else he like, in what pomps and + prosperities he like, no literary man. + + 14. Could we one day complete the immense figure which these + flagrant points compose! + + 15. "Oh, then, my dear madam," cried he, "tell me where I may + find my poor, ruined, but repentant child." + + 16. That sheaf of darts, will it not fall unbound, + Except, disrobed of thy vain earthly vaunt, + Thou bring it to be blessed where saints and angels haunt? + + 17. Forget thyself to marble, till + With a sad leaden downward cast + Thou fix them on the earth as fast. + + 18. He, as though an instrument, + Blew mimic hootings to the silent owls, + That they might answer him. + + 19. From the moss violets and jonquils peep, + And dart their arrowy odor through the brain, + Till you might faint with that delicious pain. + + 20. That a man parade his doubt, and get to imagine that debating + and logic is the triumph and true work of what intellect he has; + alas! this is as if you should overturn the tree. + + 21. The fat earth feed thy branchy root + That under deeply strikes! + The northern morning o'er thee shoot, + High up in silver spikes! + + 22. Though abyss open under abyss, and opinion displace opinion, + all are at last contained in the Eternal cause. + + 23. God send Rome one such other sight! + + 24. "Mr. Marshall," continued Old Morgan, "see that no one + mentions the United States to the prisoner." + + 25. If there is only one woman in the nation who claims the right + to vote, she ought to have it. + + 26. Though he were dumb, it would speak. + + 27. Meantime, whatever she did,--whether it were in display of + her own matchless talents, or whether it were as one member of a + general party,--nothing could exceed the amiable, kind, and + unassuming deportment of Mrs. Siddons. + + 28. It makes a great difference to the force of any sentence + whether there be a man behind it or no. + +(_b_) Find sentences with five verbs in the indicative mood, five in +the subjunctive, five in the imperative. + + +TENSE. + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +233. _Tense_ means _time_. The tense of a verb is the form or use +indicating the time of an action or being. + +[Sidenote: _Tenses in English._] + +Old English had only two tenses,--the present tense, which represented +present and future time; and the past tense. We still use the present +for the future in such expressions as, "I _go_ away to-morrow;" "If he +_comes_, tell him to wait." + +But English of the present day not only has a tense for each of the +natural time divisions,--present, past, and future,--but has other +tenses to correspond with those of highly inflected languages, such as +Latin and Greek. + +The distinct inflections are found only in the present and past +tenses, however: the others are compounds of verbal forms with +various helping verbs, called auxiliaries; such as _be_, _have_, +_shall_, _will_. + +[Sidenote: _The tenses in detail._] + +234. Action or being may be represented as occurring in present, +past, or future time, by means of the present, the past, and the +future tense. It may also be represented as _finished_ in present or +past or future time by means of the present perfect, past perfect, and +future perfect tenses. + +Not only is this so: there are what are called definite forms of +these tenses, showing more exactly the time of the action or being. +These make the English speech even more exact than other languages, as +will be shown later on, in the conjugations. + + +PERSON AND NUMBER. + +235. The English verb has never had full inflections for number and +person, as the classical languages have. + +When the older pronoun _thou_ was in use, there was a form of the verb +to correspond to it, or agree with it, as, "Thou walk_est_," present; +"Thou walked_st_," past; also, in the third person singular, a form +ending in -_eth_, as, "It is not in man that walk_eth_, to direct his +steps." + +But in ordinary English of the present day there is practically only +one ending for person and number. This is the third person, singular +number; as, "He walk_s_;" and this only in the present tense +indicative. This is important in questions of agreement when we come +to syntax. + + + +CONJUGATION. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +236. Conjugation is the regular arrangement of the forms of the +verb in the various voices, moods, tenses, persons, and numbers. + +In classical languages, conjugation means _joining together_ the +numerous endings to the stem of the verb; but in English, inflections +are so few that conjugation means merely the exhibition of the forms +and the different verb phrases that express the relations of voice, +mood, tense, etc. + +[Sidenote: _Few forms._] + +237. Verbs in modern English have only four or five forms; for +example, _walk_ has _walk_, _walks_, _walked_, _walking_, sometimes +adding the old forms _walkest_, _walkedst_, _walketh_. Such verbs as +_choose_ have five,--_choose_, _chooses_, _chose_, _choosing_, +_chosen_ (old, _choosest_, _chooseth_, _chosest_). + +The verb _be_ has more forms, since it is composed of several +different roots,--_am_, _are_, _is_, _were_, _been_, etc. + +238. INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB _BE_. + + + Indicative Mood. + + PRESENT TENSE. | PAST TENSE. + | + _Singular_ _Plural_ | _Singular_ _Plural_ + | +1. I am We are | 1. I was We were +2. You are You are | 2. You were You were + (thou art) | (thou wast, wert) +3. [He] is [They] are | 3. [He] was [They were] + + + Subjunctive Mood. + + PRESENT TENSE. | PAST TENSE. + | + _Singular_ _Plural_ | _Singular_ _Plural_ + | +1. I be We be | 1. I were We were +2. You (thou) be You be | 2. You were You were + | (thou wert) +3. [He] be [They] be | 3. [He] were [They] were + + + Imperative Mood. + + PRESENT TENSE, _Singular and Plural_, Be. + +[Sidenote: _Remarks on the verb_ be.] + +239. This conjugation is pieced out with three different roots: (1) +_am_, _is_; (2) _was_, _were_; (3) _be_. + +Instead of the plural _are_, Old English had _beoth_ and _sind_ or +_sindon_, same as the German _sind_. _Are_ is supposed to have come +from the Norse language. + +The old indicative third person plural _be_ is sometimes found in +literature, though it is usually a dialect form; for example,-- + + Where _be_ the sentries who used to salute as the Royal chariots + drove in and out?--THACKERAY + + Where _be_ the gloomy shades, and desolate mountains?--WHITTIER + +[Sidenote: _Uses of_ be.] + +240. The forms of the verb _be_ have several uses:-- + +(1) _As principal verbs._ + + The light that never _was_ on sea and land.--WORDSWORTH. + +(2) _As auxiliary verbs_, in four ways,-- + +(_a_) With verbal forms in _-ing_ (imperfect participle) to form the +definite tenses. + + Broadswords _are maddening_ in the rear,--Each broadsword bright + _was brandishing_ like beam of light.--SCOTT. + +(_b_) With the past participle in _-ed_, _-en_, etc., to form the +passive voice. + + By solemn vision and bright silver dream, + His infancy _was nurtured_. + --SHELLEY. + +(_c_) With past participle of intransitive verbs, being equivalent to +the present perfect and past perfect tenses active; as, + + When we _are gone_ + From every object dear to mortal sight. + --WORDSWORTH + + We drank tea, which _was_ now _become_ an occasional + banquet.--GOLDSMITH. + +(_d_) With the infinitive, to express intention, obligation, +condition, etc.; thus, + + It _was to have been called_ the Order of Minerva.--THACKERAY. + + Ingenuity and cleverness _are to be rewarded_ by State + prizes.--_Id._ + + If I _were to explain_ the motion of a body falling to the + ground.--BURKE + + +241. INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB _CHOOSE_. + + Indicative Mood. + + PRESENT TENSE. + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + + 1. I choose We choose + 2. You choose You choose + 3. [He] chooses [They] choose + + PAST TENSE. + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + + 1. I chose We chose + 2. You chose You chose + 3. [He] chose [They] chose + + Subjunctive Mood. + + PRESENT TENSE. + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + + 1. I choose We choose + 2. You choose You choose + 3. [He] choose [They] choose + + PAST TENSE. + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + + 1. I chose We chose + 2. You chose You chose + 3. [He] chose [They] chose + + Imperative Mood. + + PRESENT TENSE, _Singular and Plural_, Choose. + + +FULL CONJUGATION OF THE VERB _CHOOSE_. + + +[Sidenote: _Machinery of a verb in the voices, tenses, etc._] + +242. In addition to the above _inflected_ forms, there are many +periphrastic or _compound_ forms, made up of auxiliaries with the +infinitives and participles. Some of these have been indicated in +Sec. 240, (2). + +The ordinary tenses yet to be spoken of are made up as follows:-- + +(1) _Future tense_, by using _shall_ and _will_ with the simple or +root form of the verb; as, "I _shall be_," "He _will choose._" + +(2) _Present perfect_, _past perfect_, _future perfect_, tenses, by +placing _have_, _had_, and _shall_ (or _will_) _have_ before the past +participle of any verb; as, "I _have gone_" (present perfect), "I _had +gone_" (past perfect), "I _shall have gone_" (future perfect). + +(3) The _definite form_ of each tense, by using auxiliaries with the +imperfect participle active; as, "I _am running_," "They _had been +running_." + +(4) The _passive forms_, by using the forms of the verb _be_ before +the past participle of verbs; as, "I _was chosen_," "You _are +chosen_." + + +243. The following scheme will show how rich our language is in verb +phrases to express every variety of meaning. Only the third person, +singular number, of each tense, will be given. + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Indicative Mood. + + + _Present._ He chooses. + _Present definite._ He is choosing. + _Past._ He chose. + _Past definite._ He was choosing. + _Future._ He will choose. + _Future definite._ He will he choosing. + _Present perfect._ He has chosen. + _Present perfect definite._ He has been choosing. + _Past perfect._ He had chosen. + _Past perfect definite._ He had been choosing. + _Future perfect._ He will have chosen. + _Future perfect definite._ He will have been choosing. + + Subjunctive Mood. + + _Present._ [If, though, he choose. + _Present definite._ lest, etc.] he be choosing. + _Past._ " he chose (or were to choose). + _Past definite._ " he were choosing + (or were to be choosing). + _Present perfect._ " he have chosen. + _Present perfect definite._ " he have been choosing. + _Past perfect._ " Same as indicative. + _Past perfect definite._ " " " + + + + Imperative Mood. + + + _Present._ (2d per.) Choose. + _Present definite._ " Be choosing. + +NOTE.--Since participles and infinitives are not really verbs, but +verbals, they will be discussed later (Sec. 262). + + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + Indicative Mood. + + + _Present._ He is chosen. + _Present definite._ He is being chosen. + _Past._ He was chosen. + _Past definite._ He was being chosen. + _Future._ He will be chosen. + _Future definite._ None. + _Present perfect._ He has been chosen. + _Present perfect definite._ None. + _Past perfect._ He had been chosen. + _Past perfect definite._ None. + _Future perfect._ He will have been chosen. + _Future perfect definite._ None. + + Subjunctive Mood. + + + _Present._. [If, though, he be chosen. + _Present definite._ lest, etc.] None. + _Past._ " he were chosen + (or were to be chosen). + _Past definite._ " he were being chosen. + _Present perfect._ " he have been chosen. + _Present perfect definite._ " None. + _Past Perfect._ " he had been chosen. + _Past perfect definite._ " None. + + + Imperative Mood. + + + _Present tense._ (2d per.) Be chosen. + +Also, in _affirmative sentences_, the indicative present and past +tenses have emphatic forms made up of _do_ and _did_ with the +infinitive or simple form; as, "He _does strike_," "He _did strike_." + +[_Note to Teacher_.--This table is not to be learned now; if learned +at all, it should be as practice work on strong and weak verb forms. +Exercises should be given, however, to bring up sentences containing +such of these conjugation forms as the pupil will find readily in +literature.] + + + +VERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FORM. + +[Sidenote: _Kinds._] + +244. According to form, verbs are strong or weak. + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +A strong verb forms its past tense by changing the vowel of the +present tense form, but adds no ending; as, _run_, _ran_; _drive_, +_drove_. + +A weak verb always adds an ending to the present to form the past +tense, and _may_ or _may not_ change the vowel: as, _beg_, _begged_; +_lay_, _laid_; _sleep_, _slept_; _catch_, _caught_. + + +245. TABLE OF STRONG VERBS. + +NOTE. Some of these also have weak forms, which are in parentheses + + _Present Tense._ _Past Tense._ _Past Participle._ + + abide abode abode + arise arose arisen + awake awoke (awaked) awoke (awaked) + bear bore {borne (active) + {born (passive) + begin began begun + behold beheld beheld + bid bade, bid bidden, bid + bind bound {bound, + {[_adj._ bounden] + bite bit bitten, bit + blow blew blown + break broke broken + chide chid chidden, chid + choose chose chosen + cleave clove, clave (cleft) cloven (cleft) + climb [clomb] climbed climbed + cling clung clung + come came come + crow crew (crowed) (crowed) + dig dug dug + do did done + draw drew drawn + drink drank {drunk, drank + {[_adj._ drunken] + drive drove driven + eat ate, eat eaten, eat + fall fell fallen + fight fought fought + find found found + fling flung flung + fly flew flown + forbear forbore forborne + forget forgot forgotten + forsake forsook forsaken + freeze froze frozen + get got got [gotten] + give gave given + go went gone + grind ground ground + grow grew grown + hang hung (hanged) hung (hanged) + hold held held + know knew known + lie lay lain + ride rode ridden + ring rang rung + run ran run + see saw seen + shake shook shaken + shear shore (sheared) shorn (sheared) + shine shone shone + shoot shot shot + shrink shrank or shrunk shrunk + shrive shrove shriven + sing sang or sung sung + sink sank or sunk sunk _[adj._ sunken] + sit sat [sate] sat + slay slew slain + slide slid slidden, slid + sling slung slung + slink slunk slunk + smite smote smitten + speak spoke spoken + spin spun spun + spring sprang, sprung sprung + stand stood stood + stave stove (staved) (staved) + steal stole stolen + stick stuck stuck + sting stung stung + stink stunk, stank stunk + stride strode stridden + strike struck struck, stricken + string strung strung + strive strove striven + swear swore sworn + swim swam or swum swum + swing swung swung + take took taken + tear tore torn + thrive throve (thrived) thriven (thrived) + throw threw thrown + tread trod trodden, trod + wear wore worn + weave wove woven + win won won + wind wound wound + wring wrung wrung + write wrote written + + + +Remarks on Certain Verb Forms. + +246. Several of the perfect participles are seldom used except as +adjectives: as, "his _bounden_ duty," "the _cloven_ hoof," "a +_drunken_ wretch," "a _sunken_ snag." _Stricken_ is used mostly of +diseases; as, "_stricken_ with paralysis." + +The verb bear (to bring forth) is peculiar in having one participle +(_borne_) for the active, and another (_born_) for the passive. When +it means _to carry_ or to _endure_, _borne_ is also a passive. + +The form clomb is not used in prose, but is much used in vulgar +English, and sometimes occurs in poetry; as,-- + + Thou hast _clomb_ aloft.--WORDSWORTH + + Or pine grove whither woodman never _clomb_.--COLERIDGE + +The forms of cleave are really a mixture of two verbs,--one meaning +_to adhere_ or _cling_; the other, _to split_. The former used to be +_cleave_, _cleaved_, _cleaved_; and the latter, _cleave_, _clave_ or +_clove_, _cloven_. But the latter took on the weak form _cleft_ in the +past tense and past participle,--as (from Shakespeare), "O Hamlet! +thou hast _cleft_ my heart in twain,"--while _cleave_ (to cling) +sometimes has _clove_, as (from Holmes), "The old Latin tutor _clove_ +to Virgilius Maro." In this confusion of usage, only one set remains +certain,--_cleave_, _cleft_, _cleft_ (to split). + +Crew is seldom found in present-day English. + + Not a cock _crew_, nor a dog barked.--IRVING. + + Our cock, which always _crew_ at eleven, now told us it was time + for repose.--GOLDSMITH. + +Historically, drunk is the one correct past participle of the verb +_drink_. But _drunk_ is very much used as an adjective, instead of +_drunken_ (meaning intoxicated); and, probably to avoid confusion with +this, drank is a good deal used as a past participle: thus,-- + + We had each _drank_ three times at the well.--B. TAYLOR. + + This liquor _was_ generally _drank_ by Wood and Billings. + --THACKERAY. + +Sometimes in literary English, especially in that of an earlier +period, it is found that the verb eat has the past tense and past +participle _eat_ (et), instead of _ate_ and _eaten_; as, for +example,-- + + It ate the food it ne'er had _eat_.--COLERIDGE. + + How fairy Mab the junkets _eat_.--MILTON. + + The island princes overbold + Have _eat_ our substance.--TENNYSON. + +This is also very much used in spoken and vulgar English. + +The form gotten is little used, _got_ being the preferred form of +past participle as well as past tense. One example out of many is,-- + + We _had_ all _got_ safe on shore.--DE FOE. + +Hung and hanged both are used as the past tense and past +participle of _hang_; but _hanged_ is the preferred form when we speak +of execution by hanging; as, + + The butler _was hanged_.--_Bible._ + +The verb sat is sometimes spelled _sate_; for example,-- + + Might we have _sate_ and talked where gowans blow.--WORDSWORTH. + + He _sate_ him down, and seized a pen.--BYRON. + + "But I _sate_ still and finished my plaiting."--KINGSLEY. + +Usually shear is a weak verb. _Shorn_ and _shore_ are not commonly +used: indeed, _shore_ is rare, even in poetry. + + This heard Geraint, and grasping at his sword, + _Shore_ thro' the swarthy neck.--TENNYSON. + +_Shorn_ is used sometimes as a participial adjective, as "a _shorn_ +lamb," but not much as a participle. We usually say, "The sheep were +_sheared_" instead of "The sheep were _shorn_." + +Went is borrowed as the past tense of _go_ from the old verb _wend_, +which is seldom used except in poetry; for example,-- + + If, maiden, thou would'st _wend_ with me + To leave both tower and town.--SCOTT. + +Exercises. + +(_a_) From the table (Sec. 245), make out lists of verbs having the +same vowel changes as each of the following:-- + + 1. Fall, fell, fallen. + + 2. Begin, began, begun. + + 3. Find, found, found. + + 4. Give, gave, given. + + 5. Drive, drove, driven. + + 6. Throw, threw, thrown. + + 7. Fling, flung, flung. + + 8. Break, broke, broken. + + 9. Shake, shook, shaken. + + 10. Freeze, froze, frozen. + +(_b_) Find sentences using ten past-tense forms of strong verbs. + +(_c_) Find sentences using ten past participles of strong verbs. + +[_To the Teacher_,--These exercises should be continued for several +lessons, for full drill on the forms.] + + + +DEFECTIVE STRONG VERBS. + + +247. There are several verbs which are lacking in one or more +principal parts. They are as follows:-- + + PRESENT. PAST. | PRESENT. PAST. + | + may might | [ought] ought + can could | shall should + [must] must | will would + + +248. May is used as either indicative or subjunctive, as it has two +meanings. It is indicative when it expresses _permission_, or, as it +sometimes does, _ability_, like the word _can_: it is subjunctive when +it expresses doubt as to the reality of an action, or when it +expresses wish, purpose, etc. + +[Sidenote: _Indicative Use: Permission. Ability._] + + If I _may_ lightly employ the Miltonic figure, "far off his + coming shines."--WINIER. + + A stripling arm _might_ sway + A mass no host could raise.--SCOTT. + + His superiority none _might_ question.--CHANNING. + +[Sidenote: _Subjunctive use._] + + In whatever manner the separate parts of a constitution _may_ be + arranged, there is one general principle, etc.--PAINE. + +[Sidenote: (_See also Sec. 223._)] + + And from her fair and unpolluted flesh + _May_ violets spring! + --SHAKESPEARE. + + +249. Can is used in the indicative only. The _l_ in _could_ did +not belong there originally, but came through analogy with _should_ +and _would_. _Could_ may be subjunctive, as in Sec. 220. + +250. Must is historically a past-tense form, from the obsolete +verb _motan_, which survives in the sentence, "So _mote_ it be." +_Must_ is present or past tense, according to the infinitive used. + + All _must concede_ to him a sublime power of action.--CHANNING + + This, of course, _must have been_ an ocular + deception.--HAWTHORNE. + +251. The same remarks apply to ought, which is historically the +past tense of the verb _owe_. Like _must_, it is used only in the +indicative mood; as, + + The just imputations on our own faith _ought_ first _to be + removed_.... Have we valuable territories and important + posts...which _ought_ long since _to have been surrendered_?--A. + HAMILTON. + +It will be noticed that all the other defective verbs take the pure +infinitive without _to_, while _ought_ always has _to_. + +Shall and Will. + +252. The principal trouble in the use of _shall_ and _will_ is the +disposition, especially in the United States, to use _will_ and +_would_, to the neglect of _shall_ and _should_, with pronouns of the +first person; as, "I think I _will_ go." + +[Sidenote: _Uses of_ shall _and_ should.] + +The following distinctions must be observed:-- + +(1) With the FIRST PERSON, shall and should are used,-- + +[Sidenote: _Futurity and questions--first person._] + +(_a_) In making simple statements or predictions about future time; +as,-- + + The time will come full soon, I _shall_ be gone.--L.C. MOULTON. + +(_b_) In questions asking for orders, or implying obligation or +authority resting upon the subject; as,-- + + With respect to novels, what _shall_ I say?--N. WEBSTER. + + How _shall_ I describe the luster which at that moment burst upon + my vision?--C. BROCKDEN BROWN. + +[Sidenote: _Second and third persons._] + +(2) With the SECOND AND THIRD PERSONS, _shall_ and _should_ are +used,-- + +(_a_) To express authority, in the form of command, promise, or +confident prediction. The following are examples:-- + + Never mind, my lad, whilst I live thou _shalt_ never want a + friend to stand by thee.--IRVING. + + They _shall_ have venison to eat, and corn to hoe.--COOPER. + + The sea _shall_ crush thee; yea, the ponderous wave up the loose + beach _shall_ grind and scoop thy grave.--THAXTER. + + She _should_ not walk, he said, through the dust and heat of + the noonday; + Nay, she _should_ ride like a queen, not plod along like a + peasant.--LONGFELLOW. + +(_b_) In _indirect quotations_, to express the same idea that the +original speaker put forth (i.e., future action); for example,-- + + He declares that he _shall_ win the purse from you.--BULWER. + + She rejects his suit with scorn, but assures him that she _shall_ + make great use of her power over him.--MACAULAY. + + Fielding came up more and more bland and smiling, with the + conviction that he _should_ win in the end.--A. LARNED. + + Those who had too presumptuously concluded that they _should_ + pass without combat were something disconcerted.--SCOTT. + +(_c_) With _direct questions_ of the second person, when the answer +expected would express simple futurity; thus,-- + + "_Should_ you like to go to school at Canterbury?"--DICKENS. + +[Sidenote: _First, second and third persons._] + +(3) With ALL THREE PERSONS,-- + +(_a_) _Should_ is used with the meaning of obligation, and is +equivalent to _ought_. + + I never was what I _should_ be.--H. JAMES, JR. + + Milton! thou _should'st_ be living at this hour.--WORDSWORTH. + + He _should_ not flatter himself with the delusion that he can + make or unmake the reputation of other men.--WINTER. + +(_b_) _Shall_ and _should_ are both used in _dependent clauses_ of +condition, time, purpose, etc.; for example,-- + + When thy mind + _Shall_ be a mansion for all stately forms.--WORDSWORTH. + + Suppose this back-door gossip _should_ be utterly blundering and + untrue, would any one wonder?--THACKERAY. + + Jealous lest the sky _should_ have a listener.--BYRON. + + If thou _should'st_ ever come by chance or choice to + Modena.--ROGERS. + + If I _should_ be where I no more can hear thy voice.--WORDSWORTH. + + That accents and looks so winning _should_ disarm me of my + resolution, was to be expected.--C.B. BROWN. + + +253. Will and would are used as follows:-- + +[Sidenote: _Authority as to future action--first person._] + +(1) With the FIRST PERSON, _will_ and _would_ are used to express +determination as to the future, or a promise; as, for example,-- + + I _will_ go myself now, and _will_ not return until all is + finished.--CABLE. + + And promised...that I _would_ do him justice, as the sole + inventor.--SWIFT. + +[Sidenote: _Disguising a command._] + +(2) With the SECOND PERSON, _will_ is used to express command. This +puts the order more mildly, as if it were merely expected action; +as,-- + + Thou _wilt_ take the skiff, Roland, and two of my people,... and + fetch off certain plate and belongings.--SCOTT. + + You _will_ proceed to Manassas at as early a moment as + practicable, and mark on the grounds the works, etc.--_War + Records._ + +[Sidenote: _Mere futurity._] + +(3) With both SECOND AND THIRD PERSONS, _will_ and _would_ are used to +express simple futurity, action merely expected to occur; for +example,-- + + All this _will_ sound wild and chimerical.--BURKE. + + She _would_ tell you that punishment is the reward of the + wicked.--LANDOR. + + When I am in town, _you'll_ always have somebody to sit with you. + To be sure, so you _will_.--DICKENS. + +(4) With FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD PERSONS, _would_ is used to express +a _wish_,--the original meaning of the word _will_; for example,-- + +[Sidenote: _Subject_ I _omitted: often so._] + + _Would_ that a momentary emanation from thy glory would visit + me!--C.B. BROWN. + + Thine was a dangerous gift, when thou wast born, The gift of + Beauty. _Would_ thou hadst it not.--ROGERS + + It shall be gold if thou _wilt_, but thou shalt answer to me for + the use of it.--SCOTT. + + What _wouldst_ thou have a good great man obtain?--COLERIDGE. + +(5) With the THIRD PERSON, _will_ and _would_ often denote an action +as customary, without regard to future time; as, + + They _will_ go to Sunday schools, through storms their brothers + are afraid of.... They _will_ stand behind a table at a fair all + day.--HOLMES + + On a slight suspicion, they _would_ cut off the hands of numbers + of the natives, for punishment or intimidation.--BANCROFT. + + In this stately chair _would_ he sit, and this magnificent pipe + _would_ he smoke, shaking his right knee with a constant + motion.--IRVING. + + +Conjugation of _Shall_ and _Will_ as Auxiliaries (with _Choose_). + + +254. To express simply expected action:-- + + ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Singular_. _Singular_. + + 1. I shall choose. I shall be chosen. + 2. You will choose. You will be chosen. + 3. [He] will choose. [He] will be chosen. + + _Plural_. _Plural_. + + 1. We shall choose. We shall be chosen. + 2. You will choose. You will be chosen. + 3. [They] will choose. [They] will be chosen. + + To express determination, promise, etc.:-- + + ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Singular_. _Singular_. + + 1. I will choose. I will be chosen. + 2. You shall choose. You shall be chosen. + 3. [He] shall choose. [He] shall be chosen. + + ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Plural_. _Plural_. + + 1. We will choose. 1. We will be chosen. + 2. You shall choose. 2. You shall be chosen. + 3. [They] shall choose. 3. [They] shall be chosen. + + +Exercises on _Shall_ and _Will_. + +(_a_) From Secs. 252 and 253, write out a summary or outline of the +various uses of _shall_ and _will_. + +(_b_) Examine the following sentences, and justify the use of _shall_ +and _will_, or correct them if wrongly used:-- + +1. Thou art what I would be, yet only seem. + +2. We would be greatly mistaken if we thought so. + +3. Thou shalt have a suit, and that of the newest cut; the wardrobe +keeper shall have orders to supply you. + +4. "I shall not run," answered Herbert stubbornly. + +5. He informed us, that in the course of another day's march we would +reach the prairies on the banks of the Grand Canadian. + +6. What shall we do with him? This is the sphinx-like riddle which we +must solve if we would not be eaten. + +7. Will not our national character be greatly injured? Will we not be +classed with the robbers and destroyers of mankind? + +8. Lucy stood still, very anxious, and wondering whether she should +see anything alive. + +9. I would be overpowered by the feeling of my disgrace. + +10. No, my son; whatever cash I send you is yours: you will spend it +as you please, and I have nothing to say. + +11. But I will doubtless find some English person of whom to make +inquiries. + +12. Without having attended to this, we will be at a loss to +understand several passages in the classics. + +13. "I am a wayfarer," the stranger said, "and would like permission +to remain with you a little while." + +14. The beast made a sluggish movement, then, as if he would have more +of the enchantment, stirred her slightly with his muzzle. + + +WEAK VERBS. + + +255. Those weak verbs which add _-d_ or _-ed_ to form the past tense +and past participle, and have no change of vowel, are so easily +recognized as to need no special treatment. Some of them are already +given as secondary forms of the strong verbs. + +But the rest, which may be called irregular weak verbs, need some +attention and explanation. + + +256. The irregular weak verbs are divided into two classes,-- + +[Sidenote: _The two classes of irregular weak verbs._] + +(1) Those which retain the _-d_ or _-t_ in the past tense, with some +change of form for the past tense and past participle. + +(2) Those which end in _-d_ or _-t_, and have lost the ending which +formerly was added to this. + +The old ending to verbs of Class II. was _-de_ or _-te_; as,-- + + This worthi man ful wel his wit _bisette_ [used].--CHAUCER. + + Of smale houndes _hadde_ she, that sche _fedde_ With rosted + flessh, or mylk and wastel breed.--_Id._ + +This ending has now dropped off, leaving some weak verbs with the same +form throughout: as set, set, set; put, put, put. + + +257. Irregular Weak Verbs.--Class I. + + _Present Tense_. _Past Tense_. _Past Participle_. + + bereave bereft, bereave bereft, bereaved + beseech besought besought + burn burned, burnt burnt + buy bought bought + catch caught caught + creep crept crept + deal dealt dealt + dream dreamt, dreamed dreamt, dreamed + dwell dwelt dwelt + feel felt felt + flee fled fled + have had had (_once_ haved) + hide hid hidden, hid + keep kept kept + kneel knelt knelt + lay laid laid + lean leaned, leant leaned, leant + leap leaped, leapt leaped, leapt + leave left left + lose lost lost + make made (_once_ maked) made + mean meant meant + pay paid paid + pen [inclose] penned, pen penned, pent + say said said + seek sought sought + sell sold sold + shoe shod shod + sleep slept slept + spell spelled, spelt spelt + spill spilt spilt + stay staid, stayed staid, stayed + sweep swept swept + teach taught taught + tell told told + think thought thought + weep wept wept + work worked, wrought worked, wrought + + +258. Irregular Weak Verbs.--Class II. + + _Present Tense_. _Past Tense_. _Past Participle_. + + bend bent, bended bent, bended + bleed bled bled + breed bred bred + build built built + cast cast cast + cost cost cost + feed fed fed + gild gilded, gilt gilded, gilt + gird girt, girded girt, girded + hit hit hit + hurt hurt hurt + knit knit, knitted knit, knitted + lead led led + let let let + light lighted, lit lighted, lit + meet met met + put put put + quit quit, quitted quit, quitted + read read read + rend rent rent + rid rid rid + send sent sent + set set set + shed shed shed + shred shred shred + shut shut shut + slit slit slit + speed sped sped + spend spent spent + spit spit [_obs._ spat] spit [_obs._ spat] + split split split + spread spread spread + sweat sweat sweat + thrust thrust thrust + wed wed, wedded wed, wedded + wet wet, wetted wet, wetted + + +[Sidenote: _Tendency to phonetic spelling._] + +250. There seems to be in Modern English a growing tendency toward +phonetic spelling in the past tense and past participle of weak verbs. +For example, _-ed_, after the verb _bless_, has the sound of _t_: +hence the word is often written _blest_. So with _dipt_, _whipt_, +_dropt_, _tost_, _crost_, _drest_, _prest_, etc. This is often seen in +poetry, and is increasing in prose. + + +Some Troublesome Verbs. + + +[Sidenote: Lie _and_ lay _in use and meaning._] + +260. Some sets of verbs are often confused by young students, weak +forms being substituted for correct, strong forms. + +Lie and lay need close attention. These are the forms:-- + + _Present Tense._ _Past Tense._ _Pres. Participle._ _Past Participle._ + + 1. Lie lay lying lain + 2. Lay laid laying laid + +The distinctions to be observed are as follows:-- + +(1) _Lie_, with its forms, is regularly _intransitive_ as to use. As +to meaning, _lie_ means to rest, to recline, to place one's self in a +recumbent position; as, "There _lies_ the ruin." + +(2) _Lay_, with its forms, is always _transitive_ as to use. As to +meaning, _lay_ means to put, to place a person or thing in position; +as, "Slowly and sadly we _laid_ him down." Also _lay_ may be used +without any object expressed, but there is still a transitive meaning; +as in the expressions, "to _lay_ up for future use," "to _lay_ on with +the rod," "to _lay_ about him lustily." + + +[Sidenote: Sit _and_ set.] + +261. Sit and set have principal parts as follows:-- + + _Present Tense._ _Past Tense._ _Pres. Participle._ _Past Participle._ + + 1. Sit sat sitting sat + 2. Set set setting set + +Notice these points of difference between the two verbs:-- + +(1) _Sit_, with its forms, is always _intransitive_ in use. In +meaning, _sit_ signifies (_a_) to place one's self on a seat, to rest; +(_b_) to be adjusted, to fit; (_c_) to cover and warm eggs for +hatching, as, "The hen _sits_." + +(2) _Set_, with its forms, is always _transitive_ in use when it has +the following meanings: (_a_) to put or place a thing or person in +position, as "He _set_ down the book;" (_b_) to fix or establish, as, +"He _sets_ a good example." + +_Set_ is _intransitive_ when it means (_a_) to go down, to decline, +as, "The sun has _set_;" (_b_) to become fixed or rigid, as, "His eyes +_set_ in his head because of the disease;" (_c_) in certain idiomatic +expressions, as, for example, "to _set_ out," "to _set_ up in +business," "to _set_ about a thing," "to _set_ to work," "to _set_ +forward," "the tide _sets_ in," "a strong wind _set_ in," etc. + + +Exercise. + +Examine the forms of _lie_, _lay_, _sit_ and _set_ in these sentences; +give the meaning of each, and correct those used wrongly. + +1. If the phenomena which lie before him will not suit his purpose, +all history must be ransacked. + +2. He sat with his eyes fixed partly on the ghost and partly on +Hamlet, and with his mouth open. + +3. The days when his favorite volume set him upon making wheelbarrows +and chairs,... can never again be the realities they were. + +4. To make the jacket sit yet more closely to the body, it was +gathered at the middle by a broad leathern belt. + +5. He had set up no unattainable standard of perfection. + +6. For more than two hundred years his bones lay undistinguished. + +7. The author laid the whole fault on the audience. + +8. Dapple had to lay down on all fours before the lads could bestride +him. + +9. And send'st him...to his gods where happy lies + His petty hope in some near port or bay, + And dashest him again to earth:--there let him lay. + +10. Achilles is the swift-footed when he is sitting still. + +11. It may be laid down as a general rule, that history begins in +novel, and ends in essay. + +12. I never took off my clothes, but laid down in them. + + + + +VERBALS. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +262. Verbals are words that express action in a general way, +without limiting the action to any time, or asserting it of any +subject. + +[Sidenote: _Kinds._] + +Verbals may be participles, infinitives, or gerunds. + + +PARTICIPLES. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +263. Participles are _adjectival_ verbals; that is, they either +belong to some substantive by expressing action in connection with it, +or they express action, and directly modify a substantive, thus having +a descriptive force. Notice these functions. + +[Sidenote: _Pure participle in function._] + + 1. At length, _wearied_ by his cries and agitations, and not + _knowing_ how to put an end to them, he addressed the animal as + if he had been a rational being.--DWIGHT. + +Here _wearied_ and _knowing_ belong to the subject _he_, and express +action in connection with it, but do not describe. + +[Sidenote: _Express action and also describe._] + + 2. Another name glided into her petition--it was that of the + _wounded_ Christian, whom fate had placed in the hands of + bloodthirsty men, his _avowed_ enemies.--SCOTT. + +Here _wounded_ and _avowed_ are participles, but are used with the +same adjectival force that _bloodthirsty_ is (see Sec. 143, 4). + +Participial adjectives have been discussed in Sec. 143 (4), but we +give further examples for the sake of comparison and distinction. + +[Sidenote: _Fossil participles as adjectives._] + + 3. As _learned_ a man may live in a cottage or a college + commmon-room.--THACKERAY + + 4. Not merely to the soldier are these campaigns _interesting_ + --BAYNE. + + 5. How _charming_ is divine philosophy!--MILTON. + + +[Sidenote: _Forms of the participle._] + +264. Participles, in expressing action, may be active or +passive, incomplete (or imperfect), complete (perfect or past), +and perfect definite. + +They cannot be divided into tenses (present, past, etc.), because they +have no tense of their own, but derive their tense from the verb on +which they depend; for example,-- + + 1. He walked conscientiously through the services of the day, + _fulfilling_ every section the minutest, etc.--DE QUINCEY. + +_Fulfilling_ has the form to denote continuance, but depends on the +verb _walked_, which is past tense. + + + 2. Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, + Comes _dancing_ from the East.--MILTON. + +_Dancing_ here depends on a verb in the present tense. + + +265. PARTICIPLES OF THE VERB _CHOOSE_. + + ACTIVE VOICE. + +_Imperfect._ Choosing. +_Perfect._ Having chosen. +_Perfect definite._ Having been choosing. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + +_Imperfect._ None +_Perfect._ Chosen, being chosen, having been chosen. +_Perfect definite._ None. + + +Exercise. + +Pick out the participles, and tell whether active or passive, +imperfect, perfect, or perfect definite. If pure participles, tell to +what word they belong; if adjectives, tell what words they modify. + +1. The change is a large process, accomplished within a large and +corresponding space, having, perhaps, some central or equatorial line, +but lying, like that of our earth, between certain tropics, or limits +widely separated. + +2. I had fallen under medical advice the most misleading that it is +possible to imagine. + +3. These views, being adopted in a great measure from my mother, were +naturally the same as my mother's. + +4. Endowed with a great command over herself, she soon obtained an +uncontrolled ascendency over her people. + +5. No spectacle was more adapted to excite wonder. + +6. Having fully supplied the demands of nature in this respect, I +returned to reflection on my situation. + +7. Three saplings, stripped of their branches and bound together at +their ends, formed a kind of bedstead. + +8. This all-pervading principle is at work in our system,--the +creature warring against the creating power. + +9. Perhaps I was too saucy and provoking. + +10. Nothing of the kind having been done, and the principles of this +unfortunate king having been distorted,... try clemency. + + + +INFINITIVES. + + +266. Infinitives, like participles, have no tense. When active, +they have an indefinite, an imperfect, a perfect, and a perfect +definite form; and when passive, an indefinite and a perfect form, to +express action unconnected with a subject. + + +267. INFINITIVES OF THE VERB _CHOOSE._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + +_Indefinite._ [To] choose. _Imperfect._ [To] be choosing. + _Perfect._ [To] have chosen. + _Perfect definite._ [To] have been choosing. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + +_Indefinite._ [To] be chosen. _Perfect._ [To] have been chosen. + + +[Sidenote: To _with the infinitive._] + +268. In Sec. 267 the word _to_ is printed in brackets because it is +not a necessary part of the infinitive. + +It originally belonged only to an inflected form of the infinitive, +expressing purpose; as in the Old English, "Ut eode se sdere his sd +to sawenne" (Out went the sower his seed _to sow_). + +[Sidenote: _Cases when_ to _is omitted._] + +But later, when inflections became fewer, _to_ was used before the +infinitive generally, except in the following cases:-- + +(1) After the auxiliaries _shall_, _will_ (with _should_ and _would_). + +(2) After the verbs _may (might), can (could), must_; also _let_, +_make_, _do_ (as, "I _do go_" etc.), _see_, _bid_ (command), _feel_, +_hear_, _watch_, _please_; sometimes _need_ (as, "He _need_ not _go_") +and _dare_ (to venture). + +(3) After _had_ in the idiomatic use; as, "You _had_ better _go_" "He +_had_ rather _walk_ than _ride_." + +(4) In exclamations; as in the following examples:-- + + "He _find_ pleasure in doing good!" cried Sir + William.--GOLDSMITH. + + + + I _urge_ an address to his kinswoman! I _approach_ her when in a + base disguise! I _do_ this!--SCOTT. + + "She _ask_ my pardon, poor woman!" cried Charles.--MACAULAY. + + +269. _Shall_ and _will_ are not to be taken as separate verbs, but +with the infinitive as one tense of a verb; as, "He _will choose_," "I +_shall have chosen_," etc. + +Also _do_ may be considered an auxiliary in the interrogative, +negative, and emphatic forms of the present and past, also in the +imperative; as,-- + + What! _doth_ she, too, as the credulous imagine, _learn_ [_doth + learn_ is one verb, present tense] the love of the great stars? + --BULWER. + + _Do_ not _entertain_ so weak an imagination--BURKE. + + She _did_ not _weep_--she _did_ not _break forth_ into + reproaches.--IRVING. + + +270. The infinitive is sometimes active in form while it is passive +in meaning, as in the expression, "a house _to let_." Examples are,-- + + She was a kind, liberal woman; rich rather more than needed where + there were no opera boxes _to rent_.--DE QUINCEY. + + Tho' it seems my spurs are yet _to win_.--TENNYSON. + + But there was nothing _to do_.--HOWELLS. + + They shall have venison _to eat_, and corn _to hoe_.--COOPER. + + Nolan himself saw that something was _to pay_.--E.E. HALE. + + +271. The various offices which the infinitive and the participle +have in the sentence will be treated in Part II., under "Analysis," as +we are now learning merely to recognize the forms. + + + +GERUNDS. + + +272. The gerund is like the participle in form, and like a noun in +use. + +The participle has been called an adjectival verbal; the gerund may +be called a _noun verbal_. While the gerund expresses action, it has +several attributes of a noun,--it may be governed as a noun; it may be +the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or a preposition; it is +often preceded by the definite article; it is frequently modified by a +possessive noun or pronoun. + + +[Sidenote: _Distinguished from participle and verbal noun._] + +273. It differs from the participle in being always used as a noun: +it never belongs to or limits a noun. + +It differs from the verbal noun in having the property of governing a +noun (which the verbal noun has not) and of expressing action (the +verbal noun merely names an action, Sec. II). + +The following are examples of the uses of the gerund:-- + +(1) _Subject_: "The _taking_ of means not to see another morning had +all day absorbed every energy;" "Certainly _dueling_ is bad, and has +been put down." + +(2) _Object_: (_a_) "Our culture therefore must not omit the _arming_ +of the man." (_b_) "Nobody cares for _planting_ the poor fungus;" "I +announce the good of _being interpenetrated_ by the mind that made +nature;" "The guilt of _having been cured_ of the palsy by a Jewish +maiden." + +(3) _Governing and Governed_: "We are far from _having exhausted_ the +significance of the few symbols we use," also (2, _b_), above; "He +could embellish the characters with new traits without _violating_ +probability;" "He could not help _holding_ out his hand in return." + +Exercise.--Find sentences containing five participles, five +infinitives, and five gerunds. + + + +SUMMARY OF WORDS IN _-ING_. + + +274. Words in -ing are of six kinds, according to use as well as +meaning. They are as follows:-- + +(1) _Part of the verb_, making the definite tenses. + +(2) _Pure participles_, which express action, but do not assert. + +(3) _Participial adjectives_, which express action and also modify. + +(4) _Pure adjectives_, which have lost all verbal force. + +(5) _Gerunds_, which express action, may govern and be governed. + +(6) _Verbal nouns,_ which name an action or state, but cannot govern. + + +Exercise. + +Tell to which of the above six classes each _-ing_ word in the +following sentences belongs:-- + +1. Here is need of apologies for shortcomings. + +2. Then how pleasing is it, on your leaving the spot, to see the +returning hope of the parents, when, after examining the nest, they +find the nurslings untouched! + +3. The crowning incident of my life was upon the bank of the Scioto +Salt Creek, in which I had been unhorsed by the breaking of the saddle +girths. + +4. What a vast, brilliant, and wonderful store of learning! + +5. He is one of the most charming masters of our language. + +6. In explaining to a child the phenomena of nature, you must, by +object lessons, give reality to your teaching. + +7. I suppose I was dreaming about it. What is dreaming? + +8. It is years since I heard the laughter ringing. + +9. Intellect is not speaking and logicizing: it is seeing and +ascertaining. + +10. We now draw toward the end of that great martial drama which we +have been briefly contemplating. + +11. The second cause of failure was the burning of Moscow. + +12. He spread his blessings all over the land. + +13. The only means of ascending was by my hands. + +14. A marble figure of Mary is stretched upon the tomb, round which is +an iron railing, much corroded, bearing her national emblem. + +15. The exertion left me in a state of languor and sinking. + +16. Thackeray did not, like Sir Walter Scott, write twenty pages +without stopping, but, dictating from his chair, he gave out sentence +by sentence, slowly. + + + + +HOW TO PARSE VERBS AND VERBALS. + + +I. VERBS. + + +275. In parsing verbs, give the following points:-- + +(1) Class: (_a_) as to _form_,--strong or weak, giving principal +parts; (_b_) as to _use_,--transitive or intransitive. + +(2) Voice,--active or passive. + +(3) Mood,--indicative, subjunctive, or imperative. + +(4) Tense,--which of the tenses given in Sec. 234. + +(5) Person and number, in determining which you must tell-- + +(6) What the subject is, for the form of the verb may not show the +person and number. + + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +276. It has been intimated in Sec. 235, we must beware of the rule, +"A verb agrees with its subject in person and number." Sometimes it +does; usually it does not, if _agrees_ means that the verb changes its +form for the different persons and numbers. The verb _be_ has more +forms than other verbs, and may be said to _agree_ with its subject in +several of its forms. But unless the verb is present, and ends in +_-s_, or is an old or poetic form ending in _-st_ or _-eth_, it is +best for the student not to state it as a general rule that "the verb +agrees with its subject in person and number," but merely to _tell +what the subject of the verb is_. + + + +II. VERB PHRASES. + + +277. Verb phrases are made up of a principal verb followed by an +infinitive, and should always be analyzed as phrases, and not taken as +single verbs. Especially frequent are those made up of _should_, +_would_, _may_, _might_, _can_, _could_, _must_, followed by a pure +infinitive without _to_. Take these examples:-- + +1. Lee _should_ of himself _have replenished_ his stock. + +2. The government _might have been_ strong and prosperous. + +In such sentences as 1, call _should_ a weak verb, intransitive, +therefore active; indicative, past tense; has for its subject _Lee_. +_Have replenished_ is a perfect active infinitive. + +In 2, call _might_ a weak verb, intransitive, active, indicative (as +it means could), past tense; has the subject _government_. _Have been_ +is a perfect active infinitive. + +For fuller parsing of the infinitive, see Sec. 278(2). + + +III. VERBALS. + + +278. (1) Participle. Tell (_a_) from what verb it is derived; +(_b_) whether active or passive, imperfect, perfect, etc.; (_c_) to +what word it belongs. If a participial adjective, give points (_a_) +and (_b_), then parse it as an adjective. + +(2) Infinitive. Tell (_a_) from what verb it is derived; (_b_) +whether indefinite, perfect, definite, etc. + +(3) Gerund. (_a_) From what verb derived; (_b_) its use (Sec. 273). + + +Exercise. + +Parse the verbs, verbals, and verb phrases in the following +sentences:-- + +1. Byron builds a structure that repeats certain elements in nature or +humanity. + +2. The birds were singing as if there were no aching hearts, no sin +nor sorrow, in the world. + +3. Let it rise! let it rise, till it meet the sun in his coming; let +the earliest light of the morning gild it, and parting day linger and +play on its summit. + +4. You are gathered to your fathers, and live only to your country in +her grateful remembrance. + +5. Read this Declaration at the head of the army. + +6. Right graciously he smiled on us, as rolled from wing to wing, + Down all the line, a deafening shout, "God save our Lord the King!" + +7. When he arose in the morning, he thought only of her, and wondered +if she were yet awake. + +8. He had lost the quiet of his thoughts, and his agitated soul +reflected only broken and distorted images of things. + +9. So, lest I be inclined + To render ill for ill, + Henceforth in me instill, + O God, a sweet good will. + +10. The sun appears to beat in vain at the casements. + +11. Margaret had come into the workshop with her sewing, as usual. + +12. Two things there are with memory will abide-- + Whatever else befall--while life flows by. + +13. To the child it was not permitted to look beyond into the hazy +lines that bounded his oasis of flowers. + +14. With them, morning is not a new issuing of light, a new bursting +forth of the sun; a new waking up of all that has life, from a sort of +temporary death. + +15. Whatever ground you sow or plant, see that it is in good +condition. + +16. However that be, it is certain that he had grown to delight in +nothing else than this conversation. + +17. The soul having been often born, or, as the Hindoos say, +"traveling the path of existence through thousands of births," there +is nothing of which she has not gained knowledge. + +18. The ancients called it ecstasy or absence,--a getting-out of their +bodies to think. + +19. Such a boy could not whistle or dance. + +20. He had rather stand charged with the imbecility of skepticism than +with untruth. + +21. He can behold with serenity the yawning gulf between the ambition +of man and his power of performance. + +22. He passed across the room to the washstand, leaving me upon the +bed, where I afterward found he had replaced me on being awakened by +hearing me leap frantically up and down on the floor. + +23. In going for water, he seemed to be traveling over a desert plain +to some far-off spring. + +24. Hasheesh always brings an awakening of perception which magnifies +the smallest sensation. + +25. I have always talked to him as I would to a friend. + +26. Over them multitudes of rosy children came leaping to throw +garlands on my victorious road. + +27. Oh, had we some bright little isle of our own! + +28. Better it were, thou sayest, to consent; + Feast while we may, and live ere life be spent. + +29. And now wend we to yonder fountain, for the hour of rest is at +hand. + + + + +ADVERBS. + + +[Sidenote: _Adverbs modify._] + +279. The word _adverb_ means _joined to a verb_. The adverb is the +only word that can join to a verb to modify it. + +[Sidenote: _A verb._] + +When action is expressed, an adverb is usually added to define the +action in some way,--time, place, or manner: as, "He began _already_ +to be proud of being a Rugby boy [time];" "One of the young heroes +scrambled up _behind_ [place];" "He was absolute, but _wisely_ and +_bravely_ ruling [manner]." + +[Sidenote: _An adjective or an adverb._] + +But this does not mean that adverbs modify verbs _only_: many of them +express degree, and limit adjectives or adverbs; as, "William's +private life was _severely_ pure;" "Principles of English law are put +down _a little_ confusedly." + +[Sidenote: _Sometimes a noun or pronoun._] + +Sometimes an adverb may modify a noun or pronoun; for example,-- + + The young man reveres men of genius, because, to speak truly, + they are _more_ himself than he is.--EMERSON. + + Is it _only_ poets, and men of leisure and cultivation, who live + with nature?--_Id._ + + To the _almost_ terror of the persons present, Macaulay began + with the senior wrangler of 1801-2-3-4, and so on.--THACKERAY. + + Nor was it _altogether_ nothing.--CARLYLE. + + Sounds overflow the listener's brain So sweet that joy is + _almost_ pain.--SHELLEY. + + The condition of Kate is _exactly_ that of Coleridge's "Ancient + Mariner."--DE QUINCEY. + + He was _incidentally_ news dealer.--T.B. ALDRICH. + +NOTE.--These last differ from the words in Sec. 169, being adverbs +naturally and fitly, while those in Sec. 169 are felt to be +elliptical, and rather forced into the service of adjectives. + +Also these adverbs modifying nouns are to be distinguished from those +standing _after_ a noun by ellipsis, but really modifying, not the +noun, but some verb understood; thus,-- + + The gentle winds and waters [that are] near, Make music to the + lonely ear.--BYRON. + + With bowering leaves [that grow] _o'erhead_, to which the eye + Looked up half sweetly, and half awfully.--LEIGH HUNT. + +[Sidenote: _A phrase._] + +An adverb may modify a phrase which is equivalent to an adjective or +an adverb, as shown in the sentences,-- + + They had begun to make their effort much _at the same + time_.--TROLLOPE. + + I draw forth the fruit, all wet and glossy, maybe _nibbled by + rabbits and hollowed out by crickets_, and perhaps _with a leaf + or two cemented to it_, but still _with a rich bloom to + it_.--THOREAU. + +[Sidenote: _A clause or sentence._] + +It may also modify a sentence, emphasizing or qualifying the +statement expressed; as, for example,-- + + And _certainly_ no one ever entered upon office with so few + resources of power in the past.--LOWELL. + + _Surely_ happiness is reflective, like the light of heaven. + --IRVING. + + We are offered six months' credit; and that, _perhaps_, has + induced some of us to attend it.--FRANKLIN. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +280. An adverb, then, is a modifying word, which may qualify an +action word or a statement, and may add to the meaning of an adjective +or adverb, or a word group used as such. + +NOTE.--The expression _action word_ is put instead of _verb_, because +_any_ verbal word may be limited by an adverb, not simply the forms +used in predication. + + +281. Adverbs may be classified in two ways: (1) according to the +meaning of the words; (2) according to their use in the sentence. + + +ADVERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO MEANING. + + +282. Thus considered, there are six classes:-- + +(1) Time; as _now_, _to-day_, _ever_, _lately_, _before_, +_hitherto_, etc. + +(2) Place. These may be adverbs either of + +(_a_) PLACE WHERE; as _here_, _there_, _where_, _near_, _yonder_, +_above_, etc. + +(_b_) PLACE TO WHICH; as _hither_, _thither_, _whither_, +_whithersoever_, etc. + +(_c_) PLACE FROM WHICH; as _hence_, _thence_, _whence_, +_whencesoever_, etc. + +(3) Manner, telling _how_ anything is done; as _well_, _slowly_, +_better_, _bravely_, _beautifully_. Action is conceived or performed +in so many ways, that these adverbs form a very large class. + +(4) Number, telling _how many times_: _once_, _twice_, _singly_, +_two by two_, etc. + +(5) Degree, telling _how much_; as _little_, _slightly_, _too_, +_partly_, _enough_, _greatly_, _much_, _very_, _just_, etc. (see also +Sec. 283). + +(6) Assertion, telling the speaker's belief or disbelief in a +statement, or how far he believes it to be true; as _perhaps_, +_maybe_, _surely_, _possibly_, _probably_, _not_, etc. + + +[Sidenote: _Special remarks on adverbs of degree._] + +283. The is an adverb of degree when it limits an adjective or an +adverb, especially the comparative of these words; thus,-- + + But not _the_ less the blare of the tumultuous organ wrought its + own separate creations.--DE QUINCEY. + + _The_ more they multiply, _the_ more friends you will have; _the_ + more evidently they love liberty, _the_ more perfect will be + their obedience.--BURKE. + +This and that are very common as adverbs in spoken English, and +not infrequently are found in literary English; for example,-- + + The master...was for _this_ once of her opinion.--R. LOUIS + STEVENSON. + + Death! To die! I owe _that_ much To what, at least, I + was.--BROWNING. + + _This_ long's the text.--SHAKESPEARE. + +[Sidenote _The status of such_.] + +Such is frequently used as an equivalent of _so_: _such_ precedes an +adjective with its noun, while _so_ precedes only the adjective +usually. + + Meekness,...which gained him _such_ universal + popularity.--IRVING. + + _Such_ a glittering appearance that no ordinary man would have + been able to close his eyes there.--HAWTHORNE. + + An eye of _such_ piercing brightness and _such_ commanding power + that it gave an air of inspiration.--LECKY. + +So also in Grote, Emerson, Thackeray, Motley, White, and others. + +[Sidenote: _Pretty._] + +Pretty has a wider adverbial use than it gets credit for. + + I believe our astonishment is _pretty_ equal.--FIELDING. + + Hard blows and hard money, the feel of both of which you know + _pretty_ well by now.--KINGSLEY. + + The first of these generals is _pretty_ generally recognized as + the greatest military genius that ever lived.--BAYNE. + + A _pretty_ large experience.--THACKERAY. + +_Pretty_ is also used by Prescott, Franklin, De Quincey, Defoe, +Dickens, Kingsley, Burke, Emerson, Aldrich, Holmes, and other writers. + +[Sidenote: Mighty.] + +The adverb mighty is very common in colloquial English; for example,-- + + "_Mighty_ well, Deacon Gookin!" replied the solemn tones of the + minister.--HAWTHORNE. + + "Maybe you're wanting to get over?--anybody sick? Ye seem + _mighty_ anxious!"--H.B. STOWE. + +It is only occasionally used in literary English; for example,-- + + You are _mighty_ courteous.--BULWER. + + Beau Fielding, a _mighty_ fine gentleman.--THACKERAY. + + "Peace, Neville," said the king, "thou think'st thyself _mighty_ + wise, and art but a fool."--SCOTT. + + I perceived his sisters _mighty_ busy.--GOLDSMITH. + + +[Sidenote: _Notice meanings._] + +284. Again, the meaning of words must be noticed rather than their +form; for many words given above may be moved from one class to +another at will: as these examples,--"He walked too _far_ [place];" +"That were _far_ better [degree];" "He spoke _positively_ [manner];" +"That is _positively_ untrue [assertion];" "I have seen you _before_ +[time];" "The house, and its lawn _before_ [place]." + + + +ADVERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO USE. + + +[Sidenote: _Simple._] + +285. All adverbs which have no function in the sentence except to +modify are called simple adverbs. Such are most of those given +already in Sec. 282. + +[Sidenote: _Interrogative._] + +286. Some adverbs, besides modifying, have the additional function +of asking a question. + +[Sidenote: _Direct questions._] + +These may introduce direct questions of-- + +(1) Time. + + _When_ did this humane custom begin?--H. CLAY. + +(2) Place. + + _Where_ will you have the scene?--LONGFELLOW + +(3) Manner. + + And _how_ looks it now?--HAWTHORNE. + +(4) Degree. + + "_How_ long have you had this whip?" asked he.--BULWER. + +(5) Reason. + + _Why_ that wild stare and wilder cry?--WHITTIER + + Now _wherefore_ stopp'st thou me?--COLERIDGE + +[Sidenote: _Indirect questions._] + +Or they may introduce indirect questions of-- + +(1) Time. + + I do not remember _when_ I was taught to read.--D. WEBSTER. + +(2) Place. + + I will not ask _where_ thou liest low.--BYRON + +(3) Manner. + + Who set you to cast about what you should say to the select + souls, or _how_ to say anything to such?--EMERSON. + +(4) Degree. + + Being too full of sleep to understand + _How_ far the unknown transcends the what we know. + --LONGFELLOW + +(5) Reason. + + I hearkened, I know not _why_.--POE. + + +287. There is a class of words usually classed as conjunctive +adverbs, as they are said to have the office of conjunctions in +joining clauses, while having the office of adverbs in modifying; for +example,-- + + _When_ last I saw thy young blue eyes, they smiled.--BYRON. + +But in reality, _when_ does not express time and modify, but the whole +clause, _when_..._eyes_; and _when_ has simply the use of a +conjunction, not an adverb. For further discussion, see Sec. 299 under +"Subordinate Conjunctions." + + +Exercise.--Bring up sentences containing twenty adverbs, +representing four classes. + + + +COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. + + +288. Many adverbs are compared, and, when compared, have the same +inflection as adjectives. + +The following, irregularly compared, are often used as adjectives:-- + + _Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._ + + well better best + ill or badly worse worst + much more most + little less least + nigh or near nearer nearest or next + far farther, further farthest, furthest + late later latest, last + (rathe, _obs._) rather + + +289. Most monosyllabic adverbs add _-er_ and _-est_ to form the +comparative and superlative, just as adjectives do; as, _high_, +_higher_, _highest_; _soon_, _sooner_, _soonest_. + +Adverbs in _-ly_ usually have _more_ and _most_ instead of the +inflected form, only occasionally having _-er_ and _-est_. + + Its strings _boldlier_ swept.--COLERIDGE. + + None can deem _harshlier_ of me than I deem.--BYRON. + + Only that we may _wiselier_ see.--EMERSON. + + Then must she keep it _safelier_.--TENNYSON. + + I should _freelier_ rejoice in that absence.--SHAKESPEARE. + + +[Sidenote: _Form_ vs. _use._] + +290. The fact that a word ends in _-ly_ does not make it an adverb. +Many adjectives have the same ending, and must be distinguished by +their use in the sentence. + + +Exercise. + +Tell what each word in _ly_ modifies, then whether it is an adjective +or an adverb. + +1. It seems certain that the Normans were more cleanly in their +habits, more courtly in their manners. + +2. It is true he was rarely heard to speak. + +3. He would inhale the smoke slowly and tranquilly. + +4. The perfectly heavenly law might be made law on earth. + +5. The king winced when he saw his homely little bride. + +6. With his proud, quick-flashing eye, + And his mien of kingly state. + +7. And all about, a lovely sky of blue + Clearly was felt, or down the leaves laughed through. + +8. He is inexpressibly mean, curiously jolly, kindly and good-natured +in secret. + + +291. Again, many words without _-ly_ have the same form, whether +adverbs or adjectives. + +The reason is, that in Old and Middle English, adverbs derived from +adjectives had the ending _-e_ as a distinguishing mark; as,-- + + If men smoot it with a yerde _smerte_ [If men smote it with a rod + smartly].--CHAUCER. + +This _e_ dropping off left both words having the same form. + + Weeds were sure to grow _quicker_ in his fields.--IRVING. + + O _sweet_ and _far_ from cliff and scar The horns of Elfland + faintly blowing.--TENNYSON. + + But he must do his errand _right._--DRAKE + + _Long_ she looked in his tiny face.--_Id._ + + Not _near_ so black as he was painted.--THACKERAY. + +In some cases adverbs with _-ly_ are used side by side with those +without _-ly_, but with a different meaning. Such are _most_, +_mostly_; _near_, _nearly_; _even_, _evenly_; _hard_, _hardly_; etc. + + +[Sidenote: _Special use of_ there.] + +292. Frequently the word there, instead of being used adverbially, +merely introduces a sentence, and inverts the usual order of subject +and predicate. + +This is such a fixed idiom that the sentence, if it has the verb _be_, +seems awkward or affected without this "_there_ introductory." Compare +these:-- + + 1. _There_ are eyes, to be sure, that give no more admission into + the man than blueberries.--EMERSON. + + 2. Time was when field and watery cove With modulated echoes + rang.--WORDSWORTH. + + + +HOW TO PARSE ADVERBS. + + +293. In parsing adverbs, give-- + +(1) The class, according to meaning and also use. + +(2) Degree of comparison, if the word is compared. + +(3) What word or word group it modifies. + + +Exercise. + +Parse all the adverbs in the following sentences:-- + +1. Now the earth is so full that a drop overfills it. + +2. The higher we rise in the scale of being, the more certainly we +quit the region of the brilliant eccentricities and dazzling contrasts +which belong to a vulgar greatness. + +3. We sit in the warm shade and feel right well + How the sap creeps up and blossoms swell. + +4. Meanwhile the Protestants believed somewhat doubtfully that he was +theirs. + +5. Whence else could arise the bruises which I had received, but from +my fall? + +6. We somehow greedily gobble down all stories in which the characters +of our friends are chopped up. + +7. How carefully that blessed day is marked in their little calendars! + +8. But a few steps farther on, at the regular wine-shop, the Madonna +is in great glory. + +9. The foolish and the dead alone never change their opinion. + +10. It is the Cross that is first seen, and always, burning in the +center of the temple. + +11. For the impracticable, however theoretically enticing, is always +politically unwise. + +12. Whence come you? and whither are you bound? + +13. How comes it that the evil which men say spreads so widely and +lasts so long, whilst our good kind words don't seem somehow to take +root and blossom? + +14. At these carousals Alexander drank deep. + +15. Perhaps he has been getting up a little architecture on the road +from Florence. + +16. It is left you to find out why your ears are boxed. + +17. Thither we went, and sate down on the steps of a house. + +18. He could never fix which side of the garden walk would suit him +best, but continually shifted. + +19. But now the wind rose again, and the stern drifted in toward the +bank. + +20. He caught the scent of wild thyme in the air, and found room to +wonder how it could have got there. + +21. They were soon launched on the princely bosom of the Thames, upon +which the sun now shone forth. + +22. Why should we suppose that conscientious motives, feeble as they +are constantly found to be in a good cause, should be omnipotent for +evil? + +24. It was pretty bad after that, and but for Polly's outdoor +exercise, she would undoubtedly have succumbed. + + + + +CONJUNCTIONS. + + +294. Unlike adverbs, conjunctions do not modify: they are used +solely for the purpose of connecting. + +Examples of the use of conjunctions:-- + +[Sidenote: _They connect_ words.] + +(1) _Connecting words_: "It is the very necessity _and_ condition of +existence;" "What a simple _but_ exquisite illustration!" + +[Sidenote: Word groups: _Phrases._] + +[Sidenote: _Clauses._] + +(2) _Connecting word groups_: "Hitherto the two systems have existed +in different States, _but_ side by side within the American Union;" +"This has happened _because_ the Union is a confederation of States." + +[Sidenote: _Sentences._] + +(3) _Connecting sentences_: "Unanimity in this case can mean only a +very large majority. _But_ even unanimity itself is far from +indicating the voice of God." + +[Sidenote: _Paragraphs._] + +(4) _Connecting sentence groups_: Paragraphs would be too long to +quote here, but the student will readily find them, in which the +writer connects the divisions of narration or argument by such words +as _but_, _however_, _hence_, _nor_, _then_, _therefore_, etc. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +295. A conjunction is a linking word, connecting words, word +groups, sentences, or sentence groups. + + +[Sidenote: _Classes of conjunctions._] + +296. Conjunctions have two principal divisions:-- + +(1) Cordinate, joining words, word groups, etc., of the _same +rank_. + +(2) Subordinate, joining a subordinate or dependent clause to a +principal or independent clause. + + + +CORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. + +297. Cordinate conjunctions are of four kinds: + +(1) COPULATIVE, coupling or uniting words and expressions in the same +line of thought; as _and_, _also_, _as well as_, _moreover_, etc. + +(2) ADVERSATIVE, connecting words and expressions that are opposite in +thought; as _but_, _yet_, _still_, _however_, _while_, _only_, etc. + +(3) CAUSAL, introducing a reason or cause. The chief ones are, _for_, +_therefore_, _hence_, _then_. + +(4) ALTERNATIVE, expressing a choice, usually between two things. They +are _or_, _either_, _else_, _nor_, _neither_, _whether_. + +[Sidenote: _Correlatives._] + +298. Some of these go in pairs, answering to each other in the same +sentence; as, _both_..._and_; _not only_..._but_ (or _but also_); +_either_..._or_; _whether_..._or_; _neither_..._nor_; _whether_..._or +whether_. + +Some go in threes; as, _not only_..._but_... _and_; +_either_..._or_..._or_; _neither_..._nor_... _nor_. + +Further examples of the use of cordinate conjunctions:-- + +[Sidenote: _Copulative._] + +Your letter, _likewise_, had its weight; the bread was spent, the +butter _too_; the window being open, _as well as_ the room door. + +[Sidenote: _Adversative._] + +The assertion, _however_, serves but to show their ignorance. "Can +this be so?" said Goodman Brown. "_Howbeit_, I have nothing to do with +the governor and council." + +_Nevertheless_, in this mansion of gloom I now proposed to myself a +sojourn of some weeks. + +[Sidenote: _Alternative._] + +While the earth bears a plant, _or_ the sea rolls its waves. + + _Nor_ mark'd they less, where in the air + A thousand streamers flaunted fair. + +[Sidenote: _Causal._] + +_Therefore_ the poet is not any permissive potentate, but is emperor +in his own right. _For_ it is the rule of the universe that corn shall +serve man, and not man corn. + +Examples of the use of correlatives:-- + + He began to doubt whether _both_ he _and_ the world around him + were not bewitched.--IRVING. + + He is _not only_ bold and vociferous, _but_ possesses a + considerable talent for mimicry, _and_ seems to enjoy great + satisfaction in mocking and teasing other birds.--WILSON. + + It is...the same _whether_ I move my hand along the surface of a + body, _or whether_ such a body is moved along my hand.--BURKE. + + _Neither_ the place in which he found himself, _nor_ the + exclusive attention that he attracted, disturbed the + self-possession of the young Mohican.--COOPER. + + _Neither_ was there any phantom memorial of life, _nor_ wing of + bird, _nor_ echo, _nor_ green leaf, _nor_ creeping thing, that + moved or stirred upon the soundless waste.--DE QUINCEY. + + + +SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. + +299. Subordinate conjunctions are of the following kinds:-- + +(1) PLACE: _where_, _wherever_, _whither_, _whereto_, _whithersoever_, +_whence_, etc. + +(2) TIME: _when_, _before_, _after_, _since_, _as_, _until_, +_whenever_, _while_, _ere_, etc. + +(3) MANNER: _how_, _as_, _however_, _howsoever_. + +(4) CAUSE or REASON: _because_, _since_, _as_, _now_, _whereas_, +_that_, _seeing_, etc. + +(5) COMPARISON: _than_ and _as_. + +(6) PURPOSE: _that_, _so_, _so that_, _in order that_, _lest_, +_so_..._as_. + +(7) RESULT: _that_, _so that_, especially _that_ after _so_. + +(8) CONDITION or CONCESSION: _if_, _unless_, _so_, _except_, _though_, +_although_; _even if_, _provided_, _provided that_, _in case_, _on +condition that_, etc. + +(9) SUBSTANTIVE: _that_, _whether_, sometimes _if_, are used +frequently to introduce noun clauses used as _subject, object, in +apposition_, etc. + +Examples of the use of subordinate conjunctions:-- + +[Sidenote: _Place._] + + Where the treasure is, there will the heart be also.--_Bible._ + + To lead from eighteen to twenty millions of men _whithersoever_ + they will.--J. QUINCY. + + An artist will delight in excellence _wherever_ he meets it. + --ALLSTON. + +[Sidenote: _Time._] + + I promise to devote myself to your happiness _whenever_ you shall + ask it of me.--PAULDING. + + It is sixteen years _since_ I saw the Queen of France.--BURKE. + +[Sidenote: _Manner._] + + Let the world go _how_ it will.--CARLYLE + + Events proceed, not _as_ they were expected or intended, but _as_ + they are impelled by the irresistible laws.--AMES. + +[Sidenote: _Cause, reason._] + + I see no reason _why_ I should not have the same + thought.--EMERSON. + + Then Denmark blest our chief, + _That_ he gave her wounds repose. + --CAMPBELL. + + _Now_ he is dead, his martyrdom will reap + Late harvests of the palms he should have had in life. + --H.H. JACKSON + + Sparing neither whip nor spur, _seeing that_ he carried the + vindication of his patron's fame in his saddlebags.--IRVING. + +[Sidenote: _Comparison._] + + As a soldier, he was more solicitous to avoid mistakes _than_ to + perform exploits that are brilliant.--AMES. + + All the subsequent experience of our race had gone over him with + as little permanent effect _as_ [_as_ follows the semi-adverbs + _as_ and _so_ in expressing comparison] the passing + breeze.--HAWTHORNE. + +[Sidenote: _Purpose._] + + We wish for a thousand heads, a thousand bodies, _that_ we might + celebrate its immense beauty.--EMERSON. + +[Sidenote: _Result._] + + So many thoughts moved to and fro, + _That_ vain it were her eyes to close. + --COLERIDGE. + + I was again covered with water, but not so long _but_ I held it + out.--DEFOE. + +[Sidenote: _Condition._] + + A ridicule which is of no import _unless_ the scholar heed + it.--EMERSON. + + There flowers or weeds at will may grow, + _So_ I behold them not. + --BYRON. + +[Sidenote: _Concession_.] + + What _though_ the radiance which was once so bright + Be now forever taken from my sight.--WORDSWORTH. + +[Sidenote: _Substantive._] + + It seems a pity _that_ we can only spend it once.--EMERSON. + + We do not believe _that_ he left any worthy man his foe who had + ever been his friend.--AMES. + + Let us see _whether_ the greatest, the wisest, the purest-hearted + of all ages are agreed in any wise on this point.--RUSKIN. + + Who can tell _if_ Washington be a great man or no?--EMERSON. + +300. As will have been noticed, some words--for example, _since_, +_while_, _as_, _that_, etc.--may belong to several classes of +conjunctions, according to their meaning and connection in the +sentence. + + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Bring up sentences containing five examples of cordinate +conjunctions. + +(_b_) Bring up sentences containing three examples of correlatives. + +(_c_) Bring up sentences containing ten subordinate conjunctions. + +(_d_) Tell whether the italicized words in the following sentences are +conjunctions or adverbs; classify them if conjunctions:-- + +1. _Yet_ these were often exhibited throughout our city. + +2. No one had _yet_ caught his character. + +3. _After_ he was gone, the lady called her servant. + +4. And they lived happily forever _after_. + +5. They, _however_, hold a subordinate rank. + +6. _However_ ambitious a woman may be to command admiration abroad, +her real merit is known at home. + +7. _Whence_ else could arise the bruises which I had received? + +8. He was brought up for the church, _whence_ he was occasionally +called the Dominie. + +9. And _then_ recovering, she faintly pressed her hand. + +10. In what point of view, _then_, is war not to be regarded with +horror? + +11. The moth fly, _as_ he shot in air, Crept under the leaf, and hid +her there. + +12. Besides, _as_ the rulers of a nation are _as_ liable _as_ other +people to be governed by passion and prejudice, there is little +prospect of justice in permitting war. + +13. _While_ a faction is a minority, it will remain harmless. + +14. _While_ patriotism glowed in his heart, wisdom blended in his +speech her authority with her charms. + +15. _Hence_ it is highly important that the custom of war should be +abolished. + +16. The raft and the money had been thrown near her, none of the +lashings having given way; _only_ what is the use of a guinea amongst +tangle and sea gulls? + +17. _Only_ let his thoughts be of equal scope, and the frame will suit +the picture. + + +SPECIAL REMARKS. + +[Sidenote: As if.] + +301. _As if_ is often used as one conjunction of manner, but really +there is an ellipsis between the two words; thus,-- + + But thy soft murmuring + Sounds sweet _as if_ a sister's voice reproved. + --BYRON. + + +If analyzed, the expression would be, "sounds sweet _as_ [the sound +would be] _if_ a sister's voice reproved;" _as_, in this case, +expressing degree if taken separately. + +But the ellipsis seems to be lost sight of frequently in writing, as +is shown by the use of _as though_. + +[Sidenote: As though.] + +302. In Emerson's sentence, "We meet, and part _as though_ we parted +not," it cannot be said that there is an ellipsis: it cannot mean "we +part _as_ [we should part] _though_" etc. + +Consequently, _as if_ and _as though_ may be taken as double +conjunctions expressing manner. _As though_ seems to be in as wide use +as the conjunction _as if_; for example,-- + + Do you know a farmer who acts and lives _as though_ he believed + one word of this?--H GREELEY. + + His voice ... sounded _as though_ it came out of a + barrel.--IRVING. + + Blinded alike from sunshine and from rain, + _As though_ a rose should shut, and be a bud again. + --KEATS + +Examples might be quoted from almost all authors. + +[Sidenote: As _for_ as if.] + +303. In poetry, _as_ is often equivalent to _as if_. + + And their orbs grew strangely dreary, + Clouded, even _as_ they would weep. + --EMILY BRONTE. + + So silently we seemed to speak, + So slowly moved about, + _As_ we had lent her half our powers + To eke her living out. + --HOOD. + + +HOW TO PARSE CONJUNCTIONS. + +304. In parsing conjunctions, tell-- + +(1) To what class and subclass they belong. + +(2) What words, word groups, etc., they connect. + +[Sidenote: _Caution_.] + +In classifying them, particular attention must be paid to the +_meaning_ of the word. Some conjunctions, such as _nor, and, because, +when_, etc., are regularly of one particular class; others belong to +several classes. For example, compare the sentences,-- + + 1. It continued raining, _so_ that I could not stir + abroad.--DEFOE + + 2. There will be an agreement in whatever variety of actions, + _so_ they be each honest and natural in their hour.--EMERSON + + 3. It was too dark to put an arrow into the creature's eye; _so_ + they paddled on.--KINGSLEY + +In sentence 1, _so that_ expresses result, and its clause depends on +the other, hence it is a subordinate conjunction of result; in 2, _so_ +means provided,--is subordinate of condition; in 3, _so_ means +therefore, and its clause is independent, hence it is a cordinate +conjunction of reason. + + +Exercise. + +Parse all the conjunctions in these sentences:-- + +1. When the gods come among men, they are not known. + +2. If he could solve the riddle, the Sphinx was slain. + +3. A lady with whom I was riding in the forest said to me that the +woods always seemed to wait, as if the genii who inhabit them +suspended their deeds until the wayfarer had passed. + +4. The mountain of granite blooms into an eternal flower, with the +lightness and delicate finish as well as the arial proportions and +perspective of vegetable scenery. + +5. At sea, or in the forest, or in the snow, he sleeps as warm, dines +with as good an appetite, and associates as happily, as beside his own +chimneys. + +6. Our admiration of the antique is not admiration of the old, but of +the natural. + +7. "Doctor," said his wife to Martin Luther, "how is it that whilst +subject to papacy we prayed so often and with such fervor, whilst now +we pray with the utmost coldness, and very seldom?" + +8. All the postulates of elfin annals,--that the fairies do not like +to be named; that their gifts are capricious and not to be trusted; +and the like,--I find them true in Concord, however they might be in +Cornwall or Bretagne. + +9. He is the compend of time; he is also the correlative of nature. + +10. He dismisses without notice his thought, because it is his. + +11. The eye was placed where one ray should fall, that it might +testify of that particular ray. + +12. It may be safely trusted, so it be faithfully imparted. + +13. He knows how to speak to his contemporaries. + +14. Goodness must have some edge to it,--else it is none. + +15. I hope it is somewhat better than whim at last. + +16. Now you have the whip in your hand, won't you lay on? + +17. I scowl as I dip my pen into the inkstand. + +18. I speak, therefore, of good novels only. + +19. Let her loose in the library as you do a fawn in a field. + +20. And whether consciously or not, you must be, in many a heart, +enthroned. + +21. It is clear, however, the whole conditions are changed. + +22. I never rested until I had a copy of the book. + +23. For, though there may be little resemblance otherwise, in this +they agree, that both were wayward. + +24. Still, she might have the family countenance; and Kate thought he +looked with a suspicious scrutiny into her face as he inquired for the +young don. + +25. He follows his genius whithersoever it may lead him. + +26. The manuscript indeed speaks of many more, whose names I omit, +seeing that it behooves me to hasten. + +27. God had marked this woman's sin with a scarlet letter, which had +such efficacy that no human sympathy could reach her, save it were +sinful like herself. + +28. I rejoice to stand here no longer, to be looked at as though I +had seven heads and ten horns. + +29. He should neither praise nor blame nor defend his equals. + +30. There was no iron to be seen, nor did they appear acquainted with +its properties; for they unguardedly took a drawn sword by the edge, +when it was presented to them. + + + + +PREPOSITIONS.. + +305. The word _preposition_ implies _place before_: hence it would +seem that a preposition is always _before_ its object. It may be so in +the majority of cases, but in a considerable proportion of instances +the preposition is _after_ its object. + +This occurs in such cases as the following:-- + +[Sidenote: Preposition not before its object.] + +(1) _After a relative pronoun_, a very common occurrence; thus,-- + + The most dismal Christmas fun _which_ these eyes ever looked + _on_.--THACKERAY. + + An ancient nation _which_ they know nothing _of_.--EMERSON. + + A foe, _whom_ a champion has fought _with_ to-day.--SCOTT. + + Some little toys _that_ girls are fond _of_.--SWIFT. + + "It's the man _that_ I spoke to you _about_" said Mr. + Pickwick.--DICKENS. + +(2) _After an interrogative adverb, adjective, or pronoun_, also +frequently found:-- + + _What_ God doth the wizard pray _to_?--HAWTHORNE. + + _What_ is the little one thinking about?--J.G. HOLLAND. + + _Where_ the Devil did it come _from_, I wonder?--DICKENS. + +(3) _With an infinitive_, in such expressions as these:-- + + A proper _quarrel_ for a Crusader to do battle _in_.--SCOTT. + + "You know, General, it was _nothing_ to joke _about_."--CABLE + + Had no harsh _treatment_ to reproach herself _with_.--BOYESEN + + A _loss of vitality_ scarcely to be accounted _for_.--HOLMES. + + Places for _horses_ to be hitched _to_.--_Id._ + +(4) _After a noun_,--the case in which the preposition is expected to +be, and regularly is, before its object; as,-- + + And unseen mermaids' pearly song + Comes bubbling up, the weeds _among_. + --BEDDOES. + + Forever panting and forever young, + All breathing human passion far _above_. + --KEATS. + +306. Since the object of a preposition is most often a noun, the +statement is made that the preposition usually precedes its object; as +in the following sentence, "Roused _by_ the shock, he started _from_ +his trance." + +Here the words _by_ and _from_ are connectives; but they do more than +connect. _By_ shows the relation in thought between _roused_ and +_shock_, expressing means or agency; _from_ shows the relation in +thought between _started_ and _trance_, and expresses separation. Both +introduce phrases. + +[Sidenote: _Definition_.] + +307. A preposition is a word joined to a noun or its equivalent to +make up a qualifying or an adverbial phrase, and to show the relation +between its object and the word modified. + +[Sidenote: _Objects, nouns and the following_.] + +308. Besides nouns, prepositions may have as objects-- + +(1) _Pronouns_: "Upon _them_ with the lance;" "With _whom_ I traverse +earth." + +(2) _Adjectives_: "On _high_ the winds lift up their voices." + +(3) _Adverbs_: "If I live wholly from _within_;" "Had it not been for +the sea from _aft_." + +(4) _Phrases_: "Everything came to her from _on high_;" "From _of old_ +they had been zealous worshipers." + +(5) _Infinitives_: "The queen now scarce spoke to him save _to convey_ +some necessary command for her service." + +(6) _Gerunds_: "They shrink from _inflicting_ what they threaten;" "He +is not content with _shining_ on great occasions." + +(7) _Clauses_: + + "Each soldier eye shall brightly turn + To _where thy sky-born glories burn_." + +[Sidenote: _Object usually objective case, if noun or pronoun_.] + +309. The object of a preposition, if a noun or pronoun, is usually +in the objective case. In pronouns, this is shown by the form of the +word, as in Sec. 308 (1). + +[Sidenote: _Often possessive_.] + +In the double-possessive idiom, however, the object is in the +possessive case after _of_; for example,-- + + There was also a book _of Defoe's_,... and another _of_ + _Mather's_.--FRANKLIN. + +See also numerous examples in Secs. 68 and 87. + +[Sidenote: _Sometimes nominative_.] + +And the prepositions _but_ and _save_ are found with the nominative +form of the pronoun following; as,-- + + Nobody knows _but_ my mate and _I_ + Where our nest and our nestlings lie. + --BRYANT. + + + +USES OF PREPOSITIONS. + + +[Sidenote: _Inseparable._] + +310. Prepositions are used in three ways:-- + +(1) _Compounded with verbs_, _adverbs_, or _conjunctions_; as, for +example, with verbs, _with_draw, _under_stand, _over_look, _over_take, +_over_flow, _under_go, _out_stay, _out_number, _over_run, _over_grow, +etc.; with adverbs, there_at_, there_in_, there_from_, there_by_, +there_with_, etc.; with conjunctions, where_at_, where_in_, where_on_, +where_through_, where_upon_, etc. + +[Sidenote: _Separable._] + +(2) _Following a verb_, and being really a part of the verb. This use +needs to be watched closely, to see whether the preposition belongs to +the verb or has a separate prepositional function. For example, in the +sentences, (_a_) "He broke a pane _from_ the window," (_b_) "He broke +_into_ the bank," in (_a_), the verb _broke_ is a predicate, modified +by the phrase introduced by _from_; in (_b_), the predicate is not +_broke_, modified by _into the bank_, but _broke into_--the object, +_bank_. + +Study carefully the following prepositions with verbs:-- + + Considering the space they _took up_.--SWIFT. + + I loved, _laughed at_, and pitied him.--GOLDSMITH. + + The sun _breaks through_ the darkest clouds.--SHAKESPEARE. + + They will _root up_ the whole ground.--SWIFT. + + A friend _prevailed upon_ one of the interpreters.--ADDISON + + My uncle _approved of_ it.--FRANKLIN. + + The robber who _broke into_ them.--LANDOR. + + This period is not obscurely _hinted at_.--LAMB. + + The judge _winked at_ the iniquity of the decision.--_Id._ + + The pupils' voices, _conning over_ their lessons.--IRVING. + + To _help out_ his maintenance.--_Id._ + + With such pomp is Merry Christmas _ushered in_.--LONGFELLOW. + +[Sidenote: _Ordinary use as connective, relation words._] + +(3) As _relation words_, introducing phrases,--the most common use, in +which the words have their own proper function. + + +[Sidenote: _Usefulness of prepositions._] + +311. Prepositions are the subtlest and most useful words in the +language for compressing a clear meaning into few words. Each +preposition has its proper and general meaning, which, by frequent and +exacting use, has expanded and divided into a variety of meanings more +or less close to the original one. + +Take, for example, the word _over_. It expresses place, with motion, +as, "The bird flew _over_ the house;" or rest, as, "Silence broods +_over_ the earth." It may also convey the meaning of _about_, +_concerning_; as, "They quarreled _over_ the booty." Or it may express +time: "Stay _over_ night." + +The language is made richer and more flexible by there being several +meanings to each of many prepositions, as well as by some of them +having the same meaning as others. + + + +CLASSES OF PREPOSITIONS. + + +312. It would be useless to attempt to classify all the +prepositions, since they are so various in meaning. + +The largest groups are those of place, time, and exclusion. + + + +PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE. + + +313. The following are the most common to indicate place:-- + +(1) PLACE WHERE: _abaft_, _about_, _above_, _across_, _amid_ +(_amidst_), _among_ (_amongst_), _at_, _athwart_, _below_, _beneath_, +_beside_, _between_ (_betwixt_), _beyond_, _in_, _on_, _over_, _under_ +(_underneath_), _upon_, _round_ or _around_, _without_. + +(2) PLACE WHITHER: _into_, _unto_, _up_, _through_, _throughout_, +_to_, _towards_. + +(3) PLACE WHENCE: _down_, _from_ (_away from_, _down from_, _from +out_, etc.), _off_, _out of_. + +Abaft is exclusively a sea term, meaning _back of_. + +Among (or amongst) and between (or betwixt) have a difference +in meaning, and usually a difference in use. _Among_ originally meant +in the crowd (_on gemong_), referring to several objects; _between_ +and _betwixt_ were originally made up of the preposition _be_ (meaning +_by_) and _tweon_ or _tweonum_ (modern _twain_), _by two_, and _be_ +with _twih_ (or _twuh_), having the same meaning, _by two_ objects. + +As to modern use, see "Syntax" (Sec. 459). + + + +PREPOSITIONS OF TIME. + + +314. They are _after_, _during_, _pending_, _till_ or _until_; also +many of the prepositions of place express time when put before words +indicating time, such as _at_, _between_, _by_, _about_, _on_, +_within_, etc. + +These are all familiar, and need no special remark. + + + +EXCLUSION OR SEPARATION. + + +315. The chief ones are _besides_, _but_, _except_, _save_, +_without_. The participle _excepting_ is also used as a preposition. + + + +MISCELLANEOUS PREPOSITIONS. + + +316. Against implies opposition, sometimes place where. In +colloquial English it is sometimes used to express time, now and then +also in literary English; for example,-- + + She contrived to fit up the baby's cradle for me _against_ + night.--SWIFT + +About, and the participial prepositions concerning, respecting, +regarding, mean _with reference to_. + + +[Sidenote: _Phrase prepositions._] + +317. Many phrases are used as single prepositions: _by means of_, +_by virtue of_, _by help of_, _by dint of_, _by force of_; _out of_, +_on account of_, _by way of_, _for the sake of_; _in consideration +of_, _in spite of_, _in defiance of_, _instead of_, _in view of_, _in +place of_; _with respect to_, _with regard to_, _according to_, +_agreeably to_; and some others. + + +318. Besides all these, there are some prepositions that have so +many meanings that they require separate and careful treatment: _on_ +(_upon_), _at_, _by_, _for_, _from_, _of_, _to_, _with_. + +No attempt will be made to give _all_ the meanings that each one in +this list has: the purpose is to stimulate observation, and to show +how useful prepositions really are. + + +At. + + +319. The general meaning of at is _near_, _close to_, after a verb +or expression implying position; and _towards_ after a verb or +expression indicating motion. It defines position approximately, while +_in_ is exact, meaning _within_. + +Its principal uses are as follows:-- + +(1) _Place where._ + + They who heard it listened with a curling horror _at_ the + heart.--J.F. COOPER. + + There had been a strike _at_ the neighboring manufacturing + village, and there was to be a public meeting, _at_ which he was + besought to be present.--T.W. HIGGINSON. + +(2) _Time_, more exact, meaning the point of time at which. + + He wished to attack _at_ daybreak.--PARKMAN. + + They buried him darkly, _at_ dead of night.--WOLFE + +(3) _Direction._ + + The mother stood looking wildly down _at_ the unseemly + object.--COOPER. + + You are next invited...to grasp _at_ the opportunity, and take + for your subject, "Health."--HIGGINSON. + +Here belong such expressions as _laugh at_, _look at_, _wink at_, +_gaze at_, _stare at_, _peep at_, _scowl at_, _sneer at_, _frown at_, +etc. + + We _laugh at_ the elixir that promises to prolong life to a + thousand years.--JOHNSON. + + "You never mean to say," pursued Dot, sitting on the floor and + _shaking_ her head _at_ him.--DICKENS. + +(4) _Source_ or _cause_, meaning _because of_, _by reason of_. + + I felt my heart chill _at_ the dismal sound.--T.W. KNOX. + + Delighted _at_ this outburst against the Spaniards.--PARKMAN. + +(5) Then the idiomatic phrases _at last_, _at length_, _at any rate_, +_at the best_, _at the worst_, _at least_, _at most_, _at first_, _at +once_, _at all_, _at one_, _at naught_, _at random_, etc.; and phrases +signifying state or condition of being, as, _at work_, _at play_, _at +peace_, _at war_, _at rest_, etc. + + +Exercise.--Find sentences with three different uses of _at_. + + +By. + + +320. Like _at_, by means _near_ or _close to_, but has several +other meanings more or less connected with this,-- + +(1) The general meaning of _place_. + + Richard was standing _by_ the window.--ALDRICH. + + Provided always the coach had not shed a wheel _by_ the + roadside.--_Id._ + +(2) _Time._ + + But _by_ this time the bell of Old Alloway began tolling.--B. + TAYLOR + + The angel came _by_ night.--R.H. STODDARD. + +(3) _Agency_ or _means_. + + Menippus knew which were the kings _by_ their howling + louder.--M.D. CONWAY. + + At St. Helena, the first port made _by_ the ship, he stopped. + --PARTON. + +(4) _Measure of excess_, expressing the degree of difference. + + At that time [the earth] was richer, _by_ many a million of + acres.--DE QUINCEY. + + He was taller _by_ almost the breadth of my nail.--SWIFT. + +(5) It is also used in _oaths and adjurations_. + + _By_ my faith, that is a very plump hand for a man of + eighty-four!--PARTON. + + They implore us _by_ the long trials of struggling humanity; _by_ + the blessed memory of the departed; _by_ the wrecks of time; _by_ + the ruins of nations.--EVERETT. + + +Exercise.--Find sentences with three different meanings of _by_. + + +For. + + +321. The chief meanings of for are as follows:-- + +(1) _Motion towards_ a place, or a tendency or action toward the +attainment of any object. + + Pioneers who were opening the way _for_ the march of the + nation.--COOPER. + + She saw the boat headed _for_ her.--WARNER. + +(2) _In favor of_, _for the benefit of_, _in behalf of_, a person or +thing. + + He and they were _for_ immediate attack.--PARKMAN + + The people were then against us; they are now _for_ us.--W.L. + GARRISON. + +(3) _Duration of time_, or _extent of space_. + + _For_ a long time the disreputable element outshone the + virtuous.--H.H. BANCROFT. + + He could overlook all the country _for_ many a mile of rich + woodland.--IRVING. + +(4) _Substitution_ or _exchange_. + + There are gains _for_ all our losses.--STODDARD. + + Thus did the Spaniards make bloody atonement _for_ the butchery + of Fort Caroline.--PARKMAN. + +(5) _Reference_, meaning _with regard to_, _as to_, _respecting_, etc. + + _For_ the rest, the Colonna motto would fit you best.--EMERSON. + + _For_ him, poor fellow, he repented of his folly.--E.E. HALE + +This is very common with _as_--_as for_ me, etc. + +(6) Like _as_, meaning _in the character of_, _as being_, etc. + + "Nay, if your worship can accomplish that," answered Master + Brackett, "I shall own you _for_ a man of skill indeed!" + --HAWTHORNE. + + Wavering whether he should put his son to death _for_ an + unnatural monster.--LAMB. + +(7) _Concession_, meaning _although_, _considering that_ etc. + + "_For_ a fool," said the Lady of Lochleven, "thou hast counseled + wisely."--SCOTT + + By my faith, that is a very plump hand _for_ a man of + eighty-four!--PARTON. + +(8) Meaning _notwithstanding_, or _in spite of_. + + But the Colonel, _for_ all his title, had a forest of poor + relations.--HOLMES. + + Still, _for_ all slips of hers, + One of Eve's family.--HOOD. + +(9) _Motive, cause, reason, incitement to action._ + + The twilight being...hardly more wholesome _for_ its glittering + mists of midge companies.--RUSKIN. + + An Arab woman, but a few sunsets since, ate her child, _for_ + famine.--_Id._ + + Here Satouriona forgot his dignity, and leaped _for_ + joy.--PARKMAN. + +(10) _For_ with its object preceding the infinitive, and having the +same meaning as a noun clause, as shown by this sentence:-- + + It is by no means necessary _that he should devote his whole + school existence to physical science_; nay, more, it is not + necessary for _him to give up more than a moderate share of his + time to such studies_.--HUXLEY. + + +Exercise.--Find sentences with five meanings of _for_. + + +From. + + +322. The general idea in from is separation or source. It may be +with regard to-- + +(1) _Place._ + + Like boys escaped _from_ school.--H.H. BANCROFT + + Thus they drifted _from_ snow-clad ranges to burning + plain.--_Id._ + +(2) _Origin._ + + Coming _from_ a race of day-dreamers, Ayrault had inherited the + faculty of dreaming also by night.--HIGGINSON. + + _From_ harmony, _from_ heavenly harmony + This universal frame began.--DRYDEN. + +(3) _Time._ + + A distrustful, if not a desperate man, did he become _from_ the + night of that fearful dream--HAWTHORNE. + +(4) _Motive_, _cause_, or _reason_. + + It was _from_ no fault of Nolan's.--HALE. + + The young cavaliers, _from_ a desire of seeming valiant, ceased + to be merciful.--BANCROFT. + + +Exercise.--Find sentences with three meanings of _from_. + + +Of. + + +323. The original meaning of of was separation or source, like +_from_. The various uses are shown in the following examples:-- + +I. The _From_ Relation. + +(1) _Origin or source._ + + The king holds his authority _of_ the people.--MILTON. + + Thomas Becket was born _of_ reputable parents in the city of + London.--HUME. + +(2) _Separation_: (_a_) After certain verbs, such as _ease_, _demand_, +_rob_, _divest_, _free_, _clear_, _purge_, _disarm_, _deprive_, +_relieve_, _cure_, _rid_, _beg_, _ask_, etc. + + Two old Indians cleared the spot _of_ brambles, weeds, and + grass.--PARKMAN. + + Asked no odds _of_, acquitted them _of,_ etc.--ALDRICH. + +(_b_) After some adjectives,--_clear of_, _free of_, _wide of_, _bare +of_, etc.; especially adjectives and adverbs of direction, as _north +of_, _south of_, etc. + + The hills were bare _of_ trees.--BAYARD TAYLOR. + + Back _of_ that tree, he had raised a little Gothic chapel. + --GAVARRE. + +(_c_) After nouns expressing lack, deprivation, etc. + + A singular want _of_ all human relation.--HIGGINSON. + +_(d)_ With words expressing distance. + + Until he had come within a staff's length _of_ the old dame. + --HAWTHORNE + + Within a few yards _of_ the young man's hiding place.--_Id._ + +(3) _With expressions of material_, especially _out of_. + + White shirt with diamond studs, or breastpin _of_ native + gold.--BANCROFT. + + Sandals, bound with thongs _of_ boar's hide.--SCOTT + + Who formed, _out of_ the most unpromising materials, the finest + army that Europe had yet seen.--MACAULAY + +(4) _Expressing cause, reason, motive._ + + The author died _of_ a fit of apoplexy.--BOSWELL. + + More than one altar was richer _of_ his vows.--LEW WALLACE. + + "Good for him!" cried Nolan. "I am glad _of_ that."--E.E. HALE. + +(5) _Expressing agency._ + + You cannot make a boy know, _of_ his own knowledge, that Cromwell + once ruled England.--HUXLEY. + + He is away _of_ his own free will.--DICKENS + + +II. Other Relations expressed by _Of_. + +(6) _Partitive_, expressing a part of a number or quantity. + + _Of_ the Forty, there were only twenty-one members present. + --PARTON. + + He washed out some _of_ the dirt, separating thereby as much of + the dust as a ten-cent piece would hold.--BANCROFT. + +[Sidenote: _See also Sec. 309._] + +(7) _Possessive_, standing, with its object, for the possessive, or +being used with the possessive case to form the double possessive. + + Not even woman's love, and the dignity _of_ a queen, could give + shelter from his contumely.--W.E. CHANNING. + + And the mighty secret _of_ the Sierra stood revealed.--BANCROFT. + + +(8) _Appositional_, which may be in the case of-- + +(_a_) Nouns. + + Such a book as that _of_ Job.--FROUDE. + + The fair city _of_ Mexico.--PRESCOTT. + + The nation _of_ Lilliput.--SWIFT. + +(_b_) Noun and gerund, being equivalent to an infinitive. + + In the vain hope _of_ appeasing the savages.--COOPER. + + Few people take the trouble _of_ finding out what democracy + really is.--LOWELL. + +(_c_) Two nouns, when the first is descriptive of the second. + + This crampfish _of_ a Socrates has so bewitched him.--EMERSON + + A sorry antediluvian makeshift _of_ a building you may think + it.--LAMB. + + An inexhaustible bottle _of_ a shop.--ALDRICH. + +(9) _Of time._ Besides the phrases _of old_, _of late_, _of a sudden_, +etc., _of_ is used in the sense of _during_. + + I used often to linger _of_ a morning by the high gate.--ALDRICH + + I delighted to loll over the quarter railing _of_ a calm day. + --IRVING. + +(10) _Of reference_, equal to _about_, _concerning_, _with regard to_. + + The Turk lay dreaming _of_ the hour.--HALLECK. + + Boasted _of_ his prowess as a scalp hunter and + duelist.--BANCROFT. + + Sank into reverie _of_ home and boyhood scenes.--_Id._ + +[Sidenote: _Idiomatic use with verbs._] + +_Of_ is also used as an appendage of certain verbs, such as _admit_, +_accept_, _allow_, _approve_, _disapprove_, _permit_, without adding +to their meaning. It also accompanies the verbs _tire_, _complain_, +_repent_, _consist_, _avail_ (one's self), and others. + + +Exercise.--Find sentences with six uses of _of_. + + +On, Upon. + + +324. The general meaning of on is position or direction. _On_ and +_upon_ are interchangeable in almost all of their applications, as +shown by the sentences below:-- + +(1) _Place_: (_a_) Where. + + Cannon were heard close _on_ the left.--PARKMAN. + + The Earl of Huntley ranged his host + _Upon_ their native strand.--MRS. SIGOURNEY. + +(_b_) With motion. + + It was the battery at Samos firing _on_ the boats.--PARKMAN. + + Thou didst look down _upon_ the naked earth.--BRYANT. + +(2) _Time._ + + The demonstration of joy or sorrow _on_ reading their letters. + --BANCROFT. + + _On_ Monday evening he sent forward the Indians.--PARKMAN. + +Upon is seldom used to express time. + +(3) _Reference_, equal to _about_, _concerning_, etc. + + I think that one abstains from writing _on_ the immortality of + the soul.--EMERSON. + + He pronounced a very flattering opinion _upon_ my brother's + promise of excellence.--DE QUINCEY. + +(4) _In adjurations._ + + _On_ my life, you are eighteen, and not a day more.--ALDRICH. + + _Upon_ my reputation and credit.--SHAKESPEARE + +(5) _Idiomatic phrases_: _on fire_, _on board_, _on high_, _on the +wing_, _on the alert_, _on a sudden_, _on view_, _on trial_, etc. + +Exercise.--Find sentences with three uses of _on_ or _upon_. + + +To. + +325. Some uses of to are the following:-- + +(1) _Expressing motion_: (_a_) To a place. + + Come _to_ the bridal chamber, Death!--HALLECK. + + Rip had scrambled _to_ one of the highest peaks.--IRVING. + +(_b_) Referring to time. + + Full of schemes and speculations _to_ the last.--PARTON. + + Revolutions, whose influence is felt _to_ this hour.--PARKMAN. + +(2) _Expressing result._ + + He usually gave his draft to an aid...to be written over,--often + _to_ the loss of vigor.--BENTON + + _To_ our great delight, Ben Lomond was unshrouded.--B. TAYLOR + +(3) _Expressing comparison._ + + But when, unmasked, gay Comedy appears, + 'Tis ten _to_ one you find the girl in tears. + --ALDRICH + + They are arrant rogues: Cacus was nothing _to_ them.--BULWER. + + Bolingbroke and the wicked Lord Littleton were saints _to_ + him.--WEBSTER + +(4) _Expressing concern, interest._ + + _To_ the few, it may be genuine poetry.--BRYANT. + + His brother had died, had ceased to be, _to_ him.--HALE. + + Little mattered _to_ them occasional privations--BANCROFT. + +(5) _Equivalent to_ according to. + + Nor, _to_ my taste, does the mere music...of your style fall far + below the highest efforts of poetry.--LANG. + + We cook the dish _to_ our own appetite.--GOLDSMITH. + +(6) _With the infinitive_ (see Sec. 268). + +Exercise.--Find sentences containing three uses of _to_. + + +With. + + +326. With expresses the idea of accompaniment, and hardly any of +its applications vary from this general signification. + +In Old English, _mid_ meant _in company with_, while _wi_ meant +_against_: both meanings are included in the modern _with_. + +The following meanings are expressed by _with_:-- + +(1) _Personal accompaniment._ + + The advance, _with_ Heyward at its head, had already reached the + defile.--COOPER. + + For many weeks I had walked _with_ this poor friendless girl.--DE + QUINCEY. + +(2) _Instrumentality._ + + _With_ my crossbow I shot the albatross.--COLERIDGE. + + Either _with_ the swingle-bar, or _with_ the haunch of our near + leader, we had struck the off-wheel of the little gig.--DE + QUINCEY. + +(3) _Cause, reason, motive._ + + He was wild _with_ delight about Texas.--HALE. + + She seemed pleased _with_ the accident.--HOWELLS. + +(4) _Estimation, opinion._ + + How can a writer's verses be numerous if _with_ him, as _with_ + you, "poetry is not a pursuit, but a pleasure"?--LANG. + + It seemed a supreme moment _with_ him.--HOWELLS. + +(5) _Opposition_. + + After battling _with_ terrific hurricanes and typhoons on every + known sea.--ALDRICH. + + The quarrel of the sentimentalists is not _with_ life, but _with_ + you.--LANG. + +(6) _The equivalent of_ notwithstanding, in spite of. + + _With_ all his sensibility, he gave millions to the + sword.--CHANNING. + + Messala, _with_ all his boldness, felt it unsafe to trifle + further.--WALLACE + +(7) _Time._ + + He expired _with_ these words.--SCOTT. + + _With_ each new mind a new secret of nature transpires.--EMERSON. + +Exercise.--Find sentences with four uses of _with_. + + +HOW TO PARSE PREPOSITIONS. + + +327. Since a preposition introduces a phrase and shows the relation +between two things, it is necessary, first of all, to find the object +of the preposition, and then to find what word the prepositional +phrase limits. Take this sentence:-- + + The rule adopted on board the ships on which I have met "the man + without a country" was, I think, transmitted from the + beginning.--E.E. HALE. + +The phrases are (1) _on board the ships_, (2) _on which_, (3) _without +a country_, (4) _from the beginning_. The object of _on board_ is +_ships_; of _on_, _which_; of _without_, _country_; of _from_, +_beginning_. + +In (1), the phrase answers the question _where_, and has the office of +an adverb in telling _where_ the rule is adopted; hence we say, _on +board_ shows the relation between _ships_ and the participle +_adopted_. + +In (2), _on which_ modifies the verb _have met_ by telling where: +hence _on_ shows the relation between _which_ (standing for _ships_) +and the verb _have met_. + +In (3), _without a country_ modifies _man_, telling what man, or the +verb _was_ understood: hence _without_ shows the relation between +_country_ and _man_, or _was_. And so on. + +The parsing of prepositions means merely telling between what words +or word groups they show relation. + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Parse the prepositions in these paragraphs:-- + + 1. I remember, before the dwarf left the queen, he followed us + one day into those gardens. I must needs show my wit by a silly + illusion between him and the trees, which happens to hold in + their language as it does in ours. Whereupon, the malicious + rogue, watching his opportunity when I was walking under one of + them, shook it directly over my head, by which a dozen apples, + each of them near as large as a Bristol barrel, came tumbling + about my ears; one of them hit me on the back as I chanced to + stoop, and knocked me down flat on my face; but I received no + other hurt, and the dwarf was pardoned at my desire, because I + had given the provocation.--SWIFT + + 2. Be that as it will, I found myself suddenly awakened with a + violent pull upon the ring, which was fastened at the top of my + box for the conveniency of carriage. I felt my box raised very + high in the air, and then borne forward with prodigious speed. + The first jolt had like to have shaken me out of my hammock. I + called out several times, but all to no purpose. I looked towards + my windows, and could see nothing but the clouds and the sky. I + heard a noise just over my head, like the clapping of wings, and + then began to perceive the woeful condition I was in; that some + eagle had got the ring of my box in his beak, with an intent to + let it fall on a rock: for the sagacity and smell of this bird + enabled him to discover his quarry at a great distance, though + better concealed than I could be within a two-inch board.--_Id._ + + +(_b_) Give the exact meaning of each italicized preposition in the +following sentences:-- + +1. The guns were cleared _of_ their lumber. + +2. They then left _for_ a cruise up the Indian Ocean. + +3. I speak these things _from_ a love of justice. + +4. _To_ our general surprise, we met the defaulter here. + +5. There was no one except a little sunbeam _of_ a sister. + +6. The great gathering in the main street was _on_ Sundays, when, +after a restful morning, though unbroken _by_ the peal of church +bells, the miners gathered _from_ hills and ravines _for_ miles around +_for_ marketing. + +7. The troops waited in their boats _by_ the edge of a strand. + +8. His breeches were _of_ black silk, and his hat was garnished _with_ +white and sable plumes. + +9. A suppressed but still distinct murmur of approbation ran through +the crowd _at_ this generous proposition. + +10. They were shriveled and colorless _with_ the cold. + +11. On every solemn occasion he was the striking figure, even _to_ the +eclipsing of the involuntary object of the ceremony. + +12. _On_ all subjects known to man, he favored the world with his +opinions. + +13. Our horses ran _on_ a sandy margin of the road. + +14. The hero of the poem is _of_ a strange land and a strange +parentage. + +15. He locked his door _from_ mere force of habit. + +16. The lady was remarkable _for_ energy and talent. + +17. Roland was acknowledged _for_ the successor and heir. + +18. _For_ my part, I like to see the passing, in town. + +19. A half-dollar was the smallest coin that could be tendered _for_ +any service. + +20. The mother sank and fell, grasping _at_ the child. + +21. The savage army was in war-paint, plumed _for_ battle. + +22. He had lived in Paris _for_ the last fifty years. + +23. The hill stretched _for_ an immeasurable distance. + +24. The baron of Smaylho'me rose _with_ day, + He spurred his courser on, + Without stop or stay, down the rocky way + That leads _to_ Brotherstone. + +25. _With_ all his learning, Carteret was far from being a pedant. + +26. An immense mountain covered with a shining green turf is nothing, +in this respect, _to_ one dark and gloomy. + +27. Wilt thou die _for_ very weakness? + +28. The name of Free Joe strikes humorously _upon_ the ear of memory. + +29. The shout I heard was _upon_ the arrival of this engine. + +30. He will raise the price, not merely _by_ the amount of the tax. + + + + +WORDS THAT NEED WATCHING. + + +328. If the student has now learned fully that words must be studied +in grammar according to their function or use, and not according to +form, he will be able to handle some words that are used as several +parts of speech. A few are discussed below,--a summary of their +treatment in various places as studied heretofore. + + +THAT. + + +329. That may be used as follows: + +(1) _As a demonstrative adjective._ + + _That_ night was a memorable one.--STOCKTON. + +(2) _As an adjective pronoun._ + + _That_ was a dreadful mistake.--WEBSTER. + +(3) _As a relative pronoun._ + + And now it is like an angel's song, + _That_ makes the heavens be mute.--COLERIDGE. + +(4) _As an adverb of degree._ + + _That_ far I hold that the Scriptures teach.--BEECHER. + +(5) _As a conjunction_: (_a_) Of purpose. + + Has bounteously lengthened out your lives, _that_ you might + behold this joyous day.--WEBSTER. + +(_b_) Of result. + + Gates of iron so massy _that_ no man could without the help of + engines open or shut them.--JOHNSON. + +(_c_) Substantive conjunction. + + We wish _that_ labor may look up here, and be proud in the midst + of its toil.--WEBSTER. + + +WHAT. + + +330. (1) _Relative pronoun._ + + That is _what_ I understand by scientific education.--HUXLEY. + +(_a_) Indefinite relative. + + Those shadowy recollections, + Which be they _what_ they may, + Are yet the fountain light of all our day.--WORDSWORTH. + +(2) _Interrogative pronoun_: (_a_) Direct question. + + _What_ would be an English merchant's character after a few such + transactions?--THACKERAY. + +(_b_) Indirect question. + + I have not allowed myself to look beyond the Union, to see _what_ + might be hidden.--WEBSTER. + +(3) _Indefinite pronoun:_ The saying, "I'll tell you _what_." + +(4) _Relative adjective._ + + But woe to _what_ thing or person stood in the way.--EMERSON. + +(_a_) Indefinite relative adjective. + + To say _what_ good of fashion we can, it rests on reality.--_Id._ + +(5) _Interrogative adjective_: (_a_) Direct question. + + _What_ right have you to infer that this condition was caused by + the action of heat?--AGASSIZ. + +(_b_) Indirect question. + + At _what_ rate these materials would be distributed,...it is + impossible to determine.--_Id._ + +(6) _Exclamatory adjective._ + + Saint Mary! _what_ a scene is here!--SCOTT. + +(7) _Adverb of degree._ + + If he has [been in America], he knows _what_ good people are to + be found there.--THACKERAY. + +(8) _Conjunction_, nearly equivalent to _partly_... _partly_, or _not +only...but_. + + _What_ with the Maltese goats, who go tinkling by to their + pasturage; _what_ with the vocal seller of bread in the early + morning;...these sounds are only to be heard...in Pera.--S.S. + Cox. + +(9) _As an exclamation._ + + _What_, silent still, and silent all!--BYRON. + + _What_, Adam Woodcock at court!--SCOTT. + + +BUT. + + +331. (1) _Cordinate conjunction_: (_a_) Adversative. + + His very attack was never the inspiration of courage, _but_ the + result of calculation.--EMERSON. + +(_b_) Copulative, after _not only_. + + Then arose not only tears, _but_ piercing cries, on all sides. + --CARLYLE. + +(2) _Subordinate conjunction_: (_a_) Result, equivalent to _that_ ... +_not_. + + Nor is Nature so hard _but_ she gives me this joy several + times.--EMERSON. + +(_b_) Substantive, meaning _otherwise_ ... _than_. + + Who knows _but_, like the dog, it will at length be no longer + traceable to its wild original--THOREAU. + +(3) _Preposition_, meaning _except_. + + Now there was nothing to be seen _but_ fires in every + direction.--LAMB. + +(4) _Relative pronoun_, after a negative, stands for _that_ ... _not_, +or _who_ ... _not_. + + There is not a man in them _but_ is impelled withal, at all + moments, towards order.--CARLYLE. + +(5) _Adverb_, meaning _only_. + + The whole twenty years had been to him _but_ as one + night.--IRVING. + + To lead _but_ one measure.--SCOTT. + + +AS. + + +332. (1) _Subordinate conjunction_: (_a_) Of time. + + Rip beheld a precise counterpart of himself _as_ he went up the + mountain.--IRVING. + +(_b_) Of manner. + + _As_ orphans yearn on to their mothers, + He yearned to our patriot bands.--MRS BROWNING. + +(_c_) Of degree. + + His wan eyes + Gaze on the empty scene _as_ vacantly + _As_ ocean's moon looks on the moon in heaven. + --SHELLEY. + +(_d_) Of reason. + + I shall see but little of it, _as_ I could neither bear walking + nor riding in a carriage.--FRANKLIN. + +(_e_) Introducing an appositive word. + + Reverenced _as_ one of the patriarchs of the village.--IRVING. + + Doing duty _as_ a guard.--HAWTHORNE. + +(2) _Relative pronoun_, after _such_, sometimes _same_. + + And was there such a resemblance _as_ the crowd had + testified?--HAWTHORNE. + + +LIKE. + + +[Sidenote: _Modifier of a noun or pronoun._] + +333. (1) _An adjective._ + + The aforesaid general had been exceedingly _like_ the majestic + image.--HAWTHORNE. + + They look, indeed, _liker_ a lion's mane than a Christian man's + locks.-SCOTT. + + No Emperor, this, _like_ him awhile ago.--ALDRICH. + + There is no statue _like_ this living man.--EMERSON. + + That face, _like_ summer ocean's.--HALLECK. + +In each case, _like_ clearly modifies a noun or pronoun, and is +followed by a dative-objective. + +[Sidenote: _Introduces a clause, but its verb is omitted._] + +(2) _A subordinate conjunction_ of manner. This follows a verb or a +verbal, but the verb of the clause introduced by _like_ is _regularly +omitted_. Note the difference between these two uses. In Old English +_gelic_ (like) was followed by the dative, and was clearly an +adjective. In this second use, _like_ introduces a shortened clause +modifying a verb or a verbal, as shown in the following sentences:-- + + Goodman Brown came into the street of Salem village, staring + _like_ a bewildered man.--HAWTHORNE. + + Give Ruskin space enough, and he grows frantic and beats the air + _like_ Carlyle.--HIGGINSON. + + They conducted themselves much _like_ the crew of a man-of-war. + --PARKMAN. + + [The sound] rang in his ears _like_ the iron hoofs of the steeds + of Time.--LONGFELLOW. + + Stirring it vigorously, _like_ a cook beating eggs.--ALDRICH. + +If the verb is expressed, _like_ drops out, and _as_ or _as if_ takes +its place. + + The sturdy English moralist may talk of a Scotch supper _as_ he + pleases.--CASS. + + Mankind for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw, + just _as_ they do in Abyssinia to this day.--LAMB. + + I do with my friends _as_ I do with my books.--EMERSON. + +NOTE.--Very rarely _like_ is found with a verb following, but this is +not considered good usage: for example,-- + + A timid, nervous child, _like_ Martin _was_.--MAYHEW. + + Through which they put their heads, _like_ the Gauchos _do_ + through their cloaks.--DARWIN. + + _Like_ an arrow shot + From a well-experienced archer _hits_ the mark.--SHAKESPEARE. + + + + +INTERJECTIONS. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +334. Interjections are exclamations used to express emotion, and +are not parts of speech in the same sense as the words we have +discussed; that is, entering into the structure of a sentence. + +Some of these are imitative sounds; as, tut! buzz! etc. + +_Humph_! attempts to express a contemptuous nasal utterance that no +letters of our language can really spell. + +[Sidenote: _Not all exclamatory words are interjections._] + +Other interjections are _oh_! _ah_! _alas_! _pshaw_! _hurrah_! etc. +But it is to be remembered that almost any word may be used as an +exclamation, but it still retains its identity as noun, pronoun, +verb, etc.: for example, "Books! lighthouses built on the sea of time +[noun];" "Halt! the dust-brown ranks stood fast [verb]," "Up! for +shame! [adverb]," "Impossible! it cannot be [adjective]." + + + + +PART II. + + + + +_ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES._ + + +CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORM. + + +[Sidenote: _What analysis is._.] + +335. All discourse is made up of sentences: consequently the +sentence is the unit with which we must begin. And in order to get a +clear and practical idea of the structure of sentences, it is +necessary to become expert in analysis; that is, in separating them +into their component parts. + +A general idea of analysis was needed in our study of the parts of +speech,--in determining case, subject and predicate, clauses +introduced by conjunctions, etc. + +[Sidenote: _Value of analysis._] + +A more thorough and accurate acquaintance with the subject is +necessary for two reasons,--not only for a correct understanding of +the principles of syntax, but for the study of punctuation and other +topics treated in rhetoric. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +336. A sentence is the expression of a thought in words. + + +[Sidenote: _Kinds of sentences as to form._] + +337. According to the way in which a thought is put before a +listener or reader, sentences may be of three kinds:-- + +(1) Declarative, which puts the thought in the form of a declaration +or assertion. This is the most common one. + +(2) Interrogative, which puts the thought in a question. + +(3) Imperative, which expresses command, entreaty, or request. + +Any one of these may be put in the form of an exclamation, but the +sentence would still be declarative, interrogative, or imperative; +hence, _according to form_, there are only the three kinds of +sentences already named. + +Examples of these three kinds are, declarative, "Old year, you must +not die!" interrogative, "Hath he not always treasures, always +friends?" imperative, "Come to the bridal chamber, Death!" + + + + +CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF STATEMENTS. + + + + +SIMPLE SENTENCES. + + +[Sidenote: _Division according to number of statements._] + +338. But the division of sentences most necessary to analysis is the +division, not according to the form in which a thought is put, but +according to how many statements there are. + +The one we shall consider first is the simple sentence. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +339. A simple sentence is one which contains a single statement, +question, or command: for example, "The quality of mercy is not +strained;" "What wouldst thou do, old man?" "Be thou familiar, but by +no means vulgar." + + +340. Every sentence must contain two parts,--a subject and a +predicate. + +[Sidenote: _Definition: Predicate._] + +The predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb phrase which says +something about the subject. + +In order to get a correct definition of the subject, let us examine +two specimen sentences:-- + +1. But now all is to be changed. + +2. A rare old plant is the ivy green. + +In the first sentence we find the subject by placing the word _what_ +before the predicate,--_What_ is to be changed? Answer, _all_. +Consequently, we say _all_ is the subject of the sentence. + +But if we try this with the second sentence, we have some +trouble,--_What_ is the ivy green? Answer, _a rare old plant_. But we +cannot help seeing that an assertion is made, not of _a rare old +plant_, but about _the ivy green_; and the real subject is the latter. +Sentences are frequently in this inverted order, especially in poetry; +and our definition must be the following, to suit all cases:-- + +[Sidenote: _Subject._] + +The subject is that which answers the question _who_ or _what_ +placed before the predicate, and which at the same time names that of +which the predicate says something. + + +[Sidenote: _The subject in interrogative and imperative simple +sentences._] + +341. In the interrogative sentence, the subject is frequently after +the verb. Either the verb is the first word of the sentence, or an +interrogative pronoun, adjective, or adverb that asks about the +subject. In analyzing such sentences, _always reduce them to the order +of a statement_. Thus,-- + +(1) "When should this scientific education be commenced?" + +(2) "This scientific education should be commenced when?" + +(3) "What wouldst thou have a good great man obtain?" + +(4) "Thou wouldst have a good great man obtain what?" + +In the imperative sentence, the subject (_you_, _thou_, or _ye_) is in +most cases omitted, and is to be supplied; as, "[You] behold her +single in the field." + + +Exercise. + +Name the subject and the predicate in each of the following +sentences:-- + + +1. The shadow of the dome of pleasure + Floated midway on the waves. + +2. Hence originated their contempt for terrestrial distinctions. + +3. Nowhere else on the Mount of Olives is there a view like this. + +4. In the sands of Africa and Arabia the camel is a sacred and +precious gift. + +5. The last of all the Bards was he. + +6. Slavery they can have anywhere. + +7. Listen, on the other hand, to an ignorant man. + +8. What must have been the emotions of the Spaniards! + +9. Such was not the effect produced on the sanguine spirit of the +general. + +10. What a contrast did these children of southern Europe present to +the Anglo-Saxon races! + + +ELEMENTS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. + +342. All the elements of the simple sentence are as follows:-- + +(1) The subject. + +(2) The predicate. + +(3) The object. + +(4) The complements. + +(5) Modifiers. + +(6) Independent elements. + +The subject and predicate have been discussed. + + +343. The object may be of two kinds:-- + +[Sidenote: _Definitions. Direct Object_.] + +(1) The DIRECT OBJECT is that word or expression which answers the +question _who_ or _what_ placed after the verb; or the direct object +names that toward which the action of the predicate is directed. + +It must be remembered that any verbal may have an object; but for the +present we speak of the object of the verb, and by _object_ we mean +the _direct_ object. + +[Sidenote: _Indirect object_.] + +(2) The INDIRECT OBJECT is a noun or its equivalent used as the +modifier of a verb or verbal to name the person or thing for whose +benefit an action is performed. + +Examples of direct and indirect objects are, direct, "She seldom saw +her _course_ at a glance;" indirect, "I give _thee_ this to wear at +the collar." + +[Sidenote: _Complement_:] + +344. A complement is a word added to a verb of incomplete +predication to complete its meaning. + +Notice that a verb of incomplete predication may be of two +kinds,--transitive and intransitive. + +[Sidenote: _Of a transitive verb_.] + +The _transitive verb_ often requires, in addition to the object, a +word to define fully the action that is exerted upon the object; for +example, "Ye call me chief." Here the verb _call_ has an object _me_ +(if we leave out _chief_), and means summoned; but _chief_ belongs to +the verb, and _me_ here is not the object simply of _call_, but of +_call chief_, just as if to say, "Ye _honor me_." This word completing +a transitive verb is sometimes called a _factitive object_, or _second +object_, but it is a true complement. + +The fact that this is a complement can be more clearly seen when the +verb is in the passive. See sentence 19, in exercise following Sec. +364. + +[Sidenote: _Complement of an intransitive verb_.] + +An _intransitive verb_, especially the forms of _be_, _seem_, +_appear_, _taste_, _feel_, _become_, etc., must often have a word to +complete the meaning: as, for instance, "Brow and head were _round, +and of massive weight_;" "The good man, he was now getting _old_, +above sixty;" "Nothing could be _more copious_ than his talk;" "But in +general he seemed _deficient in laughter_." + +All these complete intransitive verbs. The following are examples of +complements of transitive verbs: "Hope deferred maketh the heart +_sick_;" "He was termed _Thomas_, or, more familiarly, _Thom of the +Gills_;" "A plentiful fortune is reckoned _necessary_, in the popular +judgment, to the completion of this man of the world." + +345. The modifiers and independent elements will be discussed in +detail in Secs. 351, 352, 355. + +[Sidenote: _Phrases_.] + +346. A phrase is a group of words, not containing a verb, but used +as a single modifier. + +As to _form_, phrases are of three kinds:-- + +[Sidenote: _Three kinds_.] + +(1) PREPOSITIONAL, introduced by a preposition: for example, "Such a +convulsion is the struggle _of gradual suffocation_, as _in drowning_; +and, _in the original Opium Confessions_, I mentioned a case _of that +nature_." + +(2) PARTICIPIAL, consisting of a participle and the words dependent on +it. The following are examples: "Then _retreating into the warm +house_, and _barring the door_, she sat down to undress the two +youngest children." + +(3) INFINITIVE, consisting of an infinitive and the words dependent +upon it; as in the sentence, "She left her home forever in order _to +present herself at the Dauphin's court_." + + +Things used as Subject. + +347. The subject of a simple sentence may be-- + +(1) _Noun_: "There seems to be no _interval_ between greatness and +meanness." Also an expression used as a noun; as, "A cheery, '_Ay, ay, +sir_!' rang out in response." + +(2) _Pronoun_: "We are fortified by every heroic anecdote." + +(3) _Infinitive phrase_: "_To enumerate and analyze these relations_ +is to teach the science of method." + +(4) _Gerund_: "There will be _sleeping_ enough in the grave;" "What +signifies _wishing_ and _hoping_ for better things?" + +(5) _Adjective used as noun_: "_The good_ are befriended even by +weakness and defect;" "_The dead_ are there." + +(6) _Adverb_: "_Then_ is the moment for the humming bird to secure the +insects." + +348. The subject is often found _after the verb_-- + +(1) _By simple inversion_: as, "Therein has been, and ever will be, my +_deficiency_,--the talent of starting the game;" "Never, from their +lips, was heard one _syllable_ to justify," etc. + +(2) _In interrogative sentences_, for which see Sec. 341. + +(3) _After_ "it _introductory_:" "It ought not to need _to print_ in +a reading room a caution not to read aloud." + +In this sentence, _it_ stands in the position of a grammatical +subject; but the real or logical subject is _to print_, etc. _It_ +merely serves to throw the subject after a verb. + +[Sidenote: _Disguised infinitive subject_.] + +There is one kind of expression that is really an infinitive, though +disguised as a prepositional phrase: "It is hard _for honest men to +separate_ their country from their party, or their religion from their +sect." + +The _for_ did not belong there originally, but obscures the real +subject,--the infinitive phrase. Compare Chaucer: "No wonder is a +lewed man to ruste" (No wonder [it] is [for] a common man to rust). + +(4) _After_ "there _introductory_," which has the same office as _it_ +in reversing the order (see Sec. 292): "There was a _description_ of +the destructive operations of time;" "There are _asking eyes_, +_asserting eyes_, _prowling eyes_." + + +Things used as Direct Object. + +349. The words used as direct object are mainly the same as those +used for subject, but they will be given in detail here, for the sake +of presenting examples:-- + +(1) _Noun_: "Each man has his own _vocation_." Also expressions used +as nouns: for example, "'_By God, and by Saint George!_' said the +King." + +(2) _Pronoun_: "Memory greets _them_ with the ghost of a smile." + +(3) _Infinitive_: "We like _to see_ everything do its office." + +(4) _Gerund_: "She heard that _sobbing_ of litanies, or the +_thundering_ of organs." + +(5) _Adjective used as a noun_: "For seventy leagues through the +mighty cathedral, I saw _the quick_ and _the dead_." + + +Things used as Complement. + +[Sidenote: _Complement: Of an intransitive verb_.] + +350. As complement of an _intransitive_ verb,-- + +(1) _Noun_: "She had been an ardent _patriot_." + +(2) _Pronoun_: "_Who_ is she in bloody coronation robes from Rheims?" +"This is _she_, the shepherd girl." + +(3) _Adjective_: "Innocence is ever _simple_ and _credulous_." + +(4) _Infinitive_: "To enumerate and analyze these relations is _to +teach_ the science of method." + +(5) _Gerund_: "Life is a _pitching_ of this penny,--heads or tails;" +"Serving others is _serving_ us." + +(6) _A prepositional phrase_: "His frame is _on a larger scale_;" "The +marks were _of a kind_ not to be mistaken." + +It will be noticed that all these complements have a double +office,--completing the predicate, and explaining or modifying the +subject. + +[Sidenote: _Of a transitive verb_.] + +As complement of a _transitive_ verb,-- + +(1) _Noun_: "I will not call you _cowards_." + +(2) _Adjective_: "Manners make beauty _superfluous_ and _ugly_;" +"Their tempers, doubtless, are rendered _pliant_ and _malleable_ in +the fiery furnace of domestic tribulation." In this last sentence, the +object is made the subject by being passive, and the words italicized +are still complements. Like all the complements in this list, they are +adjuncts of the object, and, at the same time, complements of the +predicate. + +(3) _Infinitive_, or _infinitive phrase_: "That cry which made me +_look a thousand ways_;" "I hear the echoes _throng_." + +(4) _Participle_, or _participial phrase_: "I can imagine him _pushing +firmly on, trusting the hearts of his countrymen_." + +(5) _Prepositional phrase:_ "My antagonist would render my poniard and +my speed _of no use_ to me." + + + +Modifiers. + + +I. Modifiers of Subject, Object, or Complement. + + +351. Since the subject and object are either nouns or some +equivalent of a noun, the words modifying them must be adjectives or +some equivalent of an adjective; and whenever the complement is a +noun, or the equivalent of the noun, it is modified by the same words +and word groups that modify the subject and the object. + +These modifiers are as follows:-- + +(1) _A possessive_: "_My_ memory assures me of this;" "She asked her +_father's_ permission." + +(2) _A word in apposition_: "Theodore Wieland, the _prisoner_ at the +bar, was now called upon for his defense;" "Him, this young +_idolater_, I have seasoned for thee." + +(3) _An adjective_: "_Great_ geniuses have the _shortest_ +biographies;" "Her father was a prince in Lebanon,--_proud_, +_unforgiving_, _austere_." + +(4) _Prepositional phrase_: "Are the opinions _of a man on right and +wrong on fate and causation_, at the mercy of a broken sleep or an +indigestion?" "The poet needs a ground _in popular tradition_ to work +on." + +(5) _Infinitive phrase_: "The way _to know him_ is to compare him, not +with nature, but with other men;" "She has a new and unattempted +problem _to solve_;" "The simplest utterances are worthiest _to be +written_." + +(6) _Participial phrase_: "Another reading, _given at the request of a +Dutch lady_, was the scene from King John;" "This was the hour +_already appointed for the baptism_ of the new Christian daughter." + + +Exercise.--In each sentence in Sec. 351, tell whether the subject, +object, or complement is modified. + + +II. Modifiers of the Predicate. + + +352. Since the predicate is always a verb, the word modifying it +must be an adverb or its equivalent:-- + +(1) _Adverb:_ "_Slowly_ and _sadly_ we laid him down." + +(2) _Prepositional phrase_: "The little carriage is creeping on _at +one mile an hour_;" "_In the twinkling of an eye_, our horses had +carried us _to the termination of the umbrageous isle_." + +In such a sentence as, "He died like a God," the word group _like a +God_ is often taken as a phrase; but it is really a contracted clause, +the verb being omitted. + +[Sidenote: _Tells how._] + +(3) _Participial phrase:_ "She comes down from heaven to his help, +_interpreting for him the most difficult truths_, and _leading him +from star to star_." + +(4) _Infinitive phrase:_ "No imprudent, no sociable angel, ever +dropped an early syllable _to answer his longing_." + +(For participial and infinitive phrases, see further Secs. 357-363.) + +(5) _Indirect object:_ "I gave _every man_ a trumpet;" "Give _them_ +not only noble teachings, but noble teachers." + +These are equivalent to the phrases _to every man_ and _to them_, and +modify the predicate in the same way. + +[Sidenote: _Retained with passive; or_] + +When the verb is changed from active to passive, the indirect object +is retained, as in these sentences: "It is left _you_ to find out the +reason why;" "All such knowledge should be given _her_." + +[Sidenote: _subject of passive verb and direct object retained._] + +Or sometimes the indirect object of the active voice becomes the +subject of the passive, and the direct object is retained: for +example, "She is to be taught _to extend the limits of her sympathy_;" +"I was shown an immense _sarcophagus_." + +(6) _Adverbial objective._ These answer the question _when_, or _how +long_, _how far_, etc., and are consequently equivalent to adverbs in +modifying a predicate: "We were now running _thirteen miles an hour_;" +"_One way_ lies hope;" "_Four hours_ before midnight we approached a +mighty minster." + + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Pick out subject, predicate, and (direct) object:-- + +1. This, and other measures of precaution, I took. + +2. The pursuing the inquiry under the light of an end or final cause, +gives wonderful animation, a sort of personality to the whole writing. + +3. Why does the horizon hold me fast, with my joy and grief, in this +center? + +4. His books have no melody, no emotion, no humor, no relief to the +dead prosaic level. + +5. On the voyage to Egypt, he liked, after dinner, to fix on three or +four persons to support a proposition, and as many to oppose it. + +6. Fashion does not often caress the great, but the children of the +great. + +7. No rent roll can dignify skulking and dissimulation. + +8. They do not wish to be lovely, but to be loved. + + +(_b_) Pick out the subject, predicate, and complement: + +1. Evil, according to old philosophers, is good in the making. + +2. But anger drives a man to say anything. + +3. The teachings of the High Spirit are abstemious, and, in regard to +particulars, negative. + +4. Spanish diet and youth leave the digestion undisordered and the +slumbers light. + +5. Yet they made themselves sycophantic servants of the King of Spain. + +6. A merciless oppressor hast thou been. + +7. To the men of this world, to the animal strength and spirits, the +man of ideas appears out of his reason. + +8. I felt myself, for the first time, burthened with the anxieties of +a man, and a member of the world. + + +(_c_) Pick out the direct and the indirect object in each:-- + +1. Not the less I owe thee justice. + +2. Unhorse me, then, this imperial rider. + +3. She told the first lieutenant part of the truth. + +4. I promised her protection against all ghosts. + +5. I gave him an address to my friend, the attorney. + +6. Paint me, then, a room seventeen feet by twelve. + + +(_d_) Pick out the words and phrases in apposition:-- + +1. To suffer and to do, that was thy portion in life. + +2. A river formed the boundary,--the river Meuse. + +3. In one feature, Lamb resembles Sir Walter Scott; viz., in the +dramatic character of his mind and taste. + +4. This view was luminously expounded by Archbishop Whately, the +present Archbishop of Dublin. + +5. Yes, at length the warrior lady, the blooming cornet, this nun so +martial, this dragoon so lovely, must visit again the home of her +childhood. + + +(_e_) Pick out the modifiers of the predicate:-- + +1. It moves from one flower to another like a gleam of light, upwards, +downwards, to the right and to the left. + +2. And hark! like the roar of the billows on the shore, + The cry of battle rises along their changing line. + +3. Their intention was to have a gay, happy dinner, after their long +confinement to a ship, at the chief hotel. + +4. That night, in little peaceful Easedale, six children sat by a peat +fire, expecting the return of their parents. + + +Compound Subject, Compound Predicate, etc. + + +[Sidenote: _Not compound sentences._] + +353. Frequently in a simple sentence the writer uses two or more +predicates to the same subject, two or more subjects of the same +predicate, several modifiers, complements, etc.; but it is to be +noticed that, in all such sentences as we quote below, the writers of +them purposely combined them _in single statements_, and they are not +to be expanded into compound sentences. In a compound sentence the +object is to make two or more full statements. + +Examples of compound subjects are, "By degrees Rip's _awe_ and +_apprehension_ subsided;" "The _name of the child_, _the air of the +mother_, the _tone of her voice_,--all awakened a train of +recollections in his mind." + +Sentences with compound predicates are, "The company _broke up_, and +_returned_ to the more important concerns of the election;" "He +_shook_ his head, _shouldered_ the rusty firelock, and, with a heart +full of trouble and anxiety, _turned_ his steps homeward." + +Sentences with compound objects of the same verb are, "He caught his +_daughter_ and her _child_ in his arms;" "_Voyages_ and _travels_ I +would also have." + +And so with complements, modifiers, etc. + + +Logical Subject and Logical Predicate. + + +354. The logical subject is the simple or grammatical subject, +together with all its modifiers. + +The logical predicate is the simple or grammatical predicate (that +is, the verb), together with its modifiers, and its object or +complement. + +[Sidenote: _Larger view of a sentence._] + +It is often a help to the student to find the logical subject and +predicate first, then the grammatical subject and predicate. For +example, in the sentence, "The situation here contemplated exposes a +dreadful ulcer, lurking far down in the depths of human nature," the +logical subject is _the situation here contemplated_, and the rest is +the logical predicate. Of this, the simple subject is _situation_; the +predicate, _exposes_; the object, _ulcer_, etc. + + +Independent Elements of the Sentence. + + +355. The following words and expressions are grammatically +independent of the rest of the sentence; that is, they are not a +necessary part, do not enter into its structure:-- + +(1) _Person or thing addressed_: "But you know them, _Bishop_;" "_Ye +crags and peaks_, I'm with you once again." + +(2) _Exclamatory expressions_: "But the _lady_--! Oh, _heavens_! will +that spectacle ever depart from my dreams?" + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +The exclamatory expression, however, may be the person or thing +addressed, same as (1), above: thus, "Ah, _young sir_! what are you +about?" Or it may be an imperative, forming a sentence: "Oh, _hurry, +hurry_, my brave young man!" + +(3) _Infinitive phrase_ thrown in loosely: "_To make a long story +short_, the company broke up;" "_Truth to say_, he was a conscientious +man." + +(4) _Prepositional phrase_ not modifying: "Within the railing sat, _to +the best of my remembrance_, six quill-driving gentlemen;" "_At all +events_, the great man of the prophecy had not yet appeared." + +(5) _Participial phrase:_ "But, _generally speaking_, he closed his +literary toils at dinner;" "_Considering the burnish of her French +tastes_, her noticing even this is creditable." + +(6) _Single words_: as, "Oh, _yes_! everybody knew them;" "_No_, let +him perish;" "_Well_, he somehow lived along;" "_Why_, grandma, how +you're winking!" "_Now_, this story runs thus." + +[Sidenote: _Another caution._] + +There are some adverbs, such as _perhaps_, _truly_, _really_, +_undoubtedly_, _besides_, etc., and some conjunctions, such as +_however_, _then_, _moreover_, _therefore_, _nevertheless_, etc., that +have an office in the sentence, and should not be confused with the +words spoken of above. The words _well_, _now_, _why_, and so on, are +independent when they merely arrest the attention without being +necessary. + + +PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. + + +356. In their use, prepositional phrases may be, + +(1) _Adjectival_, modifying a noun, pronoun, or word used as a noun: +for example, "He took the road _to King Richard's pavilion_;" "I bring +reports _on that subject_ from Ascalon." + +(2) _Adverbial_, limiting in the same way an adverb limits: as, "All +nature around him slept _in calm moonshine_ or _in deep shadow_;" "Far +_from the madding crowd's ignoble strife_." + +(3) _Independent_, not dependent on any word in the sentence (for +examples, see Sec. 355, 4). + + +PARTICIPLES AND PARTICIPIAL PHRASES. + + +357. It will be helpful to sum up here the results of our study of +participles and participial phrases, and to set down all the uses +which are of importance in analysis:-- + +(1) _The adjectival use_, already noticed, as follows:-- + +(_a_) As a complement of a transitive verb, and at the same time a +modifier of the object (for an example, see Sec. 350, 4). + +(_b_) As a modifier of subject, object, or complement (see Sec. 351, +6). + +(2) _The adverbial use_, modifying the predicate, instances of which +were seen in Sec. 352, 3. In these the participial phrases connect +closely with the verb, and there is no difficulty in seeing that they +modify. + +[Sidenote: _These need close watching._] + +There are other participial phrases which are used adverbially, but +require somewhat closer attention; thus, "The letter of +introduction_, containing no matters of business_, was speedily run +through." + +In this sentence, the expression _containing no matters of business_ +does not describe _letter_, but it is equivalent to _because it +contained no matters of business_, and hence is adverbial, modifying +_was speedily run through_. + +Notice these additional examples:-- + +_Being a great collector of everything relating to Milton_ [reason, +"Because I was," etc.], I had naturally possessed myself of Richardson +the painter's thick octavo volumes. + +Neither the one nor the other writer was valued by the public, _both +having_ [since they had] _a long warfare to accomplish of contumely +and ridicule_. + +Wilt thou, therefore, _being now wiser_ [as thou art] _in thy +thoughts_, suffer God to give by seeming to refuse? + +(3) _Wholly independent_ in meaning and grammar. See Sec. 355, (5), +and these additional examples:-- + +_Assuming the specific heat to be the same as that of water_, the +entire mass of the sun would cool down to 15,000 Fahrenheit in five +thousand years. + +_This case excepted_, the French have the keenest possible sense of +everything odious and ludicrous in posing. + + +INFINITIVES AND INFINITIVE PHRASES. + + +358. The various uses of the infinitive give considerable trouble, +and they will be presented here in full, or as nearly so as the +student will require. + +I. The verbal use. (1) Completing an incomplete verb, but having no +other office than a verbal one. + +(_a_) With _may (might)_, _can (could)_, _should_, _would_, _seem_, +_ought_, etc.: "My weekly bill used invariably _to be_ about fifty +shillings;" "There, my dear, he should not _have known_ them at all;" +"He would _instruct_ her in the white man's religion, and _teach_ her +how to be happy and good." + +(_b_) With the forms of _be_, being equivalent to a future with +obligation, necessity, etc.: as in the sentences, "Ingenuity and +cleverness are _to be rewarded_ by State prizes;" "'The Fair Penitent' +was _to be acted_ that evening." + +(_c_) With the definite forms of _go_, equivalent to a future: "I was +going _to repeat_ my remonstrances;" "I am not going _to dissert_ on +Hood's humor." + +(2) Completing an incomplete transitive verb, but also belonging to a +subject or an object (see Sec. 344 for explanation of the complements +of transitive verbs): "I am constrained every moment _to acknowledge_ +a higher origin for events" (retained with passive); "Do they not +cause the heart _to beat_, and the eyes _to fill_?" + + +359. II. The substantive use, already examined; but see the +following examples for further illustration:-- + +(1) _As the subject: "To have_ the wall there, was to have the foe's +life at their mercy;" "_To teach_ is to learn." + +(2) _As the object_: "I like _to hear_ them tell their old stories;" +"I don't wish _to detract_ from any gentleman's reputation." + +(3) _As complement:_ See examples under (1), above. + +(4) _In apposition_, explanatory of a noun preceding: as, "She +forwarded to the English leaders a touching invitation _to unite_ with +the French;" "He insisted on his right _to forget_ her." + + +360. III. The adjectival use, modifying a noun that may be a +subject, object, complement, etc.: for example, "But there was no time +_to be lost_;" "And now Amyas had time _to ask_ Ayacanora the meaning +of this;" "I have such a desire _to be_ well with my public" (see also +Sec. 351, 5). + + +361. IV. The adverbial use, which may be to express-- + +(1) _Purpose:_ "The governor, Don Guzman, sailed to the eastward only +yesterday _to look_ for you;" "Isn't it enough to bring us to death, +_to please_ that poor young gentleman's fancy?" + +(2) _Result:_ "Don Guzman returns to the river mouth _to find_ the +ship a blackened wreck;" "What heart could be so hard as _not to take_ +pity on the poor wild thing?" + +(3) _Reason:_ "I am quite sorry _to part_ with them;" "Are you mad, +_to betray_ yourself by your own cries?" "Marry, hang the idiot, _to +bring me_ such stuff!" + +(4) _Degree:_ "We have won gold enough _to serve_ us the rest of our +lives;" "But the poor lady was too sad _to talk_ except to the boys +now and again." + +(5) _Condition:_ "You would fancy, _to hear_ McOrator after dinner, +the Scotch fighting all the battles;" "_To say_ what good of fashion +we can, it rests on reality" (the last is not a simple sentence, but +it furnishes a good example of this use of the infinitive). + + +362. The fact that the infinitives in Sec. 361 are used adverbially, +is evident from the meaning of the sentences. + +Whether each sentence containing an adverbial infinitive has the +meaning of purpose, result, etc., may be found out by turning the +infinitive into an equivalent clause, such as those studied under +subordinate conjunctions. + +To test this, notice the following:-- + +In (1), _to look_ means _that he might look_; _to please_ is +equivalent to _that he may please_,--both purpose clauses. + +In (2), _to find_ shows the result of the return; _not to take pity_ +is equivalent to _that it would not take pity_. + +In (3), _to part_ means _because I part_, etc.; and _to betray_ and +_to bring_ express the reason, equivalent to _that you betray_, etc. + +In (4), _to serve_ and _to talk_ are equivalent to [_as much gold_] +_as will serve us_; and "too sad _to talk_" also shows degree. + +In (5), _to hear_ means _if you should hear_, and _to say_ is +equivalent to _if we say_,--both expressing condition. + + +363. V. The independent use, which is of two kinds,-- + +(1) Thrown loosely into the sentence; as in Sec. 355, (3). + +(2) _Exclamatory:_ "I a philosopher! I _advance_ pretensions;" "'He +_to die_!' resumed the bishop." (See also Sec. 268, 4.) + + +OUTLINE OF ANALYSIS. + + +364. In analyzing simple sentences, give-- + +(1) The predicate. If it is an incomplete verb, give the complement +(Secs. 344 and 350) and its modifiers (Sec. 351). + +(2) The object of the verb (Sec. 349). + +(3) Modifiers of the object (Sec. 351). + +(4) Modifiers of the predicate (Sec. 352). + +(5) The subject (Sec. 347). + +(6) Modifiers of the subject (Sec. 351). + +(7) Independent elements (Sec. 355). + +This is not the same order that the parts of the sentence usually +have; but it is believed that the student will proceed more easily by +finding the predicate with its modifiers, object, etc., and then +finding the subject by placing the question _who_ or _what_ before it. + + +Exercise in Analyzing Simple Sentences. + +Analyze the following according to the directions given:-- + +1. Our life is March weather, savage and serene in one hour. + +2. I will try to keep the balance true. + +3. The questions of Whence? What? and Whither? and the solution of +these, must be in a life, not in a book. + +4. The ward meetings on election days are not softened by any +misgiving of the value of these ballotings. + +5. Our English Bible is a wonderful specimen of the strength and music +of the English language. + +6. Through the years and the centuries, through evil agents, through +toys and atoms, a great and beneficent tendency irresistibly streams. + +7. To be hurried away by every event, is to have no political system +at all. + +8. This mysticism the ancients called ecstasy,--a getting-out of their +bodies to think. + +9. He risked everything, and spared nothing, neither ammunition, nor +money, nor troops, nor generals, nor himself. + +10. We are always in peril, always in a bad plight, just on the edge +of destruction, and only to be saved by invention and courage. + +11. His opinion is always original, and to the purpose. + +12. To these gifts of nature, Napoleon added the advantage of having +been born to a private and humble fortune. + +13. The water, like a witch's oils, + Burnt green and blue and white. + +14. We one day descried some shapeless object floating at a distance. + +15. Old Adam, the carrion crow, + The old crow of Cairo; + He sat in the shower, and let it flow + Under his tail and over his crest. + +16. It costs no more for a wise soul to convey his quality to other +men. + +17. It is easy to sugar to be sweet. + +18. At times the black volume of clouds overhead seemed rent asunder +by flashes of lightning. + +19. The whole figure and air, good and amiable otherwise, might be +called flabby and irresolute. + +20. I have heard Coleridge talk, with eager energy, two stricken +hours, and communicate no meaning whatsoever to any individual. + +21. The word _conscience_ has become almost confined, in popular use, +to the moral sphere. + +22. You may ramble a whole day together, and every moment discover +something new. + +23. She had grown up amidst the liberal culture of Henry's court a +bold horsewoman, a good shot, a graceful dancer, a skilled musician, +an accomplished scholar. + +24. Her aims were simple and obvious,--to preserve her throne, to keep +England out of war, to restore civil and religious order. + +25. Fair name might he have handed down, + Effacing many a stain of former crime. + +26. Of the same grandeur, in less heroic and poetic form, was the +patriotism of Peel in recent history. + +27. Oxford, ancient mother! hoary with ancestral honors, time-honored, +and, haply, time-shattered power--I owe thee nothing! + +28. The villain, I hate him and myself, to be a reproach to such +goodness. + +29. I dare this, upon my own ground, and in my own garden, to bid you +leave the place now and forever. + +30. Upon this shore stood, ready to receive her, in front of all this +mighty crowd, the prime minister of Spain, the same Cond Olivarez. + +31. Great was their surprise to see a young officer in uniform +stretched within the bushes upon the ground. + +32. She had made a two days' march, baggage far in the rear, and no +provisions but wild berries. + +33. This amiable relative, an elderly man, had but one foible, or +perhaps one virtue, in this world. + +34. Now, it would not have been filial or ladylike. + +35. Supposing this computation to be correct, it must have been in the +latitude of Boston, the present capital of New England. + +36. The cry, "A strange vessel close aboard the frigate!" having +already flown down the hatches, the ship was in an uproar. + +37. But yield, proud foe, thy fleet + With the crews at England's feet. + +38. Few in number, and that number rapidly perishing away through +sickness and hardships; surrounded by a howling wilderness and savage +tribes; exposed to the rigors of an almost arctic winter,--their minds +were filled with doleful forebodings. + +39. List to the mournful tradition still sung by the pines of the +forest. + +40. In the Acadian land, on the shores of the Basin of Minas, + Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand-Pr + Lay in the fruitful valley. + +41. Must we in all things look for the how, and the why, and the +wherefore? + + + + +CONTRACTED SENTENCES. + + +[Sidenote: _Words left out after_ than _or_ as.] + +365. Some sentences look like simple ones in form, but have an +essential part omitted that is so readily supplied by the mind as not +to need expressing. Such are the following:-- + + "There is no country more worthy of our study than England [is + worthy of our study]." + + "The distinctions between them do not seem to be so marked as + [they are marked] in the cities." + +To show that these words are really omitted, compare with them the two +following:-- + + "The nobility and gentry are more popular among the inferior + orders than _they are_ in any other country." + + "This is not so universally the case at present as _it was_ + formerly." + + +[Sidenote: _Sentences with_ like.] + +366. As shown in Part I. (Sec. 333). the expressions _of manner_ +introduced by _like_, though often treated as phrases, are really +contracted clauses; but, if they were expanded, _as_ would be the +connective instead of _like_; thus,-- + + "They'll shine o'er her sleep, like [as] a smile from the west + [would shine]. + From her own loved island of sorrow." + +This must, however, be carefully discriminated from cases where _like_ +is an adjective complement; as,-- + + "She is _like_ some tender tree, the pride and beauty of the + grove;" "The ruby seemed _like_ a spark of fire burning upon her + white bosom." + +Such contracted sentences form a connecting link between our study of +simple and complex sentences. + + + + +COMPLEX SENTENCES. + + +[Sidenote: _The simple sentence the basis._] + +367. Our investigations have now included all the machinery of the +simple sentence, which is the _unit of speech_. + +Our further study will be in sentences which are combinations of +simple sentences, made merely for convenience and smoothness, to avoid +the tiresome repetition of short ones of monotonous similarity. + +Next to the simple sentence stands the complex sentence. The basis of +it is two or more simple sentences, which are so united that one +member is the main one,--the backbone,--the other members subordinate +to it, or dependent on it; as in this sentence,-- + + "When such a spirit breaks forth into complaint, we are aware how + great must be the suffering that extorts the murmur." + +The relation of the parts is as follows:-- + + we are aware + _______ _____ + | | + __| _when such a spirit breaks_ + | _forth into complaint_, + | + _how great must be the suffering_ + | + that extorts the murmur. + +This arrangement shows to the eye the picture that the sentence forms +in the mind,--how the first clause is held in suspense by the mind +till the second, we are aware, is taken in; then we recognize this +as the main statement; and the next one, _how great ... suffering_, +drops into its place as subordinate to _we are aware_; and the last, +_that ... murmur_, logically depends on _suffering_. + +Hence the following definition:-- + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +368. A complex sentence is one containing one main or independent +clause (also called the principal proposition or clause), and _one or +more_ subordinate or dependent clauses. + +369. The elements of a complex sentence are the same as those of +the simple sentence; that is, each clause has its subject, predicate, +object, complements, modifiers, etc. + +But there is this difference: whereas the simple sentence always has a +word or a phrase for subject, object, complement, and modifier, the +complex sentence has _statements_ or _clauses_ for these places. + + +CLAUSES. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +370. A clause is a division of a sentence, containing a verb with +its subject. + +Hence the term _clause_ may refer to the main division of the complex +sentence, or it may be applied to the others,--the dependent or +subordinate clauses. + + +[Sidenote: _Independent clause._] + +371. A principal, main, or independent clause is one making a +statement without the help of any other clause. + +[Sidenote: _Dependent clause._] + +A subordinate or dependent clause is one which makes a statement +depending upon or modifying some word in the principal clause. + + +[Sidenote: _Kinds._] + +372. As to their office in the sentence, clauses are divided into +NOUN, ADJECTIVE, and ADVERB clauses, according as they are equivalent +in use to nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. + + +Noun Clauses. + +373. Noun clauses have the following uses:-- + +(1) _Subject_: "_That such men should give prejudiced views of +America_ is not a matter of surprise." + +(2) _Object of a verb_, _verbal_, _or the equivalent of a verb_: (_a_) +"I confess _these stories, for a time, put an end to my fancies_;" +(_b_) "I am aware [I know] _that a skillful illustrator of the +immortal bard would have swelled the materials_." + +Just as the object noun, pronoun, infinitive, etc., is retained after +a passive verb (Sec. 352, 5), so the object clause is retained, and +should not be called an adjunct of the subject; for example, "We are +persuaded _that a thread runs through all things_;" "I was told _that +the house had not been shut, night or day, for a hundred years_." + +(3) _Complement_: "The terms of admission to this spectacle are, _that +he have a certain solid and intelligible way of living_." + +(4) _Apposition_. (_a_) Ordinary apposition, explanatory of some noun +or its equivalent: "Cecil's saying of Sir Walter Raleigh, '_I know +that he can toil terribly_,' is an electric touch." + +(_b_) After "it _introductory_" (logically this is a subject clause, +but it is often treated as in apposition with _it_): "_It_ was the +opinion of some, _that this might be the wild huntsman famous in +German legend_." + +(5) _Object of a preposition_: "At length he reached to _where the +ravine had opened through the cliffs_." + +Notice that frequently only the introductory word is the object of +the preposition, and the whole clause is not; thus, "The rocks +presented a high impenetrable wall, _over which_ the torrent came +tumbling." + +374. Here are to be noticed certain sentences seemingly complex, +with a noun clause in apposition with _it_; but logically they are +nothing but simple sentences. But since they are _complex in form_, +attention is called to them here; for example,-- + + "Alas! it is we ourselves that are getting buried alive under + this avalanche of earthly impertinences." + +To divide this into two clauses--(_a_) _It is we ourselves_, (_b_) +_that are ... impertinences_--would be grammatical; but logically the +sentence is, _We ourselves are getting ... impertinences_, and _it is +... that_ is merely a framework used to effect emphasis. The sentence +shows how _it_ may lose its pronominal force. + +Other examples of this construction are,-- + + "It is on the understanding, and not on the sentiment, of a + nation, that all safe legislation must be based." + + "Then it is that deliberative Eloquence lays aside the plain + attire of her daily occupation." + + +Exercise. + +Tell how each noun clause is used in these sentences:-- + +1. I felt that I breathed an atmosphere of sorrow. + +2. But the fact is, I was napping. + +3. Shaking off from my spirit what must have been a dream, I scanned +more narrowly the aspect of the building. + +4. Except by what he could see for himself, he could know nothing. + +5. Whatever he looks upon discloses a second sense. + +6. It will not be pretended that a success in either of these kinds is +quite coincident with what is best and inmost in his mind. + +7. The reply of Socrates, to him who asked whether he should choose a +wife, still remains reasonable, that, whether he should choose one or +not, he would repent it. + +8. What history it had, how it changed from shape to shape, no man +will ever know. + +9. Such a man is what we call an original man. + +10. Our current hypothesis about Mohammed, that he was a scheming +impostor, a falsehood incarnate, that his religion is a mere mass of +quackery and fatuity, begins really to be no longer tenable to any +one. + + +Adjective Clauses. + +375. As the office of an adjective is to modify, the only use of an +adjective clause is to limit or describe some noun, or equivalent of a +noun: consequently the adjective may modify _any_ noun, or equivalent +of a noun, in the sentence. + +The adjective clause may be introduced by the relative pronouns _who_, +_which_, _that_, _but_, _as_; sometimes by the conjunctions _when_, +_where_, _whither_, _whence_, _wherein_, _whereby_, etc. + +Frequently there is no connecting word, a relative pronoun being +understood. + +[Sidenote: _Examples of adjective clauses_.] + +376. Adjective clauses may modify-- + +(1) _The subject_: "The themes _it offers for contemplation_ are too +vast for their capacities;" "Those _who see the Englishman only in +town_, are apt to form an unfavorable opinion of his social +character." + +(2) _The object_: "From this piazza Ichabod entered the hall, _which +formed the center of the mansion_." + +(3) _The complement_: "The animal he bestrode was a broken-down +plow-horse, _that had outlived almost everything but his usefulness_;" +"It was such an apparition _as is seldom to be met with in broad +daylight_." + +(4) _Other words_: "He rode with short stirrups, _which brought his +knees nearly up to the pommel of the saddle_;" "No whit anticipating +the oblivion _which awaited their names and feats_, the champions +advanced through the lists;" "Charity covereth a multitude of sins, in +another sense than that _in which it is said to do so in Scripture_." + + +Exercise. + +Pick out the adjective clauses, and tell what each one modifies; i.e., +whether subject, object, etc. + +1. There were passages that reminded me perhaps too much of Massillon. + +2. I walked home with Calhoun, who said that the principles which I +had avowed were just and noble. + +3. Other men are lenses through which we read our own minds. + +4. In one of those celestial days when heaven and earth meet and adorn +each other, it seems a pity that we can only spend it once. + +5. One of the maidens presented a silver cup, containing a rich +mixture of wine and spice, which Rowena tasted. + +6. No man is reason or illumination, or that essence we were looking +for. + +7. In the moment when he ceases to help us as a cause, he begins to +help us more as an effect. + +8. Socrates took away all ignominy from the place, which could not be +a prison whilst he was there. + +9. This is perhaps the reason why we so seldom hear ghosts except in +our long-established Dutch settlements. + +10. From the moment you lose sight of the land you have left, all is +vacancy. + +11. Nature waited tranquilly for the hour to be struck when man should +arrive. + + +Adverbial Clauses. + +377. The adverb clause takes the place of an adverb in modifying a +verb, a verbal, an adjective, or an adverb. The student has met with +many adverb clauses in his study of the subjunctive mood and of +subordinate conjunctions; but they require careful study, and will be +given in detail, with examples. + +378. Adverb clauses are of the following kinds: + +(1) TIME: "_As we go_, the milestones are grave-stones;" "He had gone +but a little way _before he espied a foul fiend coming_;" "_When he +was come up to Christian_, he beheld him with a disdainful +countenance." + +(2) PLACE: "_Wherever the sentiment of right comes in_, it takes +precedence of everything else;" "He went several times to England, +_where he does not seem to have attracted any attention_." + +(3) REASON, or CAUSE: "His English editor lays no stress on his +discoveries, _since he was too great to care to be original_;" "I give +you joy _that truth is altogether wholesome_." + +(4) MANNER: "The knowledge of the past is valuable only _as it leads +us to form just calculations with respect to the future_;" "After +leaving the whole party under the table, he goes away _as if nothing +had happened_." + +(5) DEGREE, or COMPARISON: "They all become wiser _than they were_;" +"The right conclusion is, that we should try, so far _as we can_, to +make up our shortcomings;" "Master Simon was in as chirping a humor +_as a grasshopper filled with dew_ [is];" "_The broader their +education is_, the wider is the horizon of their thought." The first +clause in the last sentence is dependent, expressing the degree in +which the horizon, etc., is wider. + +(6) PURPOSE: "Nature took us in hand, shaping our actions, _so that we +might not be ended untimely by too gross disobedience_." + +(7) RESULT, or CONSEQUENCE: "He wrote on the scale of the mind itself, +_so that all things have symmetry in his tablet_;" "The window was so +far superior to every other in the church, _that the vanquished artist +killed himself from mortification_." + +(8) CONDITION: "_If we tire of the saints_, Shakespeare is our city of +refuge;" "Who cares for that, _so thou gain aught wider and nobler_?" +"You can die grandly, and as goddesses would die _were goddesses +mortal_." + +(9) CONCESSION, introduced by indefinite relatives, adverbs, and +adverbial conjunctions,--_whoever_, _whatever_, _however_, etc.: "But +still, _however good she may be as a witness_, Joanna is better;" +"_Whatever there may remain of illiberal in discussion_, there is +always something illiberal in the severer aspects of study." + +These mean _no matter how good, no matter what remains_, etc. + +Exercise. + +Pick out the adverbial clauses in the following sentences; tell what +kind each is, and what it modifies:-- + +1. As I was clearing away the weeds from this epitaph, the little +sexton drew me on one side with a mysterious air, and informed me in a +low voice that once upon a time, on a dark wintry night, when the wind +was unruly, howling and whistling, banging about doors and windows, +and twirling weathercocks, so that the living were frightened out of +their beds, and even the dead could not sleep quietly in their graves, +the ghost of honest Preston was attracted by the well-known call of +"waiter," and made its sudden appearance just as the parish clerk was +singing a stave from the "mirrie garland of Captain Death." + +2. If the children gathered about her, as they sometimes did, Pearl +would grow positively terrible in her puny wrath, snatching up stones +to fling at them, with shrill, incoherent exclamations, that made her +mother tremble because they had so much the sound of a witch's +anathemas. + +3. The spell of life went forth from her ever-creative spirit, and +communicated itself to a thousand objects, as a torch kindles a flame +wherever it may be applied. + + +ANALYZING COMPLEX SENTENCES. + + +379. These suggestions will be found helpful:-- + +(1) See that the sentence and all its parts are placed in the natural +order of subject, predicate, object, and modifiers. + +(2) First take the sentence _as a whole_; find the principal subject +and principal predicate; then treat noun clauses as nouns, adjective +clauses as adjectives modifying certain words, and adverb clauses as +single modifying adverbs. + +(3) Analyze each clause as a simple sentence. For example, in the +sentence, "Cannot we conceive that Odin was a reality?" _we_ is the +principal subject; _cannot conceive_ is the principal predicate; its +object is _that Odin was a reality_, of which clause _Odin_ is the +subject, etc. + + +380. It is sometimes of great advantage to map out a sentence after +analyzing it, so as to picture the parts and their relations. To take +a sentence:-- + + "I cannot help thinking that the fault is in themselves, and that + if the church and the cataract were in the habit of giving away + their thoughts with that rash generosity which characterizes + tourists, they might perhaps say of their visitors, 'Well, if you + are those men of whom we have heard so much, we are a little + disappointed, to tell the truth.'" + +This may be represented as follows:-- + + I cannot help thinking + ____________________ + | + _______________________| + | + | (_a_) THAT THE FAULT IS IN THEMSELVES, AND + | + | (_b_) [THAT] THEY MIGHT (PERHAPS) SAY OF THEIR VISITORS + | ___________________ + | | + | _____________________________|_________________________________ + | | | + | | (_a_) We are (a little) disappointed | + | O| ___________________________ | + O| b| ________________________| | + b| j| M| | + j| e| o| (_b_) If you are those men | + e| c| d| ___ | + c| t| i| _________________________| | + t| | f| M| | + | | i| o| Of whom we have heard so much. | + | | e| d. | + | \ r\ \ | + | _____________________________________________________| + | M| + | o| (_a_) If the church and ... that rash generosity + | d| __________ + | i| | + | f| _______________________________________________| + | i| | + | e| | (_b_) Which characterizes tourists. + | r| | + \ \ \ + + +OUTLINE + + +381. (1) Find the principal clause. + +(2) Analyze it according to Sec. 364. + +(3) Analyze the dependent clauses according to Sec. 364. This of +course includes dependent clauses that depend on other dependent +clauses, as seen in the "map" (Sec. 380). +107 | + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Analyze the following complex sentences:-- + +1. Take the place and attitude which belong to you. + +2. That mood into which a friend brings us is his dominion over us. + +3. True art is only possible on the condition that every talent has +its apotheosis somewhere. + +4. The deep eyes, of a light hazel, were as full of sorrow as of +inspiration. + +5. She is the only church that has been loyal to the heart and soul of +man, that has clung to her faith in the imagination. + +6. She has never lost sight of the truth that the product human nature +is composed of the sum of flesh and spirit. + +7. But now that she has become an establishment, she begins to +perceive that she made a blunder in trusting herself to the intellect +alone. + +8. Before long his talk would wander into all the universe, where it +was uncertain what game you would catch, or whether any. + +9. The night proved unusually dark, so that the two principals had to +tie white handkerchiefs round their elbows in order to descry each +other. + +10. Whether she would ever awake seemed to depend upon an accident. + +11. Here lay two great roads, not so much for travelers that were few, +as for armies that were too many by half. + +12. It was haunted to that degree by fairies, that the parish priest +was obliged to read mass there once a year. + +13. More than one military plan was entered upon which she did not +approve. + +14. As surely as the wolf retires before cities, does the fairy +sequester herself from the haunts of the licensed victualer. + +15. M. Michelet is anxious to keep us in mind that this bishop was but +an agent of the English. + +16. Next came a wretched Dominican, that pressed her with an +objection, which, if applied to the Bible, would tax every miracle +with unsoundness. + +17. The reader ought to be reminded that Joanna D'Arc was subject to +an unusually unfair trial. + +18. Now, had she really testified this willingness on the scaffold, it +would have argued nothing at all but the weakness of a genial nature. + +19. And those will often pity that weakness most, who would yield to +it least. + +20. Whether she said the word is uncertain. + +21. This is she, the shepherd girl, counselor that had none for +herself, whom I choose, bishop, for yours. + +22. Had _they_ been better chemists, had _we_ been worse, the mixed +result, namely, that, dying for _them_, th107 |e flower should revive for +_us_, could not have been effected. + +23. I like that representation they have of the tree. + +24. He was what our country people call _an old one_. + +25. He thought not any evil happened to men of such magnitude as false +opinion. +107 | +26. These things we are forced to say, if we must consider the effort +of Plato to dispose of Nature,--which will not be disposed of. + +27. He showed one who was afraid to go on foot to Olympia, that it was +no more than his daily walk, if continuously extended, would easily +reach. + +28. What can we see or acquire but what we are? + +29. Our eyes are holden that we cannot see things that stare us in the +face, until the hour arrives when the mind is ripened. + +30. There is good reason why we should prize this liberation. + + +_(b)_ First analyze, then map out as in Sec. 380, the following +complex sentences:-- + +1. The way to speak and write what shall not go out of fashion, is to +speak and write sincerely. + +2. The writer who takes his subject from his ear, and not from his +heart, should know that he has lost as much as he has gained. + +3. "No book," said Bentley, "was ever written down by any but itself." + +4. That which we do not believe, we cannot adequately say, though we +may repeat the words never so often. + +5. We say so because we feel that what we love is not in your will, +but above it. + +6. It makes no difference how many friends I have, and what content I +can find in conversing with each, if there be one to whom I am not +equal. + +7. In every troop of boys that whoop and run in each yard and square, +a new-comer is as well and accurately weighed in the course of a few +days, and stamped with his right number, as if he had undergone a +formal trial of his strength, speed, and temper. + + + + +COMPOUND SENTENCES. + + +[Sidenote: _How formed._] + +382. The compound sentence is a combination of two or more simple +or complex sentences. While the complex sentence has only _one_ main +clause, the compound has _two or more_ independent clauses making +statements, questions, or commands. Hence the definition,-- + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +383. A compound sentence is one which contains two or more +independent clauses. + +This leaves room for any number of subordinate clauses in a compound +sentence: the requirement is simply that it have at least two +independent clauses. + +Examples of compound sentences:-- + +[Sidenote: _Examples._] + +(1) _Simple sentences united:_ "He is a palace of sweet sounds and +sights; he dilates; he is twice a man; he walks with arms akimbo; he +soliloquizes." + +(2) _Simple with complex:_ "The trees of the forest, the waving grass, +and the peeping flowers have grown intelligent; and he almost fears to +trust them with the secret which they seem to invite." + +(3) _Complex with complex:_ "The power which resides in him is new in +nature, and none but he knows what that is which he can do, nor does +he know until he has tried." + + +384. From this it is evident that nothing new is added to the work +of analysis already done. + +The same analysis of simple sentences is repeated in (1) and (2) +above, and what was done in complex sentences is repeated in (2) and +(3). + +The division into members will be easier, for the cordinate +independent statements are readily taken apart with the subordinate +clauses attached, if there are any. + +Thus in (1), the semicolons cut apart the independent members, which +are simple statements; in (2), the semicolon separates the first, a +simple member, from the second, a complex member; in (3), _and_ +connects the first and second complex members, and _nor_ the second +and third complex members. + + +[Sidenote: _Connectives._] + +385. The cordinate conjunctions _and_, _nor_, _or_ _but_, etc., +introduce independent clauses (see Sec. 297). + +But the conjunction is often omitted in copulative and adversative +clauses, as in Sec. 383 (1). Another example is, "Only the star +dazzles; the planet has a faint, moon-like ray" (adversative). + + +[Sidenote: _Study the thought._] + +386. The one point that will give trouble is the variable use of +some connectives; as _but_, _for_, _yet_, _while_ (_whilst_), +_however_, _whereas_, etc. Some of these are now conjunctions, now +adverbs or prepositions; others sometimes cordinate, sometimes +subordinate conjunctions. + +The student must watch _the logical connection_ of the members of the +sentence, and not the form of the connective. + + +Exercise. + +Of the following illustrative sentences, tell which are compound, and +which complex:-- + +1. Speak your latent conviction, and it shall be the universal sense; +for the inmost in due time becomes the outmost. + +2. I no longer wish to meet a good I do not earn, for example, to find +a pot of buried gold. + +3. Your goodness must have some edge to it--else it is none. + +4. Man does not stand in awe of man, nor is his genius admonished to +stay at home, but it goes abroad to beg a cup of water of the urns of +other men. + +5. A man cannot speak but he judges himself. + +6. In your metaphysics you have denied personality to the Deity, yet +when the devout motions of the soul come, yield to them heart and +life. + +7. I thought that it was a Sunday morning in May; that it was Easter +Sunday, and as yet very early in the morning. + +8. We denote the primary wisdom as intuition, whilst all later +teachings are tuitions. + +9. Whilst the world is thus dual, so is every one of its parts. + +10. They measure the esteem of each other by what each has, and not by +what each is. + +11. For everything you have missed, you have gained something else; +and for everything you gain, you lose something. + +12. I sometimes seemed to have lived for seventy or one hundred years +in one night; nay, I sometimes had feelings representative of a +millennium, passed in that time, or, however, of a duration far beyond +the limits of experience. + +13. However some may think him wanting in zeal, the most fanatical +can find no taint of apostasy in any measure of his. + +14. In this manner, from a happy yet often pensive child, he grew up +to be a mild, quiet, unobtrusive boy, and sun-browned with labor in +the fields, but with more intelligence than is seen in many lads from +the schools. + + + +OUTLINE FOR ANALYZING COMPOUND SENTENCES. + +387. (i) Separate it into its main members. (2) Analyze each complex +member as in Sec. 381. (3) Analyze each simple member as in Sec. 364. + + +Exercise. + +Analyze the following compound sentences:-- + +1. The gain is apparent; the tax is certain. + +2. If I feel overshadowed and outdone by great neighbors, I can yet +love; I can still receive; and he that loveth maketh his own the +grandeur that he loves. + +3. Love, and thou shalt be loved. + +4. All loss, all pain, is particular; the universe remains to the +heart unhurt. + +5. Place yourself in the middle of the stream of power and wisdom +which animates all whom it floats, and you are without effort impelled +to truth. + +6. He teaches who gives, and he learns who receives. + +7. Whatever he knows and thinks, whatever in his apprehension is worth +doing, that let him communicate, or men will never know and honor him +aright. + +8. Stand aside; give those merits room; let them mount and expand. + +9. We see the noble afar off, and they repel us; why should we +intrude? + +10. We go to Europe, or we pursue persons, or we read books, in the +instinctive faith that these will call it out and reveal us to +ourselves. + +11. A gay and pleasant sound is the whetting of the scythe in the +mornings of June, yet what is more lonesome and sad than the sound of +a whetstone or mower's rifle when it is too late in the season to make +hay? + +12. "Strike," says the smith, "the iron is white;" "keep the rake," +says the haymaker, "as nigh the scythe as you can, and the cart as +nigh the rake." + +13. Trust men, and they will be true to you; treat them greatly, and +they will show themselves great, though they make an exception in your +favor to all their rules of trade. + +14. On the most profitable lie the course of events presently lays a +destructive tax; whilst frankness invites frankness, puts the parties +on a convenient footing, and makes their business a friendship. + +15. The sturdiest offender of your peace and of the neighborhood, if +you rip up his claims, is as thin and timid as any; and the peace of +society is often kept, because, as children, one is afraid, and the +other dares not. + +16. They will shuffle and crow, crook and hide, feign to confess here, +only that they may brag and conquer there, and not a thought has +enriched either party, and not an emotion of bravery, modesty, or +hope. + +17. The magic they used was the ideal tendencies, which always make +the Actual ridiculous; but the tough world had its revenge the moment +they put their horses of the sun to plow in its furrow. + +18. Come into port greatly, or sail with God the seas. + +19. When you have chosen your part, abide by it, and do not weakly try +to reconcile yourself with the world. + +20. Times of heroism are generally times of terror, but the day never +shines in which this element may not work. + +21. Life is a train of moods like a string of beads, and as we pass +through them they prove to be many-colored lenses which paint the +world their own hue, and each shows only what lies at its focus. + +22. We see young men who owe us a new world, so readily and lavishly +they promise, but they never acquit the debt; they die young, and +dodge the account; or, if they live, they lose themselves in the +crowd. + +23. So does culture with us; it ends in headache. + +24. Do not craze yourself with thinking, but go about your business +anywhere. + +25. Thus journeys the mighty Ideal before us; it never was known to +fall into the rear. + + + + +PART III. + +_SYNTAX_. + + + + +INTRODUCTORY. + + +[Sidenote: _By way of introduction._] + +388. Syntax is from a Greek word meaning _order_ or _arrangement_. + +Syntax deals with the relation of words to each other as component +parts of a sentence, and with their proper arrangement to express +clearly the intended meaning. + + +[Sidenote: _Ground covered by syntax._] + +380. Following the Latin method, writers on English grammar usually +divide syntax into the two general heads,--agreement and +government. + +Agreement is concerned with the following relations of words: words +in apposition, verb and subject, pronoun and antecedent, adjective and +noun. + +Government has to do with verbs and prepositions, both of which are +said to govern words by having them in the objective case. + + +390. Considering the scarcity of inflections in English, it is clear +that if we merely follow the Latin treatment, the department of syntax +will be a small affair. But there is a good deal else to watch in +addition to the few forms; for there is an important and marked +difference between Latin and English syntax. It is this:-- + +Latin syntax depends upon fixed rules governing the use of inflected +forms: hence the _position_ of words in a sentence is of little +grammatical importance. + +[Sidenote: _Essential point in English syntax._] + +English syntax follows the Latin to a limited extent; but its leading +characteristic is, that English syntax is founded upon _the meaning_ +and _the logical connection_ of words rather than upon their form: +consequently it is quite as necessary to place words properly, and to +think clearly of the meaning of words, as to study inflected forms. + +For example, the sentence, "The savage here the settler slew," is +ambiguous. _Savage_ may be the subject, following the regular order of +subject; or _settler_ may be the subject, the order being inverted. In +Latin, distinct forms would be used, and it would not matter which one +stood first. + + +[Sidenote: _Why study syntax?_] + +391. There is, then, a double reason for not omitting syntax as a +department of grammar,-- + +_First_, To study the rules regarding the use of inflected forms, some +of which conform to classical grammar, while some are idiomatic +(peculiar to our own language). + +_Second_, To find out the _logical methods_ which control us in the +arrangement of words; and particularly when the grammatical and the +logical conception of a sentence do not agree, or when they exist side +by side in good usage. + +As an illustration of the last remark, take the sentence, "Besides +these famous books of Scott's and Johnson's, there is a copious 'Life' +by Sheridan." In this there is a possessive form, and added to it the +preposition _of_, also expressing a possessive relation. This is not +logical; it is not consistent with the general rules of grammar: but +none the less it is good English. + +Also in the sentence, "None remained but he," grammatical rules would +require _him_ instead of _he_ after the preposition; yet the +expression is sustained by good authority. + + +[Sidenote: _Some rules not rigid._] + +392. In some cases, authorities--that is, standard writers--differ +as to which of two constructions should be used, or the same writer +will use both indifferently. Instances will be found in treating of +the pronoun or noun with a gerund, pronoun and antecedent, sometimes +verb and subject, etc. + +When usage varies as to a given construction, both forms will be given +in the following pages. + + +[Sidenote: _The basis of syntax._] + +393. Our treatment of syntax will be an endeavor to record the best +usage of the present time on important points; and nothing but +important points will be considered, for it is easy to confuse a +student with too many obtrusive _don'ts_. + +The constructions presented as general will be justified by quotations +from _modern writers of English_ who are regarded as "standard;" that +is, writers whose style is generally acknowledged as superior, and +whose judgment, therefore, will be accepted by those in quest of +authoritative opinion. + +Reference will also be made to spoken English when its constructions +differ from those of the literary language, and to vulgar English when +it preserves forms which were once, but are not now, good English. + +It may be suggested to the student that the only way to acquire +correctness is to watch good usage _everywhere_, and imitate it. + + + + +NOUNS. + + +394. Nouns have no distinct forms for the nominative and objective +cases: hence no mistake can be made in using them. But some remarks +are required concerning the use of the possessive case. + + +[Sidenote: _Use of the possessive. Joint possession._] + +395. When two or more possessives modify the same noun, or indicate +joint ownership or possession, the possessive sign is added to the +last noun only; for example,-- + + Live your _king and country's_ best support.--ROWE. + + Woman, _sense and nature's_ easy fool.--BYRON. + + _Oliver and Boyd's_ printing office.--MCCULLOCH. + + _Adam and Eve's_ morning hymn.--MILTON. + + In _Beaumont and Fletcher's_ "Sea Voyage," Juletta tells, + etc.--EMERSON. + + +[Sidenote: _Separate possession._] + +396. When two or more possessives stand before the same noun, but +imply separate possession or ownership, the possessive sign is used +with each noun; as,-- + + He lands us on a grassy stage, Safe from the _storm's_ and + _prelate's_ rage.--MARVELL + + Where were the sons of Peers and Members of Parliament in + _Anne's_ and _George's_ time?--THACKERAY. + + _Levi's_ station in life was the receipt of custom; and + _Peter's_, the shore of Galilee; and _Paul's_, the antechamber of + the High Priest.--RUSKIN. + + Swift did not keep _Stella's_ letters. He kept _Bolingbroke's,_ + and _Pope's_, and _Harley's_, and _Peterborough's_.--THACKERAY. + + An actor in one of _Morton's_ or _Kotzebue's_ plays.--MACAULAY. + + Putting _Mr. Mill's_ and _Mr. Bentham's_ principles together. + --_Id._ + + +397. The possessive preceding the gerund will be considered under +the possessive of pronouns (Sec. 408). + + + + +PRONOUNS. + + +PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + + +I. NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE FORMS. + + +398. Since most of the personal pronouns, together with the relative +_who_, have separate forms for nominative and objective use, there are +two general rules that require attention. + +[Sidenote: _General rules._] + +(1) The _nominative use_ is usually marked by the nominative form of +the pronoun. + +(2) The _objective use_ is usually marked by the objective form of the +pronoun. + +These simple rules are sometimes violated in spoken and in literary +English. Some of the violations are universally condemned; others are +generally, if not universally, sanctioned. + + +[Sidenote: _Objective for the nominative._] + + + +399. The objective is sometimes found instead of the nominative in +the following instances:-- + +(1) By a common vulgarism of ignorance or carelessness, no notice is +taken of the proper form to be used as subject; as,-- + + He and _me_ once went in the dead of winter in a one-hoss shay + out to Boonville.--WHITCHER, _Bedott Papers._ + + It seems strange to me that _them_ that preach up the doctrine + don't admire one who carrys it out.--_Josiah Allens Wife._ + +(2) By faulty analysis of the sentence, the true relation of the words +is misunderstood; for example, "_Whom_ think ye that I am?" (In this, +_whom_ is the complement after the verb _am_, and should be the +nominative form, _who_.) "The young Harper, _whom_ they agree was +rather nice-looking" (_whom_ is the subject of the verb _was_). + +Especially is this fault to be noticed after an ellipsis with _than_ +or _as_, the real thought being forgotten; thus,-- + + But the consolation coming from devotion did not go far with such + a one as _her_.--TROLLOPE. + +This should be "as _she_," because the full expression would be "such +a one as _she is_." + + +400. Still, the last expression has the support of many good +writers, as shown in the following examples:-- + + She was neither better bred nor wiser than you or + _me_.--THACKERAY. + + No mightier than thyself or _me_.--SHAKESPEARE. + + Lin'd with Giants deadlier than _'em_ all.--POPE. + + But he must be a stronger than _thee_.--SOUTHEY. + + Not to render up my soul to such as _thee_.--BYRON. + + I shall not learn my duty from such as _thee_.--FIELDING. + +[Sidenote: _A safe rule._] + +It will be safer for the student to follow the general rule, as +illustrated in the following sentences:-- + + If so, they are yet holier than _we_.--RUSKIN. + + Who would suppose it is the game of such as _he_?--DICKENS. + + Do we see + The robber and the murd'rer weak as _we_? + --MILTON. + + I have no other saint than _thou_ to pray to.--LONGFELLOW. + +[Sidenote: "_Than_ whom."] + +401. One exception is to be noted. The expression than whom seems +to be used universally instead of "than _who_." There is no special +reason for this, but such is the fact; for example,-- + + One I remember especially,--one _than whom_ I never met a bandit + more gallant.--THACKERAY. + + The camp of Richard of England, _than whom_ none knows better how + to do honor to a noble foe.--SCOTT. + + She had a companion who had been ever agreeable, and her estate a + steward _than whom_ no one living was supposed to be more + competent.--PARTON. + + +[Sidenote: "_It was_ he" _or_ "_It was_ him"?] + +402. And there is one question about which grammarians are not +agreed, namely, whether the nominative or the objective form should be +used in the predicate after _was_, _is_, _are_, and the other forms of +the verb _be_. + +It may be stated with assurance that the literary language _prefers +the nominative_ in this instance, as,-- + + For there was little doubt that it was _he_.--KINGSLEY. + + But still it is not _she_.--MACAULAY. + + And it was _he_ + That made the ship to go. + --COLERIDGE. + +In spoken English, on the other hand, both in England and America, the +objective form is regularly found, unless a special, careful effort is +made to adopt the standard usage. The following are examples of spoken +English from conversations:-- + + "Rose Satterne, the mayor's daughter?"--"That's + _her_."--KINGSLEY. + + "Who's there?"--"_Me_, Patrick the Porter."--WINTHROP. + + "If there is any one embarrassed, it will not be _me_."--WM. + BLACK. + +The usage is too common to need further examples. + + +Exercise. + +Correct the italicized pronouns in the following sentences, giving +reasons from the analysis of the sentence:-- + +1. _Whom_ they were I really cannot specify. + +2. Truth is mightier than _us_ all. + +3. If there ever was a rogue in the world, it is _me_. + +4. They were the very two individuals _whom_ we thought were far away. + +5. "Seems to me as if _them_ as writes must hev a kinder gift fur it, +now." + +6. The sign of the Good Samaritan is written on the face of +_whomsoever_ opens to the stranger. + +7. It is not _me_ you are in love with. + +8. You know _whom_ it is that you thus charge. + +9. The same affinity will exert its influence on _whomsoever_ is as +noble as these men and women. + +10. It was _him_ that Horace Walpole called a man who never made a bad +figure but as an author. + +11. We shall soon see which is the fittest object of scorn, you or +_me_. + + +[Sidenote: Me _in exclamations_.] + +403. It is to be remembered that the objective form is used in +exclamations which turn the attention upon a person; as,-- + + Unhappy _me!_ That I cannot risk my own worthless life.--KINGSLEY + + Alas! miserable _me_! Alas! unhappy Seors!--_Id._ + + Ay _me_! I fondly dream--had ye been there.--MILTON. + + +[Sidenote: Nominative for the objective.] + +404. The rule for the objective form is wrongly departed from-- + +(1) When the object is far removed from the verb, verbal, or +preposition which governs it; as, "_He_ that can doubt whether he be +anything or no, I speak not to" (_he_ should be _him_, the object of +_to_); "I saw men very like him at each of the places mentioned, but +not _he_" (_he_ should be _him_, object of _saw_). + +(2) In the case of certain pairs of pronouns, used after verbs, +verbals, and prepositions, as this from Shakespeare, "All debts are +cleared between you and I" (for _you_ and _me_); or this, "Let _thou_ +and _I_ the battle try" (for _thee_ and _me_, or _us_). + +(3) By forgetting the construction, in the case of words used in +apposition with the object; as, "Ask the murderer, _he_ who has +steeped his hands in the blood of another" (instead of "_him_ who," +the word being in apposition with _murderer_). + + +[Sidenote: _Exception 1_, who _interrogative_.] + +405. The interrogative pronoun who may be said to have no +objective form in spoken English. We regularly say, "_Who_ did you +see?" or, "_Who_ were they talking to?" etc. The more formal "To +_whom_ were they talking?" sounds stilted in conversation, and is +usually avoided. + +In literary English the objective form _whom_ is _preferred_ for +objective use; as,-- + + Knows he now to _whom_ he lies under obligation?--SCOTT. + + What doth she look on? _Whom_ doth she behold?--WORDSWORTH. + +Yet the nominative form is found quite frequently to divide the work +of the objective use; for example,-- + + My son is going to be married to I don't know _who_.--GOLDSMITH. + + _Who_ have we here?--_Id._ + + _Who_ should I meet the other day but my old friend.--STEELE. + + He hath given away half his fortune to the Lord knows + _who_.--KINGSLEY. + + _Who_ have we got here?--SMOLLETT. + + _Who_ should we find there but Eustache?--MARRVAT. + + _Who_ the devil is he talking to?--SHERIDAN. + + +[Sidenote: _Exception 2, but_ he, _etc._] + +406. It is a well-established usage to put the nominative form, as +well as the objective, after the preposition _but_ (sometimes _save_); +as,-- + + All were knocked down but _us_ two.--KINGSLEY. + + Thy shores are empires, changed in all save _thee._--BYRON. + + Rich are the sea gods:--who gives gifts but _they?_--EMERSON. + + The Chieftains then + Returned rejoicing, all but _he_. + --SOUTHEY + + No man strikes him but _I_.--KINGSLEY. + + None, save _thou_ and thine, I've sworn, + Shall be left upon the morn. + +BYRON. + + +Exercise. + +Correct the italicized pronouns in the following, giving reasons from +the analysis of the quotation:-- + +1. _Thou_, Nature, partial Nature, I arraign. + +2. Let you and _I_ look at these, for they say there are none such in +the world. + +3. "Nonsense!" said Amyas, "we could kill every soul of them in half +an hour, and they know that as well as _me_." + +4. Markland, _who_, with Jortin and Thirlby, Johnson calls three +contemporaries of great eminence. + +5. They are coming for a visit to _she_ and _I_. + +6. They crowned him long ago; + But _who_ they got to put it on + Nobody seems to know. + +7. I experienced little difficulty in distinguishing among the +pedestrians _they_ who had business with St. Bartholomew. + +8. The great difference lies between the laborer who moves to +Yorkshire and _he_ who moves to Canada. + +9. Besides my father and Uncle Haddock--_he_ of the silver plates. + +10. _Ye_ against whose familiar names not yet + The fatal asterisk of death is set, + _Ye_ I salute. + +11. It can't be worth much to _they_ that hasn't larning. + +12. To send me away for a whole year--_I_ who had never crept from +under the parental wing--was a startling idea. + + + +II. POSSESSIVE FORMS. + + +[Sidenote: _As antecedent of a relative._] + +407. The possessive forms of personal pronouns and also of nouns are +sometimes found as antecedents of relatives. This usage is not +frequent. The antecedent is usually nominative or objective, as the +use of the possessive is less likely to be clear. + + We should augur ill of any _gentleman's_ property to whom this + happened every other day in his drawing room.--RUSKIN. + + For _their_ sakes whose distance disabled them from knowing + me.--C.B. BROWN. + + Now by _His_ name that I most reverence in Heaven, and by _hers_ + whom I most worship on earth.--SCOTT. + + He saw her smile and slip money into the _man's_ hand who was + ordered to ride behind the coach.--THACKERAY. + + He doubted whether _his_ signature whose expectations were so + much more bounded would avail.--DE QUINCEY. + + For boys with hearts as bold + As _his_ who kept the bridge so well. + --MACAULAY. + + +[Sidenote: _Preceding a gerund,--possessive, or objective?_] + +408. Another point on which there is some variance in usage is such +a construction as this: "We heard of _Brown_ studying law," or "We +heard of _Brown's_ studying law." + +That is, should the possessive case of a noun or pronoun always be +used with the gerund to indicate the active agent? Closely +scrutinizing these two sentences quoted, we might find a difference +between them: saying that in the first one _studying_ is a participle, +and the meaning is, _We heard of Brown_, [who was] _studying law_; and +that in the second, _studying_ is a gerund, object of _heard of_, and +modified by the possessive case as any other substantive would be. + +[Sidenote: _Why both are found._] + +But in common use there is no such distinction. Both types of +sentences are found; both are gerunds; sometimes the gerund has the +possessive form before it, sometimes it has the objective. The use of +the objective is older, and in keeping with the old way of regarding +the _person_ as the chief object before the mind: the possessive use +is more modern, in keeping with the disposition to proceed from the +material thing to the _abstract idea_, and to make the action +substantive the chief idea before the mind. + +In the examples quoted, it will be noticed that the possessive of the +pronoun is more common than that of the noun. + +[Sidenote: _Objective_.] + + The last incident which I recollect, was my learned and worthy + _patron_ falling from a chair.--SCOTT. + + He spoke of _some one_ coming to drink tea with him, and asked + why it was not made.--THACKERAY. + + The old sexton even expressed a doubt as to _Shakespeare_ having + been born in her house.--IRVING. + + The fact of the _Romans_ not burying their dead within the city + walls proper is a strong reason, etc.--BREWER. + + I remember _Wordsworth_ once laughingly reporting to me a little + personal anecdote.--DE QUINCEY. + + Here I state them only in brief, to prevent the _reader_ casting + about in alarm for my ultimate meaning.--RUSKIN. + + We think with far less pleasure of _Cato_ tearing out his + entrails than of _Russell_ saying, as he turned away from his + wife, that the bitterness of death was past.--MACAULAY. + + There is actually a kind of sacredness in the fact of such a + _man_ being sent into this earth.--CARLYLE. + +[Sidenote: _Possessive_.] + + There is no use for any _man's_ taking up his abode in a house + built of glass.--CARLYLE. + + As to _his_ having good grounds on which to rest an action for + life.--DICKENS. + + The case was made known to me by a _man's_ holding out the + little creature dead.--DE QUINCEY. + + There may be reason for a _savage's_ preferring many kinds of + food which the civilized man rejects.--THOREAU. + + It informs me of the previous circumstances of _my_ laying aside + my clothes.--C. BROCKDEN BROWN. + + The two strangers gave me an account of _their_ once having been + themselves in a somewhat similar condition.--AUDUBON. + + There was a chance of _their_ being sent to a new school, where + there were examinations.--RUSKIN + + This can only be by _his_ preferring truth to his past + apprehension of truth.--EMERSON + + + +III. PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND THEIR ANTECEDENTS. + +409. The pronouns of the third person usually refer back to some +preceding noun or pronoun, and ought to agree with them in person, +number, and gender. + +[Sidenote: _Watch for the real antecedent._] + +There are two constructions in which the student will need to watch +the pronoun,--when the antecedent, in one person, is followed by a +phrase containing a pronoun of a different person; and when the +antecedent is of such a form that the pronoun following cannot +indicate exactly the gender. Examples of these constructions are,-- + + _Those_ of us who can only maintain _themselves_ by continuing in + some business or salaried office.--RUSKIN. + + Suppose the life and fortune of _every one_ of us would depend on + _his_ winning or losing a game of chess.--HUXLEY. + + If _any one_ did not know it, it was _his_ own fault.--CABLE. + + _Everybody_ had _his_ own life to think of.--DEFOE. + +410. In such a case as the last three sentences,--when the +antecedent includes both masculine and feminine, or is a distributive +word, taking in each of many persons,--the preferred method is to put +the pronoun following in the masculine singular; if the antecedent is +neuter, preceded by a distributive, the pronoun will be neuter +singular. + +The following are additional examples:-- + + The next _correspondent_ wants you to mark out a whole course of + life for _him_.--HOLMES. + + Every _city_ threw open _its_ gates.--DE QUINCEY. + + Every _person_ who turns this page has _his_ own little + diary.--THACKERAY. + + The pale realms of shade, where _each_ shall take + _His_ chamber in the silent halls of death. + --BRYANT. + +[Sidenote: _Avoided: By using both pronouns._] + +Sometimes this is avoided by using both the masculine and the feminine +pronoun; for example,-- + + Not the feeblest _grandame_, not a mowing _idiot_, but uses what + spark of perception and faculty is left, to chuckle and triumph + in _his or her_ opinion.--EMERSON. + + It is a game which has been played for untold ages, every _man_ + and _woman_ of us being one of the two players in a game of _his + or her_ own.--HUXLEY. + +_By using the plural pronoun._ + +411. Another way of referring to an antecedent which is a +distributive pronoun or a noun modified by a distributive adjective, +is to use the plural of the pronoun following. This is not considered +the best usage, the logical analysis requiring the singular pronoun in +each case; but the construction is frequently found _when the +antecedent includes or implies both genders_. The masculine does not +really represent a feminine antecedent, and the expression _his or +her_ is avoided as being cumbrous. + +Notice the following examples of the plural:-- + + _Neither_ of the sisters _were_ very much deceived.--THACKERAY. + + _Every one_ must judge of _their_ own feelings.--BYRON. + + Had the doctor been contented to take my dining tables, as + _anybody_ in _their_ senses would have done.--AUSTEN. + + If the part deserve any comment, every considering _Christian_ + will make it _themselves_ as they go.--DEFOE. + + _Every person's_ happiness depends in part upon the respect + _they_ meet in the world.--PALEY. + + _Every nation_ have _their_ refinements--STERNE. + + _Neither_ gave vent to _their_ feelings in words.--SCOTT. + + _Each_ of the nations acted according to _their_ national + custom.--PALGRAVE. + + The sun, which pleases _everybody_ with it and with + _themselves_.--RUSKIN. + + Urging _every one_ within reach of your influence to be neat, and + giving _them_ means of being so.--_Id._ + + _Everybody_ will become of use in _their_ own fittest way.--_Id._ + + _Everybody_ said _they_ thought it was the newest thing + there.--WENDELL PHILLIPS. + + Struggling for life, _each_ almost bursting _their_ sinews to + force the other off.--PAULDING. + + _Whosoever_ hath any gold, let _them_ break it off.--_Bible._ + + _Nobody_ knows what it is to lose a friend, till _they_ have lost + him.--FIELDING. + + Where she was gone, or what was become of her, _no one_ could + take upon _them_ to say.--SHERIDAN. + + I do not mean that I think _any one_ to blame for taking due care + of _their_ health.--ADDISON. + + +Exercise.--In the above sentences, _unless both genders are +implied_, change the pronoun to agree with its antecedent. + + +RELATIVE PRONOUNS. + +I. RESTRICTIVE AND UNRESTRICTIVE RELATIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _What these terms mean._] + +412. As to their conjunctive use, the definite relatives who, +which, and that may be cordinating or restrictive. + +A relative, when cordinating, or unrestrictive, is equivalent to a +conjunction (_and_, _but_, _because_, etc.) and a personal pronoun. +It adds a new statement to what precedes, that being considered +already clear; as, "I gave it to the beggar, _who_ went away." This +means, "I gave it to the beggar [we know which one], _and he_ went +away." + +A relative, when restrictive, introduces a clause to limit and make +clear some preceding word. The clause is restricted to the antecedent, +and does not add a new statement; it merely couples a thought +necessary to define the antecedent: as, "I gave it to a beggar _who_ +stood at the gate." It defines _beggar_. + + +413. It is sometimes contended that who and which should always +be cordinating, and that always restrictive; but, according to the +practice of every modern writer, the usage must be stated as +follows:-- + +[Sidenote: _A loose rule the only one to be formulated._] + +Who and which are either cordinating or restrictive, the taste of +the writer and regard for euphony being the guide. + +That is in most cases restrictive, the cordinating use not being +often found among careful writers. + + +Exercise. + +In the following examples, tell whether _who_, _which_, and _that_ are +restrictive or not, in each instance:-- + +[Sidenote: Who.] + + 1. "Here he is now!" cried those who stood near + Ernest.--HAWTHORNE. + + 2. He could overhear the remarks of various individuals, who were + comparing the features with the face on the mountain side.--_Id._ + + 3. The particular recording angel who heard it pretended not to + understand, or it might have gone hard with the tutor.--HOLMES. + + 4. Yet how many are there who up, down, and over England are + saying, etc.--H.W. BEECHER + + 5. A grizzly-looking man appeared, whom we took to be sixty or + seventy years old.--THOREAU. + +[Sidenote: Which.] + + 6. The volume which I am just about terminating is almost as much + English history as Dutch.--MOTLEY. + + 7. On hearing their plan, which was to go over the Cordilleras, + she agreed to join the party.--DE QUINCEY. + + 8. Even the wild story of the incident which had immediately + occasioned the explosion of this madness fell in with the + universal prostration of mind.--_Id._ + + 9. Their colloquies are all gone to the fire except this first, + which Mr. Hare has printed.--CARLYLE. + + 10. There is a particular science which takes these matters in + hand, and it is called logic.--NEWMAN. + +[Sidenote: That.] + + 11. So different from the wild, hard-mouthed horses at Westport, + that were often vicious.--DE QUINCEY. + + 12. He was often tempted to pluck the flowers that rose + everywhere about him in the greatest variety.--ADDISON. + + 13. He felt a gale of perfumes breathing upon him, that grew + stronger and sweeter in proportion as he advanced.--_Id._ + + 14. With narrow shoulders, long arms and legs, hands that dangled + a mile out of his sleeves.--IRVING. + + + +II. RELATIVE AND ANTECEDENT. + + +[Sidenote: _The rule._] + +414. The general rule is, that the relative pronoun agrees with its +antecedent in person and number. + +[Sidenote: _In what sense true._] + +This cannot be true as to the form of the pronoun, as that does not +vary for person or number. We say _I_, _you_, _he_, _they_, etc., +_who_; _these_ or _that_ _which_, etc. However, the relative _carries +over_ the agreement from the antecedent before to the verb following, +so far as the verb has forms to show its agreement with a substantive. +For example, in the sentence, "He that writes to himself writes to an +eternal public," _that_ is invariable as to person and number, but, +because of its antecedent, it makes the verb third person singular. + +Notice the agreement in the following sentences:-- + + There is not _one_ of the company, but _myself_, who rarely + _speak_ at all, but _speaks_ of him as that sort, etc.--ADDISON. + + O _Time!_ who _know'st_ a lenient hand to lay Softest on sorrow's + wound.--BOWLES. + + Let us be of good cheer, remembering that the misfortunes hardest + to bear are _those_ which never _come._--LOWELL. + + +[Sidenote: _A disputed point._] + +415. This prepares the way for the consideration of one of the vexed +questions,--whether we should say, "one of the finest books that _has_ +been published," or, "one of the finest books that _have_ been +published." + +[Sidenote: One of ... [_plural_] that who, _or_ which ... [_singular +or plural_.]] + + The pale realms of shade, where _each_ shall take + _His_ chamber in the silent halls of death. + --BRYANT. + +Both constructions are frequently found, the reason being a difference +of opinion as to the antecedent. Some consider it to be _one_ [book] +_of the finest books_, with _one_ as the principal word, the true +antecedent; others regard _books_ as the antecedent, and write the +verb in the plural. The latter is rather more frequent, but the former +has good authority. + +The following quotations show both sides:-- + +[Sidenote: _Plural._] + + He was one of the very few commanders who _appear_ to have shown + equal skill in directing a campaign, in winning a battle, and in + improving a victory.--LECKY. + + He was one of the most distinguished scientists who _have_ ever + lived.--J.T.MORSE, Jr., _Franklin._ + + It is one of those periods which _shine_ with an unnatural and + delusive splendor.--MACAULAY. + + A very little encouragement brought back one of those overflows + which _make_ one more ashamed, etc.--HOLMES. + + I am one of those who _believe_ that the real will never find an + irremovable basis till it rests on the ideal.--LOWELL. + + French literature of the eighteenth century, one of the most + powerful agencies that _have_ ever existed.--M. ARNOLD. + + What man's life is not overtaken by one or more of those + tornadoes that _send_ us out of our course?--THACKERAY. + + He is one of those that _deserve_ very well.--ADDISON. + +[Sidenote: _Singular._] + + The fiery youth ... struck down one of those who _was_ pressing + hardest.--SCOTT. + + He appeared to me one of the noblest creatures that ever _was_, + when he derided the shams of society.--HOWELLS. + + A rare Roundabout performance,--one of the very best that _has_ + ever appeared in this series.--THACKERAY. + + Valancourt was the hero of one of the most famous romances which + ever _was_ published in this country.--_Id._ + + It is one of the errors which _has_ been diligently propagated by + designing writers.--IRVING. + + "I am going to breakfast with one of these fellows who _is_ at + the Piazza Hotel."--DICKENS. + + The "Economy of the Animal Kingdom" is one of those books which + _is_ an honor to the human race.--EMERSON. + + Tom Puzzle is one of the most eminent immethodical disputants of + any that _has_ fallen under my observation.--ADDISON. + + The richly canopied monument of one of the most earnest souls + that ever gave _itself_ to the arts.--RUSKIN. + + +III. OMISSION OF THE RELATIVE. + +416. Although the omission of the relative is common when it would +be the object of the verb or preposition _expressed_, there is an +omission which is not frequently found in careful writers; that is, +when the relative word is a pronoun, object of a preposition +_understood_, or is equivalent to the conjunction _when_, _where_, +_whence_, and such like: as, "He returned by the same route [by which] +he came;" "India is the place [in which, or where] he died." Notice +these sentences:-- + + In the posture I lay, I could see nothing except the sky.--SWIFT. + + This is he that should marshal us the way we were + going.--EMERSON. + + But I by backward steps would move; + And, when this dust falls to the urn, + In that same state I came, return.--VAUGHAN. + + Welcome the hour my aged limbs + Are laid with thee to rest.--BURNS. + + The night was concluded in the manner we began the + morning.--GOLDSMITH. + + The same day I went aboard we set sail.--DEFOE. + + The vulgar historian of a Cromwell fancies that he had determined + on being Protector of England, at the time he was plowing the + marsh lands of Cambridgeshire.--CARLYLE. + + To pass under the canvas in the manner he had entered required + time and attention.--SCOTT. + + +Exercise.--In the above sentences, insert the omitted conjunction or +phrase, and see if the sentence is made clearer. + + + +IV. THE RELATIVE _AS_ AFTER _SAME_. + +417. It is very rarely that we find such sentences as,-- + + He considered...me as his apprentice, and accordingly expected + the same service from me _as_ he would from another.--FRANKLIN. + + This has the same effect in natural faults _as_ maiming and + mutilation produce from accidents.--BURKE. + +[Sidenote: _The regular construction_.] + +[Sidenote: _Caution_.] + +The usual way is to use the relative _as_ after _same_ if no verb +follows _as;_ but, if _same_ is followed by a complete clause, _as_ is +not used, but we find the relative _who, which,_ or _that_. Remember +this applies only to _as_ when used as a relative. + +Examples of the use of _as_ in a contracted clause:-- + + Looking to the same end _as_ Turner, and working in the same + spirit, he, with Turner, was a discoverer, etc.--R.W. CHURCH. + + They believe the same of all the works of art, _as_ of knives, + boats, looking-glasses.--ADDISON. + +Examples of relatives following _same_ in full clauses:-- + +[Sidenote: Who.] + + This is the very same rogue _who_ sold us the spectacles. + --GOLDSMITH. + + The same person _who_ had clapped his thrilling hands at the + first representation of the Tempest.--MACAULAY. + +[Sidenote: That.] + + I rubbed on some of the same ointment _that_ was given me at my + first arrival.--SWIFT. + +[Sidenote: Which.] + + For the same sound is in my ears + _Which_ in those days I heard.--WORDSWORTH. + + With the same minuteness _which_ her predecessor had exhibited, + she passed the lamp over her face and person.--SCOTT. + + + +V. MISUSE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Anacoluthic use of_ which.] + +418. There is now and then found in the pages of literature a +construction which imitates the Latin, but which is usually carefully +avoided. It is a use of the relative _which_ so as to make an +anacoluthon, or lack of proper connection between the clauses; for +example,-- + + _Which_, if I had resolved to go on with, I might as well have + staid at home.--DEFOE + + _Which_ if he attempted to do, Mr. Billings vowed that he would + follow him to Jerusalem.--THACKERAY. + + We know not the incantation of the heart that would wake + them;--_which_ if they once heard, they would start up to meet us + in the power of long ago.--RUSKIN. + + He delivered the letter, _which_ when Mr. Thornhill had read, he + said that all submission was now too late.--GOLDSMITH. + + But still the house affairs would draw her thence; + _Which_ ever as she could with haste dispatch, + She'd come again.--SHAKESPEARE. + +As the sentences stand, _which_ really has no office in the sentence: +it should be changed to a demonstrative or a personal pronoun, and +this be placed in the proper clause. + +Exercise.--Rewrite the above five sentences so as to make the proper +grammatical connection in each. + + +[Sidenote: And who, and which, _etc._] + +419. There is another kind of expression which slips into the lines +of even standard authors, but which is always regarded as an oversight +and a blemish. + +The following sentence affords an example: "The rich are now engaged +in distributing what remains among the poorer sort, _and who_ are now +thrown upon their compassion." The trouble is that such conjunctions +as _and_, _but_, _or_, etc., should connect expressions of the same +kind: _and who_ makes us look for a preceding _who_, but none is +expressed. There are three ways to remedy the sentence quoted: thus, +(1) "Among those _who_ are poor, _and who_ are now," etc.; (2) "Among +the poorer sort, _who_ are now thrown," etc.; (3) "Among the poorer +sort, now thrown upon their," etc. That is,-- + +[Sidenote: _Direction for rewriting._] + +Express both relatives, or omit the conjunction, or leave out both +connective and relative. + +Exercise. + +Rewrite the following examples according to the direction just +given:-- + +[Sidenote: And who.] + + 1. Hester bestowed all her means on wretches less miserable than + herself, and who not unfrequently insulted the hand that fed + them.--HAWTHORNE. + + 2. With an albatross perched on his shoulder, and who might be + introduced to the congregation as the immediate organ of his + conversion.--DE QUINCEY. + + 3. After this came Elizabeth herself, then in the full glow of + what in a sovereign was called beauty, and who would in the + lowest walk of life have been truly judged to possess a noble + figure.--SCOTT. + + 4. This was a gentleman, once a great favorite of M. le Conte, + and in whom I myself was not a little interested.--THACKERAY. + +[Sidenote: But who.] + + 5. Yonder woman was the wife of a certain learned man, English by + name, but who had long dwelt in Amsterdam.--HAWTHORNE. + + 6. Dr. Ferguson considered him as a man of a powerful capacity, + but whose mind was thrown off its just bias.--SCOTT. + +[Sidenote: Or who.] + + 7. "What knight so craven, then," exclaims the chivalrous + Venetian, "that he would not have been more than a match for the + stoutest adversary; or who would not have lost his life a + thousand times sooner than return dishonored by the lady of his + love?"--PRESCOTT. + +[Sidenote: And which.] + + 8. There are peculiar quavers still to be heard in that church, + and which may even be heard a mile off.--IRVING. + + 9. The old British tongue was replaced by a debased Latin, like + that spoken in the towns, and in which inscriptions are found in + the western counties.--PEARSON. + + 10. I shall have complete copies, one of signal interest, and + which has never been described.--MOTLEY. + +[Sidenote: But which.] + + 11. "A mockery, indeed, but in which the soul trifled with + itself!"--HAWTHORNE. + + 12. I saw upon the left a scene far different, but which yet the + power of dreams had reconciled into harmony.--DE QUINCEY. + +[Sidenote: Or which.] + + 13. He accounted the fair-spoken courtesy, which the Scotch had + learned, either from imitation of their frequent allies, the + French, or which might have arisen from their own proud and + reserved character, as a false and astucious mark, etc.--SCOTT. + + +[Sidenote: That ... and which, _etc._] + +420. Akin to the above is another fault, which is likewise a +variation from the best usage. Two different relatives are sometimes +found referring back to the same antecedent in one sentence; whereas +the better practice is to choose one relative, and repeat this for any +further reference. + + +Exercise. + +Rewrite the following quotations by repeating one relative instead of +using two for the same antecedent:-- + +[Sidenote: That ... who.] + + 1. Still in the confidence of children that tread without fear + every chamber in their father's house, and to whom no door is + closed.--DE QUINCEY. + + 2. Those renowned men that were our ancestors as much as yours, + and whose examples and principles we inherit.--BEECHER. + + 3. The Tree Igdrasil, that has its roots down in the kingdoms + of Hela and Death, and whose boughs overspread the highest + heaven!--CARLYLE. + +[Sidenote: That ... which.] + + 4. Christianity is a religion that reveals men as the object of + God's infinite love, and which commends him to the unbounded love + of his brethren.--W.E. CHANNING. + + 5. He flung into literature, in his Mephistopheles, the first + organic figure that has been added for some ages, and which will + remain as long as the Prometheus.--EMERSON. + + 6. Gutenburg might also have struck out an idea that surely did + not require any extraordinary ingenuity, and which left the most + important difficulties to be surmounted.--HALLAM. + + 7. Do me the justice to tell me what I have a title to be + acquainted with, and which I am certain to know more truly from + you than from others.--SCOTT. + + 8. He will do this amiable little service out of what one may + say old civilization has established in place of goodness of + heart, but which is perhaps not so different from it.--HOWELLS. + + 9. In my native town of Salem, at the head of what, half a + century ago, was a bustling wharf,--but which is now burdened + with decayed wooden warehouses.--HAWTHORNE. + + 10. His recollection of what he considered as extreme + presumption in the Knight of the Leopard, even when he stood high + in the roles of chivalry, but which, in his present condition, + appeared an insult sufficient to drive the fiery monarch into a + frenzy of passion.--SCOTT + +[Sidenote: That which ... what.] + + 11. He, now without any effort but that which he derived from the + sill, and what little his feet could secure the irregular + crevices, was hung in air.--W.G. SIMMS. + +[Sidenote: Such as ... which.] + + 12. It rose into a thrilling passion, such as my heart had always + dimly craved and hungered after, but which now first interpreted + itself to my ear.--DE QUINCEY. + + 13. I recommend some honest manual calling, such as they have + very probably been bred to, and which will at least give them a + chance of becoming President.--HOLMES. + +[Sidenote: Such as ... whom.] + + 14. I grudge the dollar, the dime, the cent, I give to such men + as do not belong to me, and to whom I do not belong.--EMERSON. + +[Sidenote: Which ... that ... that.] + + 15. That evil influence which carried me first away from my + father's house, that hurried me into the wild and undigested + notion of making my fortune, and that impressed these conceits so + forcibly upon me.--DEFOE. + + + +ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. + +[Sidenote: Each other, one another.] + +421. The student is sometimes troubled whether to use each other +or one another in expressing reciprocal relation or action. Whether +either one refers to a certain number of persons or objects, whether +or not the two are equivalent, may be gathered from a study of the +following sentences:-- + + They [Ernest and the poet] led _one another_, as it were, into + the high pavilion of their thoughts.--HAWTHORNE. + + Men take _each other's_ measure when they meet for the first + time.--EMERSON. + + You ruffian! do you fancy I forget that we were fond of _each + other_?--THACKERAY. + + England was then divided between kings and Druids, always at war + with _one another_, carrying off _each other's_ cattle and + wives.--BREWER + + The topics follow _each other_ in the happiest order.--MACAULAY. + + The Peers at a conference begin to pommel _each other_.--_Id._ + + We call ourselves a rich nation, and we are filthy and foolish + enough to thumb _each other's_ books out of circulating + libraries.--RUSKIN. + + The real hardships of life are now coming fast upon us; let us + not increase them by dissension among _each other_.--GOLDSMITH. + + In a moment we were all shaking hands with _one + another_.--DICKENS. + + The unjust purchaser forces the two to bid against _each + other._--RUSKIN. + + +[Sidenote: _Distributives_ either _and_ neither.] + +422. By their original meaning, either and neither refer to only +two persons or objects; as, for example,-- + + Some one must be poor, and in want of his gold--or his corn. + Assume that no one is in want of _either_.--RUSKIN + + Their [Ernest's and the poet's] minds accorded into one strain, + and made delightful music which _neither_ could have claimed as + all his own.--HAWTHORNE. + +[Sidenote: _Use of_ any.] + +Sometimes these are made to refer to several objects, in which case +any should be used instead; as,-- + + Was it the winter's storm? was it hard labor and spare meals? was + it disease? was it the tomahawk? Is it possible that _neither_ of + these causes, that not all combined, were able to blast this bud + of hope?--EVERETT. + + Once I took such delight in Montaigne ...; before that, in + Shakespeare; then in Plutarch; then in Plotinus; at one time in + Bacon; afterwards in Goethe; even in Bettine; but now I turn the + pages of _either_ of them languidly, whilst I still cherish their + genius.--EMERSON. + + +[Sidenote: Any _usually plural_.] + +423. The adjective pronoun any is nearly always regarded as +plural, as shown in the following sentences:-- + + If _any_ of you _have_ been accustomed to look upon these hours + as mere visionary hours, I beseech you, etc.--BEECHER + + Whenever, during his stay at Yuste, _any_ of his friends had + died, he had been punctual in doing honor to _their_ + memory.--STIRLING. + + But I enjoy the company and conversation of its inhabitants, when + _any_ of them _are_ so good as to visit me.--FRANKLIN. + + Do you think, when I spoke anon of the ghosts of Pryor's + children, I mean that _any_ of them _are_ dead?--THACKERAY. + +In earlier Modern English, _any_ was often singular; as,-- + + If _any_, speak; for _him_ have I offended.--SHAKESPEARE. + + If _any_ of you lack wisdom, let _him_ ask of God.--_Bible_. + +Very rarely the singular is met with in later times; as,-- + + Here is a poet doubtless as much affected by his own descriptions + as _any_ that _reads_ them can be.--BURKE. + +[Sidenote: _Caution_.] + +The above instances are to be distinguished from the adjective _any_, +which is plural as often as singular. + + +[Sidenote: None _usually plural_.] + +424. The adjective pronoun none is, in the prose of the present +day, usually plural, although it is historically a contraction of _ne +an_ (not one). Examples of its use are,-- + + In earnest, if ever man was; as _none_ of the French philosophers + _were_.--CARLYLE. + + _None_ of Nature's powers _do_ better service.--PROF. DANA + + One man answers some question which _none_ of his contemporaries + _put_, and is isolated.--EMERSON. + + _None obey_ the command of duty so well as those who are free + from the observance of slavish bondage.--SCOTT. + + Do you think, when I spoke anon of the ghosts of Pryor's + children, I mean that any of them are dead? _None are_, that I + know of.--THACKERAY. + + Early apples begin to be ripe about the first of August; but I + think _none_ of them _are_ so good to eat as some to + smell.--THOREAU. + +The singular use of _none_ is often found in the Bible; as,-- + + _None_ of them _was_ cleansed, saving Naaman the Syrian.--LUKE iv + 27 + +Also the singular is sometimes found in present-day English in prose, +and less rarely in poetry; for example,-- + + Perhaps _none_ of our Presidents since Washington _has_ stood so + firm in the confidence of the people.--LOWELL + + In signal _none his_ steed should spare.--SCOTT + +Like the use of _any_, the pronoun _none_ should be distinguished from +the adjective _none_, which is used absolutely, and hence is more +likely to confuse the student. + +Compare with the above the following sentences having the adjective +_none_:-- + + Reflecting a summer evening sky in its bosom, though _none_ [no + sky] was visible overhead.--THOREAU + + The holy fires were suffered to go out in the temples, and _none_ + [no fires] were lighted in their own dwellings.--PRESCOTT + + +[Sidenote: All _singular and plural_.] + +425. The pronoun all has the singular construction when it means +_everything_; the plural, when it means _all persons_: for example,-- + +[Sidenote: _Singular_.] + + The light troops thought ... that _all was_ lost.--PALGRAVE + + _All was_ won on the one side, and _all was_ lost on the + other.--BAYNE + + Having done _all_ that _was_ just toward others.--NAPIER + +[Sidenote: _Plural_.] + + But the King's treatment of the great lords will be judged + leniently by _all_ who _remember_, etc.--PEARSON. + + When _all were_ gone, fixing his eyes on the mace, etc.--LINGARD + + _All_ who did not understand French _were_ compelled, + etc.--McMASTER. + + +[Sidenote: Somebody's else, _or_ somebody else's?] + +426. The compounds somebody else, any one else, nobody else, etc., +are treated as units, and the apostrophe is regularly added to the +final word _else_ instead of the first. Thackeray has the expression +_somebody's else_, and Ford has _nobody's else_, but the regular usage +is shown in the following selections:-- + + A boy who is fond of _somebody else's_ pencil case.--G. ELIOT. + + A suit of clothes like _somebody else's_.--THACKERAY. + + Drawing off his gloves and warming his hands before the fire as + benevolently as if they were _somebody else's_.--DICKENS. + + Certainly not! nor _any one else's_ ropes.--RUSKIN. + + Again, my pronunciation--like _everyone else's_--is in some cases + more archaic.--SWEET. + + Then everybody wanted some of _somebody else's_.--RUSKIN. + + His hair...curled once all over it in long tendrils, unlike + _anybody else's_ in the world.--N.P. WILLIS. + + "Ye see, there ain't nothin' wakes folks up like _somebody + else's_ wantin' what you've got."--MRS. STOWE. + + + + +ADJECTIVES. + + +AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES WITH NOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: These sort, all manner of, _etc._] + +427. The statement that adjectives agree with their nouns in number +is restricted to the words this and that (with these and +those), as these are the only adjectives that have separate forms +for singular and plural; and it is only in one set of expressions that +the concord seems to be violated,--in such as "_these sort_ of books," +"_those kind_ of trees," "_all manner_ of men;" the nouns being +singular, the adjectives plural. These expressions are all but +universal in spoken English, and may be found not infrequently in +literary English; for example,-- + + _These kind_ of knaves I know, which in this plainness + Harbor more craft, etc.--SHAKESPEARE + + All _these sort_ of things.--SHERIDAN. + + I hoped we had done with _those sort_ of things.--MULOCH. + + You have been so used to _those sort_ of impertinences.--SYDNEY + SMITH. + + Whitefield or Wesley, or some other such great man as a bishop, + or _those sort_ of people.--FIELDING. + + I always delight in overthrowing _those kind_ of + schemes.--AUSTEN. + + There are women as well as men who can thoroughly enjoy _those + sort_ of romantic spots.--_Saturday Review_, London. + + The library was open, with _all manner_ of amusing + books.--RUSKIN. + +According to the approved usage of Modern English, each one of the +above adjectives would have to be changed to the singular, or the +nouns to the plural. + +[Sidenote: _History of this construction._] + +The reason for the prevalence of these expressions must be sought in +the history of the language: it cannot be found in the statement that +the adjective is made plural by the attraction of a noun following. + +[Sidenote: _At the source._] + +In Old and Middle English, in keeping with the custom of looking at +things concretely rather than in the abstract, they said, not "all +_kinds_ of wild animals," but "alles cunnes wilde deor" (wild animals +of-every-kind). This the modern expression reverses. + +[Sidenote: _Later form._] + +But in early Middle English the modern way of regarding such +expressions also appeared, gradually displacing the old. + +[Sidenote: _The result._] + +Consequently we have a confused expression. We keep the form of +logical agreement in standard English, such as, "_This sort_ of trees +should be planted;" but at the same time the noun following _kind of_ +is felt to be the real subject, and the adjective is, in spoken +English, made to agree with it, which accounts for the construction, +"_These kind of_ trees are best." + +[Sidenote: _A question._] + +The inconvenience of the logical construction is seen when we wish to +use a predicate with number forms. Should we say, "This kind of rules +_are_ the best," or "This kind of rules _is_ the best?" _Kind_ or +_sort_ may be treated as a collective noun, and in this way may take a +plural verb; for example, Burke's sentence, "A _sort_ of uncertain +sounds _are_, when the necessary dispositions concur, more alarming +than a total silence." + + + +COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS. + + +[Sidenote: _Use of the comparative degree._] + +428. The comparative degree of the adjective (or adverb) is used +when we wish to compare two objects or sets of objects, or one object +with a class of objects, to express a higher degree of quality; as,-- + + Which is _the better_ able to defend himself,--a strong man with + nothing but his fists, or a paralytic cripple encumbered with a + sword which he cannot lift?--MACAULAY. + + Of two such lessons, why forget + The _nobler_ and the _manlier_ one? + --BYRON. + + We may well doubt which has the _stronger_ claim to civilization, + the victor or the vanquished.--PRESCOTT. + + A _braver_ ne'er to battle rode.--SCOTT. + + He is _taller,_ by almost the breadth of my nail, than any of his + court.--SWIFT. + + +[Sidenote: Other _after the comparative form._] + +429. When an object is compared with the class to which it belongs, +it is regularly excluded from that class by the word _other_; if not, +the object would really be compared with itself: thus,-- + + The character of Lady Castlewood has required more delicacy in + its manipulation than perhaps any _other_ which Thackeray has + drawn.--TROLLOPE. + + I used to watch this patriarchal personage with livelier + curiosity than any _other_ form of humanity.--HAWTHORNE. + + +Exercise. + +See if the word _other_ should be inserted in the following +sentences:-- + + 1. There was no man who could make a more graceful bow than Mr. + Henry.--WIRT. + + 2. I am concerned to see that Mr. Gary, to whom Dante owes more + than ever poet owed to translator, has sanctioned, + etc.--MACAULAY. + + 3. There is no country in which wealth is so sensible of its + obligations as our own.--LOWELL. + + 4. This is more sincerely done in the Scandinavian than in any + mythology I know.--CARLYLE. + + 5. In "Thaddeus of Warsaw" there is more crying than in any novel + I remember to have read.--THACKERAY. + + 6. The heroes of another writer [Cooper] are quite the equals of + Scott's men; perhaps Leather-stocking is better than any one in + "Scott's lot."--_Id._ + + +[Sidenote: _Use of the superlative degree._] + +430. The superlative degree of the adjective (or adverb) is used +regularly in comparing more than two things, but is also frequently +used in comparing only two things. + +Examples of superlative with several objects:-- + + It is a case of which the _simplest_ statement is the + _strongest_.--MACAULAY. + + Even Dodd himself, who was one of the _greatest_ humbugs who ever + lived, would not have had the face.--THACKERAY. + + To the man who plays well, the _highest_ stakes are + paid.--HUXLEY. + +[Sidenote: _Superlative with two objects._] + +Compare the first three sentences in Sec. 428 with the following:-- + + Which do you love _best_ to behold, the lamb or the lion? + --THACKERAY. + + Which of these methods has the _best_ effect? Both of them are + the same to the sense, and differ only in form.--DR BLAIR. + + Rip was one of those ... who eat white bread or brown, whichever + can be got _easiest_.--IRVING. + + It is hard to say whether the man of wisdom or the man of folly + contributed _most_ to the amusement of the party.--SCOTT. + + There was an interval of three years between Mary and Anne. The + _eldest_, Mary, was like the Stuarts--the _younger_ was a fair + English child.--MRS. OLIPHANT. + + Of the two great parties which at this hour almost share the + nation between them, I should say that one has the _best_ cause, + and the other contains the _best_ men.--EMERSON. + + In all disputes between States, though the _strongest_ is nearly + always mainly in the wrong, the _weaker_ is often so in a minor + degree.--RUSKIN. + + She thought him and Olivia extremely of a size, and would bid + both to stand up to see which was the _tallest_.--GOLDSMITH. + + These two properties seem essential to wit, more particularly the + _last_ of them.--ADDISON. + + "Ha, ha, ha!" roared Goodman Brown when the wind laughed at him. + "Let us see which will laugh _loudest_."--HAWTHORNE. + + +[Sidenote: _Double comparative and superlative._] + +431. In Shakespeare's time it was quite common to use a double +comparative and superlative by using _more_ or _most_ before the word +already having _-er_ or _-est_. Examples from Shakespeare are,-- + + How much _more elder_ art thou than thy looks!--_Merchant of + Venice._ + + Nor that I am _more better_ than Prospero.--_Tempest._ + + Come you _more nearer_.--_Hamlet._ + + With the _most boldest_ and best hearts of Rome.--_J. Csar._ + +Also from the same period,-- + + Imitating the manner of the _most ancientest_ and _finest_ + Grecians.--BEN JONSON. + + After the _most straitest_ sect of our religion.--_Bible_, 1611. + +Such expressions are now heard only in vulgar English. The following +examples are used purposely, to represent the characters as ignorant +persons:-- + + The artful saddler persuaded the young traveler to look at "the + _most convenientest_ and _handsomest_ saddle that ever was + seen."--BULWER. + + "There's nothing comes out but the _most lowest_ stuff in nature; + not a bit of high life among them."--GOLDSMITH. + + +_THREE FIRST_ OR _FIRST THREE_? + +432. As to these two expressions, over which a little war has so +long been buzzing, we think it not necessary to say more than that +both are in good use; not only so in popular speech, but in literary +English. Instances of both are given below. + +The meaning intended is the same, and the reader gets the same idea +from both: hence there is properly a perfect liberty in the use of +either or both. + +[Sidenote: First three, _etc._] + + For Carlyle, and Secretary Walsingham also, have been helping + them heart and soul for the _last two_ years.--KINGSLEY. + + The delay in the _first three_ lines, and conceit in the last, + jar upon us constantly.--RUSKIN. + + The _last dozen_ miles before you reach the suburbs.--DE QUINCEY. + + Mankind for the _first seventy thousand_ ages ate their meat + raw.--LAMB. + + The _first twenty_ numbers were expressed by a corresponding + number of dots. The _first five_ had specific names.--PRESCOTT. + +[Sidenote: Three first, _etc._] + + These are the _three first_ needs of civilized life.--RUSKIN. + + He has already finished the _three first_ sticks of it.--ADDISON. + + In my _two last_ you had so much of Lismahago that I suppose you + are glad he is gone.--SMOLLETT. + + I have not numbered the lines except of the _four first_ books. + --COWPER. + + The _seven first_ centuries were filled with a succession of + triumphs.--GIBBON. + + + + +ARTICLES. + +[Sidenote: _Definite article_.] + +433. The definite article is repeated before each of two modifiers +of the same noun, when the purpose is to call attention to the noun +expressed and the one understood. In such a case two or more separate +objects are usually indicated by the separation of the modifiers. +Examples of this construction are,-- + +[Sidenote: _With a singular noun_.] + + The merit of _the Barb_, _the Spanish_, and _the English_ breed + is derived from a mixture of Arabian blood.--GIBBON. + + _The righteous_ man is distinguished from _the unrighteous_ by + his desire and hope of justice.--RUSKIN. + + He seemed deficient in sympathy for concrete human things either + on _the sunny_ or _the stormy_ side.--CARLYLE. + + It is difficult to imagine a greater contrast than that between + _the first_ and _the second_ part of the volume.--_The Nation_, + No. 1508. + +[Sidenote: _With a plural noun_.] + + There was also a fundamental difference of opinion as to whether + the earliest cleavage was between _the Northern_ and _the + Southern_ languages.--TAYLOR, _Origin of the Aryans_. + +434. The same repetition of the article is sometimes found before +nouns alone, to distinguish clearly, or to emphasize the meaning; +as,-- + + In every line of _the Philip_ and _the Saul_, the greatest poems, + I think, of the eighteenth century.--MACAULAY. + + He is master of the two-fold Logos, _the thought_ and _the word_, + distinct, but inseparable from each other.--NEWMAN. + + _The flowers_, and _the presents_, and _the trunks and bonnet + boxes_ ... having been arranged, the hour of parting + came.--THACKERAY. + +[Sidenote: The _not repeated. One object and several modifiers, with a +singular noun_.] + +435. Frequently, however, the article is not repeated before each of +two or more adjectives, as in Sec. 433, but is used with one only; +as,-- + + Or fanciest thou _the red and yellow_ Clothes-screen yonder is + but of To-day, without a Yesterday or a To-morrow?--CARLYLE. + + _The lofty_, _melodious_, _and flexible_ language.--SCOTT. + + _The fairest and most loving_ wife in Greece.--TENNYSON. + +[Sidenote: _Meaning same as in Sec. 433, with a plural noun_.] + + Neither can there be a much greater resemblance between _the + ancient and modern_ general views of the + town.--HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS. + + At Talavera _the English and French_ troops for a moment + suspended their conflict.--MACAULAY. + + The Crusades brought to the rising commonwealths of _the Adriatic + and Tyrrhene_ seas a large increase of wealth.--_Id._ + + Here the youth of both sexes, of _the higher and middling_ + orders, were placed at a very tender age.--PRESCOTT. + +[Sidenote: _Indefinite article_.] + +436. The indefinite article is used, like the definite article, to +limit two or more modified nouns, only one of which is expressed. The +article is repeated for the purpose of separating or emphasizing the +modified nouns. Examples of this use are,-- + + We shall live _a better_ and _a higher_ and _a nobler_ + life.--BEECHER. + + The difference between the products of _a well-disciplined_ and + those of _an uncultivated_ understanding is often and admirably + exhibited by our great dramatist.--S.T. COLERIDGE. + + Let us suppose that the pillars succeed each other, _a round_ and + _a square_ one alternately.--BURKE. + + As if the difference between _an accurate_ and _an inaccurate_ + statement was not worth the trouble of looking into the most + common book of reference.--MACAULAY. + + To every room there was _an open_ and _a secret_ + passage.--JOHNSON. + +Notice that in the above sentences (except the first) the noun +expressed is in contrast with the modified noun omitted. + + +[Sidenote: _One article with several adjectives._] + +437. Usually the article is not repeated when the several adjectives +unite in describing one and the same noun. In the sentences of Secs. +433 and 436, one noun is expressed; yet the same word understood with +the other adjectives has a different meaning (except in the first +sentence of Sec. 436). But in the following sentences, as in the first +three of Sec. 435, the adjectives assist each other in describing the +same noun. It is easy to see the difference between the expressions +"_a red-and-white_ geranium," and "_a red and a white_ geranium." + +Examples of several adjectives describing the same object:-- + + To inspire us with _a free and quiet_ mind.--B. JONSON. + + Here and there _a desolate and uninhabited_ house.--DICKENS. + + James was declared _a mortal and bloody_ enemy.--MACAULAY. + + So wert thou born into a tuneful strain, + _An early, rich, and inexhausted_ vein. + --DRYDEN. + +[Sidenote: _For rhetorical effect._] + +438. The indefinite article (compare Sec. 434) is used to lend +special emphasis, interest, or clearness to each of several nouns; +as,-- + + James was declared _a_ mortal and bloody _enemy, a tyrant, a + murderer_, and _a usurper_.--MACAULAY. + + Thou hast spoken as _a patriot_ and _a Christian_.--BULWER. + + He saw him in his mind's eye, _a collegian, a parliament man--a + Baronet_ perhaps.--THACKERAY. + + + +VERBS. + + +CONCORD OF VERB AND SUBJECT IN NUMBER. + + +[Sidenote: _A broad and loose rule._] + +439. In English, the number of the verb follows the meaning rather +than the form of its subject. + +It will not do to state as a general rule that the verb agrees with +its subject in person and number. This was spoken of in Part I., Sec. +276, and the following illustrations prove it. + +The statements and illustrations of course refer to such verbs as have +separate forms for singular and plural number. + + +[Sidenote: _Singular verb._] + +440. The singular form of the verb is used-- + +[Sidenote: _Subject of singular form._] + +(1) When the subject has a singular form and a singular meaning. + + Such, then, _was_ the earliest American _land_.--AGASSIZ. + + _He was_ certainly a happy fellow at this time.--G. ELIOT. + + _He sees_ that it is better to live in peace.--COOPER. + +[Sidenote: _Collective noun of singular meaning._] + +(2) When the subject is a _collective noun_ which represents a number +of persons or things _taken as one unit_; as,-- + + The larger _breed_ [of camels] _is_ capable of transporting a + weight of a thousand pounds.--GIBBON. + + Another _school professes_ entirely opposite principles.--_The + Nation._ + + In this work there _was_ grouped around him _a score_ of men.--W. + PHILLIPS + + A _number_ of jeweled paternosters _was_ attached to her + girdle.--FROUDE. + + _Something like a horse load_ of books _has_ been written to + prove that it was the beauty who blew up the booby.--CARLYLE + +This usage, like some others in this series, depends mostly on the +writer's own judgment. Another writer might, for example, prefer a +plural verb after _number_ in Froude's sentence above. + +[Sidenote: _Singulars connected by_ or _or_ nor.] + +(3) When the subject consists of two or more singular nouns connected +by _or_ or _nor_; as,-- + + It is by no means sure that either our _literature_, or the great + intellectual _life_ of our nation, _has_ got already, without + academies, all that academies can give.--M. ARNOLD. + + _Jesus is_ not dead, nor _John_, nor _Paul_, nor _Mahomet_. + --EMERSON. + +[Sidenote: _Plural form and singular meaning._] + +(4) When the subject is _plural in form_, but represents a number of +things to be taken together as _forming one unit_; for example,-- + + Thirty-four years _affects_ one's remembrance of some + circumstances.--DE QUINCEY. + + Between ourselves, three pounds five shillings and two pence _is_ + no bad day's work.--GOLDSMITH. + + Every twenty paces _gives_ you the prospect of some villa; and + every four hours, that of a large town.--MONTAGUE + + Two thirds of this _is_ mine by right.--SHERIDAN + + The singular form is also used with book titles, other names, and + other singulars of plural form; as,-- + + Politics _is_ the only field now open for me.--WHITTIER. + + "Sesame and Lilies" _is_ Ruskin's creed for young + girls.--_Critic_, No. 674 + + The Three Pigeons _expects_ me down every moment.--GOLDSMITH. + +[Sidenote: _Several singular subjects to one singular verb._] + +(5) With _several singular subjects not_ disjoined by _or_ or _nor_, +in the following cases:-- + +(_a_) Joined by _and_, but considered as meaning about the same thing, +or as making up one general idea; as,-- + + In a word, all his conversation and knowledge _has been_ in the + female world--ADDISON. + + The strength and glare of each [color] _is_ considerably + abated.--BURKE + + To imagine that debating and logic _is_ the triumph.--CARLYLE + + In a world where even to fold and seal a letter adroitly _is_ not + the least of accomplishments.--DE QUINCEY + + The genius and merit of a rising poet _was_ celebrated.--GIBBON. + + When the cause of ages and the fate of nations _hangs_ upon the + thread of a debate.--J.Q. ADAMS. + +(_b_) Not joined by a conjunction, but each one emphatic, or +considered as appositional; for example,-- + + The unbought grace of life, the cheap defense of nations, the + nurse of manly sentiment and heroic enterprise, _is_ + gone.--BURKE. + + A fever, a mutilation, a cruel disappointment, a loss of wealth, + a loss of friends, _seems_ at the moment unpaid loss.--EMERSON + + The author, the wit, the partisan, the fine gentleman, _does_ not + take the place of the man.--_Id._ + + To receive presents or a bribe, to be guilty of collusion in any + way with a suitor, _was_ punished, in a judge, with + death.--PRESCOTT. + +[Sidenote: _Subjects after the verb._] + +This use of several subjects with a singular verb is especially +frequent when the subjects are after the verb; as,-- + + There _is_ a right and a wrong in them.--M ARNOLD. + + There _is_ a moving tone of voice, an impassioned countenance, an + agitated gesture.--BURKE + + There _was_ a steel headpiece, a cuirass, a gorget, and greaves, + with a pair of gauntlets and a sword hanging beneath.--HAWTHORNE. + + Then _comes_ the "Why, sir!" and the "What then, sir?" and the + "No, sir!"--MACAULAY. + + For wide _is_ heard the thundering fray, + The rout, the ruin, the dismay. + --SCOTT. + +(_c_) Joined by _as well as_ (in this case the verb agrees with the +first of the two, no matter if the second is plural); thus,-- + + Asia, as well as Europe, _was_ dazzled.--MACAULAY. + + The oldest, as well as the newest, wine + _Begins_ to stir itself. + --LONGFELLOW. + + Her back, as well as sides, _was_ like to crack.--BUTLER. + + The Epic, as well as the Drama, _is_ divided into tragedy and + Comedy.--FIELDING + +(_d_) When each of two or more singular subjects is preceded by +_every_, _each_, _no_, _many a_, and such like adjectives. + + Every fop, every boor, every valet, _is_ a man of wit.--MACAULAY. + + Every sound, every echo, _was_ listened to for five hours.--DE + QUINCEY + + Every dome and hollow _has_ the figure of Christ.--RUSKIN. + + Each particular hue and tint _stands_ by itself.--NEWMAN. + + Every law and usage _was_ a man's expedient.--EMERSON. + + Here _is_ no ruin, no discontinuity, no spent ball.--_Id._ + + Every week, nay, almost every day, _was_ set down in their + calendar for some appropriate celebration.--PRESCOTT. + + +[Sidenote: _Plural verb._] + +441. The plural form of the verb is used-- + +(1) When the subject is plural _in form and in meaning_; as,-- + + These _bits_ of wood _were_ covered on every square.--SWIFT. + + Far, far away thy children _leave_ the land.--GOLDSMITH. + + The Arabian poets _were_ the historians and moralists.--GIBBON. + +(2) When the subject is a _collective noun_ in which _the individuals_ +of the collection are thought of; as,-- + + A multitude _go_ mad about it.--EMERSON. + + A great number of people _were_ collected at a vendue.--FRANKLIN. + + All our household _are_ at rest.--COLERIDGE. + + A party of workmen _were_ removing the horses.--LEW WALLACE + + The fraternity _were_ inclined to claim for him the honors of + canonization.--SCOTT. + + The travelers, of whom there _were_ a number.--B. TAYLOR. + + (3) When the subject consists of _several singulars connected by + and_, making up a plural subject, for example,-- + + Only Vice and Misery _are_ abroad.--CARLYLE + + But its authorship, its date, and its history _are_ alike a + mystery to us.--FROUDE. + + His clothes, shirt, and skin _were_ all of the same color--SWIFT. + + Aristotle and Longinus _are_ better understood by him than + Littleton or Coke.--ADDISON. + +[Sidenote: _Conjunction omitted._] + +The conjunction may be omitted, as in Sec. 440 (5, _b_), but the verb +is plural, as with a subject of plural form. + + A shady grove, a green pasture, a stream of fresh water, _are_ + sufficient to attract a colony.--GIBBON. + + The Dauphin, the Duke of Berri, Philip of Anjou, _were_ men of + insignificant characters.--MACAULAY + + (4) When a singular is joined with a plural by a disjunctive + word, the verb agrees with the one nearest it; as,-- + + One or two of these perhaps _survive_.--THOREAU. + + One or two persons in the crowd _were_ insolent.--FROUDE. + + One or two of the ladies _were_ going to leave.--ADDISON + + One or two of these old Cromwellian soldiers _were_ still alive + in the village.--THACKERAY + + One or two of whom _were_ more entertaining.--DE QUINCEY. + + But notice the construction of this,-- + + A ray or two _wanders_ into the darkness.--RUSKIN. + + +AGREEMENT OF VERB AND SUBJECT IN PERSON. + + +[Sidenote: _General usage_.] + +442. If there is only one person in the subject, the ending of the +verb indicates the person of its subject; that is, in those few cases +where there are forms for different persons: as,-- + + Never once _didst_ thou revel in the vision.--DE QUINCEY. + + Romanism wisely _provides_ for the childish in men.--LOWELL. + + It _hath_ been said my Lord would never take the + oath.--THACKERAY. + +[Sidenote: _Second or third and first person in the subject_.] + + +443. If the subject is made up of the first person joined with the +second or third by _and_, the verb takes the construction of the first +person, the subject being really equivalent to _we_; as,-- + + I flatter myself you and I _shall_ meet again.--SMOLLETT. + + You and I _are_ farmers; we never talk politics.--D WEBSTER. + + Ah, brother! only I and thou + _Are_ left of all that circle now. + --WHITTIER. + + You and I _are_ tolerably modest people.--THACKERAY. + + Cocke and I _have_ felt it in our bones--_Gammer Gurton's Needle_ + + +[Sidenote: _With adversative or disjunctive connectives_.] + +444. When the subjects, of different persons, are connected by +adversative or disjunctive conjunctions, the verb usually agrees with +the pronoun nearest to it; for example,-- + + Neither you nor I _should_ be a bit the better or wiser.--RUSKIN. + + If she or you _are_ resolved to be miserable.--GOLDSMITH. + + Nothing which Mr. Pattison or I _have_ said.--M. ARNOLD. + + Not Altamont, but thou, _hadst_ been my lord.--ROWE. + + Not I, but thou, his blood _dost_ shed.--BYRON. + +This construction is at the best a little awkward. It is avoided +either by using a verb which has no forms for person (as, "He or I +_can_ go," "She or you _may_ be sure," etc.), or by rearranging the +sentence so as to throw each subject before its proper person form +(as, "You _would_ not be wiser, nor _should_ I;" or, "I _have_ never +said so, nor _has_ she"). + +[Sidenote: _Exceptional examples_.] + +445. The following illustrate exceptional usage, which it is proper +to mention; but the student is cautioned to follow the regular usage +rather than the unusual and irregular. + + +Exercise. + +Change each of the following sentences to accord with standard usage, +as illustrated above (Secs. 440-444):-- + + + 1. And sharp Adversity will teach at last + Man,--and, as we would hope,--perhaps the devil, + That neither of their intellects are vast. + --BYRON. + + 2. Neither of them, in my opinion, give so accurate an idea of + the man as a statuette in bronze.--TROLLOPE. + + 3. How each of these professions are crowded.--ADDISON. + + 4. Neither of their counselors were to be present.--_Id._ + + 5. Either of them are equally good to the person to whom they are + significant.--EMERSON. + + 6. Neither the red nor the white are strong and glaring.--BURKE. + + 7. A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or + murder.--ADDISON. + + 8. Neither of the sisters were very much deceived.--THACKERAY. + + 9. Nor wood, nor tree, nor bush are there, + Her course to intercept.--SCOTT. + + 10. Both death and I am found eternal.--MILTON. + + 11. In ascending the Mississippi the party was often obliged to + wade through morasses; at last they came upon the district of + Little Prairie.--G. BANCROFT. + + 12. In a word, the whole nation seems to be running out of their + wits.--SMOLLETT. + + +SEQUENCE OF TENSES (VERBS AND VERBALS). + + +[Sidenote: _Lack of logical sequence in verbs_.] + +446. If one or more verbs depend on some leading verb, each should +be in the tense that will convey the meaning intended by the writer. + +In this sentence from Defoe, "I expected every wave would have +swallowed us up," the verb _expected_ looks forward to something in +the future, while _would have swallowed_ represents something +completed in past time: hence the meaning intended was, "I expected +every wave _would swallow_" etc. + +[Sidenote: _Also in verbals_.] + +In the following sentence, the infinitive also fails to express the +exact thought:-- + + I had hoped never to have seen the statues again.--MACAULAY. + +The trouble is the same as in the previous sentence; _to have seen_ +should be changed to _to see_, for exact connection. Of course, if the +purpose were to represent a prior fact or completed action, the +perfect infinitive would be the very thing. + +It should be remarked, however, that such sentences as those just +quoted are in keeping with the older idea of the unity of the +sentence. The present rule is recent. + + +Exercise. + +Explain whether the verbs and infinitives in the following sentences +convey the right meaning; if not, change them to a better form:-- + + 1. I gave one quarter to Ann, meaning, on my return, to have + divided with her whatever might remain.--DE QUINCEY + + 2. I can't sketch "The Five Drapers," ... but can look and be + thankful to have seen such a masterpiece.--THACKERAY. + + 3. He would have done more wisely to have left them to find their + own apology than to have given reasons which seemed + paradoxes.--R.W. CHURCH. + + 4. The propositions of William are stated to have contained a + proposition for a compromise.--PALGRAVE + + 5. But I found I wanted a stock of words, which I thought I + should have acquired before that time.--FRANKLIN + + 6. I could even have suffered them to have broken Everet + Ducking's head.--IRVING. + + + + +INDIRECT DISCOURSE. + + +[Sidenote: _Definitions_.] + +_447_. Direct discourse--that is, a direct quotation or a direct +question--means the identical words the writer or speaker used; as,-- + + "I hope you have not killed him?" said Amyas.--KINGSLEY. + +Indirect discourse means reported speech,--the thoughts of a writer +or speaker put in the words of the one reporting them. + + +[Sidenote: _Two samples of indirect discourse_.] + +448. Indirect discourse may be of two kinds:-- + +(1) Following the thoughts and also the exact words as far as +consistent with the rules of logical sequence of verbs. + +(2) Merely a concise representation of the original words, not +attempting to follow the entire quotation. + +The following examples of both are from De Quincey:-- + +[Sidenote: _Indirect_.] + +1. Reyes remarked that it was not in his power to oblige the clerk as +to that, but that he could oblige him by cutting his throat. + +[Sidenote: _Direct_.] + +His exact words were, "I _cannot_ oblige _you_ ..., but I _can_ oblige +_you_ by cutting _your_ throat." + +[Sidenote: _Indirect_.] + +Her prudence whispered eternally, that safety there was none for her +until she had laid the Atlantic between herself and St. Sebastian's. + +[Sidenote: _Direct_.] + +She thought to herself, "Safety there _is_ none for _me_ until _I_ +have laid," etc. + +[Sidenote: _Summary of the expressions_.] + +2. Then he laid bare the unparalleled ingratitude of such a step. Oh, +the unseen treasure that had been spent upon that girl! Oh, the untold +sums of money that he had sunk in that unhappy speculation! + +[Sidenote: _Direct synopsis_.] + +The substance of his lamentation was, "Oh, unseen treasure _has_ been +spent upon that girl! Untold sums of money _have I_ sunk," etc. + + + +449. From these illustrations will be readily seen the grammatical +changes made in transferring from direct to indirect discourse. +Remember the following facts:-- + +(1) Usually the main, introductory verb is in the past tense. + +(2) The indirect quotation is usually introduced by _that_, and the +indirect question by _whether_ or _if_, or regular interrogatives. + +(3) Verbs in the present-tense form are changed to the past-tense +form. This includes the auxiliaries _be_, _have_, _will_, etc. The +past tense is sometimes changed to the past perfect. + +(4) The pronouns of the first and second persons are all changed to +the third person. Sometimes it is clearer to introduce the antecedent +of the pronoun instead. + +Other examples of indirect discourse have been given in Part I., +under interrogative pronouns, interrogative adverbs, and the +subjunctive mood of verbs. + + +Exercise. + +Rewrite the following extract from Irving's "Sketch Book," and change +it to a direct quotation:-- + +He assured the company that it was a fact, handed down from his +ancestor the historian, that the Catskill Mountains had always been +haunted by strange beings; that it was affirmed that the great +Hendrick Hudson, the first discoverer of the river and country, kept a +kind of vigil there every twenty years, with his crew of the +Half-moon, being permitted in this way to revisit the scenes of his +enterprise, and keep a guardian eye upon the river and the great city +called by his name; that his father had once seen them in their old +Dutch dresses playing at ninepins in a hollow of the mountain; and +that he himself had heard, one summer afternoon, the sound of their +balls, like distant peals of thunder. + + + + +VERBALS. + +PARTICIPLES. + + +[Sidenote: _Careless use of the participial phrase._] + +450. The following sentences illustrate a misuse of the participial +phrase:-- + + Pleased with the "Pilgrim's Progress," my first collection was of + John Bunyan's works.--B. FRANKLIN. + + My farm consisted of about twenty acres of excellent land, having + given a hundred pounds for my predecessor's goodwill.--GOLDSMITH. + + Upon asking how he had been taught the art of a cognoscente so + suddenly, he assured me that nothing was more easy.--_Id._ + + Having thus run through the causes of the sublime, my first + observation will be found nearly true.--BURKE + + He therefore remained silent till he had repeated a paternoster, + being the course which his confessor had enjoined.--SCOTT + +Compare with these the following:-- + +[Sidenote: _A correct example._] + + Going yesterday to dine with an old acquaintance, I had the + misfortune to find his whole family very much dejected.--ADDISON. + +[Sidenote: _Notice this._] + +The trouble is, in the sentences first quoted, that the main subject +of the sentence is not the same word that would be the subject of the +participle, if this were expanded into a verb. + +[Sidenote: _Correction._] + +Consequently one of two courses must be taken,--either change the +participle to a verb with its appropriate subject, leaving the +principal statement as it is; or change the principal proposition so +it shall make logical connection with the participial phrase. + +For example, the first sentence would be, either "_As I was_ pleased, +... my first collection was," etc., or "Pleased with the 'Pilgrim's +Progress,' I made my first collection John Bunyan's works." + +Exercise.--Rewrite the other four sentences so as to correct the +careless use of the participial phrase. + + + + +INFINITIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _Adverb between_ to _and the infinitive._] + +451. There is a construction which is becoming more and more common +among good writers,--the placing an adverb between _to_ of the +infinitive and the infinitive itself. The practice is condemned by +many grammarians, while defended or excused by others. Standard +writers often use it, and often, purposely or not, avoid it. + +The following two examples show the adverb before the infinitive:-- + +[Sidenote: _The more common usage._] + + He handled it with such nicety of address as sufficiently _to + show_ that he fully understood the business.--SCOTT. + + It is a solemn, universal assertion, deeply _to be kept_ in mind + by all sects.--RUSKIN. + +This is the more common arrangement; yet frequently the desire seems +to be to get the adverb snugly against the infinitive, to modify it as +closely and clearly as possible. + + +Exercise. + +In the following citations, see if the adverbs can be placed before or +after the infinitive and still modify it as clearly as they now do:-- + + 1. There are, then, many things _to be_ carefully _considered_, + if a strike is to succeed.--LAUGHLIN. + + 2. That the mind may not have to go backwards and forwards in + order _to_ rightly _connect_ them.--HERBERT SPENCER. + + 3. It may be easier to bear along all the qualifications of an + idea ... than _to_ first imperfectly _conceive_ such idea.--_id._ + + 4. In works of art, this kind of grandeur, which consists in + multitude, is _to be_ very cautiously _admitted_.--BURKE. + + 5. That virtue which requires _to be_ ever _guarded_ is + scarcely worth the sentinel.--GOLDSMITH. + + 6. Burke said that such "little arts and devices" were not _to + be_ wholly _condemned_.--_The Nation_, No. 1533. + + 7. I wish the reader _to_ clearly _understand_.--RUSKIN. + + 8. Transactions which seem _to be_ most widely _separated_ from + one another.--DR. BLAIR. + + 9. Would earnestly advise them for their good to order this + paper _to be_ punctually _served up_.--ADDISON. + + 10. A little sketch of his, in which a cannon ball is supposed + _to have_ just _carried off_ the head of an + aide-de-camp.--TROLLOPE. + + 11. The ladies seem _to have been_ expressly _created_ to form + helps meet for such gentlemen.--MACAULAY. + + 12. Sufficient to disgust a people whose manners were beginning + _to be_ strongly _tinctured_ with austerity.--_Id._ + + 13. The spirits, therefore, of those opposed to them seemed _to + be_ considerably _damped_ by their continued success.--SCOTT. + + + + +ADVERBS. + + +[Sidenote: _Position of_ only, even, _etc._] + +A very careful writer will so place the modifiers of a verb that the +reader will not mistake the meaning. + +The rigid rule in such a case would be, to put the modifier in such a +position that the reader not only can understand the meaning intended, +but _cannot misunderstand_ the thought. Now, when such adverbs as +_only_, _even_, etc., are used, they are usually placed in a strictly +correct position, if they modify single words; but they are often +removed from the exact position, if they modify phrases or clauses: +for example, from Irving, "The site is _only_ to be traced by +fragments of bricks, china, and earthenware." Here _only_ modifies the +phrase _by fragments of bricks_, etc., but it is placed before the +infinitive. This misplacement of the adverb can be detected only by +analysis of the sentence. + + +Exercise. + +Tell what the adverb modifies in each quotation, and see if it is +placed in the proper position:-- + + 1. Only the name of one obscure epigrammatist has been embalmed + for us in the verses of his rival.--PALGRAVE. + + 2. Do you remember pea shooters? I think we only had them on + going home for holidays.--THACKERAY. + + 3. Irving could only live very modestly. He could only afford + to keep one old horse.--_Id._ + + 4. The arrangement of this machinery could only be accounted + for by supposing the motive power to have been steam.--WENDELL + PHILLIPS. + + 5. Such disputes can only be settled by arms.--_Id._ + + 6. I have only noted one or two topics which I thought most + likely to interest an American reader.--N.P. WILLIS. + + 7. The silence of the first night at the farmhouse,--stillness + broken only by two whippoorwills.--HIGGINSON. + + 8. My master, to avoid a crowd, would suffer only thirty people + at a time to see me.--SWIFT. + + 9. In relating these and the following laws, I would only be + understood to mean the original institutions.--_Id._ + + 10. The perfect loveliness of a woman's countenance can only + consist in that majestic peace which is founded in the memory of + happy and useful years.--RUSKIN. + + 11. In one of those celestial days it seems a poverty that we can + only spend it once.--EMERSON. + + 12. My lord was only anxious as long as his wife's anxious face + or behavior seemed to upbraid him.--THACKERAY. + + 13. He shouted in those clear, piercing tones that could be even + heard among the roaring of the cannon.--COOPER. + + 14. His suspicions were not even excited by the ominous face of + Grard.--MOTLEY. + + 15. During the whole course of his administration, he scarcely + befriended a single man of genius.--MACAULAY. + + 16. I never remember to have felt an event more deeply than his + death.--SYDNEY SMITH. + + 17. His last journey to Cannes, whence he was never destined to + return.--MRS. GROTE. + + + +USE OF DOUBLE NEGATIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _The old usage._] + +453. In Old and Middle English, two negatives strengthened a +negative idea; for example,-- + + He _nevere_ yet _no_ vileineye _ne_ sayde, + In al his lyf unto _no_ maner wight.--CHAUCER. + + _No_ sonne, were he never so old of yeares, might _not_ marry. + --ASCHAM. + +The first of these is equivalent to "He didn't never say no villainy +in all his life to no manner of man,"--four negatives. + +This idiom was common in the older stages of the language, and is +still kept in vulgar English; as,-- + + I tell you she _ain'_ been _nowhar_ ef she don' know we all. + --PAGE, in _Ole Virginia_. + + There _weren't no_ pies to equal hers.--MRS. STOWE. + + +[Sidenote: _Exceptional use._] + +There are sometimes found two negatives in modern English with a +negative effect, when one of the negatives is a connective. This, +however, is not common. + + I never did see him again, _nor never_ shall.--DE QUINCEY. + + However, I did _not_ act so hastily, _neither_.--DEFOE. + + The prosperity of no empire, _nor_ the grandeur of _no_ king, can + so agreeably affect, etc.--BURKE. + + +[Sidenote: _Regular law of negative in modern English._] + +But, under the influence of Latin syntax, the usual way of regarding +the question now is, that _two negatives are equivalent to an +affirmative_, denying each other. + +Therefore, if two negatives are found together, it is a sign of +ignorance or carelessness, or else a purpose to make an affirmative +effect. In the latter case, one of the negatives is often a prefix; as +_in_frequent, _un_common. + + +Exercise. + +Tell whether the two or more negatives are properly used in each of +the following sentences, and why:-- + + 1. The red men were not so infrequent visitors of the English + settlements.--HAWTHORNE. + + 2. "Huldy was so up to everything about the house, that the + doctor didn't miss nothin' in a temporal way."--MRS. STOWE. + + 3. Her younger sister was a wide-awake girl, who hadn't been to + school for nothing.--HOLMES. + + 4. You will find no battle which does not exhibit the most + cautious circumspection.--BAYNE. + + 5. Not only could man not acquire such information, but ought not + to labor after it.--GROTE. + + 6. There is no thoughtful man in America who would not consider a + war with England the greatest of calamities.--LOWELL. + + 7. In the execution of this task, there is no man who would not + find it an arduous effort.--HAMILTON. + + 8. "A weapon," said the King, "well worthy to confer honor, nor + has it been laid on an undeserving shoulder."--SCOTT. + + + + +CONJUNCTIONS. + + +[Sidenote: And who, and which.] + +454. The sentences given in Secs. 419 and 420 on the connecting of +pronouns with different expressions may again be referred to here, as +the use of the conjunction, as well as of the pronoun, should be +scrutinized. + +[Sidenote: _Choice and proper position of correlatives._] + +455. The most frequent mistakes in using conjunctions are in +handling correlatives, especially _both_ ... _and, neither_ ... _nor, +either_ ... _or, not_ _only_ ... _but, not merely_ ... _but_ (_also_). + +The following examples illustrate the correct use of correlatives as +to both choice of words and position:-- + + _Whether_ at war _or_ at peace, there we were, a standing menace + to all earthly paradises of that kind.--LOWELL. + + These idols of wood can _neither_ hear _nor_ feel.--PRESCOTT. + + _Both_ the common soldiery _and_ their leaders and commanders + lowered on each other as if their union had not been more + essential than ever, _not only_ to the success of their common + cause, _but_ to their own safety.--SCOTT. + + +[Sidenote: _Things to be watched._] + +In these examples it will be noticed that _nor_, not _or_ is the +proper correlative of _neither_; and that all correlatives in a +sentence ought to have corresponding positions: that is, if the last +precedes a verb, the first ought to be placed before a verb; if the +second precedes a phrase, the first should also. This is necessary to +make the sentence clear and symmetrical. + +[Sidenote: _Correction._] + +In the sentence, "I am _neither_ in spirits to enjoy it, _or_ to reply +to it," both of the above requirements are violated. The word +_neither_ in such a case had better be changed to _not_ ... +_either_,--"I am not in spirits _either_ to enjoy it, _or_ to reply to +it." + +Besides _neither ... or_, even _neither ... nor_ is often changed to +_not_--_either ... or_ with advantage, as the negation is sometimes +too far from the verb to which it belongs. + +A noun may be preceded by one of the correlatives, and an equivalent +pronoun by the other. The sentence, "This loose and inaccurate manner +of speaking has misled us _both_ in the theory of taste _and_ of +morals," may be changed to "This loose ... misled us _both_ in the +theory of taste _and_ in _that_ of morals." + + +Exercise. + +Correct the following sentences:-- + + 1. An ordinary man would neither have incurred the danger of + succoring Essex, nor the disgrace of assailing him.--MACAULAY. + + 2. Those ogres will stab about and kill not only strangers, but + they will outrage, murder, and chop up their own kin.--THACKERAY. + + 3. In the course of his reading (which was neither pursued with + that seriousness or that devout mind which such a study requires) + the youth found himself, etc.--_Id._ + + 4. I could neither bear walking nor riding in a carriage over its + pebbled streets.--FRANKLIN. + + 5. Some exceptions, that can neither be dissembled nor eluded, + render this mode of reasoning as indiscreet as it is + superfluous.--GIBBON. + + 6. They will, too, not merely interest children, but grown-up + persons.--_Westminster Review._ + + 7. I had even the satisfaction to see her lavish some kind looks + upon my unfortunate son, which the other could neither extort by + his fortune nor assiduity.--GOLDSMITH. + + 8. This was done probably to show that he was neither ashamed of + his name or family.--ADDISON. + + +[Sidenote: Try and _for_ try to.] + +456. Occasionally there is found the expression _try and_ instead of +the better authorized _try to_; as,-- + + We will try _and_ avoid personalities altogether.--THACKERAY. + + Did any of you ever try _and_ read "Blackmore's Poems"?--_Id._ + + Try _and_ avoid the pronoun.--BAIN. + + We will try _and_ get a clearer notion of them.--RUSKIN. + + +[Sidenote: But what.] + +457. Instead of the subordinate conjunction _that_, _but_, or _but +that_, or the negative relative _but_, we sometimes find the bulky and +needless _but what_. Now, it is possible to use _but what_ when _what_ +is a relative pronoun, as, "He never had any money _but what_ he +absolutely needed;" but in the following sentences _what_ usurps the +place of a conjunction. + + +Exercise. + +In the following sentences, substitute _that_, _but_, or _but that_ +for the words _but what_:-- + + 1. The doctor used to say 'twas her young heart, and I don't know + _but what_ he was right.--S.O. JEWETT. + + 2. At the first stroke of the pickax it is ten to one _but what_ + you are taken up for a trespass.--BULWER. + + 3. There are few persons of distinction _but what_ can hold + conversation in both languages.--SWIFT. + + 4. Who knows _but what_ there might be English among those + sun-browned half-naked masses of panting wretches?--KINGSLEY. + + 5. No little wound of the kind ever came to him _but what_ he + disclosed it at once.--TROLLOPE. + + 6. They are not so distant from the camp of Saladin _but what_ + they might be in a moment surprised.--SCOTT. + + + +PREPOSITIONS. + + +458. As to the placing of a preposition after its object in certain +cases, see Sec. 305. + + +[Sidenote: Between _and_ among.] + +459. In the primary meaning of between and among there is a +sharp distinction, as already seen in Sec. 313; but in Modern English +the difference is not so marked. + +Between is used most often with two things only, but still it is +frequently used in speaking of several objects, some relation or +connection between two at a time being implied. + +Among is used in the same way as _amid_ (though not with exactly the +same meaning), several objects being spoken of in the aggregate, no +separation or division by twos being implied. + +Examples of the distinctive use of the two words:-- + +[Sidenote: _Two things._] + + The contentions that arise _between_ the parson and the + squire.--ADDISON. + + We reckoned the improvements of the art of war _among_ the + triumphs of science.--EMERSON. + +Examples of the looser use of _between_:-- + +[Sidenote: _A number of things._] + + Natural objects affect us by the laws of that connection which + Providence has established _between_ certain motions of + bodies.--BURKE. + + Hence the differences _between_ men in natural endowment are + insignificant in comparison with their common wealth.--EMERSON. + + They maintain a good correspondence _between_ those wealthy + societies of men that are divided from one another by seas and + oceans.--ADDISON. + + Looking up at its deep-pointed porches and the dark places + _between_ their pillars where there were statues once.--RUSKIN + + What have I, a soldier of the Cross, to do with recollections of + war _betwixt_ Christian nations?--SCOTT. + +[Sidenote: _Two groups or one and a group._] + +Also _between_ may express relation or connection in speaking of two +groups of objects, or one object and a group; as,-- + + A council of war is going on beside the watch fire, _between_ the + three adventurers and the faithful Yeo.--KINGSLEY. + + The great distinction _between_ teachers sacred or + literary,--_between_ poets like Herbert and poets like + Pope,--_between_ philosophers like Spinoza, Kant, and Coleridge, + and philosophers like Locke, Paley, Mackintosh, and Stewart, etc. + --EMERSON. + +460. Certain words are followed by particular prepositions. + +Some of these words show by their composition what preposition should +follow. Such are _absolve_, _involve_, _different_. + +Some of them have, by custom, come to take prepositions not in keeping +with the original meaning of the words. Such are _derogatory_, +_averse_. + +Many words take one preposition to express one meaning, and another to +convey a different meaning; as, _correspond_, _confer_. + +And yet others may take several prepositions indifferently to express +the same meaning. + + +[Sidenote: _List I_.: _Words with particular prepositions_.] + +461. LIST I. + + Absolve _from_. Conversant _with_. + Abhorrent _to_. Dependent _on_ (_upon_). + Accord _with_. Different _from_. + Acquit _of_. Dissent _from_. + Affinity _between_. Derogatory _to_. + Averse _to_. Deprive _of_. + Bestow _on_ (_upon_). Independent _of_. + Conform _to_. Involve _in_. + Comply _with_. + +"Different _to_" is frequently heard in spoken English in England, +and sometimes creeps into standard books, but it is not good usage. + + +[Sidenote: _List II_.: _Words taking different prepositions for +different meanings._] + +462. LIST II. + + Agree _with_ (a person). Differ _from_ (note below). + Agree _to_ (a proposal). Differ _with_ (note below). + Change_ for_ (a thing). Disappointed _in_ (a thing + Change _with_ (a person). obtained). + Change _to_ (become). Disappointed _of_ (a thing not + Confer _with_ (talk with). obtained). + Confer _on_ (_upon_) (give to). Reconcile _to_ (note below). + Confide _in_ (trust in). Reconcile _with_ (note below). + Confide _to_ (intrust to). A taste _of_ (food). + Correspond _with_ (write to). A taste _for_ (art, etc.). + Correspond _to_ (a thing). + +"Correspond _with_" is sometimes used of things, as meaning _to be in +keeping with_. + +"Differ _from_" is used in speaking of unlikeness between things or +persons; "differ _from_" and "differ _with_" are both used in speaking +of persons disagreeing as to opinions. + +"Reconcile _to_" is used with the meaning of _resigned to_, as, "The +exile became reconciled _to_ his fate;" also of persons, in the sense +of making friends with, as, "The king is reconciled _to_ his +minister." "Reconcile _with_" is used with the meaning of _make to +agree with_, as, "The statement must be reconciled _with_ his previous +conduct." + + +[Sidenote: _List III_.: _Words taking anyone of several prepositions +for the same meaning_.] + +463. LIST III. + + Die _by_, die _for_, die _from_, die _of_, die _with_. + Expect _of_, expect _from_. + Part _from_, part _with_. + +Illustrations of "die _of_," "die _from_," etc.:-- + +[Sidenote: "_Die_ of."] + + The author died _of_ a fit of apoplexy.--BOSWELL. + + People do not die _of_ trifling little colds.--AUSTEN + + Fifteen officers died _of_ fever in a day.--MACAULAY. + + It would take me long to die _of_ hunger.--G. ELIOT. + + She died _of_ hard work, privation, and ill treatment.--BURNETT. + +[Sidenote: "_Die_ from."] + + She saw her husband at last literally die _from_ hunger.--BULWER. + + He died at last without disease, simply _from_ old age. + --_Athenum._ + + No one _died from_ want at Longfeld.--_Chambers' Journal._ + +[Sidenote: "_Die_ with."] + + She would have been ready to die _with_ shame.--G. ELIOT. + + I am positively dying _with_ hunger.--SCOTT. + + I thought the two Miss Flamboroughs would have died _with_ + laughing.--GOLDSMITH. + + I wish that the happiest here may not die _with_ envy.--POPE. + +[Sidenote: "_Die_ for." (_in behalf of_).] + + Take thought and die _for_ Csar.--SHAKESPEARE. + + One of them said he would die _for_ her.--GOLDSMITH. + + It is a man of quality who dies _for_ her.--ADDISON. + +[Sidenote: "_Die_ for." (_because of_).] + + Who, as Cervantes informs us, died _for_ love of the fair + Marcella.--FIELDING. + + Some officers had died _for_ want of a morsel of + bread.--MACAULAY. + +[Sidenote: "_Die_ by." (_material cause, instrument_).] + + If I meet with any of 'em, they shall die _by_ this hand. + --THACKERAY. + + He must purge himself to the satisfaction of a vigilant tribunal + or die _by_ fire.--MACAULAY. + + He died _by_ suicide before he completed his eighteenth + year.--SHAW. + + +464. Illustrations of "expect _of_," "expect _from:_"-- + +[Sidenote: "_Expect_ of."] + + What do I expect _of_ Dublin?--_Punch._ + + That is more than I expected _of_ you.--SCOTT. + + _Of_ Doctor P. nothing better was to be expected.--POE. + + Not knowing what might be expected _of_ men in general.--G. + ELIOT. + +[Sidenote: "_Expect_ from."] + + She will expect more attention _from_ you, as my + friend.--WALPOLE. + + + + There was a certain grace and decorum hardly to be expected + _from_ a man.--MACAULAY. + + I have long expected something remarkable _from_ you.--G. ELIOT. + + +465. "Part _with_" is used with both persons and things, but "part +_from_" is less often found in speaking of things. + +Illustrations of "part _with_," "part _from_:"-- + +[Sidenote: "_Part_ with."] + + He was fond of everybody that he was used to, and hated to part + _with_ them.--AUSTEN. + + Cleveland was sorry to part _with_ him.--BULWER. + + I can part _with_ my children for their good.--DICKENS. + + I part _with_ all that grew so near my heart.--WALLER. + +[Sidenote: "_Part_ from."] + + To part _from_ you would be misery.--MARRYAT. + + I have just seen her, just parted _from_ her.--BULWER. + + Burke parted _from_ him with deep emotion.--MACAULAY. + + His precious bag, which he would by no means part _from_.--G. + ELIOT. + + +[Sidenote: _Kind_ in _you_, _kind_ of _you_.] + +466. With words implying behavior or disposition, either _of_ or +_in_ is used indifferently, as shown in the following quotations:-- + +[Sidenote: Of.] + + It was a little bad _of_ you.--TROLLOPE. + + How cruel _of_ me!--COLLINS. + + He did not think it handsome _of_ you.--BULWER. + + But this is idle _of_ you.--TENNYSON. + +[Sidenote: In.] + + Very natural _in_ Mr. Hampden.--CARLYLE. + + It will be anything but shrewd _in_ you.--DICKENS. + + That is very unreasonable _in_ a person so young.--BEACONSFIELD. + + I am wasting your whole morning--too bad _in_ me.--BULWER. + + +Miscellaneous Examples for Correction. + +1. Can you imagine Indians or a semi-civilized people engaged on a +work like the canal connecting the Mediterranean and the Red seas? + +2. In the friction between an employer and workman, it is commonly +said that his profits are high. + +3. None of them are in any wise willing to give his life for the life +of his chief. + +4. That which can be done with perfect convenience and without loss, +is not always the thing that most needs to be done, or which we are +most imperatively required to do. + +5. Art is neither to be achieved by effort of thinking, nor explained +by accuracy of speaking. + +6. To such as thee the fathers owe their fame. + +7. We tread upon the ancient granite that first divided the waters +into a northern and southern ocean. + +8. Thou tread'st, with seraphims, the vast abyss. + +9. Eustace had slipped off his long cloak, thrown it over Amyas's +head, and ran up the alley. + +10. This narrative, tedious perhaps, but which the story renders +necessary, may serve to explain the state of intelligence betwixt the +lovers. + +11. To the shame and eternal infamy of whomsoever shall turn back from +the plow on which he hath laid his hand! + +12. The noise of vast cataracts, raging storms, thunder, or artillery, +awake a great and awful sensation in the mind. + +13. The materials and ornaments ought neither to be white, nor green, +nor yellow, nor blue, nor of a pale red. + +14. This does not prove that an idea of use and beauty are the same +thing, or that they are any way dependent on each other. + + +15. And were I anything but what I am, + I would wish me only he. + +16. But every man may know, and most of us do know, what is a just and +unjust act. + +17. You have seen Cassio and she together. + +18. We shall shortly see which is the fittest object of scorn, you or +me. + +19. Richard glared round him with an eye that seemed to seek an enemy, +and from which the angry nobles shrunk appalled. + +20. It comes to whomsoever will put off what is foreign and proud. + +21. The difference between the just and unjust procedure does not lie +in the number of men hired, but in the price paid to them. + +22. The effect of proportion and fitness, so far at least as they +proceed from a mere consideration of the work itself, produce +approbation, the acquiescence of the understanding. + +23. When the glass or liquor are transparent, the light is sometimes +softened in the passage. + +24. For there nor yew nor cypress spread their gloom. + +25. Every one of these letters are in my name. + +26. Neither of them are remarkable for precision. + +27. Squares, triangles, and other angular figures, are neither +beautiful to the sight nor feeling. + +28. There is not one in a thousand of these human souls that cares to +think where this estate is, or how beautiful it is, or what kind of +life they are to lead in it. + +29. Dryden and Rowe's manner are quite out of fashion. + +30. We were only permitted to stop for refreshment once. + +31. The sight of the manner in which the meals were served were enough +to turn our stomach. + +32. The moody and savage state of mind of the sullen and ambitious man +are admirably drawn. + +33. Surely none of our readers are so unfortunate as not to know some +man or woman who carry this atmosphere of peace and good-will about +with them. (Sec. 411.) + +34. Friday, whom he thinks would be better than a dog, and almost as +good as a pony. + +35. That night every man of the boat's crew, save Amyas, were down +with raging fever. + +36. These kind of books fill up the long tapestry of history with +little bits of detail which give human interest to it. + +37. I never remember the heather so rich and abundant. + +38. These are scattered along the coast for several hundred miles, in +conditions of life that seem forbidding enough, but which are accepted +without complaint by the inhabitants themselves. + +39. Between each was an interval where lay a musket. + +40. He had four children, and it was confidently expected that they +would receive a fortune of at least $200,000 between them. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 1: More for convenience than for absolute accuracy, the +stages of our language have been roughly divided into three:-- + +(1) Old English (with Anglo-Saxon) down to the twelfth century. + +(2) Middle English, from about the twelfth century to the sixteenth +century. + +(3) Modern English, from about 1500 to the present time.] + + + + +INDEX. + +THE NUMBERS REFER TO PAGES. + + + A, origin of, 119. + syntax of, 310. + uses of, 124. + + Absolute, nominative, 47. + + Abstract nouns, 20. + with article, 25, 124. + + Active voice, 133. + + Address, nominative of, 47. + + Adjective clauses, 260. + + Adjective pronouns, demonstrative, 90. + distinguished from adjectives, 89. + distributive, 91. + numeral, 92. + + Adjectives, adverbs used as, 116. + as complements, 239. + comparison of, 107. + definition of, 98. + demonstrative, 102. + from nouns, used as nouns, 27. + function of, 97. + how to parse, 115, 116. + in predicate, 239. + not compared, 109. + of quality, 99. + of quantity, 101. + ordinal, 103. + plural of, 106. + pronominal, 104. + syntax of, 303. + + Adverbial clauses, 262. + + Adverbial objective, 48, 242. + + Adverbs, between _to_ and infinitive, 323. + classes of, 185, 187. + definition of, 184. + distinguished from adjectives, 190. + how to parse, 191. + position of, in sentence, 325. + same form as adjectives, 190. + syntax of, 325. + used as adjectives, 116. + used as nouns, 27. + what they modify, 183. + + Adversative conjunction, 194. + + _After_, uses of, 114, 195, 207. + + _Against_, uses of, 207. + + Agreement, kinds of, 275. + of adjective with noun, 303. + of personal pronoun with antecedent, 287. + of relative pronoun with antecedent, 291. + of verb with subject, 148, 316. + + _All_, syntax of, 302. + + _Alms_, 42. + + Alternative conjunctions, 194, 328. + + _Among, between_, 207, 331. + + _An_. See _A_. + + Anacoluthon with _which_, 295. + + Analysis, definition of, 231. + of complex sentences, 264. + of compound sentences, 271. + of simple sentences, 252. + + _And who_, _and which_, 296. + + Antecedent, agreement of pronoun and. See _Agreement_. + definition of, 74. + of _it_, 67. + of personal pronouns, 74, 287. + of _which_, 79. + + _Any_, as adjective, 101. + as pronoun, 90. + syntax of, 300. + + Apostrophe in possessive, 51. + + Apposition, words in, 47, 49, 67, 240. + + _Are_, derivation of, 150. + + Arrangement in syntax, 275. + + Articles, definite, 120. + definition of, 120. + how to parse, 127. + indefinite, 124. + syntax of, 309. + + _As_, after _same_, 294. + uses of, 84, 225. + + _As if_, _as though_, 198. + + _At_, uses of, 208. + + Auxiliary verbs, 148. + + + _Bad_, comparison of, 110. + + _Be_, conjugation of, 149. + uses of, 150. + + _Better_, _best_, 110, 111. + + _Between._ See _Among_. + + _Brethren_, 39. + + _Bridegroom_, 37. + + _But_, uses of, 84, 224. + with nominative of pronoun, 283. + + _But what_, 330. + + _By_, uses of, 210. + + + _Can_, _could_, 161. + + Case, definition of, 46. + + Case, double possessive, of nouns, 54. + of pronouns, 64. + forms, number of, in Old and Modern English, 46. + nominative, of nouns, 47. + of pronouns, 62, 279. + objective, of nouns, 48. + of pronouns, 66, 279. + possessive, of nouns, 49, 278. + of pronouns, 63. + syntax of, 278. + + Cause, clauses of, 262. + conjunctions of, 194, 195. + + _Cherub_, plurals of, 45. + + _Children_, 39. + + Clause, adjective, 260. + adverb, 262. + definition of, 257. + kinds of, 257. + noun, 258. + + _Cleave_, forms of, 158. + + _Clomb_, 157. + + _Cloths_, _clothes_, 43. + + Collective nouns, 18. + syntax of, and verb, 312, 315. + + Colloquial English, 12. + + Common nouns, 18. + derived from material, 24. + derived from proper, 23. + + Comparative and superlative, double, 113, 307. + syntax of, 307. + + Comparison, defective, 111. + definition of, 108. + degrees of, 108. + irregular, 110. + of adjectives, 107. + of adverbs, 189. + syntax of, 305. + + Complement of predicate, 239. + + Complementary infinitive, 248. + + Complex sentence, analysis of, 264. + definition of, 257. + + Compound nouns, plural of, 43. + possessive of, 53. + + Compound predicate and subject, 244. + + Compound sentence, 268. + analysis of, 271. + + Concessive clause, in analysis, 263. + with subjunctive, 143. + + Concord. See _Agreement_. + + Conditional clause, in analysis, 263. + with subjunctive, 138. + + Conditional conjunctions, 196. + + Conditional sentences, 139. + + Conjugation, definition of, 149. + of _be_, 149. + of other verbs, 151. + + Conjunctions, and other parts of speech, same words, 195, 207. + cordinate, 194. + correlative, 194. + definition of, 193. + how to parse, 199. + subordinate, 195. + syntax of, 328. + + Conjunctive adverbs, 188. + + Conjunctive pronoun. See _Relative pronoun_. + + Contracted sentences, analysis of, 255. + + Cordinate clauses, 269. + + Cordinate conjunctions. See _Conjunctions_. + + Cordinating _vs._ restrictive use of relative pronouns, 289. + + Copulative conjunction, 194. + + _Could._ See _Can_. + + + Dative case, in Old English, replaced by objective, 66. + + Declarative sentence, 231. + + Declension of interrogative pronouns, 73. + + Declension, of nouns, 51. + of personal pronouns, 60. + of relative pronouns, 80. + + Defective verbs, 160. + + Definite article. See _Articles_. + + Definite tenses, 148, 152. + + Degree, adverbs of, 185. + + Degrees. See _Comparison_. + + Demonstrative adjectives, 102. + syntax of, 303. + + Demonstrative pronouns, 90. + + Dependent clause. See _Subordinate clause_. + + Descriptive adjectives, 99. + + Descriptive use of nouns, 26. + + _Dice_, _dies_, 43. + + _Die by_, _for_, _from_, _of_, _with_, 333. + + Direct discourse, 320. + + Direct object, _vs._ indirect, 48, 242. + retained with passive verb, 242. + + Distributive adjectives, 102. + syntax of, 287, 315. + + Distributive pronouns, 91. + syntax of, 288, 300. + + Double comparative. See _Comparative_. + + Double possessive. See _Case_. + + _Drake_, _duck_, 35. + + _Drank_, _drunk_, 158. + + + _Each_, adjective, 102. + pronoun, 90, 92. + syntax of, 287. + + _Each other_, _one another_, 92, 299. + + _Eat_ (et), 158. + + _Eaves_, 42. + + _Either_, as adjective, 102. + syntax of, 287. + as conjunction, 194. + syntax of, 328. + as pronoun, 90, 92. + syntax of, 300. + + _Elder_, _older_, 110, 112. + + Elements of the sentence, 234, 257. + + Ellipsis, a source of error in pronouns, 280. + in complex sentence, 255. + + _'Em_, origin of, 62. + + _Empress_, 34. + + _-En_, added to plural, 39. + feminine suffix, 32. + plural suffix, original, 38. + + English, literary, spoken, vulgar, 12. + periods of, 33. + + Enlargement of predicate, 241. + of subject, object, complement, 240. + + _-Es_ original of possessive ending, 51. + plural suffix, 40. + + _-Ess_, feminine suffix, 33. + + _Every_, adjective, 102. + syntax of, 287. + + _Expect of_, _expect from_, 334. + + _Expected to have gone_, etc., 319. + + + Factitive object, 48, 235. + + _Farther, further_, 110, 112, 189. + + Feminine, 30. + + _Few, a few_, 126. + + _First_, 103, 112. + + _First two_, _two first_, etc., 308. + + _Fish_, _fishes_, 43. + + _For_, redundant, with infinitive, used as a noun, 212, 238. + uses of, 211. + + Foreign plurals, 45. + + _Former, the_, adjective, 102. + pronoun, 91. + + _From_, uses of, 212. + + _Further._ See _Farther_. + + Future tense, 147, 152. + + Future perfect, 148, 152. + + + _Gander_, _goose_, 36. + + _Gender_, "common gender," 31. + definition of, 30. + distinguished from sex, 30. + in English, as compared with other languages, 29. + modes of marking, in nouns, 32. + of personal pronouns, 60. + of relative pronouns, 80. + + _Genii_, _geniuses_, 43. + + Gerund, distinguished from participle and verbal noun, 177. + forms of, 176. + in syntax, possessive case with, 285. + + _Girl_, 35. + + _Got_, 159. + + Government, definition of, kinds of, 275. + + Grammar, basis of, 12. + definition of, 12. + divisions of, 13. + opinions on, 9. + province of, 10. + + + H, _an_ before, 120. + + _Had better_, _had rather_, 175. + + _Hanged_, _hung_, 159. + + _He_, _she_, _it_, 61. + + _His_ for _its_, 61. + + _Husband_, 36. + + + _I_, personal pronoun, 60. + + Imperative mood, 144. + of first person, 145. + + Imperative sentence, 231. + + Imperfect participle, 173. + + Indefinite adjective, 101. + + Indefinite article. See _Articles_. + + Indefinite pronoun, 93. + + Indefinite use of _you_, _your_, 67. + + Independent clause, 257. + + Independent elements, 245. + + _Indexes_, _indices_, 43. + + Indicative mood, uses of, 136. + + Indirect discourse, 320. + + Indirect object. See _Direct object_. + + Indirect questions. See _Questions_. + + Infinitive, active, with passive meaning, 176. + not a mood, 153. + syntax of, 319, 323. + uses of, 248. + + _-Ing_ words, summary of, 178. + + Interjections, 227. + + Interrogative adjectives, 105. + + Interrogative adverbs, 188. + + Interrogative pronouns, 72. + declension of, 73. + in indirect questions, 85. + syntax of, 283. + + Interrogative sentence, 231, 233. + + Intransitive verbs, 131. + made transitive, 131. + + Irregularities in syntax, 276. + + Irregularly compared adjectives, 110. + adverbs, 189. + + _It_, uses of, 67. + + "It was _me_," etc., 63, 281. + + _Its_, history of, 61. + + + _Kind_, _these kind_, etc., 303. + + _Kine_, double plural, 39. + + _King_, _queen_, 36. + + + _Lady_, _lord_, 36. + + _Last_, _latest_, 110, 113. + + _Latter, the_, adjective, 102, 113. + pronoun, 91. + + _Lay_, _lie_, 170. + + _Less_, _lesser_, 110. + + _Lie_. See _Lay_. + + _Like_, syntax of, 227. + uses of, 226. + + Literary English, 12. + + _Little_, _a little_, 126. + + Logic _vs._ form, in syntax, 276. + + Logical subject and predicate, 245. + + _Lord._ See _Lady_. + + _-Ly_, words in, 190. + + + _Madam_, 36. + + Manner, adverbs of, 185, 188. + conjunctions of, 195. + + _Many_, comparison of, 110, 112. + + _Many a_, 126. + + Mapping out sentences, 256, 265. + + _Mare_, 36. + + _Master_, _mistress_, 34. + + _May_, _might_, 160. + + _Means_, construction of, 41. + + _Mighty_ as adverb, 187. + + _Mine_, of _mine_, 64. + + Modifier, adverb, position of, 325. + + Modifiers. See _Enlargement_. + + _Mood_, definition of, 135. + imperative, 144. + indicative, 136, 137. + subjunctive, 137-144. + + _-Most_, in superlatives, 113, 114, 189. + + _Much_, comparison of, 110, 112, 189. + + _Must_, 161. + + + _Near_, _nearer_, _nigh_, etc., 110, 112. + + Negative, double, 326. + + _Neither_, adjective, 102. + syntax of, 287. + conjunction, 194. + syntax of, 328. + pronoun, 90, 92. + syntax of, 300. + + Neuter nouns, definition of, 30. + or gender nouns, according to use, 30. + two kinds of, 32. + + _News_, 41. + + _No_ in analysis, 246. + + Nominative. See _Case_. + + _None_, syntax of, 301. + + _Nor_, 194, 328. + + _Not a_, etc. 126. + + Noun clause, 258. + + Nouns, 17. + abstract, 20. + become half abstract, 25, 124. + become proper, 25. + formation of, 21. + case of, 46. + collective, 19. + common, 18. + definition of, 17. + descriptive, 26. + gender of, 29. + how to parse, 56. + kinds of, 17 + material, 19. + become class nouns, 24, 125. + neuter, used as gender nouns, 30. + number in, 38. + once singular, now plural, 42. + other words used as, 27. + plural, how formed, 38-41. + of abstract, 41 + of compound, etc. 43. + of foreign, 45. + of letters and figures, 46. + of material, 41. + of proper, 41. + same as singular, 39. + two forms of, 42 + with titles, 44. + proper, 18. + become common, 23. + syntax of, 278. + use of possessive form of, 278, 285. + with definite article, 121. + with different meaning in plural, 42. + with indefinite article, 124. + + Nouns, with no singular, 42. + with one plural, two meanings, 43. + with plural form, singular meaning, 41. + with singular or plural construction, plural form, 41. + + _Now_ as conjunction, 195, 196. + + _Number_, definition of, etc., in nouns. + See _Nouns_. + in adjectives, 106. + in pronouns, personal, 60. + in verbs, 148. + + Numeral adjectives, definite, 101. + distributive, 102. + indefinite, 101. + + Numeral pronouns, 92. + + + Object, adverbial, 48. + definition of, 48. + direct and indirect, 48. + in analysis, 235. + of preposition. See _Preposition_. + modifiers of, 240. + retained with passive verb, 242. + + Objective case, adverbial, dative, 48, 242. + in spoken English, 281. + instead of nominative, 279. + nominative instead of, 282. + of nouns, 48. + of pronouns, 66. + syntax of, 279. + + _Of_, uses of, 213. + + _Older._ See _Elder_. + + Omission of relative pronoun, 87, 293. + + _On_, _upon_, uses of, 216. + + _One_, definite numeral adjective, 101. + indefinite pronoun, 94. + possessive of, 93 + + _One another._ See _Each other_. + + _One_ (_the_), the other, as adjective, 103. + as pronoun, 91. + + _Only_, as conjunction, 194. + position of, as adverb, 325 + + Order, a part of syntax, 275. + inverted, in analysis, 233, 237. + + Ordinal adjectives, treatment of, 103. + + _Other_ with comparatives, 306. + + _Ought_, 161. + + _Our_, _ours_, 64. + + _Ourself_, 69. + + _Oxen_, 38. + + + _Pains_, 41. + + Parsing, models for, 56, 117. + of adjectives, 115, 116. + of adverbs, 191. + of articles, 127. + of conjunctions, 199. + of nouns, 56. + of prepositions, 219. + of pronouns, 95. + of relatives, 80. + of verb phrases, 180. + of verbals, 181. + of verbs, 179. + some idioms not parsed, 56. + what it is, 56. + + _Part from_, _part with_, 335. + + Participial adjective, 100. + + Participial phrase, 247. + + Participle, definition of, 172. + distinguished from other _-ing_ words, 177. + forms of, 174. + kinds of, 173. + syntax of, 322. + uses of, 150, 172. + + Parts of speech, article included in, 119. + words used as various, 27, 28. + + Passive voice, 134. + + _Peas_, _pease_, 43. + + _Pence_, _pennies_, 43. + + Person, agreement of verb and subject in, 317. + of nouns, 59. + of pronouns, 59. + of verbs, 148. + + Personal pronoun, absolute use of, 63. + agreement of, with antecedent, 287. + as predicate nominative, 281. + case of, 62. + compound, or reflexive, 69. + uses of, 70. + definition of, 59. + double possessive of, 64. + _'em_ and _them_, 62. + history of, 61. + objective of, for nominative in spoken English, 63, 281. + syntax of, 281. + table of, 60. + triple possessive of, 64. + uses of _it_, 67. + + Personification, of abstract nouns, 25. + of other nouns, 37. + + Phrase, definition of, 236. + kinds of, 236. + infinitive, 248. + participial, 247. + prepositional, 247. + + Place, adverbs of, 185, 188. + conjunctions of, 195. + prepositions of, 206. + + Plural, of adjectives, 106. + syntax of, 303. + of nouns. See _Nouns_. + of pronouns, 60, 61. + + _Politics_, singular or plural, 41. + + Positive degree. See _Comparison_. + + Possessive, appositional, of nouns, 49. + as antecedent of relative, 285. + double, of nouns, 54. + double, of pronouns. See _Personal pronoun_. + objective and subjective, 50. + of compound nouns, 53. + of indefinite pronoun, 303. + omission of _s_ in singular, 52. + origin of _'s_, 51. + syntax of, 278. + with modified noun omitted, 53. + with two objects, 278. + + Predicate, complement of, 235. + complete, 245. + definition of, 232. + logical _vs._ simple, 245. + modifiers of, 241. + + Prefixes, gender shown by, 32. + + Prepositions, certain, with certain words, 332. + classification of, 206. + definition of, 203. + followed by possessive case, 54, 64. + by nominative case, 283. + how to parse, 219. + objects of, 203. + position of, 202. + relations expressed by certain, 208. + same words as other parts of speech, 187, 195, 207. + syntax of, 331. + uses of, 129, 132, 205. + various, with same meaning, 333. + + Present tense used as future, 147. + + _Pretty_ as adverb, 186. + + Pronominal adjectives, interrogative, 105. + relative, 104. + _what_, exclamatory, 105. + + Pronouns, 58. + adjective, 89. + _all_, singular and plural, 302. + _any_, usually plural, 300. + _each other_, _one another_, 299. + _either_, _neither_, with verbs, 300. + _none_, usually plural, 301. + _somebody else's_, 303. + definition of, 58. + how to parse, 95. + indefinite, 93. + interrogative, 72. + _who_ as objective, 283. + personal, 59. + after _than_, _as_, 280. + antecedents of, 287. + nominative and objective, forms of, 279. + nominative form of, after _but_, 284. + objective form of, for predicate nominative, 281. + objective form of, in exclamations, 282. + possessive form of, as antecedent of relative, 285. + possessive form of, with gerund, 286. + relative, 74. + agreement of, with antecedent, 291. + anacoluthon with _which_, 295. + _and who_, _and which_, 296. + _as_, _that_, _who_, and _which_ after _same_, 295. + how to parse, 80. + omission of, 87, 293. + restrictive and unrestrictive, 289. + two relatives, same antecedent, 297. + syntax of, 279. + usefulness of, 58. + + Proper nouns. See _Nouns_. + + Purpose, clauses of, 263. + conjunctions of, 195. + + Quality, adjectives of, 99. + + Quantity, adjectives of, 101. + + Questions, direct and indirect, adverbs in, 188. + pronominal adjectives in, 105. + pronouns in, 85. + indirect, subjunctive in, 142. + + Quotations. See _Direct discourse_. + + + Rank, adjectives of same and different, 115. + + _Rather_, 189. + + Reflexive pronouns, history of, 69. + how formed, 69. + + Reflexive use of personal pronoun, 68. + + Relative pronoun, 74. + _but_ and _as_, 84. + distinguished from interrogative, in indirect questions, 85. + function of, 74. + indefinite or compound, 83. + omission of, 87, 293. + restrictive use of, 289. + syntax of, 289. + use of, 74. + + Result, clauses of, 263. + conjunctions of, 196. + + Retained object, 242. + + _Riches_, 42. + + + _S_, plural suffix, 40. + + _'S_, possessive ending, 51. + + _Same as_, _that_, _who_, _which_, 294. + + _Sat_, _sate_, 159. + + _Seeing_, conjunction, 195, 196. + + _Self_ in reflexive pronoun, 69. + + Sentences, analysis of complex, 26 + of compound, 271. + of elliptical, 255. + of simple, 252. + complex in form, simple in effect, 259. + + Sentences, definition of, 231. + kinds of, 231. + + Sequence of tenses, 319. + + _Set_, _sit_, 170. + + Sex and gender, 29. + + _Shall_, _should_, _will_, _would_, 162. + + _Shear_, forms of, 159. + + _Shot_, _shots_, 43. + + Simple sentence. See _Sentences_. + + Singular number, 38. + + _Sir_, 36. + + _Somebody else's_, etc., 303. + + _Sort_, _these sort_, 303. + + Spelling becoming phonetic in verbs, 169. + + _Spinster_, 33. + + Split infinitive, 323. + + Spoken English, 12. + + -Ster, feminine suffix, use of, in Middle English, 32. + in Modern English, 33. + + Subject, complete, 245. + definition of, 233. + grammatical _vs._ logical, 67, 245, 258. + modifiers of, 240. + things used as, 237, 258. + + Subjunctive mood, definition of, 137. + gradual disuse of, 144. + uses of, in literary English, 138. + in spoken English, 144. + + Subordinate clause, 257. + adjective, 260. + adverb, 262. + definition of, 257. + how to distinguish, 270. + kinds of, 257. + noun, 258. + other names for, 257. + + _Such_ as adverb, 186. + + _Such a_, 126. + + Suffix _-en_. See _-En_. + _-s_, _-es_, 38. + + Suffixes, foreign, 33. + + Superlative degree, double, 307. + in meaning, not in form, 107. + not suggesting comparison, 109. + of adjectives, 108. + of adverbs, 189. + syntax of, 306. + with two objects, 306. + + Syntax, basis of, 277. + definition of, 275. + in English not same as in classical languages, 275. + + Tense, definition of, 147. + + Tenses, definite, meaning of, 148. + in Modern English, made up of auxiliaries, 147. + number of, in Old English, 147. + sequence of, 319. + table of, 152. + + _Than me_, _than whom_, 280. + + _That_, omission of, when subject, 88. + when object, 87. + relative, restrictive, and cordinating, 289, 290. + _that ... and which_, 297. + uses of, 222. + + _That_, _this_, as adjectives, 106. + as adverbs, 186. + history of plural of, 106. + + _The_, as article, 120. + as adverb, 123, 186. + history of, 119. + syntax of, 309. + + _Their_, _they_, 61. + + _Then_, "the _then_ king," etc., 116. + + _There_ introductory, 191. + + _These kind_, syntax of. See _Kind_. + + _These_, _this_, _those_. See _That_, history of. + + _Thou_, _thy_, _thee_, uses of, 61. + + _Time_, adverbs of, 185, 188. + conjunctions of, 195. + prepositions of, 207. + + _To_, before infinitive, 175. + in exclamations, 175. + omitted with certain verbs, 175. + uses of, as preposition, 217. + + _T'other_, _the tother_, 119. + + _-Trix_, feminine suffix, 33. + + _Try and_, _try to_, 330. + + _Two first_, _first two_, etc., 308. + + _Under_, adjective, 114. + + _Upon_, uses of. See _On_. + + _Upper_, 114. + + _Utter_, _uttermost_, 111, 114. + + Verb phrases, 128. + parsing of, 180. + + Verbal noun, 20. + distinguished from other _-ing_ words, 21, 173. + + Verbals, cleft infinitive, 323. + gerund, 176. + how to parse, 181. + infinitive, 174, 248. + kinds of, 172. + participle, 172. + carelessly used, 322. + uses of, in analysis, 247. + syntax of, 322. + + Verbs, agreement of, with subject in number, 312-316. + in person, 317. + auxiliary, 148. + conjugation of, 149. + defective, 160. + definition of, 129. + how to parse, 179. + in indirect discourse, 320. + intransitive, made transitive, 131. + mood of, 135. + of incomplete predication, 150, 236. + passive form, active meaning, 151. + person and number of, 148. + retained object with passive, 242. + strong, definition of, 154. + remarks on certain, 157. + table of, 155. + syntax of, 312. + tense of, 147. + sequence of, 319. + transitive and intransitive, 130. + voice of, 133. + weak, definition of, 154. + spelling of, 169. + table of irregular, 167. + + _Vixen_, 33. + + Vocative nominative, 47. + in analysis, 245. + + Voice, active, 133. + passive, 134. + + Vowel change, past tense of verbs formed by, 154. + plural formed by, 39. + + Vulgar English, 12. + + Weak verbs, regular, irregular, 167. + spelling of, becoming phonetic, 169. + + _Went_, 159. + + _What_, uses of, 223. + _but what_, 330. + _what a_, 105. 126. + + _Whereby_, _whereto_, etc., 85. + + _Whether_, conjunction, 194. + interrogative pronoun, 72. + + _Which_, antecedent of, 79. + as adjective, 104, 105. + as relative pronoun, 75. + in indirect questions, 85. + indefinite relative, 83. + interrogative pronoun in direct questions, 72. + syntax of, 295-299. + _whose_, possessive of, 78. + + _Who_, as relative, 75. + in direct questions, 72. + in indirect questions, 85. + indefinite relative, 83. + objective, in spoken English, 73. + referring to animals, 77. + syntax of, 296, 299. + + _Widower_, 37. + + _Wife_, 36. + + _Will_, _would_. See _Shall_. + + _Witch_, _wizard_, 36. + + _With_, uses of, 218. + + _Woman_, 32. + + Words in _-ing_, 178. + in _-ly_, 190. + + _Worse_, _worser_, 111. + + + _Y_, plural of nouns ending in. 40. + + _Yes_ in analysis, 246. + + _Yon_, _yonder_, 103. + + _You_, singular and plural, 61. + + _Yours_, _of yours_, 64. + + _Yourself_, _yourselves_, 70. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of An English Grammar +by W. M. Baskervill and J. W. 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M. Baskervill and J. W. Sewell + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: An English Grammar + +Author: W. M. Baskervill and J. W. Sewell + +Release Date: November 10, 2004 [EBook #14006] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR *** + + + + +Produced by Stephen Schulze and the Distributed Proofreaders Team + + + + + +</pre> + +<h1><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a>AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR</h1> +<p class="center">FOR THE USE OF</p> +<p class="center">HIGH SCHOOL, ACADEMY, AND COLLEGE CLASSES</p> +<h3>BY</h3> +<h2>W.M. BASKERVILL</h2> +<p class="center">PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE +IN VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY NASHVILLE, TENN.</p> +<h3>AND</h3> +<h2>J.W. SEWELL</h2> +<p class="center">OF THE FOGG HIGH SCHOOL, NASHVILLE, TENN.</p> +<p class="center"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a>1895</p> +<h3><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"></a>PREFACE.</h3> +<p>Of making many English grammars there is no end; nor should +there be till theoretical scholarship and actual practice are more +happily wedded. In this field much valuable work has already been +accomplished; but it has been done largely by workers accustomed to +take the scholar's point of view, and their writings are addressed +rather to trained minds than to immature learners. To find an +advanced grammar unencumbered with hard words, abstruse thoughts, +and difficult principles, is not altogether an easy matter. These +things enhance the difficulty which an ordinary youth experiences +in grasping and assimilating the facts of grammar, and create a +distaste for the study. It is therefore the leading object of this +book to be both as scholarly and as practical as possible. In it +there is an attempt to present grammatical facts as simply, and to +lead the student to assimilate them as thoroughly, as possible, and +at the same time to do away with confusing difficulties as far as +may be.</p> +<p>To attain these ends it is necessary to keep ever in the +foreground the <i>real basis of grammar</i>; that is, good +literature. Abundant quotations from standard authors have been +given to show the student that he is dealing with the facts of the +language, and not with the theories of grammarians. It is also +suggested that in preparing written exercises the student use +English classics instead of "making up" sentences. But it is not +intended that the use of literary masterpieces for grammatical +purposes should supplant or even interfere with their proper use +and real value as works of art. It will, however, doubtless be +found helpful to alternate the regular reading and æsthetic +study of literature with a grammatical study, so that, while the +mind is being enriched and the artistic sense quickened, there may +also be the useful acquisition of arousing a keen observation of +all grammatical forms and usages. Now and then it has been deemed +best to omit explanations, and to withhold <a name="Page_4" id= +"Page_4"></a>personal preferences, in order that the student may, +by actual contact with the sources of grammatical laws, discover +for himself the better way in regarding given data. It is not the +grammarian's business to "correct:" it is simply to record and to +arrange the usages of language, and to point the way to the +arbiters of usage in all disputed cases. Free expression within the +lines of good usage should have widest range.</p> +<p>It has been our aim to make a grammar of as wide a scope as is +consistent with the proper definition of the word. Therefore, in +addition to recording and classifying the facts of language, we +have endeavored to attain two other objects,—to cultivate +mental skill and power, and to induce the student to prosecute +further studies in this field. It is not supposable that in so +delicate and difficult an undertaking there should be an entire +freedom from errors and oversights. We shall gratefully accept any +assistance in helping to correct mistakes.</p> +<p>Though endeavoring to get our material as much as possible at +first hand, and to make an independent use of it, we desire to +express our obligation to the following books and +articles:—</p> +<p>Meiklejohn's "English Language," Longmans' "School Grammar," +West's "English Grammar," Bain's "Higher English Grammar" and +"Composition Grammar," Sweet's "Primer of Spoken English" and "New +English Grammar," etc., Hodgson's "Errors in the Use of English," +Morris's "Elementary Lessons in Historical English Grammar," +Lounsbury's "English Language," Champney's "History of English," +Emerson's "History of the English Language," Kellner's "Historical +Outlines of English Syntax," Earle's "English Prose," and Matzner's +"Englische Grammatik." Allen's "Subjunctive Mood in English," +Battler's articles on "Prepositions" in the "Anglia," and many +other valuable papers, have also been helpful and suggestive.</p> +<p>We desire to express special thanks to Professor W.D. Mooney of +Wall & Mooney's Battle-Ground Academy, Franklin, Tenn., for a +critical examination of the first draft of the manuscript, and to +Professor Jno. M. Webb of Webb Bros. School, Bell Buckle, Tenn., +and Professor W.R. Garrett of the University of Nashville, for many +valuable suggestions and helpful criticism.</p> +<p>W.M. BASKERVILL.</p> +<p>J.W. SEWELL.</p> +<p>NASHVILLE, TENN., January, 1896.</p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a><a name="Page_5" id= +"Page_5"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> +<p><b><a href="#INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</a><br /></b><br /> +<br /> +<a href="#PART_I"><b>PART I.<br /></b> <i>THE PARTS OF +SPEECH</i>.</a><br /> +<br /> +<a href="#NOUNS"><b>NOUNS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#PRONOUNS"><b>PRONOUNS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#ADJECTIVES"><b>ADJECTIVES.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#ARTICLES"><b>ARTICLES.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#VERBS_AND_VERBALS"><b>VERBS AND VERBALS..</b></a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><a href= +"#VERBS"><b>Verbs.</b></a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><a href= +"#VERBALS"><b>Verbals.</b></a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><a href= +"#HOW_TO_PARSE_VERBS_AND_VERBALS"><b>How To Parse Verbs And +Verbals.</b></a></span><br /> +<a href="#ADVERBS"><b>ADVERBS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#CONJUNCTIONS"><b>CONJUNCTIONS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#PREPOSITIONS"><b>PREPOSITIONS..</b></a><br /> +<a href="#WORDS_THAT_NEED_WATCHING"><b>WORDS THAT NEED +WATCHING.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#INTERJECTIONS"><b>INTERJECTIONS.</b></a><br /> +<br /> +<a href="#PART_II"><b>PART II.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#ANALYSIS_OF_SENTENCES"><i>ANALYSIS OF +SENTENCES.</i></a><br /> +<br /> +<a href="#CLASSIFICATION_ACCORDING_TO_FORM"><b>CLASSIFICATION +ACCORDING TO FORM.</b></a><br /> +<a href= +"#CLASSIFICATION_ACCORDING_TO_NUMBER_OF_STATEMENTS"><b>CLASSIFICATION +ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF STATEMENTS.</b></a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><a href= +"#SIMPLE_SENTENCES"><b>Simple Sentences.</b></a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><a href= +"#CONTRACTED_SENTENCES"><b>Contracted +Sentences.</b></a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><a href= +"#COMPLEX_SENTENCES"><b>Complex Sentences.</b></a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><a href= +"#COMPOUND_SENTENCES"><b>Compound Sentences.</b></a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a href="#PART_III"><b>PART III.</b><br /> +<i>SYNTAX</i></a><br /> +<br /> +<a href="#INTRODUCTORY"><b>INTRODUCTORY.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#NOUNSIII"><b>NOUNS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#PRONOUNSIII"><b>PRONOUNS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#ADJECTIVESIII"><b>ADJECTIVES.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#ARTICLESIII"><b>ARTICLES.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#VERBSIII"><b>VERBS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#INDIRECT_DISCOURSE"><b>INDIRECT DISCOURSE.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#VERBALSIII"><b>VERBALS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#INFINITIVES"><b>INFINITIVES.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#ADVERBSIII"><b>ADVERBS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#CONJUNCTIONSIII"><b>CONJUNCTIONS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#PREPOSITIONSIII"><b>PREPOSITIONS<br /></b></a><br /> +<a href="#INDEX"><b>INDEX<br /></b></a><br /></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"></a><a name="INTRODUCTION" id= +"INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION.</h2> +<p>So many slighting remarks have been made of late on the use of +teaching grammar as compared with teaching science, that it is +plain the fact has been lost sight of that grammar is itself a +science. The object we have, or should have, in teaching science, +is not to fill a child's mind with a vast number of facts that may +or may not prove useful to him hereafter, but to draw out and +exercise his powers of observation, and to show him how to make use +of what he observes.... And here the teacher of grammar has a great +advantage over the teacher of other sciences, in that the facts he +has to call attention to lie ready at hand for every pupil to +observe without the use of apparatus of any kind while the use of +them also lies within the personal experience of every +one.<span class="smcap">—Dr Richard Morris.</span></p> +<p>The proper study of a language is an intellectual discipline of +the highest order. If I except discussions on the comparative +merits of Popery and Protestantism, English grammar was the most +important discipline of my boyhood.<span class="smcap">—John +Tyndall.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a><b>INTRODUCTION.</b></p> +<p>What various opinions writers on English grammar have given in +answer to the question, <i>What is grammar?</i> may be shown by the +following—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definitions of grammar.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>English grammar is a description of the usages of the English +language by good speakers and writers of the present +day.<span class="smcap">—Whitney</span></p> +<p>A description of account of the nature, build, constitution, or +make of a language is called its grammar<span class= +"smcap">—Meiklejohn</span></p> +<p>Grammar teaches the laws of language, and the right method of +using it in speaking and writing.<span class= +"smcap">—Patterson</span></p> +<p>Grammar is the science of <i>letter</i>; hence the science of +using words correctly.<span class="smcap">—Abbott</span></p> +<p>The English word <i>grammar</i> relates only to the laws which +govern the significant forms of words, and the construction of the +sentence.<span class="smcap">—Richard Grant White</span></p> +</div> +<p>These are sufficient to suggest several distinct notions about +English grammar—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Synopsis of the above.</i></div> +<p>(1) It makes rules to tell us how to use words.</p> +<p>(2) It is a record of usage which we ought to follow.</p> +<p>(3) It is concerned with the <i>forms</i> of the language.</p> +<p>(4) English <i>has</i> no grammar in the sense of forms, or +inflections, but takes account merely of the nature and the uses of +words in sentences.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The older idea and its origin.</i></div> +<p>Fierce discussions have raged over these opinions, and numerous +works have been written to uphold the theories. The first of them +remained popular for a very long time. It originated from <a name= +"Page_10" id="Page_10"></a>the etymology of the word <i>grammar</i> +(Greek <i>gramma</i>, writing, a letter), and from an effort to +build up a treatise on English grammar by using classical grammar +as a model.</p> +<p>Perhaps a combination of (1) and (3) has been still more +popular, though there has been vastly more classification than +there are forms.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The opposite view</i>.</div> +<p>During recent years, (2) and (4) have been gaining ground, but +they have had hard work to displace the older and more popular +theories. It is insisted by many that the student's time should be +used in studying general literature, and thus learning the fluent +and correct use of his mother tongue. It is also insisted that the +study and discussion of forms and inflections is an inexcusable +imitation of classical treatises.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The difficulty</i>.</div> +<p>Which view shall the student of English accept? Before this is +answered, we should decide whether some one of the above theories +must be taken as the right one, and the rest disregarded.</p> +<p>The real reason for the diversity of views is a confusion of two +distinct things,—what the <i>definition</i> of grammar should +be, and what the <i>purpose</i> of grammar should be.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The material of grammar</i>.</div> +<p>The province of English grammar is, rightly considered, wider +than is indicated by any one of the above definitions; and the +student ought to have a clear idea of the ground to be covered.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Few inflections</i>.</div> +<p>It must be admitted that the language has very few inflections +at present, as compared with Latin or Greek; so that a small +grammar will hold them all.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Making rules is risky</i>.</div> +<p>It is also evident, to those who have studied the <a name= +"Page_11" id="Page_11"></a>language historically, that it is very +hazardous to make rules in grammar: what is at present regarded as +correct may not be so twenty years from now, even if our rules are +founded on the keenest scrutiny of the "standard" writers of our +time. Usage is varied as our way of thinking changes. In Chaucer's +time two or three negatives were used to strengthen a negation; as, +"Ther <i>nas no</i> man <i>nowher</i> so vertuous" (There never was +no man nowhere so virtuous). And Shakespeare used good English when +he said <i>more elder</i> ("Merchant of Venice") and <i>most +unkindest</i> ("Julius Cæsar"); but this is bad English +now.</p> +<p>If, however, we have tabulated the inflections of the language, +and stated what syntax is the most used in certain troublesome +places, there is still much for the grammarian to do.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A broader view</i>.</div> +<p>Surely our noble language, with its enormous vocabulary, its +peculiar and abundant idioms, its numerous periphrastic forms to +express every possible shade of meaning, is worthy of serious +study, apart from the mere memorizing of inflections and +formulation of rules.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Mental training. An æsthetic +benefit.</i></div> +<p>Grammar is eminently a means of mental training; and while it +will train the student in subtle and acute reasoning, it will at +the same time, if rightly presented, lay the foundation of a keen +observation and a correct literary taste. The continued contact +with the highest thoughts of the best minds will create a thirst +for the "well of English undefiled."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>What grammar is</i>.</div> +<p>Coming back, then, from the question, <i>What ground should +grammar cover?</i> we come to answer <a name="Page_12" id= +"Page_12"></a>the question, <i>What should grammar teach?</i> and +we give as an answer the definition,—</p> +<p><i>English grammar is the science which treats of the nature of +words, their forms, and their uses and relations in the +sentence</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The work it will cover.</i></div> +<p>This will take in the usual divisions, "The Parts of Speech" +(with their inflections), "Analysis," and "Syntax." It will also +require a discussion of any points that will clear up difficulties, +assist the classification of kindred expressions, or draw the +attention of the student to everyday idioms and phrases, and thus +incite his observation.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Authority as a basis</i>.</div> +<p>A few words here as to the <i>authority</i> upon which grammar +rests.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Literary English</i>.</div> +<p>The statements given will be substantiated by quotations from +the leading or "standard" literature of modern times; that is, from +the eighteenth century on. This <i>literary English</i> is +considered the foundation on which grammar must rest.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Spoken English</i>.</div> +<p>Here and there also will be quoted words and phrases from +<i>spoken</i> or <i>colloquial English</i>, by which is meant the +free, unstudied expressions of ordinary conversation and +communication among intelligent people.</p> +<p>These quotations will often throw light on obscure +constructions, since they preserve turns of expressions that have +long since perished from the literary or standard English.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Vulgar English</i>.</div> +<p>Occasionally, too, reference will be made to <i>vulgar +English,</i>—the speech of the uneducated and +ignorant,—which will serve to illustrate points of syntax +once correct, or standard, but now undoubtedly bad grammar.</p> +<p><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"></a>The following pages will +cover, then, three divisions:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>Part I. The Parts of Speech, and Inflections.</p> +<p>Part II. Analysis of Sentences.</p> +<p>Part III. The Uses of Words, or Syntax.</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="PART_I" id="PART_I"></a><a name="Page_16" id= +"Page_16"></a>PART I.</h2> +<h3><i>THE PARTS OF SPEECH</i>.</h3> +<h2><a name="NOUNS" id="NOUNS"></a><a name="Page_17" id= +"Page_17"></a><b>NOUNS.</b></h2> +<p><span class="sn"><b>1.</b></span> In the more simple +<i>state</i> of the <i>Arabs</i>, the <i>nation</i> is free, +because each of her <i>sons</i> disdains a base <i>submission</i> +to the <i>will</i> of a <i>master</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Gibbon.</span></p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Name words</i></div> +<p>By examining this sentence we notice several words used as +names. The plainest name is <i>Arabs</i>, which belongs to a +people; but, besides this one, the words <i>sons</i> and +<i>master</i> name objects, and may belong to any of those objects. +The words <i>state, submission,</i> and <i>will</i> are evidently +names of a different kind, as they stand for ideas, not objects; +and the word <i>nation</i> stands for a whole group.</p> +<p>When the meaning of each of these words has once been +understood, the word naming it will always call up the thing or +idea itself. Such words are called <b>nouns</b>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>2.</b></span> A noun is a name word, +representing directly to the mind an object, substance, or +idea.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Classes of nouns</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>3.</b></span> Nouns are classified as +follows:—</p> +<p>(1) <b>Proper.</b><br /> +<br /> +(2) <b>Common.</b> (a) CLASS NAMES: i. Individual.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 14em;">ii. Collective.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 5.5em;">(b) MATERIAL.</span><br /> +<br /> +(3) <b>Abstract.</b> (a) ATTRIBUTE.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 5.5em;">(b) VERBAL</span><br /></p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a><i>Names +for special objects.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>4.</b></span> A <b>proper noun</b> is a name +applied to a particular object, whether person, place, or +thing.</p> +<p>It specializes or limits the thing to which it is applied, +reducing it to a narrow application. Thus, <i>city</i> is a word +applied to any one of its kind; but <i>Chicago</i> names one city, +and fixes the attention upon that particular city. <i>King</i> may +be applied to any ruler of a kingdom, but <i>Alfred the Great</i> +is the name of one king only.</p> +<p>The word <i>proper</i> is from a Latin word meaning <i>limited, +belonging to one</i>. This does not imply, however, that a proper +name can be applied to only one object, but that each time such a +name is applied it is fixed or proper to that object. Even if there +are several Bostons or Manchesters, the name of each is an +individual or proper name.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Name for any individual of a +class.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>5.</b></span> A <b>common noun</b> is a name +possessed by <i>any</i> one of a class of persons, animals, or +things.</p> +<p><i>Common</i>, as here used, is from a Latin word which means +<i>general, possessed by all</i>.</p> +<p>For instance, <i>road</i> is a word that names <i>any</i> +highway outside of cities; <i>wagon</i> is a term that names +<i>any</i> vehicle of a certain kind used for hauling: the words +are of the widest application. We may say, <i>the man here</i>, or +<i>the man in front of you</i>, but the word <i>man</i> is here +hedged in by other words or word groups: the name itself is of +general application.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Name for a group or collection of +objects.</i></div> +<p>Besides considering persons, animals, and things separately, we +may think of them in groups, and appropriate names to the +groups.</p> +<p><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a>Thus, men in groups may be +called a <i>crowd</i>, or a <i>mob</i>, a <i>committee</i>, or a +<i>council</i>, or a <i>congress</i>, etc.</p> +<p>These are called <b>COLLECTIVE NOUNS</b>. They properly belong +under common nouns, because each group is considered as a unit, and +the name applied to it belongs to any group of its class.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Names for things thought of in +mass.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>6.</b></span> The definition given for +common nouns applies more strictly to class nouns. It may, however, +be correctly used for another group of nouns detailed below; for +they are common nouns in the sense that the names apply to <i>every +particle of similar substance</i>, instead of to each individual or +separate object.</p> +<p>They are called <b>MATERIAL NOUNS</b>. Such are <i>glass</i>, +<i>iron</i>, <i>clay</i>, <i>frost</i>, <i>rain</i>, <i>snow</i>, +<i>wheat</i>, <i>wine</i>, <i>tea</i>, <i>sugar</i>, etc.</p> +<p>They may be placed in groups as follows:—</p> +<p>(1) The metals: <i>iron</i>, <i>gold</i>, <i>platinum</i>, +etc.</p> +<p>(2) Products spoken of in bulk: <i>tea</i>, <i>sugar</i>, +<i>rice</i>, <i>wheat</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(3) Geological bodies: <i>mud</i>, <i>sand</i>, <i>granite</i>, +<i>rock</i>, <i>stone</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(4) Natural phenomena: <i>rain</i>, <i>dew</i>, <i>cloud</i>, +<i>frost</i>, <i>mist</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(5) Various manufactures: <i>cloth</i> (and the different kinds +of cloth), <i>potash</i>, <i>soap</i>, <i>rubber</i>, <i>paint</i>, +<i>celluloid</i>, etc.</p> +<p><b>7. NOTE.</b>—There are some nouns, such as <i>sun</i>, +<i>moon</i>, <i>earth</i>, which seem to be the names of particular +individual objects, but which are not called proper names.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"></a><i>Words +naturally of limited application not proper.</i></div> +<p>The reason is, that in proper names the intention is <i>to +exclude</i> all other individuals of the same class, and fasten a +special name to the object considered, as in calling a city +<i>Cincinnati</i>; but in the words <i>sun</i>, <i>earth</i>, etc., +there is no such intention. If several bodies like the center of +our solar system are known, they also are called <i>suns</i> by a +natural extension of the term: so with the words <i>earth</i>, +<i>world</i>, etc. They remain common class names.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Names of ideas, not things.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>8.</b></span> <b>Abstract nouns</b> are +names of qualities, conditions, or actions, considered abstractly, +or apart from their natural connection.</p> +<p>When we speak of a <i>wise man</i>, we recognize in him an +attribute or quality. If we wish to think simply of that quality +without describing the person, we speak of the <i>wisdom</i> of the +man. The quality is still there as much as before, but it is taken +merely as a name. So <i>poverty</i> would express the condition of +a poor person; <i>proof</i> means the act of proving, or that which +shows a thing has been proved; and so on.</p> +<p>Again, we may say, "<i>Painting</i> is a fine art," +"<i>Learning</i> is hard to acquire," "a man of +<i>understanding</i>."</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>9.</b></span> There are two chief divisions +of abstract nouns:—</p> +<p>(1) ATTRIBUTE NOUNS, expressing attributes or qualities.</p> +<p>(2) VERBAL NOUNS, expressing state, condition, or action.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Attribute abstract nouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>10.</b></span> The ATTRIBUTE ABSTRACT NOUNS +are derived from adjectives and from common nouns. Thus, <a name= +"Page_21" id="Page_21"></a>(1) <i>prudence</i> from <i>prudent</i>, +<i>height</i> from <i>high</i>, <i>redness</i> from <i>red</i>, +<i>stupidity</i> from <i>stupid</i>, etc.; (2) <i>peerage</i> from +<i>peer</i>, <i>childhood</i> from <i>child</i>, <i>mastery</i> +from <i>master</i>, <i>kingship</i> from <i>king</i>, etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Verbal abstract nouns.</i></div> +<p><b>II.</b> The VERBAL ABSTRACT NOUNS Originate in verbs, as +their name implies. They may be—</p> +<p>(1) Of the same form as the simple verb. The verb, by altering +its function, is used as a noun; as in the expressions, "a long +<i>run</i>" "a bold <i>move</i>," "a brisk <i>walk</i>."</p> +<p>(2) Derived from verbs by changing the ending or adding a +suffix: <i>motion</i> from <i>move</i>, <i>speech</i> from +<i>speak</i>, <i>theft</i> from <i>thieve</i>, <i>action</i> from +<i>act</i>, <i>service</i> from <i>serve</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Caution.</i></div> +<p>(3) Derived from verbs by adding <i>-ing</i> to the simple verb. +It must be remembered that these words are <i>free from any verbal +function</i>. They cannot govern a word, and they cannot +<i>express</i> action, but are merely <i>names</i> of actions. They +are only the husks of verbs, and are to be rigidly distinguished +from <i>gerunds</i> (Secs. 272, 273).</p> +<p>To avoid difficulty, study carefully these examples:</p> +<p>The best thoughts and <i>sayings</i> of the Greeks; the moon +caused fearful <i>forebodings</i>; in the <i>beginning</i> of his +life; he spread his <i>blessings</i> over the land; the great +Puritan <i>awakening</i>; our birth is but a sleep and a +<i>forgetting</i>; a <i>wedding</i> or a festival; the rude +<i>drawings</i> of the book; masterpieces of the Socratic +<i>reasoning</i>; the <i>teachings</i> of the High Spirit; those +opinions and <i>feelings</i>; there is time for such +<i>reasonings</i>; the <i>well-being</i> of her subjects; her +<i>longing</i> for their favor; <i>feelings</i> which their +original <i>meaning</i> will by no means justify; the main +<i>bearings</i> of this matter.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_22" id= +"Page_22"></a><i>Underived abstract nouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>12.</b></span> Some abstract nouns were not +derived from any other part of speech, but were framed directly for +the expression of certain ideas or phenomena. Such are +<i>beauty</i>, <i>joy</i>, <i>hope</i>, <i>ease</i>, <i>energy</i>; +<i>day</i>, <i>night</i>, <i>summer</i>, <i>winter</i>; +<i>shadow</i>, <i>lightning</i>, <i>thunder</i>, etc.</p> +<p>The adjectives or verbs corresponding to these are either +themselves derived from the nouns or are totally different words; +as <i>glad</i>—<i>joy</i>, <i>hopeful</i>—<i>hope</i>, +etc.</p> +<h4>Exercises.</h4> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. From your reading bring up sentences containing ten common +nouns, five proper, five abstract.</p> +</div> +<p>NOTE.—Remember that all sentences are to be +<i>selected</i> from standard literature.</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>2. Under what class of nouns would you place (<i>a</i>) the +names of diseases, as <i>pneumonia</i>, <i>pleurisy</i>, +<i>catarrh</i>, <i>typhus</i>, <i>diphtheria</i>; (<i>b</i>) +branches of knowledge, as <i>physics</i>, <i>algebra</i>, +<i>geology</i>, <i>mathematics</i>?</p> +<p>3. Mention collective nouns that will embrace groups of each of +the following individual nouns:—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>man</li> +<li>horse</li> +<li>bird</li> +<li>fish</li> +<li>partridge</li> +<li>pupil</li> +<li>bee</li> +<li>soldier</li> +<li>book</li> +<li>sailor</li> +<li>child</li> +<li>sheep</li> +<li>ship</li> +<li>ruffian</li> +</ul> +<p>4. Using a dictionary, tell from what word each of these +abstract nouns is derived:—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>sight</li> +<li>speech</li> +<li>motion</li> +<li>pleasure</li> +<li>patience</li> +<li>friendship</li> +<li>deceit</li> +<li>bravery</li> +<li>height</li> +<li>width</li> +<li>wisdom</li> +<li>regularity</li> +<li>advice</li> +<li>seizure</li> +<li>nobility</li> +<li>relief</li> +<li>death</li> +<li>raid</li> +<li>honesty</li> +<li>judgment</li> +<li>belief</li> +<li>occupation</li> +<li>justice</li> +<li>service</li> +<li>trail</li> +<li>feeling</li> +<li>choice</li> +<li>simplicity</li> +</ul> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"></a><b>SPECIAL USES OF +NOUNS.</b></p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Nouns change by use.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>13.</b></span> By being used so as to vary +their usual meaning, nouns of one class may be made to approach +another class, or to go over to it entirely. Since words alter +their meaning so rapidly by a widening or narrowing of their +application, we shall find numerous examples of this shifting from +class to class; but most of them are in the following groups. For +further discussion see the remarks on articles (p. 119).</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Proper names transferred to common +use.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>14.</b></span> <b>Proper nouns are used as +common</b> in either of two ways:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>The origin of a thing is used for the thing itself</i>: +that is, the name of the inventor may be applied to the thing +invented, as a <i>davy</i>, meaning the miner's lamp invented by +Sir Humphry Davy; the <i>guillotine</i>, from the name of Dr. +Guillotin, who was its inventor. Or the name of the country or city +from which an article is derived is used for the article: as +<i>china</i>, from China; <i>arras</i>, from a town in France; +<i>port</i> (wine), from Oporto, in Portugal; <i>levant</i> and +<i>morocco</i> (leather).</p> +<p>Some of this class have become worn by use so that at present we +can scarcely discover the derivation from the form of the word; for +example, the word <i>port</i>, above. Others of similar character +are <i>calico</i>, from Calicut; <i>damask</i>, from Damascus; +<i>currants</i>, from Corinth; etc.</p> +<p>(2) <i>The name of a person or place noted for certain qualities +is transferred to any person or place possessing those +qualities</i>; thus,—<a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Hercules and Samson were noted for their strength, and we call a +very strong man <i>a Hercules</i> or <i>a Samson</i>. Sodom was +famous for wickedness, and a similar place is called <i>a Sodom</i> +of sin.</p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>A Daniel</i> come to judgment!<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If it prove a mind of uncommon activity and power, <i>a +Locke</i>, <i>a Lavoisier</i>, <i>a Hutton</i>, <i>a Bentham</i>, +<i>a Fourier</i>, it imposes its classification on other men, and +lo! a new system.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Names for things in bulk altered for +separate portions.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>15.</b></span> <b>Material nouns may be used +as class names.</b> Instead of considering the whole body of +material of which certain uses are made, one can speak of +particular uses or phases of the substance; as—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Of individual objects</i> made from metals or other +substances capable of being wrought into various shapes. We know a +number of objects made of iron. The material <i>iron</i> embraces +the metal contained in them all; but we may say, "The cook made the +<i>irons</i> hot," referring to flat-irons; or, "The sailor was put +in <i>irons</i>" meaning chains of iron. So also we may speak of +<i>a glass</i> to drink from or to look into; <i>a steel</i> to +whet a knife on; <i>a rubber</i> for erasing marks; and so on.</p> +<p>(2) <i>Of classes</i> or <i>kinds</i> of the same substance. +These are the same in material, but differ in strength, purity, +etc. Hence it shortens speech to make the nouns plural, and say +<i>teas</i>, <i>tobaccos</i>, <i>paints</i>, <i>oils</i>, +<i>candies</i>, <i>clays</i>, <i>coals</i>.</p> +<p>(3) <i>By poetical use</i>, of certain words necessarily +singular in idea, which are made plural, or used as class nouns, as +in the following:—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The lone and level <i>sands</i> stretch +far away.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"></a> +<span class="i10">From all around—<br /></span> <span>Earth +and her <i>waters</i>, and the depths of air—<br /></span> +<span>Comes a still voice.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">—Bryant.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i10">Their airy ears<br /></span> +<span><i>The winds</i> have stationed on the mountain +peaks.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Percival.</span></div> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>Of detached portions</i> of matter used as class names; +as <i>stones</i>, <i>slates</i>, <i>papers</i>, <i>tins</i>, +<i>clouds</i>, <i>mists</i>, etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Personification of abstract +ideas.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>16.</b></span> <b>Abstract nouns are +frequently used as proper names</b> by being personified; that is, +the ideas are spoken of as residing in living beings. This is a +poetic usage, though not confined to verse.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Next <i>Anger</i> rushed; his eyes, on +fire,<br /></span> <span class="i2">In lightnings owned his secret +stings.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Collins.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Freedom's</i> fame finds wings on every wind.<span class= +"smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p><i>Death</i>, his mask melting like a nightmare dream, +smiled.<span class="smcap">—Hayne.</span></p> +<p><i>Traffic</i> has lain down to rest; and only <i>Vice</i> and +<i>Misery</i>, to prowl or to moan like night birds, are +abroad.<span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A halfway class of words. Class nouns in +use, abstract in meaning.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>17.</b></span> <b>Abstract nouns are made +half abstract</b> by being spoken of in the plural.</p> +<p>They are not then pure abstract nouns, nor are they common class +nouns. For example, examine this:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The <i>arts</i> differ from the <i>sciences</i> in this, that +their power is founded not merely on <i>facts</i> which can be +communicated, but on <i>dispositions</i> which require to be +created.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +</div> +<p>When it is said that <i>art</i> differs from <i>science</i>, +that the power of art is founded on <i>fact</i>, that +<i>disposition</i> is the thing to be created, the words italicized +are pure abstract nouns; but in case <i>an art</i> or <i>a +science</i>, or <i>the arts</i> and <i>sciences</i>, be spoken of, +the <a name="Page_26" id="Page_26"></a>abstract idea is partly +lost. The words preceded by the article <i>a</i>, or made plural, +are still names of abstract ideas, not material things; but they +widen the application to separate kinds of <i>art</i> or different +branches of <i>science</i>. They are neither class nouns nor pure +abstract nouns: they are more properly called <i>half +abstract</i>.</p> +<p>Test this in the following sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Let us, if we must have great <i>actions</i>, make our own +so.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>And still, as each repeated <i>pleasure</i> tired, Succeeding +<i>sports</i> the mirthful band inspired.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>But ah! those <i>pleasures</i>, +<i>loves</i>, and <i>joys</i><br /></span> <span class="i4">Which I +too keenly taste,<br /></span> <span>The Solitary can +despise.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Burns.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>All these, however, were mere <i>terrors</i> of the +night.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>By ellipses, nouns used to +modify.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>18.</b></span> <b>Nouns used as descriptive +terms.</b> Sometimes a noun is attached to another noun to add to +its meaning, or describe it; for example, "a <i>family</i> +quarrel," "a <i>New York</i> bank," "the <i>State Bank Tax</i> +bill," "a <i>morning</i> walk."</p> +<p>It is evident that these approach very near to the function of +adjectives. But it is better to consider them as nouns, for these +reasons: they do not give up their identity as nouns; they do not +express quality; they cannot be compared, as descriptive adjectives +are.</p> +<p>They are more like the possessive noun, which belongs to another +word, but is still a noun. They may be regarded as elliptical +expressions, meaning a walk <i>in the morning</i>, a bank <i>in New +York</i>, a bill <i>as to tax on the banks</i>, etc.</p> +<p><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"></a>NOTE.—If the +descriptive word be a <i>material</i> noun, it may be regarded as +changed to an adjective. The term "<i>gold</i> pen" conveys the +same idea as "<i>golden</i> pen," which contains a pure +adjective.</p> +<p><b>WORDS AND WORD GROUPS USED AS NOUNS</b>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The noun may borrow from any part of +speech, or from any expression.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>19.</b></span> Owing to the scarcity of +distinctive forms, and to the consequent flexibility of English +speech, words which are usually other parts of speech are often +used as nouns; and various word groups may take the place of nouns +by being used as nouns.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Adjectives, Conjunctions, +Adverbs.</i></div> +<p>(1) <i>Other parts of speech</i> used as nouns:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>The great</i>, <i>the wealthy</i>, fear thy blow.<span class= +"smcap">—Burns.</span></p> +<p>Every <i>why</i> hath a <i>wherefore</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>When I was young? Ah, woeful +<i>When</i>!<br /></span> <span>Ah! for the change 'twixt +<i>Now</i> and <i>Then</i>!<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge.</span></div> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>Certain word groups</i> used like single +nouns:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Too swift</i> arrives as tardy as <i>too +slow</i>.<span class="smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Then comes the "<i>Why, sir</i>!" and the "<i>What then, +sir</i>?" and the "<i>No, sir</i>!" and the "<i>You don't see your +way through the question, sir</i>!"<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) Any part of speech may be considered merely as a word, +without reference to its function in the sentence; also titles of +books are treated as simple nouns.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The <i>it</i>, at the beginning, is ambiguous, whether it mean +the sun or the cold.—Dr BLAIR</p> +<p>In this definition, is the word "<i>just</i>," or +"<i>legal</i>," finally to stand?<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>There was also a book of Defoe's called an "<i>Essay on +Projects</i>," and another of Dr. Mather's called "<i>Essays to do +Good</i>."—B. FRANKLIN.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_28" id= +"Page_28"></a><i>Caution.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>20.</b></span> It is to be remembered, +however, that the above cases are shiftings of the <i>use</i>, of +words rather than of their <i>meaning</i>. We seldom find instances +of complete conversion of one part of speech into another.</p> +<p>When, in a sentence above, the terms <i>the great</i>, <i>the +wealthy</i>, are used, they are not names only: we have in mind the +idea of persons and the quality of being <i>great</i> or +<i>wealthy</i>. The words are used in the sentence where nouns are +used, but have an adjectival meaning.</p> +<p>In the other sentences, <i>why</i> and <i>wherefore</i>, +<i>When</i>, <i>Now</i>, and <i>Then</i>, are spoken of as if pure +nouns; but still the reader considers this not a natural +application of them as name words, but as a figure of speech.</p> +<p>NOTE.—These remarks do not apply, of course, to such words +as become pure nouns by use. There are many of these. The adjective +<i>good</i> has no claim on the noun <i>goods</i>; so, too, in +speaking of the <i>principal</i> of a school, or a state +<i>secret</i>, or a faithful <i>domestic</i>, or a <i>criminal</i>, +etc., the words are entirely independent of any adjective +force.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Pick out the nouns in the following sentences, and tell to which +class each belongs. Notice if any have shifted from one class to +another.</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Hope springs eternal in the human breast.</p> +<p>2. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of Fate.</p> +<p>3.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Stone walls do not a prison +make.<br /></span> <span class="i2">Nor iron bars a +cage.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>4. Truth-teller was our England's Alfred named.</p> +<p>5. A great deal of talent is lost to the world for want of a +little courage.</p> +<p>6.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Power laid his rod aside,<br /></span> +<span>And Ceremony doff'd her pride.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<a name="Page_29" id="Page_29"></a> +<p>7. She sweeps it through the court with troops of ladies.</p> +<p>8. Learning, that cobweb of the brain.</p> +<p>9.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>A little weeping would ease my +heart;<br /></span> <span class="i2">But in their briny +bed<br /></span> <span>My tears must stop, for every +drop<br /></span> <span class="i2">Hinders needle and +thread.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>10. A fool speaks all his mind, but a wise man reserves +something for hereafter.</p> +<p>11. Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much; Wisdom is +humble that he knows no more.</p> +<p>12. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast.</p> +<p>13.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And see, he cried, the +welcome,<br /></span> <span>Fair guests, that waits you +here.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>14. The fleet, shattered and disabled, returned to Spain.</p> +<p>15. One To-day is worth two To-morrows.</p> +<p>16. Vessels carrying coal are constantly moving.</p> +<p>17.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Some mute inglorious Milton here may +rest,<br /></span> <span class="i2">Some Cromwell guiltless of his +country's blood.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>18. And oft we trod a waste of pearly sands.</p> +<p>19.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>A man he seems of cheerful +yesterdays<br /></span> <span class="i2">And confident +to-morrows.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>20. The hours glide by; the silver moon is gone.</p> +<p>21. Her robes of silk and velvet came from over the sea.</p> +<p>22. My soldier cousin was once only a drummer boy.</p> +<p>23.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>But pleasures are like poppies +spread,<br /></span> <span>You seize the flower, its bloom is +shed.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>24. All that thou canst call thine own Lies in thy To-day.</p> +</div> +<h3>INFLECTIONS OF NOUNS.</h3> +<h3>GENDER.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>What gender means in English. It is +founded on sex.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>21.</b></span> In Latin, Greek, German, and +many other languages, some general rules are given that names of +male beings are usually masculine, and names of females are usually +feminine. There are exceptions even to this general statement, but +not so in <a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a>English. Male beings +are, in English grammar, always masculine; female, always +feminine.</p> +<p>When, however, <i>inanimate</i> things are spoken of, these +languages are totally unlike our own in determining the gender of +words. For instance: in Latin, <i>hortus</i> (garden) is masculine, +<i>mensa</i> (table) is feminine, <i>corpus</i> (body) is neuter; +in German, <i>das Messer</i> (knife) is neuter, <i>der Tisch</i> +(table) is masculine, <i>die Gabel</i> (fork) is feminine.</p> +<p>The great difference is, that in English the gender follows the +<i>meaning</i> of the word, in other languages gender follows the +<i>form</i>; that is, in English, gender depends on <i>sex</i>: if +a thing spoken of is of the male sex, the <i>name</i> of it is +masculine; if of the female sex, the <i>name</i> of it is feminine. +Hence:</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>22.</b></span> <b>Gender</b> is the mode of +distinguishing sex by words, or additions to words.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>23.</b></span> It is evident from this that +English can have but two genders,—<b>masculine</b> and +<b>feminine</b>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Gender nouns. Neuter nouns.</i></div> +<p>All nouns, then, must be divided into two principal +classes,—<b>gender nouns</b>, those distinguishing the sex of +the object; and <b>neuter nouns</b>, those which do not distinguish +sex, or names of things without life, and consequently without +sex.</p> +<p>Gender nouns include names of persons and some names of animals; +neuter nouns include some animals and all inanimate objects.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Some words either gender or neuter nouns, +according to use.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>24.</b></span> Some words may be either +gender nouns or neuter nouns, according to their use. Thus, the +word <i>child</i> is neuter in the sentence, "A little <i>child</i> +<a name="Page_31" id="Page_31"></a>shall lead them," but is +masculine in the sentence from Wordsworth,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i10">I have seen<br /></span> +<span>A curious <i>child</i> ... applying to <i>his</i> +ear<br /></span> <span>The convolutions of a smooth-lipped +shell.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>Of animals, those with which man comes in contact often, or +which arouse his interest most, are named by gender nouns, as in +these sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Before the barn door strutted the gallant <i>cock</i>, that +pattern of a husband, ... clapping <i>his</i> burnished +wings.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p><i>Gunpowder</i> ... came to a stand just by the bridge, with a +suddenness that had nearly sent <i>his</i> rider sprawling over +<i>his</i> head—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>Other animals are not distinguished as to sex, but are spoken of +as neuter, the sex being of no consequence.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Not a <i>turkey</i> but he [Ichabod] beheld daintily trussed up, +with <i>its</i> gizzard under <i>its</i> wing.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>He next stooped down to feel the <i>pig</i>, if there were any +signs of life in <i>it</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Lamb.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>No "common gender.</i>"</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>25.</b></span> According to the definition, +there can be no such thing as "common gender:" words either +distinguish sex (or the sex is distinguished by the context) or +else they do not distinguish sex.</p> +<p>If such words as <i>parent</i>, <i>servant</i>, <i>teacher</i>, +<i>ruler</i>, <i>relative</i>, <i>cousin</i>, <i>domestic</i>, +etc., do not show the sex to which the persons belong, they are +neuter words.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>26.</b></span> Put in convenient form, the +division of words according to sex, or the lack of it, +is,—</p> +<p><span style="margin-left: 7em;">(MASCULINE: Male +beings.</span><br /> +<b>Gender nouns</b> {<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 7em;">(FEMININE: Female +beings.</span><br /></p> +<p><b>Neuter nouns:</b> Names of inanimate things, or of living +beings whose sex cannot be determined.</p> +<p><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a><span class= +"sn"><b>27.</b></span> The inflections for gender belong, of +course, only to masculine and feminine nouns. <i>Forms</i> would be +a more accurate word than <i>inflections</i>, since inflection +applies only to the <i>case</i> of nouns.</p> +<p>There are three ways to distinguish the genders:—</p> +<p>(1) By prefixing a gender word to another word.</p> +<p>(2) By adding a suffix, generally to a masculine word.</p> +<p>(3) By using a different word for each gender.</p> +<h3>I. Gender shown by Prefixes.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Very few of class I.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>28.</b></span> Usually the gender words +<i>he</i> and <i>she</i> are prefixed to neuter words; as +<i>he-goat</i>—<i>she-goat</i>, <i>cock +sparrow</i>—<i>hen sparrow</i>, +<i>he-bear</i>—<i>she-bear</i>.</p> +<p>One feminine, <i>woman</i>, puts a prefix before the masculine +<i>man</i>. <i>Woman</i> is a short way of writing +<i>wifeman</i>.</p> +<h3>II. Gender shown by Suffixes.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>29.</b></span> By far the largest number of +gender words are those marked by suffixes. In this particular the +native endings have been largely supplanted by foreign +suffixes.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Native suffixes.</i></div> +<p>The <b>native suffixes</b> to indicate the feminine were +<i>-en</i> and <i>-ster</i>. These remain in <i>vixen</i> and +<i>spinster</i>, though both words have lost their original +meanings.</p> +<p>The word <i>vixen</i> was once used as the feminine of +<i>fox</i> by the Southern-English. For <i>fox</i> <a name= +"Page_33" id="Page_33"></a>they said <i>vox</i>; for <i>from</i> +they said <i>vram</i>; and for the older word <i>fat</i> they said +<i>vat</i>, as in <i>wine vat</i>. Hence <i>vixen</i> is for +<i>fyxen</i>, from the masculine <i>fox</i>.</p> +<p><i>Spinster</i> is a relic of a large class of words that +existed in Old and Middle English,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id= +"FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> but +have now lost their original force as feminines. The old masculine +answering to <i>spinster</i> was <i>spinner</i>; but +<i>spinster</i> has now no connection with it.</p> +<p>The <b>foreign suffixes</b> are of two kinds:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Foreign suffixes. Unaltered and little +used.</i></div> +<p>(1) Those belonging to borrowed words, as <i>czarina</i>, +<i>señorita</i>, <i>executrix</i>, <i>donna</i>. These are +attached to foreign words, and are never used for words recognized +as English.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Slightly changed and widely +used.</i></div> +<p>(2) That regarded as the standard or regular termination of the +feminine, <i>-ess</i> (French <i>esse</i>, Low Latin <i>issa</i>), +the one most used. The corresponding masculine may have the ending +<i>-er</i> (<i>-or</i>), but in most cases it has not. Whenever we +adopt a new masculine word, the feminine is formed by adding this +termination <i>-ess</i>.</p> +<p>Sometimes the <i>-ess</i> has been added to a word already +feminine by the ending <i>-ster</i>; as <i>seam-str-ess</i>, +<i>song-str-ess</i>. The ending <i>-ster</i> had then lost its +force as a feminine suffix; it has none now in the words +<i>huckster</i>, <i>gamester</i>, <i>trickster</i>, +<i>punster</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34"></a><i>Ending +of masculine not changed.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>30.</b></span> The ending <i>-ess</i> is +added to many words without changing the ending of the masculine; +as,—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>baron—baroness</li> +<li>count—countess</li> +<li>lion—lioness</li> +<li>Jew—Jewess</li> +<li>heir—heiress</li> +<li>host—hostess</li> +<li>priest—priestess</li> +<li>giant—giantess</li> +</ul> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Masculine ending dropped.</i></div> +<p>The masculine ending may be dropped before the feminine +<i>-ess</i> is added; as,—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>abbot—abbess</li> +<li>negro—negress</li> +<li>murderer—murderess</li> +<li>sorcerer—sorceress</li> +</ul> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Vowel dropped before adding</i> +-ess.</div> +<p>The feminine may discard a vowel which appears in the masculine; +as in—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>actor—actress</li> +<li>master—mistress</li> +<li>benefactor—benefactress</li> +<li>emperor—empress</li> +<li>tiger—tigress</li> +<li>enchanter—enchantress</li> +</ul> +<p><i>Empress</i> has been cut down from <i>emperice</i> (twelfth +century) and <i>emperesse</i> (thirteenth century), from Latin +<i>imperatricem</i>.</p> +<p><i>Master</i> and <i>mistress</i> were in Middle English +<i>maister</i>—<i>maistresse</i>, from the Old French +<i>maistre</i>—<i>maistresse</i>.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>31.</b></span> When the older <i>-en</i> and +<i>-ster</i> went out of use as the distinctive mark of the +feminine, the ending <i>-ess</i>, from the French <i>-esse</i>, +sprang into a popularity much greater than at present.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Ending</i> -ess <i>less used now than +formerly.</i></div> +<p>Instead of saying <i>doctress</i>, <i>fosteress</i>, +<i>wagoness</i>, as was said in the sixteenth century, or +<i>servauntesse</i>, <i>teacheresse</i>, <i>neighboresse</i>, +<i>frendesse</i>, as in the fourteenth century, we have dispensed +with the ending <a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a>in many cases, +and either use a prefix word or leave the masculine to do work for +the feminine also.</p> +<p>Thus, we say <i>doctor</i> (masculine and feminine) or <i>woman +doctor</i>, <i>teacher</i> or <i>lady teacher</i>, <i>neighbor</i> +(masculine and feminine), etc. We frequently use such words as +<i>author</i>, <i>editor</i>, <i>chairman</i>, to represent persons +of either sex.</p> +<p>NOTE.—There is perhaps this distinction observed: when we +speak of a female <i>as an active agent</i> merely, we use the +masculine termination, as, "George Eliot is the <i>author</i> of +'Adam Bede;'" but when we speak purposely <i>to denote a +distinction from a male</i>, we use the feminine, as, "George Eliot +is an eminent <i>authoress</i>."</p> +<h3>III. Gender shown by Different Words.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>32.</b></span> In some of these pairs, the +feminine and the masculine are entirely different words; others +have in their origin the same root. Some of them have an +interesting history, and will be noted below:—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>bachelor—maid</li> +<li>boy—girl</li> +<li>brother—sister</li> +<li>drake—duck</li> +<li>earl—countess</li> +<li>father—mother</li> +<li>gander—goose</li> +<li>hart—roe</li> +<li>horse—mare</li> +<li>husband—wife</li> +<li>king—queen</li> +<li>lord—lady</li> +<li>wizard—witch</li> +<li>nephew—niece</li> +<li>ram—ewe</li> +<li>sir—madam</li> +<li>son—daughter</li> +<li>uncle—aunt</li> +<li>bull—cow</li> +<li>boar—sow</li> +</ul> +<p><b>Girl</b> originally meant a child of either sex, and was used +for male or female until about the fifteenth century.</p> +<p><b>Drake</b> is peculiar in that it is formed from a +corresponding feminine which is no longer used. It is not connected +historically with our word <i>duck</i>, <a name="Page_36" id= +"Page_36"></a>but is derived from <i>ened</i> (duck) and an +obsolete suffix <i>rake</i> (king). Three letters of <i>ened</i> +have fallen away, leaving our word <i>drake</i>.</p> +<p><b>Gander</b> and <b>goose</b> were originally from the same +root word. <i>Goose</i> has various cognate forms in the languages +akin to English (German <i>Gans</i>, Icelandic <i>gás</i>, +Danish <i>gaas</i>, etc.). The masculine was formed by adding +<i>-a</i>, the old sign of the masculine. This <i>gansa</i> was +modified into <i>gan-ra</i>, <i>gand-ra</i>, finally <i>gander</i>; +the <i>d</i> being inserted to make pronunciation easy, as in many +other words.</p> +<p><b>Mare</b>, in Old English <i>mere</i>, had the masculine +<i>mearh</i> (horse), but this has long been obsolete.</p> +<p><b>Husband</b> and <b>wife</b> are not connected in origin. +<i>Husband</i> is a Scandinavian word (Anglo-Saxon +<i>hūsbonda</i> from Icelandic <i>hús-bóndi</i>, +probably meaning house dweller); <i>wife</i> was used in Old and +Middle English to mean woman in general.</p> +<p><b>King</b> and <b>queen</b> are said by some (Skeat, among +others) to be from the same root word, but the German etymologist +Kluge says they are not.</p> +<p><b>Lord</b> is said to be a worn-down form of the Old English +<i>hlāf-weard</i> (loaf keeper), written <i>loverd</i>, +<i>lhauerd</i>, or <i>lauerd</i> in Middle English. <b>Lady</b> is +from <i>hlœ̄̄fdige</i> +(<i>hlœ̄̄f</i> meaning loaf, and <i>dige</i> being +of uncertain origin and meaning).</p> +<p><b>Witch</b> is the Old English <i>wicce</i>, but <b>wizard</b> +is from the Old French <i>guiscart</i> (prudent), not immediately +connected with <i>witch</i>, though both are ultimately from the +same root.</p> +<p><b>Sir</b> is worn down from the Old French <i>sire</i> (Latin +<i>senior</i>). <b>Madam</b> is the French <i>ma dame</i>, from +Latin <i>mea domina</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a><i>Two +masculines from feminines.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>33.</b></span> Besides <i>gander</i> and +<i>drake</i>, there are two other masculine words that were formed +from the feminine:—</p> +<p><b>Bridegroom,</b> from Old English <i>brȳd-guma</i> +(bride's man). The <i>r</i> in <i>groom</i> has crept in from +confusion with the word <i>groom</i>.</p> +<p><b>Widower,</b> from the weakening of the ending <i>-a</i> in +Old English to <i>-e</i> in Middle English. The older forms, +<i>widuwa</i>—<i>widuwe</i>, became identical, and a new +masculine ending was therefore added to distinguish the masculine +from the feminine (compare Middle English +<i>widuer</i>—<i>widewe</i>).</p> +<h3>Personification.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>34.</b></span> Just as abstract ideas are +personified (Sec. 16), material objects may be spoken of like +gender nouns; for example,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>"Now, where the swift <i>Rhone</i> +cleaves <i>his</i> way."<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Byron.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The <i>Sun</i> now rose upon the +right:<br /></span> <span>Out of the sea came +<i>he</i>.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And haply the <i>Queen Moon</i> is on +<i>her</i> throne,<br /></span> <span>Clustered around by all her +starry Fays.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Keats.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span><i>Britannia</i> needs no +bulwarks,<br /></span> <span>No towers along the +steep;<br /></span> <span><i>Her</i> march is o'er the mountain +waves,<br /></span> <span><i>Her</i> home is on the +deep.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Campbell.</span></div> +</div> +<p>This is not exclusively a poetic use. In ordinary speech +personification is very frequent: the pilot speaks of his boat as +feminine; the engineer speaks so of his engine; etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Effect of personification.</i></div> +<p>In such cases the gender is marked by the pronoun, and not by +the form of the noun. But the fact that in English the distinction +of gender is <a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a>confined to +difference of sex makes these departures more effective.</p> +<h3>NUMBER.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>35.</b></span> In nouns, number means the +mode of indicating whether we are speaking of one thing or of more +than one.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>36.</b></span> Our language has two +numbers,—<i>singular</i> and <i>plural</i>. The singular +number denotes that one thing is spoken of; the plural, more than +one.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>37.</b></span> There are three ways of +changing the singular form to the plural:—</p> +<p>(1) By adding <i>-en</i>.</p> +<p>(2) By changing the root vowel.</p> +<p>(3) By adding <i>-s</i> (or <i>-es</i>).</p> +<p>The first two methods prevailed, together with the third, in Old +English, but in modern English <i>-s</i> or <i>-es</i> has come to +be the "standard" ending; that is, whenever we adopt a new word, we +make its plural by adding <i>-s</i> or <i>-es.</i></p> +<h3>I. Plurals formed by the Suffix <i>-en</i>.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The</i> -en <i>inflection.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>38.</b></span> This inflection remains only +in the word <b>oxen</b>, though it was quite common in Old and +Middle English; for instance, <i>eyen</i> (eyes), <i>treen</i> +(trees), <i>shoon</i> (shoes), which last is still used in Lowland +Scotch. <i>Hosen</i> is found in the King James version of the +Bible, and <i>housen</i> is still common in the provincial speech +in England.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>39.</b></span> But other words were +inflected afterwards, in imitation of the old words in <i>-en</i> +by making a double plural.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"></a>-En +<i>inflection imitated by other words.</i></div> +<p><b>Brethren</b> has passed through three stages. The old plural +was <i>brothru</i>, then <i>brothre</i> or <i>brethre</i>, finally +<i>brethren</i>. The weakening of inflections led to this +addition.</p> +<p><b>Children</b> has passed through the same history, though the +intermediate form <i>childer</i> lasted till the seventeenth +century in literary English, and is still found in dialects; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"God bless me! so then, after all, you'll have a chance to see +your <i>childer</i> get up like, and get settled."<span class= +"smcap">—Quoted By De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Kine</b> is another double plural, but has now no +singular.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>In spite of wandering <i>kine</i> and other adverse +circumstance.<span class="smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>II. Plurals formed by Vowel Change.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>40.</b></span> Examples of this inflection +are,—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>man—men</li> +<li>foot—feet</li> +<li>goose—geese</li> +<li>louse—lice</li> +<li>mouse—mice</li> +<li>tooth—teeth</li> +</ul> +<p>Some other words—as <i>book</i>, <i>turf</i>, +<i>wight</i>, <i>borough</i>—formerly had the same +inflection, but they now add the ending <i>-s</i>.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>41.</b></span> Akin to this class are some +words, originally neuter, that have the singular and plural alike; +such as <i>deer</i>, <i>sheep</i>, <i>swine</i>, etc.</p> +<p>Other words following the same usage are, <i>pair</i>, +<i>brace</i>, <i>dozen</i>, after numerals (if not after numerals, +or if preceded by the prepositions <i>in</i>, <i>by</i>, etc, they +add <i>-s</i>): also <i>trout</i>, <i>salmon</i>; <i>head</i>, +<i>sail</i>; <i>cannon</i>; <i>heathen</i>, <i>folk</i>, +<i>people</i>.</p> +<p><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a>The words <i>horse</i> and +<i>foot</i>, when they mean soldiery, retain the same form for +plural meaning; as,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The <i>foot</i> are fourscore +thousand,<br /></span> <span>The <i>horse</i> are thousands +ten.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Macaulay.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Lee marched over the mountain +wall,—<br /></span> <span>Over the mountains winding +down,<br /></span> <span><i>Horse</i> and <i>foot</i>, into +Frederick town.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Whittier.</span></div> +</div> +<h3>III. Plurals formed by Adding -s or -es.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>42.</b></span> Instead of <i>-s,</i> the +ending <i>-es</i> is added—</p> +<p>(1) If a word ends in a letter which cannot add <i>-s</i> and be +pronounced. Such are <i>box, cross, ditch, glass, lens, quartz</i>, +etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>-Es added in certain cases</i>.</div> +<p>If the word ends in a <i>sound</i> which cannot add <i>-s</i>, a +new syllable is made; as, <i>niche—niches, race—races, +house—houses, prize—prizes, chaise—chaises</i>, +etc.</p> +<p><i>-Es</i> is also added to a few words ending in -o, though +this sound combines readily with <i>-s</i>, and does not make an +extra syllable: <i>cargo—cargoes, negro—negroes, +hero—heroes, volcano—volcanoes</i>, etc.</p> +<p>Usage differs somewhat in other words of this class, some adding +<i>-s</i>, and some <i>-es</i>.</p> +<p>(2) If a word ends in <i>-y</i> preceded by a consonant (the +<i>y</i> being then changed to <i>i</i>); e.g., <i>fancies, allies, +daisies, fairies</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Words in -ies.</i></div> +<p>Formerly, however, these words ended in <i>-ie</i>, and the real +ending is therefore <i>-s</i>. Notice these from Chaucer +(fourteenth century):—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a><i>Their +old form.</i></div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The <i>lilie</i> on hir stalke +grene.<br /></span> <span>Of <i>maladie</i> the which he hadde +endured.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>And these from Spenser (sixteenth century):—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Be well aware, quoth then that +<i>ladie</i> milde.<br /></span> <span>At last fair Hesperus in +highest <i>skie</i><br /></span> <span>Had spent his +lampe.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>(3) In the case of some <b>words ending in -<i>f</i> or +-<i>fe</i></b>, which have the plural in <i>-ves</i>: +<i>calf</i>—<i>calves</i>, <i>half</i>—<i>halves</i>, +<i>knife</i>—<i>knives</i>, +<i>shelf</i>—<i>shelves</i>, etc.</p> +<h3>Special Lists.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>43.</b></span> <b>Material nouns</b> and +<b>abstract nouns</b> are always singular. When such words take a +plural ending, they lose their identity, and go over to other +classes (Secs. 15 and 17).</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>44.</b></span> <b>Proper nouns</b> are +regularly singular, but may be made plural when we wish to speak of +several persons or things bearing the same name; e.g., <i>the +Washingtons</i>, <i>the Americas</i>.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>45.</b></span> Some words are <b>usually +singular</b>, though they are plural in form. Examples of these +are, <i>optics</i>, <i>economics</i>, <i>physics</i>, +<i>mathematics</i>, <i>politics</i>, and many branches of learning; +also <i>news</i>, <i>pains</i> (care), <i>molasses</i>, +<i>summons</i>, <i>means</i>: as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Politics</i>, in its widest extent, is both the science and +the art of government.—<span class="smcap"><i>Century +Dictionary.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>So live, that when thy <i>summons comes</i>, etc.<span class= +"smcap">—Bryant.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It served simply as <i>a means</i> of sight.<span class= +"smcap">—Prof. Dana.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Means <i>plural</i>.</div> +<p>Two words, <b>means</b> and <b>politics</b>, <i>may be +plural</i> in their construction with verbs and +adjectives:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Words, by strongly conveying the passions, by <i>those means</i> +which we have already mentioned, fully compensate for their +weakness in other respects.<span class= +"smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42"></a>With great dexterity <i>these +means</i> were now applied.<span class= +"smcap">—Motley.</span></p> +<p>By <i>these means</i>, I say, riches will +accumulate.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Politics <i>plural</i>.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Cultivating a feeling that <i>politics</i> are +tiresome.—<span class="smcap">G. W. Curtis</span>.</p> +<p>The <i>politics</i> in which he took the keenest interest +<i>were politics</i> scarcely deserving of the name.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>Now I read all the <i>politics</i> that <i>come</i> +out.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>46.</b></span> Some words have <b>no +corresponding singular</b>.</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>aborigines</li> +<li>amends</li> +<li>annals</li> +<li>assets</li> +<li>antipodes</li> +<li>scissors</li> +<li>thanks</li> +<li>spectacles</li> +<li>vespers</li> +<li>victuals</li> +<li>matins</li> +<li>nuptials</li> +<li>oats</li> +<li>obsequies</li> +<li>premises</li> +<li>bellows</li> +<li>billiards</li> +<li>dregs</li> +<li>gallows</li> +<li>tongs</li> +</ul> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Occasionally singular words</i>.</div> +<p>Sometimes, however, a few of these words have the construction +of singular nouns. Notice the following:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>They cannot get on without each other any more than one blade of +<i>a scissors</i> can cut without the other.—<span class= +"smcap">J. L. Laughlin</span>.</p> +<p>A relic which, if I recollect right, he pronounced to have been +<i>a tongs</i>.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>Besides this, it is furnished with <i>a forceps</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>The air,—was it subdued when...the wind was trained only +to turn a windmill, carry off chaff, or work in <i>a +bellows</i>?<span class="smcap">—Prof. Dana.</span></p> +</div> +<p>In Early Modern English <i>thank</i> is found.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>What <i>thank</i> have ye?—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Bible</i></span></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>47.</b></span> Three words were +<i>originally singular</i>, the present ending <i>-s</i> not being +really a plural inflection, but they are regularly construed as +plural: <i>alms, eaves, riches</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>two plurals</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>48.</b></span> A few nouns have <b>two +plurals</b> differing in meaning.<a name="Page_43" id= +"Page_43"></a></p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>brother—brothers (by blood), brethren (of a society or +church).</li> +<li>cloth—cloths (kinds of cloth), clothes (garments).</li> +<li>die—dies (stamps for coins, etc.), dice (for +gaming).</li> +<li>fish—fish (collectively), fishes (individuals or +kinds).</li> +<li>genius—geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits).</li> +<li>index—indexes (to books), indices (signs in +algebra).</li> +<li>pea—peas (separately), pease (collectively).</li> +<li>penny—pennies (separately), pence (collectively).</li> +<li>shot—shot (collective balls), shots (number of times +fired).</li> +</ul> +<p>In speaking of coins, <i>twopence</i>, <i>sixpence</i>, etc., +may add <i>-s</i>, making a double plural, as two +<i>sixpences</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>One plural, two meanings.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>49.</b></span> Other words have <b>one +plural form with two meanings</b>,—one corresponding to the +singular, the other unlike it.</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>custom—customs: (1) habits, ways; (2) revenue +duties.</li> +<li>letter—letters: (1) the alphabet, or epistles; (2) +literature.</li> +<li>number—numbers: (1) figures; (2) poetry, as in the +lines,—</li> +</ul> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>I lisped in <i>numbers</i>, for the +numbers came.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Pope.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Tell me not, in mournful +<i>numbers</i>.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Longfellow.</span></div> +</div> +<p><i>Numbers</i> also means issues, or copies, of a +periodical.</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>pain—pains: (1) suffering; (2) care, trouble,</li> +<li>part—parts: (1) divisions; (2) abilities, faculties.</li> +</ul> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Two classes of compound words.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>50.</b></span> <b>Compound words</b> may be +divided into two classes:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Those whose parts are so closely joined as to constitute +one word.</i> These make the last part plural.<a name="Page_44" id= +"Page_44"></a></p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>courtyard</li> +<li>dormouse</li> +<li>Englishman</li> +<li>fellow-servant</li> +<li>fisherman</li> +<li>Frenchman</li> +<li>forget-me-not</li> +<li>goosequill</li> +<li>handful</li> +<li>mouthful</li> +<li>cupful</li> +<li>maidservant</li> +<li>pianoforte</li> +<li>stepson</li> +<li>spoonful</li> +<li>titmouse</li> +</ul> +<p>(2) <i>Those groups in which the first part is the principal +one, followed by a word or phrase making a modifier.</i> The chief +member adds <i>-s</i> in the plural.</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>aid-de-camp</li> +<li>attorney at law</li> +<li>billet-doux</li> +<li>commander in chief</li> +<li>court-martial</li> +<li>cousin-german</li> +<li>father-in-law</li> +<li>knight-errant</li> +<li>hanger-on</li> +</ul> +<p>NOTE.—Some words ending in <i>-man</i> are not compounds +of the English word <i>man</i>, but add <i>-s</i>; such as +<i>talisman</i>, <i>firman</i>, <i>Brahman</i>, <i>German</i>, +<i>Norman</i>, <i>Mussulman</i>, <i>Ottoman</i>.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>51.</b></span> Some groups pluralize both +parts of the group; as <i>man singer</i>, <i>manservant</i>, +<i>woman servant</i>, <i>woman singer</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Two methods in use for names with +titles.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>52.</b></span> As to plurals of <b>names +with titles</b>, there is some disagreement among English writers. +The title may be plural, as <i>the Messrs. Allen</i>, <i>the Drs. +Brown</i>, <i>the Misses Rich</i>; or the name may be +pluralized.</p> +<p>The former is perhaps more common in present-day use, though the +latter is often found; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Then came Mr. and Mrs. Briggs, and then <i>the three Miss +Spinneys</i>, then Silas Peckham.<span class="smcap">—Dr. +Holmes.</span></p> +<p>Our immortal Fielding was of the younger branch of the <i>Earls +of Denbigh</i>, who drew their origin from the <i>Counts of +Hapsburgh</i>.<span class="smcap">—Gibbon.</span></p> +<p>The <i>Miss Flamboroughs</i> were reckoned the best dancers in +the parish.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>The <i>Misses Nettengall's</i> young ladies come to the +Cathedral too.<span class="smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +<p>The <i>Messrs. Harper</i> have done the more than generous thing +by Mr. Du Maurier.—<span class="smcap"><i>The +Critic.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a><span class= +"sn"><b>53.</b></span> A number of <b>foreign words</b> have been +adopted into English without change of form. These are said to be +<i>domesticated</i>, and retain their foreign plurals.</p> +<p>Others have been adopted, and by long use have altered their +power so as to conform to English words. They are then said to be +<i>naturalized</i>, or <i>Anglicized</i>, or <i>Englished</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Domesticated words.</i></div> +<p>The domesticated words may retain the original plural. Some of +them have a secondary English plural in <i>-s</i> or +<i>-es</i>.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Find in the dictionary the plurals of these words:—</p> +<p>I. FROM THE LATIN.</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>apparatus</li> +<li>appendix</li> +<li>axis</li> +<li>datum</li> +<li>erratum</li> +<li>focus</li> +<li>formula</li> +<li>genus</li> +<li>larva</li> +<li>medium</li> +<li>memorandum</li> +<li>nebula</li> +<li>radius</li> +<li>series</li> +<li>species</li> +<li>stratum</li> +<li>terminus</li> +<li>vertex</li> +</ul> +<p>II. FROM THE GREEK.</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>analysis</li> +<li>antithesis</li> +<li>automaton</li> +<li>basis</li> +<li>crisis</li> +<li>ellipsis</li> +<li>hypothesis</li> +<li>parenthesis</li> +<li>phenomenon</li> +<li>thesis</li> +</ul> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Anglicized words.</i></div> +<p>When the foreign words are fully naturalized, they form their +plurals in the regular way; as,—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>bandits</li> +<li>cherubs</li> +<li>dogmas</li> +<li>encomiums</li> +<li>enigmas</li> +<li>focuses</li> +<li>formulas</li> +<li>geniuses</li> +<li>herbariums</li> +<li>indexes</li> +<li>seraphs</li> +<li>apexes</li> +</ul> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a><i>Usage +varies in plurals of letters, figures, etc.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>54.</b></span> <b>Letters, figures, +etc.,</b> form their plurals by adding <i>-s</i> or <i>'s</i>. +Words quoted merely as words, without reference to their meaning, +also add <i>-s</i> or <i>'s</i>; as, "His <i>9's</i> (or <i>9s</i>) +look like <i>7's</i> (or <i>7s</i>)," "Avoid using too many +<i>and's</i> (or <i>ands</i>)," "Change the <i>+'s</i> (or +<i>+s</i>) to <i>-'s</i> (or <i>-s</i>)."</p> +<h3>CASE.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>55.</b></span> Case is an inflection or use +of a noun (or pronoun) to show its relation to other words in the +sentence.</p> +<p>In the sentence, "He sleeps in a felon's cell," the word +<i>felon's</i> modifies <i>cell</i>, and expresses a relation akin +to possession; <i>cell</i> has another relation, helping to express +the idea of place with the word <i>in</i>.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>56.</b></span> In the general wearing-away +of inflections, the number of case forms has been greatly +reduced.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Only two</i> case forms.</div> +<p>There are now only two case forms of English nouns,—one +for the <i>nominative</i> and <i>objective</i>, one for the +<i>possessive</i>: consequently the matter of inflection is a very +easy thing to handle in learning about cases.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Reasons for speaking of</i> three cases +<i>of nouns</i>.</div> +<p>But there are reasons why grammars treat of <i>three</i> cases +of nouns when there are only two forms:—</p> +<p>(1) Because the relations of all words, whether inflected or +not, must be understood for purposes of analysis.</p> +<p>(2) Because pronouns still have three case forms as well as +three case relations.</p> +<p><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47"></a><span class= +"sn"><b>57.</b></span> Nouns, then, may be said to have three +cases,—the <b>nominative</b>, the <b>objective</b>, and the +<b>possessive</b>.</p> +<h3>I. Uses of the Nominative.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>58.</b></span> The nominative case is used +as follows:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>As the subject of a verb</i>: "<i>Water</i> seeks its +level."</p> +<p>(2) <i>As a predicate noun</i>, completing a verb, and referring +to or explaining the subject: "A bent twig makes a crooked +<i>tree</i>."</p> +<p>(3) <i>In apposition</i> with some other nominative word, adding +to the meaning of that word: "The reaper <i>Death</i> with his +sickle keen."</p> +<p>(4) <i>In direct address</i>: "<i>Lord Angus</i>, thou hast +lied!"</p> +<p>(5) <i>With a participle in an absolute or independent +phrase</i> (there is some discussion whether this is a true +nominative): "The <i>work</i> done, they returned to their +homes."</p> +<p>(6) <i>With an infinitive in exclamations</i>: "<i>David</i> to +die!"</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Pick out the nouns in the nominative case, and tell which use of +the nominative each one has.</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Moderate lamentation is the right of the dead; excessive +grief, the enemy of the living.</p> +<p>2.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Excuses are clothes which, when asked +unawares,<br /></span> <span>Good Breeding to naked Necessity +spares.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>3. Human experience is the great test of truth.</p> +<p>4. Cheerfulness and content are great beautifiers.</p> +<p>5. Three properties belong to wisdom,—nature, learning, +and experience; three things characterize man,—person, fate, +and merit.</p> +<p>6.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>But of all plagues, good Heaven, thy +wrath can send,<br /></span> <span>Save, save, oh save me from the +candid friend!<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a>7. Conscience, her first law +broken, wounded lies.</p> +<p>8. They charged, sword in hand and visor down.</p> +<p>9.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>O sleep! O gentle sleep!<br /></span> +<span>Nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted +thee?<br /></span></div> +</div> +</div> +<h3>II. Uses of the Objective.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>59.</b></span> The objective case is used as +follows:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>As the direct object of a verb</i>, naming the person or +thing directly receiving the action of the verb: "Woodman, spare +that <i>tree</i>!"</p> +<p>(2) <i>As the indirect object of a verb</i>, naming the person +or thing indirectly affected by the action of the verb: "Give the +<i>devil</i> his due."</p> +<p>(3) <i>Adverbially</i>, defining the action of a verb by +denoting <i>time</i>, <i>measure</i>, <i>distance</i>, etc. (in the +older stages of the language, this took the regular accusative +inflection): "Full <i>fathom</i> five thy father lies;" "Cowards +die many <i>times</i> before their deaths."</p> +<p>(4) <i>As the second object</i>, completing the verb, and thus +becoming part of the predicate in acting upon an object: "Time +makes the worst enemies <i>friends</i>;" "Thou makest the storm a +<i>calm</i>." In these sentences the real predicates are <i>makes +friends</i>, taking the object <i>enemies</i>, and being equivalent +to one verb, <i>reconciles</i>; and <i>makest a calm</i>, taking +the object <i>storm</i>, and meaning calmest. This is also called +the <i>predicate objective</i> or the <i>factitive object</i>.</p> +<p>(5) <i>As the object of a preposition</i>, the word toward which +the preposition points, and which it joins to another word: "He +must have a long spoon that would eat with the <i>devil</i>."</p> +<p><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49"></a>The preposition sometimes +takes the <i>possessive</i> case of a noun, as will be seen in Sec. +68.</p> +<p>(6) <i>In apposition with another objective</i>: "The opinions +of this junto were completely controlled by Nicholas Vedder, a +<i>patriarch</i> of the village, and <i>landlord</i> of the +inn."</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Point out the nouns in the objective case in these sentences, +and tell which use each has:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Tender men sometimes have strong wills.</p> +<p>2. Necessity is the certain connection between cause and +effect.</p> +<p>3. Set a high price on your leisure moments; they are sands of +precious gold.</p> +<p>4. But the flood came howling one day.</p> +<p>5. I found the urchin Cupid sleeping.</p> +<p>6. Five times every year he was to be exposed in the +pillory.</p> +<p>7. The noblest mind the best contentment has.</p> +<p>8. Multitudes came every summer to visit that famous natural +curiosity, the Great Stone Face.</p> +<p>9.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And whirling plate, and forfeits +paid,<br /></span> <span>His winter task a pastime +made.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>10.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>He broke the ice on the streamlet's +brink,<br /></span> <span>And gave the leper to eat and +drink.<br /></span></div> +</div> +</div> +<h3>III. Uses of the Possessive.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>60.</b></span> The possessive case always +modifies another word, expressed or understood. There are three +forms of possessive showing how a word is related in sense to the +modified word:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Appositional possessive</i>, as in these +expressions,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The blind old man of <i>Scio's</i> rocky isle.<span class= +"smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p>Beside a pumice isle in <i>Baiæ's</i> bay.<span class= +"smcap">—Shelley.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50"></a>In these sentences the +phrases are equivalent to <i>of the rocky isle [of] Scio</i>, and +<i>in the bay [of] Baiæ</i>, the possessive being really +equivalent here to an appositional objective. It is a poetic +expression, the equivalent phrase being used in prose.</p> +<p>(2) <i>Objective possessive</i>, as shown in the +sentences,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Ann Turner had taught her the secret before this last good lady +had been hanged for <i>Sir Thomas Overbury's</i> +murder.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>He passes to-day in building an air castle for to-morrow, or in +writing <i>yesterday's</i> elegy.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray</span></p> +</div> +<p>In these the possessives are equivalent to an objective after a +verbal expression: as, <i>for murdering Sir Thomas Overbury</i>; +<i>an elegy to commemorate yesterday</i>. For this reason the use +of the possessive here is called objective.</p> +<p>(3) <i>Subjective possessive</i>, the most common of all; +as,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The unwearied sun, from day to +day,<br /></span> <span>Does his Creator's power +display.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></div> +</div> +<p>If this were expanded into <i>the power which his Creator +possesses</i>, the word <i>Creator</i> would be the subject of the +verb: hence it is called a subjective possessive.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>61.</b></span> This last-named possessive +expresses a variety of relations. <i>Possession</i> in some sense +is the most common. The kind of relation may usually be found by +expanding the possessive into an equivalent phrase: for example, +"<i>Winter's</i> rude tempests are gathering now" (i.e., tempests +that winter is likely to have); "His beard was of <a name="Page_51" +id="Page_51"></a><i>several days'</i> growth" (i.e., growth which +several days had developed); "The <i>forest's</i> leaping panther +shall yield his spotted hide" (i.e., the panther which the forest +hides); "Whoso sheddeth <i>man's</i> blood" (blood that man +possesses).</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>How the possessive is formed.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>62.</b></span> As said before (Sec. 56), +there are only two case forms. One is the simple form of a word, +expressing the relations of nominative and objective; the other is +formed by adding <i>'s</i> to the simple form, making the +possessive singular. To form the possessive plural, only the +apostrophe is added if the plural nominative ends in <i>-s</i>; the +<i>'s</i> is added if the plural nominative does not end in +<i>-s</i>.</p> +<h3>Case Inflection.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Declension or inflection of +nouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>63.</b></span> The full declension of nouns +is as follows:—</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='left'>SINGULAR.</td> +<td align='left'>PLURAL.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>1. <i>Nom. and Obj.</i></td> +<td align='left'>lady</td> +<td align='left'>ladies</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Poss.</i></td> +<td align='left'>lady's</td> +<td align='left'>ladies'</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>2. <i>Nom. and Obj.</i></td> +<td align='left'>child</td> +<td align='left'>children</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Poss.</i></td> +<td align='left'>child's</td> +<td align='left'>children's</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A suggestion.</i></div> +<p>NOTE.—The difficulty that some students have in writing +the possessive plural would be lessened if they would remember +there are two steps to be taken:—</p> +<p>(1) Form the nominative plural according to Secs 39-53</p> +<p>(2) Follow the rule given in Sec. 62.</p> +<h3>Special Remarks on the Possessive Case.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Origin of the possessive with its +apostrophe.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>64.</b></span> In Old English a large number +of words had in the genitive case singular the ending <i>-es</i>; +in Middle English still more words took this ending: for example, +in Chaucer, "From every <i>schires</i> <a name="Page_52" id= +"Page_52"></a>ende," "Full worthi was he in his <i>lordes</i> werre +[war]," "at his <i>beddes</i> syde," "<i>mannes</i> herte [heart]," +etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A false theory.</i></div> +<p>By the end of the seventeenth century the present way of +indicating the possessive had become general. The use of the +apostrophe, however, was not then regarded as standing for the +omitted vowel of the genitive (as <i>lord's</i> for <i>lordes</i>): +by a false theory the ending was thought to be a contraction of +<i>his</i>, as schoolboys sometimes write, "George Jones <i>his</i> +book."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Use of the apostrophe.</i></div> +<p>Though this opinion was untrue, the apostrophe has proved a +great convenience, since otherwise words with a plural in <i>-s</i> +would have three forms alike. To the eye all the forms are now +distinct, but to the ear all may be alike, and the connection must +tell us what form is intended.</p> +<p>The use of the apostrophe in the plural also began in the +seventeenth century, from thinking that <i>s</i> was not a +possessive sign, and from a desire to have distinct forms.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Sometimes</i> s <i>is left out in the +possessive singular.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>65.</b></span> Occasionally the <i>s</i> is +dropped in the possessive singular if the word ends in a hissing +sound and another hissing sound follows, but the apostrophe remains +to mark the possessive; as, <i>for goodness' sake, Cervantes' +satirical work</i>.</p> +<p>In other cases the <i>s</i> is seldom omitted. Notice these +three examples from Thackeray's writings: "Harry ran upstairs to +his <i>mistress's</i> apartment;" "A postscript is added, as by the +<i>countess's</i> command;" "I saw what the <i>governess's</i> +views were of the matter."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_53" id= +"Page_53"></a><i>Possessive with compound expressions.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>66.</b></span> In compound expressions, +containing words in apposition, a word with a phrase, etc., the +possessive sign is usually last, though instances are found with +both appositional words marked.</p> +<p>Compare the following examples of literary usage:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Do not the Miss Prys, my neighbors, know the amount of my +income, the items of my <i>son's</i>, <i>Captain Scrapegrace's</i>, +tailor's bill<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>The world's pomp and power sits there on this hand: on that, +stands up for God's truth one man, the <i>poor miner Hans +Luther's</i> son.<span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>They invited me in the <i>emperor their master's</i> +name.<span class="smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +<p>I had naturally possessed myself of <i>Richardson the +painter's</i> thick octavo volumes of notes on the "Paradise +Lost."—DE QUINCEY.</p> +<p>They will go to Sunday schools to teach classes of little +children the age of Methuselah or the dimensions of <i>Og the king +of Bashan's</i> bedstead.<span class= +"smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +</div> +<p>More common still is the practice of turning the possessive into +an equivalent phrase; as, <i>in the name of the emperor their +master</i>, instead of <i>the emperor their master's name</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Possessive and no noun limited.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>67.</b></span> The possessive is sometimes +used without belonging to any noun in the sentence; some such word +as <i>house</i>, <i>store</i>, <i>church</i>, <i>dwelling</i>, +etc., being understood with it: for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Here at the <i>fruiterer's</i> the Madonna has a tabernacle of +fresh laurel leaves.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>It is very common for people to say that they are disappointed +in the first sight of <i>St. Peter's</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +<p>I remember him in his cradle at <i>St. James's</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>Kate saw that; and she walked off from the +<i>don's</i>.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54"></a><i>The +double possessive.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>68.</b></span> A peculiar form, a double +possessive, has grown up and become a fixed idiom in modern +English.</p> +<p>In most cases, a possessive relation was expressed in Old +English by the inflection <i>-es</i>, corresponding to <i>'s</i>. +The same relation was expressed in French by a phrase corresponding +to <i>of</i> and its object. Both of these are now used side by +side; sometimes they are used together, as one modifier, making a +double possessive. For this there are several reasons:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Its advantages: Euphony</i>.</div> +<p>(1) When a word is modified by <i>a</i>, <i>the</i>, +<i>this</i>, <i>that</i>, <i>every</i>, <i>no</i>, <i>any</i>, +<i>each</i>, etc., and at the same time by a possessive noun, it is +distasteful to place the possessive before the modified noun, and +it would also alter the meaning: we place it after the modified +noun with <i>of</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Emphasis.</i></div> +<p>(2) It is more emphatic than the simple possessive, especially +when used with <i>this</i> or <i>that</i>, for it brings out the +modified word in strong relief.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Clearness.</i></div> +<p>(3) It prevents ambiguity. For example, in such a sentence as, +"This introduction <i>of Atterbury's</i> has all these advantages" +(Dr. Blair), the statement clearly means only one thing,—the +introduction which Atterbury made. If, however, we use the phrase +<i>of Atterbury</i>, the sentence <i>might</i> be understood as +just explained, or it might mean this act of introducing Atterbury. +(See also Sec. 87.)</p> +<p>The following are some instances of double +possessives:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>This Hall <i>of Tinville's</i> is dark, ill-lighted except where +she stands.<span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55"></a>Those lectures <i>of +Lowell's</i> had a great influence with me, and I used to like +whatever they bade me like.<span class= +"smcap">—Howells</span></p> +<p>Niebuhr remarks that no pointed sentences <i>of +Cæsar's</i> can have come down to us.<span class= +"smcap">—Froude.</span></p> +<p>Besides these famous books <i>of Scott's and Johnson's</i>, +there is a copious "Life" by Thomas Sheridan.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray</span></p> +<p>Always afterwards on occasions of ceremony, he wore that quaint +old French sword <i>of the Commodore's</i>.—<span class= +"smcap">E. E. Hale</span>.</p> +</div> +<h4>Exercises.</h4> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Pick out the possessive nouns, and tell whether each +is appositional, objective, or subjective.</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Rewrite the sentence, turning the possessives into +equivalent phrases.</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. I don't choose a hornet's nest about my ears.</p> +<p>2. Shall Rome stand under one man's awe?</p> +<p>3. I must not see thee Osman's bride.</p> +<p>4.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>At lovers' perjuries,<br /></span> +<span>They say, Jove laughs.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>5. The world has all its eyes on Cato's son.</p> +<p>6. My quarrel and the English queen's are one.</p> +<p>7.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Now the bright morning star, day's +harbinger,<br /></span> <span class="i4">Comes dancing from the +East.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>8. A man's nature runs either to herbs or weeds; therefore, let +him seasonably water the one, and destroy the other.</p> +<p>9.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i4">'Tis all men's office to speak +patience<br /></span> <span>To those that wring under the load of +sorrow.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>10.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>A jest's prosperity lies in the +ear<br /></span> <span>Of him that hears it, never in the +tongue<br /></span> <span>Of him that makes it.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>11. No more the juice of Egypt's grape shall moist his lip.</p> +<p>12.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>There Shakespeare's self, with every +garland crowned,<br /></span> <span>Flew to those fairy climes his +fancy sheen.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>13.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i4">What supports me? dost thou +ask?<br /></span> <span>The conscience, Friend, to have lost them +[his eyes] overplied<br /></span> <span>In liberty's +defence.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a>14.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Or where Campania's plain forsaken +lies,<br /></span> <span>A weary waste expanding to the +skies.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>15.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Nature herself, it seemed, would +raise<br /></span> <span>A minster to her Maker's +praise!<br /></span></div> +</div> +</div> +<h3>HOW TO PARSE NOUNS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>69.</b></span> <b>Parsing</b> a word is +putting together all the facts about its form and its relations to +other words in the sentence.</p> +<p>In parsing, some idioms—the double possessive, for +example—do not come under regular grammatical rules, and are +to be spoken of merely as idioms.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>70.</b></span> Hence, in parsing a noun, we +state,—</p> +<p>(1) The class to which it belongs,—common, proper, +etc.</p> +<p>(2) Whether a neuter or a gender noun; if the latter, which +gender.</p> +<p>(3) Whether singular or plural number.</p> +<p>(4) Its office in the sentence, determining its case.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The correct method.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>71.</b></span> In parsing any word, the +following method should always be followed: tell the facts about +what the word <i>does</i>, then make the grammatical statements as +to its class, inflections, and relations.</p> +<h3>MODEL FOR PARSING.</h3> +<p>"What is bolder than a miller's neckcloth, which takes a thief +by the throat every morning?"</p> +<p><i>Miller's</i> is a name applied to every individual of its +class, hence it is a common noun; it is the name of a male being, +hence it is a gender noun, masculine; it denotes only one person, +therefore singu<a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a>lar number; it +expresses possession or ownership, and limits <i>neckcloth</i>, +therefore possessive case.</p> +<p><i>Neckcloth</i>, like <i>miller's</i>, is a common class noun; +it has no sex, therefore neuter; names one thing, therefore +singular number; subject of the verb <i>is</i> understood, and +therefore nominative case.</p> +<p><i>Thief</i> is a common class noun; the connection shows a male +is meant, therefore masculine gender; singular number; object of +the verb <i>takes</i>, hence objective case.</p> +<p><i>Throat</i> is neuter, of the same class and number as the +word <i>neckcloth</i>; it is the object of the preposition +<i>by</i>, hence it is objective case.</p> +<p>NOTE.—The preposition sometimes takes the possessive case +(see Sec. 68).</p> +<p><i>Morning</i> is like <i>throat</i> and <i>neckcloth</i> as to +class, gender, and number; as to case, it expresses time, has no +governing word, but is the adverbial objective.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Follow the model above in parsing all the nouns in the following +sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. To raise a monument to departed worth is to perpetuate +virtue.</p> +<p>2. The greatest pleasure I know is to do a good action by +stealth, and to have it found out by accident.</p> +<p>3. An old cloak makes a new jerkin; a withered serving man, a +fresh tapster.</p> +<p>4.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>That in the captain's but a choleric +word,<br /></span> <span>Which in the soldier is flat +blasphemy.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>5. Now, blessings light on him that first invented ... +sleep!</p> +<p>6. Necker, financial minister to Louis XVI., and his daughter, +Madame de Staël, were natives of Geneva.</p> +<p>7. He giveth his beloved sleep.<a name="Page_58" id= +"Page_58"></a></p> +<p>8. Time makes the worst enemies friends.</p> +<p>9. A few miles from this point, where the Rhone enters the lake, +stands the famous Castle of Chillon, connected with the shore by a +drawbridge,—palace, castle, and prison, all in one.</p> +<p>10.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Wretches! ye loved her for her +wealth,<br /></span> <span>And hated her for her +pride.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>11. Mrs. Jarley's back being towards him, the military gentleman +shook his forefinger.</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="PRONOUNS" id="PRONOUNS"></a><b>PRONOUNS.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The need of pronouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>72.</b></span> When we wish to speak of a +name several times in succession, it is clumsy and tiresome to +repeat the noun. For instance, instead of saying, "<i>The pupil</i> +will succeed in <i>the pupil's</i> efforts if <i>the pupil</i> is +ambitious," we improve the sentence by shortening it thus, "The +pupil will succeed in <i>his</i> efforts if <i>he</i> is +ambitious."</p> +<p>Again, if we wish to know about the ownership of a house, we +evidently cannot state the owner's name, but by a question we say, +"<i>Whose</i> house is that?" thus placing a word instead of the +name till we learn the name.</p> +<p>This is not to be understood as implying that pronouns were +<i>invented</i> because nouns were tiresome, since history shows +that pronouns are as old as nouns and verbs. The use of pronouns +must have sprung up naturally, from a necessity for short, +definite, and representative words.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p>A <b>pronoun</b> is a reference word, standing for a name, or +for a person or thing, or for a group of persons or things.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59"></a><i>Classes +of pronouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>73.</b></span> Pronouns may be grouped in +five classes:—</p> +<p>(1) <b>Personal pronouns</b>, which distinguish person by their +form (Sec. 76).</p> +<p>(2) <b>Interrogative pronouns</b>, which are used to ask +questions about persons or things.</p> +<p>(3) <b>Relative pronouns</b>, which relate or refer to a noun, +pronoun, or other word or expression, and at the same time connect +two statements They are also called <b>conjunctive</b>.</p> +<p>(4) <b>Adjective pronouns</b>, words, primarily adjectives, +which are classed as adjectives when they modify nouns, but as +pronouns when they stand for nouns.</p> +<p>(5) <b>Indefinite pronouns</b>, which cannot be used as +adjectives, but stand for an indefinite number of persons or +things.</p> +<p>Numerous examples of all these will be given under the separate +classes hereafter treated.</p> +<h3>PERSONAL PRONOUNS..</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Person in grammar.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>74.</b></span> Since pronouns stand for +persons as well as names, they must represent the person talking, +the person or thing spoken to, and the person or thing talked +about.</p> +<p>This gives rise to a new term, "the distinction of +<i>person</i>."</p> +<div class="sidenote">Person <i>of nouns</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>75.</b></span> This distinction was not +needed in discussing nouns, as nouns have the <i>same form</i>, +whether representing persons and things spoken to or spoken of. It +is evident that a noun could not represent the person speaking, +even if it had a special form.</p> +<p><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60"></a>From analogy to pronouns, +which have <i>forms</i> for person, nouns are sometimes spoken of +as first or second person by their <i>use</i>; that is, if they are +in apposition with a pronoun of the first or second person, they +are said to have person by agreement.</p> +<p>But usually nouns represent something spoken of.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Three persons of pronouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>76.</b></span> Pronouns naturally are of +three persons:—</p> +<p>(1) First person, representing the person speaking.</p> +<p>(2) Second person, representing a person or thing spoken to.</p> +<p>(3) Third person, standing for a person or thing spoken of.</p> +<h3>FORMS OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>77.</b></span> Personal pronouns are +inflected thus:—</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='center' colspan='3'><b>FIRST PERSON.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='center'><i>Singular.</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Plural.</i></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td> +<td align='center'>I</td> +<td align='center'>we</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Poss.</i></td> +<td align='center'>mine, my</td> +<td align='center'>our, ours</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td> +<td align='center'>me</td> +<td align='center'>us</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='center' colspan='3'><b>SECOND PERSON.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='center' colspan='3'><i>Singular.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='center'><i>Old Form</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Common Form.</i></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td> +<td align='center'>thou</td> +<td align='center'>you</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Poss.</i></td> +<td align='center'>thine, thy</td> +<td align='center'>your, yours</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td> +<td align='center'>thee</td> +<td align='center'>you</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='center' colspan='3'><i>Plural.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td> +<td align='center'>ye</td> +<td align='center'>you</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Poss.</i></td> +<td align='center'>your, yours</td> +<td align='center'>your, yours</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td> +<td align='center'>you</td> +<td align='center'>you</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='center' colspan='3'><b>THIRD PERSON.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='center' colspan='3'><i>Singular.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='center'><i>Masc.</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Fem.</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Neut.</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td> +<td align='center'>he</td> +<td align='center'>she</td> +<td align='center'>it</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Poss.</i></td> +<td align='center'>his</td> +<td align='center'>her, hers</td> +<td align='center'>its</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td> +<td align='center'>him</td> +<td align='center'>her</td> +<td align='center'>it</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='center' colspan='3'><i>Plur. of all Three</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td> +<td align='center' colspan='3'>they</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Poss.</i></td> +<td align='center' colspan='3'>their, theirs</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td> +<td align='center' colspan='3'>them</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3>Remarks on These Forms.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>First and second persons without +gender.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>78.</b></span> It will be noticed that the +pronouns of the first and second persons have no forms to +distinguish gender. The speaker may be either male or female, or, +by personification, neuter; so also with the person or thing spoken +to.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Third person</i> singular <i>has +gender</i>.</div> +<p>But the third person has, in the singular, a separate form for +each gender, and also for the neuter.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a><i>Old +forms</i>.</div> +<p>In Old English these three were formed from the same root; +namely, masculine <i>hē</i>, feminine <i>hēo</i>, neuter +<i>hit</i>.</p> +<p>The form <i>hit</i> (for <i>it</i>) is still heard in vulgar +English, and <i>hoo</i> (for <i>hēo</i>) in some dialects of +England.</p> +<p>The plurals were <i>hī</i>, <i>heora</i>, <i>heom</i>, in +Old English; the forms <i>they</i>, <i>their</i>, <i>them</i>, +perhaps being from the English demonstrative, though influenced by +the cognate Norse forms.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Second person always plural in ordinary +English.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>79.</b></span> <i>Thou</i>, <i>thee</i>, +etc., are old forms which are now out of use in ordinary speech. +The consequence is, that we have no singular pronoun of the second +person in ordinary speech or prose, but make the plural <i>you</i> +do duty for the singular. We use it with a plural verb always, even +when referring to a single object.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Two uses of the old singulars.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>80.</b></span> There are, however, two +modern uses of <i>thou, thy</i>, etc.:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>In elevated style</i>, especially in poetry; +as,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i4">With <i>thy</i> clear keen +joyance<br /></span> <span class="i6">Languor cannot +be;<br /></span> <span class="i4">Shadow of annoyance<br /></span> +<span class="i6">Never came near <i>thee</i>;<br /></span> +<span><i>Thou</i> lovest; but ne'er knew love's sad +satiety.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Shelley.</span></div> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>In addressing the Deity</i>, as in prayers, etc.; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Oh, <i>thou</i> Shepherd of Israel, that didst comfort +<i>thy</i> people of old, to <i>thy</i> care we commit the +helpless.<span class="smcap">—Beecher.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The form</i> its.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>81.</b></span> It is worth while to consider +the possessive <i>its</i>. This is of comparatively recent growth. +The old form was <i>his</i> (from the nominative <i>hit</i>), and +<a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a>this continued in use till the +sixteenth century. The transition from the old <i>his</i> to the +modern <i>its</i> is shown in these sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1 He anointed the altar and all <i>his</i> +vessels.—<span class="smcap"><i>Bible</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>Here <i>his</i> refers to <i>altar</i>, which is a neuter noun. +The quotation represents the usage of the early sixteenth +century.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>2 It's had <i>it</i> head bit off by <i>it</i> young<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare</span></p> +</div> +<p>Shakespeare uses <i>his</i>, <i>it</i>, and sometimes +<i>its</i>, as possessive of <i>it</i>.</p> +<p>In Milton's poetry (seventeenth century) <i>its</i> occurs only +three times.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>3 See heaven <i>its</i> sparkling portals wide +display<span class="smcap">—Pope</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A relic of the olden time.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>82.</b></span> We have an interesting relic +in such sentences as this from Thackeray: "One of the ways to know +'<i>em</i> is to watch the scared looks of the ogres' wives and +children."</p> +<p>As shown above, the Old English objective was <i>hem</i> (or +<i>heom</i>), which was often sounded with the <i>h</i> silent, +just as we now say, "I saw '<i>im</i> yesterday" when the word +<i>him</i> is not emphatic. In spoken English, this form '<i>em</i> +has survived side by side with the literary <i>them</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Use of the pronouns in +personification.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>83.</b></span> The pronouns <i>he</i> and +<i>she</i> are often used in poetry, and sometimes in ordinary +speech, to personify objects (Sec. 34).</p> +<h3>CASES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS.</h3> +<h3>I The Nominative.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Nominative forms.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>84.</b></span> The nominative forms of +personal pronouns have the same uses as the nominative of nouns +<a name="Page_63" id="Page_63"></a>(see Sec. 58). The case of most +of these pronouns can be determined more easily than the case of +nouns, for, besides a nominative <i>use</i>, they have a nominative +form. The words <i>I</i>, <i>thou</i>, <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, +<i>we</i>, <i>ye</i>, <i>they</i>, are very rarely anything but +nominative in literary English, though <i>ye</i> is occasionally +used as objective.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Additional nominatives in spoken +English.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>85.</b></span> In spoken English, however, +there are some others that are added to the list of nominatives: +they are, <i>me</i>, <i>him</i>, <i>her</i>, <i>us</i>, +<i>them</i>, when they occur in the <i>predicate position</i>. That +is, in such a sentence as, "I am sure it was <i>him</i>," the +literary language would require <i>he</i> after <i>was</i>; but +colloquial English regularly uses as predicate nominatives the +forms <i>me</i>, <i>him</i>, <i>her</i>, <i>us</i>, <i>them</i>, +though those named in Sec. 84 are always subjects. Yet careful +speakers avoid this, and follow the usage of literary English.</p> +<h3>II. The Possessive.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Not a separate class.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>86.</b></span> The forms <i>my</i>, +<i>thy</i>, <i>his</i>, <i>her</i>, <i>its</i>, <i>our</i>, +<i>your</i>, <i>their</i>, are sometimes grouped separately as +POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS, but it is better to speak of them as the +possessive case of personal pronouns, just as we speak of the +possessive case of nouns, and not make more classes.</p> +<div class="sidenote">Absolute <i>personal pronouns.</i></div> +<p>The forms <i>mine</i>, <i>thine</i>, <i>yours</i>, <i>hers</i>, +<i>theirs</i>, sometimes <i>his</i> and <i>its</i>, have a peculiar +use, standing apart from the words they modify instead of +immediately before them. From this use they are called ABSOLUTE +PERSONAL PRONOUNS, or, some say, ABSOLUTE POSSESSIVES.</p> +<p><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64"></a>As instances of the use of +absolute pronouns, note the following:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>'Twas <i>mine</i>, 'tis <i>his</i>, and has been slave to +thousands. <span class="smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +<p>And since thou own'st that praise, I spare thee +<i>mine</i>.<span class="smcap">—Cowper.</span></p> +<p>My arm better than <i>theirs</i> can ward it off.<span class= +"smcap">—Landor.</span></p> +<p><i>Thine</i> are the city and the people of Granada.<span class= +"smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Old use of</i> mine <i>and</i> +thine.</div> +<p>Formerly <i>mine</i> and <i>thine</i> stood before their nouns, +if the nouns began with a vowel or <i>h</i> silent; +thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Shall I not take <i>mine</i> ease in <i>mine</i> +inn?<span class="smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +<p>Give every man <i>thine</i> ear, but few thy +voice.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>If <i>thine</i> eye offend thee, pluck it +out.—<span class="smcap"><i>Bible.</i></span></p> +<p>My greatest apprehension was for <i>mine</i> eyes.<span class= +"smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +</div> +<p>This usage is still preserved in poetry.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Double and triple possessives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>87.</b></span> The forms <i>hers</i>, +<i>ours</i>, <i>yours</i>, <i>theirs</i>, are really double +possessives, since they add the possessive <i>s</i> to what is +already a regular possessive inflection.</p> +<p>Besides this, we have, as in nouns, a possessive phrase made up +of the preposition <i>of</i> with these double possessives, +<i>hers</i>, <i>ours</i>, <i>yours</i>, <i>theirs</i>, and with +<i>mine</i>, <i>thine</i>, <i>his</i>, sometimes <i>its</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Their uses.</i></div> +<p>Like the noun possessives, they have several uses:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>To prevent ambiguity</i>, as in the following:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I have often contrasted the habitual qualities of that gloomy +friend <i>of theirs</i> with the astounding spirits of Thackeray +and Dickens.—<span class="smcap">J. T. Fields</span>.</p> +<p>No words <i>of ours</i> can describe the fury of the +conflict.—<span class="smcap">J. F. Cooper.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>To bring emphasis</i>, as in these +sentences:—<a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>This thing <i>of yours</i> that you call a Pardon of Sins, it is +a bit of rag-paper with ink.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>This ancient silver bowl <i>of mine</i>, it tells of good old +times. <span class="smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>To express contempt, anger, or satire</i>; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"Do you know the charges that unhappy sister <i>of mine</i> and +her family have put me to already?" says the Master.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>He [John Knox] had his pipe of Bordeaux too, we find, in that +old Edinburgh house <i>of his</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>"Hold thy peace, Long Allen," said Henry Woodstall, "I tell thee +that tongue <i>of thine</i> is not the shortest limb about +<i>thee</i>."<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>To make a noun less limited in application</i>; +thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A favorite liar and servant <i>of mine</i> was a man I once had +to drive a brougham.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>In New York I read a newspaper criticism one day, commenting +upon a letter <i>of mine</i>.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>What would the last two sentences mean if the word <i>my</i> +were written instead of <i>of mine</i>, and preceded the nouns?</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>About the case of absolute +pronouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>88.</b></span> In their function, or use in +a sentence, the absolute possessive forms of the personal pronouns +are very much like adjectives used as nouns.</p> +<p>In such sentences as, "<i>The good</i> alone are great," "None +but <i>the brave</i> deserves <i>the fair</i>," the words +italicized have an adjective force and also a noun force, as shown +in Sec. 20.</p> +<p>So in the sentences illustrating absolute pronouns in Sec. 86: +<i>mine</i> stands for <i>my property</i>, <i>his</i> for <i>his +property</i>, in the first sentence; <i>mine</i> <a name="Page_66" +id="Page_66"></a>stands for <i>my praise</i> in the second. But the +first two have a nominative use, and <i>mine</i> in the second has +an objective use.</p> +<p>They may be spoken of as possessive in form, but nominative or +objective in use, according as the modified word is in the +nominative or the objective.</p> +<h3>III. The Objective.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The old</i> dative <i>case.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>89.</b></span> In Old English there was one +case which survives in use, but not in form. In such a sentence as +this one from Thackeray, "Pick <i>me</i> out a whip-cord thong with +some dainty knots in it," the word <i>me</i> is evidently not the +direct object of the verb, but expresses <i>for whom</i>, <i>for +whose benefit</i>, the thing is done. In pronouns, this +<b>dative</b> use, as it is called, was marked by a separate +case.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Now the objective.</i></div> +<p>In Modern English the same <i>use</i> is frequently seen, but +the <i>form</i> is the same as the objective. For this reason a +word thus used is called a <b>dative-objective</b>.</p> +<p>The following are examples of the dative-objective:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Give <i>me</i> neither poverty nor riches.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Bible.</i></span></p> +<p>Curse <i>me</i> this people.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>Both joined in making <i>him</i> a present.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay</span></p> +<p>Is it not enough that you have <i>burnt me</i> down three houses +with your dog's tricks, and be hanged to you!<span class= +"smcap">—Lamb</span></p> +<p>I give <i>thee</i> this to wear at the collar.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Other uses of the objective.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>90.</b></span> Besides this use of the +objective, there are others:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>As the direct object of a verb.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>They all handled <i>it</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Lamb</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"></a>(2) <i>As the object of a +preposition.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Time is behind <i>them</i> and before <i>them</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>In apposition.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>She sate all last summer by the bedside of the blind beggar, +<i>him</i> that so often and so gladly I talked with.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>SPECIAL USES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Indefinite use of</i> you <i>and</i> +your.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>91.</b></span> The word <i>you</i>, and its +possessive case <i>yours</i> are sometimes used without reference +to a particular person spoken to. They approach the indefinite +pronoun in use.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Your</i> mere puny stripling, that winced at the least +flourish of the rod, was passed by with indulgence.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving</span></p> +<p>To empty here, <i>you</i> must condense there.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>The peasants take off their hats as <i>you</i> pass; <i>you</i> +sneeze, and they cry, "God bless you!" The thrifty housewife shows +<i>you</i> into her best chamber. <i>You</i> have oaten cakes baked +some months before.<span class="smcap">—Longfellow</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Uses of</i> it.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>92.</b></span> The pronoun <i>it</i> has a +number of uses:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>To refer to some single word preceding</i>; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Ferdinand ordered the <i>army</i> to recommence <i>its</i> +march.<span class="smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p><i>Society</i>, in this century, has not made <i>its</i> +progress, like Chinese skill, by a greater acuteness of ingenuity +in trifles.—<span class="smcap">D. Webster</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>To refer to a preceding word group</i>; thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If any man should do wrong merely out of ill nature, why, yet +<i>it</i> is but like the thorn or brier, which prick and scratch +because they can do no other.<span class= +"smcap">—Bacon.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Here <i>it</i> refers back to the whole sentence before it, or +to the idea, "any man's doing wrong merely out of ill nature."</p> +<p><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"></a>(3) <i>As a grammatical +subject, to stand for the real, logical subject, which follows the +verb</i>; as in the sentences,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>It</i> is easy in the world <i>to live after the world's +opinion</i>. <span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p><i>It</i> is this <i>haziness</i> of intellectual vision which +is the malady of all classes of men by nature.<span class= +"smcap">—Newman.</span></p> +<p><i>It</i> is a pity <i>that he has so much learning, or that he +has not a great deal more</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>As an impersonal subject in certain expressions which +need no other subject</i>; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>It</i> is finger-cold, and prudent farmers get in their +barreled apples.<span class="smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +<p>And when I awoke, <i>it</i> rained.<span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge.</span></p> +<p>For when <i>it</i> dawned, they dropped their +arms.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p><i>It</i> was late and after midnight.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(5) <i>As an impersonal or indefinite object of a verb or a +preposition</i>; as in the following sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Michael Paw, who <i>lorded it</i> over the fair +regions of ancient Pavonia.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>I made up my mind <i>to foot it</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>A sturdy lad ... who in turn tries all the professions, who +<i>teams it, farms it, peddles it</i>, keeps a school.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) "Thy mistress leads thee a dog's life <i>of +it</i>."<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>There was nothing <i>for it</i> but to return.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>An editor has only to say "respectfully declined," and there is +an end <i>of it</i>.<span class="smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +<p>Poor Christian was hard put <i>to it</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Bunyan.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Reflexive use of the personal +pronouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>93.</b></span> The personal pronouns in the +objective case are often used <i>reflexively</i>; that is, +referring to the same person as the subject of the accompanying +verb. For example, we use such expressions as, "I found <i>me</i> a +good book," "He bought <i>him</i> a horse," <a name="Page_69" id= +"Page_69"></a>etc. This reflexive use of the +<i>dative</i>-objective is very common in spoken and in literary +English.</p> +<p>The personal pronouns are not often used reflexively, however, +when they are <i>direct</i> objects. This occurs in poetry, but +seldom in prose; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Now I lay <i>me</i> down to sleep.<span class= +"smcap">—Anon.</span></p> +<p>I set <i>me</i> down and sigh.<span class= +"smcap">—Burns.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And millions in those solitudes, since +first<br /></span> <span>The flight of years began, have laid +<i>them</i> down<br /></span> <span>In their last +sleep.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Bryant.</span></div> +</div> +<h3>REFLEXIVE OR COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Composed of the personal pronouns with</i> +-self, -selves.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>94.</b></span> The REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS, or +COMPOUND PERSONAL, as they are also called, are formed from the +personal pronouns by adding the word <i>self</i>, and its plural +<i>selves</i>.</p> +<p>They are <i>myself</i>, (<i>ourself</i>), <i>ourselves</i>, +<i>yourself</i>, (<i>thyself</i>), <i>yourselves</i>, +<i>himself</i>, <i>herself</i>, <i>itself</i>, +<i>themselves</i>.</p> +<p>Of the two forms in parentheses, the second is the old form of +the second person, used in poetry.</p> +<p><i>Ourself</i> is used to follow the word <i>we</i> when this +represents a single person, especially in the speech of rulers; +as,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Methinks he seems no better than a +girl;<br /></span> <span>As girls were once, as we <i>ourself</i> +have been.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Tennyson.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Origin of these reflexives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>95.</b></span> The question might arise, Why +are <i>himself</i> and <i>themselves</i> not <i>hisself</i> and +<i>theirselves</i>, as in vulgar English, after the analogy of +<i>myself</i>, <i>ourselves</i>, etc.?</p> +<p>The history of these words shows they are made up of the +dative-objective forms, not the possessive forms, with <i>self</i>. +In Middle English the forms <a name="Page_70" id= +"Page_70"></a><i>meself</i>, <i>theself</i>, were changed into the +possessive <i>myself</i>, <i>thyself</i>, and the others were +formed by analogy with these. <i>Himself</i> and <i>themselves</i> +are the only ones retaining a distinct objective form.</p> +<p>In the forms <i>yourself</i> and <i>yourselves</i> we have the +possessive <i>your</i> marked as singular as well as plural.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Use of the reflexives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>96.</b></span> There are three uses of +reflexive pronouns:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>As object of a verb or preposition, and referring to the +same person or thing as the subject</i>; as in these sentences from +Emerson:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He who offers <i>himself</i> a candidate for that covenant comes +up like an Olympian.</p> +<p>I should hate <i>myself</i> if then I made my other friends my +asylum.</p> +<p>We fill <i>ourselves</i> with ancient learning.</p> +<p>What do we know of nature or of <i>ourselves</i>?</p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>To emphasize a noun or pronoun</i>; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The great globe <i>itself</i> ... shall dissolve.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i8">Threats to all;<br /></span> +<span>To <i>you yourself</i>, to us, to every one.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—<i>Id.</i></span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Who would not sing for Lycidas! he +knew<br /></span> <span><i>Himself</i> to sing, and build the lofty +rhyme.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Milton.</span></div> +</div> +<p>NOTE.—In such sentences the pronoun is sometimes omitted, +and the reflexive modifies the pronoun understood; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Only <i>itself</i> can inspire whom it will.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>My hands are full of blossoms plucked before, Held dead within +them till <i>myself</i> shall die.—<span class="smcap">E. B. +Browning</span>.</p> +<p>As if it were <i>thyself</i> that's here, I shrink with +pain.<span class="smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"></a>(3) <i>As the precise +equivalent of a personal pronoun</i>; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Lord Altamont designed to take his son and +<i>myself</i>.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>Victories that neither <i>myself</i> nor my cause always +deserved.<span class="smcap">—B. Franklin.</span></p> +<p>For what else have our forefathers and <i>ourselves</i> been +taxed?<span class="smcap">—Landor.</span></p> +<p>Years ago, Arcturus and <i>myself</i> met a gentleman from China +who knew the language.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<h4>Exercises on Personal Pronouns.</h4> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Bring up sentences containing ten personal pronouns, +some each of masculine, feminine, and neuter.</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Bring up sentences containing five personal pronouns +in the possessive, some of them being double possessives.</p> +<p>(<i>c</i>) Tell which use each <i>it</i> has in the following +sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Come and trip it as we go,<br /></span> +<span>On the light fantastic toe.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>2. Infancy conforms to nobody; all conform to it.</p> +<p>3. It is an ill wind that blows nobody good.</p> +<p>4. Courage, father, fight it out.</p> +<p>5. And it grew wondrous cold.</p> +<p>6. To know what is best to do, and how to do it, is wisdom.</p> +<p>7. If any phenomenon remains brute and dark, it is because the +corresponding faculty in the observer is not yet active.</p> +<p>8. But if a man do not speak from within the veil, where the +word is one with that it tells of, let him lowly confess it.</p> +<p>9. It behooved him to keep on good terms with his pupils.</p> +<p>10. Biscuit is about the best thing I know; but it is the +soonest spoiled; and one would like to hear counsel on one point, +why it is that a touch of water utterly ruins it.<a name="Page_72" +id="Page_72"></a></p> +</div> +<h3>INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Three now in use.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>97.</b></span> The interrogative pronouns +now in use are <i>who</i> (with the forms <i>whose</i> and +<i>whom</i>), <i>which</i>, and <i>what</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>One obsolete.</i></div> +<p>There is an old word, <i>whether</i>, used formerly to mean +which of two, but now obsolete. Examples from the Bible:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Whether</i> of them twain did the will of his father?</p> +<p><i>Whether</i> is greater, the gold, or the temple?</p> +</div> +<p>From Steele (eighteenth century):—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It may be a question <i>whether</i> of these unfortunate persons +had the greater soul.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Use of</i> who <i>and its forms.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>98.</b></span> The use of <i>who</i>, with +its possessive and objective, is seen in these +sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Who</i> is she in bloody coronation robes from +Rheims?<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span><i>Whose</i> was that gentle voice, that, +whispering sweet,<br /></span> <span>Promised, methought, long days +of bliss sincere?<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Bowles.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>What doth she look on? <i>Whom</i> doth she behold?<span class= +"smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></p> +</div> +<p>From these sentences it will be seen that interrogative +<i>who</i> refers to <i>persons only</i>; that it is not inflected +for gender or number, but for case alone, having three forms; it is +always third person, as it always asks <i>about</i> somebody.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Use of</i> which.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>99.</b></span> Examples of the use of +interrogative <i>which</i>:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Which</i> of these had speed enough to sweep between the +question and the answer, and divide the one from the +other?<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p><i>Which</i> of you, shall we say, doth love us +most?<span class="smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +<p><i>Which</i> of them [the sisters] shall I +take?—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"></a>As shown here, <i>which</i> +is not inflected for gender, number, or case; it refers to either +persons or things; it is selective, that is, picks out one or more +from a number of known persons or objects.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Use of</i> what.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>100.</b></span> Sentences showing the use of +interrogative <i>what</i>:—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Since I from Smaylho'me tower have +been,<br /></span> <span><i>What</i> did thy lady do?<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>What</i> is so rare as a day in June?<span class= +"smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +<p><i>What</i> wouldst thou do, old man?<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +</div> +<p>These show that <i>what</i> is not inflected for case; that it +is always singular and neuter, referring to things, ideas, actions, +etc., not to persons.</p> +<h3>DECLENSION OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>101.</b></span> The following are all the +interrogative forms:—</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='left'>SING. AND PLUR.</td> +<td align='left'>SING. AND PLUR.</td> +<td align='left'>SINGULAR</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td> +<td align='left'>who?</td> +<td align='left'>which?</td> +<td align='left'>what?</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Poss.</i></td> +<td align='left'>whose?</td> +<td align='left'>—</td> +<td align='left'>—</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td> +<td align='left'>whom?</td> +<td align='left'>which?</td> +<td align='left'>what?</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>In spoken English, <i>who</i> is used as objective instead of +<i>whom</i>; as, "<i>Who</i> did you see?" "<i>Who</i> did he speak +to?"</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>To tell the case of +interrogatives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>102.</b></span> The interrogative <i>who</i> +has a separate form for each case, consequently the case can be +told by the form of the word; but the case of <i>which</i> and +<i>what</i> must be determined exactly as in nouns,—by the +<i>use</i> of the words.</p> +<p>For instance, in Sec. 99, <i>which</i> is nominative in the +first sentence, since it is subject of the verb <i>had</i>; +nominative in the second also, subject of <a name="Page_74" id= +"Page_74"></a><i>doth love</i>; objective in the last, being the +direct object of the verb <i>shall take</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Further treatment of</i> who, which +<i>and</i> what.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>103.</b></span> <i>Who</i>, <i>which</i>, +and <i>what</i> are also relative pronouns; <i>which</i> and +<i>what</i> are sometimes adjectives; <i>what</i> may be an adverb +in some expressions.</p> +<p>They will be spoken of again in the proper places, especially in +the treatment of indirect questions (Sec. 127).</p> +<h3>RELATIVE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Function of the relative +pronoun</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>104.</b></span> <b>Relative pronouns</b> +differ from both personal and interrogative pronouns in referring +to an antecedent, and also in having a conjunctive use. The +advantage in using them is to unite short statements into longer +sentences, and so to make smoother discourse. Thus we may say, "The +last of all the Bards was he. These bards sang of Border chivalry." +Or, it may be shortened into,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>"The last of all the Bards was +he,<br /></span> <span><i>Who</i> sung of Border +chivalry."<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>In the latter sentence, <i>who</i> evidently refers to +<i>Bards</i>, which is called the <b>antecedent</b> of the +relative.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The antecedent.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>105.</b></span> The <b>antecedent</b> of a +pronoun is the noun, pronoun, or other word or expression, for +which the pronoun stands. It usually precedes the pronoun.</p> +<p>Personal pronouns of the third person may have antecedents also, +as they take the place usually of a word already used; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The priest hath <i>his</i> fee who comes and shrives +us.<span class="smcap">—Lowell</span></p> +</div> +<p>In this, both <i>his</i> and <i>who</i> have the antecedent +<i>priest</i>.</p> +<p><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75"></a>The pronoun <i>which</i> may +have its antecedent following, and the antecedent may be a word or +a group of words, as will be shown in the remarks on <i>which</i> +below.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Two kinds.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>106.</b></span> Relatives may be SIMPLE or +INDEFINITE.</p> +<p>When the word <i>relative</i> is used, a simple relative is +meant. Indefinite relatives, and the indefinite use of simple +relatives, will be discussed further on.</p> +<p>The SIMPLE RELATIVES are <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>that</i>, +<i>what</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote">Who <i>and its forms.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>107.</b></span> Examples of the relative +<i>who</i> and its forms:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Has a man gained anything <i>who</i> has received a hundred +favors and rendered none?<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>2. That man is little to be envied <i>whose</i> patriotism would +not gain force upon the plain of Marathon.<span class= +"smcap">—Dr Johnson.</span></p> +<p>3.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i6">For her enchanting +son,<br /></span> <span><i>Whom</i> universal nature did +lament.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Milton.</span></div> +</div> +<p>4. The nurse came to us, <i>who</i> were sitting in an adjoining +apartment.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>5.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Ye mariners of England,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">That guard our native seas;<br /></span> +<span><i>Whose</i> flag has braved, a thousand years,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The battle and the breeze!<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Campbell.</span></div> +</div> +<p>6. The men <i>whom</i> men respect, the women <i>whom</i> women +approve, are the men and women <i>who</i> bless their +species.<span class="smcap">—Parton</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Which <i>and its forms.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>108.</b></span> Examples of the relative +<i>which</i> and its forms:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. They had not their own luster, but the look <i>which</i> is +not of the earth.<span class="smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p>2.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The embattled portal arch he +pass'd,<br /></span> <span><i>Whose</i> ponderous grate and massy +bar<br /></span> <span>Had oft roll'd back the tide of +war.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></div> +</div> +<p>3. Generally speaking, the dogs <i>which</i> stray around the +butcher<a name="Page_76" id="Page_76"></a> shops restrain their +appetites.<span class="smcap">—Cox.</span></p> +<p>4. The origin of language is divine, in the same sense in +<i>which</i> man's nature, with all its capabilities ..., is a +divine creation.—<span class="smcap">W. D. +Whitney</span>.</p> +5. +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) This gradation ... ought to be kept in view; else +this description will seem exaggerated, <i>which</i> it certainly +is not.<span class="smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) The snow was three inches deep and still falling, +<i>which</i> prevented him from taking his usual ride.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">That.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>109.</b></span> Examples of the relative +<i>that</i>:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The man <i>that</i> hath no music in +himself,...<br /></span> <span>Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and +spoils.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare</span></div> +</div> +<p>2. The judge ... bought up all the pigs <i>that</i> could be +had.<span class="smcap">—Lamb</span></p> +<p>3. Nature and books belong to the eyes <i>that</i> see +them.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>4. For the sake of country a man is told to yield everything +<i>that</i> makes the land honorable.<span class="smcap">—H. +W. Beecher</span></p> +<p>5. Reader, <i>that</i> do not pretend to have leisure for very +much scholarship, you will not be angry with me for telling +you.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>6. The Tree Igdrasil, <i>that</i> has its roots down in the +kingdoms of Hela and Death, and whose boughs overspread the highest +heaven!<span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">What.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>110.</b></span> Examples of the use of the +relative <i>what</i>:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Its net to entangle the enemy seems to be <i>what</i> it +chiefly trusts to, and <i>what</i> it takes most pains to render as +complete as possible.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>2. For <i>what</i> he sought below is passed above, Already done +is all that he would do.<span class="smcap">—Margaret +Fuller.</span></p> +<p>3. Some of our readers may have seen in India a crowd of crows +picking a sick vulture to death, no bad type of <i>what</i> often +happens in that country.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay</span></p> +</div> +<p>[<i>To the Teacher.</i>—If pupils work over the above +sentences carefully, and test every remark in the following +paragraphs, they will get a much better understanding of the +relatives.]<a name="Page_77" id="Page_77"></a></p> +<h3>REMARKS ON THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><b>Who.</b></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>111.</b></span> By reading carefully the +sentences in Sec. 107, the following facts will be noticed about +the relative <i>who</i>:—</p> +<p>(1) It usually refers to persons: thus, in the first sentence, +Sec. 107, <i>a man...who</i>; in the second, <i>that +man...whose</i>; in the third, <i>son</i>, <i>whom</i>; and so +on.</p> +<p>(2) It has three case forms,—<i>who</i>, <i>whose</i>, +<i>whom</i>.</p> +<p>(3) The forms do not change for person or number of the +antecedent. In sentence 4, <i>who</i> is first person; in 5, +<i>whose</i> is second person; the others are all third person. In +1, 2, and 3, the relatives are singular; in 4, 5, and 6, they are +plural.</p> +<div class="sidenote">Who <i>referring to animals</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>112.</b></span> Though in most cases +<i>who</i> refers to persons there are instances found where it +refers to animals. It has been seen (Sec. 24) that animals are +referred to by personal pronouns when their characteristics or +habits are such as to render them important or interesting to man. +Probably on the same principle the personal relative <i>who</i> is +used not infrequently in literature, referring to animals.</p> +<p>Witness the following examples:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>And you, warm little housekeeper [the cricket], <i>who</i> class +With those who think the candles come too soon.<span class= +"smcap">—Leigh Hunt.</span></p> +<p>The robins...have succeeded in driving off the bluejays +<i>who</i> used to build in our pines.<span class= +"smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +<p>The little gorilla, <i>whose</i> wound I had dressed, flung its +arms around my neck.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>A lake frequented by every fowl <i>whom</i> Nature has taught to +dip the wing in water.<span class="smcap">—Dr. +Johnson.</span><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"></a></p> +<p>While we had such plenty of domestic insects <i>who</i> +infinitely excelled the former, because they understood how to +weave as well as to spin.<span class= +"smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +<p>My horse, <i>who</i>, under his former rider had hunted the +buffalo, seemed as much excited as myself.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Other examples might be quoted from Burke, Kingsley, Smollett, +Scott, Cooper, Gibbon, and others.</p> +<div class="sidenote">Which.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>113.</b></span> The sentences in Sec. 108 +show that—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Which</i> refers to animals, things, or ideas, not +persons.</p> +<p>(2) It is not inflected for gender or number.</p> +<p>(3) It is nearly always third person, rarely second (an example +of its use as second person is given in sentence 32, p. 96).</p> +<p>(4) It has two case forms,—<i>which</i> for the nominative +and objective, <i>whose</i> for the possessive.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Examples of</i> whose, <i>possessive case +of</i> which.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>114.</b></span> Grammarians sometimes object +to the statement that <i>whose</i> is the possessive of +<i>which</i>, saying that the phrase <i>of which</i> should always +be used instead; yet a search in literature shows that the +possessive form <i>whose</i> is quite common in prose as well as in +poetry: for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I swept the horizon, and saw at one glance the glorious +elevations, on <i>whose</i> tops the sun kindled all the melodies +and harmonies of light.—<span class= +"smcap">Beecher.</span></p> +<p>Men may be ready to fight to the death, and to persecute without +pity, for a religion <i>whose</i> creed they do not understand, and +<i>whose</i> precepts they habitually disobey.—<span class= +"smcap">Macaulay</span></p> +<p>Beneath these sluggish waves lay the once proud cities of the +plain, <i>whose</i> grave was dug by the thunder of the +heavens.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span><a name="Page_79" +id="Page_79"></a></p> +<p>Many great and opulent cities <i>whose</i> population now +exceeds that of Virginia during the Revolution, and <i>whose</i> +names are spoken in the remotest corner of the civilized +world.<span class="smcap">—Mcmaster.</span></p> +<p>Through the heavy door <i>whose</i> bronze network closes the +place of his rest, let us enter the church itself.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>This moribund '61, <i>whose</i> career of life is just coming to +its terminus.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<p>So in Matthew Arnold, Kingsley, Burke, and numerous others.</p> +<div class="sidenote">Which <i>and its antecedents</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>115.</b></span> The last two sentences in +Sec. 108 show that <i>which</i> may have other antecedents than +nouns and pronouns. In 5 (<i>a</i>) there is a participial +adjective used as the antecedent; in 5 (<i>b</i>) there is a +complete clause employed as antecedent. This often occurs.</p> +<p>Sometimes, too, the antecedent follows <i>which</i>; +thus,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And, which is worse, <i>all you have +done</i><br /></span> <span><i>Hath been but for a wayward +son</i>.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Primarily, which is very notable and curious, I observe that +<i>men of business rarely know the meaning of the word +"rich</i>."<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>I demurred to this honorary title upon two grounds,—first, +as being one toward which I had no natural aptitudes or +predisposing advantages; secondly (which made her stare), <i>as +carrying with it no real or enviable distinction</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">That.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>116.</b></span> In the sentences of Sec. +109, we notice that—</p> +<p>(1) <i>That</i> refers to persons, animals, and things.</p> +<p>(2) It has only one case form, no possessive.</p> +<p>(3) It is the same form for first, second, and third +persons.</p> +<p>(4) It has the same form for singular and plural.</p> +<p><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"></a>It sometimes borrows the +possessive <i>whose</i>, as in sentence 6, Sec. 109, but this is +not sanctioned as good usage.</p> +<div class="sidenote">What.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>117.</b></span> The sentences of Sec. 110 +show that—</p> +<p>(1) <i>What</i> always refers to things; is always neuter.</p> +<p>(2) It is used almost entirely in the singular.</p> +<p>(3) Its antecedent is hardly ever expressed. When expressed, it +usually follows, and is emphatic; as, for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>What I would, <i>that</i> do I not; but what I hate, <i>that</i> +do I.—<span class="smcap"><i>Bible</i></span></p> +<p>What fates impose, <i>that</i> men must needs abide.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +<p>What a man does, <i>that</i> he has.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Compare this:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Alas! is <i>it</i> not too true, what we said?<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>DECLENSION OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>118.</b></span> These are the forms of the +simple relatives:—</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td align='left' colspan='4'>SINGULAR AND PLURAL.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td> +<td align='left'>who</td> +<td align='left'>which</td> +<td align='left'>that</td> +<td align='left'>what</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Poss.</i></td> +<td align='left'>whose</td> +<td align='left'>whose</td> +<td align='left'>—</td> +<td align='left'>—</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td> +<td align='left'>whom</td> +<td align='left'>which</td> +<td align='left'>that</td> +<td align='left'>what</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3>HOW TO PARSE RELATIVES.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>119.</b></span> The <i>gender</i>, +<i>number</i>, and <i>person</i> of the relatives <i>who</i>, +<i>which</i>, and <i>that</i> must be determined by those of the +antecedent; the <i>case</i> depends upon the function of the +relative in its own clause.</p> +<p>For example, consider the following sentence:<a name="Page_81" +id="Page_81"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"He uttered truths <i>that</i> wrought upon and molded the lives +of those <i>who</i> heard him."</p> +</div> +<p>Since the relatives hold the sentence together, we can, by +taking them out, let the sentence fall apart into three divisions: +(1) "He uttered truths;" (2) "The truths wrought upon and molded +the lives of the people;" (3) "These people heard him."</p> +<p><i>That</i> evidently refers to <i>truths</i>, consequently is +neuter, third person, plural number. <i>Who</i> plainly stands for +<i>those</i> or <i>the people</i>, either of which would be neuter, +third person, plural number. Here the relative agrees with its +antecedent.</p> +<p>We cannot say the relative agrees with its antecedent in +<i>case</i>. <i>Truths</i> in sentence (2), above, is subject of +<i>wrought upon and molded</i>; in (1), it is object of +<i>uttered</i>. In (2), <i>people</i> is the object of the +preposition <i>of</i>; in (3), it is subject of the verb +<i>heard</i>. Now, <i>that</i> takes the case of <i>the truths</i> +in (2), not of <i>truths</i> which is expressed in the sentence: +consequently <i>that</i> is in the nominative case. In the same way +<i>who</i>, standing for <i>the people</i> understood, subject of +<i>heard</i>, is in the nominative case.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>First find the antecedents, then parse the relatives, in the +following sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. How superior it is in these respects to the pear, whose +blossoms are neither colored nor fragrant!</p> +<p>2. Some gnarly apple which I pick up in the road reminds me by +its fragrance of all the wealth of Pomona.</p> +<p>3. Perhaps I talk with one who is selecting some choice barrels +for filling an order.</p> +<p><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a>4. Ill blows the wind that +profits nobody.</p> +<p>5. Alas! it is we ourselves that are getting buried alive under +this avalanche of earthly impertinences.</p> +<p>6. This method also forces upon us the necessity of thinking, +which is, after all, the highest result of all education.</p> +<p>7. I know that there are many excellent people who object to the +reading of novels as a waste of time.</p> +<p>8. I think they are trying to outwit nature, who is sure to be +cunninger than they.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Parsing</i> what, <i>the simple +relative</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>120.</b></span> The relative <i>what</i> is +handled differently, because it has usually no antecedent, but is +singular, neuter, third person. Its case is determined exactly as +that of other relatives. In the sentence, "What can't be cured must +be endured," the verb <i>must be endured</i> is the predicate of +something. What must be endured? Answer, <i>What can't be +cured</i>. The whole expression is its subject. The word +<i>what</i>, however, is subject of the verb <i>can't be cured</i>, +and hence is in the nominative case.</p> +<p>"What we call nature is a certain self-regulated motion or +change." Here the subject of <i>is</i>, etc., is <i>what we call +nature</i>; but of this, <i>we</i> is the subject, and <i>what</i> +is the direct object of the verb <i>call</i>, so is in the +objective case.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Another way.</i></div> +<p>Some prefer another method of treatment. As shown by the +following sentences, <i>what</i> is equivalent to <i>that +which</i>:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It has been said that "common souls pay with <i>what</i> they +do, nobler souls with <i>that which</i> they are."<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p><i>That which</i> is pleasant often appears under the name of +evil; and <i>what</i> is disagreeable to nature is called good and +virtuous.<span class="smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Hence some take <i>what</i> as a double relative, and parse +<i>that</i> in the first clause, and <i>which</i> in the +sec<a name="Page_83" id="Page_83"></a>ond clause; that is, "common +souls pay with <i>that</i> [singular, object of <i>with</i>] +<i>which</i> [singular, object of <i>do</i>] they do."</p> +<h3>INDEFINITE RELATIVES.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>List and examples.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>121.</b></span> INDEFINITE RELATIVES are, by +meaning and use, not as direct as the simple relatives.</p> +<p>They are <i>whoever</i>, <i>whichever</i>, <i>whatever</i>, +<i>whatsoever</i>; less common are <i>whoso</i>, <i>whosoever</i>, +<i>whichsoever</i>, <i>whatsoever</i>. The simple relatives +<i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, and <i>what</i> may also be used as +indefinite relatives. Examples of indefinite relatives (from +Emerson):—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. <i>Whoever</i> has flattered his friend successfully must at +once think himself a knave, and his friend a fool.</p> +<p>2. It is no proof of a man's understanding, to be able to affirm +<i>whatever</i> he pleases.</p> +<p>3. They sit in a chair or sprawl with children on the floor, or +stand on their head, or <i>what</i> else <i>soever</i>, in a new +and original way.</p> +<p>4. <i>Whoso</i> is heroic will always find crises to try his +edge.</p> +<p>5. Only itself can inspire <i>whom</i> it will.</p> +<p>6. God offers to every mind its choice between truth and repose. +Take <i>which</i> you please,—you cannot have both.</p> +<p>7. Do <i>what</i> we can, summer will have its flies.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Meaning and use.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>122.</b></span> The fitness of the term +<i>indefinite</i> here cannot be shown better than by examining the +following sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. There is something so overruling in <i>whatever</i> inspires +us with awe, in <i>all things which</i> belong ever so remotely to +terror, that nothing else can stand in their presence.<span class= +"smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p>2. Death is there associated, not with <i>everything that</i> is +most endearing in social and domestic charities, but with +<i>whatever</i> is darkest in human nature and in human +destiny.<span class="smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84"></a>It is clear that in 1, +<i>whatever</i> is equivalent to <i>all things which</i>, and in 2, +to <i>everything that</i>; no certain antecedent, no particular +thing, being referred to. So with the other indefinites.</p> +<div class="sidenote">What <i>simple relative and</i> what +<i>indefinite relative</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>123.</b></span> The above helps us to +discriminate between <i>what</i> as a simple and <i>what</i> as an +indefinite relative.</p> +<p>As shown in Sec. 120, the simple relative <i>what</i> is +equivalent to <i>that which</i> or the <i>thing +which</i>,—some particular thing; as shown by the last +sentence in Sec. 121, <i>what</i> means <i>anything that</i>, +<i>everything that</i> (or <i>everything which</i>). The difference +must be seen by the meaning of the sentence, as <i>what</i> hardly +ever has an antecedent.</p> +<p>The examples in sentences 5 and 6, Sec. 121, show that +<i>who</i> and <i>which</i> have no antecedent expressed, but mean +<i>any one whom</i>, <i>either one that</i>, etc.</p> +<h3>OTHER WORDS USED AS RELATIVES.</h3> +<div class="sidenote">But <i>and</i> as.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>124.</b></span> Two words, <b>but</b> and +<b>as</b>, are used with the force of relative pronouns in some +expressions; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. There is not a leaf rotting on the highway <i>but</i> has +force in it: how else could it rot?<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>2. This, amongst such other troubles <i>as</i> most men meet +with in this life, has been my heaviest affliction.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Proof that they have the force of +relatives.</i></div> +<p>Compare with these the two following sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>3. There is nothing <i>but</i> is related to us, nothing +<i>that</i> does <i>not</i> interest us.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>4. There were articles of comfort and luxury such <i>as</i> +Hester never ceased to use, but <i>which</i> only wealth could have +purchased.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85"></a>Sentence 3 shows that +<i>but</i> is equivalent to the relative <i>that</i> with +<i>not</i>, and that <i>as</i> after <i>such</i> is equivalent to +<i>which</i>.</p> +<p>For <i>as</i> after <i>same</i> see "Syntax" (Sec. 417).</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Former use of</i> as.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>125.</b></span> In early modern English, +<i>as</i> was used just as we use <i>that</i> or <i>which</i>, not +following the word <i>such</i>; thus,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>I have not from your eyes that +gentleness<br /></span> <span>And show of love <i>as</i> I was wont +to have.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare</span></div> +</div> +<p>This still survives in vulgar English in England; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"Don't you mind Lucy Passmore, <i>as</i> charmed your warts for +you when you was a boy? "<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley</span></p> +</div> +<p>This is frequently illustrated in Dickens's works.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Other substitutes.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>126.</b></span> Instead of the phrases <i>in +which</i>, <i>upon which</i>, <i>by which</i>, etc., the +conjunctions <i>wherein</i>, <i>whereupon</i>, <i>whereby</i>, +etc., are used.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A man is the facade of a temple <i>wherein</i> all wisdom and +good abide.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>The sovereignty of this nature <i>whereof</i> we +speak.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The dear home faces +<i>whereupon</i><br /></span> <span>That fitful firelight paled and +shone.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Whittier.</span></div> +</div> +<h3>PRONOUNS IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Special caution needed here.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>127.</b></span> It is sometimes hard for the +student to tell a relative from an interrogative pronoun. In the +regular direct question the interrogative is easily recognized; so +is the relative when an antecedent is close by. But compare the +following in pairs:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Like a gentleman of leisure <i>who</i> is strolling +out for pleasure.<a name="Page_86" id="Page_86"></a></p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Well we knew <i>who</i> stood behind, though the +earthwork hid them.</p> +</div> +<p>2.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) But <i>what</i> you gain in time is perhaps lost in +power.</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) But <i>what</i> had become of them they knew not.</p> +</div> +<p>3.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) These are the lines <i>which</i> heaven-commanded +Toil shows on his deed.</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) And since that time I thought it not amiss To judge +<i>which</i> were the best of all these three.</p> +</div> +</div> +<p>In sentences 1 (<i>a</i>), 2 (<i>a</i>) and 3 (<i>a</i>) the +regular relative use is seen; <i>who</i> having the antecedent +<i>gentleman</i>, <i>what</i> having the double use of pronoun and +antecedent, <i>which</i> having the antecedent <i>lines</i>.</p> +<p>But in 1 (<i>b</i>), 2 (<i>b</i>), and 3 (<i>b</i>), there are +two points of difference from the others considered: first, no +antecedent is expressed, which would indicate that they are not +relatives; second, a question is disguised in each sentence, +although each sentence as a whole is declarative in form. Thus, 1 +(<i>b</i>), if expanded, would be, "Who stood behind? We knew," +etc., showing that <i>who</i> is plainly interrogative. So in 2 +(<i>b</i>), <i>what</i> is interrogative, the full expression +being, "But what had become of them? They knew not." Likewise with +<i>which</i> in 3 (<i>b</i>).</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>How to decide.</i></div> +<p>In studying such sentences, (1) see whether there is an +antecedent of <i>who</i> or <i>which</i>, and whether <i>what</i> = +<i>that</i> + <i>which</i> (if so, it is a simple relative; if not, +it is either an indefinite relative or an interrogative pronoun); +(2) see if the pronoun introduces an indirect question (if it does, +it is an interrogative; if not, it is an indefinite relative).</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Another caution.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>128.</b></span> On the other hand, care must +be taken to see whether the pronoun is the word that really +<a name="Page_87" id="Page_87"></a><i>asks the question</i> in an +interrogative sentence. Examine the following:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Sweet rose! whence is this +hue<br /></span> <span><i>Which</i> doth all hues +excel?<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Drummond</span></div> +</div> +<p>2.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And then what wonders shall you +do<br /></span> <span><i>Whose</i> dawning beauty warms us +so?<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Walker</span></div> +</div> +<p>3.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Is this a romance? Or is it a faithful picture of <i>what</i> +has lately been in a neighboring land?<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay</span></p> +</div> +</div> +<p>These are interrogative sentences, but in none of them does the +pronoun ask the question. In the first, <i>whence</i> is the +interrogative word, <i>which</i> has the antecedent <i>hue</i>. In +the second, <i>whose</i> has the antecedent <i>you</i>, and asks no +question. In the third, the question is asked by the verb.</p> +<h3>OMISSION OF THE RELATIVES.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Relative omitted when</i> object.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>129.</b></span> The relative is frequently +omitted in spoken and in literary English when it would be the +object of a preposition or a verb. Hardly a writer can be found who +does not leave out relatives in this way when they can be readily +supplied in the mind of the reader. Thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>These are the sounds we feed upon.<span class= +"smcap">—Fletcher.</span></p> +<p>I visited many other apartments, but shall not trouble my reader +with all the curiosities I observed.<span class= +"smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise</b>.</p> +<p>Put in the relatives <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, or <i>that</i> +where they are omitted from the following sentences, and see +whether the sentences are any smoother or clearer:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. The insect I am now describing lived three years,<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88"></a>2. They will go to Sunday +schools through storms their brothers are afraid of.<span class= +"smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +<p>3. He opened the volume he first took from the +shelf.—<span class="smcap">G. Eliot</span>.</p> +<p>4. He could give the coals in that queer coal scuttle we read of +to his poor neighbor.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>5. When Goldsmith died, half the unpaid bill he owed to Mr. +William Filby was for clothes supplied to his nephew.<span class= +"smcap">—Forster</span></p> +<p>6. The thing I want to see is not Redbook Lists, and Court +Calendars, but the life of man in England.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>7. The material they had to work upon was already democratical +by instinct and habitude.<span class= +"smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Relative omitted when</i> subject.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>130.</b></span> We often hear in spoken +English expressions like these:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>There isn't one here ‸ knows how to play ball.</p> +<p>There was such a crowd ‸ went, the house was full.</p> +</div> +<p>Here the omitted relative would be in the nominative case. Also +in literary English we find the same omission. It is rare in prose, +and comparatively so in poetry. Examples are,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The silent truth that it was she was superior.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I have a mind presages me such thrift.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>There is a nun in Dryburgh +bower,<br /></span> <span class="i2">Ne'er looks upon the +sun.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And you may gather garlands +there<br /></span> <span class="i2">Would grace a summer +queen.<br /></span> <span><i>—Id.</i><br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view.<span class= +"smcap">—Campbell.</span></p> +</div> +<h4>Exercises on the Relative Pronoun.</h4> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Bring up sentences containing ten instances of the +relatives <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>that</i>, and +<i>what</i>.</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Bring up sentences having five indefinite +relatives.</p> +<p>(<i>c</i>) Bring up five sentences having indirect questions +introduced by pronouns.</p> +<p><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"></a>(<i>d</i>) Tell whether the +pronouns in the following are interrogatives, simple relatives, or +indefinite relatives:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. He ushered him into one of the wherries which lay ready to +attend the Queen's barge, which was already proceeding.</p> +<p>2. The nobles looked at each other, but more with the purpose to +see what each thought of the news, than to exchange any remarks on +what had happened.</p> +<p>3. Gracious Heaven! who was this that knew the word?</p> +<p>4. It needed to be ascertained which was the strongest kind of +men; who were to be rulers over whom.</p> +<p>5. He went on speaking to who would listen to him.</p> +<p>6. What kept me silent was the thought of my mother.</p> +</div> +<h3>ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Function of adjective pronouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>131.</b></span> Most of the words how to be +considered are capable of a double use,—they may be pure +modifiers of nouns, or they may stand for nouns. In the first use +they are adjectives; in the second they retain an adjective +<i>meaning</i>, but have lost their adjective <i>use</i>. Primarily +they are adjectives, but in this function, or use, they are +properly classed as adjective pronouns.</p> +<p>The following are some examples of these:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Some</i> say that the place was bewitched.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i2">That mysterious realm where +<i>each</i> shall take<br /></span> <span>His chamber in the silent +halls of death.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Bryant.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>How happy is he born or +taught<br /></span> <span class="i2">That serveth not +<i>another's</i> will.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Wotton</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>That</i> is more than any martyr can stand.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Caution.</i></div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Adjectives, not pronouns.</i></div> +<p>Hence these words are like adjectives used as nouns, which we +have seen in such expressions as, "<i>The dead</i> are there;" that +is, a word, in order to be an adjective pronoun, <i>must not modify +any <a name="Page_90" id="Page_90"></a>word, expressed or +understood</i>. It must come under the requirement of pronouns, and +<i>stand for a noun</i>. For instance, in the following +sentences—"The cubes are of stainless ivory, and on +<i>each</i> is written, in letters of gold, '<i>Truth</i>;'" "You +needs must play such pranks as <i>these</i>;" "They will always +have one bank to sun themselves upon, and <i>another</i> to get +cool under;" "Where two men ride on a horse, <i>one</i> must ride +behind"—the words italicized modify nouns understood, +necessarily thought of: thus, in the first, "each <i>cube</i>;" in +the second, "these <i>pranks</i>," in the others, "another +<i>bank</i>," "one <i>man</i>."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Classes of adjective pronouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>132.</b></span> Adjective pronouns are +divided into three classes:—</p> +<p>(1) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, such as <i>this</i>, <i>that</i>, +<i>the former</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(2) DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS, such as <i>each</i>, <i>either</i>, +<i>neither</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(3) NUMERAL PRONOUNS, as <i>some</i>, <i>any</i>, <i>few</i>, +<i>many</i>, <i>none</i>, <i>all</i>, etc.</p> +<h3>DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition and examples.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>133.</b></span> A DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN is +one that definitely points out what persons or things are alluded +to in the sentence.</p> +<p>The person or thing alluded to by the demonstrative may be in +another sentence, or may be the whole of a sentence. For example, +"Be <i>that</i> as it may" could refer to a sentiment in a +sentence, or an argument in a paragraph; but the demonstrative +clearly points to that thing.</p> +<p><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91"></a>The following are examples of +demonstratives:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I did not say <i>this</i> in so many words.</p> +<p>All <i>these</i> he saw; but what he fain had seen He could not +see.</p> +<p>Beyond <i>that</i> I seek not to penetrate the veil.</p> +<p>How much we forgive in <i>those</i> who yield us the rare +spectacle of heroic manners!</p> +<p>The correspondence of Bonaparte with his brother Joseph, when +<i>the latter</i> was the King of Spain.</p> +<p><i>Such</i> are a few isolated instances, accidentally +preserved.</p> +<p>Even as I have seen, they that plow iniquity, and sow +wickedness, reap <i>the same</i>.</p> +<p>They know that patriotism has its glorious opportunities and its +sacred duties. They have not shunned <i>the one</i>, and they have +well performed <i>the other</i>.</p> +</div> +<p>NOTE.—It will be noticed in the first four sentences that +<i>this</i> and <i>that</i> are inflected for number.</p> +<h4>Exercises.</h4> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Find six sentences using demonstrative adjective +pronouns.</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) In which of the following is <i>these</i> a +pronoun?—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Formerly the duty of a librarian was to keep people as much +as possible from the books, and to hand <i>these</i> over to his +successor as little worn as he could.<span class= +"smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +<p>2. They had fewer books, but <i>these</i> were of the +best.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>3. A man inspires affection and honor, because he was not lying +in wait for <i>these</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson</span></p> +<p>4. Souls such as <i>these</i> treat you as gods +would.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>5. <i>These</i> are the first mountains that broke the uniform +level of the earth's surface.<span class= +"smcap">—Agassiz</span></p> +</div> +<h3>DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition and examples.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>134.</b></span> The DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS +are those which stand for the names of persons or things considered +singly.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_92" id= +"Page_92"></a><i>Simple.</i></div> +<p>Some of these are <i>simple</i> pronouns; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>They stood, or sat, or reclined, as seemed good to +<i>each</i>.</p> +<p>As two yoke devils sworn to <i>other's</i> purpose.</p> +<p>Their minds accorded into one strain, and made delightful music +which <i>neither</i> could have claimed as all his own.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Compound</i>.</div> +<p>Two are compound pronouns,—<i>each other</i>, <i>one +another</i>. They may be separated into two adjective pronouns; +as,</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We violated our reverence <i>each</i> for <i>the other's</i> +soul. <span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<p>More frequently they are considered as one pronoun.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>They led one another, as it were, into a high pavilion of their +thoughts.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>Men take each other's measure when they react.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise</b>.—Find sentences containing three +distributive pronouns.</p> +<h3>NUMERAL PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition and examples</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>135.</b></span> The NUMERAL PRONOUNS are +those which stand for an uncertain number or quantity of persons or +things.</p> +<p>The following sentences contain numeral pronouns:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Trusting too much to <i>others'</i> care is the ruin of +<i>many</i>.</p> +<p>'Tis of no importance how large his house, you quickly come to +the end of <i>all</i>.</p> +<p><i>Another</i> opposes him with sound argument.</p> +<p>It is as if <i>one</i> should be so enthusiastic a lover of +poetry as to care nothing for Homer or Milton.</p> +<p>There were plenty <i>more</i> for him to fall in company with, +as <i>some</i> of the rangers had gone astray.<a name="Page_93" id= +"Page_93"></a></p> +<p>The Soldan, imbued, as <i>most</i> were, with the superstitions +of his time, paused over a horoscope.</p> +<p>If those [taxes] were the only <i>ones</i> we had to pay, we +might the more easily discharge them.</p> +<p><i>Much</i> might be said on both sides.</p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>If hand of mine <i>another's</i> task has +lightened.<br /></span> <span>It felt the guidance that it does not +claim.<br /></span> <span>So perish <i>all</i> whose breast ne'er +learned to glow<br /></span> <span>For <i>others</i>' good, or melt +for <i>others</i>' woe.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>None</i> shall rule but the humble.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Some inflected.</i></div> +<p>It will be noticed that some of these are inflected for case and +number; such as <i>one other</i>, <i>another</i>.</p> +<p>The word <i>one</i> has a reflexive form; for +example,—</p> +<div class="sidenote">One <i>reflexive</i>.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The best way to punish <i>oneself</i> for doing ill seems to me +to go and do good.<span class="smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>The lines sound so prettily to <i>one's self</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Exercise.—Find sentences containing ten numeral +pronouns.</p> +<h3>INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition and examples.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>136.</b></span> <b>Indefinite pronouns</b> +are words which stand for an indefinite number or quantity of +persons or things; but, unlike adjective pronouns, they are never +used as adjectives.</p> +<p>Most of them are compounds of two or more words:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>List.</i></div> +<p><i>Somebody</i>, <i>some one</i>, <i>something</i>; +<i>anybody</i>, <i>any one</i> (or <i>anyone</i>), <i>anything</i>; +<i>everybody</i>, <i>every one</i> (or <i>everyone</i>), +<i>everything</i>; <i>nobody</i>, <i>no one</i>, <i>nothing</i>; +<i>somebody else</i>, <i>anyone else</i>, <i>everybody else</i>, +<i>every one else</i>, etc.; also <i>aught</i>, <i>naught</i>; and +<i>somewhat</i>, <i>what</i>, and <i>they</i>.</p> +<p><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94"></a>The following sentences +contain indefinite pronouns:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>As he had them of all hues, he hoped to fit <i>everybody's</i> +fancy.</p> +<p><i>Every one</i> knows how laborious the usual method is of +attaining to arts and sciences.</p> +<p><i>Nothing</i> sheds more honor on our early history than the +impression which these measures everywhere produced in America.</p> +<p>Let us also perform <i>something</i> worthy to be +remembered.</p> +<p>William of Orange was more than <i>anything else</i> a religious +man.</p> +<p>Frederick was discerned to be a purchaser of <i>everything</i> +that <i>nobody else</i> would buy.</p> +<p>These other souls draw me as <i>nothing else</i> can.</p> +<p>The genius that created it now creates <i>somewhat else</i>.</p> +<p><i>Every one else</i> stood still at his post.</p> +<p>That is perfectly true: I did not want <i>anybody else's</i> +authority to write as I did.</p> +</div> +<p><i>They</i> indefinite means people in general; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>At lovers' perjuries, <i>they</i> say, Jove laughs.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +</div> +<p><i>What</i> indefinite is used in the expression "I tell you +<i>what</i>." It means <i>something</i>, and was indefinite in Old +English.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Now, in building of chaises, I tell you +<i>what</i>,<br /></span> <span>There is always somewhere a weakest +spot.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Find sentences with six indefinite +pronouns.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>137.</b></span> Some indefinite pronouns are +inflected for case, as shown in the words <i>everybody's</i>, +<i>anybody else's</i>, etc.</p> +<p>See also "Syntax" (Sec. 426) as to the possessive case of the +forms with <i>else</i>.<a name="Page_95" id="Page_95"></a></p> +<h3>HOW TO PARSE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A reminder.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>138.</b></span> In <b>parsing</b> pronouns +the student will need particularly to guard against the mistake of +parsing words according to <i>form</i> instead of according to +function or use.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Parse in full the pronouns in the following +sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. She could not help laughing at the vile English into which +they were translated.</p> +<p>2. Our readers probably remember what Mrs. Hutchinson tells us +of herself.</p> +<p>3. Whoever deals with M. de Witt must go the plain way that he +pretends to, in his negotiations.</p> +<p>4. Some of them from whom nothing was to be got, were suffered +to depart; but those from whom it was thought that anything could +be extorted were treated with execrable cruelty.</p> +<p>5. All was now ready for action.</p> +<p>6. Scarcely had the mutiny broken up when he was himself +again.</p> +<p>7. He came back determined to put everything to the hazard.</p> +<p>8. Nothing is more clear than that a general ought to be the +servant of his government, and of no other.</p> +<p>9. Others did the same thing, but not to quite so enormous an +extent.</p> +<p>10. On reaching the approach to this about sunset of a beautiful +evening in June, I first found myself among the mountains,—a +feature of natural scenery for which, from my earliest days, it was +not extravagant to say that I hungered and thirsted.</p> +<p>11. I speak of that part which chiefly it is that I know.</p> +<p>12. A smaller sum I had given to my friend the attorney (who was +connected with the money lenders as their lawyer), to which, +indeed, he was entitled for his unfurnished lodgings.</p> +<p><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96"></a>13. Whatever power the law +gave them would be enforced against me to the utmost.</p> +<p>14. O thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my +fathers!</p> +<p>15. But there are more than you ever heard of who die of grief +in this island of ours.</p> +<p>16. But amongst themselves is no voice nor sound.</p> +<p>17. For this did God send her a great reward.</p> +<p>18. The table was good; but that was exactly what Kate cared +little about.</p> +<p>19. Who and what was Milton? That is to say, what is the place +which he fills in his own vernacular literature?</p> +<p>20. These hopes are mine as much as theirs.</p> +<p>21. What else am I who laughed or wept yesterday, who slept last +night like a corpse?</p> +<p>22. I who alone am, I who see nothing in nature whose existence +I can affirm with equal evidence to my own, behold now the +semblance of my being, in all its height, variety, and curiosity +reiterated in a foreign form.</p> +<p>23.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>What hand but would a garland +cull<br /></span> <span>For thee who art so +beautiful?<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>24.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And I had done a hellish +thing,<br /></span> <span>And it would work 'em +woe.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>25. Whatever he knows and thinks, whatever in his apprehension +is worth doing, that let him communicate.</p> +<p>26. Rip Van Winkle was one of those foolish, well-oiled +dispositions, who take the world easy, eat white bread or brown, +whichever can be got with least thought or trouble.</p> +<p>27.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And will your mother pity +me,<br /></span> <span>Who am a maiden most +forlorn?<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>28.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>They know not I knew thee,<br /></span> +<span>Who knew thee too well.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>29.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>I did remind thee of our own dear +Lake,<br /></span> <span>By the old Hall which may be mine no +more.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>30.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>He sate him down, and seized a pen, and +traced<br /></span> <span>Words which I could not guess +of.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>31.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure +brow:<br /></span> <span>Such as creation's dawn beheld, thou +rollest now.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>32.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Wild Spirit which art moving +everywhere;<br /></span> <span>Destroyer and preserver; hear, oh, +hear!<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>33. A smile of hers was like an act of grace.</p> +<p><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97"></a>34. No man can learn what he +has not preparation for learning.</p> +<p>35. What can we see or acquire but what we are?</p> +<p>36. He teaches who gives, and he learns who receives.</p> +<p>37. We are by nature observers; that is our permanent state.</p> +<p>38. He knew not what to do, and so he read.</p> +<p>39. Who hears me, who understands me, becomes mine.</p> +<p>40. The men who carry their points do not need to inquire of +their constituents what they should say.</p> +<p>41. Higher natures overpower lower ones by affecting them with a +certain sleep.</p> +<p>42. Those who live to the future must always appear selfish to +those who live to the present.</p> +<p>43. I am sorry when my independence is invaded or when a gift +comes from such as do not know my spirit.</p> +<p>44. Here I began to howl and scream abominably, which was no bad +step towards my liberation.</p> +<p>45. The only aim of the war is to see which is the stronger of +the two—which is the master.</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="ADJECTIVES" id= +"ADJECTIVES"></a><b>ADJECTIVES.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Office of Adjectives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>139.</b></span> Nouns are seldom used as +names of objects without additional words joined to them to add to +their meaning. For example, if we wish to speak of a friend's +house, we cannot guide one to it by merely calling it <i>a +house</i>. We need to add some words to tell its color, size, +position, etc., if we are at a distance; and if we are near, we +need some word to point out the house we speak of, so that no other +will be mistaken for it. So with any object, or with persons.</p> +<p>As to the kind of words used, we may begin <a name="Page_98" id= +"Page_98"></a>with the common adjectives telling the +<i>characteristics</i> of an object. If a chemist discovers a new +substance, he cannot describe it to others without telling its +qualities: he will say it is <i>solid</i>, or <i>liquid</i>, or +<i>gaseous</i>; <i>heavy</i> or <i>light</i>; <i>brittle</i> or +<i>tough</i>; <i>white</i> or <i>red</i>; etc.</p> +<p>Again, in <i>pointing out</i> an object, adjectives are used; +such as in the expressions "<i>this</i> man," "<i>that</i> house," +"<i>yonder</i> hill," etc.</p> +<p>Instead of using nouns indefinitely, the <i>number</i> is +limited by adjectives; as, "<i>one</i> hat," "<i>some</i> cities," +"<i>a hundred</i> men."</p> +<p>The office of an adjective, then, is to narrow down or limit the +application of a noun. It may have this office alone, or it may at +the same time add to the meaning of the noun.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Substantives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>140.</b></span> Nouns are not, however, the +only words limited by adjectives: pronouns and other words and +expressions also have adjectives joined to them. Any word or word +group that performs the same office as a noun may be modified by +adjectives.</p> +<p>To make this clear, notice the following sentences:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Pronoun.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If <i>he</i> be <i>thankful</i> for small benefits, it shows +that he weighs men's minds, and their trash.<span class= +"smcap">—Bacon.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Infinitives.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>To err</i> is <i>human</i>; <i>to forgive, +divine</i>.<span class="smcap">—Pope.</span></p> +<p>With exception of the "and then," the "and there," and the still +less <i>significant</i> "<i>and so</i>," they constitute all his +connections.<span class="smcap">—Coleridge.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>141.</b></span> An <b>adjective</b> is a +word joined to a noun or other substantive word or expression, to +describe it or to limit its application.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99"></a><i>Classes +of adjectives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>142.</b></span> Adjectives are divided into +four classes:—</p> +<p>(1) <b>Descriptive adjectives</b>, which describe by expressing +qualities or attributes of a substantive.</p> +<p>(2) <b>Adjectives of quantity</b>, used to tell how many things +are spoken of, or how much of a thing.</p> +<p>(3) <b>Demonstrative adjectives</b>, pointing out particular +things.</p> +<p>(4) <b>Pronominal adjectives</b>, words primarily pronouns, but +used adjectively sometimes in modifying nouns instead of standing +for them. They include relative and interrogative words.</p> +<h3>DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>143.</b></span> This large class includes +several kinds of words:—</p> +<p>(1) SIMPLE ADJECTIVES expressing quality; such as <i>safe</i>, +<i>happy</i>, <i>deep</i>, <i>fair</i>, <i>rash</i>, +<i>beautiful</i>, <i>remotest</i>, <i>terrible</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(2) COMPOUND ADJECTIVES, made up of various words thrown +together to make descriptive epithets. Examples are, +"<i>Heaven-derived</i> power," "this <i>life-giving</i> book," "his +spirit wrapt and <i>wonder-struck</i>," "<i>ice-cold</i> water," +"<i>half-dead</i> traveler," "<i>unlooked-for</i> burden," +"<i>next-door</i> neighbor," "<i>ivory-handled</i> pistols," "the +<i>cold-shudder-inspiring</i> Woman in White."</p> +<p>(3) PROPER ADJECTIVES, derived from proper nouns; such as, "an +old <i>English</i> manuscript," "the <i>Christian</i> pearl of +charity," "the well-curb had a <i>Chinese</i> roof," "the +<i>Roman</i> writer Palladius."</p> +<p><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100"></a>(4) PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES, +which are either pure participles used to describe, or participles +which have lost all verbal force and have no function except to +express quality. Examples are,—</p> +<p><i>Pure participial adjectives</i>: "The <i>healing</i> power of +the Messiah," "The <i>shattering</i> sway of one strong arm," +"<i>trailing</i> clouds," "The <i>shattered</i> squares have opened +into line," "It came on like the <i>rolling</i> simoom," "God +tempers the wind to the <i>shorn</i> lamb."</p> +<p><i>Faded participial adjectives</i>: "Sleep is a <i>blessed</i> +thing;" "One is hungry, and another is <i>drunken</i>;" "under the +<i>fitting</i> drapery of the jagged and trailing clouds;" "The +clearness and quickness are <i>amazing</i>;" "an <i>aged</i> man;" +"a <i>charming</i> sight."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Caution.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>144.</b></span> Care is needed, in studying +these last-named words, to distinguish between a participle that +forms part of a verb, and a participle or participial adjective +that belongs to a noun.</p> +<p>For instance: in the sentence, "The work was well and rapidly +accomplished," <i>was accomplished</i> is a verb; in this, "No man +of his day was more brilliant or more accomplished," <i>was</i> is +the verb, and <i>accomplished</i> is an adjective.</p> +<h4>Exercises.</h4> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Bring up sentences with twenty descriptive adjectives, having +some of each subclass named in Sec. 143.</p> +<p>2. Is the italicized word an adjective in this?—</p> +</div> +<p>The old sources of intellectual excitement seem to be well-nigh +<i>exhausted</i>.<a name="Page_101" id="Page_101"></a></p> +<h3>ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>145.</b></span> Adjectives of quantity tell +<i>how much</i> or <i>how many</i>. They have these three +subdivisions:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>How much.</i></div> +<p>(1) QUANTITY IN BULK: such words as <i>little</i>, <i>much</i>, +<i>some</i>, <i>no</i>, <i>any</i>, <i>considerable</i>, sometimes +<i>small</i>, joined usually to singular nouns to express an +indefinite measure of the thing spoken of.</p> +<p>The following examples are from Kingsley:—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>So he parted with <i>much</i> weeping of +the lady.<br /></span> <span>Which we began to do with <i>great</i> +labor and <i>little</i> profit.<br /></span> <span>Because I had +<i>some</i> knowledge of surgery and blood-letting.<br /></span> +<span>But ever she looked on Mr. Oxenham, and seemed to take +<i>no</i><br /></span> <span class="i4">care as long as he was +by.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>Examples of <i>small</i> an adjective of quantity:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"The deil's in it but I bude to anger him!" said the woman, and +walked away with a laugh of <i>small</i> satisfaction.<span class= +"smcap">—Macdonald.</span></p> +<p>'Tis midnight, but <i>small</i> thoughts have I of +sleep.<span class="smcap">—Coleridge.</span></p> +<p>It gives <i>small</i> idea of Coleridge's way of +talking.<span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<p>When <i>some</i>, <i>any</i>, <i>no</i>, are used with plural +nouns, they come under the next division of adjectives.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>How many.</i></div> +<p>(2) QUANTITY IN NUMBER, which may be expressed exactly by +numbers or remotely designated by words expressing indefinite +amounts. Hence the natural division into—</p> +<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Definite numerals</i>; as, "<i>one</i> blaze of +musketry;" "He found in the pathway <i>fourteen</i> Spaniards;" "I +have lost <i>one</i> brother, but I have gained <i>fourscore</i>;" +"<i>a dozen</i> volunteers."</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Indefinite numerals</i>, as the following from +Kingsley: "We gave <i>several</i> thousand pounds for it;" "In came +some five and twenty more, and <a name="Page_102" id= +"Page_102"></a>with them <i>a few</i> negroes;" "Then we wandered +for <i>many</i> days;" "Amyas had evidently <i>more</i> schemes in +his head;" "He had lived by hunting for <i>some</i> months;" "That +light is far too red to be the reflection of <i>any</i> beams of +hers."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Single ones of any number of +changes.</i></div> +<p>(3) DISTRIBUTIVE NUMERALS, which occupy a place midway between +the last two subdivisions of numeral adjectives; for they are +indefinite in telling how many objects are spoken of, but definite +in referring to the objects one at a time. Thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Every</i> town had its fair; <i>every</i> village, its +wake.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>An arrow was quivering in <i>each</i> body.<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>Few on <i>either</i> side but had their shrewd scratch to +show.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Before I taught my tongue to +wound<br /></span> <span>My conscience with a sinful +sound,<br /></span> <span>Or had the black art to +dispense<br /></span> <span>A <i>several</i> sin to <i>every</i> +sense.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Vaughan.</span></div> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Bring up sentences with ten adjectives of +quantity.</p> +<h3>DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Not primarily pronouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>146.</b></span> The words of this list are +placed here instead of among pronominal adjectives, for the reason +that they are felt to be primarily adjectives; their pronominal use +being evidently a shortening, by which the words point out but +stand for words omitted, instead of modifying them. Their natural +and original use is to be joined to a noun following or in close +connection.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The list.</i></div> +<p>The <b>demonstrative adjectives</b> are <i>this</i>, +<i>that</i>, (plural <i>these</i>, <i>those</i>), <i>yonder</i> (or +<i>yon</i>), <i>former</i>, <i>latter</i>; <a name="Page_103" id= +"Page_103"></a>also the pairs <i>one</i> (or <i>the +one</i>)—<i>the other</i>, <i>the former</i>—<i>the +latter</i>, used to refer to two things which have been already +named in a sentence.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Examples.</i></div> +<p>The following sentences present some examples:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The bashful virgin's sidelong looks of love, The matron's glance +that would <i>those</i> looks reprove.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>These were thy charms...but all <i>these</i> charms are +fled.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>About <i>this</i> time I met with an odd volume of the +"Spectator."—<span class="smcap">B. Franklin</span>.</p> +<p><i>Yonder</i> proud ships are not means of annoyance to +you.—<span class="smcap">D. Webster.</span></p> +<p><i>Yon</i> cloud with <i>that</i> long purple cleft.<span class= +"smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></p> +<p>I chose for the students of Kensington two characteristic +examples of early art, of equal skill; but in <i>the one</i> case, +skill which was progressive—in <i>the other</i>, skill which +was at pause.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Find sentences with five demonstrative +adjectives.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Ordinal numerals classed under +demonstratives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>147.</b></span> The class of numerals known +as <b>ordinals</b> must be placed here, as having the same function +as demonstrative adjectives. They point out which thing is meant +among a series of things mentioned. The following are +examples:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The <i>first</i> regular provincial newspapers appear to have +been created in the last decade of the <i>seventeenth</i> century, +and by the middle of the <i>eighteenth</i> century almost every +important provincial town had its local organ.<span class= +"smcap">—Bancroft.</span></p> +</div> +<p>These do not, like the other numerals, tell <i>how many</i> +things are meant. When we speak of the seventeenth century, we +imply nothing as to how many centuries there may be.<a name= +"Page_104" id="Page_104"></a></p> +<h3>PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>148.</b></span> As has been said, +<b>pronominal adjectives</b> are primarily pronouns; but, when they +<i>modify</i> words instead of referring to them as antecedents, +they are changed to adjectives. They are of two +kinds,—RELATIVE and INTERROGATIVE,—and are used to join +sentences or to ask questions, just as the corresponding pronouns +do.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Modify names of persons or +things.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>149.</b></span> The RELATIVE ADJECTIVES are +<i>which</i> and <i>what</i>; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It matters not <i>what</i> rank he has, <i>what</i> revenues or +garnitures. <span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>The silver and laughing Xenil, careless <i>what</i> lord should +possess the banks that bloomed by its everlasting +course.<span class="smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p>The taking of <i>which</i> bark. I verily believe, was the ruin +of every mother's son of us.<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>In <i>which</i> evil strait Mr. Oxenham fought +desperately.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Indefinite relative adjectives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>150.</b></span> The INDEFINITE RELATIVE +adjectives are <i>what</i>, <i>whatever</i>, <i>whatsoever</i>, +<i>whichever</i>, <i>whichsoever</i>. Examples of their use +are,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He in his turn tasted some of its flavor, which, make +<i>what</i> sour mouths he would for pretense, proved not +altogether displeasing to him.<span class= +"smcap">—Lamb.</span></p> +<p><i>Whatever</i> correction of our popular views from insight, +nature will be sure to bear us out in.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p><i>Whatsoever</i> kind of man he is, you at least give him full +authority over your son.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>Was there, as it rather seemed, a circle of ominous shadow +moving along with his deformity, <i>whichever</i> way he turned +himself?<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105"></a> <span>New +torments I behold, and new tormented<br /></span> <span>Around me, +<i>whichsoever</i> way I move,<br /></span> <span>And +<i>whichsoever</i> way I turn, and gaze.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Longfellow (From Dante).</span></div> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>151.</b></span> The INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES +are <i>which</i> and <i>what</i>. They may be used in direct and +indirect questions. As in the pronouns, <i>which</i> is selective +among what is known; <i>what</i> inquires about things or persons +not known.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>In direct questions.</i></div> +<p>Sentences with <i>which</i> and <i>what</i> in direct +questions:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Which</i> debt must I pay first, the debt to the rich, or the +debt to the poor?<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>But when the Trojan war comes, <i>which</i> side will you take? +<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>But <i>what</i> books in the circulating library +circulate?<span class="smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span><i>What</i> beckoning ghost along the +moonlight shade<br /></span> <span>Invites my steps, and points to +yonder glade?<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Pope.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>In indirect questions.</i></div> +<p>Sentences with <i>which</i> and <i>what</i> in indirect +questions:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>His head...looked like a weathercock perched upon his spindle +neck to tell <i>which</i> way the wind blew.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>A lady once remarked, he [Coleridge] could never fix +<i>which</i> side of the garden walk would suit him +best.<span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>He was turned before long into all the universe, where it was +uncertain <i>what</i> game you would catch, or whether +any.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>At <i>what</i> rate these materials would be distributed and +precipitated in regular strata, it is impossible to +determine.<span class="smcap">—Agassiz.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Adjective</i> what <i>in +exclamations</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>152.</b></span> In exclamatory expressions, +<i>what</i> (or <i>what a</i>) has a force somewhat like a +descriptive adjective. It is neither relative nor interrogative, +<a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"></a>but might be called an +EXCLAMATORY ADJECTIVE; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Oh, <i>what a</i> revolution! and <i>what a</i> heart must I +have, to contemplate without emotion that elevation and that +fall!<span class="smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p><i>What a</i> piece of work is man!<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +<p>And yet, alas, the making of it right, <i>what a</i> business +for long time to come!<span class="smcap">—Carlyle</span></p> +<p>Through <i>what</i> hardships it may attain to bear a sweet +fruit!<span class="smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Find ten sentences containing pronominal +adjectives.</p> +<h3>INFLECTIONS OF ADJECTIVES.</h3> +<p><b>153</b> .Adjectives have two inflections,—<b>number</b> +and <b>comparison</b>.</p> +<p><b>NUMBER</b>.—<b><i>This</i></b>, <b><i>That</i></b>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>History of</i> this—these <i>and</i> +that—those.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>154.</b></span> The only adjectives having a +plural form are <i>this</i> and <i>that</i> (plural <i>these</i>, +<i>those</i>).</p> +<p><i>This</i> is the old demonstrative; <i>that</i> being borrowed +from the forms of the definite article, which was fully inflected +in Old English. The article <i>that</i> was used with neuter +nouns.</p> +<p>In Middle English the plural of <i>this</i> was <i>this</i> or +<i>thise</i>, which changed its spelling to the modern form +<i>these</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote">Those <i>borrowed from</i> this.</div> +<p>But <i>this</i> had also another plural, <i>thās</i> +(modern <i>those</i>). The old plural of <i>that</i> was <i>tha</i> +(Middle English <i>tho</i> or <i>thow</i>): consequently <i>tho</i> +(plural of <i>that</i>) and <i>those</i> (plural of <i>this</i>) +became confused, and it was forgotten that <i>those</i> was really +the plural of <i>this</i>; and in Modern English we speak of +<a name="Page_107" id="Page_107"></a><i>these</i> as the plural of +<i>this</i>, and <i>those</i> as the plural of <i>that</i>.</p> +<h3>COMPARISON.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>155.</b></span> Comparison is an inflection +not possessed by nouns and pronouns: it belongs to adjectives and +adverbs.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Meaning of comparison.</i></div> +<p>When we place two objects side by side, we notice some +differences between them as to size, weight, color, etc. Thus, it +is said that a cow is <i>larger</i> than a sheep, gold is +<i>heavier</i> than iron, a sapphire is <i>bluer</i> than the sky. +All these have certain qualities; and when we compare the objects, +we do so by means of their qualities,—cow and sheep by the +quality of largeness, or size; gold and iron by the quality of +heaviness, or weight, etc.,—but not the same degree, or +amount, of the quality.</p> +<p>The degrees belong to any beings or ideas that may be known or +conceived of as possessing quality; as, "untamed thought, great, +giant-like, enormous;" "the commonest speech;" "It is a nobler +valor;" "the largest soul."</p> +<p>Also words of quantity may be compared: for example, "more +matter, with less wit;" "no fewer than a hundred."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Words that cannot be compared.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>156.</b></span> There are some descriptive +words whose meaning is such as not to admit of comparison; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>His company became very agreeable to the brave old professor of +arms, whose <i>favorite</i> pupil he was.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>A <i>main</i> difference betwixt men is, whether they attend +their own affair or not.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson</span><a name="Page_108" id= +"Page_108"></a></p> +<p>It was his business to administer the law in its <i>final</i> +and closest application to the offender<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>Freedom is a <i>perpetual, organic, universal</i> institution, +in harmony with the Constitution of the United States.<span class= +"smcap">—Seward.</span></p> +</div> +<p>So with the words <i>sole</i>, <i>sufficient</i>, +<i>infinite</i>, <i>immemorial</i>, <i>indefatigable</i>, +<i>indomitable</i>, <i>supreme</i>, and many others.</p> +<p>It is true that words of comparison are sometimes prefixed to +them, but, strictly considered, they are not compared.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>157.</b></span> <b>Comparison</b> means the +changes that words undergo to express degrees in quality, or +amounts in quantity.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The two forms.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>158.</b></span> There are two forms for this +inflection: the <b>comparative</b>, expressing a greater degree of +quality; and the <b>superlative</b>, expressing the greatest degree +of quality.</p> +<p>These are called <b>degrees of comparison</b>.</p> +<p>These are properly the only degrees, though the simple, +uninflected form is usually called the <b>positive degree</b>.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>159.</b></span> The comparative is formed by +adding <i>-er</i>, and the superlative by adding <i>-est</i>, to +the simple form; as, <i>red</i>, <i>redder</i>, <i>reddest</i>; +<i>blue</i>, <i>bluer</i>, <i>bluest</i>; <i>easy</i>, +<i>easier</i>, <i>easiest</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Substitute for inflection in +comparison.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>160.</b></span> Side by side with these +inflected forms are found comparative and superlative expressions +making use of the adverbs <b>more</b> and <b>most</b>. These are +often useful as alternative with the inflected forms, but in most +cases are used before adjectives that are never inflected.</p> +<p><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109"></a>They came into use about +the thirteenth century, but were not common until a century +later.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Which rule</i>,— -er <i>and</i> -est +<i>or</i> more <i>and</i> most?</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>161.</b></span> The English is somewhat +capricious in choosing between the inflected forms and those with +<i>more</i> and <i>most</i>, so that no inflexible rule can be +given as to the formation of the comparative and the +superlative.</p> +<p>The general rule is, that monosyllables and easily pronounced +words of two syllables add <i>-er</i> and <i>-est</i>; and other +words are preceded by <i>more</i> and <i>most</i>.</p> +<p>But room must be left in such a rule for pleasantness of sound +and for variety of expression.</p> +<p>To see how literary English overrides any rule that could be +given, examine the following taken at random:—</p> +<p>From Thackeray: "The <i>handsomest</i> wives;" "the +<i>immensest</i> quantity of thrashing;" "the <i>wonderfulest</i> +little shoes;" "<i>more odd, strange</i>, and yet familiar;" +"<i>more austere</i> and <i>holy</i>."</p> +<p>From Ruskin: "The sharpest, finest chiseling, and +<i>patientest</i> fusing;" "<i>distantest</i> relationships;" +"<i>sorrowfulest</i> spectacles."</p> +<p>Carlyle uses <i>beautifulest</i>, <i>mournfulest</i>, +<i>honestest</i>, <i>admirablest</i>, <i>indisputablest</i>, +<i>peaceablest</i>, <i>most small</i>, etc.</p> +<p>These long, harsh forms are usually avoided, but <i>more</i> and +<i>most</i> are frequently used with monosyllables.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>162.</b></span> Expressions are often met +with in which a superlative form does not carry the superlative +<a name="Page_110" id="Page_110"></a>meaning. These are equivalent +usually to <i>very</i> with the positive degree; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>To this the Count offers a <i>most wordy</i> declaration of the +benefits conferred by Spain.—<i>The Nation</i>, No 1507</p> +<p>In all formulas that Johnson could stand by, there needed to be +a <i>most genuine</i> substance.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle</span></p> +<p>A gentleman, who, though born in no very high degree, was +<i>most finished</i>, <i>polished</i>, <i>witty</i>, <i>easy</i>, +<i>quiet</i>.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray</span></p> +<p>He had actually nothing else save a rope around his neck, which +hung behind in the <i>queerest</i> way.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>"So help me God, madam, I will," said Henry Esmond, falling on +his knees, and kissing the hand of his <i>dearest</i> +mistress.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Adjectives irregularly compared.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>163.</b></span> Among the variously derived +adjectives now in our language there are some which may always be +recognized as native English. These are adjectives <b>irregularly +compared</b>.</p> +<p>Most of them have worn down or become confused with similar +words, but they are essentially the same forms that have lived for +so many centuries.</p> +<p>The following lists include the majority of them:—</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='4'><b>LIST I.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>1.</td> +<td align='left'>Good or well</td> +<td align='left'>Better</td> +<td align='left'>Best</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>2.</td> +<td align='left'>Evil, bad, ill</td> +<td align='left'>Worse</td> +<td align='left'>Worst</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>3.</td> +<td align='left'>Little</td> +<td align='left'>Less, lesser</td> +<td align='left'>Least</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>4.</td> +<td align='left'>Much or many</td> +<td align='left'>More</td> +<td align='left'>Most</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>5.</td> +<td align='left'>Old</td> +<td align='left'>Elder, older</td> +<td align='left'>Eldest, oldest</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>6.</td> +<td align='left'>Nigh</td> +<td align='left'>Nigher</td> +<td align='left'>Nighest, next</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>7.</td> +<td align='left'>Near</td> +<td align='left'>Nearer</td> +<td align='left'>Nearest</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>8.</td> +<td align='left'>Far</td> +<td align='left'>Farther, further</td> +<td align='left'>Farthest, furthest</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>9.</td> +<td align='left'>Late</td> +<td align='left'>Later, latter</td> +<td align='left'>Latest, last</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>10.</td> +<td align='left'>Hind</td> +<td align='left'>Hinder</td> +<td align='left'>Hindmost, hindermost</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111"></a></div> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='4'><b>LIST II.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='4'>These have no adjective +positive:—</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>1.</td> +<td align='left'>[In]</td> +<td align='left'>Inner</td> +<td align='left'>Inmost, innermost</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>2.</td> +<td align='left'>[Out]</td> +<td align='left'>Outer, utter</td> +<td align='left'>Outmost, outermost<br /> +Utmost, uttermost</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>3.</td> +<td align='left'>[Up]</td> +<td align='left'>Upper</td> +<td align='left'>Upmost, uppermost</td> +</tr> +</table> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='4'><b>LIST III.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='4'>A few of comparative form but not +comparative meaning:—</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>After</td> +<td align='left'>Over</td> +<td align='left'>Under</td> +<td align='left'>Nether</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3>Remarks on Irregular Adjectives.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>List I.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>164.</b></span> (1) The word good has no +comparative or superlative, but takes the place of a positive to +<i>better</i> and <i>best</i>. There was an old comparative +<i>bet</i>, which has gone out of use; as in the sentence (14th +century), "Ich singe <i>bet</i> than thu dest" (I sing better than +thou dost). The superlative I form was <i>betst</i>, which has +softened to the modern <i>best</i>.</p> +<p>(2) In Old English, <b>evil</b> was the positive to +<i>worse</i>, <i>worst</i>; but later <i>bad</i> and <i>ill</i> +were borrowed from the Norse, and used as positives to the same +comparative and superlative. <i>Worser</i> was once used, a double +comparative; as in Shakespeare,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>O, throw away the <i>worser</i> part of it.<span class= +"smcap">—Hamlet.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <b>Little</b> is used as positive to <i>less</i>, +<i>least</i>, though from a different root. A double comparative, +<i>lesser</i>, is often used; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We have it in a much <i>lesser</i> degree.<span class= +"smcap">—Matthew Arnold.</span></p> +<p>Thrust the <i>lesser</i> half by main force into the fists of +Ho-ti. <span class="smcap">—Lamb.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112"></a>(4) The words <b>much</b> +and <b>many</b> now express quantity; but in former times +<i>much</i> was used in the sense of <i>large</i>, <i>great</i>, +and was the same word that is found in the proverb, "Many a little +makes <i>a mickle</i>." Its spelling has been <i>micel</i>, +<i>muchel</i>, <i>moche</i>, <i>much</i>, the parallel form +<i>mickle</i> being rarely used.</p> +<p>The meanings <i>greater</i>, <i>greatest</i>, are shown in such +phrases as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The <i>more</i> part being of one mind, to England we +sailed.<span class="smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>The <i>most</i> part kept a stolid +indifference.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>The latter, meaning <i>the largest part</i>, is quite +common.</p> +<p>(5) The forms <b>elder</b>, <b>eldest</b>, are earlier than +<i>older</i>, <i>oldest</i>. A few other words with the vowel +<i>o</i> had similar change in the comparative and superlative, as +<i>long</i>, <i>strong</i>, etc.; but these have followed +<i>old</i> by keeping the same vowel <i>o</i> in all the forms, +instead of <i>lenger</i>, <i>strenger</i>, etc., the old forms.</p> +<p>(6) and (7) Both <b>nigh</b> and <b>near</b> seem regular in +Modern English, except the form <i>next</i>; but originally the +comparison was <i>nigh</i>, <i>near</i>, <i>next</i>. In the same +way the word <b>high</b> had in Middle English the superlative +<i>hexte</i>.</p> +<p>By and by the comparative <i>near</i> was regarded as a positive +form, and on it were built a double comparative <i>nearer</i>, and +the superlative <i>nearest</i>, which adds <i>-est</i> to what is +really a comparative instead of a simple adjective.</p> +<p>(8) These words also show confusion and consequent modification, +coming about as follows: <b>further</b> really belongs to another +series,—<i>forth</i>, <a name="Page_113" id= +"Page_113"></a><i>further</i>, <i>first</i>. <b>First</b> became +entirely detached from the series, and <i>furthest</i> began to be +used to follow the comparative <i>further</i>; then these were used +as comparative and superlative of <i>far</i>.</p> +<p>The word <b>far</b> had formerly the comparative and superlative +<i>farrer</i>, <i>farrest</i>. In imitation of <i>further</i>, +<i>furthest</i>, <i>th</i> came into the others, making the modern +<i>farther</i>, <i>farthest</i>. Between the two sets as they now +stand, there is scarcely any distinction, except perhaps +<i>further</i> is more used than <i>farther</i> in the sense of +<i>additional</i>; as, for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>When that evil principle was left with no <i>further</i> +material to support it.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(9) <b>Latter</b> and <b>last</b> are the older forms. Since +<i>later</i>, <i>latest</i>, came into use, a distinction has grown +up between the two series. <i>Later</i> and <i>latest</i> have the +true comparative and superlative force, and refer to time; +<i>latter</i> and <i>last</i> are used in speaking of succession, +or series, and are hardly thought of as connected in meaning with +the word <i>late</i>.</p> +<p>(10) <b>Hinder</b> is comparative in form, but not in meaning. +The form <i>hindmost</i> is really a double superlative, since the +<i>m</i> is for <i>-ma</i>, an old superlative ending, to which is +added <i>-ost</i>, doubling the inflection. <i>Hind-er-m-ost</i> +presents the combination comparative + superlative + +superlative.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>List II.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>165.</b></span> In List II. (Sec. 163) the +comparatives and superlatives are adjectives, but they have no +adjective positives.</p> +<p>The comparatives are so in form, but not in their meaning.</p> +<p>The superlatives show examples again of double <a name= +"Page_114" id="Page_114"></a>inflection, and of comparative added +to double-superlative inflection.</p> +<p>Examples (from Carlyle) of the use of these adjectives: +"revealing the <i>inner</i> splendor to him;" "a mind that has +penetrated into the <i>inmost</i> heart of a thing;" "This of +painting is one of the <i>outermost</i> developments of a man;" +"The <i>outer</i> is of the day;" "far-seeing as the sun, the +<i>upper</i> light of the world;" "the <i>innermost</i> moral +soul;" "their <i>utmost</i> exertion."</p> +<div class="sidenote">-Most <i>added to other words</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>166.</b></span> The ending <i>-most</i> is +added to some words that are not usually adjectives, or have no +comparative forms.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>There, on the very <i>topmost</i> twig, sits that ridiculous but +sweet-singing bobolink.—<span class="smcap">H. W. +Beecher</span>.</p> +<p>Decidedly handsome, having such a skin as became a young woman +of family in <i>northernmost</i> Spain.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>Highest and <i>midmost</i>, was descried The royal banner +floating wide.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>List III.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>167.</b></span> The adjectives in List III. +are like the comparative forms in List II. in having no adjective +positives. They have no superlatives, and have no comparative +force, being merely descriptive.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Her bows were deep in the water, but her <i>after</i> deck was +still dry.<span class="smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>Her, by the by, in <i>after</i> years I vainly endeavored to +trace.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>The upper and the <i>under</i> side of the medal of +Jove.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>Have you ever considered what a deep <i>under</i> meaning there +lies in our custom of strewing flowers?<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>Perhaps he rose out of some <i>nether</i> region.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<p><i>Over</i> is rarely used separately as an adjective.<a name= +"Page_115" id="Page_115"></a></p> +<h3>CAUTION FOR ANALYZING OR PARSING.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Think what each adjective belongs +to.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>168.</b></span> Some care must be taken to +decide what word is modified by an adjective. In a series of +adjectives in the same sentence, all may belong to the same noun, +or each may modify a different word or group of words.</p> +<p>For example, in this sentence, "The young pastor's voice was +tremulously sweet, rich, deep, and broken," it is clear that all +four adjectives after <i>was</i> modify the noun <i>voice</i>. But +in this sentence, "She showed her usual prudence and her usual +incomparable decision," <i>decision</i> is modified by the +adjective <i>incomparable</i>; <i>usual</i> modifies +<i>incomparable decision</i>, not <i>decision</i> alone; and the +pronoun <i>her</i> limits <i>usual incomparable decision</i>.</p> +<p>Adjectives modifying the same noun are said to be of the <i>same +rank</i>; those modifying different words or word groups are said +to be adjectives of <i>different rank</i>. This distinction is +valuable in a study of punctuation.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>In the following quotations, tell what each adjective +modifies:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Whenever that look appeared in her wild, bright, deeply black +eyes, it invested them with a strange remoteness and +intangibility.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>2. It may still be argued, that in the present divided state of +Christendom a college which is positively Christian must be +controlled by some religious denomination.<span class= +"smcap">—Noah Porter.</span></p> +<p>3. Every quaking leaf and fluttering shadow sent the blood +backward to her heart.<span class="smcap">—Mrs. +Stowe.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116"></a>4. This, our new +government, is the first in the history of the world based upon +this great physical, philosophical, and moral +truth.—<span class="smcap">A. H. Stephens</span></p> +<p>5. May we not, therefore, look with confidence to the ultimate +universal acknowledgment of the truths upon which our system +rests?—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>6. A few improper jests and a volley of good, round, solid, +satisfactory, and heaven-defying oaths.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>7. It is well known that the announcement at any private rural +entertainment that there is to be ice cream produces an immediate +and profound impression.<span class= +"smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>ADVERBS USED AS ADJECTIVES.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>169.</b></span> By a convenient brevity, +adverbs are sometimes used as adjectives; as, instead of saying, +"the one who was then king," in which <i>then</i> is an adverb, we +may say "the <i>then</i> king," making <i>then</i> an adjective. +Other instances are,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>My <i>then</i> favorite, in prose, Richard Hooker.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>Our <i>sometime</i> sister, now our queen.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare</span></p> +<p>Messrs. Bradbury and Evans, the <i>then</i> and <i>still</i> +owners. <span class="smcap">—Trollope.</span></p> +<p>The <i>seldom</i> use of it.<span class= +"smcap">—Trench.</span></p> +<p>For thy stomach's sake, and thine <i>often</i> +infirmities.—<span class="smcap"><i>Bible.</i></span></p> +</div> +<h3>HOW TO PARSE ADJECTIVES.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>What to tell in parsing.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>170.</b></span> Since adjectives have no +gender, person, or case, and very few have number, the method of +parsing is simple.</p> +<p>In <b>parsing</b> an adjective, tell—</p> +<p>(1) The class and subclass to which it belongs.</p> +<p>(2) Its number, if it has number.</p> +<p>(3) Its degree of comparison, if it can be compared.</p> +<p>(4) What word or words it modifies.</p> +<h3><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117"></a>MODEL FOR PARSING.</h3> +<p>These truths are not unfamiliar to your thoughts.</p> +<p><i>These</i> points out <i>what</i> truths, therefore +demonstrative; plural number, having a singular, <i>this</i>; +cannot be compared; modifies the word <i>truths</i>.</p> +<p><i>Unfamiliar</i> describes <i>truths</i>, therefore +descriptive; not inflected for number; compared by prefixing +<i>more</i> and <i>most</i>; positive degree; modifies +<i>truths</i>.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Parse in full each adjective in these sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. A thousand lives seemed concentrated in that one moment to +Eliza.</p> +<p>2. The huge green fragment of ice on which she alighted pitched +and creaked.</p> +<p>3. I ask nothing of you, then, but that you proceed to your end +by a direct, frank, manly way.</p> +<p>4. She made no reply, and I waited for none.</p> +<p>5. A herd of thirty or forty tall ungainly figures took their +way, with awkward but rapid pace, across the plain.</p> +<p>6. Gallantly did the lion struggle in the folds of his terrible +enemy, whose grasp each moment grew more fierce and secure, and +most astounding were those frightful yells.</p> +<p>7. This gave the young people entire freedom, and they enjoyed +it to the fullest extent.</p> +<p>8. I will be as harsh as truth and as uncompromising as +justice.</p> +<p>9. To every Roman citizen he gives, To every several man, +seventy-five drachmas.</p> +<p>10. Each member was permitted to entertain all the rest on his +or her birthday, on which occasion the elders of the family were +bound to be absent.</p> +<p>11. Instantly the mind inquires whether these fishes under the +bridge, yonder oxen in the pasture, those dogs in the yard, are +immutably fishes, oxen, and dogs.</p> +<p>12. I know not what course others may take.</p> +<p>13. With every third step, the tomahawk fell.</p> +<p><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118"></a>14. What a ruthless +business this war of extermination is!</p> +<p>15. I was just emerging from that many-formed crystal +country.</p> +<p>16. On what shore has not the prow of your ships dashed?</p> +<p>17. The laws and institutions of his country ought to have been +more to him than all the men in his country.</p> +<p>18. Like most gifted men, he won affections with ease.</p> +<p>19. His letters aim to elicit the inmost experience and outward +fortunes of those he loves, yet are remarkably self-forgetful.</p> +<p>20. Their name was the last word upon his lips.</p> +<p>21. The captain said it was the last stick he had seen.</p> +<p>22. Before sunrise the next morning they let us out again.</p> +<p>23. He was curious to know to what sect we belonged.</p> +<p>24. Two hours elapsed, during which time I waited.</p> +<p>25. In music especially, you will soon find what personal +benefit there is in being serviceable.</p> +<p>26. To say what good of fashion we can, it rests on reality, and +hates nothing so much as pretenders.</p> +<p>27. Here lay two great roads, not so much for travelers that +were few, as for armies that were too many by half.</p> +<p>28. On whichever side of the border chance had thrown Joanna, +the same love to France would have been nurtured.</p> +<p>29. What advantage was open to him above the English boy?</p> +<p>30. Nearer to our own times, and therefore more interesting to +us, is the settlement of our own country.</p> +<p>31. Even the topmost branches spread out and drooped in all +directions, and many poles supported the lower ones.</p> +<p>32. Most fruits depend entirely on our care.</p> +<p>33. Even the sourest and crabbedest apple, growing in the most +unfavorable position, suggests such thoughts as these, it is so +noble a fruit.</p> +<p>34. Let him live in what pomps and prosperities he like, he is +no literary man.</p> +<p>35. Through what hardships it may bear a sweet fruit!</p> +<p>36. Whatsoever power exists will have itself organized.</p> +<p>37. A hard-struggling, weary-hearted man was he.</p> +<a name="Page_119" id="Page_119"></a></div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="ARTICLES" id="ARTICLES"></a><b>ARTICLES.</b></h2> +<p><span class="sn"><b>171.</b></span> There is a class of words +having always an adjectival use in general, but with such subtle +functions and various meanings that they deserve separate +treatment. In the sentence, "He passes an ordinary brick house on +the road, with an ordinary little garden," the words <i>the</i> and +<i>an</i> belong to nouns, just as adjectives do; but they cannot +be accurately placed under any class of adjectives. They are +nearest to demonstrative and numeral adjectives.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Their origin.</i></div> +<p>172. The article <b>the</b> comes from an old demonstrative +adjective (<i>sē</i>, <i>sēo</i>, <i>ðat</i>, later +<i>thē</i>, <i>thēo</i>, <i>that</i>) which was also an +article in Old English. In Middle English <i>the</i> became an +article, and <i>that</i> remained a demonstrative adjective.</p> +<p><b>An</b> or <b>a</b> came from the old numeral <i>ān</i>, +meaning <i>one</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Two relics.</i></div> +<p>Our expressions <i>the one</i>, <i>the other</i>, were formerly +<i>that one</i>, <i>that other</i>; the latter is still preserved +in the expression, in vulgar English, <i>the tother</i>. Not only +this is kept in the Scotch dialect, but the former is used, these +occurring as <i>the tane, the tother</i>, or <i>the tane, the +tither</i>; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We ca' her sometimes <i>the tane</i>, sometimes <i>the +tother</i>.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">An <i>before vowel sounds</i>, a <i>before +consonant sounds</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>173.</b></span> Ordinarily <i>an</i> is used +before vowel sounds, and <i>a</i> before consonant sounds. Remember +that a <i>vowel sound</i> does not necessarily mean beginning with +a vowel, nor does <i>consonant sound</i> mean <a name="Page_120" +id="Page_120"></a>beginning with a consonant, because English +spelling does not coincide closely with the sound of words. +Examples: "<i>a</i> house," "<i>an</i> orange," "<i>a</i> +European," "<i>an</i> honor," "<i>a</i> yelling crowd."</p> +<div class="sidenote">An <i>with consonant sounds</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>174.</b></span> Many writers use <i>an</i> +before <i>h</i>, even when not silent, when the word is not +accented on the first syllable.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>An</i> historian, such as we have been attempting to +describe, would indeed be an intellectual prodigy.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>The Persians were <i>an</i> heroic people like the +Greeks.<span class="smcap">—Brewer.</span></p> +<p>He [Rip] evinced <i>an</i> hereditary disposition to attend to +anything else but his business.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p><i>An</i> habitual submission of the understanding to mere +events and images.<span class="smcap">—Coleridge.</span></p> +<p><i>An</i> hereditary tenure of these offices.<span class= +"smcap">—Thomas Jefferson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>175.</b></span> An <b>article</b> is a +limiting word, not descriptive, which cannot be used alone, but +always joins to a substantive word to denote a particular thing, or +a group or class of things, or any individual of a group or +class.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Kinds.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>176.</b></span> Articles are either +<b>definite</b> or <b>indefinite</b>.</p> +<p><b>The</b> is the definite article, since it points out a +particular individual, or group, or class.</p> +<p><b>An</b> or <b>a</b> is the indefinite article, because it +refers to any one of a group or class of things.</p> +<p><b>An</b> and <b>a</b> are different forms of the same word, the +older <i>ān</i>.</p> +<h3>USES OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Reference to a known object.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>177.</b></span> The most common use of the +definite article is to refer to an object that the listener or +<a name="Page_121" id="Page_121"></a>reader is already acquainted +with; as in the sentence,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Don't you remember how, when <i>the</i> dragon was infesting +<i>the</i> neighborhood of Babylon, <i>the</i> citizens used to +walk dismally out of evenings, and look at <i>the</i> valleys round +about strewed with <i>the</i> bones?<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>NOTE.—This use is noticed when, on opening a story, a +person is introduced by <i>a</i>, and afterwards referred to by +<i>the</i>:—</p> +<p>By and by <i>a</i> giant came out of the dark north, and lay +down on the ice near Audhumla.... <i>The</i> giant frowned when he +saw the glitter of the golden hair.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Heroes Of Asgard.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>With names of rivers.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>178.</b></span> <i>The</i> is often prefixed +to the names of rivers; and when the word <i>river</i> is omitted, +as "<i>the</i> Mississippi," "<i>the</i> Ohio," the article +indicates clearly that a river, and not a state or other +geographical division, is referred to.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>No wonder I could face <i>the</i> Mississippi with so much +courage supplied to me.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>The Dakota tribes, doubtless, then occupied the country +southwest of <i>the</i> Missouri.—<span class="smcap">G. +Bancroft</span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>To call attention to attributes.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>179.</b></span> When <i>the</i> is prefixed +to a proper name, it alters the force of the noun by directing +attention to <i>certain qualities</i> possessed by the person or +thing spoken of; thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>The</i> Bacon, <i>the</i> Spinoza, <i>the</i> Hume, +Schelling, Kant, or whosoever propounds to you a philosophy of the +mind, is only a more or less awkward translator of things in your +consciousness.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>With plural of abstract nouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>180.</b></span> <i>The</i>, when placed +before the pluralized abstract noun, marks it as half abstract or a +common noun.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_122" id= +"Page_122"></a><i>Common.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>His messages to <i>the</i> provincial +<i>authorities</i>.<span class="smcap">—Motley.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Half abstract.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He was probably skilled in <i>the subtleties</i> of Italian +statesmanship.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>With adjectives used as nouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>181.</b></span> When <i>the</i> precedes +adjectives of the positive degree used substantively, it marks +their use as common and plural nouns when they refer to persons, +and as singular and abstract when they refer to qualities.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. <i>The simple</i> rise as by specific levity, not into a +particular virtue, but into the region of all the +virtues.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>2. If <i>the good</i> is there, so is <i>the +evil</i>.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Caution.</i></div> +<p>NOTE.—This is not to be confused with words that have +shifted from adjectives and become pure nouns; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>As she hesitated to pass on, <i>the gallant</i>, throwing his +cloak from his shoulders, laid it on the miry spot.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>But De Soto was no longer able to abate the confidence or punish +the temerity of <i>the natives</i>.—<span class="smcap">G. +Bancroft</span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>One thing for its class.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>182.</b></span> <i>The</i> before class +nouns may mark one thing as a representative of the class to which +it belongs; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The faint, silvery warblings heard over the partially bare and +moist fields from <i>the bluebird</i>, <i>the song sparrow</i>, and +<i>the redwing</i>, as if the last flakes of winter tinkled as they +fell!<span class="smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +<p>In the sands of Africa and Arabia <i>the camel</i> is a sacred +and precious gift.<span class="smcap">—Gibbon.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>For possessive person pronouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>183.</b></span> <i>The</i> is frequently +used instead of the possessive case of the personal pronouns +<i>his</i>, <i>her</i>, etc.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>More than one hinted that a cord twined around <i>the head</i>, +or a match put between <i>the fingers</i>, would speedily extract +the required information.<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p><i>The</i> mouth, and the region of the mouth, were about the +strongest features in Wordsworth's face.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"></a>The +<i>for</i> a.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>184.</b></span> In England and Scotland +<i>the</i> is often used where we use <i>a</i>, in speaking of +measure and price; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Wheat, the price of which necessarily varied, averaged in the +middle of the fourteenth century tenpence <i>the bushel</i>, barley +averaging at the same time three shillings <i>the +quarter</i>.<span class="smcap">—Froude.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A very strong restrictive.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>185.</b></span> Sometimes <i>the</i> has a +strong force, almost equivalent to a descriptive adjective in +emphasizing a word,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>No doubt but ye are <i>the</i> people, and wisdom shall die with +you.—<span class="smcap"><i>Bible.</i></span></p> +<p>As for New Orleans, it seemed to me <i>the</i> city of the world +where you can eat and drink the most and suffer the +least.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>He was <i>the</i> man in all Europe that could (if any could) +have driven six-in-hand full gallop over Al Sirat.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Mark of a substantive.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>186.</b></span> <i>The</i>, since it belongs +distinctively to substantives, is a sure indication that a word of +verbal form is not used participially, but substantively.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>In the hills of Sacramento there is gold for <i>the +gathering</i>.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>I thought <i>the writing</i> excellent, and wished, if possible, +to imitate it.<span class="smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Caution.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>187.</b></span> There is one use of +<i>the</i> which is different from all the above. It is an +adverbial use, and is spoken of more fully in Sec. 283. Compare +this sentence with those above:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>There was something ugly and evil in his face, which they had +not previously noticed, and which grew still <i>the more +obvious</i> to the sight <i>the oftener</i> they looked upon +him.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124"></a><b>Exercise.</b>—Find +sentences with five uses of the definite article.</p> +<h3>USES OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Denotes any one of a class.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>188.</b></span> The most frequent use of the +indefinite article is to denote any one of a class or group of +objects: consequently it belongs to singular words; as in the +sentence,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Near the churchyard gate stands <i>a</i> poor-box, fastened to +<i>a</i> post by iron bands and secured by <i>a</i> padlock, with +<i>a</i> sloping wooden roof to keep off the rain.<span class= +"smcap">—Longfellow</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Widens the scope of proper +nouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>189.</b></span> When the indefinite article +precedes proper names, it alters them to class names. The qualities +or attributes of the object are made prominent, and transferred to +any one possessing them; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The vulgar riot and debauchery, which scarcely disgraced <i>an +Alcibiades</i> or <i>a Cæsar</i>, have been exchanged for the +higher ideals of <i>a Bayard</i> or <i>a Sydney</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Pearson</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>With abstract nouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>190.</b></span> <i>An</i> or <i>a</i> before +abstract nouns often changes them to half abstract: the idea of +quality remains, but the word now denotes only one instance or +example of things possessing the quality.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Become half abstract.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The simple perception of natural forms is <i>a +delight</i>.<span class="smcap">—Emerson</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If thou hadst <i>a sorrow</i> of thine own, the brook might tell +thee of it.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne</span></p> +</div> +<p>In the first sentence, instead of the general abstract notion of +delight, which cannot be singular or plural, <i>a delight</i> means +one thing delightful, and implies others having the same +quality.</p> +<p><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125"></a>So <i>a sorrow</i> means +one cause of sorrow, implying that there are other things that +bring sorrow.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Become pure class nouns.</i></div> +<p>NOTE.—Some abstract nouns become common class nouns with +the indefinite article, referring simply to persons; +thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If the poet of the "Rape of the Lock" be not <i>a wit</i>, who +deserves to be called so?<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>He had a little brother in London with him at this +time,—as great <i>a beauty</i>, as great a dandy, as great a +villain.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p><i>A youth</i> to fortune and to fame unknown.<span class= +"smcap">—Gray.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Changes material to class nouns.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>191.</b></span> <i>An</i> or <i>a</i> before +a material noun indicates the change to a class noun, meaning one +kind or a detached portion; as,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>They that dwell up in the +steeple,...<br /></span> <span class="i2">Feel a glory in so +rolling<br /></span> <span>On the human heart <i>a +stone</i>.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Poe.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i4">When God at first made +man,<br /></span> <span>Having <i>a glass</i> of blessings standing +by.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Herbert.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The roofs were turned into arches of massy stone, joined by <i>a +cement</i> that grew harder by time.<span class= +"smcap">—Johnson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Like the numeral adjective</i> one.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>192.</b></span> In some cases <i>an</i> or +<i>a</i> has the full force of the numeral adjective <i>one</i>. It +is shown in the following:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>To every room there was <i>an</i> open and <i>a</i> secret +passage.<span class="smcap">—Johnson.</span></p> +<p>In a short time these become a small tree, <i>an</i> inverted +pyramid resting on the apex of the other.<span class= +"smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +<p>All men are at last of <i>a</i> size.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>At the approach of spring the red squirrels got under my house, +two at <i>a</i> time.<span class="smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Equivalent to the word</i> each <i>or</i> +every.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>193.</b></span> Often, also, the indefinite +article has the force of <i>each</i> or <i>every</i>, particularly +to express measure or frequency.<a name="Page_126" id= +"Page_126"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It would be so much more pleasant to live at his ease than to +work eight or ten hours <i>a day</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Bulwer</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Compare to Sec. 184.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Strong beer, such as we now buy for eighteenpence <i>a +gallon</i>, was then a penny <i>a gallon</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Froude</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>With</i> such, many, what.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>194.</b></span> <i>An</i> or <i>a</i> is +added to the adjectives <i>such</i>, <i>many</i>, and <i>what</i>, +and may be considered a part of these in modifying +substantives.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>How was I to pay <i>such a</i> debt?<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p><i>Many a</i> one you and I have had here below.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p><i>What a</i> world of merriment then melody +foretells!<span class="smcap">—Poe.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>With</i> not <i>and</i> many.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>195.</b></span> <i>Not</i> and <i>never</i> +with <i>a</i> or <i>an</i> are numeral adjectives, instead of +adverbs, which they are in general.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Not a</i> drum was heard, <i>not a</i> funeral +note.<span class="smcap">—Wolfe</span></p> +<p>My Lord Duke was as hot as a flame at this salute, but said +<i>never a</i> word.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<p>NOTE.—All these have the function of adjectives; but in +the last analysis of the expressions, <i>such</i>, <i>many</i>, +<i>not</i>, etc., might be considered as adverbs modifying the +article.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>With</i> few <i>or</i> little.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>196.</b></span> The adjectives <i>few</i> +and <i>little</i> have the negative meaning of <i>not much</i>, +<i>not many</i>, without the article; but when <i>a</i> is put +before them, they have the positive meaning of <i>some</i>. Notice +the contrast in the following sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Of the country beyond the Mississippi <i>little</i> more was +known than of the heart of Africa.<span class= +"smcap">—Mcmaster</span></p> +<p>To both must I of necessity cling, supported always by the hope +that when <i>a little</i> time, <i>a few</i> years, shall have +tried me more fully in their esteem, I may be able to bring them +together.—<span class="smcap"><i>Keats's +Letters.</i></span></p> +<p><i>Few</i> of the great characters of history have been so +differently judged as Alexander.<span class= +"smcap">—Smith,</span> <i>History of Greece</i></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>With adjectives, changed to +nouns</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>197.</b></span> When <i>the</i> is used +before adjectives with no substantive following (Sec. 181 and +note), these <a name="Page_127" id="Page_127"></a>words are +adjectives used as nouns, or pure nouns; but when <i>an</i> or +<i>a</i> precedes such words, they are always nouns, having the +regular use and inflections of nouns; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Such are the words <i>a brave</i> should use.<span class= +"smcap">—Cooper.</span></p> +<p>In the great society of wits, John Gay deserves to be <i>a +favorite</i>, and to have a good place.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray</span></p> +<p>Only the name of one obscure epigrammatist has been embalmed for +use in the verses of <i>a rival</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Pearson.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Bring up sentences with five uses of the +indefinite article.</p> +<h3>HOW TO PARSE ARTICLES.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>198.</b></span> In parsing the article, +tell—</p> +<p>(1) What word it limits.</p> +<p>(2) Which of the above uses it has.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Parse the articles in the following:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. It is like gathering a few pebbles off the ground, or +bottling a little air in a phial, when the whole earth and the +whole atmosphere are ours.</p> +<p>2. Aristeides landed on the island with a body of Hoplites, +defeated the Persians and cut them to pieces to a man.</p> +<p>3. The wild fire that lit the eye of an Achilles can gleam no +more.</p> +<p>4. But it is not merely the neighborhood of the cathedral that +is mediæval; the whole city is of a piece.</p> +<p>5. To the herdsman among his cattle in remote woods, to the +craftsman in his rude workshop, to the great and to the little, a +new light has arisen.</p> +<p>6. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid become +intelligent, and the wavering, determined.</p> +<p>7. The student is to read history actively, and not +passively.</p> +<p><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128"></a>8. This resistance was the +labor of his life.</p> +<p>9. There was always a hope, even in the darkest hour.</p> +<p>10. The child had a native grace that does not invariably +coexist with faultless beauty.</p> +<p>11. I think a mere gent (which I take to be the lowest form of +civilization) better than a howling, whistling, clucking, stamping, +jumping, tearing savage.</p> +<p>12. Every fowl whom Nature has taught to dip the wing in +water.</p> +<p>13. They seem to be lines pretty much of a length.</p> +<p>14. Only yesterday, but what a gulf between now and then!</p> +<p>15. Not a brick was made but some man had to think of the making +of that brick.</p> +<p>16. The class of power, the working heroes, the Cortes, the +Nelson, the Napoleon, see that this is the festivity and permanent +celebration of such as they; that fashion is funded talent.</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="VERBS_AND_VERBALS" id="VERBS_AND_VERBALS"></a><b>VERBS +AND VERBALS.</b>.</h2> +<h2><a name="VERBS" id="VERBS"></a>VERBS.</h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Verb,—the word of the +sentence.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>199.</b></span> The term <i>verb</i> is from +the Latin <i>verbum</i> meaning <i>word</i>: hence it is <i>the</i> +word of a sentence. A thought cannot be expressed without a verb. +When the child cries, "Apple!" it means, <i>See</i> the apple! or I +<i>have</i> an apple! In the mariner's shout, "A sail!" the meaning +is, "Yonder <i>is</i> a sail!"</p> +<p>Sentences are in the form of declarations, questions, or +commands; and none of these can be put before the mind without the +use of a verb.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>One group or a group of words.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>200.</b></span> The verb may not always be a +single word. On account of the lack of inflections, <i>verb +phrases</i> are very frequent. Hence the verb may consist of:</p> +<p><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129"></a>(1) <i>One word</i>; as, +"The young man <i>obeyed</i>."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Several words of verbal nature, making one +expression</i>; as, (<i>a</i>) "Some day it <i>may be +considered</i> reasonable," (<i>b</i>) "Fearing lest he <i>might +have been anticipated</i>."</p> +<p>(3) <i>One or more verbal words united with other words to +compose one verb phrase</i>: as in the sentences, (<i>a</i>) "They +knew well that this woman <i>ruled over</i> thirty millions of +subjects;" (<i>b</i>) "If all the flummery and extravagance of an +army <i>were done away with</i>, the money could be made to go much +further;" (<i>c</i>) "It is idle cant to pretend anxiety for the +better distribution of wealth until we can devise means by which +this preying upon people of small incomes <i>can be put a stop +to</i>."</p> +<p>In (<i>a</i>), a verb and a preposition are used as one verb; in +(<i>b</i>), a verb, an adverb, and a preposition unite as a verb; +in (<i>c</i>), an article, a noun, a preposition, are united with +verbs as one verb phrase.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition and caution.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>201.</b></span> A <b>verb</b> is a word used +as a predicate, to say something to or about some person or thing. +In giving a definition, we consider a verb as one word.</p> +<p>Now, it is indispensable to the nature of a verb that it is "a +word used as a predicate." Examine the sentences in Sec. 200: In +(1), <i>obeyed</i> is a predicate; in (2, <i>a</i>), <i>may be +considered</i> is a unit in doing the work of one predicate; in (2, +<i>b</i>), <i>might have been anticipated</i> is also one +predicate, but <i>fearing</i> is not a predicate, hence is not a +verb; in (3, <i>b</i>), <i>to go</i> is no predicate, and not a +verb; in (3, <i>c</i>), <i>to pretend</i> and <i>preying</i> have +something of <a name="Page_130" id="Page_130"></a>verbal nature in +expressing action in a faint and general way, but cannot be +predicates.</p> +<p>In the sentence, "<i>Put</i> money in thy purse," <i>put</i> is +the predicate, with some word understood; as, "Put <i>thou</i> +money in thy purse."</p> +<h3>VERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO MEANING AND USE.</h3> +<h3>TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The nature of the transitive +verb.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>202.</b></span> By examining a few verbs, it +may be seen that not all verbs are used alike. All do not express +action: some denote state or condition. Of those expressing action, +all do not express it in the same way; for example, in this +sentence from Bulwer,—"The proud lone <i>took</i> care to +conceal the anguish she <i>endured</i>; and the pride of woman +<i>has</i> an hypocrisy which <i>can deceive</i> the most +penetrating, and <i>shame</i> the most astute,"—every one of +the verbs in Italics has one or more words before or after it, +representing something which it influences or controls. In the +first, lone <i>took</i> what? answer, <i>care</i>; <i>endured</i> +what? <i>anguish</i>; etc. Each influences some object, which may +be a person, or a material thing, or an idea. <i>Has</i> takes the +object <i>hypocrisy</i>; <i>can deceive</i> has an object, <i>the +most penetrating</i>; (can) <i>shame</i> also has an object, <i>the +most astute</i>.</p> +<p>In each case, the word following, or the object, is necessary to +the completion of the action expressed in the verb.</p> +<p>All these are called transitive verbs, from the Latin +<i>transire</i>, which means <i>to go over</i>. Hence</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_131" id= +"Page_131"></a><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>203.</b></span> A transitive verb is one +which must have an object to complete its meaning, and to receive +the action expressed.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The nature of intransitive +verbs.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>204.</b></span> Examine the verbs in the +following paragraph:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>She <i>sprang up</i> at that thought, and, taking the staff +which always guided her steps, she <i>hastened</i> to the +neighboring shrine of Isis. Till she <i>had been</i> under the +guardianship of the kindly Greek, that staff <i>had sufficed</i> to +conduct the poor blind girl from corner to corner of +Pompeii.<span class="smcap">—Bulwer</span></p> +</div> +<p>In this there are some verbs unlike those that have been +examined. <i>Sprang</i>, or <i>sprang up</i>, expresses action, but +it is complete in itself, does not affect an object; +<i>hastened</i> is similar in use; <i>had been</i> expresses +condition, or state of being, and can have no object; <i>had +sufficed</i> means <i>had been sufficient</i>, and from its meaning +cannot have an object.</p> +<p>Such verbs are called intransitive (not crossing over). +Hence</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>205.</b></span> An intransitive verb is one +which is complete in itself, or which is completed by other words +without requiring an object.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Study</i> use, <i>not</i> form, <i>of +verbs here.</i></div> +<p>206. Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, +according to their use in the sentence, It can be said, "The boy +<i>walked</i> for two hours," or "The boy <i>walked</i> the horse;" +"The rains <i>swelled</i> the river," or "The river <i>swelled</i> +because of the rain;" etc.</p> +<p>The important thing to observe is, many words must be +distinguished as transitive or intransitive by <i>use</i>, not by +<i>form</i>.</p> +<p><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132"></a><span class= +"sn"><b>207.</b></span> Also verbs are sometimes made transitive by +prepositions. These may be (1) compounded with the verb; or (2) may +follow the verb, and be used as an integral part of it: for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Asking her pardon for having <i>withstood</i> her.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>I can wish myself no worse than to have it all to <i>undergo</i> +a second time.<span class="smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>A weary gloom in the deep caverns of his eyes, as of a child +that has <i>outgrown</i> its playthings.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>It is amusing to walk up and down the pier and <i>look at</i> +the countenances passing by.—<span class="smcap">B. +Taylor</span>.</p> +<p>He was at once so out of the way, and yet so sensible, that I +loved, <i>laughed at</i>, and pitied him.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>My little nurse told me the whole matter, which she had +cunningly <i>picked out</i> from her mother.<span class= +"smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +</div> +<h4>Exercises.</h4> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Pick out the transitive and the intransitive verbs in +the following:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. The women and children collected together at a distance.</p> +<p>2. The path to the fountain led through a grassy savanna.</p> +<p>3. As soon as I recovered my senses and strength from so sudden +a surprise, I started back out of his reach where I stood to view +him; he lay quiet whilst I surveyed him.</p> +<p>4. At first they lay a floor of this kind of tempered mortar on +the ground, upon which they deposit a layer of eggs.</p> +<p>5. I ran my bark on shore at one of their landing places, which +was a sort of neck or little dock, from which ascended a sloping +path or road up to the edge of the meadow, where their nests were; +most of them were deserted, and the great thick whitish eggshells +lay broken and scattered upon the ground.</p> +<p>6. Accordingly I got everything on board, charged <a name= +"Page_133" id="Page_133"></a>my gun, set sail cautiously, along +shore. As I passed by Battle Lagoon, I began to tremble.</p> +<p>7. I seized my gun, and went cautiously from my camp: when I had +advanced about thirty yards, I halted behind a coppice of orange +trees, and soon perceived two very large bears, which had made +their way through the water and had landed in the grove, and were +advancing toward me.</p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Bring up sentences with five transitive and five +intransitive verbs.</p> +<h3>VOICE, ACTIVE AND PASSIVE.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Meaning of active voice.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>208.</b></span> As has been seen, transitive +verbs are the only kind that can express action so as to go over to +an object. This implies three things,—the agent, or person or +thing acting; the verb representing the action; the person or +object receiving the act.</p> +<p>In the sentence, "We reached the village of Sorgues by dusk, and +accepted the invitation of an old dame to lodge at her inn," these +three things are found: the actor, or agent, is expressed by +<i>we</i>; the action is asserted by <i>reached</i> and +<i>accepted</i>; the things acted upon are <i>village</i> and +<i>invitation</i>. Here the subject is represented as doing +something. The same word is the subject and the agent. This use of +a transitive verb is called the <b>active voice</b>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>209.</b></span> The <b>active voice</b> is +that form of a verb which represents the subject as acting; or</p> +<p>The active voice is that form of a transitive verb which makes +the <i>subject</i> and the <i>agent</i> the same word.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134"></a><i>A +question.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>210.</b></span> Intransitive verbs are +<i>always active voice</i>. Let the student explain why.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Meaning of passive voice.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>211.</b></span> In the assertion of an +action, it would be natural to suppose, that, instead of always +representing the subject as acting upon some person or thing, it +must often happen that the subject is spoken of as <i>acted +upon</i>; and the person or thing acting may or may not be +expressed in the sentence: for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>All infractions of love and equity in our social relations are +speedily punished. They are punished by fear.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Here the subject <i>infractions</i> does nothing: it represents +the object toward which the action of <i>are punished</i> is +directed, yet it is the subject of the same verb. In the first +sentence the agent is not expressed; in the second, <i>fear</i> is +the agent of the same action.</p> +<p>So that in this case, instead of having the agent and subject +the same word, we have the <i>object</i> and <i>subject</i> the +same word, and the agent may be omitted from the statement of the +action.</p> +<p><i>Passive</i> is from the Latin word <i>patior</i>, meaning +<i>to endure</i> or <i>suffer</i>; but in ordinary grammatical use +<i>passive</i> means <i>receiving an action</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>212.</b></span> The passive voice is that +form of the verb which represents the subject as being acted upon; +or—</p> +<p>The passive voice is that form of the verb which represents the +<i>subject</i> and the <i>object</i> by the same word.</p> +<p><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135"></a><b>Exercises.</b></p> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Pick out the verbs in the active and the passive +voice:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. In the large room some forty or fifty students were walking +about while the parties were preparing.</p> +<p>2. This was done by taking off the coat and vest and binding a +great thick leather garment on, which reached to the knees.</p> +<p>3. They then put on a leather glove reaching nearly to the +shoulder, tied a thick cravat around the throat, and drew on a cap +with a large visor.</p> +<p>4. This done, they were walked about the room a short time; +their faces all this time betrayed considerable anxiety.</p> +<p>5. We joined the crowd, and used our lungs as well as any.</p> +<p>6. The lakes were soon covered with merry skaters, and every +afternoon the banks were crowded with spectators.</p> +<p>7. People were setting up torches and lengthening the rafts +which had been already formed.</p> +<p>8. The water was first brought in barrels drawn by horses, till +some officer came and opened the fire plug.</p> +<p>9. The exclusive in fashionable life does not see that he +excludes himself from enjoyment, in the attempt to appropriate +it.</p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Find sentences with five verbs in the active and five +in the passive voice.</p> +<h3>MOOD.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>213.</b></span> The word <i>mood</i> is from +the Latin <i>modus</i>, meaning <i>manner</i>, <i>way</i>, +<i>method</i>. Hence, when applied to verbs,—</p> +<p><b>Mood</b> means the manner of conceiving and expressing action +or being of some subject.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136"></a><i>The +three ways.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>214.</b></span> There are three chief ways +of expressing action or being:—</p> +<p>(1) As a fact; this may be a question, statement, or +assumption.</p> +<p>(2) As doubtful, or merely conceived of in the mind.</p> +<p>(3) As urged or commanded.</p> +<h3>INDICATIVE MOOD.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Deals with facts.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>215.</b></span> The term <i>indicative</i> +is from the Latin <i>indicare</i> (to declare, or assert). The +indicative represents something as a fact,—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Affirms or denies.</i></div> +<p>(1) <i>By declaring a thing to be true or not to be true</i>; +thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Distinction <i>is</i> the consequence, never the object, of a +great mind.<span class="smcap">—Allston.</span></p> +<p>I <i>do not remember</i> when or by whom I <i>was taught</i> to +read; because I <i>cannot</i> and never <i>could recollect</i> a +time when I <i>could not read</i> my Bible.—<span class= +"smcap">D. Webster</span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Assumed as a fact.</i></div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Caution.</i></div> +<p>(2) <i>By assuming a thing to be true</i> without declaring it +to be so. This kind of indicative clause is usually introduced by +<i>if</i> (meaning <i>admitting that, granting that</i>, etc.), +<i>though, although</i>, etc. Notice that the action is not merely +conceived as possible; it is assumed to be a fact: for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If the penalties of rebellion hung over an unsuccessful contest; +if America was yet in the cradle of her political existence; if her +population little exceeded two millions; if she was without +government, without fleets or armies, arsenals or magazines, +without military knowledge,—still her citizens had a just and +elevated sense of her rights.—<span class="smcap">A. +Hamilton</span>.</p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137"></a>(3) <i>By asking a question +to find out some fact</i>; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Is private credit the friend and patron of industry?<span class= +"smcap">—Hamilton.</span></p> +<p>With respect to novels what shall I say?—<span class= +"smcap">N. Webster</span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><b>216</b> .The <b>indicative mood</b> is that form of a verb +which represents a thing as a fact, or inquires about some +fact.</p> +<h3>SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Meaning of the word.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>217.</b></span> <i>Subjunctive</i> means +<i>subjoined</i>, or joined as dependent or subordinate to +something else.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>This meaning is misleading.</i></div> +<p>If its original meaning be closely adhered to, we must expect +every dependent clause to have its verb in the subjunctive mood, +and every clause <i>not</i> dependent to have its verb in some +other mood.</p> +<p>But this is not the case. In the quotation from Hamilton (Sec. +215, 2) several subjoined clauses introduced by <i>if</i> have the +indicative mood, and also independent clauses are often found +having the verb in the subjunctive mood.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Cautions.</i></div> +<p>Three cautions will be laid down which must be observed by a +student who wishes to understand and use the English +subjunctive:—</p> +<p>(1) You cannot tell it always by the form of the word. The main +difference is, that the subjunctive has no <i>-s</i> as the ending +of the present tense, third person singular; as, "If he +<i>come</i>."</p> +<p>(2) The fact that its clause is dependent or is introduced by +certain words will not be a safe rule to guide you.</p> +<p>(3) The <i>meaning</i> of the verb itself must be keenly +studied.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_138" id= +"Page_138"></a><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>218.</b></span> The subjunctive mood is that +form or use of the verb which expresses action or being, not as a +fact, but as merely conceived of in the mind.</p> +<h3>Subjunctive in Independent Clauses.</h3> +<h3>I. Expressing a Wish.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>219.</b></span> The following are examples +of this use:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Heaven <i>rest</i> her soul!<span class= +"smcap">—Moore.</span></p> +<p>God <i>grant</i> you find one face there You loved when all was +young.<span class="smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>Now <i>tremble</i> dimples on your cheek, Sweet <i>be</i> your +lips to taste and speak.<span class= +"smcap">—Beddoes.</span></p> +<p>Long <i>die</i> thy happy days before thy death.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>II. A Contingent Declaration or Question.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>220.</b></span> This really amounts to the +conclusion, or principal clause, in a sentence, of which the +condition is omitted.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Our chosen specimen of the hero as literary man [if we were to +choose one] <i>would be</i> this Goethe.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>I <i>could lie</i> down like a tired +child,<br /></span> <span>And <i>weep</i> away the life of +care<br /></span> <span>Which I have borne and yet must +bear.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Shelley.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Most excellent stranger, as you come to the lakes simply to see +their loveliness, <i>might</i> it not <i>be</i> as well to ask +after the most beautiful road, rather than the +shortest?<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses.</h3> +<h3>I. Condition or Supposition.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>221.</b></span> The most common way of +representing the action or being as merely thought of, is by +<a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"></a>putting it into the form of a +<i>supposition</i> or <i>condition</i>; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Now, if the fire of electricity and that of lightning <i>be</i> +the same, this pasteboard and these scales may represent +electrified clouds.<span class="smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Here no assertion is made that the two things <i>are</i> the +same; but, if the reader merely <i>conceives</i> them for the +moment to be the same, the writer can make the statement following. +Again,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If it <i>be</i> Sunday [supposing it to be Sunday], the peasants +sit on the church steps and con their psalm books.<span class= +"smcap">—Longfellow.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>STUDY OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>222.</b></span> There are three kinds of +conditional sentences:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Real or true.</i></div> +<p>(1) Those in which an assumed or admitted fact is placed before +the mind in the form of a condition (see Sec. 215, 2); for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If they <i>were</i> unacquainted with the works of philosophers +and poets, they were deeply read in the oracles of God. If their +names <i>were not found</i> in the registers of heralds, they were +recorded in the Book of Life.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Ideal,—may or may not be +true.</i></div> +<p>(2) Those in which the condition depends on something uncertain, +and <i>may or may not be regarded true, or be fulfilled</i>; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If, in our case, the representative system ultimately +<i>fail</i>, popular government must be pronounced +impossible.—<span class="smcap">D. Webster</span>.</p> +<p>If this <i>be</i> the glory of Julius, the first great founder +of the Empire, so it is also the glory of Charlemagne, the second +founder.<span class="smcap">—Bryce.</span></p> +<p>If any man <i>consider</i> the present aspects of what is called +by distinction society, he will see the need of these ethics. +<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_140" id= +"Page_140"></a><i>Unreal—cannot be true.</i></div> +<p>(3) Suppositions <i>contrary to fact</i>, which cannot be true, +or conditions that cannot be fulfilled, but are presented only in +order to suggest what <i>might be</i> or <i>might have been</i> +true; thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If these things <i>were</i> true, society could not hold +together. <span class="smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +<p><i>Did not</i> my writings <i>produce</i> me some solid pudding, +the great deficiency of praise would have quite discouraged +me.<span class="smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +<p><i>Had</i> he for once <i>cast</i> all such feelings aside, and +<i>striven</i> energetically to save Ney, it <i>would have cast</i> +such an enhancing light over all his glories, that we cannot but +regret its absence.<span class="smcap">—Bayne.</span></p> +<p>NOTE.—Conditional sentences are usually introduced by +<i>if</i>, <i>though</i>, <i>except</i>, <i>unless</i>, etc.; but +when the verb precedes the subject, the conjunction is often +omitted: for example, "<i>Were I bidden</i> to say how the highest +genius could be most advantageously employed," etc.</p> +</div> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>In the following conditional clauses, tell whether each verb is +indicative or subjunctive, and what kind of condition:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. The voice, if he speak to you, is of similar physiognomy, +clear, melodious, and sonorous.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>2. Were you so distinguished from your neighbors, would you, do +you think, be any the happier?<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>3. Epaminondas, if he was the man I take him for, would have sat +still with joy and peace, if his lot had been mine.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>4. If a damsel had the least smattering of literature, she was +regarded as a prodigy.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>5. I told him, although it were the custom of our learned in +Europe to steal inventions from each other,... yet I would take +such caution that he should have the honor entire.<span class= +"smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"></a>6. If he had reason to +dislike him, he had better not have written, since he [Byron] was +dead.—<span class="smcap">N. P. Willis</span>.</p> +<p>7. If it were prostrated to the ground by a profane hand, what +native of the city would not mourn over its fall?<span class= +"smcap">—Gayarre.</span></p> +<p>8. But in no case could it be justified, except it be for a +failure of the association or union to effect the object for which +it was created.<span class="smcap">—Calhoun.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>II. Subjunctive of Purpose.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>223.</b></span> The subjunctive, especially +<i>be</i>, <i>may</i>, <i>might</i>, and <i>should</i>, is used to +express purpose, the clause being introduced by <i>that</i> or +<i>lest</i>; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It was necessary, he supposed, to drink strong beer, that he +<i>might be</i> strong to labor.<span class= +"smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +<p>I have been the more particular...that you <i>may compare</i> +such unlikely beginnings with the figure I have since made +there.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>He [Roderick] with sudden impulse that way rode, To tell of what +had passed, lest in the strife They <i>should engage</i> with +Julian's men.<span class="smcap">—Southey.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>III. Subjunctive of Result.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>224.</b></span> The subjunctive may +represent the result toward which an action tends:—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>So many thoughts move to and +fro,<br /></span> <span>That vain it <i>were</i> her eyes to +close.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge.</span></div> +<div class="stanza"><span>So live, that when thy summons comes to +join<br /></span> <span>The innumerable caravan...<br /></span> +<span>Thou <i>go</i> not, like the quarry-slave at +night.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Bryant.</span></div> +</div> +<h3>IV. In Temporal Clauses.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>225.</b></span> The English subjunctive, +like the Latin, is sometimes used in a clause to express the time +when an action is to take place.<a name="Page_142" id= +"Page_142"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Let it rise, till it <i>meet</i> the sun in his +coming.—<span class="smcap">D. Webster</span>.</p> +<p>Rise up, before it <i>be</i> too late!<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>But it will not be long<br /></span> +<span>Ere this <i>be thrown</i> aside.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></div> +</div> +<h3>V. In Indirect Questions.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>226.</b></span> The subjunctive is often +found in indirect questions, the answer being regarded as +doubtful.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Ask the great man if there <i>be</i> none greater.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson</span></p> +<p>What the best arrangement <i>were</i>, none of us could +say.<span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>Whether it <i>were</i> morning or whether it <i>were</i> +afternoon, in her confusion she had not distinctly +known.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>VI. Expressing a Wish.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>227.</b></span> After a verb of wishing, the +subjunctive is regularly used in the dependent clause.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The transmigiation of souls is no fable. I would it <i>were</i>! +<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>Bright star! Would I <i>were</i> steadfast as thou +art!<span class="smcap">—Keats.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>I've wished that little isle <i>had</i> +wings,<br /></span> <span>And we, within its fairy +bowers,<br /></span> <span><i>Were wafted</i> off to seas +unknown.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Moore.</span></div> +</div> +<h3>VII. In a Noun Clause.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Subject.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>228.</b></span> The noun clause, in its +various uses as subject, object, in apposition, etc., often +contains a subjunctive.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The essence of originality is not that it <i>be</i> +new.<span class="smcap">—Carlyle</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Apposition or logical subject.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>To appreciate the wild and sharp flavors of those October +fruits, it is necessary that you <i>be breathing</i> the sharp +October or November air.—<span class= +"smcap">Thoreau.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Complement.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The first merit, that which admits neither substitute nor +equivalent, is, that everything <i>be</i> in its place.<span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_143" id= +"Page_143"></a><i>Object.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>As sure as Heaven shall rescue me, I have no thought what men +they <i>be</i>.<span class="smcap">—Coleridge.</span></p> +<p>Some might lament that I <i>were</i> cold.<span class= +"smcap">—Shelley.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>After verbs of commanding.</i></div> +<p>This subjunctive is very frequent after verbs of +<i>commanding</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>See that there <i>be</i> no traitors in your camp.<span class= +"smcap">—Tennyson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Come, tell me all that thou hast +seen,<br /></span> <span>And look thou <i>tell</i> me +true.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>See that thy scepter <i>be</i> heavy on his head.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>VIII. Concessive Clauses.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>229.</b></span> The concession may be +expressed—</p> +<p>(1) In the nature of the verb; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Be</i> the matter how it may, Gabriel Grub was afflicted with +rheumatism to the end of his days.<span class= +"smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +<p><i>Be</i> the appeal <i>made</i> to the understanding or the +heart, the sentence is the same—that rejects it.<span class= +"smcap">—Brougham</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) By an indefinite relative word, which may be</p> +<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Pronoun.</i></p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Whatever <i>betide</i>, we'll turn +aside,<br /></span> <span>And see the Braes of Yarrow.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></div> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Adjective.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>That hunger of applause, of cash, or whatsoever victual it +<i>may be</i>, is the ultimate fact of man's life.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>Adverb.</i></p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Wherever he <i>dream</i> under mountain +or stream,<br /></span> <span>The spirit he loves +remains.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Shelley.</span></div> +</div> +<h3>Prevalence of the Subjunctive Mood.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>230.</b></span> As shown by the wide range +of literature from which these examples are selected, the +subjunctive is very much used in literary English, especially by +those who are artistic and exact in the expression of their +thought.</p> +<p><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144"></a>At the present day, +however, the subjunctive is becoming less and less used. Very many +of the sentences illustrating the use of the subjunctive mood could +be replaced by numerous others using the indicative to express the +same thoughts.</p> +<p>The three uses of the subjunctive now most frequent are, to +express a wish, a concession, and condition contrary to fact.</p> +<p>In spoken English, the subjunctive <i>were</i> is much used in a +wish or a condition contrary to fact, but hardly any other +subjunctive forms are.</p> +<p>It must be remembered, though, that many of the verbs in the +subjunctive have the same form as the indicative. Especially is +this true of unreal conditions in past time; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Were we of open sense as the Greeks were, we <i>had found</i> +[should have found] a poem here.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>IMPERATIVE MOOD.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>231.</b></span> The <b>imperative mood</b> +is the form of the verb used in direct commands, entreaties, or +requests.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Usually second person.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>232.</b></span> The imperative is naturally +used mostly with the <b>second person</b>, since commands are +directed to a person addressed.</p> +<p>(1) <i>Command.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Call up</i> the shades of Demosthenes and Cicero to vouch for +your words; <i>point</i> to their immortal +works.—<span class="smcap">J. Q. Adams</span>.</p> +<p><i>Honor</i> all men; <i>love</i> all men; <i>fear</i> +none.<span class="smcap">—Channing.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>Entreaty.</i></p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Oh, from these sterner aspects of thy +face<br /></span> <span><i>Spare</i> me and mine, nor <i>let</i> us +need the wrath<br /></span> <span>Of the mad unchained +elements.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Bryant.</span></div> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145"></a>(3) <i>Request.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"<i>Hush</i>! mother," whispered Kit. "<i>Come</i> along with +me."<span class="smcap">—Dickens</span></p> +<p><i>Tell</i> me, how was it you thought of coming +here?—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Sometimes with</i> first person <i>in the +plural</i>.</div> +<p>But the imperative may be used with the plural of the first +person. Since the first person plural person is not really I + I, +but I + you, or I + they, etc., we may use the imperative with +<i>we</i> in a command, request, etc., to <i>you</i> implied in it. +This is scarcely ever found outside of poetry.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span><i>Part we</i> in friendship from your +land,<br /></span> <span>And, noble earl, receive my +hand.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></div> +<div class="stanza"><span>Then <i>seek we</i> not their +camp—for there<br /></span> <span>The silence dwells of my +despair.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Campbell.</span></div> +<div class="stanza"><span><i>Break we</i> our watch +up.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></div> +</div> +<p>Usually this is expressed by <i>let</i> with the objective: +"<i>Let</i> us go." And the same with the third person: "<i>Let</i> +him be accursed."</p> +<h4>Exercises on the Moods.</h4> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Tell the mood of each verb in these sentences, and +what special use it is of that mood:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Wherever the standard of freedom and independence has been or +shall be unfurled, there will her heart and her prayers be.</p> +<p>2.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Mark thou this difference, child of +earth!<br /></span> <span class="i2">While each performs his +part,<br /></span> <span>Not all the lip can speak is +worth<br /></span> <span class="i2">The silence of the +heart.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>3. Oh, that I might be admitted to thy presence! that mine were +the supreme delight of knowing thy will!</p> +<p>4.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>'Twere worth ten years of peaceful +life,<br /></span> <span>One glance at their +array!<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>5. Whatever inconvenience ensue, nothing is to be preferred +before justice.</p> +<a name="Page_146" id="Page_146"></a> +<p>6.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The vigorous sun would catch it up at +eve<br /></span> <span>And use it for an anvil till he had +filled<br /></span> <span>The shelves of heaven with burning +thunderbolts.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>7.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Meet is it changes should +control<br /></span> <span>Our being, lest we rust in +ease.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>8.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Quoth she, "The Devil take the +goose,<br /></span> <span>And God forget the +stranger!"<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>9. Think not that I speak for your sakes.</p> +<p>10. "Now tread we a measure!" said young Lochinvar.</p> +<p>11. Were that a just return? Were that Roman magnanimity?</p> +<p>12. Well; how he may do his work, whether he do it right or +wrong, or do it at all, is a point which no man in the world has +taken the pains to think of.</p> +<p>13. He is, let him live where else he like, in what pomps and +prosperities he like, no literary man.</p> +<p>14. Could we one day complete the immense figure which these +flagrant points compose!</p> +<p>15. "Oh, then, my dear madam," cried he, "tell me where I may +find my poor, ruined, but repentant child."</p> +<p>16.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>That sheaf of darts, will it not fall +unbound,<br /></span> <span>Except, disrobed of thy vain earthly +vaunt,<br /></span> <span>Thou bring it to be blessed where saints +and angels haunt?<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>17.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Forget thyself to marble, +till<br /></span> <span>With a sad leaden downward +cast<br /></span> <span>Thou fix them on the earth as +fast.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>18.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>He, as though an instrument,<br /></span> +<span>Blew mimic hootings to the silent owls,<br /></span> +<span>That they might answer him.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>19.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>From the moss violets and jonquils +peep,<br /></span> <span>And dart their arrowy odor through the +brain,<br /></span> <span>Till you might faint with that delicious +pain.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>20. That a man parade his doubt, and get to imagine that +debating and logic is the triumph and true work of what intellect +he has; alas! this is as if you should overturn the tree.</p> +<p>21.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The fat earth feed thy branchy +root<br /></span> <span class="i2">That under deeply +strikes!<br /></span> <span>The northern morning o'er thee +shoot,<br /></span> <span class="i2">High up in silver +spikes!<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>22. Though abyss open under abyss, and opinion displace +opinion,<a name="Page_147" id="Page_147"></a> all are at last +contained in the Eternal cause.</p> +<p>23. God send Rome one such other sight!</p> +<p>24. "Mr. Marshall," continued Old Morgan, "see that no one +mentions the United States to the prisoner."</p> +<p>25. If there is only one woman in the nation who claims the +right to vote, she ought to have it.</p> +<p>26. Though he were dumb, it would speak.</p> +<p>27. Meantime, whatever she did,—whether it were in display +of her own matchless talents, or whether it were as one member of a +general party,—nothing could exceed the amiable, kind, and +unassuming deportment of Mrs. Siddons.</p> +<p>28. It makes a great difference to the force of any sentence +whether there be a man behind it or no.</p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Find sentences with five verbs in the indicative +mood, five in the subjunctive, five in the imperative.</p> +<h3>TENSE.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>233.</b></span> <i>Tense</i> means +<i>time</i>. The <b>tense</b> of a verb is the form or use +indicating the time of an action or being.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Tenses in English.</i></div> +<p>Old English had only two tenses,—the present tense, which +represented present and future time; and the past tense. We still +use the present for the future in such expressions as, "I <i>go</i> +away to-morrow;" "If he <i>comes</i>, tell him to wait."</p> +<p>But English of the present day not only has a tense for each of +the natural time divisions,—present, past, and +future,—but has other tenses to correspond with those of +highly inflected languages, such as Latin and Greek.</p> +<p>The distinct inflections are found only in the present and past +tenses, however: the others are <a name="Page_148" id= +"Page_148"></a>compounds of verbal forms with various helping +verbs, called <b>auxiliaries</b>; such as <i>be</i>, <i>have</i>, +<i>shall</i>, <i>will</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The tenses in detail.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>234.</b></span> Action or being may be +represented as occurring in present, past, or future time, by means +of the <b>present</b>, the <b>past</b>, and the <b>future +tense</b>. It may also be represented as <i>finished</i> in present +or past or future time by means of the present perfect, past +perfect, and future perfect tenses.</p> +<p>Not only is this so: there are what are called <b>definite +forms</b> of these tenses, showing more exactly the time of the +action or being. These make the English speech even more exact than +other languages, as will be shown later on, in the +conjugations.</p> +<h3>PERSON AND NUMBER.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>235.</b></span> The English verb has never +had full inflections for number and person, as the classical +languages have.</p> +<p>When the older pronoun <i>thou</i> was in use, there was a form +of the verb to correspond to it, or agree with it, as, "Thou +walk<i>est</i>," present; "Thou walked<i>st</i>," past; also, in +the third person singular, a form ending in -<i>eth</i>, as, "It is +not in man that walk<i>eth</i>, to direct his steps."</p> +<p>But in ordinary English of the present day there is practically +only one ending for person and number. This is the third person, +singular number; as, "He walk<i>s</i>;" and this only in the +present tense indicative. This is important in questions of +agreement when we come to syntax.<a name="Page_149" id= +"Page_149"></a></p> +<h3>CONJUGATION.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>236.</b></span> <b>Conjugation</b> is the +regular arrangement of the forms of the verb in the various voices, +moods, tenses, persons, and numbers.</p> +<p>In classical languages, <b>conjugation</b> means <i>joining +together</i> the numerous endings to the stem of the verb; but in +English, inflections are so few that conjugation means merely the +exhibition of the forms and the different verb phrases that express +the relations of voice, mood, tense, etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Few forms.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>237.</b></span> Verbs in modern English have +only four or five forms; for example, <i>walk</i> has <i>walk</i>, +<i>walks</i>, <i>walked</i>, <i>walking</i>, sometimes adding the +old forms <i>walkest</i>, <i>walkedst</i>, <i>walketh</i>. Such +verbs as <i>choose</i> have five,—<i>choose</i>, +<i>chooses</i>, <i>chose</i>, <i>choosing</i>, <i>chosen</i> (old, +<i>choosest</i>, <i>chooseth</i>, <i>chosest</i>).</p> +<p>The verb <i>be</i> has more forms, since it is composed of +several different roots,—<i>am</i>, <i>are</i>, <i>is</i>, +<i>were</i>, <i>been</i>, etc.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>238.</b></span> <b>INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB +<i>BE</i></b>.</p> +<h3>Indicative Mood.</h3> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='2'>PRESENT TENSE.</td> +<td align='center' colspan='2'>PAST TENSE.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'><i>Singular</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Plural</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Singular</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Plural</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>1. I am</td> +<td align='center'>We are</td> +<td align='center'>1. I was</td> +<td align='center'>We were</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>2. You are<br /> +(thou art)</td> +<td align='center'>You are</td> +<td align='center'>2. You were<br /> +(thou wast, wert)</td> +<td align='center'>You were</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>3. [He] is</td> +<td align='center'>[They] are</td> +<td align='center'>3. [He] was</td> +<td align='center'>[They were]</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3>Subjunctive Mood.</h3> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='2'>PRESENT TENSE.</td> +<td align='center' colspan='2'>PAST TENSE.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'><i>Singular</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Plural</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Singular</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Plural</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>1. I be</td> +<td align='center'>We be</td> +<td align='center'>1. I were</td> +<td align='center'>We were</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>2. You (thou) be</td> +<td align='center'>You be</td> +<td align='center'>2. You were<br /> +(thou wert)</td> +<td align='center'>You were</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>3. [He] be</td> +<td align='center'>[They] be</td> +<td align='center'>3. [He] were</td> +<td align='center'>[They] were</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150"></a></p> +<h3>Imperative Mood.</h3> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center'>PRESENT TENSE</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'><i>Singular and Plural</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>Be.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Remarks on the verb</i> be.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>239.</b></span> This conjugation is pieced +out with three different roots: (1) <i>am</i>, <i>is</i>; (2) +<i>was</i>, <i>were</i>; (3) <i>be</i>.</p> +<p>Instead of the plural <i>are</i>, Old English had <i>beoth</i> +and <i>sind</i> or <i>sindon</i>, same as the German <i>sind</i>. +<i>Are</i> is supposed to have come from the Norse language.</p> +<p>The old indicative third person plural <i>be</i> is sometimes +found in literature, though it is usually a dialect form; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Where <i>be</i> the sentries who used to salute as the Royal +chariots drove in and out?<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray</span></p> +<p>Where <i>be</i> the gloomy shades, and desolate +mountains?<span class="smcap">—Whittier</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Uses of</i> be.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>240.</b></span> The forms of the verb +<i>be</i> have several uses:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>As principal verbs.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The light that never <i>was</i> on sea and land.<span class= +"smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>As auxiliary verbs</i>, in four ways,—</p> +<p>(<i>a</i>) With verbal forms in <i>-ing</i> (imperfect +participle) to form the definite tenses.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Broadswords <i>are maddening</i> in the rear,—Each +broadsword bright <i>was brandishing</i> like beam of +light.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) With the past participle in <i>-ed</i>, <i>-en</i>, +etc., to form the passive voice.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>By solemn vision and bright silver +dream,<br /></span> <span>His infancy <i>was +nurtured</i>.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Shelley.</span></div> +</div> +<p>(<i>c</i>) With past participle of intransitive verbs, being +equivalent to the present perfect and past perfect tenses active; +as,</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151"></a> +<span>When we <i>are gone</i><br /></span> <span>From every object +dear to mortal sight.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Wordsworth</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We drank tea, which <i>was</i> now <i>become</i> an occasional +banquet.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>d</i>) With the infinitive, to express intention, +obligation, condition, etc.; thus,</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It <i>was to have been called</i> the Order of +Minerva.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>Ingenuity and cleverness <i>are to be rewarded</i> by State +prizes.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>If I <i>were to explain</i> the motion of a body falling to the +ground.<span class="smcap">—Burke</span></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>241.</b></span> INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB +<i>CHOOSE</i>.</p> +<h3>Indicative Mood.</h3> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='2'>PRESENT TENSE.</td> +<td align='center' colspan='2'>PAST TENSE.</td> +<td align='center'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'><i>Singular.</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Plural.</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Singular.</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Plural.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>1. I choose</td> +<td align='center'>We choose</td> +<td align='center'>1. I chose</td> +<td align='center'>We chose</td> +<td align='center'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>2. You choose</td> +<td align='center'>You choose</td> +<td align='center'>2. You chose</td> +<td align='center'>You chose</td> +<td align='center'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>3. [He] chooses</td> +<td align='center'>[They] choose</td> +<td align='center'>3. [He] chose</td> +<td align='center'>[They] chose</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153"></a></p> +<h3>Subjunctive Mood.</h3> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='2'>PRESENT TENSE.</td> +<td align='center' colspan='2'>PAST TENSE.</td> +<td align='center'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'><i>Singular.</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Plural.</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Singular.</i></td> +<td align='center'><i>Plural.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>1. I choose</td> +<td align='center'>We choose</td> +<td align='center'>1. I chose</td> +<td align='center'>We chose</td> +<td align='center'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>2. You choose</td> +<td align='center'>You choose</td> +<td align='center'>2. You chose</td> +<td align='center'>You chose</td> +<td align='center'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>3. [He] choose</td> +<td align='center'>[They] choose</td> +<td align='center'>3. [He] chose</td> +<td align='center'>[They] chose</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3>Imperative Mood.</h3> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center'>PRESENT TENSE</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'><i>Singular and Plural</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'>Choose.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3>FULL CONJUGATION OF THE VERB <i>CHOOSE</i>.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Machinery of a verb in the voices, tenses, +etc.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>242.</b></span> In addition to the above +<i>inflected</i> forms, there are many periphrastic or +<i>compound</i> forms, made up of auxiliaries with the infinitives +and <a name="Page_152" id="Page_152"></a>participles. Some of these +have been indicated in Sec. 240, (2).</p> +<p>The ordinary tenses yet to be spoken of are made up as +follows:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Future tense</i>, by using <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i> +with the simple or root form of the verb; as, "I <i>shall be</i>," +"He <i>will choose.</i>"</p> +<p>(2) <i>Present perfect</i>, <i>past perfect</i>, <i>future +perfect</i>, tenses, by placing <i>have</i>, <i>had</i>, and +<i>shall</i> (or <i>will</i>) <i>have</i> before the past +participle of any verb; as, "I <i>have gone</i>" (present perfect), +"I <i>had gone</i>" (past perfect), "I <i>shall have gone</i>" +(future perfect).</p> +<p>(3) The <i>definite form</i> of each tense, by using auxiliaries +with the imperfect participle active; as, "I <i>am running</i>," +"They <i>had been running</i>."</p> +<p>(4) The <i>passive forms</i>, by using the forms of the verb +<i>be</i> before the past participle of verbs; as, "I <i>was +chosen</i>," "You <i>are chosen</i>."</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>243.</b></span> The following scheme will +show how rich our language is in verb phrases to express every +variety of meaning. Only the third person, singular number, of each +tense, will be given.</p> +<h3>ACTIVE VOICE.</h3> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='2'><b>Indicative Mood.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He chooses.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He is choosing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He chose.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He was choosing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Future.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He will choose.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Future definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He will he choosing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present perfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He has chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He has been choosing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past perfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He had chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He had been choosing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Future perfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He will have chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Future perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He will have been choosing.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154"></a></p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='3'><b>Subjunctive Mood.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present.</i></td> +<td align='left'>[If, though, lest, etc.]</td> +<td align='left'>he choose.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present definite.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>he be choosing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>he chose (or were to choose).</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past definite.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>he were choosing (or were to be choosing).</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present perfect.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>he have chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>he have been choosing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past perfect.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>Same as indicative.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>Same as indicative.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='3'><b>Imperative Mood.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present.</i></td> +<td align='left'>(2d per.)</td> +<td align='left'>Choose.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present definite.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>Be choosing.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>NOTE.—Since participles and infinitives are not really +verbs, but verbals, they will be discussed later (Sec. 262).</p> +<h3>PASSIVE VOICE.</h3> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='2'><b>Indicative Mood.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He is chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He is being chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He was chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He was being chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Future.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He will be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Future definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>None.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present perfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He has been chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>None.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past perfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He had been chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>None.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Future perfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>He will have been chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Future perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>None.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='3'><b>Subjunctive Mood.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present.</i>.</td> +<td align='left'>[If, though, lest, etc.]</td> +<td align='left'>he be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present definite.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>None.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>he were chosen (or were to be chosen).</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past definite.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>he were being chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present perfect.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>he have been chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>None.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past Perfect.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>he had been chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Past perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='center'>"</td> +<td align='left'>None.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='3'><b>Imperative Mood.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present tense.</i></td> +<td align='left'>(2d per.)</td> +<td align='left'>Be chosen.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>Also, in <i>affirmative sentences</i>, the indicative present +and past tenses have emphatic forms made up of <i>do</i> and +<i>did</i> with the infinitive or simple form; as, "He <i>does +strike</i>," "He <i>did strike</i>."</p> +<p>[<i>Note to Teacher</i>.—This table is not to be learned +now; if learned at all, it should be as practice work on strong and +weak verb forms. Exercises should be given, however, to bring up +sentences containing such of these conjugation forms as the pupil +will find readily in literature.]</p> +<h3>VERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FORM.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Kinds.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>244.</b></span> According to form, verbs are +<b>strong</b> or <b>weak</b>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p>A <b>strong verb</b> forms its past tense by changing the vowel +of the present tense form, but adds no ending; as, <i>run</i>, +<i>ran</i>; <i>drive</i>, <i>drove</i>.</p> +<p>A <b>weak verb</b> always adds an ending to the present to form +the past tense, and <i>may</i> or <i>may not</i> change the vowel: +as, <i>beg</i>, <i>begged</i>; <i>lay</i>, <i>laid</i>; +<i>sleep</i>, <i>slept</i>; <i>catch</i>, <i>caught</i>.</p> +<p><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155"></a><span class= +"sn"><b>245.</b></span> TABLE OF STRONG VERBS.</p> +<p>NOTE. Some of these also have weak forms, which are in +parentheses</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present Tense.</i></td> +<td align='left'><i>Past Tense.</i></td> +<td align='left'><i>Past Participle.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>abide</td> +<td align='left'>abode</td> +<td align='left'>abode</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>arise</td> +<td align='left'>arose</td> +<td align='left'>arisen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>awake</td> +<td align='left'>awoke (awaked)</td> +<td align='left'>awoke (awaked)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>bear</td> +<td align='left'>bore</td> +<td align='left'>borne (active)born (passive)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>begin</td> +<td align='left'>began</td> +<td align='left'>begun</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>behold</td> +<td align='left'>beheld</td> +<td align='left'>beheld</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>bid</td> +<td align='left'>bade, bid</td> +<td align='left'>bidden, bid</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>bind</td> +<td align='left'>bound</td> +<td align='left'>bound,[<i>adj.</i> bounden]</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>bite</td> +<td align='left'>bit</td> +<td align='left'>bitten, bit</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>blow</td> +<td align='left'>blew</td> +<td align='left'>blown</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>break</td> +<td align='left'>broke</td> +<td align='left'>broken</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>chide</td> +<td align='left'>chid</td> +<td align='left'>chidden, chid</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>choose</td> +<td align='left'>chose</td> +<td align='left'>chosen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>cleave</td> +<td align='left'>clove, clave (cleft)</td> +<td align='left'>cloven (cleft)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>climb</td> +<td align='left'>[clomb] climbed</td> +<td align='left'>climbed</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>cling</td> +<td align='left'>clung</td> +<td align='left'>clung</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>come</td> +<td align='left'>came</td> +<td align='left'>come</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>crow</td> +<td align='left'>crew (crowed)</td> +<td align='left'>(crowed)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>dig</td> +<td align='left'>dug</td> +<td align='left'>dug</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>do</td> +<td align='left'>did</td> +<td align='left'>done</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>draw</td> +<td align='left'>drew</td> +<td align='left'>drawn</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>drink</td> +<td align='left'>drank</td> +<td align='left'>drunk, drank[<i>adj.</i> drunken]</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>drive</td> +<td align='left'>drove</td> +<td align='left'>driven</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>eat</td> +<td align='left'>ate, eat</td> +<td align='left'>eaten, eat</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>fall</td> +<td align='left'>fell</td> +<td align='left'>fallen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>fight</td> +<td align='left'>fought</td> +<td align='left'>fought</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>find</td> +<td align='left'>found</td> +<td align='left'>found</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>fling</td> +<td align='left'>flung</td> +<td align='left'>flung</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>fly</td> +<td align='left'>flew</td> +<td align='left'>flown</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>forbear</td> +<td align='left'>forbore</td> +<td align='left'>forborne</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>forget</td> +<td align='left'>forgot</td> +<td align='left'>forgotten</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>forsake</td> +<td align='left'>forsook</td> +<td align='left'>forsaken</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>freeze</td> +<td align='left'>froze</td> +<td align='left'>frozen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>get</td> +<td align='left'>got</td> +<td align='left'>got [gotten]</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>give</td> +<td align='left'>gave</td> +<td align='left'>given</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>go</td> +<td align='left'>went</td> +<td align='left'>gone</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>grind</td> +<td align='left'>ground</td> +<td align='left'>ground</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>grow</td> +<td align='left'>grew</td> +<td align='left'>grown</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>hang</td> +<td align='left'>hung (hanged)</td> +<td align='left'>hung (hanged)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>hold</td> +<td align='left'>held</td> +<td align='left'>held</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>know</td> +<td align='left'>knew</td> +<td align='left'>known</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>lie</td> +<td align='left'>lay</td> +<td align='left'>lain</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>ride</td> +<td align='left'>rode</td> +<td align='left'>ridden</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>ring</td> +<td align='left'>rang</td> +<td align='left'>rung</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>run</td> +<td align='left'>ran</td> +<td align='left'>run</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>see</td> +<td align='left'>saw</td> +<td align='left'>seen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>shake</td> +<td align='left'>shook</td> +<td align='left'>shaken</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>shear</td> +<td align='left'>shore (sheared)</td> +<td align='left'>shorn (sheared)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>shine</td> +<td align='left'>shone</td> +<td align='left'>shone</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>shoot</td> +<td align='left'>shot</td> +<td align='left'>shot</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>shrink</td> +<td align='left'>shrank or shrunk</td> +<td align='left'>shrunk</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>shrive</td> +<td align='left'>shrove</td> +<td align='left'>shriven</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>sing</td> +<td align='left'>sang or sung</td> +<td align='left'>sung</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>sink</td> +<td align='left'>sank or sunk</td> +<td align='left'>sunk <i>[adj.</i> sunken]</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>sit</td> +<td align='left'>sat [sate]</td> +<td align='left'>sat</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>slay</td> +<td align='left'>slew</td> +<td align='left'>slain</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>slide</td> +<td align='left'>slid</td> +<td align='left'>slidden, slid</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>sling</td> +<td align='left'>slung</td> +<td align='left'>slung</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>slink</td> +<td align='left'>slunk</td> +<td align='left'>slunk</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>smite</td> +<td align='left'>smote</td> +<td align='left'>smitten</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>speak</td> +<td align='left'>spoke</td> +<td align='left'>spoken</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>spin</td> +<td align='left'>spun</td> +<td align='left'>spun</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>spring</td> +<td align='left'>sprang, sprung</td> +<td align='left'>sprung</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>stand</td> +<td align='left'>stood</td> +<td align='left'>stood</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>stave</td> +<td align='left'>stove (staved)</td> +<td align='left'>(staved)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>steal</td> +<td align='left'>stole</td> +<td align='left'>stolen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>stick</td> +<td align='left'>stuck</td> +<td align='left'>stuck</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>sting</td> +<td align='left'>stung</td> +<td align='left'>stung</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>stink</td> +<td align='left'>stunk, stank</td> +<td align='left'>stunk</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>stride</td> +<td align='left'>strode</td> +<td align='left'>stridden</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>strike</td> +<td align='left'>struck</td> +<td align='left'>struck, stricken</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>string</td> +<td align='left'>strung</td> +<td align='left'>strung</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>strive</td> +<td align='left'>strove</td> +<td align='left'>striven</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>swear</td> +<td align='left'>swore</td> +<td align='left'>sworn</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>swim</td> +<td align='left'>swam or swum</td> +<td align='left'>swum</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>swing</td> +<td align='left'>swung</td> +<td align='left'>swung</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>take</td> +<td align='left'>took</td> +<td align='left'>taken</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>tear</td> +<td align='left'>tore</td> +<td align='left'>torn</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>thrive</td> +<td align='left'>throve (thrived)</td> +<td align='left'>thriven (thrived)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>throw</td> +<td align='left'>threw</td> +<td align='left'>thrown</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>tread</td> +<td align='left'>trod</td> +<td align='left'>trodden, trod</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>wear</td> +<td align='left'>wore</td> +<td align='left'>worn</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>weave</td> +<td align='left'>wove</td> +<td align='left'>woven</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>win</td> +<td align='left'>won</td> +<td align='left'>won</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>wind</td> +<td align='left'>wound</td> +<td align='left'>wound</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>wring</td> +<td align='left'>wrung</td> +<td align='left'>wrung</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>write</td> +<td align='left'>wrote</td> +<td align='left'>written</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157"></a></div> +<h3>Remarks on Certain Verb Forms.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>246.</b></span> Several of the perfect +participles are seldom used except as adjectives: as, "his +<i>bounden</i> duty," "the <i>cloven</i> hoof," "a <i>drunken</i> +wretch," "a <i>sunken</i> snag." <i>Stricken</i> is used mostly of +diseases; as, "<i>stricken</i> with paralysis."</p> +<p>The verb <b>bear</b> (to bring forth) is peculiar in having one +participle (<i>borne</i>) for the active, and another (<i>born</i>) +for the passive. When it means <i>to carry</i> or to <i>endure</i>, +<i>borne</i> is also a passive.</p> +<p>The form <b>clomb</b> is not used in prose, but is much used in +vulgar English, and sometimes occurs in poetry; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Thou hast <i>clomb</i> aloft.<span class= +"smcap">—Wordsworth</span></p> +<p>Or pine grove whither woodman never <i>clomb</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158"></a>The forms of <b>cleave</b> +are really a mixture of two verbs,—one meaning <i>to +adhere</i> or <i>cling</i>; the other, <i>to split</i>. The former +used to be <i>cleave</i>, <i>cleaved</i>, <i>cleaved</i>; and the +latter, <i>cleave</i>, <i>clave</i> or <i>clove</i>, <i>cloven</i>. +But the latter took on the weak form <i>cleft</i> in the past tense +and past participle,—as (from Shakespeare), "O Hamlet! thou +hast <i>cleft</i> my heart in twain,"—while <i>cleave</i> (to +cling) sometimes has <i>clove</i>, as (from Holmes), "The old Latin +tutor <i>clove</i> to Virgilius Maro." In this confusion of usage, +only one set remains certain,—<i>cleave</i>, <i>cleft</i>, +<i>cleft</i> (to split).</p> +<p><b>Crew</b> is seldom found in present-day English.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Not a cock <i>crew</i>, nor a dog barked.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>Our cock, which always <i>crew</i> at eleven, now told us it was +time for repose.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Historically, <b>drunk</b> is the one correct past participle of +the verb <i>drink</i>. But <i>drunk</i> is very much used as an +adjective, instead of <i>drunken</i> (meaning intoxicated); and, +probably to avoid confusion with this, <b>drank</b> is a good deal +used as a past participle: thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We had each <i>drank</i> three times at the +well.—<span class="smcap">B. Taylor</span>.</p> +<p>This liquor <i>was</i> generally <i>drank</i> by Wood and +Billings. <span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Sometimes in literary English, especially in that of an earlier +period, it is found that the verb <b>eat</b> has the past tense and +past participle <i>eat</i> (ĕt), instead of <i>ate</i> and +<i>eaten</i>; as, for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It ate the food it ne'er had <i>eat</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge.</span></p> +<p>How fairy Mab the junkets <i>eat</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Milton.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The island princes overbold<br /></span> +<span>Have <i>eat</i> our substance.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Tennyson.</span></div> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159"></a>This is also very much used +in spoken and vulgar English.</p> +<p>The form <b>gotten</b> is little used, <i>got</i> being the +preferred form of past participle as well as past tense. One +example out of many is,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We <i>had</i> all <i>got</i> safe on shore.<span class= +"smcap">—De Foe.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Hung</b> and <b>hanged</b> both are used as the past tense +and past participle of <i>hang</i>; but <i>hanged</i> is the +preferred form when we speak of execution by hanging; as,</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The butler <i>was hanged</i>.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Bible.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>The verb <b>sat</b> is sometimes spelled <i>sate</i>; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Might we have <i>sate</i> and talked where gowans +blow.<span class="smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></p> +<p>He <i>sate</i> him down, and seized a pen.<span class= +"smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p>"But I <i>sate</i> still and finished my plaiting."<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Usually <b>shear</b> is a weak verb. <i>Shorn</i> and +<i>shore</i> are not commonly used: indeed, <i>shore</i> is rare, +even in poetry.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>This heard Geraint, and grasping at his +sword,<br /></span> <span><i>Shore</i> thro' the swarthy +neck.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Tennyson.</span></div> +</div> +<p><i>Shorn</i> is used sometimes as a participial adjective, as "a +<i>shorn</i> lamb," but not much as a participle. We usually say, +"The sheep were <i>sheared</i>" instead of "The sheep were +<i>shorn</i>."</p> +<p><b>Went</b> is borrowed as the past tense of <i>go</i> from the +old verb <i>wend</i>, which is seldom used except in poetry; for +example,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>If, maiden, thou would'st <i>wend</i> +with me<br /></span> <span>To leave both tower and +town.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></div> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160"></a><b>Exercises.</b></p> +<p>(<i>a</i>) From the table (Sec. 245), make out lists of verbs +having the same vowel changes as each of the following:—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>1. Fall, fell, fallen.</li> +<li>2. Begin, began, begun.</li> +<li>3. Find, found, found.</li> +<li>4. Give, gave, given.</li> +<li>5. Drive, drove, driven.</li> +<li>6. Throw, threw, thrown.</li> +<li>7. Fling, flung, flung.</li> +<li>8. Break, broke, broken.</li> +<li>9. Shake, shook, shaken.</li> +<li>10. Freeze, froze, frozen.</li> +</ul> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Find sentences using ten past-tense forms of strong +verbs.</p> +<p>(<i>c</i>) Find sentences using ten past participles of strong +verbs.</p> +<p>[<i>To the Teacher</i>,—These exercises should be +continued for several lessons, for full drill on the forms.]</p> +<h3>DEFECTIVE STRONG VERBS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>247.</b></span> There are several verbs +which are lacking in one or more principal parts. They are as +follows:—</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left'>PRESENT.</td> +<td align='left'>PAST.</td> +<td align='left'>PRESENT.</td> +<td align='left'>PAST.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>may</td> +<td align='left'>might</td> +<td align='left'>[ought]</td> +<td align='left'>ought</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>can</td> +<td align='left'>could</td> +<td align='left'>shall</td> +<td align='left'>should</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>[must]</td> +<td align='left'>must</td> +<td align='left'>will</td> +<td align='left'>would</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><span class="sn"><b>248.</b></span> May is used as either +indicative or subjunctive, as it has two meanings. It is indicative +when it expresses <i>permission</i>, or, as it sometimes does, +<i>ability</i>, like the word <i>can</i>: it is subjunctive when it +expresses doubt as to the reality of an action, or when it +expresses wish, purpose, etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_161" id= +"Page_161"></a><i>Indicative Use: Permission. Ability.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If I <i>may</i> lightly employ the Miltonic figure, "far off his +coming shines."<span class="smcap">—Winier.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>A stripling arm <i>might</i> +sway<br /></span> <span>A mass no host could raise.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>His superiority none <i>might</i> question.<span class= +"smcap">—Channing.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Subjunctive use.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>In whatever manner the separate parts of a constitution +<i>may</i> be arranged, there is one general principle, +etc.<span class="smcap">—Paine.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">(<i>See also Sec. 223.</i>)</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And from her fair and unpolluted +flesh<br /></span> <span><i>May</i> violets spring!<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></div> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>249.</b></span> <b>Can</b> is used in the +indicative only. The <i>l</i> in <i>could</i> did not belong there +originally, but came through analogy with <i>should</i> and +<i>would</i>. <i>Could</i> may be subjunctive, as in Sec. 220.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>250.</b></span> <b>Must</b> is historically +a past-tense form, from the obsolete verb <i>motan</i>, which +survives in the sentence, "So <i>mote</i> it be." <i>Must</i> is +present or past tense, according to the infinitive used.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>All <i>must concede</i> to him a sublime power of +action.<span class="smcap">—Channing</span></p> +<p>This, of course, <i>must have been</i> an ocular +deception.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>251.</b></span> The same remarks apply to +<b>ought</b>, which is historically the past tense of the verb +<i>owe</i>. Like <i>must</i>, it is used only in the indicative +mood; as,</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The just imputations on our own faith <i>ought</i> first <i>to +be removed</i>.... Have we valuable territories and important +posts...which <i>ought</i> long since <i>to have been +surrendered</i>?—<span class="smcap">A. Hamilton.</span></p> +</div> +<p>It will be noticed that all the other defective verbs take the +pure infinitive without <i>to</i>, while <i>ought</i> always has +<i>to</i>.</p> +<h3><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162"></a><b>Shall and +Will.</b></h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>252.</b></span> The principal trouble in the +use of <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i> is the disposition, especially +in the United States, to use <i>will</i> and <i>would</i>, to the +neglect of <i>shall</i> and <i>should</i>, with pronouns of the +first person; as, "I think I <i>will</i> go."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Uses of</i> shall <i>and</i> should.</div> +<p>The following distinctions must be observed:—</p> +<p>(1) With the FIRST PERSON, shall and should are used,—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Futurity and questions—first +person.</i></div> +<p>(<i>a</i>) In making simple statements or predictions about +future time; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The time will come full soon, I <i>shall</i> be +gone.—<span class="smcap">L. C. Moulton</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) In questions asking for orders, or implying +obligation or authority resting upon the subject; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>With respect to novels, what <i>shall</i> I +say?—<span class="smcap">N. Webster</span>.</p> +<p>How <i>shall</i> I describe the luster which at that moment +burst upon my vision?—<span class="smcap">C. Brockden +Brown</span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Second and third persons.</i></div> +<p>(2) With the SECOND AND THIRD PERSONS, <i>shall</i> and +<i>should</i> are used,—</p> +<p>(<i>a</i>) To express authority, in the form of command, +promise, or confident prediction. The following are +examples:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Never mind, my lad, whilst I live thou <i>shalt</i> never want a +friend to stand by thee.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>They <i>shall</i> have venison to eat, and corn to +hoe.<span class="smcap">—Cooper.</span></p> +<p>The sea <i>shall</i> crush thee; yea, the ponderous wave up the +loose beach <i>shall</i> grind and scoop thy grave.<span class= +"smcap">—Thaxter.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>She <i>should</i> not walk, he said, +through the dust and heat of<br /></span> <span>the +noonday;<br /></span> <span>Nay, she <i>should</i> ride like a +queen, not plod along like a<br /></span> +<span>peasant.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Longfellow.</span></div> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163"></a>(<i>b</i>) In <i>indirect +quotations</i>, to express the same idea that the original speaker +put forth (i.e., future action); for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He declares that he <i>shall</i> win the purse from +you.<span class="smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p>She rejects his suit with scorn, but assures him that she +<i>shall</i> make great use of her power over him.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>Fielding came up more and more bland and smiling, with the +conviction that he <i>should</i> win in the end.—<span class= +"smcap">A. Larned</span>.</p> +<p>Those who had too presumptuously concluded that they +<i>should</i> pass without combat were something +disconcerted.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>c</i>) With <i>direct questions</i> of the second person, +when the answer expected would express simple futurity; +thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"<i>Should</i> you like to go to school at +Canterbury?"<span class="smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>First, second and third persons.</i></div> +<p>(3) With ALL THREE PERSONS,—</p> +<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Should</i> is used with the meaning of obligation, +and is equivalent to <i>ought</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I never was what I <i>should</i> be.—<span class= +"smcap">H. James, Jr</span>.</p> +<p>Milton! thou <i>should'st</i> be living at this +hour.<span class="smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></p> +<p>He <i>should</i> not flatter himself with the delusion that he +can make or unmake the reputation of other men.<span class= +"smcap">—Winter.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Shall</i> and <i>should</i> are both used in +<i>dependent clauses</i> of condition, time, purpose, etc.; for +example,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i6">When thy mind<br /></span> +<span><i>Shall</i> be a mansion for all stately forms.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Suppose this back-door gossip <i>should</i> be utterly +blundering and untrue, would any one wonder?<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>Jealous lest the sky <i>should</i> have a listener.<span class= +"smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p>If thou <i>should'st</i> ever come by chance or choice to +Modena.<span class="smcap">—Rogers.</span><a name="Page_164" +id="Page_164"></a></p> +<p>If I <i>should</i> be where I no more can hear thy +voice.<span class="smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></p> +<p>That accents and looks so winning <i>should</i> disarm me of my +resolution, was to be expected.—<span class="smcap">C. B. +Brown</span>.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>253.</b></span> <b>Will</b> and <b>would</b> +are used as follows:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Authority as to future action—first +person.</i></div> +<p>(1) With the FIRST PERSON, <i>will</i> and <i>would</i> are used +to express determination as to the future, or a promise; as, for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I <i>will</i> go myself now, and <i>will</i> not return until +all is finished.<span class="smcap">—Cable.</span></p> +<p>And promised...that I <i>would</i> do him justice, as the sole +inventor.<span class="smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Disguising a command.</i></div> +<p>(2) With the SECOND PERSON, <i>will</i> is used to express +command. This puts the order more mildly, as if it were merely +expected action; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Thou <i>wilt</i> take the skiff, Roland, and two of my +people,... and fetch off certain plate and belongings.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>You <i>will</i> proceed to Manassas at as early a moment as +practicable, and mark on the grounds the works, etc.—<i>War +Records.</i></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Mere futurity.</i></div> +<p>(3) With both SECOND AND THIRD PERSONS, <i>will</i> and +<i>would</i> are used to express simple futurity, action merely +expected to occur; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>All this <i>will</i> sound wild and chimerical.<span class= +"smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p>She <i>would</i> tell you that punishment is the reward of the +wicked.<span class="smcap">—Landor.</span></p> +<p>When I am in town, <i>you'll</i> always have somebody to sit +with you. To be sure, so you <i>will</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) With FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD PERSONS, <i>would</i> is used +to express a <i>wish</i>,—the original meaning of the word +<i>will</i>; for example,—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Subject</i> I <i>omitted: often +so.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Would</i> that a momentary emanation from thy glory would +visit me!—<span class="smcap">C. B. Brown</span>.<a name= +"Page_165" id="Page_165"></a></p> +<p>Thine was a dangerous gift, when thou wast born, The gift of +Beauty. <i>Would</i> thou hadst it not.<span class= +"smcap">—Rogers</span></p> +<p>It shall be gold if thou <i>wilt</i>, but thou shalt answer to +me for the use of it.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>What <i>wouldst</i> thou have a good great man +obtain?<span class="smcap">—Coleridge.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(5) With the THIRD PERSON, <i>will</i> and <i>would</i> often +denote an action as customary, without regard to future time; +as,</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>They <i>will</i> go to Sunday schools, through storms their +brothers are afraid of.... They <i>will</i> stand behind a table at +a fair all day.<span class="smcap">—Holmes</span></p> +<p>On a slight suspicion, they <i>would</i> cut off the hands of +numbers of the natives, for punishment or intimidation.<span class= +"smcap">—Bancroft.</span></p> +<p>In this stately chair <i>would</i> he sit, and this magnificent +pipe <i>would</i> he smoke, shaking his right knee with a constant +motion.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>Conjugation of <i>Shall</i> and <i>Will</i> as Auxiliaries +(with <i>Choose</i>).</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>254.</b></span> To express simply expected +action:—</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left'>ACTIVE VOICE.</td> +<td align='left'>PASSIVE VOICE.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Singular</i>.</td> +<td align='left'><i>Singular</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>1. I shall choose.</td> +<td align='left'>I shall be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>2. You will choose.</td> +<td align='left'>You will be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>3. [He] will choose.</td> +<td align='left'>[He] will be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Plural</i>.</td> +<td align='left'><i>Plural</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>1. We shall choose.</td> +<td align='left'>We shall be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>2. You will choose.</td> +<td align='left'>You will be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>3. [They] will choose.</td> +<td align='left'>[They] will be chosen.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>To express determination, promise, etc.:—<a name= +"Page_166" id="Page_166"></a></p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left'>ACTIVE VOICE.</td> +<td align='left'>PASSIVE VOICE.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Singular</i>.</td> +<td align='left'><i>Singular</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>1. I will choose.</td> +<td align='left'>I will be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>2. You shall choose.</td> +<td align='left'>You shall be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>3. [He] shall choose.</td> +<td align='left'>[He] shall be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Plural</i>.</td> +<td align='left'><i>Plural</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>1. We will choose.</td> +<td align='left'>1. We will be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>2. You shall choose.</td> +<td align='left'>2. You shall be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>3. [They] shall choose.</td> +<td align='left'>3. [They] shall be chosen.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3>Exercises on <i>Shall</i> and <i>Will</i>.</h3> +<p>(<i>a</i>) From Secs. 252 and 253, write out a summary or +outline of the various uses of <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>.</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Examine the following sentences, and justify the use +of <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>, or correct them if wrongly +used:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Thou art what I would be, yet only seem.</p> +<p>2. We would be greatly mistaken if we thought so.</p> +<p>3. Thou shalt have a suit, and that of the newest cut; the +wardrobe keeper shall have orders to supply you.</p> +<p>4. "I shall not run," answered Herbert stubbornly.</p> +<p>5. He informed us, that in the course of another day's march we +would reach the prairies on the banks of the Grand Canadian.</p> +<p>6. What shall we do with him? This is the sphinx-like riddle +which we must solve if we would not be eaten.</p> +<p>7. Will not our national character be greatly injured? Will we +not be classed with the robbers and destroyers of mankind?</p> +<p>8. Lucy stood still, very anxious, and wondering whether she +should see anything alive.</p> +<p>9. I would be overpowered by the feeling of my disgrace.</p> +<p>10. No, my son; whatever cash I send you is yours: you will +spend it as you please, and I have nothing to say.</p> +<p>11. But I will doubtless find some English person of whom to +make inquiries.</p> +<p>12. Without having attended to this, we will be at a loss to +understand several passages in the classics.</p> +<p>13. "I am a wayfarer," the stranger said, "and would like +permission to remain with you a little while."</p> +<p>14. The beast made a sluggish movement, then, as if he would +have more of the enchantment, stirred her slightly with his +muzzle.</p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167"></a><b>WEAK VERBS.</b></p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>255.</b></span> Those weak verbs which add +<i>-d</i> or <i>-ed</i> to form the past tense and past participle, +and have no change of vowel, are so easily recognized as to need no +special treatment. Some of them are already given as secondary +forms of the strong verbs.</p> +<p>But the rest, which may be called <b>irregular weak verbs</b>, +need some attention and explanation.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>256.</b></span> The irregular weak verbs are +divided into two classes,—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The two classes of irregular weak +verbs.</i></div> +<p>(1) Those which retain the <i>-d</i> or <i>-t</i> in the past +tense, with some change of form for the past tense and past +participle.</p> +<p>(2) Those which end in <i>-d</i> or <i>-t</i>, and have lost the +ending which formerly was added to this.</p> +<p>The old ending to verbs of Class II. was <i>-de</i> or +<i>-te</i>; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>This worthi man ful wel his wit <i>bisette</i> +[used].<span class="smcap">—Chaucer.</span></p> +<p>Of smale houndes <i>hadde</i> she, that sche <i>fedde</i> With +rosted flessh, or mylk and wastel breed.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>This ending has now dropped off, leaving some weak verbs with +the same form throughout: as set, set, set; put, put, put.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>257.</b></span> <b>Irregular Weak +Verbs.—Class I.</b></p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present Tense</i>.</td> +<td align='left'><i>Past Tense</i>.</td> +<td align='left'><i>Past Participle</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>bereave</td> +<td align='left'>bereft, bereave</td> +<td align='left'>bereft, bereaved</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>beseech</td> +<td align='left'>besought</td> +<td align='left'>besought</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>burn</td> +<td align='left'>burned, burnt</td> +<td align='left'>burnt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>buy</td> +<td align='left'>bought</td> +<td align='left'>bought</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>catch</td> +<td align='left'>caught</td> +<td align='left'>caught</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>creep</td> +<td align='left'>crept</td> +<td align='left'>crept</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>deal</td> +<td align='left'>dealt</td> +<td align='left'>dealt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>dream</td> +<td align='left'>dreamt, dreamed</td> +<td align='left'>dreamt, dreamed</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>dwell</td> +<td align='left'>dwelt</td> +<td align='left'>dwelt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>feel</td> +<td align='left'>felt</td> +<td align='left'>felt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>flee</td> +<td align='left'>fled</td> +<td align='left'>fled</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>have</td> +<td align='left'>had</td> +<td align='left'>had (<i>once</i> haved)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>hide</td> +<td align='left'>hid</td> +<td align='left'>hidden, hid</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>keep</td> +<td align='left'>kept</td> +<td align='left'>kept</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>kneel</td> +<td align='left'>knelt</td> +<td align='left'>knelt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>lay</td> +<td align='left'>laid</td> +<td align='left'>laid</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>lean</td> +<td align='left'>leaned, leant</td> +<td align='left'>leaned, leant</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>leap</td> +<td align='left'>leaped, leapt</td> +<td align='left'>leaped, leapt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>leave</td> +<td align='left'>left</td> +<td align='left'>left</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>lose</td> +<td align='left'>lost</td> +<td align='left'>lost</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>make</td> +<td align='left'>made (<i>once</i> maked)</td> +<td align='left'>made</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>mean</td> +<td align='left'>meant</td> +<td align='left'>meant</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>pay</td> +<td align='left'>paid</td> +<td align='left'>paid</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>pen [inclose]</td> +<td align='left'>penned, pen</td> +<td align='left'>penned, pent</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>say</td> +<td align='left'>said</td> +<td align='left'>said</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>seek</td> +<td align='left'>sought</td> +<td align='left'>sought</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>sell</td> +<td align='left'>sold</td> +<td align='left'>sold</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>shoe</td> +<td align='left'>shod</td> +<td align='left'>shod</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>sleep</td> +<td align='left'>slept</td> +<td align='left'>slept</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>spell</td> +<td align='left'>spelled, spelt</td> +<td align='left'>spelt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>spill</td> +<td align='left'>spilt</td> +<td align='left'>spilt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>stay</td> +<td align='left'>staid, stayed</td> +<td align='left'>staid, stayed</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>sweep</td> +<td align='left'>swept</td> +<td align='left'>swept</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>teach</td> +<td align='left'>taught</td> +<td align='left'>taught</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>tell</td> +<td align='left'>told</td> +<td align='left'>told</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>think</td> +<td align='left'>thought</td> +<td align='left'>thought</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>weep</td> +<td align='left'>wept</td> +<td align='left'>wept</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>work</td> +<td align='left'>worked, wrought</td> +<td align='left'>worked, wrought</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169"></a></p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>258.</b></span> <b>Irregular Weak +Verbs.—Class II.</b></p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present Tense</i>.</td> +<td align='left'><i>Past Tense</i>.</td> +<td align='left'><i>Past Participle</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>bend</td> +<td align='left'>bent, bended</td> +<td align='left'>bent, bended</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>bleed</td> +<td align='left'>bled</td> +<td align='left'>bled</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>breed</td> +<td align='left'>bred</td> +<td align='left'>bred</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>build</td> +<td align='left'>built</td> +<td align='left'>built</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>cast</td> +<td align='left'>cast</td> +<td align='left'>cast</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>cost</td> +<td align='left'>cost</td> +<td align='left'>cost</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>feed</td> +<td align='left'>fed</td> +<td align='left'>fed</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>gild</td> +<td align='left'>gilded, gilt</td> +<td align='left'>gilded, gilt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>gird</td> +<td align='left'>girt, girded</td> +<td align='left'>girt, girded</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>hit</td> +<td align='left'>hit</td> +<td align='left'>hit</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>hurt</td> +<td align='left'>hurt</td> +<td align='left'>hurt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>knit</td> +<td align='left'>knit, knitted</td> +<td align='left'>knit, knitted</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>lead</td> +<td align='left'>led</td> +<td align='left'>led</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>let</td> +<td align='left'>let</td> +<td align='left'>let</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>light</td> +<td align='left'>lighted, lit</td> +<td align='left'>lighted, lit</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>meet</td> +<td align='left'>met</td> +<td align='left'>met</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>put</td> +<td align='left'>put</td> +<td align='left'>put</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>quit</td> +<td align='left'>quit, quitted</td> +<td align='left'>quit, quitted</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>read</td> +<td align='left'>read</td> +<td align='left'>read</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>rend</td> +<td align='left'>rent</td> +<td align='left'>rent</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>rid</td> +<td align='left'>rid</td> +<td align='left'>rid</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>send</td> +<td align='left'>sent</td> +<td align='left'>sent</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>set</td> +<td align='left'>set</td> +<td align='left'>set</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>shed</td> +<td align='left'>shed</td> +<td align='left'>shed</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>shred</td> +<td align='left'>shred</td> +<td align='left'>shred</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>shut</td> +<td align='left'>shut</td> +<td align='left'>shut</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>slit</td> +<td align='left'>slit</td> +<td align='left'>slit</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>speed</td> +<td align='left'>sped</td> +<td align='left'>sped</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>spend</td> +<td align='left'>spent</td> +<td align='left'>spent</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>spit</td> +<td align='left'>spit [<i>obs.</i> spat]</td> +<td align='left'>spit [<i>obs.</i> spat]</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>split</td> +<td align='left'>split</td> +<td align='left'>split</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>spread</td> +<td align='left'>spread</td> +<td align='left'>spread</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>sweat</td> +<td align='left'>sweat</td> +<td align='left'>sweat</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>thrust</td> +<td align='left'>thrust</td> +<td align='left'>thrust</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>wed</td> +<td align='left'>wed, wedded</td> +<td align='left'>wed, wedded</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>wet</td> +<td align='left'>wet, wetted</td> +<td align='left'>wet, wetted</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Tendency to phonetic spelling.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>250.</b></span> There seems to be in Modern +English a growing tendency toward phonetic spelling in the past +tense and past participle of weak verbs. For <a name="Page_170" id= +"Page_170"></a>example, <i>-ed</i>, after the verb <i>bless</i>, +has the sound of <i>t</i>: hence the word is often written +<i>blest</i>. So with <i>dipt</i>, <i>whipt</i>, <i>dropt</i>, +<i>tost</i>, <i>crost</i>, <i>drest</i>, <i>prest</i>, etc. This is +often seen in poetry, and is increasing in prose.</p> +<h3>Some Troublesome Verbs.</h3> +<div class="sidenote">Lie <i>and</i> lay <i>in use and +meaning.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>260.</b></span> Some sets of verbs are often +confused by young students, weak forms being substituted for +correct, strong forms.</p> +<p><b>Lie</b> and <b>lay</b> need close attention. These are the +forms:—</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present Tense.</i></td> +<td align='left'><i>Past Tense.</i></td> +<td align='left'><i>Pres. Participle.</i></td> +<td align='left'><i>Past Participle.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>1. Lie</td> +<td align='left'>lay</td> +<td align='left'>lying</td> +<td align='left'>lain</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>2. Lay</td> +<td align='left'>laid</td> +<td align='left'>laying</td> +<td align='left'>laid</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>The distinctions to be observed are as follows:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Lie</i>, with its forms, is regularly <i>intransitive</i> +as to use. As to meaning, <i>lie</i> means to rest, to recline, to +place one's self in a recumbent position; as, "There <i>lies</i> +the ruin."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Lay</i>, with its forms, is always <i>transitive</i> as +to use. As to meaning, <i>lay</i> means to put, to place a person +or thing in position; as, "Slowly and sadly we <i>laid</i> him +down." Also <i>lay</i> may be used without any object expressed, +but there is still a transitive meaning; as in the expressions, "to +<i>lay</i> up for future use," "to <i>lay</i> on with the rod," "to +<i>lay</i> about him lustily."</p> +<div class="sidenote">Sit <i>and</i> set.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>261.</b></span> <b>Sit</b> and <b>set</b> +have principal parts as follows:—</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Present Tense.</i></td> +<td align='left'><i>Past Tense.</i></td> +<td align='left'><i>Pres. Participle.</i></td> +<td align='left'><i>Past Participle.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>1. Sit</td> +<td align='left'>sat</td> +<td align='left'>sitting</td> +<td align='left'>sat</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>2. Set</td> +<td align='left'>set</td> +<td align='left'>setting</td> +<td align='left'>set</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171"></a>Notice these points of +difference between the two verbs:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Sit</i>, with its forms, is always <i>intransitive</i> in +use. In meaning, <i>sit</i> signifies (<i>a</i>) to place one's +self on a seat, to rest; (<i>b</i>) to be adjusted, to fit; +(<i>c</i>) to cover and warm eggs for hatching, as, "The hen +<i>sits</i>."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Set</i>, with its forms, is always <i>transitive</i> in +use when it has the following meanings: (<i>a</i>) to put or place +a thing or person in position, as "He <i>set</i> down the book;" +(<i>b</i>) to fix or establish, as, "He <i>sets</i> a good +example."</p> +<p><i>Set</i> is <i>intransitive</i> when it means (<i>a</i>) to go +down, to decline, as, "The sun has <i>set</i>;" (<i>b</i>) to +become fixed or rigid, as, "His eyes <i>set</i> in his head because +of the disease;" (<i>c</i>) in certain idiomatic expressions, as, +for example, "to <i>set</i> out," "to <i>set</i> up in business," +"to <i>set</i> about a thing," "to <i>set</i> to work," "to +<i>set</i> forward," "the tide <i>sets</i> in," "a strong wind +<i>set</i> in," etc.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Examine the forms of <i>lie</i>, <i>lay</i>, <i>sit</i> and +<i>set</i> in these sentences; give the meaning of each, and +correct those used wrongly.</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. If the phenomena which lie before him will not suit his +purpose, all history must be ransacked.</p> +<p>2. He sat with his eyes fixed partly on the ghost and partly on +Hamlet, and with his mouth open.</p> +<p>3. The days when his favorite volume set him upon making +wheelbarrows and chairs,... can never again be the realities they +were.</p> +<p>4. To make the jacket sit yet more closely to the body, it was +gathered at the middle by a broad leathern belt.</p> +<p>5. He had set up no unattainable standard of perfection.</p> +<p><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172"></a>6. For more than two +hundred years his bones lay undistinguished.</p> +<p>7. The author laid the whole fault on the audience.</p> +<p>8. Dapple had to lay down on all fours before the lads could +bestride him.</p> +<p>9.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And send'st him...to his gods where happy +lies<br /></span> <span>His petty hope in some near port or +bay,<br /></span> <span>And dashest him again to earth:—there +let him lay.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>10. Achilles is the swift-footed when he is sitting still.</p> +<p>11. It may be laid down as a general rule, that history begins +in novel, and ends in essay.</p> +<p>12. I never took off my clothes, but laid down in them.</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="VERBALS" id="VERBALS"></a><b>VERBALS.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>262.</b></span> <b>Verbals</b> are words +that express action in a general way, without limiting the action +to any time, or asserting it of any subject.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Kinds.</i></div> +<p>Verbals may be <b>participles</b>, <b>infinitives</b>, or +<b>gerunds</b>.</p> +<h3>PARTICIPLES.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>263.</b></span> Participles are +<i>adjectival</i> verbals; that is, they either belong to some +substantive by expressing action in connection with it, or they +express action, and directly modify a substantive, thus having a +descriptive force. Notice these functions.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Pure participle in function.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. At length, <i>wearied</i> by his cries and agitations, and +not <i>knowing</i> how to put an end to them, he addressed the +animal as if he had been a rational being.<span class= +"smcap">—Dwight.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Here <i>wearied</i> and <i>knowing</i> belong to the subject +<i>he</i>, and express action in connection with it, but do not +describe.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_173" id= +"Page_173"></a><i>Express action and also describe.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>2. Another name glided into her petition—it was that of +the <i>wounded</i> Christian, whom fate had placed in the hands of +bloodthirsty men, his <i>avowed</i> enemies.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Here <i>wounded</i> and <i>avowed</i> are participles, but are +used with the same adjectival force that <i>bloodthirsty</i> is +(see Sec. 143, 4).</p> +<p>Participial adjectives have been discussed in Sec. 143 (4), but +we give further examples for the sake of comparison and +distinction.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Fossil participles as +adjectives.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>3. As <i>learned</i> a man may live in a cottage or a college +commmon-room.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray</span></p> +<p>4. Not merely to the soldier are these campaigns +<i>interesting</i> <span class="smcap">—Bayne.</span></p> +<p>5. How <i>charming</i> is divine philosophy!<span class= +"smcap">—Milton.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Forms of the participle.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>264.</b></span> Participles, in expressing +action, may be <b>active</b> or <b>passive</b>, incomplete (or +<b>imperfect</b>), complete (<b>perfect</b> or past), and +<b>perfect definite</b>.</p> +<p>They cannot be divided into tenses (present, past, etc.), +because they have no tense of their own, but derive their tense +from the verb on which they depend; for example,—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. He walked conscientiously through the services of the day, +<i>fulfilling</i> every section the minutest, etc.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<p><i>Fulfilling</i> has the form to denote continuance, but +depends on the verb <i>walked</i>, which is past tense.</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;">2. +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Now the bright morning star, day's +harbinger,<br /></span> <span>Comes <i>dancing</i> from the +East.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Milton.</span></div> +</div> +</div> +<p><i>Dancing</i> here depends on a verb in the present tense.</p> +<p><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174"></a><span class= +"sn"><b>265.</b></span> <b>PARTICIPLES OF THE VERB +<i>CHOOSE</i>.</b></p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left' colspan='2'>ACTIVE VOICE.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Imperfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>Choosing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Perfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>Having chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>Having been choosing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left' colspan='2'>PASSIVE VOICE.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Imperfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>None</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Perfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>Chosen, being chosen, having been chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>None.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Pick out the participles, and tell whether active or passive, +imperfect, perfect, or perfect definite. If pure participles, tell +to what word they belong; if adjectives, tell what words they +modify.</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. The change is a large process, accomplished within a large +and corresponding space, having, perhaps, some central or +equatorial line, but lying, like that of our earth, between certain +tropics, or limits widely separated.</p> +<p>2. I had fallen under medical advice the most misleading that it +is possible to imagine.</p> +<p>3. These views, being adopted in a great measure from my mother, +were naturally the same as my mother's.</p> +<p>4. Endowed with a great command over herself, she soon obtained +an uncontrolled ascendency over her people.</p> +<p>5. No spectacle was more adapted to excite wonder.</p> +<p>6. Having fully supplied the demands of nature in this respect, +I returned to reflection on my situation.</p> +<p>7. Three saplings, stripped of their branches and bound together +at their ends, formed a kind of bedstead.</p> +<p>8. This all-pervading principle is at work in our +system,—the creature warring against the creating power.</p> +<p>9. Perhaps I was too saucy and provoking.</p> +<p>10. Nothing of the kind having been done, and the principles of +this unfortunate king having been distorted,... try clemency.</p> +</div> +<h3>INFINITIVES.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>266.</b></span> <b>Infinitives</b>, like +participles, have no tense. When active, they have an indefinite, +an imperfect, <a name="Page_175" id="Page_175"></a>a perfect, and a +perfect definite form; and when passive, an indefinite and a +perfect form, to express action unconnected with a subject.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>267.</b></span> INFINITIVES OF THE VERB +<i>CHOOSE.</i></p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left' colspan='2'>ACTIVE VOICE.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Indefinite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>[To] choose.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Imperfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>[To] be choosing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Perfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>[To] have chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Perfect definite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>[To] have been choosing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left' colspan='2'>PASSIVE VOICE.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Indefinite.</i></td> +<td align='left'>[To] be chosen.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Perfect.</i></td> +<td align='left'>[To] have been chosen.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div class="sidenote">To <i>with the infinitive.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>268.</b></span> In Sec. 267 the word +<i>to</i> is printed in brackets because it is not a necessary part +of the infinitive.</p> +<p>It originally belonged only to an inflected form of the +infinitive, expressing purpose; as in the Old English, "Ūt +ēode se sǣdere his sæd tō sāwenne" (Out +went the sower his seed <i>to sow</i>).</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Cases when</i> to <i>is omitted.</i></div> +<p>But later, when inflections became fewer, <i>to</i> was used +before the infinitive generally, except in the following +cases:—</p> +<p>(1) After the auxiliaries <i>shall</i>, <i>will</i> (with +<i>should</i> and <i>would</i>).</p> +<p>(2) After the verbs <i>may (might), can (could), must</i>; also +<i>let</i>, <i>make</i>, <i>do</i> (as, "I <i>do go</i>" etc.), +<i>see</i>, <i>bid</i> (command), <i>feel</i>, <i>hear</i>, +<i>watch</i>, <i>please</i>; sometimes <i>need</i> (as, "He +<i>need</i> not <i>go</i>") and <i>dare</i> (to venture).</p> +<p>(3) After <i>had</i> in the idiomatic use; as, "You <i>had</i> +better <i>go</i>" "He <i>had</i> rather <i>walk</i> than +<i>ride</i>."</p> +<p>(4) In exclamations; as in the following examples:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"He <i>find</i> pleasure in doing good!" cried Sir +William.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span><a name= +"Page_176" id="Page_176"></a></p> +<p>I <i>urge</i> an address to his kinswoman! I <i>approach</i> her +when in a base disguise! I <i>do</i> this!<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>"She <i>ask</i> my pardon, poor woman!" cried +Charles.<span class="smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>269.</b></span> <i>Shall</i> and <i>will</i> +are not to be taken as separate verbs, but with the infinitive as +one tense of a verb; as, "He <i>will choose</i>," "I <i>shall have +chosen</i>," etc.</p> +<p>Also <i>do</i> may be considered an auxiliary in the +interrogative, negative, and emphatic forms of the present and +past, also in the imperative; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>What! <i>doth</i> she, too, as the credulous imagine, +<i>learn</i> [<i>doth learn</i> is one verb, present tense] the +love of the great stars? <span class= +"smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p><i>Do</i> not <i>entertain</i> so weak an +imagination<span class="smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p>She <i>did</i> not <i>weep</i>—she <i>did</i> not <i>break +forth</i> into reproaches.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>270.</b></span> The infinitive is sometimes +active in form while it is passive in meaning, as in the +expression, "a house <i>to let</i>." Examples are,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>She was a kind, liberal woman; rich rather more than needed +where there were no opera boxes <i>to rent</i>.—<span class= +"smcap">De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>Tho' it seems my spurs are yet <i>to win</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Tennyson.</span></p> +<p>But there was nothing <i>to do</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Howells.</span></p> +<p>They shall have venison <i>to eat</i>, and corn <i>to +hoe</i>.<span class="smcap">—Cooper.</span></p> +<p>Nolan himself saw that something was <i>to +pay</i>.—<span class="smcap">E. E. Hale</span>.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>271.</b></span> The various offices which +the infinitive and the participle have in the sentence will be +treated in Part II., under "Analysis," as we are now learning +merely to recognize the forms.</p> +<h3>GERUNDS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>272.</b></span> The gerund is like the +participle in form, and like a noun in use.</p> +<p>The participle has been called an adjectival ver<a name= +"Page_177" id="Page_177"></a>bal; the gerund may be called a +<i>noun verbal</i>. While the gerund expresses action, it has +several attributes of a noun,—it may be governed as a noun; +it may be the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or a +preposition; it is often preceded by the definite article; it is +frequently modified by a possessive noun or pronoun.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Distinguished from participle and verbal +noun.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>273.</b></span> It differs from the +participle in being always used as a noun: it never belongs to or +limits a noun.</p> +<p>It differs from the verbal noun in having the property of +governing a noun (which the verbal noun has not) and of expressing +action (the verbal noun merely names an action, Sec. II).</p> +<p>The following are examples of the uses of the gerund:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Subject</i>: "The <i>taking</i> of means not to see +another morning had all day absorbed every energy;" "Certainly +<i>dueling</i> is bad, and has been put down."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Object</i>: (<i>a</i>) "Our culture therefore must not +omit the <i>arming</i> of the man." (<i>b</i>) "Nobody cares for +<i>planting</i> the poor fungus;" "I announce the good of <i>being +interpenetrated</i> by the mind that made nature;" "The guilt of +<i>having been cured</i> of the palsy by a Jewish maiden."</p> +<p>(3) <i>Governing and Governed</i>: "We are far from <i>having +exhausted</i> the significance of the few symbols we use," also (2, +<i>b</i>), above; "He could embellish the characters with new +traits without <i>violating</i> probability;" "He could not help +<i>holding</i> out his hand in return."</p> +<p><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178"></a><b>Exercise.</b>—Find +sentences containing five participles, five infinitives, and five +gerunds.</p> +<h3>SUMMARY OF WORDS IN <i>-ING</i></h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>274.</b></span> Words in <b>-ing</b> are of +six kinds, according to use as well as meaning. They are as +follows:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Part of the verb</i>, making the definite tenses.</p> +<p>(2) <i>Pure participles</i>, which express action, but do not +assert.</p> +<p>(3) <i>Participial adjectives</i>, which express action and also +modify.</p> +<p>(4) <i>Pure adjectives</i>, which have lost all verbal +force.</p> +<p>(5) <i>Gerunds</i>, which express action, may govern and be +governed.</p> +<p>(6) <i>Verbal nouns,</i> which name an action or state, but +cannot govern.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Tell to which of the above six classes each <i>-ing</i> word in +the following sentences belongs:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Here is need of apologies for shortcomings.</p> +<p>2. Then how pleasing is it, on your leaving the spot, to see the +returning hope of the parents, when, after examining the nest, they +find the nurslings untouched!</p> +<p>3. The crowning incident of my life was upon the bank of the +Scioto Salt Creek, in which I had been unhorsed by the breaking of +the saddle girths.</p> +<p>4. What a vast, brilliant, and wonderful store of learning!</p> +<p>5. He is one of the most charming masters of our language.</p> +<p>6. In explaining to a child the phenomena of nature, you must, +by object lessons, give reality to your teaching.</p> +<p>7. I suppose I was dreaming about it. What is dreaming?</p> +<p><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179"></a>8. It is years since I +heard the laughter ringing.</p> +<p>9. Intellect is not speaking and logicizing: it is seeing and +ascertaining.</p> +<p>10. We now draw toward the end of that great martial drama which +we have been briefly contemplating.</p> +<p>11. The second cause of failure was the burning of Moscow.</p> +<p>12. He spread his blessings all over the land.</p> +<p>13. The only means of ascending was by my hands.</p> +<p>14. A marble figure of Mary is stretched upon the tomb, round +which is an iron railing, much corroded, bearing her national +emblem.</p> +<p>15. The exertion left me in a state of languor and sinking.</p> +<p>16. Thackeray did not, like Sir Walter Scott, write twenty pages +without stopping, but, dictating from his chair, he gave out +sentence by sentence, slowly.</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="HOW_TO_PARSE_VERBS_AND_VERBALS" id= +"HOW_TO_PARSE_VERBS_AND_VERBALS"></a><b>HOW TO PARSE VERBS AND +VERBALS.</b></h2> +<h3>I. VERBS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>275.</b></span> In parsing verbs, give the +following points:—</p> +<p>(1) Class: (<i>a</i>) as to <i>form</i>,—strong or weak, +giving principal parts; (<i>b</i>) as to +<i>use</i>,—transitive or intransitive.</p> +<p>(2) Voice,—active or passive.</p> +<p>(3) Mood,—indicative, subjunctive, or imperative.</p> +<p>(4) Tense,—which of the tenses given in Sec. 234.</p> +<p>(5) Person and number, in determining which you must +tell—</p> +<p>(6) What the subject is, for the form of the verb may not show +the person and number.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_180" id= +"Page_180"></a><i>Caution.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>276.</b></span> It has been intimated in +Sec. 235, we must beware of the rule, "A verb agrees with its +subject in person and number." Sometimes it does; usually it does +not, if <i>agrees</i> means that the verb changes its form for the +different persons and numbers. The verb <i>be</i> has more forms +than other verbs, and may be said to <i>agree</i> with its subject +in several of its forms. But unless the verb is present, and ends +in <i>-s</i>, or is an old or poetic form ending in <i>-st</i> or +<i>-eth</i>, it is best for the student not to state it as a +general rule that "the verb agrees with its subject in person and +number," but merely to <i>tell what the subject of the verb +is</i>.</p> +<h3>II. VERB PHRASES.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>277.</b></span> Verb phrases are made up of +a principal verb followed by an infinitive, and should always be +analyzed as phrases, and not taken as single verbs. Especially +frequent are those made up of <i>should</i>, <i>would</i>, +<i>may</i>, <i>might</i>, <i>can</i>, <i>could</i>, <i>must</i>, +followed by a pure infinitive without <i>to</i>. Take these +examples:—</p> +<p>1. Lee <i>should</i> of himself <i>have replenished</i> his +stock.</p> +<p>2. The government <i>might have been</i> strong and +prosperous.</p> +<p>In such sentences as 1, call <i>should</i> a weak verb, +intransitive, therefore active; indicative, past tense; has for its +subject <i>Lee</i>. <i>Have replenished</i> is a perfect active +infinitive.</p> +<p>In 2, call <i>might</i> a weak verb, intransitive, active, +indicative (as it means could), past tense; has the subject +<i>government</i>. <i>Have been</i> is a perfect active +infinitive.</p> +<p>For fuller parsing of the infinitive, see Sec. 278(2).<a name= +"Page_181" id="Page_181"></a></p> +<h3>III. VERBALS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>278.</b></span> (1) <b>Participle.</b> Tell +(<i>a</i>) from what verb it is derived; (<i>b</i>) whether active +or passive, imperfect, perfect, etc.; (<i>c</i>) to what word it +belongs. If a participial adjective, give points (<i>a</i>) and +(<i>b</i>), then parse it as an adjective.</p> +<p>(2) <b>Infinitive.</b> Tell (<i>a</i>) from what verb it is +derived; (<i>b</i>) whether indefinite, perfect, definite, etc.</p> +<p>(3) <b>Gerund.</b> (<i>a</i>) From what verb derived; (<i>b</i>) +its use (Sec. 273).</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Parse the verbs, verbals, and verb phrases in the following +sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Byron builds a structure that repeats certain elements in +nature or humanity.</p> +<p>2. The birds were singing as if there were no aching hearts, no +sin nor sorrow, in the world.</p> +<p>3. Let it rise! let it rise, till it meet the sun in his coming; +let the earliest light of the morning gild it, and parting day +linger and play on its summit.</p> +<p>4. You are gathered to your fathers, and live only to your +country in her grateful remembrance.</p> +<p>5. Read this Declaration at the head of the army.</p> +<p>6.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Right graciously he smiled on us, as +rolled from wing to wing,<br /></span> <span>Down all the line, a +deafening shout, "God save our Lord the King!"<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>7. When he arose in the morning, he thought only of her, and +wondered if she were yet awake.</p> +<p>8. He had lost the quiet of his thoughts, and his agitated soul +reflected only broken and distorted images of things.</p> +<p>9.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>So, lest I be inclined<br /></span> +<span class="i2">To render ill for ill,<br /></span> +<span>Henceforth in me instill,<br /></span> <span class="i2">O +God, a sweet good will.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>10. The sun appears to beat in vain at the casements.</p> +<p><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182"></a>11. Margaret had come into +the workshop with her sewing, as usual.</p> +<p>12.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Two things there are with memory will +abide—<br /></span> <span>Whatever else befall—while +life flows by.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>13. To the child it was not permitted to look beyond into the +hazy lines that bounded his oasis of flowers.</p> +<p>14. With them, morning is not a new issuing of light, a new +bursting forth of the sun; a new waking up of all that has life, +from a sort of temporary death.</p> +<p>15. Whatever ground you sow or plant, see that it is in good +condition.</p> +<p>16. However that be, it is certain that he had grown to delight +in nothing else than this conversation.</p> +<p>17. The soul having been often born, or, as the Hindoos say, +"traveling the path of existence through thousands of births," +there is nothing of which she has not gained knowledge.</p> +<p>18. The ancients called it ecstasy or absence,—a +getting-out of their bodies to think.</p> +<p>19. Such a boy could not whistle or dance.</p> +<p>20. He had rather stand charged with the imbecility of +skepticism than with untruth.</p> +<p>21. He can behold with serenity the yawning gulf between the +ambition of man and his power of performance.</p> +<p>22. He passed across the room to the washstand, leaving me upon +the bed, where I afterward found he had replaced me on being +awakened by hearing me leap frantically up and down on the +floor.</p> +<p>23. In going for water, he seemed to be traveling over a desert +plain to some far-off spring.</p> +<p>24. Hasheesh always brings an awakening of perception which +magnifies the smallest sensation.</p> +<p>25. I have always talked to him as I would to a friend.</p> +<p>26. Over them multitudes of rosy children came leaping to throw +garlands on my victorious road.</p> +<p>27. Oh, had we some bright little isle of our own!</p> +<p>28.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Better it were, thou sayest, to +consent;<br /></span> <span>Feast while we may, and live ere life +be spent.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>29. And now wend we to yonder fountain, for the hour of rest is +at hand.<a name="Page_183" id="Page_183"></a></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="ADVERBS" id="ADVERBS"></a><b>ADVERBS.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Adverbs modify.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>279.</b></span> The word <i>adverb</i> means +<i>joined to a verb</i>. The adverb is the only word that can join +to a verb to modify it.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A verb.</i></div> +<p>When <b>action</b> is expressed, an adverb is usually added to +define the action in some way,—time, place, or manner: as, +"He began <i>already</i> to be proud of being a Rugby boy [time];" +"One of the young heroes scrambled up <i>behind</i> [place];" "He +was absolute, but <i>wisely</i> and <i>bravely</i> ruling +[manner]."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>An adjective or an adverb.</i></div> +<p>But this does not mean that adverbs modify verbs <i>only</i>: +many of them express degree, and limit <b>adjectives</b> or +<b>adverbs</b>; as, "William's private life was <i>severely</i> +pure;" "Principles of English law are put down <i>a little</i> +confusedly."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Sometimes a noun or pronoun.</i></div> +<p>Sometimes an adverb may modify <b>a noun or pronoun</b>; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The young man reveres men of genius, because, to speak truly, +they are <i>more</i> himself than he is.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>Is it <i>only</i> poets, and men of leisure and cultivation, who +live with nature?—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>To the <i>almost</i> terror of the persons present, Macaulay +began with the senior wrangler of 1801-2-3-4, and so +on.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>Nor was it <i>altogether</i> nothing.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>Sounds overflow the listener's brain So sweet that joy is +<i>almost</i> pain.<span class="smcap">—Shelley.</span></p> +<p>The condition of Kate is <i>exactly</i> that of Coleridge's +"Ancient Mariner."<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>He was <i>incidentally</i> news dealer.—<span class= +"smcap">T. B. Aldrich</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>NOTE.—These last differ from the words in Sec. 169, being +adverbs naturally and fitly, while those in Sec. 169 are <a name= +"Page_184" id="Page_184"></a>felt to be elliptical, and rather +forced into the service of adjectives.</p> +<p>Also these adverbs modifying nouns are to be distinguished from +those standing <i>after</i> a noun by ellipsis, but really +modifying, not the noun, but some verb understood; thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The gentle winds and waters [that are] near, Make music to the +lonely ear.<span class="smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p>With bowering leaves [that grow] <i>o'erhead</i>, to which the +eye Looked up half sweetly, and half awfully.<span class= +"smcap">—Leigh Hunt.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A phrase.</i></div> +<p>An adverb may modify a phrase which is equivalent to an +adjective or an adverb, as shown in the sentences,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>They had begun to make their effort much <i>at the same +time</i>.<span class="smcap">—Trollope.</span></p> +<p>I draw forth the fruit, all wet and glossy, maybe <i>nibbled by +rabbits and hollowed out by crickets</i>, and perhaps <i>with a +leaf or two cemented to it</i>, but still <i>with a rich bloom to +it</i>.<span class="smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A clause or sentence.</i></div> +<p>It may also modify <b>a sentence</b>, emphasizing or qualifying +the statement expressed; as, for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>And <i>certainly</i> no one ever entered upon office with so few +resources of power in the past.<span class= +"smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +<p><i>Surely</i> happiness is reflective, like the light of heaven. +<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>We are offered six months' credit; and that, <i>perhaps</i>, has +induced some of us to attend it.<span class= +"smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>280.</b></span> An <b>adverb</b>, then, is a +modifying word, which may qualify an action word or a statement, +and may add to the meaning of an adjective or adverb, or a word +group used as such.</p> +<p><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185"></a>NOTE.—The expression +<i>action word</i> is put instead of <i>verb</i>, because +<i>any</i> verbal word may be limited by an adverb, not simply the +forms used in predication.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>281.</b></span> Adverbs may be classified in +two ways: (1) according to the meaning of the words; (2) according +to their use in the sentence.</p> +<h3>ADVERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO MEANING.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>282.</b></span> Thus considered, there are +six classes:—</p> +<p>(1) <b>Time</b>; as <i>now</i>, <i>to-day</i>, <i>ever</i>, +<i>lately</i>, <i>before</i>, <i>hitherto</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(2) <b>Place.</b> These may be adverbs either of</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li> +<p>(<i>a</i>) PLACE WHERE; as +<i>here</i>,<i>there</i>,<i>where</i>,<i>near</i>,<i>yonder</i>, +<i>above</i>, etc.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>(<i>b</i>) PLACE TO WHICH; as +<i>hither</i>,<i>thither</i>,<i>whither</i>, <i>whithersoever</i>, +etc.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>(<i>c</i>) PLACE FROM WHICH; as +<i>hence</i>,<i>thence</i>,<i>whence</i>, <i>whencesoever</i>, +etc.</p> +</li> +</ul> +<p>(3) <b>Manner</b>, telling <i>how</i> anything is done; as +<i>well</i>, <i>slowly</i>, <i>better</i>, <i>bravely</i>, +<i>beautifully</i>. Action is conceived or performed in so many +ways, that these adverbs form a very large class.</p> +<p>(4) <b>Number</b>, telling <i>how many times</i>: <i>once</i>, +<i>twice</i>, <i>singly</i>, <i>two by two</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(5) <b>Degree</b>, telling <i>how much</i>; as <i>little</i>, +<i>slightly</i>, <i>too</i>, <i>partly</i>, <i>enough</i>, +<i>greatly</i>, <i>much</i>, <i>very</i>, <i>just</i>, etc. (see +also Sec. 283).</p> +<p>(6) <b>Assertion</b>, telling the speaker's belief or disbelief +in a statement, or how far he believes it to be true; as +<i>perhaps</i>, <i>maybe</i>, <i>surely</i>, <i>possibly</i>, +<i>probably</i>, <i>not</i>, etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_186" id= +"Page_186"></a><i>Special remarks on adverbs of degree.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>283.</b></span> <b>The</b> is an adverb of +degree when it limits an adjective or an adverb, especially the +comparative of these words; thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>But not <i>the</i> less the blare of the tumultuous organ +wrought its own separate creations.<span class="smcap">—De +Quincey.</span></p> +<p><i>The</i> more they multiply, <i>the</i> more friends you will +have; <i>the</i> more evidently they love liberty, <i>the</i> more +perfect will be their obedience.<span class= +"smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>This</b> and <b>that</b> are very common as adverbs in spoken +English, and not infrequently are found in literary English; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The master...was for <i>this</i> once of her opinion.—R. +LOUIS STEVENSON.</p> +<p>Death! To die! I owe <i>that</i> much To what, at least, I +was.<span class="smcap">—Browning.</span></p> +<p><i>This</i> long's the text.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +</div> +<p>[Sidenote <i>The status of such</i>.]</p> +<p><b>Such</b> is frequently used as an equivalent of <i>so</i>: +<i>such</i> precedes an adjective with its noun, while <i>so</i> +precedes only the adjective usually.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Meekness,...which gained him <i>such</i> universal +popularity.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p><i>Such</i> a glittering appearance that no ordinary man would +have been able to close his eyes there.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>An eye of <i>such</i> piercing brightness and <i>such</i> +commanding power that it gave an air of inspiration.<span class= +"smcap">—Lecky.</span></p> +</div> +<p>So also in Grote, Emerson, Thackeray, Motley, White, and +others.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Pretty.</i></div> +<p><b>Pretty</b> has a wider adverbial use than it gets credit +for.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I believe our astonishment is <i>pretty</i> equal.<span class= +"smcap">—Fielding.</span></p> +<p>Hard blows and hard money, the feel of both of which you know +<i>pretty</i> well by now.<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>The first of these generals is <i>pretty</i> generally +recognized as the greatest military genius that ever +lived.<span class="smcap">—Bayne.</span></p> +<p>A <i>pretty</i> large experience.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187"></a><i>Pretty</i> is also used +by Prescott, Franklin, De Quincey, Defoe, Dickens, Kingsley, Burke, +Emerson, Aldrich, Holmes, and other writers.</p> +<div class="sidenote">Mighty.</div> +<p>The adverb mighty is very common in colloquial English; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"<i>Mighty</i> well, Deacon Gookin!" replied the solemn tones of +the minister.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>"Maybe you're wanting to get over?—anybody sick? Ye seem +<i>mighty</i> anxious!"—<span class="smcap">H. B. +Stowe</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>It is only occasionally used in literary English; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>You are <i>mighty</i> courteous.<span class= +"smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p>Beau Fielding, a <i>mighty</i> fine gentleman.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>"Peace, Neville," said the king, "thou think'st thyself +<i>mighty</i> wise, and art but a fool."<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>I perceived his sisters <i>mighty</i> busy.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Notice meanings.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>284.</b></span> Again, the meaning of words +must be noticed rather than their form; for many words given above +may be moved from one class to another at will: as these +examples,—"He walked too <i>far</i> [place];" "That were +<i>far</i> better [degree];" "He spoke <i>positively</i> [manner];" +"That is <i>positively</i> untrue [assertion];" "I have seen you +<i>before</i> [time];" "The house, and its lawn <i>before</i> +[place]."</p> +<h3>ADVERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO USE.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Simple.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>285.</b></span> All adverbs which have no +function in the sentence except to modify are called <b>simple +adverbs</b>. Such are most of those given already in Sec. 282.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Interrogative.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>286.</b></span> Some adverbs, besides +modifying, have the additional function of asking a question.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_188" id= +"Page_188"></a><i>Direct questions.</i></div> +<p>These may introduce <b>direct</b> questions of—</p> +<p>(1) <b>Time.</b></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>When</i> did this humane custom begin?—<span class= +"smcap">H. Clay</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>(2) <b>Place.</b></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Where</i> will you have the scene?<span class= +"smcap">—Longfellow</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <b>Manner.</b></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>And <i>how</i> looks it now?<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <b>Degree.</b></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"<i>How</i> long have you had this whip?" asked he.<span class= +"smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(5) <b>Reason</b>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Why</i> that wild stare and wilder cry?<span class= +"smcap">—Whittier</span></p> +<p>Now <i>wherefore</i> stopp'st thou me?<span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Indirect questions.</i></div> +<p>Or they may introduce indirect questions of—</p> +<p>(1) <b>Time.</b></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I do not remember <i>when</i> I was taught to +read.—<span class="smcap">D. Webster</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>(2) <b>Place.</b></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I will not ask <i>where</i> thou liest low.<span class= +"smcap">—Byron</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <b>Manner.</b></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Who set you to cast about what you should say to the select +souls, or <i>how</i> to say anything to such?<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <b>Degree.</b></p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Being too full of sleep to +understand<br /></span> <span><i>How</i> far the unknown transcends +the what we know.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Longfellow</span></div> +</div> +<p>(5) <b>Reason.</b></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I hearkened, I know not <i>why</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Poe.</span></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>287.</b></span> There is a class of words +usually classed as <b>conjunctive adverbs</b>, as they are said to +have the office of conjunctions in joining clauses, while <a name= +"Page_189" id="Page_189"></a>having the office of adverbs in +modifying; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>When</i> last I saw thy young blue eyes, they +smiled.<span class="smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +</div> +<p>But in reality, <i>when</i> does not express time and modify, +but the whole clause, <i>when</i>...<i>eyes</i>; and <i>when</i> +has simply the use of a conjunction, not an adverb. For further +discussion, see Sec. 299 under "Subordinate Conjunctions."</p> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Bring up sentences containing twenty +adverbs, representing four classes.</p> +<h3>COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>288.</b></span> Many adverbs are compared, +and, when compared, have the same inflection as adjectives.</p> +<p>The following, irregularly compared, are often used as +adjectives:—</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td align='left'><i>Positive.</i></td> +<td align='left'><i>Comparative.</i></td> +<td align='left'><i>Superlative.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>well</td> +<td align='left'>better</td> +<td align='left'>best</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>ill or badly</td> +<td align='left'>worse</td> +<td align='left'>worst</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>much</td> +<td align='left'>more</td> +<td align='left'>most</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>little</td> +<td align='left'>less</td> +<td align='left'>least</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>nigh or near</td> +<td align='left'>nearer</td> +<td align='left'>nearest or next</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>far</td> +<td align='left'>farther, further</td> +<td align='left'>farthest, furthest</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>late</td> +<td align='left'>later</td> +<td align='left'>latest, last</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'>(rathe, <i>obs.</i>)</td> +<td align='left'>rather</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><span class="sn"><b>289.</b></span> Most monosyllabic adverbs +add <i>-er</i> and <i>-est</i> to form the comparative and +superlative, just as adjectives do; as, <i>high</i>, <i>higher</i>, +<i>highest</i>; <i>soon</i>, <i>sooner</i>, <i>soonest</i>.</p> +<p>Adverbs in <i>-ly</i> usually have <i>more</i> and <i>most</i> +instead of the inflected form, only occasionally having <i>-er</i> +and <i>-est</i>.<a name="Page_190" id="Page_190"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Its strings <i>boldlier</i> swept.<span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge.</span></p> +<p>None can deem <i>harshlier</i> of me than I deem.<span class= +"smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p>Only that we may <i>wiselier</i> see.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>Then must she keep it <i>safelier</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Tennyson.</span></p> +<p>I should <i>freelier</i> rejoice in that absence.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Form</i> vs. <i>use.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>290.</b></span> The fact that a word ends in +<i>-ly</i> does not make it an adverb. Many adjectives have the +same ending, and must be distinguished by their use in the +sentence.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Tell what each word in <i>ly</i> modifies, then whether it is an +adjective or an adverb.</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. It seems certain that the Normans were more cleanly in their +habits, more courtly in their manners.</p> +<p>2. It is true he was rarely heard to speak.</p> +<p>3. He would inhale the smoke slowly and tranquilly.</p> +<p>4. The perfectly heavenly law might be made law on earth.</p> +<p>5. The king winced when he saw his homely little bride.</p> +<p>6.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>With his proud, quick-flashing +eye,<br /></span> <span>And his mien of kingly +state.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>7.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And all about, a lovely sky of +blue<br /></span> <span>Clearly was felt, or down the leaves +laughed through.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>8. He is inexpressibly mean, curiously jolly, kindly and +good-natured in secret.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>291.</b></span> Again, many words without +<i>-ly</i> have the same form, whether adverbs or adjectives.</p> +<p>The reason is, that in Old and Middle English, adverbs derived +from adjectives had the ending <i>-e</i> as a distinguishing mark; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If men smoot it with a yerde <i>smerte</i> [If men smote it with +a rod smartly].<span class="smcap">—Chaucer.</span></p> +</div> +<p>This <i>e</i> dropping off left both words having the same +form.<a name="Page_191" id="Page_191"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Weeds were sure to grow <i>quicker</i> in his +fields.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>O <i>sweet</i> and <i>far</i> from cliff and scar The horns of +Elfland faintly blowing.<span class= +"smcap">—Tennyson.</span></p> +<p>But he must do his errand <i>right.</i><span class= +"smcap">—Drake</span></p> +<p><i>Long</i> she looked in his tiny face.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>Not <i>near</i> so black as he was painted.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<p>In some cases adverbs with <i>-ly</i> are used side by side with +those without <i>-ly</i>, but with a different meaning. Such are +<i>most</i>, <i>mostly</i>; <i>near</i>, <i>nearly</i>; +<i>even</i>, <i>evenly</i>; <i>hard</i>, <i>hardly</i>; etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Special use of</i> there.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>292.</b></span> Frequently the word +<b>there</b>, instead of being used adverbially, merely introduces +a sentence, and inverts the usual order of subject and +predicate.</p> +<p>This is such a fixed idiom that the sentence, if it has the verb +<i>be</i>, seems awkward or affected without this "<i>there</i> +introductory." Compare these:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. <i>There</i> are eyes, to be sure, that give no more +admission into the man than blueberries.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>2. Time was when field and watery cove With modulated echoes +rang.<span class="smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>HOW TO PARSE ADVERBS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>293.</b></span> <b>In parsing</b> adverbs, +give—</p> +<p>(1) The class, according to meaning and also use.</p> +<p>(2) Degree of comparison, if the word is compared.</p> +<p>(3) What word or word group it modifies.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Parse all the adverbs in the following sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Now the earth is so full that a drop overfills it.</p> +<p>2. The higher we rise in the scale of being, the more certainly +we quit the region of the brilliant eccentricities and dazzling +contrasts which belong to a vulgar greatness.</p> +<p><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192"></a>3.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>We sit in the warm shade and feel right +well<br /></span> <span>How the sap creeps up and blossoms +swell.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>4. Meanwhile the Protestants believed somewhat doubtfully that +he was theirs.</p> +<p>5. Whence else could arise the bruises which I had received, but +from my fall?</p> +<p>6. We somehow greedily gobble down all stories in which the +characters of our friends are chopped up.</p> +<p>7. How carefully that blessed day is marked in their little +calendars!</p> +<p>8. But a few steps farther on, at the regular wine-shop, the +Madonna is in great glory.</p> +<p>9. The foolish and the dead alone never change their +opinion.</p> +<p>10. It is the Cross that is first seen, and always, burning in +the center of the temple.</p> +<p>11. For the impracticable, however theoretically enticing, is +always politically unwise.</p> +<p>12. Whence come you? and whither are you bound?</p> +<p>13. How comes it that the evil which men say spreads so widely +and lasts so long, whilst our good kind words don't seem somehow to +take root and blossom?</p> +<p>14. At these carousals Alexander drank deep.</p> +<p>15. Perhaps he has been getting up a little architecture on the +road from Florence.</p> +<p>16. It is left you to find out why your ears are boxed.</p> +<p>17. Thither we went, and sate down on the steps of a house.</p> +<p>18. He could never fix which side of the garden walk would suit +him best, but continually shifted.</p> +<p>19. But now the wind rose again, and the stern drifted in toward +the bank.</p> +<p>20. He caught the scent of wild thyme in the air, and found room +to wonder how it could have got there.</p> +<p>21. They were soon launched on the princely bosom of the Thames, +upon which the sun now shone forth.</p> +<p>22. Why should we suppose that conscientious motives, feeble as +they are constantly found to be in a good cause, should be +omnipotent for evil?</p> +<p>24. It was pretty bad after that, and but for Polly's outdoor +exercise, she would undoubtedly have succumbed.<a name="Page_193" +id="Page_193"></a></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CONJUNCTIONS" id= +"CONJUNCTIONS"></a><b>CONJUNCTIONS.</b></h2> +<p><span class="sn"><b>294.</b></span> Unlike adverbs, conjunctions +do not modify: they are used solely for the purpose of +connecting.</p> +<p>Examples of the use of conjunctions:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>They connect</i> words.</div> +<p>(1) <i>Connecting words</i>: "It is the very necessity +<i>and</i> condition of existence;" "What a simple <i>but</i> +exquisite illustration!"</p> +<div class="sidenote">Word groups: <i>Phrases.</i></div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Clauses.</i></div> +<p>(2) <i>Connecting word groups</i>: "Hitherto the two systems +have existed in different States, <i>but</i> side by side within +the American Union;" "This has happened <i>because</i> the Union is +a confederation of States."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Sentences.</i></div> +<p>(3) <i>Connecting sentences</i>: "Unanimity in this case can +mean only a very large majority. <i>But</i> even unanimity itself +is far from indicating the voice of God."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Paragraphs.</i></div> +<p>(4) <i>Connecting sentence groups</i>: Paragraphs would be too +long to quote here, but the student will readily find them, in +which the writer connects the divisions of narration or argument by +such words as <i>but</i>, <i>however</i>, <i>hence</i>, <i>nor</i>, +<i>then</i>, <i>therefore</i>, etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>295.</b></span> A <b>conjunction</b> is a +linking word, connecting words, word groups, sentences, or sentence +groups.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Classes of conjunctions.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>296.</b></span> Conjunctions have two +principal divisions:—</p> +<p>(1) <b>Coördinate</b>, joining words, word groups, etc., of +the <i>same rank</i>.</p> +<p>(2) <b>Subordinate</b>, joining a subordinate or dependent +clause to a principal or independent clause.<a name="Page_194" id= +"Page_194"></a></p> +<h3>COÖRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>297.</b></span> Coördinate conjunctions +are of four kinds:</p> +<p>(1) COPULATIVE, coupling or uniting words and expressions in the +same line of thought; as <i>and</i>, <i>also</i>, <i>as well +as</i>, <i>moreover</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(2) ADVERSATIVE, connecting words and expressions that are +opposite in thought; as <i>but</i>, <i>yet</i>, <i>still</i>, +<i>however</i>, <i>while</i>, <i>only</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(3) CAUSAL, introducing a reason or cause. The chief ones are, +<i>for</i>, <i>therefore</i>, <i>hence</i>, <i>then</i>.</p> +<p>(4) ALTERNATIVE, expressing a choice, usually between two +things. They are <i>or</i>, <i>either</i>, <i>else</i>, <i>nor</i>, +<i>neither</i>, <i>whether</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Correlatives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>298.</b></span> Some of these go in pairs, +answering to each other in the same sentence; as, +<i>both</i>...<i>and</i>; <i>not only</i>...<i>but</i> (or <i>but +also</i>); <i>either</i>...<i>or</i>; <i>whether</i>...<i>or</i>; +<i>neither</i>...<i>nor</i>; <i>whether</i>...<i>or +whether</i>.</p> +<p>Some go in threes; as, <i>not only</i>...<i>but</i>... +<i>and</i>; <i>either</i>...<i>or</i>...<i>or</i>; +<i>neither</i>...<i>nor</i>... <i>nor</i>.</p> +<p>Further examples of the use of coördinate +conjunctions:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Copulative.</i></div> +<p>Your letter, <i>likewise</i>, had its weight; the bread was +spent, the butter <i>too</i>; the window being open, <i>as well +as</i> the room door.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Adversative.</i></div> +<p>The assertion, <i>however</i>, serves but to show their +ignorance. "Can this be so?" said Goodman Brown. "<i>Howbeit</i>, I +have nothing to do with the governor and council."</p> +<p><i>Nevertheless</i>, in this mansion of gloom I now proposed to +myself a sojourn of some weeks.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_195" id= +"Page_195"></a><i>Alternative.</i></div> +<p>While the earth bears a plant, <i>or</i> the sea rolls its +waves.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span><i>Nor</i> mark'd they less, where in the +air<br /></span> <span>A thousand streamers flaunted +fair.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Causal.</i></div> +<p><i>Therefore</i> the poet is not any permissive potentate, but +is emperor in his own right. <i>For</i> it is the rule of the +universe that corn shall serve man, and not man corn.</p> +<p>Examples of the use of correlatives:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He began to doubt whether <i>both</i> he <i>and</i> the world +around him were not bewitched.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>He is <i>not only</i> bold and vociferous, <i>but</i> possesses +a considerable talent for mimicry, <i>and</i> seems to enjoy great +satisfaction in mocking and teasing other birds.<span class= +"smcap">—Wilson.</span></p> +<p>It is...the same <i>whether</i> I move my hand along the surface +of a body, <i>or whether</i> such a body is moved along my +hand.<span class="smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p><i>Neither</i> the place in which he found himself, <i>nor</i> +the exclusive attention that he attracted, disturbed the +self-possession of the young Mohican.<span class= +"smcap">—Cooper.</span></p> +<p><i>Neither</i> was there any phantom memorial of life, +<i>nor</i> wing of bird, <i>nor</i> echo, <i>nor</i> green leaf, +<i>nor</i> creeping thing, that moved or stirred upon the soundless +waste.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>299.</b></span> Subordinate conjunctions are +of the following kinds:—</p> +<p>(1) PLACE: <i>where</i>, <i>wherever</i>, <i>whither</i>, +<i>whereto</i>, <i>whithersoever</i>, <i>whence</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(2) TIME: <i>when</i>, <i>before</i>, <i>after</i>, +<i>since</i>, <i>as</i>, <i>until</i>, <i>whenever</i>, +<i>while</i>, <i>ere</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(3) MANNER: <i>how</i>, <i>as</i>, <i>however</i>, +<i>howsoever</i>.</p> +<p>(4) CAUSE or REASON: <i>because</i>, <i>since</i>, <i>as</i>, +<i>now</i>, <i>whereas</i>, <i>that</i>, <i>seeing</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(5) COMPARISON: <i>than</i> and <i>as</i>.</p> +<p>(6) PURPOSE: <i>that</i>, <i>so</i>, <i>so that</i>, <i>in order +that</i>, <i>lest</i>, <i>so</i>...<i>as</i>.</p> +<p><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196"></a>(7) RESULT: <i>that</i>, +<i>so that</i>, especially <i>that</i> after <i>so</i>.</p> +<p>(8) CONDITION or CONCESSION: <i>if</i>, <i>unless</i>, +<i>so</i>, <i>except</i>, <i>though</i>, <i>although</i>; <i>even +if</i>, <i>provided</i>, <i>provided that</i>, <i>in case</i>, +<i>on condition that</i>, etc.</p> +<p>(9) SUBSTANTIVE: <i>that</i>, <i>whether</i>, sometimes +<i>if</i>, are used frequently to introduce noun clauses used as +<i>subject, object, in apposition</i>, etc.</p> +<p>Examples of the use of subordinate conjunctions:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Place.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Where the treasure is, there will the heart be +also.—<span class="smcap"><i>Bible.</i></span></p> +<p>To lead from eighteen to twenty millions of men +<i>whithersoever</i> they will.—<span class="smcap">J. +Quincy</span>.</p> +<p>An artist will delight in excellence <i>wherever</i> he meets +it. <span class="smcap">—Allston.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Time.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I promise to devote myself to your happiness <i>whenever</i> you +shall ask it of me.<span class="smcap">—Paulding.</span></p> +<p>It is sixteen years <i>since</i> I saw the Queen of +France.<span class="smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Manner.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Let the world go <i>how</i> it will.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle</span></p> +<p>Events proceed, not <i>as</i> they were expected or intended, +but <i>as</i> they are impelled by the irresistible +laws.<span class="smcap">—Ames.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Cause, reason.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I see no reason <i>why</i> I should not have the same +thought.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Then Denmark blest our +chief,<br /></span> <span><i>That</i> he gave her wounds +repose.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Campbell.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span><i>Now</i> he is dead, his martyrdom will +reap<br /></span> <span>Late harvests of the palms he should have +had in life.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—H. H. +Jackson.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Sparing neither whip nor spur, <i>seeing that</i> he carried the +vindication of his patron's fame in his saddlebags.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Comparison.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>As a soldier, he was more solicitous to avoid mistakes +<i>than</i> to perform exploits that are brilliant.<span class= +"smcap">—Ames.</span></p> +<p>All the subsequent experience of our race had gone over him with +as little permanent effect <i>as</i> [<i>as</i> follows the +semi-adverbs <i>as</i> and <i>so</i> in expressing comparison] the +passing breeze.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Purpose.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We wish for a thousand heads, a thousand bodies, <i>that</i> we +might celebrate its immense beauty.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_197" id= +"Page_197"></a><i>Result.</i></div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>So many thoughts moved to and +fro,<br /></span> <span><i>That</i> vain it were her eyes to +close.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I was again covered with water, but not so long <i>but</i> I +held it out.<span class="smcap">—Defoe.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Condition.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A ridicule which is of no import <i>unless</i> the scholar heed +it.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>There flowers or weeds at will may +grow,<br /></span> <span><i>So</i> I behold them not.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Byron.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Concession</i>.</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>What <i>though</i> the radiance which was +once so bright<br /></span> <span>Be now forever taken from my +sight.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Substantive.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It seems a pity <i>that</i> we can only spend it +once.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>We do not believe <i>that</i> he left any worthy man his foe who +had ever been his friend.<span class= +"smcap">—Ames.</span></p> +<p>Let us see <i>whether</i> the greatest, the wisest, the +purest-hearted of all ages are agreed in any wise on this +point.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>Who can tell <i>if</i> Washington be a great man or +no?<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>300.</b></span> As will have been noticed, +some words—for example, <i>since</i>, <i>while</i>, +<i>as</i>, <i>that</i>, etc.—may belong to several classes of +conjunctions, according to their meaning and connection in the +sentence.</p> +<h4>Exercises.</h4> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Bring up sentences containing five examples of +coördinate conjunctions.</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Bring up sentences containing three examples of +correlatives.</p> +<p>(<i>c</i>) Bring up sentences containing ten subordinate +conjunctions.</p> +<p>(<i>d</i>) Tell whether the italicized words in the following +sentences are conjunctions or adverbs; classify them if +conjunctions:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. <i>Yet</i> these were often exhibited throughout our +city.</p> +<p>2. No one had <i>yet</i> caught his character.</p> +<p>3. <i>After</i> he was gone, the lady called her servant.</p> +<p>4. And they lived happily forever <i>after</i>.</p> +<p>5. They, <i>however</i>, hold a subordinate rank.</p> +<p><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198"></a>6. <i>However</i> ambitious +a woman may be to command admiration abroad, her real merit is +known at home.</p> +<p>7. <i>Whence</i> else could arise the bruises which I had +received?</p> +<p>8. He was brought up for the church, <i>whence</i> he was +occasionally called the Dominie.</p> +<p>9. And <i>then</i> recovering, she faintly pressed her hand.</p> +<p>10. In what point of view, <i>then</i>, is war not to be +regarded with horror?</p> +<p>11. The moth fly, <i>as</i> he shot in air, Crept under the +leaf, and hid her there.</p> +<p>12. Besides, <i>as</i> the rulers of a nation are <i>as</i> +liable <i>as</i> other people to be governed by passion and +prejudice, there is little prospect of justice in permitting +war.</p> +<p>13. <i>While</i> a faction is a minority, it will remain +harmless.</p> +<p>14. <i>While</i> patriotism glowed in his heart, wisdom blended +in his speech her authority with her charms.</p> +<p>15. <i>Hence</i> it is highly important that the custom of war +should be abolished.</p> +<p>16. The raft and the money had been thrown near her, none of the +lashings having given way; <i>only</i> what is the use of a guinea +amongst tangle and sea gulls?</p> +<p>17. <i>Only</i> let his thoughts be of equal scope, and the +frame will suit the picture.</p> +</div> +<h3>SPECIAL REMARKS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote">As if.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>301.</b></span> <i>As if</i> is often used +as one conjunction of manner, but really there is an ellipsis +between the two words; thus,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i8">But thy soft +murmuring<br /></span> <span>Sounds sweet <i>as if</i> a sister's +voice reproved.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Byron.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>If analyzed, the expression would be, "sounds sweet <i>as</i> +[the sound would be] <i>if</i> a sister's voice reproved;" +<i>as</i>, in this case, expressing degree if taken separately.</p> +<p>But the ellipsis seems to be lost sight of fre<a name="Page_199" +id="Page_199"></a>quently in writing, as is shown by the use of +<i>as though</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote">As though.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>302.</b></span> In Emerson's sentence, "We +meet, and part <i>as though</i> we parted not," it cannot be said +that there is an ellipsis: it cannot mean "we part <i>as</i> [we +should part] <i>though</i>" etc.</p> +<p>Consequently, <i>as if</i> and <i>as though</i> may be taken as +double conjunctions expressing manner. <i>As though</i> seems to be +in as wide use as the conjunction <i>as if</i>; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Do you know a farmer who acts and lives <i>as though</i> he +believed one word of this?<span class="smcap">—H. +Greeley.</span></p> +<p>His voice ... sounded <i>as though</i> it came out of a +barrel.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Blinded alike from sunshine and from +rain,<br /></span> <span><i>As though</i> a rose should shut, and +be a bud again.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Keats</span></div> +</div> +<p>Examples might be quoted from almost all authors.</p> +<div class="sidenote">As <i>for</i> as if.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>303.</b></span> In poetry, <i>as</i> is +often equivalent to <i>as if</i>.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And their orbs grew strangely +dreary,<br /></span> <span>Clouded, even <i>as</i> they would +weep.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Emily +Bronte.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>So silently we seemed to +speak,<br /></span> <span class="i4">So slowly moved +about,<br /></span> <span><i>As</i> we had lent her half our +powers<br /></span> <span class="i4">To eke her living +out.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Hood.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p><b>HOW TO PARSE CONJUNCTIONS</b>.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>304.</b></span> In parsing conjunctions, +tell—</p> +<p>(1) To what class and subclass they belong.</p> +<p>(2) What words, word groups, etc., they connect.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Caution</i>.</div> +<p>In classifying them, particular attention must <a name= +"Page_200" id="Page_200"></a>be paid to the <i>meaning</i> of the +word. Some conjunctions, such as <i>nor, and, because, when</i>, +etc., are regularly of one particular class; others belong to +several classes. For example, compare the sentences,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. It continued raining, <i>so</i> that I could not stir +abroad.<span class="smcap">—Defoe</span></p> +<p>2. There will be an agreement in whatever variety of actions, +<i>so</i> they be each honest and natural in their +hour.<span class="smcap">—Emerson</span></p> +<p>3. It was too dark to put an arrow into the creature's eye; +<i>so</i> they paddled on.<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley</span></p> +</div> +<p>In sentence 1, <i>so that</i> expresses result, and its clause +depends on the other, hence it is a subordinate conjunction of +result; in 2, <i>so</i> means provided,—is subordinate of +condition; in 3, <i>so</i> means therefore, and its clause is +independent, hence it is a coördinate conjunction of +reason.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Parse all the conjunctions in these sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. When the gods come among men, they are not known.</p> +<p>2. If he could solve the riddle, the Sphinx was slain.</p> +<p>3. A lady with whom I was riding in the forest said to me that +the woods always seemed to wait, as if the genii who inhabit them +suspended their deeds until the wayfarer had passed.</p> +<p>4. The mountain of granite blooms into an eternal flower, with +the lightness and delicate finish as well as the aërial +proportions and perspective of vegetable scenery.</p> +<p>5. At sea, or in the forest, or in the snow, he sleeps as warm, +dines with as good an appetite, and associates as happily, as +beside his own chimneys.</p> +<p>6. Our admiration of the antique is not admiration of the old, +but of the natural.</p> +<p>7. "Doctor," said his wife to Martin Luther, "how <a name= +"Page_201" id="Page_201"></a>is it that whilst subject to papacy we +prayed so often and with such fervor, whilst now we pray with the +utmost coldness, and very seldom?"</p> +<p>8. All the postulates of elfin annals,—that the fairies do +not like to be named; that their gifts are capricious and not to be +trusted; and the like,—I find them true in Concord, however +they might be in Cornwall or Bretagne.</p> +<p>9. He is the compend of time; he is also the correlative of +nature.</p> +<p>10. He dismisses without notice his thought, because it is +his.</p> +<p>11. The eye was placed where one ray should fall, that it might +testify of that particular ray.</p> +<p>12. It may be safely trusted, so it be faithfully imparted.</p> +<p>13. He knows how to speak to his contemporaries.</p> +<p>14. Goodness must have some edge to it,—else it is +none.</p> +<p>15. I hope it is somewhat better than whim at last.</p> +<p>16. Now you have the whip in your hand, won't you lay on?</p> +<p>17. I scowl as I dip my pen into the inkstand.</p> +<p>18. I speak, therefore, of good novels only.</p> +<p>19. Let her loose in the library as you do a fawn in a +field.</p> +<p>20. And whether consciously or not, you must be, in many a +heart, enthroned.</p> +<p>21. It is clear, however, the whole conditions are changed.</p> +<p>22. I never rested until I had a copy of the book.</p> +<p>23. For, though there may be little resemblance otherwise, in +this they agree, that both were wayward.</p> +<p>24. Still, she might have the family countenance; and Kate +thought he looked with a suspicious scrutiny into her face as he +inquired for the young don.</p> +<p>25. He follows his genius whithersoever it may lead him.</p> +<p>26. The manuscript indeed speaks of many more, whose names I +omit, seeing that it behooves me to hasten.</p> +<p>27. God had marked this woman's sin with a scarlet letter, which +had such efficacy that no human sympathy could reach her, save it +were sinful like herself.</p> +<p><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202"></a>28. I rejoice to stand here +no longer, to be looked at as though I had seven heads and ten +horns.</p> +<p>29. He should neither praise nor blame nor defend his +equals.</p> +<p>30. There was no iron to be seen, nor did they appear acquainted +with its properties; for they unguardedly took a drawn sword by the +edge, when it was presented to them.</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="PREPOSITIONS" id= +"PREPOSITIONS"></a><b>PREPOSITIONS.</b>.</h2> +<p><span class="sn"><b>305.</b></span> The word <i>preposition</i> +implies <i>place before</i>: hence it would seem that a preposition +is always <i>before</i> its object. It may be so in the majority of +cases, but in a considerable proportion of instances the +preposition is <i>after</i> its object.</p> +<p>This occurs in such cases as the following:—</p> +<div class="sidenote">Preposition not before its object.</div> +<p>(1) <i>After a relative pronoun</i>, a very common occurrence; +thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The most dismal Christmas fun <i>which</i> these eyes ever +looked <i>on</i>.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>An ancient nation <i>which</i> they know nothing +<i>of</i>.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A foe, <i>whom</i> a champion has fought <i>with</i> +to-day.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Some little toys <i>that</i> girls are fond +<i>of</i>.<span class="smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"It's the man <i>that</i> I spoke to you <i>about</i>" said Mr. +Pickwick.<span class="smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>After an interrogative adverb, adjective, or pronoun</i>, +also frequently found:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>What</i> God doth the wizard pray <i>to</i>?<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>What</i> is the little one thinking about?—<span class= +"smcap">J. G. Holland</span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Where</i> the Devil did it come <i>from</i>, I +wonder?<span class="smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>With an infinitive</i>, in such expressions as +these:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A proper <i>quarrel</i> for a Crusader to do battle +<i>in</i>.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203"></a>"You know, General, it was +<i>nothing</i> to joke <i>about</i>."<span class= +"smcap">—Cable</span></p> +<p>Had no harsh <i>treatment</i> to reproach herself +<i>with</i>.<span class="smcap">—Boyesen</span></p> +<p>A <i>loss of vitality</i> scarcely to be accounted +<i>for</i>.<span class="smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +<p>Places for <i>horses</i> to be hitched +<i>to</i>.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>After a noun</i>,—the case in which the preposition +is expected to be, and regularly is, before its object; +as,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And unseen mermaids' pearly +song<br /></span> <span>Comes bubbling up, the weeds +<i>among</i>.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Beddoes.<br /></span></div> +<div class="stanza"><span>Forever panting and forever +young,<br /></span> <span>All breathing human passion far +<i>above</i>.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Keats.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>306.</b></span> Since the object of a +preposition is most often a noun, the statement is made that the +preposition usually precedes its object; as in the following +sentence, "Roused <i>by</i> the shock, he started <i>from</i> his +trance."</p> +<p>Here the words <i>by</i> and <i>from</i> are connectives; but +they do more than connect. <i>By</i> shows the relation in thought +between <i>roused</i> and <i>shock</i>, expressing means or agency; +<i>from</i> shows the relation in thought between <i>started</i> +and <i>trance</i>, and expresses separation. Both introduce +phrases.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>307.</b></span> A <b>preposition</b> is a +word joined to a noun or its equivalent to make up a qualifying or +an adverbial phrase, and to show the relation between its object +and the word modified.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Objects, nouns and the +following</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>308.</b></span> Besides nouns, prepositions +may have as objects—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Pronouns</i>: "Upon <i>them</i> with the lance;" "With +<i>whom</i> I traverse earth."</p> +<p><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204"></a>(2) <i>Adjectives</i>: "On +<i>high</i> the winds lift up their voices."</p> +<p>(3) <i>Adverbs</i>: "If I live wholly from <i>within</i>;" "Had +it not been for the sea from <i>aft</i>."</p> +<p>(4) <i>Phrases</i>: "Everything came to her from <i>on +high</i>;" "From <i>of old</i> they had been zealous +worshipers."</p> +<p>(5) <i>Infinitives</i>: "The queen now scarce spoke to him save +<i>to convey</i> some necessary command for her service."</p> +<p>(6) <i>Gerunds</i>: "They shrink from <i>inflicting</i> what +they threaten;" "He is not content with <i>shining</i> on great +occasions."</p> +<p>(7) <i>Clauses</i>:</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>"Each soldier eye shall brightly +turn<br /></span> <span>To <i>where thy sky-born glories +burn</i>."<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Object usually objective case, if noun or +pronoun</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>309.</b></span> The object of a preposition, +if a noun or pronoun, is usually in the objective case. In +pronouns, this is shown by the form of the word, as in Sec. 308 +(1).</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Often possessive</i>.</div> +<p>In the double-possessive idiom, however, the object is in the +possessive case after <i>of</i>; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>There was also a book <i>of Defoe's</i>,... and another +<i>of</i> <i>Mather's</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +</div> +<p>See also numerous examples in Secs. 68 and 87.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Sometimes nominative</i>.</div> +<p>And the prepositions <i>but</i> and <i>save</i> are found with +the nominative form of the pronoun following; as,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Nobody knows <i>but</i> my mate and +<i>I</i><br /></span> <span>Where our nest and our nestlings +lie.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—BRYANT.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<h3><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205"></a>USES OF PREPOSITIONS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Inseparable.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>310.</b></span> Prepositions are used in +three ways:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Compounded with verbs</i>, <i>adverbs</i>, or +<i>conjunctions</i>; as, for example, with verbs, <i>with</i>draw, +<i>under</i>stand, <i>over</i>look, <i>over</i>take, +<i>over</i>flow, <i>under</i>go, <i>out</i>stay, <i>out</i>number, +<i>over</i>run, <i>over</i>grow, etc.; with adverbs, +there<i>at</i>, there<i>in</i>, there<i>from</i>, there<i>by</i>, +there<i>with</i>, etc.; with conjunctions, where<i>at</i>, +where<i>in</i>, where<i>on</i>, where<i>through</i>, +where<i>upon</i>, etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Separable.</i></div> +<p>(2) <i>Following a verb</i>, and being really a part of the +verb. This use needs to be watched closely, to see whether the +preposition belongs to the verb or has a separate prepositional +function. For example, in the sentences, (<i>a</i>) "He broke a +pane <i>from</i> the window," (<i>b</i>) "He broke <i>into</i> the +bank," in (<i>a</i>), the verb <i>broke</i> is a predicate, +modified by the phrase introduced by <i>from</i>; in (<i>b</i>), +the predicate is not <i>broke</i>, modified by <i>into the +bank</i>, but <i>broke into</i>—the object, <i>bank</i>.</p> +<p>Study carefully the following prepositions with +verbs:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Considering the space they <i>took up</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +<p>I loved, <i>laughed at</i>, and pitied him.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>The sun <i>breaks through</i> the darkest clouds.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +<p>They will <i>root up</i> the whole ground.<span class= +"smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +<p>A friend <i>prevailed upon</i> one of the +interpreters.<span class="smcap">—Addison</span></p> +<p>My uncle <i>approved of</i> it.<span class= +"smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +<p>The robber who <i>broke into</i> them.<span class= +"smcap">—Landor.</span></p> +<p>This period is not obscurely <i>hinted at</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Lamb.</span></p> +<p>The judge <i>winked at</i> the iniquity of the +decision.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>The pupils' voices, <i>conning over</i> their +lessons.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>To <i>help out</i> his maintenance.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>With such pomp is Merry Christmas <i>ushered in</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Longfellow.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_206" id= +"Page_206"></a><i>Ordinary use as connective, relation +words.</i></div> +<p>(3) As <i>relation words</i>, introducing phrases,—the +most common use, in which the words have their own proper +function.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Usefulness of prepositions.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>311.</b></span> Prepositions are the +subtlest and most useful words in the language for compressing a +clear meaning into few words. Each preposition has its proper and +general meaning, which, by frequent and exacting use, has expanded +and divided into a variety of meanings more or less close to the +original one.</p> +<p>Take, for example, the word <i>over</i>. It expresses place, +with motion, as, "The bird flew <i>over</i> the house;" or rest, +as, "Silence broods <i>over</i> the earth." It may also convey the +meaning of <i>about</i>, <i>concerning</i>; as, "They quarreled +<i>over</i> the booty." Or it may express time: "Stay <i>over</i> +night."</p> +<p>The language is made richer and more flexible by there being +several meanings to each of many prepositions, as well as by some +of them having the same meaning as others.</p> +<h3>CLASSES OF PREPOSITIONS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>312.</b></span> It would be useless to +attempt to classify all the prepositions, since they are so various +in meaning.</p> +<p>The largest groups are those of <b>place</b>, <b>time</b>, and +<b>exclusion</b>.</p> +<h3>PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>313.</b></span> The following are the most +common to indicate <b>place</b>:—</p> +<p>(1) PLACE WHERE: <i>abaft</i>, <i>about</i>, <i>above</i>, +<i>across</i>, <i>amid</i> (<i>amidst</i>), <i>among</i> +(<i>amongst</i>), <i>at</i>, <i>athwart</i>, <i>be<a name= +"Page_207" id="Page_207"></a>low</i>, <i>beneath</i>, +<i>beside</i>, <i>between</i> (<i>betwixt</i>), <i>beyond</i>, +<i>in</i>, <i>on</i>, <i>over</i>, <i>under</i> +(<i>underneath</i>), <i>upon</i>, <i>round</i> or <i>around</i>, +<i>without</i>.</p> +<p>(2) PLACE WHITHER: <i>into</i>, <i>unto</i>, <i>up</i>, +<i>through</i>, <i>throughout</i>, <i>to</i>, <i>towards</i>.</p> +<p>(3) PLACE WHENCE: <i>down</i>, <i>from</i> (<i>away from</i>, +<i>down from</i>, <i>from out</i>, etc.), <i>off</i>, <i>out +of</i>.</p> +<p><b>Abaft</b> is exclusively a sea term, meaning <i>back +of</i>.</p> +<p><b>Among</b> (or <b>amongst</b>) and <b>between</b> (or +<b>betwixt</b>) have a difference in meaning, and usually a +difference in use. <i>Among</i> originally meant in the crowd +(<i>on gemong</i>), referring to several objects; <i>between</i> +and <i>betwixt</i> were originally made up of the preposition +<i>be</i> (meaning <i>by</i>) and <i>twēon</i> or +<i>twēonum</i> (modern <i>twain</i>), <i>by two</i>, and +<i>be</i> with <i>twīh</i> (or <i>twuh</i>), having the same +meaning, <i>by two</i> objects.</p> +<p>As to modern use, see "Syntax" (Sec. 459).</p> +<h3>PREPOSITIONS OF TIME.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>314.</b></span> They are <i>after</i>, +<i>during</i>, <i>pending</i>, <i>till</i> or <i>until</i>; also +many of the prepositions of place express <b>time</b> when put +before words indicating time, such as <i>at</i>, <i>between</i>, +<i>by</i>, <i>about</i>, <i>on</i>, <i>within</i>, etc.</p> +<p>These are all familiar, and need no special remark.</p> +<h3>EXCLUSION OR SEPARATION.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>315.</b></span> The chief ones are +<i>besides</i>, <i>but</i>, <i>except</i>, <i>save</i>, +<i>without</i>. The participle <i>excepting</i> is also used as a +preposition.</p> +<h3>MISCELLANEOUS PREPOSITIONS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>316.</b></span> <b>Against</b> implies +opposition, sometimes place where. In colloquial English it is +sometimes <a name="Page_208" id="Page_208"></a>used to express +time, now and then also in literary English; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>She contrived to fit up the baby's cradle for me <i>against</i> +night.<span class="smcap">—Swift</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>About</b>, and the participial prepositions +<b>concerning</b>, <b>respecting</b>, <b>regarding,</b> mean +<i>with reference to</i>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Phrase prepositions.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>317.</b></span> Many phrases are used as +single prepositions: <i>by means of</i>, <i>by virtue of</i>, <i>by +help of</i>, <i>by dint of</i>, <i>by force of</i>; <i>out of</i>, +<i>on account of</i>, <i>by way of</i>, <i>for the sake of</i>; +<i>in consideration of</i>, <i>in spite of</i>, <i>in defiance +of</i>, <i>instead of</i>, <i>in view of</i>, <i>in place of</i>; +<i>with respect to</i>, <i>with regard to</i>, <i>according to</i>, +<i>agreeably to</i>; and some others.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>318.</b></span> Besides all these, there are +some prepositions that have so many meanings that they require +separate and careful treatment: <i>on</i> (<i>upon</i>), <i>at</i>, +<i>by</i>, <i>for</i>, <i>from</i>, <i>of</i>, <i>to</i>, +<i>with</i>.</p> +<p>No attempt will be made to give <i>all</i> the meanings that +each one in this list has: the purpose is to stimulate observation, +and to show how useful prepositions really are.</p> +<h3>At.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>319.</b></span> The general meaning of +<b>at</b> is <i>near</i>, <i>close to</i>, after a verb or +expression implying position; and <i>towards</i> after a verb or +expression indicating motion. It defines position approximately, +while <i>in</i> is exact, meaning <i>within</i>.</p> +<p>Its principal uses are as follows:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Place where.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>They who heard it listened with a curling horror <i>at</i> the +heart.—<span class="smcap">J. F. Cooper</span>.</p> +<a name="Page_209" id="Page_209"></a></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>There had been a strike <i>at</i> the neighboring manufacturing +village, and there was to be a public meeting, <i>at</i> which he +was besought to be present.—<span class="smcap">T. W. +Higginson</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>Time</i>, more exact, meaning the point of time at +which.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He wished to attack <i>at</i> daybreak.<span class= +"smcap">—Parkman.</span></p> +<p>They buried him darkly, <i>at</i> dead of night.<span class= +"smcap">—Wolfe</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>Direction.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The mother stood looking wildly down <i>at</i> the unseemly +object.<span class="smcap">—Cooper.</span></p> +<p>You are next invited...to grasp <i>at</i> the opportunity, and +take for your subject, "Health."<span class= +"smcap">—Higginson.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Here belong such expressions as <i>laugh at</i>, <i>look at</i>, +<i>wink at</i>, <i>gaze at</i>, <i>stare at</i>, <i>peep at</i>, +<i>scowl at</i>, <i>sneer at</i>, <i>frown at</i>, etc.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We <i>laugh at</i> the elixir that promises to prolong life to a +thousand years.<span class="smcap">—Johnson.</span></p> +<p>"You never mean to say," pursued Dot, sitting on the floor and +<i>shaking</i> her head <i>at</i> him.<span class= +"smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>Source</i> or <i>cause</i>, meaning <i>because of</i>, +<i>by reason of</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I felt my heart chill <i>at</i> the dismal +sound.—<span class="smcap">T. W. Knox</span>.</p> +<p>Delighted <i>at</i> this outburst against the +Spaniards.<span class="smcap">—Parkman.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(5) Then the idiomatic phrases <i>at last</i>, <i>at length</i>, +<i>at any rate</i>, <i>at the best</i>, <i>at the worst</i>, <i>at +least</i>, <i>at most</i>, <i>at first</i>, <i>at once</i>, <i>at +all</i>, <i>at one</i>, <i>at naught</i>, <i>at random</i>, etc.; +and phrases signifying state or condition of being, as, <i>at +work</i>, <i>at play</i>, <i>at peace</i>, <i>at war</i>, <i>at +rest</i>, etc.</p> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Find sentences with three different uses +of <i>at</i>.</p> +<h3><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210"></a>By.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>320.</b></span> Like <i>at</i>, <b>by</b> +means <i>near</i> or <i>close to</i>, but has several other +meanings more or less connected with this,—</p> +<p>(1) The general meaning of <i>place</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Richard was standing <i>by</i> the window.<span class= +"smcap">—Aldrich.</span></p> +<p>Provided always the coach had not shed a wheel <i>by</i> the +roadside.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>Time.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>But <i>by</i> this time the bell of Old Alloway began +tolling.<span class="smcap">—B. Taylor</span></p> +<p>The angel came <i>by</i> night.—<span class="smcap">R. H. +Stoddard</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>Agency</i> or <i>means</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Menippus knew which were the kings <i>by</i> their howling +louder.—<span class="smcap">M. D. Conway</span>.</p> +<p>At St. Helena, the first port made <i>by</i> the ship, he +stopped. <span class="smcap">—Parton.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>Measure of excess</i>, expressing the degree of +difference.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>At that time [the earth] was richer, <i>by</i> many a million of +acres.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>He was taller <i>by</i> almost the breadth of my +nail.<span class="smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(5) It is also used in <i>oaths and adjurations</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>By</i> my faith, that is a very plump hand for a man of +eighty-four!<span class="smcap">—Parton.</span></p> +<p>They implore us <i>by</i> the long trials of struggling +humanity; <i>by</i> the blessed memory of the departed; <i>by</i> +the wrecks of time; <i>by</i> the ruins of nations.<span class= +"smcap">—Everett.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Find sentences with three different +meanings of <i>by</i>.</p> +<h3><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211"></a>For.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>321.</b></span> The chief meanings of +<b>for</b> are as follows:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Motion towards</i> a place, or a tendency or action +toward the attainment of any object.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Pioneers who were opening the way <i>for</i> the march of the +nation.<span class="smcap">—Cooper.</span></p> +<p>She saw the boat headed <i>for</i> her.<span class= +"smcap">—Warner.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>In favor of</i>, <i>for the benefit of</i>, <i>in behalf +of</i>, a person or thing.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He and they were <i>for</i> immediate attack.<span class= +"smcap">—Parkman</span></p> +<p>The people were then against us; they are now <i>for</i> +us.<span class="smcap">—W. L. Garrison.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>Duration of time</i>, or <i>extent of space</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>For</i> a long time the disreputable element outshone the +virtuous.—<span class="smcap">H. H. Bancroft</span>.</p> +<p>He could overlook all the country <i>for</i> many a mile of rich +woodland.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>Substitution</i> or <i>exchange</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>There are gains <i>for</i> all our losses.<span class= +"smcap">—Stoddard.</span></p> +<p>Thus did the Spaniards make bloody atonement <i>for</i> the +butchery of Fort Caroline.<span class= +"smcap">—Parkman.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(5) <i>Reference</i>, meaning <i>with regard to</i>, <i>as +to</i>, <i>respecting</i>, etc.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>For</i> the rest, the Colonna motto would fit you +best.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p><i>For</i> him, poor fellow, he repented of his +folly.<span class="smcap">—E. E. Hale</span></p> +</div> +<p>This is very common with <i>as</i>—<i>as for</i> me, +etc.</p> +<p>(6) Like <i>as</i>, meaning <i>in the character of</i>, <i>as +being</i>, etc.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"Nay, if your worship can accomplish that," answered Master +Brackett, "I shall own you <i>for</i> a man of skill indeed!" +<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>Wavering whether he should put his son to death <i>for</i> an +unnatural monster.<span class="smcap">—Lamb.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212"></a>(7) <i>Concession</i>, +meaning <i>although</i>, <i>considering that</i> etc.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"<i>For</i> a fool," said the Lady of Lochleven, "thou hast +counseled wisely."<span class="smcap">—Scott</span></p> +<p>By my faith, that is a very plump hand <i>for</i> a man of +eighty-four!<span class="smcap">—Parton.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(8) Meaning <i>notwithstanding</i>, or <i>in spite of</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>But the Colonel, <i>for</i> all his title, had a forest of poor +relations.<span class="smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Still, <i>for</i> all slips of +hers,<br /></span> <span>One of Eve's family.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Hood.</span></div> +</div> +<p>(9) <i>Motive, cause, reason, incitement to action.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The twilight being...hardly more wholesome <i>for</i> its +glittering mists of midge companies.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>An Arab woman, but a few sunsets since, ate her child, +<i>for</i> famine.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>Here Satouriona forgot his dignity, and leaped <i>for</i> +joy.<span class="smcap">—Parkman.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(10) <i>For</i> with its object preceding the infinitive, and +having the same meaning as a noun clause, as shown by this +sentence:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It is by no means necessary <i>that he should devote his whole +school existence to physical science</i>; nay, more, it is not +necessary for <i>him to give up more than a moderate share of his +time to such studies</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Huxley.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Find sentences with five meanings of +<i>for</i>.</p> +<h3>From.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>322.</b></span> The general idea in +<b>from</b> is separation or source. It may be with regard +to—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Place.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Like boys escaped <i>from</i> school.<span class= +"smcap">—H. H. Bancroft</span></p> +<p>Thus they drifted <i>from</i> snow-clad ranges to burning +plain.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213"></a>(2) <i>Origin.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Coming <i>from</i> a race of day-dreamers, Ayrault had inherited +the faculty of dreaming also by night.<span class= +"smcap">—Higginson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span><i>From</i> harmony, <i>from</i> heavenly +harmony<br /></span> <span>This universal frame began.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Dryden.</span></div> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>Time.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A distrustful, if not a desperate man, did he become <i>from</i> +the night of that fearful dream<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>Motive</i>, <i>cause</i>, or <i>reason</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It was <i>from</i> no fault of Nolan's.<span class= +"smcap">—Hale.</span></p> +<p>The young cavaliers, <i>from</i> a desire of seeming valiant, +ceased to be merciful.<span class= +"smcap">—Bancroft.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Find sentences with three meanings of +<i>from</i>.</p> +<h3>Of.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>323.</b></span> The original meaning of +<b>of</b> was separation or source, like <i>from</i>. The various +uses are shown in the following examples:—</p> +<h3>I. The <i>From</i> Relation.</h3> +<p>(1) <i>Origin or source.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The king holds his authority <i>of</i> the people.<span class= +"smcap">—Milton.</span></p> +<p>Thomas à Becket was born <i>of</i> reputable parents in +the city of London.<span class="smcap">—Hume.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>Separation</i>: (<i>a</i>) After certain verbs, such as +<i>ease</i>, <i>demand</i>, <i>rob</i>, <i>divest</i>, <i>free</i>, +<i>clear</i>, <i>purge</i>, <i>disarm</i>, <i>deprive</i>, +<i>relieve</i>, <i>cure</i>, <i>rid</i>, <i>beg</i>, <i>ask</i>, +etc.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Two old Indians cleared the spot <i>of</i> brambles, weeds, and +grass.<span class="smcap">—Parkman.</span></p> +<p>Asked no odds <i>of</i>, acquitted them <i>of,</i> +etc.<span class="smcap">—Aldrich.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) After some adjectives,—<i>clear of</i>, <i>free +of</i>, <a name="Page_214" id="Page_214"></a><i>wide of</i>, +<i>bare of</i>, etc.; especially adjectives and adverbs of +direction, as <i>north of</i>, <i>south of</i>, etc.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The hills were bare <i>of</i> trees.<span class= +"smcap">—Bayard Taylor.</span></p> +<p>Back <i>of</i> that tree, he had raised a little Gothic chapel. +<span class="smcap">—Gavarre.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>c</i>) After nouns expressing lack, deprivation, etc.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A singular want <i>of</i> all human relation.<span class= +"smcap">—Higginson.</span></p> +</div> +<p><i>(d)</i> With words expressing distance.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Until he had come within a staff's length <i>of</i> the old +dame. <span class="smcap">—Hawthorne</span></p> +<p>Within a few yards <i>of</i> the young man's hiding +place.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>With expressions of material</i>, especially <i>out +of</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>White shirt with diamond studs, or breastpin <i>of</i> native +gold.<span class="smcap">—Bancroft.</span></p> +<p>Sandals, bound with thongs <i>of</i> boar's hide.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott</span></p> +<p>Who formed, <i>out of</i> the most unpromising materials, the +finest army that Europe had yet seen.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>Expressing cause, reason, motive.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The author died <i>of</i> a fit of apoplexy.<span class= +"smcap">—Boswell.</span></p> +<p>More than one altar was richer <i>of</i> his vows.<span class= +"smcap">—Lew Wallace.</span></p> +<p>"Good for him!" cried Nolan. "I am glad <i>of</i> +that."—<span class="smcap">E. E. Hale</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>(5) <i>Expressing agency.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>You cannot make a boy know, <i>of</i> his own knowledge, that +Cromwell once ruled England.<span class= +"smcap">—Huxley.</span></p> +<p>He is away <i>of</i> his own free will.<span class= +"smcap">—Dickens</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>II. Other Relations expressed by <i>Of</i></b>.</p> +<p>(6) <i>Partitive</i>, expressing a part of a number or +quantity.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Of</i> the Forty, there were only twenty-one members present. +<span class="smcap">—Parton.</span></p> +<p>He washed out some <i>of</i> the dirt, separating thereby as +much of the dust as a ten-cent piece would hold.<span class= +"smcap">—Bancroft.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215"></a><i>See +also Sec. 309.</i></div> +<p>(7) <i>Possessive</i>, standing, with its object, for the +possessive, or being used with the possessive case to form the +double possessive.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Not even woman's love, and the dignity <i>of</i> a queen, could +give shelter from his contumely.—<span class="smcap">W. E. +Channing</span>.</p> +<p>And the mighty secret <i>of</i> the Sierra stood +revealed.<span class="smcap">—Bancroft.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(8) <i>Appositional</i>, which may be in the case of—</p> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Nouns.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Such a book as that <i>of</i> Job.<span class= +"smcap">—Froude.</span></p> +<p>The fair city <i>of</i> Mexico.<span class= +"smcap">—Prescott.</span></p> +<p>The nation <i>of</i> Lilliput.<span class= +"smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Noun and gerund, being equivalent to an +infinitive.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>In the vain hope <i>of</i> appeasing the savages.<span class= +"smcap">—Cooper.</span></p> +<p>Few people take the trouble <i>of</i> finding out what democracy +really is.<span class="smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>c</i>) Two nouns, when the first is descriptive of the +second.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>This crampfish <i>of</i> a Socrates has so bewitched +him.<span class="smcap">—Emerson</span></p> +<p>A sorry antediluvian makeshift <i>of</i> a building you may +think it.<span class="smcap">—Lamb.</span></p> +<p>An inexhaustible bottle <i>of</i> a shop.<span class= +"smcap">—Aldrich.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(9) <i>Of time.</i> Besides the phrases <i>of old</i>, <i>of +late</i>, <i>of a sudden</i>, etc., <i>of</i> is used in the sense +of <i>during</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I used often to linger <i>of</i> a morning by the high +gate.<span class="smcap">—Aldrich</span></p> +<p>I delighted to loll over the quarter railing <i>of</i> a calm +day. <span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(10) <i>Of reference</i>, equal to <i>about</i>, +<i>concerning</i>, <i>with regard to</i>.<a name="Page_216" id= +"Page_216"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The Turk lay dreaming <i>of</i> the hour.<span class= +"smcap">—Halleck.</span></p> +<p>Boasted <i>of</i> his prowess as a scalp hunter and +duelist.<span class="smcap">—Bancroft.</span></p> +<p>Sank into reverie <i>of</i> home and boyhood +scenes.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Idiomatic use with verbs.</i></div> +<p><i>Of</i> is also used as an appendage of certain verbs, such as +<i>admit</i>, <i>accept</i>, <i>allow</i>, <i>approve</i>, +<i>disapprove</i>, <i>permit</i>, without adding to their meaning. +It also accompanies the verbs <i>tire</i>, <i>complain</i>, +<i>repent</i>, <i>consist</i>, <i>avail</i> (one's self), and +others.</p> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Find sentences with six uses of +<i>of</i>.</p> +<h3>On, Upon.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>324.</b></span> The general meaning of +<b>on</b> is position or direction. <i>On</i> and <i>upon</i> are +interchangeable in almost all of their applications, as shown by +the sentences below:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Place</i>: (<i>a</i>) Where.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Cannon were heard close <i>on</i> the left.<span class= +"smcap">—Parkman.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The Earl of Huntley ranged his +host<br /></span> <span><i>Upon</i> their native +strand.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Mrs. +Sigourney.</span></div> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) With motion.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It was the battery at Samos firing <i>on</i> the +boats.<span class="smcap">—Parkman.</span></p> +<p>Thou didst look down <i>upon</i> the naked earth.<span class= +"smcap">—Bryant.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>Time.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The demonstration of joy or sorrow <i>on</i> reading their +letters. <span class="smcap">—Bancroft.</span></p> +<p><i>On</i> Monday evening he sent forward the +Indians.<span class="smcap">—Parkman.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Upon</b> is seldom used to express time.</p> +<p>(3) <i>Reference</i>, equal to <i>about</i>, <i>concerning</i>, +etc.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I think that one abstains from writing <i>on</i> the immortality +of the soul.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>He pronounced a very flattering opinion <i>upon</i> my brother's +promise of excellence.<span class="smcap">—De +Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217"></a>(4) <i>In +adjurations.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>On</i> my life, you are eighteen, and not a day +more.<span class="smcap">—Aldrich.</span></p> +<p><i>Upon</i> my reputation and credit.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare</span></p> +</div> +<p>(5) <i>Idiomatic phrases</i>: <i>on fire</i>, <i>on board</i>, +<i>on high</i>, <i>on the wing</i>, <i>on the alert</i>, <i>on a +sudden</i>, <i>on view</i>, <i>on trial</i>, etc.</p> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Find sentences with three uses of +<i>on</i> or <i>upon</i>.</p> +<h3>To.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>325.</b></span> Some uses of to are the +following:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Expressing motion</i>: (<i>a</i>) To a place.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Come <i>to</i> the bridal chamber, Death!<span class= +"smcap">—Halleck.</span></p> +<p>Rip had scrambled <i>to</i> one of the highest +peaks.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Referring to time.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Full of schemes and speculations <i>to</i> the last.<span class= +"smcap">—Parton.</span></p> +<p>Revolutions, whose influence is felt <i>to</i> this +hour.<span class="smcap">—Parkman.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>Expressing result.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He usually gave his draft to an aid...to be written +over,—often <i>to</i> the loss of vigor.<span class= +"smcap">—Benton</span></p> +<p><i>To</i> our great delight, Ben Lomond was +unshrouded.<span class="smcap">—B. Taylor</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>Expressing comparison.</i></p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>But when, unmasked, gay Comedy +appears,<br /></span> <span>'Tis ten <i>to</i> one you find the +girl in tears.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Aldrich<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>They are arrant rogues: Cacus was nothing <i>to</i> +them.<span class="smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p>Bolingbroke and the wicked Lord Littleton were saints <i>to</i> +him.<span class="smcap">—Webster</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>Expressing concern, interest.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>To</i> the few, it may be genuine poetry.<span class= +"smcap">—Bryant.</span></p> +<p>His brother had died, had ceased to be, <i>to</i> +him.<span class="smcap">—Hale.</span></p> +<p>Little mattered <i>to</i> them occasional privations<span class= +"smcap">—Bancroft.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218"></a>(5) <i>Equivalent to</i> +according to.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Nor, <i>to</i> my taste, does the mere music...of your style +fall far below the highest efforts of poetry.<span class= +"smcap">—Lang.</span></p> +<p>We cook the dish <i>to</i> our own appetite.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(6) <i>With the infinitive</i> (see Sec. 268).</p> +<p><b>Exercise</b>.—Find sentences containing three uses of +<i>to</i>.</p> +<h3>With.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>326.</b></span> <b>With</b> expresses the +idea of accompaniment, and hardly any of its applications vary from +this general signification.</p> +<p>In Old English, <i>mid</i> meant <i>in company with</i>, while +<i>wið</i> meant <i>against</i>: both meanings are included in +the modern <i>with</i>.</p> +<p>The following meanings are expressed by <i>with</i>:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Personal accompaniment.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The advance, <i>with</i> Heyward at its head, had already +reached the defile.<span class="smcap">—Cooper.</span></p> +<p>For many weeks I had walked <i>with</i> this poor friendless +girl.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>Instrumentality.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>With</i> my crossbow I shot the albatross.<span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge.</span></p> +<p>Either <i>with</i> the swingle-bar, or <i>with</i> the haunch of +our near leader, we had struck the off-wheel of the little +gig.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>Cause, reason, motive.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He was wild <i>with</i> delight about Texas.<span class= +"smcap">—Hale.</span></p> +<p>She seemed pleased <i>with</i> the accident.<span class= +"smcap">—Howells.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>Estimation, opinion.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>How can a writer's verses be numerous if <i>with</i> him, as +<i>with</i> you, "poetry is not a pursuit, but a +pleasure"?<span class="smcap">—Lang.</span></p> +<p>It seemed a supreme moment <i>with</i> him.<span class= +"smcap">—Howells.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219"></a>(5) <i>Opposition</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>After battling <i>with</i> terrific hurricanes and typhoons on +every known sea.<span class="smcap">—Aldrich.</span></p> +<p>The quarrel of the sentimentalists is not <i>with</i> life, but +<i>with</i> you.<span class="smcap">—Lang.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(6) <i>The equivalent of</i> notwithstanding, in spite of.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>With</i> all his sensibility, he gave millions to the +sword.<span class="smcap">—Channing.</span></p> +<p>Messala, <i>with</i> all his boldness, felt it unsafe to trifle +further.<span class="smcap">—Wallace</span></p> +</div> +<p>(7) <i>Time.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He expired <i>with</i> these words.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p><i>With</i> each new mind a new secret of nature +transpires.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise</b>.—Find sentences with four uses of +<i>with</i>.</p> +<h3>HOW TO PARSE PREPOSITIONS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>327.</b></span> Since a preposition +introduces a phrase and shows the relation between two things, it +is necessary, first of all, to find the object of the preposition, +and then to find what word the prepositional phrase limits. Take +this sentence:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The rule adopted on board the ships on which I have met "the man +without a country" was, I think, transmitted from the +beginning.—<span class="smcap">E. E. Hale</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>The phrases are (1) <i>on board the ships</i>, (2) <i>on +which</i>, (3) <i>without a country</i>, (4) <i>from the +beginning</i>. The object of <i>on board</i> is <i>ships</i>; of +<i>on</i>, <i>which</i>; of <i>without</i>, <i>country</i>; of +<i>from</i>, <i>beginning</i>.</p> +<p>In (1), the phrase answers the question <i>where</i>, and has +the office of an adverb in telling <i>where</i> <a name="Page_220" +id="Page_220"></a>the rule is adopted; hence we say, <i>on +board</i> shows the relation between <i>ships</i> and the +participle <i>adopted</i>.</p> +<p>In (2), <i>on which</i> modifies the verb <i>have met</i> by +telling where: hence <i>on</i> shows the relation between +<i>which</i> (standing for <i>ships</i>) and the verb <i>have +met</i>.</p> +<p>In (3), <i>without a country</i> modifies <i>man</i>, telling +what man, or the verb <i>was</i> understood: hence <i>without</i> +shows the relation between <i>country</i> and <i>man</i>, or +<i>was</i>. And so on.</p> +<p>The <b>parsing</b> of prepositions means merely telling between +what words or word groups they show relation.</p> +<h4>Exercises.</h4> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Parse the prepositions in these +paragraphs:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. I remember, before the dwarf left the queen, he followed us +one day into those gardens. I must needs show my wit by a silly +illusion between him and the trees, which happens to hold in their +language as it does in ours. Whereupon, the malicious rogue, +watching his opportunity when I was walking under one of them, +shook it directly over my head, by which a dozen apples, each of +them near as large as a Bristol barrel, came tumbling about my +ears; one of them hit me on the back as I chanced to stoop, and +knocked me down flat on my face; but I received no other hurt, and +the dwarf was pardoned at my desire, because I had given the +provocation.<span class="smcap">—Swift</span></p> +<p>2. Be that as it will, I found myself suddenly awakened with a +violent pull upon the ring, which was fastened at the top of my box +for the conveniency of carriage. I felt my box raised very high in +the air, and then borne forward with prodigious speed. The first +jolt had like to have shaken me out of my hammock. I called out +several times, but all to no purpose. I looked towards my windows, +and could see nothing but the clouds and the sky. I heard a noise +just over my head, like the clapping of wings, and then began to +perceive the woeful condition I <a name="Page_221" id= +"Page_221"></a>was in; that some eagle had got the ring of my box +in his beak, with an intent to let it fall on a rock: for the +sagacity and smell of this bird enabled him to discover his quarry +at a great distance, though better concealed than I could be within +a two-inch board.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Give the exact meaning of each italicized preposition +in the following sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. The guns were cleared <i>of</i> their lumber.</p> +<p>2. They then left <i>for</i> a cruise up the Indian Ocean.</p> +<p>3. I speak these things <i>from</i> a love of justice.</p> +<p>4. <i>To</i> our general surprise, we met the defaulter +here.</p> +<p>5. There was no one except a little sunbeam <i>of</i> a +sister.</p> +<p>6. The great gathering in the main street was <i>on</i> Sundays, +when, after a restful morning, though unbroken <i>by</i> the peal +of church bells, the miners gathered <i>from</i> hills and ravines +<i>for</i> miles around <i>for</i> marketing.</p> +<p>7. The troops waited in their boats <i>by</i> the edge of a +strand.</p> +<p>8. His breeches were <i>of</i> black silk, and his hat was +garnished <i>with</i> white and sable plumes.</p> +<p>9. A suppressed but still distinct murmur of approbation ran +through the crowd <i>at</i> this generous proposition.</p> +<p>10. They were shriveled and colorless <i>with</i> the cold.</p> +<p>11. On every solemn occasion he was the striking figure, even +<i>to</i> the eclipsing of the involuntary object of the +ceremony.</p> +<p>12. <i>On</i> all subjects known to man, he favored the world +with his opinions.</p> +<p>13. Our horses ran <i>on</i> a sandy margin of the road.</p> +<p>14. The hero of the poem is <i>of</i> a strange land and a +strange parentage.</p> +<p>15. He locked his door <i>from</i> mere force of habit.</p> +<p>16. The lady was remarkable <i>for</i> energy and talent.</p> +<p>17. Roland was acknowledged <i>for</i> the successor and +heir.</p> +<p>18. <i>For</i> my part, I like to see the passing, in town.</p> +<p>19. A half-dollar was the smallest coin that could be tendered +<i>for</i> any service.</p> +<p>20. The mother sank and fell, grasping <i>at</i> the child.</p> +<p>21. The savage army was in war-paint, plumed <i>for</i> +battle.</p> +<p><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222"></a>22. He had lived in Paris +<i>for</i> the last fifty years.</p> +<p>23. The hill stretched <i>for</i> an immeasurable distance.</p> +<p>24.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The baron of Smaylho'me rose <i>with</i> +day,<br /></span> <span class="i2">He spurred his courser +on,<br /></span> <span>Without stop or stay, down the rocky +way<br /></span> <span class="i2">That leads <i>to</i> +Brotherstone.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>25. <i>With</i> all his learning, Carteret was far from being a +pedant.</p> +<p>26. An immense mountain covered with a shining green turf is +nothing, in this respect, <i>to</i> one dark and gloomy.</p> +<p>27. Wilt thou die <i>for</i> very weakness?</p> +<p>28. The name of Free Joe strikes humorously <i>upon</i> the ear +of memory.</p> +<p>29. The shout I heard was <i>upon</i> the arrival of this +engine.</p> +<p>30. He will raise the price, not merely <i>by</i> the amount of +the tax.</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="WORDS_THAT_NEED_WATCHING" id= +"WORDS_THAT_NEED_WATCHING"></a><b>WORDS THAT NEED +WATCHING.</b></h2> +<p><span class="sn"><b>328.</b></span> If the student has now +learned fully that words must be studied in grammar according to +their function or use, and not according to form, he will be able +to handle some words that are used as several parts of speech. A +few are discussed below,—a summary of their treatment in +various places as studied heretofore.</p> +<p><b>THAT</b>.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>329.</b></span> <b>That</b> may be used as +follows:</p> +<p>(1) <i>As a demonstrative adjective.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>That</i> night was a memorable one.<span class= +"smcap">—Stockton.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>As an adjective pronoun.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>That</i> was a dreadful mistake.<span class= +"smcap">—Webster.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223"></a>(3) <i>As a relative +pronoun.</i></p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And now it is like an angel's +song,<br /></span> <span><i>That</i> makes the heavens be +mute.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge.</span></div> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>As an adverb of degree.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>That</i> far I hold that the Scriptures teach.<span class= +"smcap">—Beecher.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(5) <i>As a conjunction</i>: (<i>a</i>) Of purpose.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Has bounteously lengthened out your lives, <i>that</i> you might +behold this joyous day.<span class= +"smcap">—Webster.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Of result.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Gates of iron so massy <i>that</i> no man could without the help +of engines open or shut them.<span class= +"smcap">—Johnson.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>c</i>) Substantive conjunction.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We wish <i>that</i> labor may look up here, and be proud in the +midst of its toil.<span class="smcap">—Webster.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>WHAT.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>330.</b></span> (1) <i>Relative +pronoun.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>That is <i>what</i> I understand by scientific +education.<span class="smcap">—Huxley.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Indefinite relative.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Those shadowy recollections,<br /></span> +<span>Which be they <i>what</i> they may,<br /></span> <span>Are +yet the fountain light of all our day.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></div> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>Interrogative pronoun</i>: (<i>a</i>) Direct +question.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>What</i> would be an English merchant's character after a few +such transactions?<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Indirect question.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I have not allowed myself to look beyond the Union, to see +<i>what</i> might be hidden.<span class= +"smcap">—Webster.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>Indefinite pronoun:</i> The saying, "I'll tell you +<i>what</i>."</p> +<p><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224"></a>(4) <i>Relative +adjective.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>But woe to <i>what</i> thing or person stood in the +way.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Indefinite relative adjective.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>To say <i>what</i> good of fashion we can, it rests on +reality.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>(5) <i>Interrogative adjective</i>: (<i>a</i>) Direct +question.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>What</i> right have you to infer that this condition was +caused by the action of heat?<span class= +"smcap">—Agassiz.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Indirect question.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>At <i>what</i> rate these materials would be distributed,...it +is impossible to determine.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>(6) <i>Exclamatory adjective.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Saint Mary! <i>what</i> a scene is here!<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(7) <i>Adverb of degree.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If he has [been in America], he knows <i>what</i> good people +are to be found there.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(8) <i>Conjunction</i>, nearly equivalent to <i>partly</i>... +<i>partly</i>, or <i>not only...but</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>What</i> with the Maltese goats, who go tinkling by to their +pasturage; <i>what</i> with the vocal seller of bread in the early +morning;...these sounds are only to be heard...in Pera.—S.S. +Cox.</p> +</div> +<p>(9) <i>As an exclamation.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>What</i>, silent still, and silent all!<span class= +"smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p><i>What</i>, Adam Woodcock at court!<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>BUT.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>331.</b></span> (1) <i>Coördinate +conjunction</i>: (<i>a</i>) Adversative.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>His very attack was never the inspiration of courage, <i>but</i> +the result of calculation.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Copulative, after <i>not only</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Then arose not only tears, <i>but</i> piercing cries, on all +sides. <span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225"></a>(2) <i>Subordinate +conjunction</i>: (<i>a</i>) Result, equivalent to <i>that</i> ... +<i>not</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Nor is Nature so hard <i>but</i> she gives me this joy several +times.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Substantive, meaning <i>otherwise</i> ... +<i>than</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Who knows <i>but</i>, like the dog, it will at length be no +longer traceable to its wild original<span class= +"smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(3) <i>Preposition</i>, meaning <i>except</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Now there was nothing to be seen <i>but</i> fires in every +direction.<span class="smcap">—Lamb.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) <i>Relative pronoun</i>, after a negative, stands for +<i>that</i> ... <i>not</i>, or <i>who</i> ... <i>not</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>There is not a man in them <i>but</i> is impelled withal, at all +moments, towards order.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(5) <i>Adverb</i>, meaning <i>only</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The whole twenty years had been to him <i>but</i> as one +night.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>To lead <i>but</i> one measure.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>AS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>332.</b></span> (1) <i>Subordinate +conjunction</i>: (<i>a</i>) Of time.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Rip beheld a precise counterpart of himself <i>as</i> he went up +the mountain.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Of manner.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span><i>As</i> orphans yearn on to their +mothers,<br /></span> <span>He yearned to our patriot +bands.<br /></span> <span class="smcap">—Mrs +Browning.</span></div> +</div> +<p>(<i>c</i>) Of degree.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i6">His wan eyes<br /></span> +<span>Gaze on the empty scene <i>as</i> vacantly<br /></span> +<span><i>As</i> ocean's moon looks on the moon in +heaven.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Shelley.</span></div> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226"></a>(<i>d</i>) Of reason.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I shall see but little of it, <i>as</i> I could neither bear +walking nor riding in a carriage.<span class= +"smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>e</i>) Introducing an appositive word.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Reverenced <i>as</i> one of the patriarchs of the +village.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>Doing duty <i>as</i> a guard.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) <i>Relative pronoun</i>, after <i>such</i>, sometimes +<i>same</i>.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>And was there such a resemblance <i>as</i> the crowd had +testified?<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>LIKE.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Modifier of a noun or pronoun.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>333.</b></span> (1) <i>An adjective.</i></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The aforesaid general had been exceedingly <i>like</i> the +majestic image.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>They look, indeed, <i>liker</i> a lion's mane than a Christian +man's locks.-SCOTT.</p> +<p>No Emperor, this, <i>like</i> him awhile ago.<span class= +"smcap">—Aldrich.</span></p> +<p>There is no statue <i>like</i> this living man.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>That face, <i>like</i> summer ocean's.<span class= +"smcap">—Halleck.</span></p> +</div> +<p>In each case, <i>like</i> clearly modifies a noun or pronoun, +and is followed by a dative-objective.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Introduces a clause, but its verb is +omitted.</i></div> +<p>(2) <i>A subordinate conjunction</i> of manner. This follows a +verb or a verbal, but the verb of the clause introduced by +<i>like</i> is <i>regularly omitted</i>. Note the difference +between these two uses. In Old English <i>gelic</i> (like) was +followed by the dative, and was clearly an adjective. In this +second use, <i>like</i> introduces a shortened clause modifying a +verb or a verbal, as shown in the following sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Goodman Brown came into the street of Salem village, staring +<i>like</i> a bewildered man.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>Give Ruskin space enough, and he grows frantic and beats the air +<i>like</i> Carlyle.<span class= +"smcap">—Higginson.</span></p> +</div> +<div><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227"></a></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>They conducted themselves much <i>like</i> the crew of a +man-of-war. <span class="smcap">—Parkman.</span></p> +<p>[The sound] rang in his ears <i>like</i> the iron hoofs of the +steeds of Time.<span class="smcap">—Longfellow.</span></p> +<p>Stirring it vigorously, <i>like</i> a cook beating +eggs.<span class="smcap">—Aldrich.</span></p> +</div> +<p>If the verb is expressed, <i>like</i> drops out, and <i>as</i> +or <i>as if</i> takes its place.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The sturdy English moralist may talk of a Scotch supper +<i>as</i> he pleases.<span class="smcap">—Cass.</span></p> +<p>Mankind for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw, +just <i>as</i> they do in Abyssinia to this day.<span class= +"smcap">—Lamb.</span></p> +<p>I do with my friends <i>as</i> I do with my books.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p>NOTE.—Very rarely <i>like</i> is found with a verb +following, but this is not considered good usage: for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A timid, nervous child, <i>like</i> Martin +<i>was</i>.<span class="smcap">—Mayhew.</span></p> +<p>Through which they put their heads, <i>like</i> the Gauchos +<i>do</i> through their cloaks.<span class= +"smcap">—Darwin.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i10"><i>Like</i> an arrow +shot<br /></span> <span>From a well-experienced archer <i>hits</i> +the mark.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></div> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="INTERJECTIONS" id= +"INTERJECTIONS"></a><b>INTERJECTIONS.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>334.</b></span> <b>Interjections</b> are +exclamations used to express emotion, and are not parts of speech +in the same sense as the words we have discussed; that is, entering +into the structure of a sentence.</p> +<p>Some of these are imitative sounds; as, tut! buzz! etc.</p> +<p><i>Humph</i>! attempts to express a contemptuous nasal utterance +that no letters of our language can really spell.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Not all exclamatory words are +interjections.</i></div> +<p>Other interjections are <i>oh</i>! <i>ah</i>! <i>alas</i>! +<i>pshaw</i>! <i>hurrah</i>! etc. But it is to be remembered that +almost any word may be used as an exclamation, <a name="Page_228" +id="Page_228"></a>but it still retains its identity as noun, +pronoun, verb, etc.: for example, "Books! lighthouses built on the +sea of time [noun];" "Halt! the dust-brown ranks stood fast +[verb]," "Up! for shame! [adverb]," "Impossible! it cannot be +[adjective]."</p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="PART_II" id="PART_II"></a><a name="Page_229" id= +"Page_229"></a><b>PART II.</b></h2> +<h2><a name="ANALYSIS_OF_SENTENCES" id= +"ANALYSIS_OF_SENTENCES"></a><i>ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.</i><a name= +"Page_230" id="Page_230"></a></h2> +<h2><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231"></a><a name= +"CLASSIFICATION_ACCORDING_TO_FORM" id= +"CLASSIFICATION_ACCORDING_TO_FORM"></a><b>CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING +TO FORM.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>What analysis is.</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>335.</b></span> All discourse is made up of +sentences: consequently the sentence is the unit with which we must +begin. And in order to get a clear and practical idea of the +structure of sentences, it is necessary to become expert in +<b>analysis</b>; that is, in separating them into their component +parts.</p> +<p>A general idea of analysis was needed in our study of the parts +of speech,—in determining case, subject and predicate, +clauses introduced by conjunctions, etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Value of analysis.</i></div> +<p>A more thorough and accurate acquaintance with the subject is +necessary for two reasons,—not only for a correct +understanding of the principles of syntax, but for the study of +punctuation and other topics treated in rhetoric.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>336.</b></span> A <b>sentence</b> is the +expression of a thought in words.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Kinds of sentences as to form.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>337.</b></span> According to the way in +which a thought is put before a listener or reader, sentences may +be of three kinds:—</p> +<p>(1) <b>Declarative</b>, which puts the thought in the form of a +declaration or assertion. This is the most common one.</p> +<p>(2) <b>Interrogative</b>, which puts the thought in a +question.</p> +<p>(3) <b>Imperative</b>, which expresses command, entreaty, or +request.</p> +<p><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232"></a>Any one of these may be put +in the form of an exclamation, but the sentence would still be +declarative, interrogative, or imperative; hence, <i>according to +form</i>, there are only the three kinds of sentences already +named.</p> +<p>Examples of these three kinds are, declarative, "Old year, you +must not die!" interrogative, "Hath he not always treasures, always +friends?" imperative, "Come to the bridal chamber, Death!"</p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CLASSIFICATION_ACCORDING_TO_NUMBER_OF_STATEMENTS" id= +"CLASSIFICATION_ACCORDING_TO_NUMBER_OF_STATEMENTS"></a><b>CLASSIFICATION +ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF STATEMENTS.</b></h2> +<h2><a name="SIMPLE_SENTENCES" id="SIMPLE_SENTENCES"></a><b>SIMPLE +SENTENCES.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Division according to number of +statements.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>338.</b></span> But the division of +sentences most necessary to analysis is the division, not according +to the form in which a thought is put, but according to how many +statements there are.</p> +<p>The one we shall consider first is the <b>simple +sentence.</b></p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>339.</b></span> A <b>simple sentence</b> is +one which contains a single statement, question, or command: for +example, "The quality of mercy is not strained;" "What wouldst thou +do, old man?" "Be thou familiar, but by no means vulgar."</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>340.</b></span> Every sentence must contain +two parts,—a <b>subject</b> and a <b>predicate</b>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition: Predicate.</i></div> +<p>The <b>predicate</b> of a sentence is a verb or verb phrase +which says something about the subject.</p> +<p><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233"></a>In order to get a correct +definition of the subject, let us examine two specimen +sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. But now all is to be changed.</p> +<p>2. A rare old plant is the ivy green.</p> +</div> +<p>In the first sentence we find the subject by placing the word +<i>what</i> before the predicate,—<i>What</i> is to be +changed? Answer, <i>all</i>. Consequently, we say <i>all</i> is the +subject of the sentence.</p> +<p>But if we try this with the second sentence, we have some +trouble,—<i>What</i> is the ivy green? Answer, <i>a rare old +plant</i>. But we cannot help seeing that an assertion is made, not +of <i>a rare old plant</i>, but about <i>the ivy green</i>; and the +real subject is the latter. Sentences are frequently in this +inverted order, especially in poetry; and our definition must be +the following, to suit all cases:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Subject.</i></div> +<p>The <b>subject</b> is that which answers the question <i>who</i> +or <i>what</i> placed before the predicate, and which at the same +time names that of which the predicate says something.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The subject in interrogative and +imperative simple sentences.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>341.</b></span> In the interrogative +sentence, the subject is frequently after the verb. Either the verb +is the first word of the sentence, or an interrogative pronoun, +adjective, or adverb that asks about the subject. In analyzing such +sentences, <i>always reduce them to the order of a statement</i>. +Thus,—</p> +<p>(1) "When should this scientific education be commenced?"</p> +<p>(2) "This scientific education should be commenced when?"</p> +<p>(3) "What wouldst thou have a good great man obtain?"</p> +<p><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234"></a>(4) "Thou wouldst have a +good great man obtain what?"</p> +<p>In the imperative sentence, the subject (<i>you</i>, +<i>thou</i>, or <i>ye</i>) is in most cases omitted, and is to be +supplied; as, "[You] behold her single in the field."</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Name the subject and the predicate in each of the following +sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The shadow of the dome of +pleasure<br /></span> <span>Floated midway on the +waves.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>2. Hence originated their contempt for terrestrial +distinctions.</p> +<p>3. Nowhere else on the Mount of Olives is there a view like +this.</p> +<p>4. In the sands of Africa and Arabia the camel is a sacred and +precious gift.</p> +<p>5. The last of all the Bards was he.</p> +<p>6. Slavery they can have anywhere.</p> +<p>7. Listen, on the other hand, to an ignorant man.</p> +<p>8. What must have been the emotions of the Spaniards!</p> +<p>9. Such was not the effect produced on the sanguine spirit of +the general.</p> +<p>10. What a contrast did these children of southern Europe +present to the Anglo-Saxon races!</p> +</div> +<h3>ELEMENTS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>342.</b></span> All the <b>elements</b> of +the simple sentence are as follows:—</p> +<p>(1) The subject.</p> +<p>(2) The predicate.</p> +<p>(3) The object.</p> +<p>(4) The complements.</p> +<p>(5) Modifiers.</p> +<p>(6) Independent elements.</p> +<p>The subject and predicate have been discussed.</p> +<p><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235"></a><span class= +"sn"><b>343.</b></span> The object may be of two kinds:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definitions. Direct Object</i>.</div> +<p>(1) The DIRECT OBJECT is that word or expression which answers +the question <i>who</i> or <i>what</i> placed after the verb; or +the direct object names that toward which the action of the +predicate is directed.</p> +<p>It must be remembered that any verbal may have an object; but +for the present we speak of the object of the verb, and by +<i>object</i> we mean the <i>direct</i> object.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Indirect object</i>.</div> +<p>(2) The INDIRECT OBJECT is a noun or its equivalent used as the +modifier of a verb or verbal to name the person or thing for whose +benefit an action is performed.</p> +<p>Examples of direct and indirect objects are, direct, "She seldom +saw her <i>course</i> at a glance;" indirect, "I give <i>thee</i> +this to wear at the collar."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Complement</i>:</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>344.</b></span> A <b>complement</b> is a +word added to a verb of incomplete predication to complete its +meaning.</p> +<p>Notice that a verb of incomplete predication may be of two +kinds,—transitive and intransitive.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Of a transitive verb</i>.</div> +<p>The <i>transitive verb</i> often requires, in addition to the +object, a word to define fully the action that is exerted upon the +object; for example, "Ye call me chief." Here the verb <i>call</i> +has an object <i>me</i> (if we leave out <i>chief</i>), and means +summoned; but <i>chief</i> belongs to the verb, and <i>me</i> here +is not the object simply of <i>call</i>, but of <i>call chief</i>, +just as if to say, "Ye <i>honor me</i>." This word completing a +transitive verb is sometimes called a <i>factitive object</i>, or +<i>second object</i>, but it is a true complement.</p> +<p>The fact that this is a complement can be more <a name= +"Page_236" id="Page_236"></a>clearly seen when the verb is in the +passive. See sentence 19, in exercise following Sec. 364.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Complement of an intransitive +verb</i>.</div> +<p>An <i>intransitive verb</i>, especially the forms of <i>be</i>, +<i>seem</i>, <i>appear</i>, <i>taste</i>, <i>feel</i>, +<i>become</i>, etc., must often have a word to complete the +meaning: as, for instance, "Brow and head were <i>round, and of +massive weight</i>;" "The good man, he was now getting <i>old</i>, +above sixty;" "Nothing could be <i>more copious</i> than his talk;" +"But in general he seemed <i>deficient in laughter</i>."</p> +<p>All these complete intransitive verbs. The following are +examples of complements of transitive verbs: "Hope deferred maketh +the heart <i>sick</i>;" "He was termed <i>Thomas</i>, or, more +familiarly, <i>Thom of the Gills</i>;" "A plentiful fortune is +reckoned <i>necessary</i>, in the popular judgment, to the +completion of this man of the world."</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>345.</b></span> The <b>modifiers</b> and +<b>independent elements</b> will be discussed in detail in Secs. +351, 352, 355.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Phrases</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>346.</b></span> A phrase is a group of +words, not containing a verb, but used as a single modifier.</p> +<p>As to <i>form</i>, phrases are of three kinds:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Three kinds</i>.</div> +<p>(1) PREPOSITIONAL, introduced by a preposition: for example, +"Such a convulsion is the struggle <i>of gradual suffocation</i>, +as <i>in drowning</i>; and, <i>in the original Opium +Confessions</i>, I mentioned a case <i>of that nature</i>."</p> +<p>(2) PARTICIPIAL, consisting of a participle and the words +dependent on it. The following are examples: "Then <i>retreating +into the warm house</i>, and <i>barring the door</i>, she sat down +to undress the two youngest children."</p> +<p><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237"></a>(3) INFINITIVE, consisting +of an infinitive and the words dependent upon it; as in the +sentence, "She left her home forever in order <i>to present herself +at the Dauphin's court</i>."</p> +<h3>Things used as Subject.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>347.</b></span> The subject of a simple +sentence may be—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Noun</i>: "There seems to be no <i>interval</i> between +greatness and meanness." Also an expression used as a noun; as, "A +cheery, '<i>Ay, ay, sir</i>!' rang out in response."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Pronoun</i>: "We are fortified by every heroic +anecdote."</p> +<p>(3) <i>Infinitive phrase</i>: "<i>To enumerate and analyze these +relations</i> is to teach the science of method."</p> +<p>(4) <i>Gerund</i>: "There will be <i>sleeping</i> enough in the +grave;" "What signifies <i>wishing</i> and <i>hoping</i> for better +things?"</p> +<p>(5) <i>Adjective used as noun</i>: "<i>The good</i> are +befriended even by weakness and defect;" "<i>The dead</i> are +there."</p> +<p>(6) <i>Adverb</i>: "<i>Then</i> is the moment for the humming +bird to secure the insects."</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>348.</b></span> The subject is often found +<i>after the verb</i>—</p> +<p>(1) <i>By simple inversion</i>: as, "Therein has been, and ever +will be, my <i>deficiency</i>,—the talent of starting the +game;" "Never, from their lips, was heard one <i>syllable</i> to +justify," etc.</p> +<p>(2) <i>In interrogative sentences</i>, for which see Sec. +341.</p> +<p><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238"></a>(3) <i>After</i> "it +<i>introductory</i>:" "It ought not to need <i>to print</i> in a +reading room a caution not to read aloud."</p> +<p>In this sentence, <i>it</i> stands in the position of a +grammatical subject; but the real or logical subject is <i>to +print</i>, etc. <i>It</i> merely serves to throw the subject after +a verb.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Disguised infinitive subject</i>.</div> +<p>There is one kind of expression that is really an infinitive, +though disguised as a prepositional phrase: "It is hard <i>for +honest men to separate</i> their country from their party, or their +religion from their sect."</p> +<p>The <i>for</i> did not belong there originally, but obscures the +real subject,—the infinitive phrase. Compare Chaucer: "No +wonder is a lewed man to ruste" (No wonder [it] is [for] a common +man to rust).</p> +<p>(4) <i>After</i> "there <i>introductory</i>," which has the same +office as <i>it</i> in reversing the order (see Sec. 292): "There +was a <i>description</i> of the destructive operations of time;" +"There are <i>asking eyes</i>, <i>asserting eyes</i>, <i>prowling +eyes</i>."</p> +<h3>Things used as Direct Object.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>349.</b></span> The words used as direct +object are mainly the same as those used for subject, but they will +be given in detail here, for the sake of presenting +examples:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Noun</i>: "Each man has his own <i>vocation</i>." Also +expressions used as nouns: for example, "'<i>By God, and by Saint +George!</i>' said the King."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Pronoun</i>: "Memory greets <i>them</i> with the ghost of +a smile."</p> +<p><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239"></a>(3) <i>Infinitive</i>: "We +like <i>to see</i> everything do its office."</p> +<p>(4) <i>Gerund</i>: "She heard that <i>sobbing</i> of litanies, +or the <i>thundering</i> of organs."</p> +<p>(5) <i>Adjective used as a noun</i>: "For seventy leagues +through the mighty cathedral, I saw <i>the quick</i> and <i>the +dead</i>."</p> +<h3>Things used as Complement.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Complement: Of an intransitive +verb</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>350.</b></span> As complement of an +<i>intransitive</i> verb,—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Noun</i>: "She had been an ardent <i>patriot</i>."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Pronoun</i>: "<i>Who</i> is she in bloody coronation +robes from Rheims?" "This is <i>she</i>, the shepherd girl."</p> +<p>(3) <i>Adjective</i>: "Innocence is ever <i>simple</i> and +<i>credulous</i>."</p> +<p>(4) <i>Infinitive</i>: "To enumerate and analyze these relations +is <i>to teach</i> the science of method."</p> +<p>(5) <i>Gerund</i>: "Life is a <i>pitching</i> of this +penny,—heads or tails;" "Serving others is <i>serving</i> +us."</p> +<p>(6) <i>A prepositional phrase</i>: "His frame is <i>on a larger +scale</i>;" "The marks were <i>of a kind</i> not to be +mistaken."</p> +<p>It will be noticed that all these complements have a double +office,—completing the predicate, and explaining or modifying +the subject.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Of a transitive verb</i>.</div> +<p>As complement of a <i>transitive</i> verb,—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Noun</i>: "I will not call you <i>cowards</i>."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Adjective</i>: "Manners make beauty <i>superfluous</i> +and <i>ugly</i>;" "Their tempers, doubtless, are rendered +<i>pliant</i> and <i>malleable</i> in the fiery furnace of domestic +tribulation." In this last sentence, the object is made the subject +by being passive, and <a name="Page_240" id="Page_240"></a>the +words italicized are still complements. Like all the complements in +this list, they are adjuncts of the object, and, at the same time, +complements of the predicate.</p> +<p>(3) <i>Infinitive</i>, or <i>infinitive phrase</i>: "That cry +which made me <i>look a thousand ways</i>;" "I hear the echoes +<i>throng</i>."</p> +<p>(4) <i>Participle</i>, or <i>participial phrase</i>: "I can +imagine him <i>pushing firmly on, trusting the hearts of his +countrymen</i>."</p> +<p>(5) <i>Prepositional phrase:</i> "My antagonist would render my +poniard and my speed <i>of no use</i> to me."</p> +<h3>Modifiers.</h3> +<h3>I. Modifiers of Subject, Object, or Complement.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>351.</b></span> Since the subject and object +are either nouns or some equivalent of a noun, the words modifying +them must be adjectives or some equivalent of an adjective; and +whenever the complement is a noun, or the equivalent of the noun, +it is modified by the same words and word groups that modify the +subject and the object.</p> +<p>These <b>modifiers</b> are as follows:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>A possessive</i>: "<i>My</i> memory assures me of this;" +"She asked her <i>father's</i> permission."</p> +<p>(2) <i>A word in apposition</i>: "Theodore Wieland, the +<i>prisoner</i> at the bar, was now called upon for his defense;" +"Him, this young <i>idolater</i>, I have seasoned for thee."</p> +<p>(3) <i>An adjective</i>: "<i>Great</i> geniuses have the +<i>shortest</i> biographies;" "Her father was a prince in +Lebanon,—<i>proud</i>, <i>unforgiving</i>, +<i>austere</i>."</p> +<p>(4) <i>Prepositional phrase</i>: "Are the opinions <i>of +<a name="Page_241" id="Page_241"></a>a man on right and wrong on +fate and causation</i>, at the mercy of a broken sleep or an +indigestion?" "The poet needs a ground <i>in popular tradition</i> +to work on."</p> +<p>(5) <i>Infinitive phrase</i>: "The way <i>to know him</i> is to +compare him, not with nature, but with other men;" "She has a new +and unattempted problem <i>to solve</i>;" "The simplest utterances +are worthiest <i>to be written</i>."</p> +<p>(6) <i>Participial phrase</i>: "Another reading, <i>given at the +request of a Dutch lady</i>, was the scene from King John;" "This +was the hour <i>already appointed for the baptism</i> of the new +Christian daughter."</p> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—In each sentence in Sec. 351, tell +whether the subject, object, or complement is modified.</p> +<h3>II. Modifiers of the Predicate.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>352.</b></span> Since the predicate is +always a verb, the word modifying it must be an adverb or its +equivalent:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Adverb:</i> "<i>Slowly</i> and <i>sadly</i> we laid him +down."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Prepositional phrase</i>: "The little carriage is +creeping on <i>at one mile an hour</i>;" "<i>In the twinkling of an +eye</i>, our horses had carried us <i>to the termination of the +umbrageous isle</i>."</p> +<p>In such a sentence as, "He died like a God," the word group +<i>like a God</i> is often taken as a phrase; but it is really a +contracted clause, the verb being omitted.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Tells how.</i></div> +<p>(3) <i>Participial phrase:</i> "She comes down from heaven to +his help, <i>interpreting for him the most difficult truths</i>, +and <i>leading him from star to star</i>."</p> +<p><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242"></a>(4) <i>Infinitive +phrase:</i> "No imprudent, no sociable angel, ever dropped an early +syllable <i>to answer his longing</i>."</p> +<p>(For participial and infinitive phrases, see further Secs. +357-363.)</p> +<p>(5) <i>Indirect object:</i> "I gave <i>every man</i> a trumpet;" +"Give <i>them</i> not only noble teachings, but noble +teachers."</p> +<p>These are equivalent to the phrases <i>to every man</i> and +<i>to them</i>, and modify the predicate in the same way.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Retained with passive; or</i></div> +<p>When the verb is changed from active to passive, the indirect +object is retained, as in these sentences: "It is left <i>you</i> +to find out the reason why;" "All such knowledge should be given +<i>her</i>."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>subject of passive verb and direct object +retained.</i></div> +<p>Or sometimes the indirect object of the active voice becomes the +subject of the passive, and the direct object is retained: for +example, "She is to be taught <i>to extend the limits of her +sympathy</i>;" "I was shown an immense <i>sarcophagus</i>."</p> +<p>(6) <i>Adverbial objective.</i> These answer the question +<i>when</i>, or <i>how long</i>, <i>how far</i>, etc., and are +consequently equivalent to adverbs in modifying a predicate: "We +were now running <i>thirteen miles an hour</i>;" "<i>One way</i> +lies hope;" "<i>Four hours</i> before midnight we approached a +mighty minster."</p> +<h4>Exercises.</h4> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Pick out subject, predicate, and (direct) +object:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. This, and other measures of precaution, I took.</p> +<p>2. The pursuing the inquiry under the light of an end or final +cause, gives wonderful animation, a sort of personality to the +whole writing.</p> +<p><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243"></a>3. Why does the horizon +hold me fast, with my joy and grief, in this center?</p> +<p>4. His books have no melody, no emotion, no humor, no relief to +the dead prosaic level.</p> +<p>5. On the voyage to Egypt, he liked, after dinner, to fix on +three or four persons to support a proposition, and as many to +oppose it.</p> +<p>6. Fashion does not often caress the great, but the children of +the great.</p> +<p>7. No rent roll can dignify skulking and dissimulation.</p> +<p>8. They do not wish to be lovely, but to be loved.</p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Pick out the subject, predicate, and complement:</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li> +<p>1. Evil, according to old philosophers, is good in the +making.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>2. But anger drives a man to say anything.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>3. The teachings of the High Spirit are abstemious, and, in +regard to particulars, negative.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>4. Spanish diet and youth leave the digestion undisordered and +the slumbers light.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>5. Yet they made themselves sycophantic servants of the King of +Spain.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>6. A merciless oppressor hast thou been.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>7. To the men of this world, to the animal strength and spirits, +the man of ideas appears out of his reason.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>8. I felt myself, for the first time, burthened with the +anxieties of a man, and a member of the world.</p> +</li> +</ul> +<p>(<i>c</i>) Pick out the direct and the indirect object in +each:—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li> +<p>1. Not the less I owe thee justice.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>2. Unhorse me, then, this imperial rider.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>3. She told the first lieutenant part of the truth.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>4. I promised her protection against all ghosts.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>5. I gave him an address to my friend, the attorney.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>6. Paint me, then, a room seventeen feet by twelve.</p> +</li> +</ul> +<p>(<i>d</i>) Pick out the words and phrases in +apposition:—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li> +<p>1. To suffer and to do, that was thy portion in life.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>2. A river formed the boundary,—the river Meuse.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>3. In one feature, Lamb resembles Sir Walter Scott; viz., in the +dramatic character of his mind and taste.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244"></a>4. This view was luminously +expounded by Archbishop Whately, the present Archbishop of +Dublin.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>5. Yes, at length the warrior lady, the blooming cornet, this +nun so martial, this dragoon so lovely, must visit again the home +of her childhood.</p> +</li> +</ul> +<p>(<i>e</i>) Pick out the modifiers of the predicate:—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li> +<p>1. It moves from one flower to another like a gleam of light, +upwards, downwards, to the right and to the left.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>2.</p> +</li> +<li> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And hark! like the roar of the billows on +the shore,<br /></span> <span>The cry of battle rises along their +changing line.<br /></span></div> +</div> +</li> +<li> +<p>3. Their intention was to have a gay, happy dinner, after their +long confinement to a ship, at the chief hotel.</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>4. That night, in little peaceful Easedale, six children sat by +a peat fire, expecting the return of their parents.</p> +</li> +</ul> +<h3>Compound Subject, Compound Predicate, etc.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Not compound sentences.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>353.</b></span> Frequently in a simple +sentence the writer uses two or more predicates to the same +subject, two or more subjects of the same predicate, several +modifiers, complements, etc.; but it is to be noticed that, in all +such sentences as we quote below, the writers of them purposely +combined them <i>in single statements</i>, and they are not to be +expanded into compound sentences. In a compound sentence the object +is to make two or more full statements.</p> +<p>Examples of compound subjects are, "By degrees Rip's <i>awe</i> +and <i>apprehension</i> subsided;" "The <i>name of the child</i>, +<i>the air of the mother</i>, the <i>tone of her +voice</i>,—all awakened a train of recollections in his +mind."</p> +<p>Sentences with compound predicates are, "The company <i>broke +up</i>, and <i>returned</i> to the more important concerns of the +election;" "He <i>shook</i> his head, <i>shouldered</i> the rusty +firelock, and, with a <a name="Page_245" id="Page_245"></a>heart +full of trouble and anxiety, <i>turned</i> his steps homeward."</p> +<p>Sentences with compound objects of the same verb are, "He caught +his <i>daughter</i> and her <i>child</i> in his arms;" +"<i>Voyages</i> and <i>travels</i> I would also have."</p> +<p>And so with complements, modifiers, etc.</p> +<h3>Logical Subject and Logical Predicate.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>354.</b></span> The <b>logical subject</b> +is the simple or grammatical subject, together with all its +modifiers.</p> +<p>The <b>logical predicate</b> is the simple or grammatical +predicate (that is, the verb), together with its modifiers, and its +object or complement.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Larger view of a sentence.</i></div> +<p>It is often a help to the student to find the logical subject +and predicate first, then the grammatical subject and predicate. +For example, in the sentence, "The situation here contemplated +exposes a dreadful ulcer, lurking far down in the depths of human +nature," the logical subject is <i>the situation here +contemplated</i>, and the rest is the logical predicate. Of this, +the simple subject is <i>situation</i>; the predicate, +<i>exposes</i>; the object, <i>ulcer</i>, etc.</p> +<h3>Independent Elements of the Sentence.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>355.</b></span> The following words and +expressions are grammatically <b>independent</b> of the rest of the +sentence; that is, they are not a necessary part, do not enter into +its structure:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Person or thing addressed</i>: "But you know them, +<i>Bishop</i>;" "<i>Ye crags and peaks</i>, I'm with you once +again."</p> +<p><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246"></a>(2) <i>Exclamatory +expressions</i>: "But the <i>lady</i>—! Oh, <i>heavens</i>! +will that spectacle ever depart from my dreams?"</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Caution.</i></div> +<p>The exclamatory expression, however, may be the person or thing +addressed, same as (1), above: thus, "Ah, <i>young sir</i>! what +are you about?" Or it may be an imperative, forming a sentence: +"Oh, <i>hurry, hurry</i>, my brave young man!"</p> +<p>(3) <i>Infinitive phrase</i> thrown in loosely: "<i>To make a +long story short</i>, the company broke up;" "<i>Truth to say</i>, +he was a conscientious man."</p> +<p>(4) <i>Prepositional phrase</i> not modifying: "Within the +railing sat, <i>to the best of my remembrance</i>, six +quill-driving gentlemen;" "<i>At all events</i>, the great man of +the prophecy had not yet appeared."</p> +<p>(5) <i>Participial phrase:</i> "But, <i>generally speaking</i>, +he closed his literary toils at dinner;" "<i>Considering the +burnish of her French tastes</i>, her noticing even this is +creditable."</p> +<p>(6) <i>Single words</i>: as, "Oh, <i>yes</i>! everybody knew +them;" "<i>No</i>, let him perish;" "<i>Well</i>, he somehow lived +along;" "<i>Why</i>, grandma, how you're winking!" "<i>Now</i>, +this story runs thus."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Another caution.</i></div> +<p>There are some adverbs, such as <i>perhaps</i>, <i>truly</i>, +<i>really</i>, <i>undoubtedly</i>, <i>besides</i>, etc., and some +conjunctions, such as <i>however</i>, <i>then</i>, <i>moreover</i>, +<i>therefore</i>, <i>nevertheless</i>, etc., that have an office in +the sentence, and should not be confused with the words spoken of +above. The words <i>well</i>, <i>now</i>, <i>why</i>, and so on, +are independent when they merely arrest the attention without being +necessary.</p> +<p><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247"></a><b>PREPOSITIONAL +PHRASES.</b></p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>356.</b></span> In their use, prepositional +phrases may be,</p> +<p>(1) <i>Adjectival</i>, modifying a noun, pronoun, or word used +as a noun: for example, "He took the road <i>to King Richard's +pavilion</i>;" "I bring reports <i>on that subject</i> from +Ascalon."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Adverbial</i>, limiting in the same way an adverb limits: +as, "All nature around him slept <i>in calm moonshine</i> or <i>in +deep shadow</i>;" "Far <i>from the madding crowd's ignoble +strife</i>."</p> +<p>(3) <i>Independent</i>, not dependent on any word in the +sentence (for examples, see Sec. 355, 4).</p> +<h3>PARTICIPLES AND PARTICIPIAL PHRASES.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>357.</b></span> It will be helpful to sum up +here the results of our study of participles and participial +phrases, and to set down all the uses which are of importance in +analysis:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>The adjectival use</i>, already noticed, as +follows:—</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li> +<p>(<i>a</i>) As a complement of a transitive verb, and at the same +time a modifier of the object (for an example, see Sec. 350, +4).</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>(<i>b</i>) As a modifier of subject, object, or complement (see +Sec. 351, 6).</p> +</li> +</ul> +<p>(2) <i>The adverbial use</i>, modifying the predicate, instances +of which were seen in Sec. 352, 3. In these the participial phrases +connect closely with the verb, and there is no difficulty in seeing +that they modify.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>These need close watching.</i></div> +<p>There are other participial phrases which are used adverbially, +but require somewhat closer <a name="Page_248" id= +"Page_248"></a>attention; thus, "The letter of introduction, +<i>containing no matters of business</i>, was speedily run +through."</p> +<p>In this sentence, the expression <i>containing no matters of +business</i> does not describe <i>letter</i>, but it is equivalent +to <i>because it contained no matters of business</i>, and hence is +adverbial, modifying <i>was speedily run through</i>.</p> +<p>Notice these additional examples:—</p> +<p><i>Being a great collector of everything relating to Milton</i> +[reason, "Because I was," etc.], I had naturally possessed myself +of Richardson the painter's thick octavo volumes.</p> +<p>Neither the one nor the other writer was valued by the public, +<i>both having</i> [since they had] <i>a long warfare to accomplish +of contumely and ridicule</i>.</p> +<p>Wilt thou, therefore, <i>being now wiser</i> [as thou art] <i>in +thy thoughts</i>, suffer God to give by seeming to refuse?</p> +<p>(3) <i>Wholly independent</i> in meaning and grammar. See Sec. +355, (5), and these additional examples:—</p> +<p><i>Assuming the specific heat to be the same as that of +water</i>, the entire mass of the sun would cool down to +15,000° Fahrenheit in five thousand years.</p> +<p><i>This case excepted</i>, the French have the keenest possible +sense of everything odious and ludicrous in posing.</p> +<h3>INFINITIVES AND INFINITIVE PHRASES.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>358.</b></span> The various uses of the +infinitive give considerable trouble, and they will be presented +here in full, or as nearly so as the student will require.</p> +<p><b>I. The verbal use.</b> (1) Completing an incomplete verb, but +having no other office than a verbal one.</p> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li> +<p><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249"></a>(<i>a</i>) With <i>may +(might)</i>,<i>can +(could)</i>,<i>should</i>,<i>would</i>,<i>seem</i>, <i>ought</i>, +etc.: "My weekly bill used invariably <i>to be</i> about fifty +shillings;" "There, my dear, he should not <i>have known</i> them +at all;" "He would <i>instruct</i> her in the white man's religion, +and <i>teach</i> her how to be happy and good."</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>(<i>b</i>) With the forms of <i>be</i>, being equivalent to a +future with obligation, necessity, etc.: as in the sentences, +"Ingenuity and cleverness are <i>to be rewarded</i> by State +prizes;" "'The Fair Penitent' was <i>to be acted</i> that +evening."</p> +</li> +<li> +<p>(<i>c</i>) With the definite forms of <i>go</i>, equivalent to a +future: "I was going <i>to repeat</i> my remonstrances;" "I am not +going <i>to dissert</i> on Hood's humor."</p> +</li> +</ul> +<p>(2) Completing an incomplete transitive verb, but also belonging +to a subject or an object (see Sec. 344 for explanation of the +complements of transitive verbs): "I am constrained every moment +<i>to acknowledge</i> a higher origin for events" (retained with +passive); "Do they not cause the heart <i>to beat</i>, and the eyes +<i>to fill</i>?"</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>359.</b></span> <b>II. The substantive +use</b>, already examined; but see the following examples for +further illustration:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>As the subject: "To have</i> the wall there, was to have +the foe's life at their mercy;" "<i>To teach</i> is to learn."</p> +<p>(2) <i>As the object</i>: "I like <i>to hear</i> them tell their +old stories;" "I don't wish <i>to detract</i> from any gentleman's +reputation."</p> +<p>(3) <i>As complement:</i> See examples under (1), above.</p> +<p><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250"></a>(4) <i>In apposition</i>, +explanatory of a noun preceding: as, "She forwarded to the English +leaders a touching invitation <i>to unite</i> with the French;" "He +insisted on his right <i>to forget</i> her."</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>360.</b></span> <b>III. The adjectival +use</b>, modifying a noun that may be a subject, object, +complement, etc.: for example, "But there was no time <i>to be +lost</i>;" "And now Amyas had time <i>to ask</i> Ayacanora the +meaning of this;" "I have such a desire <i>to be</i> well with my +public" (see also Sec. 351, 5).</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>361.</b></span> <b>IV. The adverbial +use</b>, which may be to express—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Purpose:</i> "The governor, Don Guzman, sailed to the +eastward only yesterday <i>to look</i> for you;" "Isn't it enough +to bring us to death, <i>to please</i> that poor young gentleman's +fancy?"</p> +<p>(2) <i>Result:</i> "Don Guzman returns to the river mouth <i>to +find</i> the ship a blackened wreck;" "What heart could be so hard +as <i>not to take</i> pity on the poor wild thing?"</p> +<p>(3) <i>Reason:</i> "I am quite sorry <i>to part</i> with them;" +"Are you mad, <i>to betray</i> yourself by your own cries?" "Marry, +hang the idiot, <i>to bring me</i> such stuff!"</p> +<p>(4) <i>Degree:</i> "We have won gold enough <i>to serve</i> us +the rest of our lives;" "But the poor lady was too sad <i>to +talk</i> except to the boys now and again."</p> +<p>(5) <i>Condition:</i> "You would fancy, <i>to hear</i> McOrator +after dinner, the Scotch fighting all the battles;" "<i>To say</i> +what good of fashion we can, it rests on reality" (the last is not +a simple <a name="Page_251" id="Page_251"></a>sentence, but it +furnishes a good example of this use of the infinitive).</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>362.</b></span> The fact that the +infinitives in Sec. 361 are used adverbially, is evident from the +meaning of the sentences.</p> +<p>Whether each sentence containing an adverbial infinitive has the +meaning of purpose, result, etc., may be found out by turning the +infinitive into an equivalent clause, such as those studied under +subordinate conjunctions.</p> +<p>To test this, notice the following:—</p> +<p>In (1), <i>to look</i> means <i>that he might look</i>; <i>to +please</i> is equivalent to <i>that he may please</i>,—both +purpose clauses.</p> +<p>In (2), <i>to find</i> shows the result of the return; <i>not to +take pity</i> is equivalent to <i>that it would not take +pity</i>.</p> +<p>In (3), <i>to part</i> means <i>because I part</i>, etc.; and +<i>to betray</i> and <i>to bring</i> express the reason, equivalent +to <i>that you betray</i>, etc.</p> +<p>In (4), <i>to serve</i> and <i>to talk</i> are equivalent to +[<i>as much gold</i>] <i>as will serve us</i>; and "too sad <i>to +talk</i>" also shows degree.</p> +<p>In (5), <i>to hear</i> means <i>if you should hear</i>, and +<i>to say</i> is equivalent to <i>if we say</i>,—both +expressing condition.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>363.</b></span> <b>V. The independent +use</b>, which is of two kinds,—</p> +<p>(1) Thrown loosely into the sentence; as in Sec. 355, (3).</p> +<p>(2) <i>Exclamatory:</i> "I a philosopher! I <i>advance</i> +<a name="Page_252" id="Page_252"></a>pretensions;" "'He <i>to +die</i>!' resumed the bishop." (See also Sec. 268, 4.)</p> +<h3>OUTLINE OF ANALYSIS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>364.</b></span> In analyzing simple +sentences, give—</p> +<p>(1) The predicate. If it is an incomplete verb, give the +complement (Secs. 344 and 350) and its modifiers (Sec. 351).</p> +<p>(2) The object of the verb (Sec. 349).</p> +<p>(3) Modifiers of the object (Sec. 351).</p> +<p>(4) Modifiers of the predicate (Sec. 352).</p> +<p>(5) The subject (Sec. 347).</p> +<p>(6) Modifiers of the subject (Sec. 351).</p> +<p>(7) Independent elements (Sec. 355).</p> +<p>This is not the same order that the parts of the sentence +usually have; but it is believed that the student will proceed more +easily by finding the predicate with its modifiers, object, etc., +and then finding the subject by placing the question <i>who</i> or +<i>what</i> before it.</p> +<h4>Exercise in Analyzing Simple Sentences.</h4> +<p>Analyze the following according to the directions +given:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Our life is March weather, savage and serene in one hour.</p> +<p>2. I will try to keep the balance true.</p> +<p>3. The questions of Whence? What? and Whither? and the solution +of these, must be in a life, not in a book.</p> +<p>4. The ward meetings on election days are not softened by any +misgiving of the value of these ballotings.</p> +<p>5. Our English Bible is a wonderful specimen of the strength and +music of the English language.</p> +<p>6. Through the years and the centuries, through evil agents, +through toys and atoms, a great and beneficent tendency +irresistibly streams.</p> +<p><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253"></a>7. To be hurried away by +every event, is to have no political system at all.</p> +<p>8. This mysticism the ancients called ecstasy,—a +getting-out of their bodies to think.</p> +<p>9. He risked everything, and spared nothing, neither ammunition, +nor money, nor troops, nor generals, nor himself.</p> +<p>10. We are always in peril, always in a bad plight, just on the +edge of destruction, and only to be saved by invention and +courage.</p> +<p>11. His opinion is always original, and to the purpose.</p> +<p>12. To these gifts of nature, Napoleon added the advantage of +having been born to a private and humble fortune.</p> +<p>13.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The water, like a witch's +oils,<br /></span> <span>Burnt green and blue and +white.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>14. We one day descried some shapeless object floating at a +distance.</p> +<p>15.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Old Adam, the carrion crow,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The old crow of Cairo;<br /></span> <span>He sat +in the shower, and let it flow<br /></span> <span class="i2">Under +his tail and over his crest.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>16. It costs no more for a wise soul to convey his quality to +other men.</p> +<p>17. It is easy to sugar to be sweet.</p> +<p>18. At times the black volume of clouds overhead seemed rent +asunder by flashes of lightning.</p> +<p>19. The whole figure and air, good and amiable otherwise, might +be called flabby and irresolute.</p> +<p>20. I have heard Coleridge talk, with eager energy, two stricken +hours, and communicate no meaning whatsoever to any individual.</p> +<p>21. The word <i>conscience</i> has become almost confined, in +popular use, to the moral sphere.</p> +<p>22. You may ramble a whole day together, and every moment +discover something new.</p> +<p>23. She had grown up amidst the liberal culture of Henry's court +a bold horsewoman, a good shot, a graceful dancer, a skilled +musician, an accomplished scholar.</p> +<p>24. Her aims were simple and obvious,—to preserve her +throne, to keep England out of war, to restore civil and religious +order.</p> +<p><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254"></a>25.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Fair name might he have handed +down,<br /></span> <span>Effacing many a stain of former +crime.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>26. Of the same grandeur, in less heroic and poetic form, was +the patriotism of Peel in recent history.</p> +<p>27. Oxford, ancient mother! hoary with ancestral honors, +time-honored, and, haply, time-shattered power—I owe thee +nothing!</p> +<p>28. The villain, I hate him and myself, to be a reproach to such +goodness.</p> +<p>29. I dare this, upon my own ground, and in my own garden, to +bid you leave the place now and forever.</p> +<p>30. Upon this shore stood, ready to receive her, in front of all +this mighty crowd, the prime minister of Spain, the same +Condé Olivarez.</p> +<p>31. Great was their surprise to see a young officer in uniform +stretched within the bushes upon the ground.</p> +<p>32. She had made a two days' march, baggage far in the rear, and +no provisions but wild berries.</p> +<p>33. This amiable relative, an elderly man, had but one foible, +or perhaps one virtue, in this world.</p> +<p>34. Now, it would not have been filial or ladylike.</p> +<p>35. Supposing this computation to be correct, it must have been +in the latitude of Boston, the present capital of New England.</p> +<p>36. The cry, "A strange vessel close aboard the frigate!" having +already flown down the hatches, the ship was in an uproar.</p> +<p>37.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>But yield, proud foe, thy +fleet<br /></span> <span>With the crews at England's +feet.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>38. Few in number, and that number rapidly perishing away +through sickness and hardships; surrounded by a howling wilderness +and savage tribes; exposed to the rigors of an almost arctic +winter,—their minds were filled with doleful forebodings.</p> +<p>39. List to the mournful tradition still sung by the pines of +the forest.</p> +<p>40.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>In the Acadian land, on the shores of the +Basin of Minas,<br /></span> <span>Distant, secluded, still, the +little village of Grand-Pré<br /></span> <span>Lay in the +fruitful valley.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>41. Must we in all things look for the how, and the why, and the +wherefore?</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CONTRACTED_SENTENCES" id= +"CONTRACTED_SENTENCES"></a><a name="Page_255" id= +"Page_255"></a><b>CONTRACTED SENTENCES.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Words left out after</i> than <i>or</i> +as.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>365.</b></span> Some sentences look like +simple ones in form, but have an essential part omitted that is so +readily supplied by the mind as not to need expressing. Such are +the following:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"There is no country more worthy of our study than England [is +worthy of our study]."</p> +<p>"The distinctions between them do not seem to be so marked as +[they are marked] in the cities."</p> +</div> +<p>To show that these words are really omitted, compare with them +the two following:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"The nobility and gentry are more popular among the inferior +orders than <i>they are</i> in any other country."</p> +<p>"This is not so universally the case at present as <i>it was</i> +formerly."</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Sentences with</i> like.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>366.</b></span> As shown in Part I. (Sec. +333). the expressions <i>of manner</i> introduced by <i>like</i>, +though often treated as phrases, are really contracted clauses; +but, if they were expanded, <i>as</i> would be the connective +instead of <i>like</i>; thus,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>"They'll shine o'er her sleep, like [as] +a smile from the west [would shine].<br /></span> <span>From her +own loved island of sorrow."<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>This must, however, be carefully discriminated from cases where +<i>like</i> is an adjective complement; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"She is <i>like</i> some tender tree, the pride and beauty of +the grove;" "The ruby seemed <i>like</i> a spark of fire burning +upon her white bosom."</p> +</div> +<p>Such contracted sentences form a connecting link between our +study of simple and complex sentences.</p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="COMPLEX_SENTENCES" id="COMPLEX_SENTENCES"></a><a name= +"Page_256" id="Page_256"></a><b>COMPLEX SENTENCES.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The simple sentence the basis.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>367.</b></span> Our investigations have now +included all the machinery of the simple sentence, which is the +<i>unit of speech</i>.</p> +<p>Our further study will be in sentences which are combinations of +simple sentences, made merely for convenience and smoothness, to +avoid the tiresome repetition of short ones of monotonous +similarity.</p> +<p>Next to the simple sentence stands the complex sentence. The +basis of it is two or more simple sentences, which are so united +that one member is the main one,—the backbone,—the +other members subordinate to it, or dependent on it; as in this +sentence,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"When such a spirit breaks forth into complaint, we are aware +how great must be the suffering that extorts the murmur."</p> +</div> +<p>The relation of the parts is as follows:—</p> +<pre> + + <b>we are aware</b> + _______ _____ + | | + __| <i>when such a spirit breaks</i> + | <i>forth into complaint</i>, + | + <i>how great must be the suffering</i> + | + that extorts the murmur. + +</pre> +<p>This arrangement shows to the eye the picture that the sentence +forms in the mind,—how the first clause is held in suspense +by the mind till the second, <b>we are aware</b>, is taken in; then +we recognize this as the main statement; and the next one, <i>how +great ... suffering</i>, drops into its place as subordinate to +<i>we are aware</i>; and the last, <i>that ... murmur</i>, +logically depends on <i>suffering</i>.</p> +<p>Hence the following definition:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_257" id= +"Page_257"></a><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>368.</b></span> A <b>complex sentence</b> is +one containing one main or independent clause (also called the +principal proposition or clause), and <i>one or more</i> +subordinate or dependent clauses.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>369.</b></span> The <b>elements</b> of a +complex sentence are the same as those of the simple sentence; that +is, each clause has its subject, predicate, object, complements, +modifiers, etc.</p> +<p>But there is this difference: whereas the simple sentence always +has a word or a phrase for subject, object, complement, and +modifier, the complex sentence has <i>statements</i> or +<i>clauses</i> for these places.</p> +<h3>CLAUSES.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>370.</b></span> A clause is a division of a +sentence, containing a verb with its subject.</p> +<p>Hence the term <i>clause</i> may refer to the main division of +the complex sentence, or it may be applied to the others,—the +dependent or subordinate clauses.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Independent clause.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>371.</b></span> A <b>principal, main</b>, or +<b>independent clause</b> is one making a statement without the +help of any other clause.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Dependent clause.</i></div> +<p>A <b>subordinate</b> or <b>dependent clause</b> is one which +makes a statement depending upon or modifying some word in the +principal clause.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Kinds.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>372.</b></span> As to their office in the +sentence, clauses are divided into NOUN, ADJECTIVE, and ADVERB +clauses, according as they are equivalent in use to nouns, +adjectives, or adverbs.</p> +<p><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258"></a><b>Noun Clauses.</b></p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>373.</b></span> Noun clauses have the +following uses:—</p> +<p>(1) <i>Subject</i>: "<i>That such men should give prejudiced +views of America</i> is not a matter of surprise."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Object of a verb</i>, <i>verbal</i>, <i>or the equivalent +of a verb</i>: (<i>a</i>) "I confess <i>these stories, for a time, +put an end to my fancies</i>;" (<i>b</i>) "I am aware [I know] +<i>that a skillful illustrator of the immortal bard would have +swelled the materials</i>."</p> +<p>Just as the object noun, pronoun, infinitive, etc., is retained +after a passive verb (Sec. 352, 5), so the object clause is +retained, and should not be called an adjunct of the subject; for +example, "We are persuaded <i>that a thread runs through all +things</i>;" "I was told <i>that the house had not been shut, night +or day, for a hundred years</i>."</p> +<p>(3) <i>Complement</i>: "The terms of admission to this spectacle +are, <i>that he have a certain solid and intelligible way of +living</i>."</p> +<p>(4) <i>Apposition</i>. (<i>a</i>) Ordinary apposition, +explanatory of some noun or its equivalent: "Cecil's saying of Sir +Walter Raleigh, '<i>I know that he can toil terribly</i>,' is an +electric touch."</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) After "it <i>introductory</i>" (logically this is a +subject clause, but it is often treated as in apposition with +<i>it</i>): "<i>It</i> was the opinion of some, <i>that this might +be the wild huntsman famous in German legend</i>."</p> +<p>(5) <i>Object of a preposition</i>: "At length he reached to +<i>where the ravine had opened through the cliffs</i>."</p> +<p>Notice that frequently only the introductory <a name="Page_259" +id="Page_259"></a>word is the object of the preposition, and the +whole clause is not; thus, "The rocks presented a high impenetrable +wall, <i>over which</i> the torrent came tumbling."</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>374.</b></span> Here are to be noticed +certain sentences seemingly complex, with a noun clause in +apposition with <i>it</i>; but logically they are nothing but +simple sentences. But since they are <i>complex in form</i>, +attention is called to them here; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"Alas! it is we ourselves that are getting buried alive under +this avalanche of earthly impertinences."</p> +</div> +<p>To divide this into two clauses—(<i>a</i>) <i>It is we +ourselves</i>, (<i>b</i>) <i>that are ... +impertinences</i>—would be grammatical; but logically the +sentence is, <i>We ourselves are getting ... impertinences</i>, and +<i>it is ... that</i> is merely a framework used to effect +emphasis. The sentence shows how <i>it</i> may lose its pronominal +force.</p> +<p>Other examples of this construction are,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"It is on the understanding, and not on the sentiment, of a +nation, that all safe legislation must be based."</p> +<p>"Then it is that deliberative Eloquence lays aside the plain +attire of her daily occupation."</p> +</div> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Tell how each noun clause is used in these sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. I felt that I breathed an atmosphere of sorrow.</p> +<p>2. But the fact is, I was napping.</p> +<p>3. Shaking off from my spirit what must have been a dream, I +scanned more narrowly the aspect of the building.</p> +<p>4. Except by what he could see for himself, he could know +nothing.</p> +<p><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260"></a>5. Whatever he looks upon +discloses a second sense.</p> +<p>6. It will not be pretended that a success in either of these +kinds is quite coincident with what is best and inmost in his +mind.</p> +<p>7. The reply of Socrates, to him who asked whether he should +choose a wife, still remains reasonable, that, whether he should +choose one or not, he would repent it.</p> +<p>8. What history it had, how it changed from shape to shape, no +man will ever know.</p> +<p>9. Such a man is what we call an original man.</p> +<p>10. Our current hypothesis about Mohammed, that he was a +scheming impostor, a falsehood incarnate, that his religion is a +mere mass of quackery and fatuity, begins really to be no longer +tenable to any one.</p> +</div> +<h3>Adjective Clauses.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>375.</b></span> As the office of an +adjective is to modify, the only use of an adjective clause is to +limit or describe some noun, or equivalent of a noun: consequently +the adjective may modify <i>any</i> noun, or equivalent of a noun, +in the sentence.</p> +<p>The adjective clause may be introduced by the relative pronouns +<i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>that</i>, <i>but</i>, <i>as</i>; +sometimes by the conjunctions <i>when</i>, <i>where</i>, +<i>whither</i>, <i>whence</i>, <i>wherein</i>, <i>whereby</i>, +etc.</p> +<p>Frequently there is no connecting word, a relative pronoun being +understood.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Examples of adjective clauses</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>376.</b></span> Adjective clauses may +modify—</p> +<p>(1) <i>The subject</i>: "The themes <i>it offers for +contemplation</i> are too vast for their capacities;" "Those <i>who +see the Englishman only in town</i>, are apt to form an unfavorable +opinion of his social character."</p> +<p>(2) <i>The object</i>: "From this piazza Ichabod en<a name= +"Page_261" id="Page_261"></a>tered the hall, <i>which formed the +center of the mansion</i>."</p> +<p>(3) <i>The complement</i>: "The animal he bestrode was a +broken-down plow-horse, <i>that had outlived almost everything but +his usefulness</i>;" "It was such an apparition <i>as is seldom to +be met with in broad daylight</i>."</p> +<p>(4) <i>Other words</i>: "He rode with short stirrups, <i>which +brought his knees nearly up to the pommel of the saddle</i>;" "No +whit anticipating the oblivion <i>which awaited their names and +feats</i>, the champions advanced through the lists;" "Charity +covereth a multitude of sins, in another sense than that <i>in +which it is said to do so in Scripture</i>."</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Pick out the adjective clauses, and tell what each one modifies; +i.e., whether subject, object, etc.</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. There were passages that reminded me perhaps too much of +Massillon.</p> +<p>2. I walked home with Calhoun, who said that the principles +which I had avowed were just and noble.</p> +<p>3. Other men are lenses through which we read our own minds.</p> +<p>4. In one of those celestial days when heaven and earth meet and +adorn each other, it seems a pity that we can only spend it +once.</p> +<p>5. One of the maidens presented a silver cup, containing a rich +mixture of wine and spice, which Rowena tasted.</p> +<p>6. No man is reason or illumination, or that essence we were +looking for.</p> +<p>7. In the moment when he ceases to help us as a cause, he begins +to help us more as an effect.</p> +<p>8. Socrates took away all ignominy from the place, which could +not be a prison whilst he was there.</p> +<p>9. This is perhaps the reason why we so seldom hear <a name= +"Page_262" id="Page_262"></a>ghosts except in our long-established +Dutch settlements.</p> +<p>10. From the moment you lose sight of the land you have left, +all is vacancy.</p> +<p>11. Nature waited tranquilly for the hour to be struck when man +should arrive.</p> +</div> +<p><b>Adverbial Clauses</b>.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>377.</b></span> The adverb clause takes the +place of an adverb in modifying a verb, a verbal, an adjective, or +an adverb. The student has met with many adverb clauses in his +study of the subjunctive mood and of subordinate conjunctions; but +they require careful study, and will be given in detail, with +examples.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>378.</b></span> Adverb clauses are of the +following kinds:</p> +<p>(1) TIME: "<i>As we go</i>, the milestones are grave-stones;" +"He had gone but a little way <i>before he espied a foul fiend +coming</i>;" "<i>When he was come up to Christian</i>, he beheld +him with a disdainful countenance."</p> +<p>(2) PLACE: "<i>Wherever the sentiment of right comes in</i>, it +takes precedence of everything else;" "He went several times to +England, <i>where he does not seem to have attracted any +attention</i>."</p> +<p>(3) REASON, or CAUSE: "His English editor lays no stress on his +discoveries, <i>since he was too great to care to be original</i>;" +"I give you joy <i>that truth is altogether wholesome</i>."</p> +<p>(4) MANNER: "The knowledge of the past is valuable only <i>as it +leads us to form just calculations with respect to the future</i>;" +"After leaving the whole party under the table, he goes away <i>as +if nothing had happened</i>."</p> +<p><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263"></a>(5) DEGREE, or COMPARISON: +"They all become wiser <i>than they were</i>;" "The right +conclusion is, that we should try, so far <i>as we can</i>, to make +up our shortcomings;" "Master Simon was in as chirping a humor +<i>as a grasshopper filled with dew</i> [is];" "<i>The broader +their education is</i>, the wider is the horizon of their thought." +The first clause in the last sentence is dependent, expressing the +degree in which the horizon, etc., is wider.</p> +<p>(6) PURPOSE: "Nature took us in hand, shaping our actions, <i>so +that we might not be ended untimely by too gross +disobedience</i>."</p> +<p>(7) RESULT, or CONSEQUENCE: "He wrote on the scale of the mind +itself, <i>so that all things have symmetry in his tablet</i>;" +"The window was so far superior to every other in the church, +<i>that the vanquished artist killed himself from +mortification</i>."</p> +<p>(8) CONDITION: "<i>If we tire of the saints</i>, Shakespeare is +our city of refuge;" "Who cares for that, <i>so thou gain aught +wider and nobler</i>?" "You can die grandly, and as goddesses would +die <i>were goddesses mortal</i>."</p> +<p>(9) CONCESSION, introduced by indefinite relatives, adverbs, and +adverbial conjunctions,—<i>whoever</i>, <i>whatever</i>, +<i>however</i>, etc.: "But still, <i>however good she may be as a +witness</i>, Joanna is better;" "<i>Whatever there may remain of +illiberal in discussion</i>, there is always something illiberal in +the severer aspects of study."</p> +<p>These mean <i>no matter how good, no matter what remains</i>, +etc.</p> +<p><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264"></a><b>Exercise.</b></p> +<p>Pick out the adverbial clauses in the following sentences; tell +what kind each is, and what it modifies:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. As I was clearing away the weeds from this epitaph, the +little sexton drew me on one side with a mysterious air, and +informed me in a low voice that once upon a time, on a dark wintry +night, when the wind was unruly, howling and whistling, banging +about doors and windows, and twirling weathercocks, so that the +living were frightened out of their beds, and even the dead could +not sleep quietly in their graves, the ghost of honest Preston was +attracted by the well-known call of "waiter," and made its sudden +appearance just as the parish clerk was singing a stave from the +"mirrie garland of Captain Death."</p> +<p>2. If the children gathered about her, as they sometimes did, +Pearl would grow positively terrible in her puny wrath, snatching +up stones to fling at them, with shrill, incoherent exclamations, +that made her mother tremble because they had so much the sound of +a witch's anathemas.</p> +<p>3. The spell of life went forth from her ever-creative spirit, +and communicated itself to a thousand objects, as a torch kindles a +flame wherever it may be applied.</p> +</div> +<h3>ANALYZING COMPLEX SENTENCES.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>379.</b></span> These suggestions will be +found helpful:—</p> +<p>(1) See that the sentence and all its parts are placed in the +natural order of subject, predicate, object, and modifiers.</p> +<p>(2) First take the sentence <i>as a whole</i>; find the +principal subject and principal predicate; then treat noun clauses +as nouns, adjective clauses as adjectives modifying certain words, +and adverb clauses as single modifying adverbs.</p> +<p>(3) Analyze each clause as a simple sentence. For example, in +the sentence, "Cannot we conceive that Odin was a reality?" +<i>we</i> is the prin<a name="Page_265" id="Page_265"></a>cipal +subject; <i>cannot conceive</i> is the principal predicate; its +object is <i>that Odin was a reality</i>, of which clause +<i>Odin</i> is the subject, etc.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>380.</b></span> It is sometimes of great +advantage to map out a sentence after analyzing it, so as to +picture the parts and their relations. To take a +sentence:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"I cannot help thinking that the fault is in themselves, and +that if the church and the cataract were in the habit of giving +away their thoughts with that rash generosity which characterizes +tourists, they might perhaps say of their visitors, 'Well, if you +are those men of whom we have heard so much, we are a little +disappointed, to tell the truth.'"</p> +</div> +<p>This may be represented as follows:—</p> +<pre> + <b>I cannot help thinking</b> + ____________________ + | + _______________________| + | + | (<i>a</i>) THAT THE FAULT IS IN THEMSELVES, AND + | + | (<i>b</i>) [THAT] THEY MIGHT (PERHAPS) SAY OF THEIR VISITORS + | ___________________ + | | + | _____________________________|_________________________________ + | | | + | | (<i>a</i>) We are (a little) disappointed | + | O| ___________________________ | + O| b| ________________________| | + b| j| M| | + j| e| o| (<i>b</i>) If you are those men | + e| c| d| ___ | + c| t| i| _________________________| | + t| | f| M| | + | | i| o| Of whom we have heard so much. | + | | e| d. | + | \ r\ \ | + | _____________________________________________________| + | M| + | o| (<i>a</i>) If the church and ... that rash generosity + | d| __________ + | i| | + | f| _______________________________________________| + | i| | + | e| | (<i>b</i>) Which characterizes tourists. + | r| | + \ \ \ +</pre> +<h3>OUTLINE</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>381.</b></span> (1) Find the principal +clause.</p> +<p>(2) Analyze it according to Sec. 364.</p> +<p>(3) Analyze the dependent clauses according <a name="Page_266" +id="Page_266"></a>to Sec. 364. This of course includes dependent +clauses that depend on other dependent clauses, as seen in the +"map" (Sec. 380).</p> +<h4>Exercises.</h4> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Analyze the following complex sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Take the place and attitude which belong to you.</p> +<p>2. That mood into which a friend brings us is his dominion over +us.</p> +<p>3. True art is only possible on the condition that every talent +has its apotheosis somewhere.</p> +<p>4. The deep eyes, of a light hazel, were as full of sorrow as of +inspiration.</p> +<p>5. She is the only church that has been loyal to the heart and +soul of man, that has clung to her faith in the imagination.</p> +<p>6. She has never lost sight of the truth that the product human +nature is composed of the sum of flesh and spirit.</p> +<p>7. But now that she has become an establishment, she begins to +perceive that she made a blunder in trusting herself to the +intellect alone.</p> +<p>8. Before long his talk would wander into all the universe, +where it was uncertain what game you would catch, or whether +any.</p> +<p>9. The night proved unusually dark, so that the two principals +had to tie white handkerchiefs round their elbows in order to +descry each other.</p> +<p>10. Whether she would ever awake seemed to depend upon an +accident.</p> +<p>11. Here lay two great roads, not so much for travelers that +were few, as for armies that were too many by half.</p> +<p>12. It was haunted to that degree by fairies, that the parish +priest was obliged to read mass there once a year.</p> +<p>13. More than one military plan was entered upon which she did +not approve.</p> +<p>14. As surely as the wolf retires before cities, does the fairy +sequester herself from the haunts of the licensed victualer.</p> +<p>15. M. Michelet is anxious to keep us in mind that this bishop +was but an agent of the English.</p> +<p><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267"></a>16. Next came a wretched +Dominican, that pressed her with an objection, which, if applied to +the Bible, would tax every miracle with unsoundness.</p> +<p>17. The reader ought to be reminded that Joanna D'Arc was +subject to an unusually unfair trial.</p> +<p>18. Now, had she really testified this willingness on the +scaffold, it would have argued nothing at all but the weakness of a +genial nature.</p> +<p>19. And those will often pity that weakness most, who would +yield to it least.</p> +<p>20. Whether she said the word is uncertain.</p> +<p>21. This is she, the shepherd girl, counselor that had none for +herself, whom I choose, bishop, for yours.</p> +<p>22. Had <i>they</i> been better chemists, had <i>we</i> been +worse, the mixed result, namely, that, dying for <i>them</i>, the +flower should revive for <i>us</i>, could not have been +effected.</p> +<p>23. I like that representation they have of the tree.</p> +<p>24. He was what our country people call <i>an old one</i>.</p> +<p>25. He thought not any evil happened to men of such magnitude as +false opinion.</p> +<p>26. These things we are forced to say, if we must consider the +effort of Plato to dispose of Nature,—which will not be +disposed of.</p> +<p>27. He showed one who was afraid to go on foot to Olympia, that +it was no more than his daily walk, if continuously extended, would +easily reach.</p> +<p>28. What can we see or acquire but what we are?</p> +<p>29. Our eyes are holden that we cannot see things that stare us +in the face, until the hour arrives when the mind is ripened.</p> +<p>30. There is good reason why we should prize this +liberation.</p> +</div> +<p><i>(b)</i> First analyze, then map out as in Sec. 380, the +following complex sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. The way to speak and write what shall not go out of fashion, +is to speak and write sincerely.</p> +<p>2. The writer who takes his subject from his ear, and not from +his heart, should know that he has lost as much as he has +gained.</p> +<p>3. "No book," said Bentley, "was ever written down by any but +itself."</p> +<p><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268"></a>4. That which we do not +believe, we cannot adequately say, though we may repeat the words +never so often.</p> +<p>5. We say so because we feel that what we love is not in your +will, but above it.</p> +<p>6. It makes no difference how many friends I have, and what +content I can find in conversing with each, if there be one to whom +I am not equal.</p> +<p>7. In every troop of boys that whoop and run in each yard and +square, a new-comer is as well and accurately weighed in the course +of a few days, and stamped with his right number, as if he had +undergone a formal trial of his strength, speed, and temper.</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="COMPOUND_SENTENCES" id= +"COMPOUND_SENTENCES"></a><b>COMPOUND SENTENCES.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>How formed.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>382.</b></span> The <b>compound sentence</b> +is a combination of two or more simple or complex sentences. While +the complex sentence has only <i>one</i> main clause, the compound +has <i>two or more</i> independent clauses making statements, +questions, or commands. Hence the definition,—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definition.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>383.</b></span> A <b>compound sentence</b> +is one which contains two or more independent clauses.</p> +<p>This leaves room for any number of subordinate clauses in a +compound sentence: the requirement is simply that it have at least +two independent clauses.</p> +<p>Examples of compound sentences:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Examples.</i></div> +<p>(1) <i>Simple sentences united:</i> "He is a palace of sweet +sounds and sights; he dilates; he is twice a man; he walks with +arms akimbo; he soliloquizes."</p> +<p>(2) <i>Simple with complex:</i> "The trees of the forest, the +waving grass, and the peeping flowers have grown intelligent; and +he almost fears to trust them with the secret which they seem to +invite."</p> +<p><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269"></a>(3) <i>Complex with +complex:</i> "The power which resides in him is new in nature, and +none but he knows what that is which he can do, nor does he know +until he has tried."</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>384.</b></span> From this it is evident that +nothing new is added to the work of analysis already done.</p> +<p>The same analysis of simple sentences is repeated in (1) and (2) +above, and what was done in complex sentences is repeated in (2) +and (3).</p> +<p>The division into members will be easier, for the +coördinate independent statements are readily taken apart with +the subordinate clauses attached, if there are any.</p> +<p>Thus in (1), the semicolons cut apart the independent members, +which are simple statements; in (2), the semicolon separates the +first, a simple member, from the second, a complex member; in (3), +<i>and</i> connects the first and second complex members, and +<i>nor</i> the second and third complex members.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Connectives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>385.</b></span> The coördinate +conjunctions <i>and</i>, <i>nor</i>, <i>or</i> <i>but</i>, etc., +introduce independent clauses (see Sec. 297).</p> +<p>But the conjunction is often omitted in copulative and +adversative clauses, as in Sec. 383 (1). Another example is, "Only +the star dazzles; the planet has a faint, moon-like ray" +(adversative).</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Study the thought.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>386.</b></span> The one point that will give +trouble is the variable use of some connectives; as <i>but</i>, +<i>for</i>, <i>yet</i>, <i>while</i> (<i>whilst</i>), +<i>however</i>, <i>whereas</i>, etc. Some of these are now +conjunctions, now adverbs or prepo<a name="Page_270" id= +"Page_270"></a>sitions; others sometimes coördinate, sometimes +subordinate conjunctions.</p> +<p>The student must watch <i>the logical connection</i> of the +members of the sentence, and not the form of the connective.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Of the following illustrative sentences, tell which are +compound, and which complex:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Speak your latent conviction, and it shall be the universal +sense; for the inmost in due time becomes the outmost.</p> +<p>2. I no longer wish to meet a good I do not earn, for example, +to find a pot of buried gold.</p> +<p>3. Your goodness must have some edge to it—else it is +none.</p> +<p>4. Man does not stand in awe of man, nor is his genius +admonished to stay at home, but it goes abroad to beg a cup of +water of the urns of other men.</p> +<p>5. A man cannot speak but he judges himself.</p> +<p>6. In your metaphysics you have denied personality to the Deity, +yet when the devout motions of the soul come, yield to them heart +and life.</p> +<p>7. I thought that it was a Sunday morning in May; that it was +Easter Sunday, and as yet very early in the morning.</p> +<p>8. We denote the primary wisdom as intuition, whilst all later +teachings are tuitions.</p> +<p>9. Whilst the world is thus dual, so is every one of its +parts.</p> +<p>10. They measure the esteem of each other by what each has, and +not by what each is.</p> +<p>11. For everything you have missed, you have gained something +else; and for everything you gain, you lose something.</p> +<p>12. I sometimes seemed to have lived for seventy or one hundred +years in one night; nay, I sometimes had feelings representative of +a millennium, passed in that time, or, however, of a duration far +beyond the limits of experience.</p> +<p><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271"></a>13. However some may think +him wanting in zeal, the most fanatical can find no taint of +apostasy in any measure of his.</p> +<p>14. In this manner, from a happy yet often pensive child, he +grew up to be a mild, quiet, unobtrusive boy, and sun-browned with +labor in the fields, but with more intelligence than is seen in +many lads from the schools.</p> +</div> +<h3>OUTLINE FOR ANALYZING COMPOUND SENTENCES.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>387.</b></span> (i) Separate it into its +main members. (2) Analyze each complex member as in Sec. 381. (3) +Analyze each simple member as in Sec. 364.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Analyze the following compound sentences:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. The gain is apparent; the tax is certain.</p> +<p>2. If I feel overshadowed and outdone by great neighbors, I can +yet love; I can still receive; and he that loveth maketh his own +the grandeur that he loves.</p> +<p>3. Love, and thou shalt be loved.</p> +<p>4. All loss, all pain, is particular; the universe remains to +the heart unhurt.</p> +<p>5. Place yourself in the middle of the stream of power and +wisdom which animates all whom it floats, and you are without +effort impelled to truth.</p> +<p>6. He teaches who gives, and he learns who receives.</p> +<p>7. Whatever he knows and thinks, whatever in his apprehension is +worth doing, that let him communicate, or men will never know and +honor him aright.</p> +<p>8. Stand aside; give those merits room; let them mount and +expand.</p> +<p>9. We see the noble afar off, and they repel us; why should we +intrude?</p> +<p>10. We go to Europe, or we pursue persons, or we read books, in +the instinctive faith that these will call it out and reveal us to +ourselves.</p> +<p>11. A gay and pleasant sound is the whetting of the scythe in +the mornings of June, yet what is more lonesome and sad than the +sound of a whetstone or mower's rifle when it is too late in the +season to make hay?</p> +<p>12. "Strike," says the smith, "the iron is white;" "<a name= +"Page_272" id="Page_272"></a>keep the rake," says the haymaker, "as +nigh the scythe as you can, and the cart as nigh the rake."</p> +<p>13. Trust men, and they will be true to you; treat them greatly, +and they will show themselves great, though they make an exception +in your favor to all their rules of trade.</p> +<p>14. On the most profitable lie the course of events presently +lays a destructive tax; whilst frankness invites frankness, puts +the parties on a convenient footing, and makes their business a +friendship.</p> +<p>15. The sturdiest offender of your peace and of the +neighborhood, if you rip up his claims, is as thin and timid as +any; and the peace of society is often kept, because, as children, +one is afraid, and the other dares not.</p> +<p>16. They will shuffle and crow, crook and hide, feign to confess +here, only that they may brag and conquer there, and not a thought +has enriched either party, and not an emotion of bravery, modesty, +or hope.</p> +<p>17. The magic they used was the ideal tendencies, which always +make the Actual ridiculous; but the tough world had its revenge the +moment they put their horses of the sun to plow in its furrow.</p> +<p>18. Come into port greatly, or sail with God the seas.</p> +<p>19. When you have chosen your part, abide by it, and do not +weakly try to reconcile yourself with the world.</p> +<p>20. Times of heroism are generally times of terror, but the day +never shines in which this element may not work.</p> +<p>21. Life is a train of moods like a string of beads, and as we +pass through them they prove to be many-colored lenses which paint +the world their own hue, and each shows only what lies at its +focus.</p> +<p>22. We see young men who owe us a new world, so readily and +lavishly they promise, but they never acquit the debt; they die +young, and dodge the account; or, if they live, they lose +themselves in the crowd.</p> +<p>23. So does culture with us; it ends in headache.</p> +<p>24. Do not craze yourself with thinking, but go about your +business anywhere.</p> +<p>25. Thus journeys the mighty Ideal before us; it never was known +to fall into the rear.</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="PART_III" id="PART_III"></a><a name="Page_273" id= +"Page_273"></a><b>PART III.</b></h2> +<h3><i>SYNTAX</i>.<a name="Page_274" id="Page_274"></a></h3> +<h2><a name="INTRODUCTORY" id="INTRODUCTORY"></a><a name="Page_275" +id="Page_275"></a><b>INTRODUCTORY.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>By way of introduction.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>388.</b></span> Syntax is from a Greek word +meaning <i>order</i> or <i>arrangement</i>.</p> +<p>Syntax deals with the relation of words to each other as +component parts of a sentence, and with their proper arrangement to +express clearly the intended meaning.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Ground covered by syntax.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>380.</b></span> Following the Latin method, +writers on English grammar usually divide syntax into the two +general heads,—<b>agreement</b> and <b>government</b>.</p> +<p><b>Agreement</b> is concerned with the following relations of +words: words in apposition, verb and subject, pronoun and +antecedent, adjective and noun.</p> +<p><b>Government</b> has to do with verbs and prepositions, both of +which are said to govern words by having them in the objective +case.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>390.</b></span> Considering the scarcity of +inflections in English, it is clear that if we merely follow the +Latin treatment, the department of syntax will be a small affair. +But there is a good deal else to watch in addition to the few +forms; for there is an important and marked difference between +Latin and English syntax. It is this:—</p> +<p>Latin syntax depends upon fixed rules governing the use of +inflected forms: hence the <i>position</i> of words in a sentence +is of little grammatical importance.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_276" id= +"Page_276"></a><i>Essential point in English syntax.</i></div> +<p>English syntax follows the Latin to a limited extent; but its +leading characteristic is, that English syntax is founded upon +<i>the meaning</i> and <i>the logical connection</i> of words +rather than upon their form: consequently it is quite as necessary +to place words properly, and to think clearly of the meaning of +words, as to study inflected forms.</p> +<p>For example, the sentence, "The savage here the settler slew," +is ambiguous. <i>Savage</i> may be the subject, following the +regular order of subject; or <i>settler</i> may be the subject, the +order being inverted. In Latin, distinct forms would be used, and +it would not matter which one stood first.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Why study syntax?</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>391.</b></span> There is, then, a double +reason for not omitting syntax as a department of +grammar,—</p> +<p><i>First</i>, To study the rules regarding the use of inflected +forms, some of which conform to classical grammar, while some are +idiomatic (peculiar to our own language).</p> +<p><i>Second</i>, To find out the <i>logical methods</i> which +control us in the arrangement of words; and particularly when the +grammatical and the logical conception of a sentence do not agree, +or when they exist side by side in good usage.</p> +<p>As an illustration of the last remark, take the sentence, +"Besides these famous books of Scott's and Johnson's, there is a +copious 'Life' by Sheridan." In this there is a possessive form, +and added to it the preposition <i>of</i>, also expressing a +possessive relation. This is not logical; it is not consistent with +the general rules of grammar: but none the less it is good +English.</p> +<p><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277"></a>Also in the sentence, "None +remained but he," grammatical rules would require <i>him</i> +instead of <i>he</i> after the preposition; yet the expression is +sustained by good authority.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Some rules not rigid.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>392.</b></span> In some cases, +authorities—that is, standard writers—differ as to +which of two constructions should be used, or the same writer will +use both indifferently. Instances will be found in treating of the +pronoun or noun with a gerund, pronoun and antecedent, sometimes +verb and subject, etc.</p> +<p>When usage varies as to a given construction, both forms will be +given in the following pages.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The basis of syntax.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>393.</b></span> Our treatment of syntax will +be an endeavor to record the best usage of the present time on +important points; and nothing but important points will be +considered, for it is easy to confuse a student with too many +obtrusive <i>don'ts</i>.</p> +<p>The constructions presented as general will be justified by +quotations from <i>modern writers of English</i> who are regarded +as "standard;" that is, writers whose style is generally +acknowledged as superior, and whose judgment, therefore, will be +accepted by those in quest of authoritative opinion.</p> +<p>Reference will also be made to spoken English when its +constructions differ from those of the literary language, and to +vulgar English when it preserves forms which were once, but are not +now, good English.</p> +<p>It may be suggested to the student that the only way to acquire +correctness is to watch good usage <i>everywhere</i>, and imitate +it.<a name="Page_278" id="Page_278"></a></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="NOUNSIII" id="NOUNSIII"></a><b>NOUNS.</b></h2> +<p><span class="sn"><b>394.</b></span> Nouns have no distinct forms +for the nominative and objective cases: hence no mistake can be +made in using them. But some remarks are required concerning the +use of the possessive case.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Use of the possessive. Joint +possession.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>395.</b></span> When two or more possessives +modify the same noun, or indicate joint ownership or possession, +the possessive sign is added to the last noun only; for +example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Live your <i>king and country's</i> best support.<span class= +"smcap">—Rowe.</span></p> +<p>Woman, <i>sense and nature's</i> easy fool.<span class= +"smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p><i>Oliver and Boyd's</i> printing office.<span class= +"smcap">—Mcculloch.</span></p> +<p><i>Adam and Eve's</i> morning hymn.<span class= +"smcap">—Milton.</span></p> +<p>In <i>Beaumont and Fletcher's</i> "Sea Voyage," Juletta tells, +etc.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Separate possession.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>396.</b></span> When two or more possessives +stand before the same noun, but imply separate possession or +ownership, the possessive sign is used with each noun; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He lands us on a grassy stage, Safe from the <i>storm's</i> and +<i>prelate's</i> rage.<span class="smcap">—Marvell</span></p> +<p>Where were the sons of Peers and Members of Parliament in +<i>Anne's</i> and <i>George's</i> time?<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p><i>Levi's</i> station in life was the receipt of custom; and +<i>Peter's</i>, the shore of Galilee; and <i>Paul's</i>, the +antechamber of the High Priest.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>Swift did not keep <i>Stella's</i> letters. He kept +<i>Bolingbroke's,</i> and <i>Pope's</i>, and <i>Harley's</i>, and +<i>Peterborough's</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>An actor in one of <i>Morton's</i> or <i>Kotzebue's</i> +plays.<span class="smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>Putting <i>Mr. Mill's</i> and <i>Mr. Bentham's</i> principles +together. —<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279"></a><span class= +"sn"><b>397.</b></span> The possessive preceding the gerund will be +considered under the possessive of pronouns (Sec. 408).</p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="PRONOUNSIII" id= +"PRONOUNSIII"></a><b>PRONOUNS.</b></h2> +<h3>PERSONAL PRONOUNS.</h3> +<h3>I. NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE FORMS.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>398.</b></span> Since most of the personal +pronouns, together with the relative <i>who</i>, have separate +forms for nominative and objective use, there are two general rules +that require attention.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>General rules.</i></div> +<p>(1) The <i>nominative use</i> is usually marked by the +nominative form of the pronoun.</p> +<p>(2) The <i>objective use</i> is usually marked by the objective +form of the pronoun.</p> +<p>These simple rules are sometimes violated in spoken and in +literary English. Some of the violations are universally condemned; +others are generally, if not universally, sanctioned.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Objective for the nominative.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>399.</b></span> The objective is sometimes +found instead of the nominative in the following +instances:—</p> +<p>(1) By a common vulgarism of ignorance or carelessness, no +notice is taken of the proper form to be used as subject; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He and <i>me</i> once went in the dead of winter in a one-hoss +shay out to Boonville.<span class="smcap">—Whitcher,</span> +<i>Bedott Papers.</i></p> +<p>It seems strange to me that <i>them</i> that preach up the +doctrine don't admire one who carrys it out.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Josiah Allens Wife.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) By faulty analysis of the sentence, the true relation of the +words is misunderstood; for exam<a name="Page_280" id= +"Page_280"></a>ple, "<i>Whom</i> think ye that I am?" (In this, +<i>whom</i> is the complement after the verb <i>am</i>, and should +be the nominative form, <i>who</i>.) "The young Harper, <i>whom</i> +they agree was rather nice-looking" (<i>whom</i> is the subject of +the verb <i>was</i>).</p> +<p>Especially is this fault to be noticed after an ellipsis with +<i>than</i> or <i>as</i>, the real thought being forgotten; +thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>But the consolation coming from devotion did not go far with +such a one as <i>her</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Trollope.</span></p> +</div> +<p>This should be "as <i>she</i>," because the full expression +would be "such a one as <i>she is</i>."</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>400.</b></span> Still, the last expression +has the support of many good writers, as shown in the following +examples:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>She was neither better bred nor wiser than you or +<i>me</i>.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>No mightier than thyself or <i>me</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +<p>Lin'd with Giants deadlier than <i>'em</i> all.<span class= +"smcap">—Pope.</span></p> +<p>But he must be a stronger than <i>thee</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Southey.</span></p> +<p>Not to render up my soul to such as <i>thee</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p>I shall not learn my duty from such as <i>thee</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Fielding.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A safe rule.</i></div> +<p>It will be safer for the student to follow the general rule, as +illustrated in the following sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If so, they are yet holier than <i>we</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>Who would suppose it is the game of such as +<i>he</i>?<span class="smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Do we see<br /></span> <span>The robber +and the murd'rer weak as <i>we</i>?<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Milton.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I have no other saint than <i>thou</i> to pray to.<span class= +"smcap">—Longfellow.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>Than</i> whom."</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>401.</b></span> One exception is to be +noted. The expression <b>than whom</b> seems to be used universally +instead of "than <i>who</i>." There is no special reason for this, +but such is the fact; for example,—<a name="Page_281" id= +"Page_281"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>One I remember especially,—one <i>than whom</i> I never +met a bandit more gallant.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>The camp of Richard of England, <i>than whom</i> none knows +better how to do honor to a noble foe.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>She had a companion who had been ever agreeable, and her estate +a steward <i>than whom</i> no one living was supposed to be more +competent.<span class="smcap">—Parton.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>It was</i> he" <i>or</i> "<i>It was</i> +him"?</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>402.</b></span> And there is one question +about which grammarians are not agreed, namely, whether the +nominative or the objective form should be used in the predicate +after <i>was</i>, <i>is</i>, <i>are</i>, and the other forms of the +verb <i>be</i>.</p> +<p>It may be stated with assurance that the literary language +<i>prefers the nominative</i> in this instance, as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>For there was little doubt that it was <i>he</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>But still it is not <i>she</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And it was <i>he</i><br /></span> +<span>That made the ship to go.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Coleridge.</span></div> +</div> +<p>In spoken English, on the other hand, both in England and +America, the objective form is regularly found, unless a special, +careful effort is made to adopt the standard usage. The following +are examples of spoken English from conversations:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"Rose Satterne, the mayor's daughter?"—"That's +<i>her</i>."<span class="smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>"Who's there?"—"<i>Me</i>, Patrick the +Porter."<span class="smcap">—Winthrop.</span></p> +<p>"If there is any one embarrassed, it will not be +<i>me</i>."<span class="smcap">—Wm. Black.</span></p> +</div> +<p>The usage is too common to need further examples.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Correct the italicized pronouns in the following sentences, +giving reasons from the analysis of the sentence:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282"></a>1. <i>Whom</i> they were I +really cannot specify.</p> +<p>2. Truth is mightier than <i>us</i> all.</p> +<p>3. If there ever was a rogue in the world, it is <i>me</i>.</p> +<p>4. They were the very two individuals <i>whom</i> we thought +were far away.</p> +<p>5. "Seems to me as if <i>them</i> as writes must hev a kinder +gift fur it, now."</p> +<p>6. The sign of the Good Samaritan is written on the face of +<i>whomsoever</i> opens to the stranger.</p> +<p>7. It is not <i>me</i> you are in love with.</p> +<p>8. You know <i>whom</i> it is that you thus charge.</p> +<p>9. The same affinity will exert its influence on +<i>whomsoever</i> is as noble as these men and women.</p> +<p>10. It was <i>him</i> that Horace Walpole called a man who never +made a bad figure but as an author.</p> +<p>11. We shall soon see which is the fittest object of scorn, you +or <i>me</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Me <i>in exclamations</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>403.</b></span> It is to be remembered that +the objective form is used in exclamations which turn the attention +upon a person; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Unhappy <i>me!</i> That I cannot risk my own worthless +life.<span class="smcap">—Kingsley</span></p> +<p>Alas! miserable <i>me</i>! Alas! unhappy +Señors!—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>Ay <i>me</i>! I fondly dream—had ye been +there.<span class="smcap">—Milton.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Nominative for the objective.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>404.</b></span> The rule for the objective +form is wrongly departed from—</p> +<p>(1) When the object is far removed from the verb, verbal, or +preposition which governs it; as, "<i>He</i> that can doubt whether +he be anything or no, I speak not to" (<i>he</i> should be +<i>him</i>, the object of <i>to</i>); "I saw men very like him at +each of the places mentioned, but not <i>he</i>" (<i>he</i> should +be <i>him</i>, object of <i>saw</i>).</p> +<p>(2) In the case of certain pairs of pronouns, used after verbs, +verbals, and prepositions, as this from Shakespeare, "All debts are +cleared be<a name="Page_283" id="Page_283"></a>tween you and I" +(for <i>you</i> and <i>me</i>); or this, "Let <i>thou</i> and +<i>I</i> the battle try" (for <i>thee</i> and <i>me</i>, or +<i>us</i>).</p> +<p>(3) By forgetting the construction, in the case of words used in +apposition with the object; as, "Ask the murderer, <i>he</i> who +has steeped his hands in the blood of another" (instead of +"<i>him</i> who," the word being in apposition with +<i>murderer</i>).</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Exception 1</i>, who +<i>interrogative</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>405.</b></span> The interrogative pronoun +<b>who</b> may be said to have no objective form in spoken English. +We regularly say, "<i>Who</i> did you see?" or, "<i>Who</i> were +they talking to?" etc. The more formal "To <i>whom</i> were they +talking?" sounds stilted in conversation, and is usually +avoided.</p> +<p>In literary English the objective form <i>whom</i> is +<i>preferred</i> for objective use; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Knows he now to <i>whom</i> he lies under +obligation?<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>What doth she look on? <i>Whom</i> doth she behold?<span class= +"smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Yet the nominative form is found quite frequently to divide the +work of the objective use; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>My son is going to be married to I don't know +<i>who</i>.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p><i>Who</i> have we here?—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p><i>Who</i> should I meet the other day but my old +friend.<span class="smcap">—Steele.</span></p> +<p>He hath given away half his fortune to the Lord knows +<i>who</i>.<span class="smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p><i>Who</i> have we got here?<span class= +"smcap">—Smollett.</span></p> +<p><i>Who</i> should we find there but Eustache?<span class= +"smcap">—Marrvat.</span></p> +<p><i>Who</i> the devil is he talking to?<span class= +"smcap">—Sheridan.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Exception 2, but</i> he, <i>etc.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>406.</b></span> It is a well-established +usage to put the nominative form, as well as the objective, after +the preposition <i>but</i> (sometimes <i>save</i>); as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>All were knocked down but <i>us</i> two.<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley.</span><a name="Page_284" id= +"Page_284"></a></p> +<p>Thy shores are empires, changed in all save +<i>thee.</i><span class="smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p>Rich are the sea gods:—who gives gifts but +<i>they?</i><span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i4">The Chieftains +then<br /></span> <span>Returned rejoicing, all but +<i>he</i>.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Southey<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>No man strikes him but <i>I</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>None, save <i>thou</i> and thine, I've +sworn,<br /></span> <span>Shall be left upon the morn.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Byron.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Correct the italicized pronouns in the following, giving reasons +from the analysis of the quotation:—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. <i>Thou</i>, Nature, partial Nature, I arraign.</p> +<p>2. Let you and <i>I</i> look at these, for they say there are +none such in the world.</p> +<p>3. "Nonsense!" said Amyas, "we could kill every soul of them in +half an hour, and they know that as well as <i>me</i>."</p> +<p>4. Markland, <i>who</i>, with Jortin and Thirlby, Johnson calls +three contemporaries of great eminence.</p> +<p>5. They are coming for a visit to <i>she</i> and <i>I</i>.</p> +<p>6.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span class="i2">They crowned him long +ago;<br /></span> <span>But <i>who</i> they got to put it +on<br /></span> <span class="i2">Nobody seems to +know.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>7. I experienced little difficulty in distinguishing among the +pedestrians <i>they</i> who had business with St. Bartholomew.</p> +<p>8. The great difference lies between the laborer who moves to +Yorkshire and <i>he</i> who moves to Canada.</p> +<p>9. Besides my father and Uncle Haddock—<i>he</i> of the +silver plates.</p> +<p>10.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span><i>Ye</i> against whose familiar names +not yet<br /></span> <span>The fatal asterisk of death is +set,<br /></span> <span><i>Ye</i> I salute.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>11. It can't be worth much to <i>they</i> that hasn't +larning.</p> +<p>12. To send me away for a whole year—<i>I</i> who had +never crept from under the parental wing—was a startling +idea.<a name="Page_285" id="Page_285"></a></p> +</div> +<h3>II. POSSESSIVE FORMS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>As antecedent of a relative.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>407.</b></span> The possessive forms of +personal pronouns and also of nouns are sometimes found as +antecedents of relatives. This usage is not frequent. The +antecedent is usually nominative or objective, as the use of the +possessive is less likely to be clear.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We should augur ill of any <i>gentleman's</i> property to whom +this happened every other day in his drawing room.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>For <i>their</i> sakes whose distance disabled them from knowing +me.—<span class="smcap">C. B. Brown</span>.</p> +<p>Now by <i>His</i> name that I most reverence in Heaven, and by +<i>hers</i> whom I most worship on earth.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>He saw her smile and slip money into the <i>man's</i> hand who +was ordered to ride behind the coach.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>He doubted whether <i>his</i> signature whose expectations were +so much more bounded would avail.<span class="smcap">—De +Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>For boys with hearts as bold<br /></span> +<span>As <i>his</i> who kept the bridge so well.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Macaulay.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Preceding a gerund,—possessive, or +objective?</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>408.</b></span> Another point on which there +is some variance in usage is such a construction as this: "We heard +of <i>Brown</i> studying law," or "We heard of <i>Brown's</i> +studying law."</p> +<p>That is, should the possessive case of a noun or pronoun always +be used with the gerund to indicate the active agent? Closely +scrutinizing these two sentences quoted, we might find a difference +between them: saying that in the first one <i>studying</i> is a +participle, and the meaning is, <i>We heard of Brown</i>, [who was] +<i>studying law</i>; and that in the second, <i>studying</i> is a +gerund, object of <i>heard of</i>, and modified by the possessive +case as any other substantive would be.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286"></a><i>Why +both are found.</i></div> +<p>But in common use there is no such distinction. Both types of +sentences are found; both are gerunds; sometimes the gerund has the +possessive form before it, sometimes it has the objective. The use +of the objective is older, and in keeping with the old way of +regarding the <i>person</i> as the chief object before the mind: +the possessive use is more modern, in keeping with the disposition +to proceed from the material thing to the <i>abstract idea</i>, and +to make the action substantive the chief idea before the mind.</p> +<p>In the examples quoted, it will be noticed that the possessive +of the pronoun is more common than that of the noun.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Objective</i>.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The last incident which I recollect, was my learned and worthy +<i>patron</i> falling from a chair.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>He spoke of <i>some one</i> coming to drink tea with him, and +asked why it was not made.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>The old sexton even expressed a doubt as to <i>Shakespeare</i> +having been born in her house.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>The fact of the <i>Romans</i> not burying their dead within the +city walls proper is a strong reason, etc.<span class= +"smcap">—Brewer.</span></p> +<p>I remember <i>Wordsworth</i> once laughingly reporting to me a +little personal anecdote.<span class="smcap">—De +Quincey.</span></p> +<p>Here I state them only in brief, to prevent the <i>reader</i> +casting about in alarm for my ultimate meaning.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>We think with far less pleasure of <i>Cato</i> tearing out his +entrails than of <i>Russell</i> saying, as he turned away from his +wife, that the bitterness of death was past.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>There is actually a kind of sacredness in the fact of such a +<i>man</i> being sent into this earth.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Possessive</i>.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>There is no use for any <i>man's</i> taking up his abode in a +house built of glass.<span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>As to <i>his</i> having good grounds on which to rest an action +for life.<span class="smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287"></a>The case was made known to +me by a <i>man's</i> holding out the little creature +dead.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>There may be reason for a <i>savage's</i> preferring many kinds +of food which the civilized man rejects.<span class= +"smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +<p>It informs me of the previous circumstances of <i>my</i> laying +aside my clothes.—<span class="smcap">C. Brockden +Brown</span>.</p> +<p>The two strangers gave me an account of <i>their</i> once having +been themselves in a somewhat similar condition.<span class= +"smcap">—Audubon.</span></p> +<p>There was a chance of <i>their</i> being sent to a new school, +where there were examinations.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin</span></p> +<p>This can only be by <i>his</i> preferring truth to his past +apprehension of truth.<span class="smcap">—Emerson</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>III. PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND THEIR ANTECEDENTS</b>.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>409.</b></span> The pronouns of the third +person usually refer back to some preceding noun or pronoun, and +ought to agree with them in person, number, and gender.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Watch for the real antecedent.</i></div> +<p>There are two constructions in which the student will need to +watch the pronoun,—when the antecedent, in one person, is +followed by a phrase containing a pronoun of a different person; +and when the antecedent is of such a form that the pronoun +following cannot indicate exactly the gender. Examples of these +constructions are,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Those</i> of us who can only maintain <i>themselves</i> by +continuing in some business or salaried office.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>Suppose the life and fortune of <i>every one</i> of us would +depend on <i>his</i> winning or losing a game of chess.<span class= +"smcap">—Huxley.</span></p> +<p>If <i>any one</i> did not know it, it was <i>his</i> own +fault.<span class="smcap">—Cable.</span></p> +<p><i>Everybody</i> had <i>his</i> own life to think +of.<span class="smcap">—Defoe.</span></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>410.</b></span> In such a case as the last +three sentences,—when the antecedent includes both masculine +and feminine, or is a distributive word, taking in each of many +persons,—the preferred method is to put <a name="Page_288" +id="Page_288"></a>the pronoun following in the masculine singular; +if the antecedent is neuter, preceded by a distributive, the +pronoun will be neuter singular.</p> +<p>The following are additional examples:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The next <i>correspondent</i> wants you to mark out a whole +course of life for <i>him</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +<p>Every <i>city</i> threw open <i>its</i> gates.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>Every <i>person</i> who turns this page has <i>his</i> own +little diary.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The pale realms of shade, where +<i>each</i> shall take<br /></span> <span><i>His</i> chamber in the +silent halls of death.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Bryant.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Avoided: By using both pronouns.</i></div> +<p>Sometimes this is avoided by using both the masculine and the +feminine pronoun; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Not the feeblest <i>grandame</i>, not a mowing <i>idiot</i>, but +uses what spark of perception and faculty is left, to chuckle and +triumph in <i>his or her</i> opinion.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>It is a game which has been played for untold ages, every +<i>man</i> and <i>woman</i> of us being one of the two players in a +game of <i>his or her</i> own.<span class= +"smcap">—Huxley.</span></p> +</div> +<p><i>By using the plural pronoun.</i></p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>411.</b></span> Another way of referring to +an antecedent which is a distributive pronoun or a noun modified by +a distributive adjective, is to use the plural of the pronoun +following. This is not considered the best usage, the logical +analysis requiring the singular pronoun in each case; but the +construction is frequently found <i>when the antecedent includes or +implies both genders</i>. The masculine does not really represent a +feminine antecedent, and the expression <i>his or her</i> is +avoided as being cumbrous.</p> +<p>Notice the following examples of the plural:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Neither</i> of the sisters <i>were</i> very much +deceived.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p><i>Every one</i> must judge of <i>their</i> own +feelings.<span class="smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289"></a>Had the doctor been +contented to take my dining tables, as <i>anybody</i> in +<i>their</i> senses would have done.<span class= +"smcap">—Austen.</span></p> +<p>If the part deserve any comment, every considering +<i>Christian</i> will make it <i>themselves</i> as they +go.<span class="smcap">—Defoe.</span></p> +<p><i>Every person's</i> happiness depends in part upon the respect +<i>they</i> meet in the world.<span class= +"smcap">—Paley.</span></p> +<p><i>Every nation</i> have <i>their</i> refinements<span class= +"smcap">—Sterne.</span></p> +<p><i>Neither</i> gave vent to <i>their</i> feelings in +words.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p><i>Each</i> of the nations acted according to <i>their</i> +national custom.<span class="smcap">—Palgrave.</span></p> +<p>The sun, which pleases <i>everybody</i> with it and with +<i>themselves</i>.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>Urging <i>every one</i> within reach of your influence to be +neat, and giving <i>them</i> means of being so.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p><i>Everybody</i> will become of use in <i>their</i> own fittest +way.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p><i>Everybody</i> said <i>they</i> thought it was the newest +thing there.<span class="smcap">—Wendell Phillips.</span></p> +<p>Struggling for life, <i>each</i> almost bursting <i>their</i> +sinews to force the other off.<span class= +"smcap">—Paulding.</span></p> +<p><i>Whosoever</i> hath any gold, let <i>them</i> break it +off.—<span class="smcap"><i>Bible.</i></span></p> +<p><i>Nobody</i> knows what it is to lose a friend, till +<i>they</i> have lost him.<span class= +"smcap">—Fielding.</span></p> +<p>Where she was gone, or what was become of her, <i>no one</i> +could take upon <i>them</i> to say.<span class= +"smcap">—Sheridan.</span></p> +<p>I do not mean that I think <i>any one</i> to blame for taking +due care of <i>their</i> health.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—In the above sentences, <i>unless both +genders are implied</i>, change the pronoun to agree with its +antecedent.</p> +<h3>RELATIVE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<h3>I. RESTRICTIVE AND UNRESTRICTIVE RELATIVES.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>What these terms mean.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>412.</b></span> As to their conjunctive use, +the definite relatives <b>who</b>, <b>which</b>, and <b>that</b> +may be <b>coördinating</b> or <b>restrictive</b>.</p> +<p>A relative, when coördinating, or unrestrictive, is +equivalent to a conjunction (<i>and</i>, <i>but</i>, +<i>because</i>, <a name="Page_290" id="Page_290"></a>etc.) and a +personal pronoun. It adds a new statement to what precedes, that +being considered already clear; as, "I gave it to the beggar, +<i>who</i> went away." This means, "I gave it to the beggar [we +know which one], <i>and he</i> went away."</p> +<p>A relative, when restrictive, introduces a clause to limit and +make clear some preceding word. The clause is restricted to the +antecedent, and does not add a new statement; it merely couples a +thought necessary to define the antecedent: as, "I gave it to a +beggar <i>who</i> stood at the gate." It defines <i>beggar</i>.</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>413.</b></span> It is sometimes contended +that <b>who</b> and <b>which</b> should always be +coördinating, and <b>that</b> always restrictive; but, +according to the practice of every modern writer, the usage must be +stated as follows:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A loose rule the only one to be +formulated.</i></div> +<p><b>Who</b> and <b>which</b> are either coördinating or +restrictive, the taste of the writer and regard for euphony being +the guide.</p> +<p><b>That</b> is in most cases restrictive, the coördinating +use not being often found among careful writers.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>In the following examples, tell whether <i>who</i>, +<i>which</i>, and <i>that</i> are restrictive or not, in each +instance:—</p> +<div class="sidenote">Who.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. "Here he is now!" cried those who stood near +Ernest.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>2. He could overhear the remarks of various individuals, who +were comparing the features with the face on the mountain +side.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>3. The particular recording angel who heard it pretended not to +understand, or it might have gone hard with the tutor.<span class= +"smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291"></a>4. Yet how many are there +who up, down, and over England are saying, etc.<span class= +"smcap">—H. W. Beecher</span></p> +<p>5. A grizzly-looking man appeared, whom we took to be sixty or +seventy years old.<span class="smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Which.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>6. The volume which I am just about terminating is almost as +much English history as Dutch.<span class= +"smcap">—Motley.</span></p> +<p>7. On hearing their plan, which was to go over the Cordilleras, +she agreed to join the party.<span class="smcap">—De +Quincey.</span></p> +<p>8. Even the wild story of the incident which had immediately +occasioned the explosion of this madness fell in with the universal +prostration of mind.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>9. Their colloquies are all gone to the fire except this first, +which Mr. Hare has printed.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>10. There is a particular science which takes these matters in +hand, and it is called logic.<span class= +"smcap">—Newman.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">That.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>11. So different from the wild, hard-mouthed horses at Westport, +that were often vicious.<span class="smcap">—De +Quincey.</span></p> +<p>12. He was often tempted to pluck the flowers that rose +everywhere about him in the greatest variety.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +<p>13. He felt a gale of perfumes breathing upon him, that grew +stronger and sweeter in proportion as he +advanced.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>14. With narrow shoulders, long arms and legs, hands that +dangled a mile out of his sleeves.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>II. RELATIVE AND ANTECEDENT.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The rule.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>414.</b></span> The general rule is, that +the relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person and +number.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>In what sense true.</i></div> +<p>This cannot be true as to the form of the pronoun, as that does +not vary for person or number. We say <i>I</i>, <i>you</i>, +<i>he</i>, <i>they</i>, etc., <i>who</i>; <i>these</i> or +<i>that</i> <i>which</i>, etc. However, the relative <i>carries +over</i> the agreement from the antecedent before to the verb +following, so far as the verb has forms to show its agreement with +a substantive. For example, in the sentence, "He that writes to +himself writes to an eternal public," <i>that</i> is invariable as +to person <a name="Page_292" id="Page_292"></a>and number, but, +because of its antecedent, it makes the verb third person +singular.</p> +<p>Notice the agreement in the following sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>There is not <i>one</i> of the company, but <i>myself</i>, who +rarely <i>speak</i> at all, but <i>speaks</i> of him as that sort, +etc.<span class="smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +<p>O <i>Time!</i> who <i>know'st</i> a lenient hand to lay Softest +on sorrow's wound.<span class="smcap">—Bowles.</span></p> +<p>Let us be of good cheer, remembering that the misfortunes +hardest to bear are <i>those</i> which never +<i>come.</i><span class="smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A disputed point.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>415.</b></span> This prepares the way for +the consideration of one of the vexed questions,—whether we +should say, "one of the finest books that <i>has</i> been +published," or, "one of the finest books that <i>have</i> been +published."</p> +<div class="sidenote">One of ... [<i>plural</i>] that who, +<i>or</i> which ... [<i>singular or plural</i>.]</div> +<p>Both constructions are frequently found, the reason being a +difference of opinion as to the antecedent. Some consider it to be +<i>one</i> [book] <i>of the finest books</i>, with <i>one</i> as +the principal word, the true antecedent; others regard <i>books</i> +as the antecedent, and write the verb in the plural. The latter is +rather more frequent, but the former has good authority.</p> +<p>The following quotations show both sides:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Plural.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He was one of the very few commanders who <i>appear</i> to have +shown equal skill in directing a campaign, in winning a battle, and +in improving a victory.<span class="smcap">—Lecky.</span></p> +<p>He was one of the most distinguished scientists who <i>have</i> +ever lived.<span class="smcap">—J. T. Morse, Jr</span>., +<i>Franklin.</i></p> +<p>It is one of those periods which <i>shine</i> with an unnatural +and delusive splendor.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>A very little encouragement brought back one of those overflows +which <i>make</i> one more ashamed, etc.<span class= +"smcap">—Holmes.</span><a name="Page_293" id= +"Page_293"></a></p> +<p>I am one of those who <i>believe</i> that the real will never +find an irremovable basis till it rests on the ideal.<span class= +"smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +<p>French literature of the eighteenth century, one of the most +powerful agencies that <i>have</i> ever existed.—<span class= +"smcap">M. Arnold</span>.</p> +<p>What man's life is not overtaken by one or more of those +tornadoes that <i>send</i> us out of our course?<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>He is one of those that <i>deserve</i> very well.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Singular.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The fiery youth ... struck down one of those who <i>was</i> +pressing hardest.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>He appeared to me one of the noblest creatures that ever +<i>was</i>, when he derided the shams of society.<span class= +"smcap">—Howells.</span></p> +<p>A rare Roundabout performance,—one of the very best that +<i>has</i> ever appeared in this series.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>Valancourt was the hero of one of the most famous romances which +ever <i>was</i> published in this country.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>It is one of the errors which <i>has</i> been diligently +propagated by designing writers.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>"I am going to breakfast with one of these fellows who <i>is</i> +at the Piazza Hotel."<span class="smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +<p>The "Economy of the Animal Kingdom" is one of those books which +<i>is</i> an honor to the human race.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>Tom Puzzle is one of the most eminent immethodical disputants of +any that <i>has</i> fallen under my observation.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +<p>The richly canopied monument of one of the most earnest souls +that ever gave <i>itself</i> to the arts.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>III. OMISSION OF THE RELATIVE.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>416.</b></span> Although the omission of the +relative is common when it would be the object of the verb or +preposition <i>expressed</i>, there is an omission which is not +frequently found in careful writers; that is, when the relative +word is a pronoun, object of a preposition <i>understood</i>, or is +equivalent to the conjunction <i>when</i>, <i>where</i>, +<i>whence</i>, and such like: as, "He returned by the same route +[by which] he came;" "India is the place [in which, or where] he +died." Notice these sentences:—<a name="Page_294" id= +"Page_294"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>In the posture I lay, I could see nothing except the +sky.<span class="smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +<p>This is he that should marshal us the way we were +going.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>But I by backward steps would +move;<br /></span> <span>And, when this dust falls to the +urn,<br /></span> <span>In that same state I came, +return.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Vaughan.</span></div> +<div class="stanza"><span>Welcome the hour my aged +limbs<br /></span> <span>Are laid with thee to rest.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Burns.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The night was concluded in the manner we began the +morning.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>The same day I went aboard we set sail.<span class= +"smcap">—Defoe.</span></p> +<p>The vulgar historian of a Cromwell fancies that he had +determined on being Protector of England, at the time he was +plowing the marsh lands of Cambridgeshire.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>To pass under the canvas in the manner he had entered required +time and attention.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—In the above sentences, insert the +omitted conjunction or phrase, and see if the sentence is made +clearer.</p> +<h3>IV. THE RELATIVE <i>AS</i> AFTER <i>SAME</i>.</h3> +<p><span class="sn"><b>417.</b></span> It is very rarely that we +find such sentences as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He considered...me as his apprentice, and accordingly expected +the same service from me <i>as</i> he would from +another.<span class="smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +<p>This has the same effect in natural faults <i>as</i> maiming and +mutilation produce from accidents.<span class= +"smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The regular construction</i>.</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Caution</i>.</div> +<p>The usual way is to use the relative <i>as</i> after <i>same</i> +if no verb follows <i>as;</i> but, if <i>same</i> is followed by a +complete clause, <i>as</i> is not used, but we find the relative +<i>who, which,</i> or <i>that</i>. Remember this applies only to +<i>as</i> when used as a relative.</p> +<p>Examples of the use of <i>as</i> in a contracted +clause:—<a name="Page_295" id="Page_295"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Looking to the same end <i>as</i> Turner, and working in the +same spirit, he, with Turner, was a discoverer, +etc.—<span class="smcap">R. W. Church</span>.</p> +<p>They believe the same of all the works of art, <i>as</i> of +knives, boats, looking-glasses.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Examples of relatives following <i>same</i> in full +clauses:—</p> +<div class="sidenote">Who.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>This is the very same rogue <i>who</i> sold us the spectacles. +<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>The same person <i>who</i> had clapped his thrilling hands at +the first representation of the Tempest.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">That.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I rubbed on some of the same ointment <i>that</i> was given me +at my first arrival.<span class="smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Which.</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>For the same sound is in my +ears<br /></span> <span><i>Which</i> in those days I +heard.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Wordsworth.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>With the same minuteness <i>which</i> her predecessor had +exhibited, she passed the lamp over her face and +person.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>V. MISUSE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Anacoluthic use of</i> which.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>418.</b></span> There is now and then found +in the pages of literature a construction which imitates the Latin, +but which is usually carefully avoided. It is a use of the relative +<i>which</i> so as to make an anacoluthon, or lack of proper +connection between the clauses; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Which</i>, if I had resolved to go on with, I might as well +have staid at home.<span class="smcap">—Defoe</span></p> +<p><i>Which</i> if he attempted to do, Mr. Billings vowed that he +would follow him to Jerusalem.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>We know not the incantation of the heart that would wake +them;—<i>which</i> if they once heard, they would start up to +meet us in the power of long ago.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>He delivered the letter, <i>which</i> when Mr. Thornhill had +read, he said that all submission was now too late.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>But still the house affairs would draw +her thence;<br /></span> <span><i>Which</i> ever as she could with +haste dispatch,<br /></span> <span>She'd come again.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></div> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296"></a>As the sentences stand, +<i>which</i> really has no office in the sentence: it should be +changed to a demonstrative or a personal pronoun, and this be +placed in the proper clause.</p> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Rewrite the above five sentences so as to +make the proper grammatical connection in each.</p> +<div class="sidenote">And who, and which, <i>etc.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>419.</b></span> There is another kind of +expression which slips into the lines of even standard authors, but +which is always regarded as an oversight and a blemish.</p> +<p>The following sentence affords an example: "The rich are now +engaged in distributing what remains among the poorer sort, <i>and +who</i> are now thrown upon their compassion." The trouble is that +such conjunctions as <i>and</i>, <i>but</i>, <i>or</i>, etc., +should connect expressions of the same kind: <i>and who</i> makes +us look for a preceding <i>who</i>, but none is expressed. There +are three ways to remedy the sentence quoted: thus, (1) "Among +those <i>who</i> are poor, <i>and who</i> are now," etc.; (2) +"Among the poorer sort, <i>who</i> are now thrown," etc.; (3) +"Among the poorer sort, now thrown upon their," etc. That +is,—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Direction for rewriting.</i></div> +<p>Express both relatives, or omit the conjunction, or leave out +both connective and relative.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Rewrite the following examples according to the direction just +given:—</p> +<div class="sidenote">And who.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Hester bestowed all her means on wretches less miserable than +herself, and who not unfrequently insulted the hand that fed +them.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>2. With an albatross perched on his shoulder, and <a name= +"Page_297" id="Page_297"></a>who might be introduced to the +congregation as the immediate organ of his conversion.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>3. After this came Elizabeth herself, then in the full glow of +what in a sovereign was called beauty, and who would in the lowest +walk of life have been truly judged to possess a noble +figure.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>4. This was a gentleman, once a great favorite of M. le Conte, +and in whom I myself was not a little interested.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">But who.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>5. Yonder woman was the wife of a certain learned man, English +by name, but who had long dwelt in Amsterdam.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>6. Dr. Ferguson considered him as a man of a powerful capacity, +but whose mind was thrown off its just bias.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Or who.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>7. "What knight so craven, then," exclaims the chivalrous +Venetian, "that he would not have been more than a match for the +stoutest adversary; or who would not have lost his life a thousand +times sooner than return dishonored by the lady of his +love?"<span class="smcap">—Prescott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">And which.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>8. There are peculiar quavers still to be heard in that church, +and which may even be heard a mile off.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>9. The old British tongue was replaced by a debased Latin, like +that spoken in the towns, and in which inscriptions are found in +the western counties.<span class="smcap">—Pearson.</span></p> +<p>10. I shall have complete copies, one of signal interest, and +which has never been described.<span class= +"smcap">—Motley.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">But which.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>11. "A mockery, indeed, but in which the soul trifled with +itself!"<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>12. I saw upon the left a scene far different, but which yet the +power of dreams had reconciled into harmony.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Or which.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>13. He accounted the fair-spoken courtesy, which the Scotch had +learned, either from imitation of their frequent allies, the +French, or which might have arisen from their own proud and +reserved character, as a false and astucious mark, etc.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">That ... and which, <i>etc.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>420.</b></span> Akin to the above is another +fault, which is likewise a variation from the best usage. Two +different relatives are sometimes found referring <a name= +"Page_298" id="Page_298"></a>back to the same antecedent in one +sentence; whereas the better practice is to choose one relative, +and repeat this for any further reference.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Rewrite the following quotations by repeating one relative +instead of using two for the same antecedent:—</p> +<div class="sidenote">That ... who.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Still in the confidence of children that tread without fear +every chamber in their father's house, and to whom no door is +closed.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>2. Those renowned men that were our ancestors as much as yours, +and whose examples and principles we inherit.<span class= +"smcap">—Beecher.</span></p> +<p>3. The Tree Igdrasil, that has its roots down in the kingdoms of +Hela and Death, and whose boughs overspread the highest +heaven!<span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">That ... which.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>4. Christianity is a religion that reveals men as the object of +God's infinite love, and which commends him to the unbounded love +of his brethren.—<span class="smcap">W. E. +Channing</span>.</p> +<p>5. He flung into literature, in his Mephistopheles, the first +organic figure that has been added for some ages, and which will +remain as long as the Prometheus.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>6. Gutenburg might also have struck out an idea that surely did +not require any extraordinary ingenuity, and which left the most +important difficulties to be surmounted.<span class= +"smcap">—Hallam.</span></p> +<p>7. Do me the justice to tell me what I have a title to be +acquainted with, and which I am certain to know more truly from you +than from others.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>8. He will do this amiable little service out of what one may +say old civilization has established in place of goodness of heart, +but which is perhaps not so different from it.<span class= +"smcap">—Howells.</span></p> +<p>9. In my native town of Salem, at the head of what, half a +century ago, was a bustling wharf,—but which is now burdened +with decayed wooden warehouses.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>10. His recollection of what he considered as extreme +presumption in the Knight of the Leopard, even when he stood high +in the roles of chivalry, but which, in his pres<a name="Page_299" +id="Page_299"></a>ent condition, appeared an insult sufficient to +drive the fiery monarch into a frenzy of passion.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">That which ... what.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>11. He, now without any effort but that which he derived from +the sill, and what little his feet could secure the irregular +crevices, was hung in air.—<span class="smcap">W. G. +Simms</span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Such as ... which.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>12. It rose into a thrilling passion, such as my heart had +always dimly craved and hungered after, but which now first +interpreted itself to my ear.<span class="smcap">—De +Quincey.</span></p> +<p>13. I recommend some honest manual calling, such as they have +very probably been bred to, and which will at least give them a +chance of becoming President.<span class= +"smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Such as ... whom.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>14. I grudge the dollar, the dime, the cent, I give to such men +as do not belong to me, and to whom I do not belong.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Which ... that ... that.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>15. That evil influence which carried me first away from my +father's house, that hurried me into the wild and undigested notion +of making my fortune, and that impressed these conceits so forcibly +upon me.<span class="smcap">—Defoe.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote">Each other, one another.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>421.</b></span> The student is sometimes +troubled whether to use <b>each other</b> or <b>one another</b> in +expressing reciprocal relation or action. Whether either one refers +to a certain number of persons or objects, whether or not the two +are equivalent, may be gathered from a study of the following +sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>They [Ernest and the poet] led <i>one another</i>, as it were, +into the high pavilion of their thoughts.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>Men take <i>each other's</i> measure when they meet for the +first time.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>You ruffian! do you fancy I forget that we were fond of <i>each +other</i>?<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>England was then divided between kings and Druids, always at war +with <i>one another</i>, carrying off <i>each other's</i> cattle +and wives.<span class="smcap">—Brewer</span></p> +<p>The topics follow <i>each other</i> in the happiest +order.<span class="smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>The Peers at a conference begin to pommel <i>each +other</i>.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span><a name= +"Page_300" id="Page_300"></a></p> +<p>We call ourselves a rich nation, and we are filthy and foolish +enough to thumb <i>each other's</i> books out of circulating +libraries.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>The real hardships of life are now coming fast upon us; let us +not increase them by dissension among <i>each +other</i>.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>In a moment we were all shaking hands with <i>one +another</i>.<span class="smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +<p>The unjust purchaser forces the two to bid against <i>each +other.</i><span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Distributives</i> either <i>and</i> +neither.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>422.</b></span> By their original meaning, +<b>either</b> and <b>neither</b> refer to only two persons or +objects; as, for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Some one must be poor, and in want of his gold—or his +corn. Assume that no one is in want of <i>either</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin</span></p> +<p>Their [Ernest's and the poet's] minds accorded into one strain, +and made delightful music which <i>neither</i> could have claimed +as all his own.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Use of</i> any.</div> +<p>Sometimes these are made to refer to several objects, in which +case any should be used instead; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Was it the winter's storm? was it hard labor and spare meals? +was it disease? was it the tomahawk? Is it possible that +<i>neither</i> of these causes, that not all combined, were able to +blast this bud of hope?<span class= +"smcap">—Everett.</span></p> +<p>Once I took such delight in Montaigne ...; before that, in +Shakespeare; then in Plutarch; then in Plotinus; at one time in +Bacon; afterwards in Goethe; even in Bettine; but now I turn the +pages of <i>either</i> of them languidly, whilst I still cherish +their genius.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Any <i>usually plural</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>423.</b></span> The adjective pronoun +<b>any</b> is nearly always regarded as plural, as shown in the +following sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If <i>any</i> of you <i>have</i> been accustomed to look upon +these hours as mere visionary hours, I beseech you, +etc.<span class="smcap">—Beecher</span></p> +<p>Whenever, during his stay at Yuste, <i>any</i> of his friends +had <a name="Page_301" id="Page_301"></a>died, he had been punctual +in doing honor to <i>their</i> memory.<span class= +"smcap">—Stirling.</span></p> +<p>But I enjoy the company and conversation of its inhabitants, +when <i>any</i> of them <i>are</i> so good as to visit +me.<span class="smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +<p>Do you think, when I spoke anon of the ghosts of Pryor's +children, I mean that <i>any</i> of them <i>are</i> +dead?<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<p>In earlier Modern English, <i>any</i> was often singular; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If <i>any</i>, speak; for <i>him</i> have I +offended.<span class="smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +<p>If <i>any</i> of you lack wisdom, let <i>him</i> ask of +God.—<span class="smcap"><i>Bible.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p>Very rarely the singular is met with in later times; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Here is a poet doubtless as much affected by his own +descriptions as <i>any</i> that <i>reads</i> them can +be.<span class="smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Caution</i>.</div> +<p>The above instances are to be distinguished from the adjective +<i>any</i>, which is plural as often as singular.</p> +<div class="sidenote">None <i>usually plural</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>424.</b></span> The adjective pronoun +<b>none</b> is, in the prose of the present day, usually plural, +although it is historically a contraction of <i>ne ān</i> (not +one). Examples of its use are,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>In earnest, if ever man was; as <i>none</i> of the French +philosophers <i>were</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p><i>None</i> of Nature's powers <i>do</i> better +service.<span class="smcap">—Prof. Dana</span></p> +<p>One man answers some question which <i>none</i> of his +contemporaries <i>put</i>, and is isolated.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p><i>None obey</i> the command of duty so well as those who are +free from the observance of slavish bondage.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>Do you think, when I spoke anon of the ghosts of Pryor's +children, I mean that any of them are dead? <i>None are</i>, that I +know of.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>Early apples begin to be ripe about the first of August; but I +think <i>none</i> of them <i>are</i> so good to eat as some to +smell.<span class="smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302"></a>The singular use of +<i>none</i> is often found in the Bible; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>None</i> of them <i>was</i> cleansed, saving Naaman the +Syrian.<span class="smcap">—Luke iv 27</span></p> +</div> +<p>Also the singular is sometimes found in present-day English in +prose, and less rarely in poetry; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Perhaps <i>none</i> of our Presidents since Washington +<i>has</i> stood so firm in the confidence of the +people.<span class="smcap">—Lowell</span></p> +<p>In signal <i>none his</i> steed should spare.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott</span></p> +</div> +<p>Like the use of <i>any</i>, the pronoun <i>none</i> should be +distinguished from the adjective <i>none</i>, which is used +absolutely, and hence is more likely to confuse the student.</p> +<p>Compare with the above the following sentences having the +adjective <i>none</i>:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Reflecting a summer evening sky in its bosom, though <i>none</i> +[no sky] was visible overhead.<span class= +"smcap">—Thoreau</span></p> +<p>The holy fires were suffered to go out in the temples, and +<i>none</i> [no fires] were lighted in their own +dwellings.<span class="smcap">—Prescott</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">All <i>singular and plural</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>425.</b></span> The pronoun <b>all</b> has +the singular construction when it means <i>everything</i>; the +plural, when it means <i>all persons</i>: for example,—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Singular</i>.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The light troops thought ... that <i>all was</i> +lost.<span class="smcap">—Palgrave</span></p> +<p><i>All was</i> won on the one side, and <i>all was</i> lost on +the other.<span class="smcap">—Bayne</span></p> +<p>Having done <i>all</i> that <i>was</i> just toward +others.<span class="smcap">—Napier</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Plural</i>.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>But the King's treatment of the great lords will be judged +leniently by <i>all</i> who <i>remember</i>, etc.<span class= +"smcap">—Pearson.</span></p> +<p>When <i>all were</i> gone, fixing his eyes on the mace, +etc.<span class="smcap">—Lingard</span></p> +<p><i>All</i> who did not understand French <i>were</i> compelled, +etc.—Mc<span class="smcap">master.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_303" id= +"Page_303"></a>Somebody's else, <i>or</i> somebody else's?</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>426.</b></span> The compounds <b>somebody +else, any one else, nobody else</b>, etc., are treated as units, +and the apostrophe is regularly added to the final word <i>else</i> +instead of the first. Thackeray has the expression <i>somebody's +else</i>, and Ford has <i>nobody's else</i>, but the regular usage +is shown in the following selections:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A boy who is fond of <i>somebody else's</i> pencil +case.—<span class="smcap">G. Eliot</span>.</p> +<p>A suit of clothes like <i>somebody else's</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>Drawing off his gloves and warming his hands before the fire as +benevolently as if they were <i>somebody else's</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +<p>Certainly not! nor <i>any one else's</i> ropes.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>Again, my pronunciation—like <i>everyone +else's</i>—is in some cases more archaic.<span class= +"smcap">—Sweet.</span></p> +<p>Then everybody wanted some of <i>somebody +else's</i>.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>His hair...curled once all over it in long tendrils, unlike +<i>anybody else's</i> in the world.—<span class="smcap">N. P. +Willis</span>.</p> +<p>"Ye see, there ain't nothin' wakes folks up like <i>somebody +else's</i> wantin' what you've got."<span class="smcap">—Mrs. +Stowe.</span></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="ADJECTIVESIII" id= +"ADJECTIVESIII"></a><b>ADJECTIVES.</b></h2> +<h3>AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES WITH NOUNS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote">These sort, all manner of, <i>etc.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>427.</b></span> The statement that +adjectives agree with their nouns in number is restricted to the +words <b>this</b> and <b>that</b> (with <b>these</b> and +<b>those</b>), as these are the only adjectives that have separate +forms for singular and plural; and it is only in one set of +expressions that the concord seems to be violated,—in such as +"<i>these sort</i> of books," "<i>those kind</i> of trees," "<i>all +manner</i> of men;" the nouns being singular, the adjectives +plural. These expressions are all but universal in spoken English, +<a name="Page_304" id="Page_304"></a>and may be found not +infrequently in literary English; for example,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span><i>These kind</i> of knaves I know, which +in this plainness<br /></span> <span>Harbor more craft, +etc.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>All <i>these sort</i> of things.<span class= +"smcap">—Sheridan.</span></p> +<p>I hoped we had done with <i>those sort</i> of +things.<span class="smcap">—Muloch.</span></p> +<p>You have been so used to <i>those sort</i> of +impertinences.<span class="smcap">Sydney Smith.</span></p> +<p>Whitefield or Wesley, or some other such great man as a bishop, +or <i>those sort</i> of people.<span class= +"smcap">—Fielding.</span></p> +<p>I always delight in overthrowing <i>those kind</i> of +schemes.<span class="smcap">—Austen.</span></p> +<p>There are women as well as men who can thoroughly enjoy <i>those +sort</i> of romantic spots.—<i>Saturday Review</i>, +London.</p> +<p>The library was open, with <i>all manner</i> of amusing +books.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +</div> +<p>According to the approved usage of Modern English, each one of +the above adjectives would have to be changed to the singular, or +the nouns to the plural.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>History of this construction.</i></div> +<p>The reason for the prevalence of these expressions must be +sought in the history of the language: it cannot be found in the +statement that the adjective is made plural by the attraction of a +noun following.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>At the source.</i></div> +<p>In Old and Middle English, in keeping with the custom of looking +at things concretely rather than in the abstract, they said, not +"all <i>kinds</i> of wild animals," but "alles cunnes wilde deor" +(wild animals of-every-kind). This the modern expression +reverses.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Later form.</i></div> +<p>But in early Middle English the modern way of regarding such +expressions also appeared, gradually displacing the old.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The result.</i></div> +<p>Consequently we have a confused expression. <a name="Page_305" +id="Page_305"></a>We keep the form of logical agreement in standard +English, such as, "<i>This sort</i> of trees should be planted;" +but at the same time the noun following <i>kind of</i> is felt to +be the real subject, and the adjective is, in spoken English, made +to agree with it, which accounts for the construction, "<i>These +kind of</i> trees are best."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A question.</i></div> +<p>The inconvenience of the logical construction is seen when we +wish to use a predicate with number forms. Should we say, "This +kind of rules <i>are</i> the best," or "This kind of rules +<i>is</i> the best?" <i>Kind</i> or <i>sort</i> may be treated as a +collective noun, and in this way may take a plural verb; for +example, Burke's sentence, "A <i>sort</i> of uncertain sounds +<i>are</i>, when the necessary dispositions concur, more alarming +than a total silence."</p> +<h3>COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Use of the comparative degree.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>428.</b></span> The comparative degree of +the adjective (or adverb) is used when we wish to compare two +objects or sets of objects, or one object with a class of objects, +to express a higher degree of quality; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Which is <i>the better</i> able to defend himself,—a +strong man with nothing but his fists, or a paralytic cripple +encumbered with a sword which he cannot lift?<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Of two such lessons, why +forget<br /></span> <span class="i2">The <i>nobler</i> and the +<i>manlier</i> one?<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Byron.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We may well doubt which has the <i>stronger</i> claim to +civilization, the victor or the vanquished.<span class= +"smcap">—Prescott.</span></p> +<p>A <i>braver</i> ne'er to battle rode.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>He is <i>taller,</i> by almost the breadth of my nail, than any +of his court.<span class="smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306"></a>Other +<i>after the comparative form.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>429.</b></span> When an object is compared +with the class to which it belongs, it is regularly excluded from +that class by the word <i>other</i>; if not, the object would +really be compared with itself: thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The character of Lady Castlewood has required more delicacy in +its manipulation than perhaps any <i>other</i> which Thackeray has +drawn.<span class="smcap">—Trollope.</span></p> +<p>I used to watch this patriarchal personage with livelier +curiosity than any <i>other</i> form of humanity.<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>See if the word <i>other</i> should be inserted in the following +sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. There was no man who could make a more graceful bow than Mr. +Henry.<span class="smcap">—Wirt.</span></p> +<p>2. I am concerned to see that Mr. Gary, to whom Dante owes more +than ever poet owed to translator, has sanctioned, etc.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>3. There is no country in which wealth is so sensible of its +obligations as our own.<span class= +"smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +<p>4. This is more sincerely done in the Scandinavian than in any +mythology I know.<span class="smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>5. In "Thaddeus of Warsaw" there is more crying than in any +novel I remember to have read.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>6. The heroes of another writer [Cooper] are quite the equals of +Scott's men; perhaps Leather-stocking is better than any one in +"Scott's lot."—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Use of the superlative degree.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>430.</b></span> The <b>superlative +degree</b> of the adjective (or adverb) is used regularly in +comparing more than two things, but is also frequently used in +comparing only two things.</p> +<p>Examples of superlative with several objects:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It is a case of which the <i>simplest</i> statement is the +<i>strongest</i>.<span class="smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>Even Dodd himself, who was one of the <i>greatest</i> humbugs +who ever lived, would not have had the face.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>To the man who plays well, the <i>highest</i> stakes are +paid.<span class="smcap">—Huxley.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_307" id= +"Page_307"></a><i>Superlative with two objects.</i></div> +<p>Compare the first three sentences in Sec. 428 with the +following:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Which do you love <i>best</i> to behold, the lamb or the lion? +<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>Which of these methods has the <i>best</i> effect? Both of them +are the same to the sense, and differ only in form.<span class= +"smcap">—Dr Blair.</span></p> +<p>Rip was one of those ... who eat white bread or brown, whichever +can be got <i>easiest</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +<p>It is hard to say whether the man of wisdom or the man of folly +contributed <i>most</i> to the amusement of the party.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>There was an interval of three years between Mary and Anne. The +<i>eldest</i>, Mary, was like the Stuarts—the <i>younger</i> +was a fair English child.<span class="smcap">—Mrs. +Oliphant.</span></p> +<p>Of the two great parties which at this hour almost share the +nation between them, I should say that one has the <i>best</i> +cause, and the other contains the <i>best</i> men.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>In all disputes between States, though the <i>strongest</i> is +nearly always mainly in the wrong, the <i>weaker</i> is often so in +a minor degree.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>She thought him and Olivia extremely of a size, and would bid +both to stand up to see which was the <i>tallest</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>These two properties seem essential to wit, more particularly +the <i>last</i> of them.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +<p>"Ha, ha, ha!" roared Goodman Brown when the wind laughed at him. +"Let us see which will laugh <i>loudest</i>."<span class= +"smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Double comparative and +superlative.</i></div> +<p>431. In Shakespeare's time it was quite common to use a double +comparative and superlative by using <i>more</i> or <i>most</i> +before the word already having <i>-er</i> or <i>-est</i>. Examples +from Shakespeare are,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>How much <i>more elder</i> art thou than thy +looks!—<i>Merchant of Venice.</i></p> +<p>Nor that I am <i>more better</i> than +Prospero.—<span class="smcap"><i>Tempest.</i></span></p> +<p>Come you <i>more nearer</i>.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Hamlet.</i></span></p> +<p>With the <i>most boldest</i> and best hearts of +Rome.—<span class="smcap"><i>J. Cæsar.</i></span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308"></a>Also from the same +period,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Imitating the manner of the <i>most ancientest</i> and +<i>finest</i> Grecians.<span class="smcap">—Ben +Jonson.</span></p> +<p>After the <i>most straitest</i> sect of our +religion.—<i>Bible</i>, 1611.</p> +</div> +<p>Such expressions are now heard only in vulgar English. The +following examples are used purposely, to represent the characters +as ignorant persons:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The artful saddler persuaded the young traveler to look at "the +<i>most convenientest</i> and <i>handsomest</i> saddle that ever +was seen."<span class="smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p>"There's nothing comes out but the <i>most lowest</i> stuff in +nature; not a bit of high life among them."<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +</div> +<p><i>THREE FIRST</i> <b>OR</b> <i>FIRST THREE</i>?</p> +<p><span class="sn"><b>432.</b></span> As to these two expressions, +over which a little war has so long been buzzing, we think it not +necessary to say more than that both are in good use; not only so +in popular speech, but in literary English. Instances of both are +given below.</p> +<p>The meaning intended is the same, and the reader gets the same +idea from both: hence there is properly a perfect liberty in the +use of either or both.</p> +<div class="sidenote">First three, <i>etc.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>For Carlyle, and Secretary Walsingham also, have been helping +them heart and soul for the <i>last two</i> years.<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>The delay in the <i>first three</i> lines, and conceit in the +last, jar upon us constantly.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>The <i>last dozen</i> miles before you reach the +suburbs.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>Mankind for the <i>first seventy thousand</i> ages ate their +meat raw.<span class="smcap">—Lamb.</span></p> +<p>The <i>first twenty</i> numbers were expressed by a +corresponding number of dots. The <i>first five</i> had specific +names.<span class="smcap">—Prescott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Three first, <i>etc.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>These are the <i>three first</i> needs of civilized +life.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span><a name="Page_309" +id="Page_309"></a></p> +<p>He has already finished the <i>three first</i> sticks of +it.<span class="smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +<p>In my <i>two last</i> you had so much of Lismahago that I +suppose you are glad he is gone.<span class= +"smcap">—Smollett.</span></p> +<p>I have not numbered the lines except of the <i>four first</i> +books. <span class="smcap">—Cowper.</span></p> +<p>The <i>seven first</i> centuries were filled with a succession +of triumphs.<span class="smcap">—Gibbon.</span></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="ARTICLESIII" id= +"ARTICLESIII"></a><b>ARTICLES</b>.</h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definite article</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>433.</b></span> The <b>definite article</b> +is repeated before each of two modifiers of the same noun, when the +purpose is to call attention to the noun expressed and the one +understood. In such a case two or more separate objects are usually +indicated by the separation of the modifiers. Examples of this +construction are,—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>With a singular noun</i>.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The merit of <i>the Barb</i>, <i>the Spanish</i>, and <i>the +English</i> breed is derived from a mixture of Arabian +blood.<span class="smcap">—Gibbon.</span></p> +<p><i>The righteous</i> man is distinguished from <i>the +unrighteous</i> by his desire and hope of justice.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>He seemed deficient in sympathy for concrete human things either +on <i>the sunny</i> or <i>the stormy</i> side.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>It is difficult to imagine a greater contrast than that between +<i>the first</i> and <i>the second</i> part of the +volume.—<i><span class="smcap">The Nation</span></i>, No. +1508.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>With a plural noun</i>.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>There was also a fundamental difference of opinion as to whether +the earliest cleavage was between <i>the Northern</i> and <i>the +Southern</i> languages.<span class="smcap">—Taylor,</span> +<i>Origin of the Aryans</i>.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>434.</b></span> The same repetition of the +article is sometimes found before nouns alone, to distinguish +clearly, or to emphasize the meaning; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>In every line of <i>the Philip</i> and <i>the Saul</i>, the +greatest poems, I think, of the eighteenth century.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span><a name="Page_310" id= +"Page_310"></a></p> +<p>He is master of the two-fold Logos, <i>the thought</i> and +<i>the word</i>, distinct, but inseparable from each +other.<span class="smcap">—Newman.</span></p> +<p><i>The flowers</i>, and <i>the presents</i>, and <i>the trunks +and bonnet boxes</i> ... having been arranged, the hour of parting +came.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">The <i>not repeated. One object and several +modifiers, with a singular noun</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>435.</b></span> Frequently, however, the +article is not repeated before each of two or more adjectives, as +in Sec. 433, but is used with one only; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Or fanciest thou <i>the red and yellow</i> Clothes-screen yonder +is but of To-day, without a Yesterday or a To-morrow?<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p><i>The lofty</i>, <i>melodious</i>, <i>and flexible</i> +language.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p><i>The fairest and most loving</i> wife in Greece.<span class= +"smcap">—Tennyson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Meaning same as in Sec. 433, with a plural +noun</i>.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Neither can there be a much greater resemblance between <i>the +ancient and modern</i> general views of the town.<span class= +"smcap">—Halliwell-phillipps.</span></p> +<p>At Talavera <i>the English and French</i> troops for a moment +suspended their conflict.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>The Crusades brought to the rising commonwealths of <i>the +Adriatic and Tyrrhene</i> seas a large increase of +wealth.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>Here the youth of both sexes, of <i>the higher and middling</i> +orders, were placed at a very tender age.<span class= +"smcap">—Prescott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Indefinite article</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>436.</b></span> The <b>indefinite +article</b> is used, like the definite article, to limit two or +more modified nouns, only one of which is expressed. The article is +repeated for the purpose of separating or emphasizing the modified +nouns. Examples of this use are,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We shall live <i>a better</i> and <i>a higher</i> and <i>a +nobler</i> life.<span class="smcap">—Beecher.</span></p> +<p>The difference between the products of <i>a well-disciplined</i> +and those of <i>an uncultivated</i> understanding is often and +admirably exhibited by our great dramatist.—<span class= +"smcap">S. T. Coleridge</span>.</p> +<p>Let us suppose that the pillars succeed each other, <i>a +round</i> and <i>a square</i> one alternately.<span class= +"smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p>As if the difference between <i>an accurate</i> and <i>an +inaccurate</i> <a name="Page_311" id="Page_311"></a>statement was +not worth the trouble of looking into the most common book of +reference.<span class="smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>To every room there was <i>an open</i> and <i>a secret</i> +passage.<span class="smcap">—Johnson.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Notice that in the above sentences (except the first) the noun +expressed is in contrast with the modified noun omitted.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>One article with several +adjectives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>437.</b></span> Usually the article is not +repeated when the several adjectives unite in describing one and +the same noun. In the sentences of Secs. 433 and 436, one noun is +expressed; yet the same word understood with the other adjectives +has a different meaning (except in the first sentence of Sec. 436). +But in the following sentences, as in the first three of Sec. 435, +the adjectives assist each other in describing the same noun. It is +easy to see the difference between the expressions "<i>a +red-and-white</i> geranium," and "<i>a red and a white</i> +geranium."</p> +<p>Examples of several adjectives describing the same +object:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>To inspire us with <i>a free and quiet</i> +mind.—<span class="smcap">B. Jonson</span>.</p> +<p>Here and there <i>a desolate and uninhabited</i> +house.<span class="smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +<p>James was declared <i>a mortal and bloody</i> enemy.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>So wert thou born into a tuneful +strain,<br /></span> <span><i>An early, rich, and inexhausted</i> +vein.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Dryden.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>For rhetorical effect.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>438.</b></span> The indefinite article +(compare Sec. 434) is used to lend special emphasis, interest, or +clearness to each of several nouns; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>James was declared <i>a</i> mortal and bloody <i>enemy, a +tyrant, a murderer</i>, and <i>a usurper</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>Thou hast spoken as <i>a patriot</i> and <i>a +Christian</i>.<span class="smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p>He saw him in his mind's eye, <i>a collegian, a parliament +man—a Baronet</i> perhaps.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312"></a><a name="VERBSIII" id= +"VERBSIII"></a>VERBS.</h2> +<h3>CONCORD OF VERB AND SUBJECT IN NUMBER.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A broad and loose rule.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>439.</b></span> In English, the +<b>number</b> of the verb follows the meaning rather than the form +of its subject.</p> +<p>It will not do to state as a general rule that the verb agrees +with its subject in person and number. This was spoken of in Part +I., Sec. 276, and the following illustrations prove it.</p> +<p>The statements and illustrations of course refer to such verbs +as have separate forms for singular and plural number.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Singular verb.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>440.</b></span> The <b>singular form</b> of +the verb is used—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Subject of singular form.</i></div> +<p>(1) When the subject has a singular form and a singular +meaning.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Such, then, <i>was</i> the earliest American +<i>land</i>.<span class="smcap">—Agassiz.</span></p> +<p><i>He was</i> certainly a happy fellow at this +time.—<span class="smcap">G. Eliot</span>.</p> +<p><i>He sees</i> that it is better to live in peace.<span class= +"smcap">—Cooper.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Collective noun of singular +meaning.</i></div> +<p>(2) When the subject is a <i>collective noun</i> which +represents a number of persons or things <i>taken as one unit</i>; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The larger <i>breed</i> [of camels] <i>is</i> capable of +transporting a weight of a thousand pounds.<span class= +"smcap">—Gibbon.</span></p> +<p>Another <i>school professes</i> entirely opposite +principles.—<i>The Nation.</i></p> +<p>In this work there <i>was</i> grouped around him <i>a score</i> +of men.<span class="smcap">—W. Phillips</span></p> +<p>A <i>number</i> of jeweled paternosters <i>was</i> attached to +her girdle.<span class="smcap">—Froude.</span></p> +<p><i>Something like a horse load</i> of books <i>has</i> been +written to prove that it was the beauty who blew up the +booby.<span class="smcap">—Carlyle</span></p> +</div> +<p>This usage, like some others in this series, depends mostly on +the writer's own judgment. <a name="Page_313" id= +"Page_313"></a>Another writer might, for example, prefer a plural +verb after <i>number</i> in Froude's sentence above.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Singulars connected by</i> or <i>or</i> +nor.</div> +<p>(3) When the subject consists of two or more singular nouns +connected by <i>or</i> or <i>nor</i>; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It is by no means sure that either our <i>literature</i>, or the +great intellectual <i>life</i> of our nation, <i>has</i> got +already, without academies, all that academies can +give.—<span class="smcap">M. Arnold</span>.</p> +<p><i>Jesus is</i> not dead, nor <i>John</i>, nor <i>Paul</i>, nor +<i>Mahomet</i>. <span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Plural form and singular +meaning.</i></div> +<p>(4) When the subject is <i>plural in form</i>, but represents a +number of things to be taken together as <i>forming one unit</i>; +for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Thirty-four years <i>affects</i> one's remembrance of some +circumstances.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>Between ourselves, three pounds five shillings and two pence +<i>is</i> no bad day's work.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>Every twenty paces <i>gives</i> you the prospect of some villa; +and every four hours, that of a large town.<span class= +"smcap">—Montague</span></p> +<p>Two thirds of this <i>is</i> mine by right.<span class= +"smcap">—Sheridan</span></p> +<p>The singular form is also used with book titles, other names, +and other singulars of plural form; as,—</p> +<p>Politics <i>is</i> the only field now open for me.<span class= +"smcap">—Whittier.</span></p> +<p>"Sesame and Lilies" <i>is</i> Ruskin's creed for young +girls.—<i><span class="smcap">Critic</span></i>, No. 674</p> +<p>The Three Pigeons <i>expects</i> me down every +moment.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Several singular subjects to one singular +verb.</i></div> +<p>(5) With <i>several singular subjects not</i> disjoined by +<i>or</i> or <i>nor</i>, in the following cases:—</p> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Joined by <i>and</i>, but considered as meaning about +the same thing, or as making up one general idea; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>In a word, all his conversation and knowledge <i>has been</i> in +the female world<span class="smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314"></a>The strength and glare of +each [color] <i>is</i> considerably abated.<span class= +"smcap">—Burke</span></p> +<p>To imagine that debating and logic <i>is</i> the +triumph.<span class="smcap">—Carlyle</span></p> +<p>In a world where even to fold and seal a letter adroitly +<i>is</i> not the least of accomplishments.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey</span></p> +<p>The genius and merit of a rising poet <i>was</i> +celebrated.<span class="smcap">—Gibbon.</span></p> +<p>When the cause of ages and the fate of nations <i>hangs</i> upon +the thread of a debate.—<span class="smcap">J. Q. +Adams</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Not joined by a conjunction, but each one emphatic, +or considered as appositional; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The unbought grace of life, the cheap defense of nations, the +nurse of manly sentiment and heroic enterprise, <i>is</i> +gone.<span class="smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p>A fever, a mutilation, a cruel disappointment, a loss of wealth, +a loss of friends, <i>seems</i> at the moment unpaid +loss.<span class="smcap">—Emerson</span></p> +<p>The author, the wit, the partisan, the fine gentleman, +<i>does</i> not take the place of the man.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>To receive presents or a bribe, to be guilty of collusion in any +way with a suitor, <i>was</i> punished, in a judge, with +death.<span class="smcap">—Prescott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Subjects after the verb.</i></div> +<p>This use of several subjects with a singular verb is especially +frequent when the subjects are after the verb; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>There <i>is</i> a right and a wrong in them.<span class= +"smcap">—M Arnold.</span></p> +<p>There <i>is</i> a moving tone of voice, an impassioned +countenance, an agitated gesture.<span class= +"smcap">—Burke</span></p> +<p>There <i>was</i> a steel headpiece, a cuirass, a gorget, and +greaves, with a pair of gauntlets and a sword hanging +beneath.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>Then <i>comes</i> the "Why, sir!" and the "What then, sir?" and +the "No, sir!"<span class="smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>For wide <i>is</i> heard the thundering +fray,<br /></span> <span>The rout, the ruin, the +dismay.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—SCOTT.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315"></a>(<i>c</i>) Joined by <i>as +well as</i> (in this case the verb agrees with the first of the +two, no matter if the second is plural); thus,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Asia, as well as Europe, <i>was</i> dazzled.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>The oldest, as well as the newest, +wine<br /></span> <span><i>Begins</i> to stir itself.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—LONGFELLOW.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Her back, as well as sides, <i>was</i> like to +crack.<span class="smcap">—Butler.</span></p> +<p>The Epic, as well as the Drama, <i>is</i> divided into tragedy +and Comedy.<span class="smcap">—Fielding</span></p> +</div> +<p>(<i>d</i>) When each of two or more singular subjects is +preceded by <i>every</i>, <i>each</i>, <i>no</i>, <i>many a</i>, +and such like adjectives.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Every fop, every boor, every valet, <i>is</i> a man of +wit.<span class="smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>Every sound, every echo, <i>was</i> listened to for five +hours.<span class="smcap">—De Quincey</span></p> +<p>Every dome and hollow <i>has</i> the figure of +Christ.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>Each particular hue and tint <i>stands</i> by +itself.<span class="smcap">—Newman.</span></p> +<p>Every law and usage <i>was</i> a man's expedient.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>Here <i>is</i> no ruin, no discontinuity, no spent +ball.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>Every week, nay, almost every day, <i>was</i> set down in their +calendar for some appropriate celebration.<span class= +"smcap">—Prescott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Plural verb.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>441.</b></span> The <b>plural form</b> of +the verb is used—</p> +<p>(1) When the subject is plural <i>in form and in meaning</i>; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>These <i>bits</i> of wood <i>were</i> covered on every +square.<span class="smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +<p>Far, far away thy children <i>leave</i> the land.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>The Arabian poets <i>were</i> the historians and +moralists.<span class="smcap">—Gibbon.</span></p> +</div> +<p>(2) When the subject is a <i>collective noun</i> in which <i>the +individuals</i> of the collection are thought of; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A multitude <i>go</i> mad about it.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>A great number of people <i>were</i> collected at a +vendue.<span class="smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316"></a>All our household +<i>are</i> at rest.<span class="smcap">—Coleridge.</span></p> +<p>A party of workmen <i>were</i> removing the horses.<span class= +"smcap">—Lew Wallace</span></p> +<p>The fraternity <i>were</i> inclined to claim for him the honors +of canonization.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>The travelers, of whom there <i>were</i> a +number.—<span class="smcap">B. Taylor</span>.</p> +</div> +<p>(3) When the subject consists of <i>several singulars connected +by and</i>, making up a plural subject, for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Only Vice and Misery <i>are</i> abroad.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle</span></p> +<p>But its authorship, its date, and its history <i>are</i> alike a +mystery to us.<span class="smcap">—Froude.</span></p> +<p>His clothes, shirt, and skin <i>were</i> all of the same +color<span class="smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +<p>Aristotle and Longinus <i>are</i> better understood by him than +Littleton or Coke.<span class="smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Conjunction omitted.</i></div> +<p>The conjunction may be omitted, as in Sec. 440 (5, <i>b</i>), +but the verb is plural, as with a subject of plural form.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A shady grove, a green pasture, a stream of fresh water, +<i>are</i> sufficient to attract a colony.<span class= +"smcap">—Gibbon.</span></p> +<p>The Dauphin, the Duke of Berri, Philip of Anjou, <i>were</i> men +of insignificant characters.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay</span></p> +</div> +<p>(4) When a singular is joined with a plural by a disjunctive +word, the verb agrees with the one nearest it; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>One or two of these perhaps <i>survive</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Thoreau.</span></p> +<p>One or two persons in the crowd <i>were</i> +insolent.<span class="smcap">—Froude.</span></p> +<p>One or two of the ladies <i>were</i> going to leave.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison</span></p> +<p>One or two of these old Cromwellian soldiers <i>were</i> still +alive in the village.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray</span></p> +<p>One or two of whom <i>were</i> more entertaining.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +</div> +<p>But notice the construction of this,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A ray or two <i>wanders</i> into the darkness.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +</div> +<h3><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317"></a>AGREEMENT OF VERB AND +SUBJECT IN PERSON.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>General usage</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>442.</b></span> If there is only one person +in the subject, the ending of the verb indicates the person of its +subject; that is, in those few cases where there are forms for +different persons: as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Never once <i>didst</i> thou revel in the vision.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>Romanism wisely <i>provides</i> for the childish in +men.<span class="smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +<p>It <i>hath</i> been said my Lord would never take the +oath.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Second or third and first person in the +subject</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>443.</b></span> If the subject is made up of +the first person joined with the second or third by <i>and</i>, the +verb takes the construction of the first person, the subject being +really equivalent to <i>we</i>; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I flatter myself you and I <i>shall</i> meet again.<span class= +"smcap">—Smollett.</span></p> +<p>You and I <i>are</i> farmers; we never talk +politics.<span class="smcap">—D. Webster.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Ah, brother! only I and thou<br /></span> +<span><i>Are</i> left of all that circle now.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Whittier.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>You and I <i>are</i> tolerably modest people.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>Cocke and I <i>have</i> felt it in our bones—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Gammer Gurton's Needle</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>With adversative or disjunctive +connectives</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>444.</b></span> When the subjects, of +different persons, are connected by adversative or disjunctive +conjunctions, the verb usually agrees with the pronoun nearest to +it; for example,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Neither you nor I <i>should</i> be a bit the better or +wiser.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>If she or you <i>are</i> resolved to be miserable.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>Nothing which Mr. Pattison or I <i>have</i> +said.—<span class="smcap">M. Arnold</span>.</p> +<p>Not Altamont, but thou, <i>hadst</i> been my lord.<span class= +"smcap">—Rowe.</span></p> +<p>Not I, but thou, his blood <i>dost</i> shed.<span class= +"smcap">—Byron.</span></p> +</div> +<p>This construction is at the best a little awkward. It is avoided +either by using a verb which has no <a name="Page_318" id= +"Page_318"></a>forms for person (as, "He or I <i>can</i> go," "She +or you <i>may</i> be sure," etc.), or by rearranging the sentence +so as to throw each subject before its proper person form (as, "You +<i>would</i> not be wiser, nor <i>should</i> I;" or, "I <i>have</i> +never said so, nor <i>has</i> she").</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Exceptional examples</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>445.</b></span> The following illustrate +exceptional usage, which it is proper to mention; but the student +is cautioned to follow the regular usage rather than the unusual +and irregular.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Change each of the following sentences to accord with standard +usage, as illustrated above (Secs. +<b>440</b>-<b>444</b>):—</p> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;">1. +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And sharp Adversity will teach at +last<br /></span> <span>Man,—and, as we would +hope,—perhaps the devil,<br /></span> <span>That neither of +their intellects are vast.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Byron.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>2. Neither of them, in my opinion, give so accurate an idea of +the man as a statuette in bronze.<span class= +"smcap">—Trollope.</span></p> +<p>3. How each of these professions are crowded.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +<p>4. Neither of their counselors were to be +present.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>5. Either of them are equally good to the person to whom they +are significant.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>6. Neither the red nor the white are strong and +glaring.<span class="smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p>7. A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or +murder.<span class="smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +<p>8. Neither of the sisters were very much deceived.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +9. +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>Nor wood, nor tree, nor bush are +there,<br /></span> <span>Her course to intercept.<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></div> +</div> +<p>10. Both death and I am found eternal.<span class= +"smcap">—Milton.</span></p> +<p>11. In ascending the Mississippi the party was often <a name= +"Page_319" id="Page_319"></a>obliged to wade through morasses; at +last they came upon the district of Little +Prairie.—<span class="smcap">G. Bancroft</span>.</p> +<p>12. In a word, the whole nation seems to be running out of their +wits.<span class="smcap">—Smollett.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>SEQUENCE OF TENSES</b> (<b>VERBS AND VERBALS</b>).</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Lack of logical sequence in +verbs</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>446.</b></span> If one or more verbs depend +on some leading verb, each should be in the tense that will convey +the meaning intended by the writer.</p> +<p>In this sentence from Defoe, "I expected every wave would have +swallowed us up," the verb <i>expected</i> looks forward to +something in the future, while <i>would have swallowed</i> +represents something completed in past time: hence the meaning +intended was, "I expected every wave <i>would swallow</i>" etc.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Also in verbals</i>.</div> +<p>In the following sentence, the infinitive also fails to express +the exact thought:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I had hoped never to have seen the statues again.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +</div> +<p>The trouble is the same as in the previous sentence; <i>to have +seen</i> should be changed to <i>to see</i>, for exact connection. +Of course, if the purpose were to represent a prior fact or +completed action, the perfect infinitive would be the very +thing.</p> +<p>It should be remarked, however, that such sentences as those +just quoted are in keeping with the older idea of the unity of the +sentence. The present rule is recent.</p> +<p><b>Exercise</b>.</p> +<p>Explain whether the verbs and infinitives in the following +sentences convey the right meaning; if not, change them to a better +form:—<a name="Page_320" id="Page_320"></a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. I gave one quarter to Ann, meaning, on my return, to have +divided with her whatever might remain.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey</span></p> +<p>2. I can't sketch "The Five Drapers," ... but can look and be +thankful to have seen such a masterpiece.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>3. He would have done more wisely to have left them to find +their own apology than to have given reasons which seemed +paradoxes.—<span class="smcap">R. W. Church</span>.</p> +<p>4. The propositions of William are stated to have contained a +proposition for a compromise.<span class= +"smcap">—Palgrave</span></p> +<p>5. But I found I wanted a stock of words, which I thought I +should have acquired before that time.<span class= +"smcap">—Franklin</span></p> +<p>6. I could even have suffered them to have broken Everet +Ducking's head.<span class="smcap">—Irving.</span></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="INDIRECT_DISCOURSE" id= +"INDIRECT_DISCOURSE"></a><b>INDIRECT DISCOURSE</b>.</h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Definitions</i>.</div> +<p><i>447</i>. <b>Direct discourse</b>—that is, a direct +quotation or a direct question—means the identical words the +writer or speaker used; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"I hope you have not killed him?" said Amyas.<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +</div> +<p><b>Indirect discourse</b> means reported speech,—the +thoughts of a writer or speaker put in the words of the one +reporting them.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Two samples of indirect +discourse</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>448.</b></span> Indirect discourse may be of +two kinds:—</p> +<p>(1) Following the thoughts and also the exact words as far as +consistent with the rules of logical sequence of verbs.</p> +<p>(2) Merely a concise representation of the original words, not +attempting to follow the entire quotation.</p> +<p>The following examples of both are from De Quincey:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><a name="Page_321" id= +"Page_321"></a><i>Indirect</i>.</div> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Reyes remarked that it was not in his power to oblige the +clerk as to that, but that he could oblige him by cutting his +throat.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Direct</i>.</div> +<p>His exact words were, "I <i>cannot</i> oblige <i>you</i> ..., +but I <i>can</i> oblige <i>you</i> by cutting <i>your</i> +throat."</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Indirect</i>.</div> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>Her prudence whispered eternally, that safety there was none for +her until she had laid the Atlantic between herself and St. +Sebastian's.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Direct</i>.</div> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>She thought to herself, "Safety there <i>is</i> none for +<i>me</i> until <i>I</i> have laid," etc.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Summary of the expressions</i>.</div> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>2. Then he laid bare the unparalleled ingratitude of such a +step. Oh, the unseen treasure that had been spent upon that girl! +Oh, the untold sums of money that he had sunk in that unhappy +speculation!</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Direct synopsis</i>.</div> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>The substance of his lamentation was, "Oh, unseen treasure +<i>has</i> been spent upon that girl! Untold sums of money <i>have +I</i> sunk," etc.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>449.</b></span> From these illustrations +will be readily seen the grammatical changes made in transferring +from direct to indirect discourse. Remember the following +facts:—</p> +<p>(1) Usually the main, introductory verb is in the past +tense.</p> +<p>(2) The indirect quotation is usually introduced by <i>that</i>, +and the indirect question by <i>whether</i> or <i>if</i>, or +regular interrogatives.</p> +<p>(3) Verbs in the present-tense form are changed to the +past-tense form. This includes the auxiliaries <i>be</i>, +<i>have</i>, <i>will</i>, etc. The past tense is sometimes changed +to the past perfect.</p> +<p>(4) The pronouns of the first and second persons are all changed +to the third person. Sometimes it is clearer to introduce the +antecedent of the pronoun instead.</p> +<p>Other examples of indirect discourse have been <a name= +"Page_322" id="Page_322"></a>given in Part I., under interrogative +pronouns, interrogative adverbs, and the subjunctive mood of +verbs.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Rewrite the following extract from Irving's "Sketch Book," and +change it to a direct quotation:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He assured the company that it was a fact, handed down from his +ancestor the historian, that the Catskill Mountains had always been +haunted by strange beings; that it was affirmed that the great +Hendrick Hudson, the first discoverer of the river and country, +kept a kind of vigil there every twenty years, with his crew of the +Half-moon, being permitted in this way to revisit the scenes of his +enterprise, and keep a guardian eye upon the river and the great +city called by his name; that his father had once seen them in +their old Dutch dresses playing at ninepins in a hollow of the +mountain; and that he himself had heard, one summer afternoon, the +sound of their balls, like distant peals of thunder.</p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="VERBALSIII" id="VERBALSIII"></a><b>VERBALS</b>.</h2> +<p><b>PARTICIPLES</b>.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Careless use of the participial +phrase.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>450.</b></span> The following sentences +illustrate a misuse of the participial phrase:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Pleased with the "Pilgrim's Progress," my first collection was +of John Bunyan's works.—<span class="smcap">B. +Franklin</span>.</p> +<p>My farm consisted of about twenty acres of excellent land, +having given a hundred pounds for my predecessor's +goodwill.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>Upon asking how he had been taught the art of a cognoscente so +suddenly, he assured me that nothing was more +easy.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>Having thus run through the causes of the sublime, my first +observation will be found nearly true.<span class= +"smcap">—Burke</span></p> +<p>He therefore remained silent till he had repeated a paternoster, +being the course which his confessor had enjoined.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott</span></p> +</div> +<p><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323"></a>Compare with these the +following:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A correct example.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Going yesterday to dine with an old acquaintance, I had the +misfortune to find his whole family very much dejected.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Notice this.</i></div> +<p>The trouble is, in the sentences first quoted, that the main +subject of the sentence is not the same word that would be the +subject of the participle, if this were expanded into a verb.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Correction.</i></div> +<p>Consequently one of two courses must be taken,—either +change the participle to a verb with its appropriate subject, +leaving the principal statement as it is; or change the principal +proposition so it shall make logical connection with the +participial phrase.</p> +<p>For example, the first sentence would be, either "<i>As I +was</i> pleased, ... my first collection was," etc., or "Pleased +with the 'Pilgrim's Progress,' I made my first collection John +Bunyan's works."</p> +<p><b>Exercise.</b>—Rewrite the other four sentences so as to +correct the careless use of the participial phrase.</p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="INFINITIVES" id= +"INFINITIVES"></a><b>INFINITIVES.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Adverb between</i> to <i>and the +infinitive.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>451.</b></span> There is a construction +which is becoming more and more common among good +writers,—the placing an adverb between <i>to</i> of the +infinitive and the infinitive itself. The practice is condemned by +many grammarians, while defended or excused by others. Standard +writers often use it, and often, purposely or not, avoid it.</p> +<p>The following two examples show the adverb before the +infinitive:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The more common usage.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He handled it with such nicety of address as sufficiently <i>to +show</i> that he fully understood the business.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324"></a>It is a solemn, universal +assertion, deeply <i>to be kept</i> in mind by all +sects.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +</div> +<p>This is the more common arrangement; yet frequently the desire +seems to be to get the adverb snugly against the infinitive, to +modify it as closely and clearly as possible.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>In the following citations, see if the adverbs can be placed +before or after the infinitive and still modify it as clearly as +they now do:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. There are, then, many things <i>to be</i> carefully +<i>considered</i>, if a strike is to succeed.<span class= +"smcap">—Laughlin.</span></p> +<p>2. That the mind may not have to go backwards and forwards in +order <i>to</i> rightly <i>connect</i> them.<span class= +"smcap">—Herbert Spencer.</span></p> +<p>3. It may be easier to bear along all the qualifications of an +idea ... than <i>to</i> first imperfectly <i>conceive</i> such +idea.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>4. In works of art, this kind of grandeur, which consists in +multitude, is <i>to be</i> very cautiously +<i>admitted</i>.<span class="smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p>5. That virtue which requires <i>to be</i> ever <i>guarded</i> +is scarcely worth the sentinel.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>6. Burke said that such "little arts and devices" were not <i>to +be</i> wholly <i>condemned</i>.—<i>The Nation</i>, No. +1533.</p> +<p>7. I wish the reader <i>to</i> clearly +<i>understand</i>.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>8. Transactions which seem <i>to be</i> most widely +<i>separated</i> from one another.<span class="smcap">—Dr. +Blair.</span></p> +<p>9. Would earnestly advise them for their good to order this +paper <i>to be</i> punctually <i>served up</i>.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +<p>10. A little sketch of his, in which a cannon ball is supposed +<i>to have</i> just <i>carried off</i> the head of an +aide-de-camp.<span class="smcap">—Trollope.</span></p> +<p>11. The ladies seem <i>to have been</i> expressly <i>created</i> +to form helps meet for such gentlemen.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>12. Sufficient to disgust a people whose manners were beginning +<i>to be</i> strongly <i>tinctured</i> with +austerity.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>13. The spirits, therefore, of those opposed to them seemed +<i>to be</i> considerably <i>damped</i> by their continued +success.<span class="smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="ADVERBSIII" id="ADVERBSIII"></a><a name="Page_325" id= +"Page_325"></a><b>ADVERBS.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Position of</i> only, even, +<i>etc.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>452.</b></span>A very careful writer will so +place the modifiers of a verb that the reader will not mistake the +meaning.</p> +<p>The rigid rule in such a case would be, to put the modifier in +such a position that the reader not only can understand the meaning +intended, but <i>cannot misunderstand</i> the thought. Now, when +such adverbs as <i>only</i>, <i>even</i>, etc., are used, they are +usually placed in a strictly correct position, if they modify +single words; but they are often removed from the exact position, +if they modify phrases or clauses: for example, from Irving, "The +site is <i>only</i> to be traced by fragments of bricks, china, and +earthenware." Here <i>only</i> modifies the phrase <i>by fragments +of bricks</i>, etc., but it is placed before the infinitive. This +misplacement of the adverb can be detected only by analysis of the +sentence.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Tell what the adverb modifies in each quotation, and see if it +is placed in the proper position:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Only the name of one obscure epigrammatist has been embalmed +for us in the verses of his rival.<span class= +"smcap">—Palgrave.</span></p> +<p>2. Do you remember pea shooters? I think we only had them on +going home for holidays.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>3. Irving could only live very modestly. He could only afford to +keep one old horse.—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>4. The arrangement of this machinery could only be accounted for +by supposing the motive power to have been +steam.—<span class="smcap">Wendell Phillips.</span></p> +<p>5. Such disputes can only be settled by arms.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>6. I have only noted one or two topics which I thought most +likely to interest an American reader.—<span class="smcap">N. +P. Willis</span>.</p> +<p><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326"></a>7. The silence of the first +night at the farmhouse,—stillness broken only by two +whippoorwills.<span class="smcap">—Higginson.</span></p> +<p>8. My master, to avoid a crowd, would suffer only thirty people +at a time to see me.<span class="smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +<p>9. In relating these and the following laws, I would only be +understood to mean the original institutions.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>10. The perfect loveliness of a woman's countenance can only +consist in that majestic peace which is founded in the memory of +happy and useful years.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +<p>11. In one of those celestial days it seems a poverty that we +can only spend it once.<span class= +"smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>12. My lord was only anxious as long as his wife's anxious face +or behavior seemed to upbraid him.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>13. He shouted in those clear, piercing tones that could be even +heard among the roaring of the cannon.<span class= +"smcap">—Cooper.</span></p> +<p>14. His suspicions were not even excited by the ominous face of +Gérard.<span class="smcap">—Motley.</span></p> +<p>15. During the whole course of his administration, he scarcely +befriended a single man of genius.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>16. I never remember to have felt an event more deeply than his +death.<span class="smcap">—Sydney Smith.</span></p> +<p>17. His last journey to Cannes, whence he was never destined to +return.<span class="smcap">—Mrs. Grote.</span></p> +</div> +<h3>USE OF DOUBLE NEGATIVES.</h3> +<div class="sidenote"><i>The old usage.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>453.</b></span> In Old and Middle English, +two negatives strengthened a negative idea; for example,—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>He <i>nevere</i> yet <i>no</i> vileineye +<i>ne</i> sayde,<br /></span> <span>In al his lyf unto <i>no</i> +maner wight.<br /></span> <span class= +"smcap">—Chaucer.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>No</i> sonne, were he never so old of yeares, might +<i>not</i> marry. <span class="smcap">—Ascham.</span></p> +</div> +<p>The first of these is equivalent to "He didn't never say no +villainy in all his life to no manner of man,"—four +negatives.</p> +<p>This idiom was common in the older stages of the language, and +is still kept in vulgar English; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I tell you she <i>ain'</i> been <i>nowhar</i> ef she don' know +we all.<a name="Page_327" id="Page_327"></a> —<span class= +"smcap">Page,</span> in <i>Ole Virginia</i>.</p> +<p>There <i>weren't no</i> pies to equal hers.<span class= +"smcap">—Mrs. Stowe.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Exceptional use.</i></div> +<p>There are sometimes found two negatives in modern English with a +negative effect, when one of the negatives is a connective. This, +however, is not common.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>I never did see him again, <i>nor never</i> shall.<span class= +"smcap">—De Quincey.</span></p> +<p>However, I did <i>not</i> act so hastily, +<i>neither</i>.<span class="smcap">—Defoe.</span></p> +<p>The prosperity of no empire, <i>nor</i> the grandeur of +<i>no</i> king, can so agreeably affect, etc.<span class= +"smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Regular law of negative in modern +English.</i></div> +<p>But, under the influence of Latin syntax, the usual way of +regarding the question now is, that <i>two negatives are equivalent +to an affirmative</i>, denying each other.</p> +<p>Therefore, if two negatives are found together, it is a sign of +ignorance or carelessness, or else a purpose to make an affirmative +effect. In the latter case, one of the negatives is often a prefix; +as <i>in</i>frequent, <i>un</i>common.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Tell whether the two or more negatives are properly used in each +of the following sentences, and why:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. The red men were not so infrequent visitors of the English +settlements.<span class="smcap">—Hawthorne.</span></p> +<p>2. "Huldy was so up to everything about the house, that the +doctor didn't miss nothin' in a temporal way."<span class= +"smcap">—Mrs. Stowe.</span></p> +<p>3. Her younger sister was a wide-awake girl, who hadn't been to +school for nothing.<span class="smcap">—Holmes.</span></p> +<p>4. You will find no battle which does not exhibit the most +cautious circumspection.<span class= +"smcap">—Bayne.</span></p> +<p>5. Not only could man not acquire such information, but ought +not to labor after it.<span class="smcap">—Grote.</span></p> +<p>6. There is no thoughtful man in America who would not consider +a war with England the greatest of calamities.<span class= +"smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +<p><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328"></a>7. In the execution of this +task, there is no man who would not find it an arduous +effort.<span class="smcap">—Hamilton.</span></p> +<p>8. "A weapon," said the King, "well worthy to confer honor, nor +has it been laid on an undeserving shoulder."<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CONJUNCTIONSIII" id= +"CONJUNCTIONSIII"></a><b>CONJUNCTIONS.</b></h2> +<div class="sidenote">And who, and which.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>454.</b></span> The sentences given in Secs. +419 and 420 on the connecting of pronouns with different +expressions may again be referred to here, as the use of the +conjunction, as well as of the pronoun, should be scrutinized.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Choice and proper position of +correlatives.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>455.</b></span> The most frequent mistakes +in using conjunctions are in handling correlatives, especially +<i>both</i> ... <i>and, neither</i> ... <i>nor, either</i> ... +<i>or, not</i> <i>only</i> ... <i>but, not merely</i> ... +<i>but</i> (<i>also</i>).</p> +<p>The following examples illustrate the correct use of +correlatives as to both choice of words and position:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Whether</i> at war <i>or</i> at peace, there we were, a +standing menace to all earthly paradises of that kind.<span class= +"smcap">—Lowell.</span></p> +<p>These idols of wood can <i>neither</i> hear <i>nor</i> +feel.<span class="smcap">—Prescott.</span></p> +<p><i>Both</i> the common soldiery <i>and</i> their leaders and +commanders lowered on each other as if their union had not been +more essential than ever, <i>not only</i> to the success of their +common cause, <i>but</i> to their own safety.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Things to be watched.</i></div> +<p>In these examples it will be noticed that <i>nor</i>, not +<i>or</i> is the proper correlative of <i>neither</i>; and that all +correlatives in a sentence ought to have corresponding positions: +that is, if the last precedes a verb, the first ought to be placed +before a verb; if the second precedes a phrase, the first should +also. <a name="Page_329" id="Page_329"></a>This is necessary to +make the sentence clear and symmetrical.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Correction.</i></div> +<p>In the sentence, "I am <i>neither</i> in spirits to enjoy it, +<i>or</i> to reply to it," both of the above requirements are +violated. The word <i>neither</i> in such a case had better be +changed to <i>not</i> ... <i>either</i>,—"I am not in spirits +<i>either</i> to enjoy it, <i>or</i> to reply to it."</p> +<p>Besides <i>neither ... or</i>, even <i>neither ... nor</i> is +often changed to <i>not</i>—<i>either ... or</i> with +advantage, as the negation is sometimes too far from the verb to +which it belongs.</p> +<p>A noun may be preceded by one of the correlatives, and an +equivalent pronoun by the other. The sentence, "This loose and +inaccurate manner of speaking has misled us <i>both</i> in the +theory of taste <i>and</i> of morals," may be changed to "This +loose ... misled us <i>both</i> in the theory of taste <i>and</i> +in <i>that</i> of morals."</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>Correct the following sentences:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. An ordinary man would neither have incurred the danger of +succoring Essex, nor the disgrace of assailing him.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>2. Those ogres will stab about and kill not only strangers, but +they will outrage, murder, and chop up their own kin.<span class= +"smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>3. In the course of his reading (which was neither pursued with +that seriousness or that devout mind which such a study requires) +the youth found himself, etc.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>4. I could neither bear walking nor riding in a carriage over +its pebbled streets.<span class="smcap">—Franklin.</span></p> +<p>5. Some exceptions, that can neither be dissembled nor eluded, +render this mode of reasoning as indiscreet as it is +superfluous.<span class="smcap">—Gibbon.</span></p> +<p>6. They will, too, not merely interest children, but grown-up +persons.—<span class="smcap"><i>Westminster +Review.</i></span></p> +<p><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330"></a>7. I had even the +satisfaction to see her lavish some kind looks upon my unfortunate +son, which the other could neither extort by his fortune nor +assiduity.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>8. This was done probably to show that he was neither ashamed of +his name or family.<span class="smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">Try and <i>for</i> try to.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>456.</b></span> Occasionally there is found +the expression <i>try and</i> instead of the better authorized +<i>try to</i>; as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>We will try <i>and</i> avoid personalities +altogether.<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>Did any of you ever try <i>and</i> read "Blackmore's +Poems"?—<span class="smcap"><i>Id.</i></span></p> +<p>Try <i>and</i> avoid the pronoun.<span class= +"smcap">—Bain.</span></p> +<p>We will try <i>and</i> get a clearer notion of them.<span class= +"smcap">—Ruskin.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">But what.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>457.</b></span> Instead of the subordinate +conjunction <i>that</i>, <i>but</i>, or <i>but that</i>, or the +negative relative <i>but</i>, we sometimes find the bulky and +needless <i>but what</i>. Now, it is possible to use <i>but +what</i> when <i>what</i> is a relative pronoun, as, "He never had +any money <i>but what</i> he absolutely needed;" but in the +following sentences <i>what</i> usurps the place of a +conjunction.</p> +<h4>Exercise.</h4> +<p>In the following sentences, substitute <i>that</i>, <i>but</i>, +or <i>but that</i> for the words <i>but what</i>:—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. The doctor used to say 'twas her young heart, and I don't +know <i>but what</i> he was right.—<span class="smcap">S. O. +Jewett</span>.</p> +<p>2. At the first stroke of the pickax it is ten to one <i>but +what</i> you are taken up for a trespass.<span class= +"smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p>3. There are few persons of distinction <i>but what</i> can hold +conversation in both languages.<span class= +"smcap">—Swift.</span></p> +<p>4. Who knows <i>but what</i> there might be English among those +sun-browned half-naked masses of panting wretches?<span class= +"smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>5. No little wound of the kind ever came to him <i>but what</i> +he disclosed it at once.<span class= +"smcap">—Trollope.</span></p> +<p>6. They are not so distant from the camp of Saladin <i>but +what</i> they might be in a moment surprised.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331"></a><a name="PREPOSITIONSIII" +id="PREPOSITIONSIII"></a><b>PREPOSITIONS.</b></h2> +<p><span class="sn"><b>458.</b></span> As to the placing of a +preposition after its object in certain cases, see Sec. 305.</p> +<div class="sidenote">Between <i>and</i> among.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>459.</b></span> In the primary meaning of +<b>between</b> and <b>among</b> there is a sharp distinction, as +already seen in Sec. 313; but in Modern English the difference is +not so marked.</p> +<p><b>Between</b> is used most often with two things only, but +still it is frequently used in speaking of several objects, some +relation or connection between two at a time being implied.</p> +<p><b>Among</b> is used in the same way as <i>amid</i> (though not +with exactly the same meaning), several objects being spoken of in +the aggregate, no separation or division by twos being implied.</p> +<p>Examples of the distinctive use of the two words:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Two things.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The contentions that arise <i>between</i> the parson and the +squire.<span class="smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +<p>We reckoned the improvements of the art of war <i>among</i> the +triumphs of science.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p>Examples of the looser use of <i>between</i>:—</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>A number of things.</i></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Natural objects affect us by the laws of that connection which +Providence has established <i>between</i> certain motions of +bodies.<span class="smcap">—Burke.</span></p> +<p>Hence the differences <i>between</i> men in natural endowment +are insignificant in comparison with their common +wealth.<span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +<p>They maintain a good correspondence <i>between</i> those wealthy +societies of men that are divided from one another by seas and +oceans.<span class="smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +<p>Looking up at its deep-pointed porches and the dark places +<i>between</i> their pillars where there were statues +once.<span class="smcap">—Ruskin</span><a name="Page_332" id= +"Page_332"></a></p> +<p>What have I, a soldier of the Cross, to do with recollections of +war <i>betwixt</i> Christian nations?<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Two groups or one and a group.</i></div> +<p>Also <i>between</i> may express relation or connection in +speaking of two groups of objects, or one object and a group; +as,—</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>A council of war is going on beside the watch fire, +<i>between</i> the three adventurers and the faithful +Yeo.<span class="smcap">—Kingsley.</span></p> +<p>The great distinction <i>between</i> teachers sacred or +literary,—<i>between</i> poets like Herbert and poets like +Pope,—<i>between</i> philosophers like Spinoza, Kant, and +Coleridge, and philosophers like Locke, Paley, Mackintosh, and +Stewart, etc. <span class="smcap">—Emerson.</span></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>460.</b></span> Certain words are followed +by particular prepositions.</p> +<p>Some of these words show by their composition what preposition +should follow. Such are <i>absolve</i>, <i>involve</i>, +<i>different</i>.</p> +<p>Some of them have, by custom, come to take prepositions not in +keeping with the original meaning of the words. Such are +<i>derogatory</i>, <i>averse</i>.</p> +<p>Many words take one preposition to express one meaning, and +another to convey a different meaning; as, <i>correspond</i>, +<i>confer</i>.</p> +<p>And yet others may take several prepositions indifferently to +express the same meaning.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>List I</i>.: <i>Words with particular +prepositions</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>461.</b></span></p> +<h3>LIST I.</h3> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>Absolve <i>from</i>.</li> +<li>Abhorrent <i>to</i>.</li> +<li>Accord <i>with</i>.</li> +<li>Acquit <i>of</i>.</li> +<li>Affinity <i>between</i>.</li> +<li>Averse <i>to</i>.</li> +<li>Bestow <i>on</i> (<i>upon</i>).</li> +<li>Conform <i>to</i>.</li> +<li>Comply <i>with</i>.</li> +<li>Conversant <i>with</i>.</li> +<li>Dependent <i>on</i> (<i>upon</i>).</li> +<li>Different <i>from</i>.</li> +<li>Dissent <i>from</i>.</li> +<li>Derogatory <i>to</i>.</li> +<li>Deprive <i>of</i>.</li> +<li>Independent <i>of</i>.</li> +<li>Involve <i>in</i>.</li> +</ul> +<p>"<a name="Page_333" id="Page_333"></a>Different <i>to</i>" is +frequently heard in spoken English in England, and sometimes creeps +into standard books, but it is not good usage.</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>List II</i>.: <i>Words taking different +prepositions for different meanings.</i></div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>462.</b></span></p> +<h3>LIST II.</h3> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>Agree <i>with</i> (a person).</li> +<li>Agree <i>to</i> (a proposal).</li> +<li>Change <i>for</i> (a thing).</li> +<li>Change <i>with</i> (a person).</li> +<li>Change <i>to</i> (become).</li> +<li>Confer <i>with</i> (talk with).</li> +<li>Confer <i>on</i> (<i>upon</i>) (give to).</li> +<li>Confide <i>in</i> (trust in).</li> +<li>Confide <i>to</i> (intrust to).</li> +<li>Correspond <i>with</i> (write to).</li> +<li>Correspond <i>to</i> (a thing).</li> +<li>Differ <i>from</i> (note below).</li> +<li>Differ <i>with</i> (note below).</li> +<li>Disappointed <i>in</i> (a thing obtained).</li> +<li>Disappointed <i>of</i> (a thing not obtained).</li> +<li>Reconcile <i>to</i> (note below).</li> +<li>Reconcile <i>with</i> (note below).</li> +<li>A taste <i>of</i> (food).</li> +<li>A taste <i>for</i> (art, etc.).</li> +</ul> +<p>"Correspond <i>with</i>" is sometimes used of things, as meaning +<i>to be in keeping with</i>.</p> +<p>"Differ <i>from</i>" is used in speaking of unlikeness between +things or persons; "differ <i>from</i>" and "differ <i>with</i>" +are both used in speaking of persons disagreeing as to +opinions.</p> +<p>"Reconcile <i>to</i>" is used with the meaning of <i>resigned +to</i>, as, "The exile became reconciled <i>to</i> his fate;" also +of persons, in the sense of making friends with, as, "The king is +reconciled <i>to</i> his minister." "Reconcile <i>with</i>" is used +with the meaning of <i>make to agree with</i>, as, "The statement +must be reconciled <i>with</i> his previous conduct."</p> +<div class="sidenote"><i>List III</i>.: <i>Words taking anyone of +several prepositions for the same meaning</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>463.</b></span></p> +<h3>LIST III.</h3> +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li>Die <i>by</i>, die <i>for</i>, die <i>from</i>, die <i>of</i>, +die <i>with</i>.</li> +<li>Expect <i>of</i>, expect <i>from</i>.</li> +<li>Part <i>from</i>, part <i>with</i>.</li> +</ul> +<p><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334"></a>Illustrations of "die +<i>of</i>," "die <i>from</i>," etc.:—</p> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>Die</i> of."</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The author died <i>of</i> a fit of apoplexy.<span class= +"smcap">—Boswell.</span></p> +<p>People do not die <i>of</i> trifling little colds.<span class= +"smcap">—Austen</span></p> +<p>Fifteen officers died <i>of</i> fever in a day.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>It would take me long to die <i>of</i> +hunger.—<span class="smcap">G. Eliot</span>.</p> +<p>She died <i>of</i> hard work, privation, and ill +treatment.<span class="smcap">—Burnett.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>Die</i> from."</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>She saw her husband at last literally die <i>from</i> +hunger.<span class="smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p>He died at last without disease, simply <i>from</i> old age. +—<span class="smcap"><i>Athenæum.</i></span></p> +<p>No one <i>died from</i> want at Longfeld.—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Chambers' Journal.</i></span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>Die</i> with."</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>She would have been ready to die <i>with</i> +shame.—<span class="smcap">G. Eliot</span>.</p> +<p>I am positively dying <i>with</i> hunger.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p>I thought the two Miss Flamboroughs would have died <i>with</i> +laughing.<span class="smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>I wish that the happiest here may not die <i>with</i> +envy.<span class="smcap">—Pope.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>Die</i> for." (<i>in behalf +of</i>).</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Take thought and die <i>for</i> Cæsar.<span class= +"smcap">—Shakespeare.</span></p> +<p>One of them said he would die <i>for</i> her.<span class= +"smcap">—Goldsmith.</span></p> +<p>It is a man of quality who dies <i>for</i> her.<span class= +"smcap">—Addison.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>Die</i> for." (<i>because of</i>).</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Who, as Cervantes informs us, died <i>for</i> love of the fair +Marcella.<span class="smcap">—Fielding.</span></p> +<p>Some officers had died <i>for</i> want of a morsel of +bread.<span class="smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>Die</i> by." (<i>material cause, +instrument</i>).</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>If I meet with any of 'em, they shall die <i>by</i> this hand. +<span class="smcap">—Thackeray.</span></p> +<p>He must purge himself to the satisfaction of a vigilant tribunal +or die <i>by</i> fire.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>He died <i>by</i> suicide before he completed his eighteenth +year.<span class="smcap">—Shaw.</span></p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>464.</b></span> Illustrations of "expect +<i>of</i>," "expect <i>from:</i>"—</p> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>Expect</i> of."</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>What do I expect <i>of</i> Dublin?—<span class= +"smcap"><i>Punch.</i></span></p> +<p>That is more than I expected <i>of</i> you.<span class= +"smcap">—Scott.</span></p> +<p><i>Of</i> Doctor P. nothing better was to be +expected.<span class="smcap">—Poe.</span></p> +<p>Not knowing what might be expected <i>of</i> men in +general.—G. ELIOT.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>Expect</i> from."</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>She will expect more attention <i>from</i> you, as my +friend.<span class="smcap">—Walpole.</span><a name="Page_335" +id="Page_335"></a></p> +<p>There was a certain grace and decorum hardly to be expected +<i>from</i> a man.<span class="smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>I have long expected something remarkable <i>from</i> +you.—<span class="smcap">G. Eliot</span>.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>465.</b></span> "Part <i>with</i>" is used +with both persons and things, but "part <i>from</i>" is less often +found in speaking of things.</p> +<p>Illustrations of "part <i>with</i>," "part +<i>from</i>:"—</p> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>Part</i> with."</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>He was fond of everybody that he was used to, and hated to part +<i>with</i> them.<span class="smcap">—Austen.</span></p> +<p>Cleveland was sorry to part <i>with</i> him.<span class= +"smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p>I can part <i>with</i> my children for their good.<span class= +"smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +<p>I part <i>with</i> all that grew so near my heart.<span class= +"smcap">—Waller.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">"<i>Part</i> from."</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>To part <i>from</i> you would be misery.<span class= +"smcap">—Marryat.</span></p> +<p>I have just seen her, just parted <i>from</i> her.<span class= +"smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p>Burke parted <i>from</i> him with deep emotion.<span class= +"smcap">—Macaulay.</span></p> +<p>His precious bag, which he would by no means part +<i>from</i>.—G. ELIOT.</p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote"><i>Kind</i> in <i>you</i>, <i>kind</i> of +<i>you</i>.</div> +<p><span class="sn"><b>466.</b></span> With words implying behavior +or disposition, either <i>of</i> or <i>in</i> is used +indifferently, as shown in the following quotations:—</p> +<div class="sidenote">Of.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>It was a little bad <i>of</i> you.<span class= +"smcap">—Trollope.</span></p> +<p>How cruel <i>of</i> me!<span class= +"smcap">—Collins.</span></p> +<p>He did not think it handsome <i>of</i> you.<span class= +"smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +<p>But this is idle <i>of</i> you.<span class= +"smcap">—Tennyson.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="sidenote">In.</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Very natural <i>in</i> Mr. Hampden.<span class= +"smcap">—Carlyle.</span></p> +<p>It will be anything but shrewd <i>in</i> you.<span class= +"smcap">—Dickens.</span></p> +<p>That is very unreasonable <i>in</i> a person so +young.<span class="smcap">—Beaconsfield.</span></p> +<p>I am wasting your whole morning—too bad <i>in</i> +me.<span class="smcap">—Bulwer.</span></p> +</div> +<h4>Miscellaneous Examples for Correction.</h4> +<div style="margin-left: 2em;"> +<p>1. Can you imagine Indians or a semi-civilized people engaged on +a work like the canal connecting the Mediterranean and the Red +seas?</p> +<p>2. In the friction between an employer and workman, it is +commonly said that his profits are high.</p> +<p><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336"></a>3. None of them are in any +wise willing to give his life for the life of his chief.</p> +<p>4. That which can be done with perfect convenience and without +loss, is not always the thing that most needs to be done, or which +we are most imperatively required to do.</p> +<p>5. Art is neither to be achieved by effort of thinking, nor +explained by accuracy of speaking.</p> +<p>6. To such as thee the fathers owe their fame.</p> +<p>7. We tread upon the ancient granite that first divided the +waters into a northern and southern ocean.</p> +<p>8. Thou tread'st, with seraphims, the vast abyss.</p> +<p>9. Eustace had slipped off his long cloak, thrown it over +Amyas's head, and ran up the alley.</p> +<p>10. This narrative, tedious perhaps, but which the story renders +necessary, may serve to explain the state of intelligence betwixt +the lovers.</p> +<p>11. To the shame and eternal infamy of whomsoever shall turn +back from the plow on which he hath laid his hand!</p> +<p>12. The noise of vast cataracts, raging storms, thunder, or +artillery, awake a great and awful sensation in the mind.</p> +<p>13. The materials and ornaments ought neither to be white, nor +green, nor yellow, nor blue, nor of a pale red.</p> +<p>14. This does not prove that an idea of use and beauty are the +same thing, or that they are any way dependent on each other.</p> +<p>15.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"><span>And were I anything but what I +am,<br /></span> <span>I would wish me only he.<br /></span></div> +</div> +<p>16. But every man may know, and most of us do know, what is a +just and unjust act.</p> +<p>17. You have seen Cassio and she together.</p> +<p>18. We shall shortly see which is the fittest object of scorn, +you or me.</p> +<p>19. Richard glared round him with an eye that seemed to seek an +enemy, and from which the angry nobles shrunk appalled.</p> +<p>20. It comes to whomsoever will put off what is foreign and +proud.</p> +<p>21. The difference between the just and unjust procedure does +not lie in the number of men hired, but in the price paid to +them.</p> +<p><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337"></a>22. The effect of +proportion and fitness, so far at least as they proceed from a mere +consideration of the work itself, produce approbation, the +acquiescence of the understanding.</p> +<p>23. When the glass or liquor are transparent, the light is +sometimes softened in the passage.</p> +<p>24. For there nor yew nor cypress spread their gloom.</p> +<p>25. Every one of these letters are in my name.</p> +<p>26. Neither of them are remarkable for precision.</p> +<p>27. Squares, triangles, and other angular figures, are neither +beautiful to the sight nor feeling.</p> +<p>28. There is not one in a thousand of these human souls that +cares to think where this estate is, or how beautiful it is, or +what kind of life they are to lead in it.</p> +<p>29. Dryden and Rowe's manner are quite out of fashion.</p> +<p>30. We were only permitted to stop for refreshment once.</p> +<p>31. The sight of the manner in which the meals were served were +enough to turn our stomach.</p> +<p>32. The moody and savage state of mind of the sullen and +ambitious man are admirably drawn.</p> +<p>33. Surely none of our readers are so unfortunate as not to know +some man or woman who carry this atmosphere of peace and good-will +about with them. (Sec. 411.)</p> +<p>34. Friday, whom he thinks would be better than a dog, and +almost as good as a pony.</p> +<p>35. That night every man of the boat's crew, save Amyas, were +down with raging fever.</p> +<p>36. These kind of books fill up the long tapestry of history +with little bits of detail which give human interest to it.</p> +<p>37. I never remember the heather so rich and abundant.</p> +<p>38. These are scattered along the coast for several hundred +miles, in conditions of life that seem forbidding enough, but which +are accepted without complaint by the inhabitants themselves.</p> +<p>39. Between each was an interval where lay a musket.</p> +<p>40. He had four children, and it was confidently expected that +they would receive a fortune of at least $200,000 between them.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<p class="center">FOOTNOTES:</p> +<blockquote class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> More for +convenience than for absolute accuracy, the stages of our language +have been roughly divided into three:—</p> +<p>(1) Old English (with Anglo-Saxon) down to the twelfth +century.</p> +<p>(2) Middle English, from about the twelfth century to the +sixteenth century.</p> +<p>(3) Modern English, from about 1500 to the present time.</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a><a name="Page_338" id= +"Page_338"></a><b>INDEX.</b></h2> +<p>THE NUMBERS REFER TO PAGES.</p> +<p>A, origin of, <a href="#Page_119">119.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_310">310.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href= +"#Page_124">124.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Absolute, nominative, <a href="#Page_47">47.</a><br /> +<br /> +Abstract nouns, <a href="#Page_20">20.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with article, <a href= +"#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Active voice, <a href="#Page_133">133.</a><br /> +<br /> +Address, nominative of, <a href="#Page_47">47.</a><br /> +<br /> +Adjective clauses, <a href="#Page_260">260.</a><br /> +<br /> +Adjective pronouns, demonstrative, <a href="#Page_90">90.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distinguished from adjectives, +<a href="#Page_89">89.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distributive, <a href= +"#Page_91">91.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">numeral, <a href= +"#Page_92">92.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Adjectives, adverbs used as, <a href="#Page_116">116.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as complements, <a href= +"#Page_239">239.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comparison of, <a href= +"#Page_107">107.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_98">98.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">demonstrative, <a href= +"#Page_102">102.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">from nouns, used as nouns, <a href= +"#Page_27">27.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">function of, <a href= +"#Page_97">97.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to parse, <a href= +"#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in predicate, <a href= +"#Page_239">239.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not compared, <a href= +"#Page_109">109.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of quality, <a href= +"#Page_99">99.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of quantity, <a href= +"#Page_101">101.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ordinal, <a href= +"#Page_103">103.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plural of, <a href= +"#Page_106">106.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pronominal, <a href= +"#Page_104">104.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_303">303.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Adverbial clauses, <a href="#Page_262">262.</a><br /> +<br /> +Adverbial objective, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href= +"#Page_242">242.</a><br /> +<br /> +Adverbs, between <i>to</i> and infinitive, <a href= +"#Page_323">323.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">classes of, <a href= +"#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_184">184.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distinguished from adjectives, +<a href="#Page_190">190.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to parse, <a href= +"#Page_191">191.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of, in sentence, <a href= +"#Page_325">325.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">same form as adjectives, <a href= +"#Page_190">190.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_325">325.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used as adjectives, <a href= +"#Page_116">116.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used as nouns, <a href= +"#Page_27">27.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">what they modify, <a href= +"#Page_183">183.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Adversative conjunction, <a href="#Page_194">194.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>After</i>, uses of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href= +"#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Against</i>, uses of, <a href="#Page_207">207.</a><br /> +<br /> +Agreement, kinds of, <a href="#Page_275">275.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of adjective with noun, <a href= +"#Page_303">303.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of personal pronoun with +antecedent, <a href="#Page_287">287.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of relative pronoun with +antecedent, <a href="#Page_291">291.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of verb with subject, <a href= +"#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>All</i>, syntax of, <a href="#Page_302">302.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Alms</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42.</a><br /> +<br /> +Alternative conjunctions, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href= +"#Page_328">328.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Among, between</i>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href= +"#Page_331">331.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>An</i>. See <i>A</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Anacoluthon with <i>which</i>, <a href="#Page_295">295.</a><br /> +<br /> +Analysis, definition of, <a href="#Page_231">231.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of complex sentences, <a href= +"#Page_264">264.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of compound sentences, <a href= +"#Page_271">271.</a></span><br /> +<a name="Page_339" id="Page_339"></a> <span style= +"margin-left: 1em;">of simple sentences, <a href= +"#Page_252">252.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>And who</i>, <i>and which</i>, <a href= +"#Page_296">296.</a><br /> +<br /> +Antecedent, agreement of pronoun and. See <i>Agreement</i>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_74">74.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>it</i>, <a href= +"#Page_67">67.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of personal pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>which</i>, <a href= +"#Page_79">79.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Any</i>, as adjective, <a href="#Page_101">101.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as pronoun, <a href= +"#Page_90">90.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_300">300.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Apostrophe in possessive, <a href="#Page_51">51.</a><br /> +<br /> +Apposition, words in, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href= +"#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href= +"#Page_240">240.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Are</i>, derivation of, <a href="#Page_150">150.</a><br /> +<br /> +Arrangement in syntax, <a href="#Page_275">275.</a><br /> +<br /> +Articles, definite, <a href="#Page_120">120.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_120">120.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to parse, <a href= +"#Page_127">127.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indefinite, <a href= +"#Page_124">124.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_309">309.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>As</i>, after <i>same</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, +<a href="#Page_225">225.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>As if</i>, <i>as though</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>At</i>, uses of, <a href="#Page_208">208.</a><br /> +<br /> +Auxiliary verbs, <a href="#Page_148">148.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Bad</i>, comparison of, <a href="#Page_110">110.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Be</i>, conjugation of, <a href="#Page_149">149.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href= +"#Page_150">150.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Better</i>, <i>best</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href= +"#Page_111">111.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Between.</i> See <i>Among</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Brethren</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Bridegroom</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>But</i>, uses of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href= +"#Page_224">224.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with nominative of pronoun, +<a href="#Page_283">283.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>But what</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>By</i>, uses of, <a href="#Page_210">210.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Can</i>, <i>could</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161.</a><br /> +<br /> +Case, definition of, <a href="#Page_46">46.</a><br /> +<br /> +Case, double possessive, of nouns, <a href="#Page_54">54.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_64">64.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">forms, number of, in Old and Modern +English, <a href="#Page_46">46.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nominative, of nouns, <a href= +"#Page_47">47.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">objective, of nouns, <a href= +"#Page_48">48.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">possessive, of nouns, <a href= +"#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_63">63.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_278">278.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cause, clauses of, <a href="#Page_262">262.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjunctions of, <a href= +"#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Cherub</i>, plurals of, <a href="#Page_45">45.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Children</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39.</a><br /> +<br /> +Clause, adjective, <a href="#Page_260">260.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adverb, <a href= +"#Page_262">262.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_257">257.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kinds of, <a href= +"#Page_257">257.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">noun, <a href= +"#Page_258">258.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Cleave</i>, forms of, <a href="#Page_158">158.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Clomb</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Cloths</i>, <i>clothes</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43.</a><br /> +<br /> +Collective nouns, <a href="#Page_18">18.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, and verb, <a href= +"#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Colloquial English, <a href="#Page_12">12.</a><br /> +<br /> +Common nouns, <a href="#Page_18">18.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">derived from material, <a href= +"#Page_24">24.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">derived from proper, <a href= +"#Page_23">23.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Comparative and superlative, double, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, +<a href="#Page_307">307.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_307">307.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Comparison, defective, <a href="#Page_111">111.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_108">108.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">degrees of, <a href= +"#Page_108">108.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">irregular, <a href= +"#Page_110">110.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of adjectives, <a href= +"#Page_107">107.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of adverbs, <a href= +"#Page_189">189.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_305">305.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Complement of predicate, <a href="#Page_239">239.</a><br /> +<br /> +Complementary infinitive, <a href="#Page_248">248.</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Page_340" id="Page_340"></a> Complex sentence, analysis +of, <a href="#Page_264">264.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_257">257.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Compound nouns, plural of, <a href="#Page_43">43.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">possessive of, <a href= +"#Page_53">53.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Compound predicate and subject, <a href="#Page_244">244.</a><br /> +<br /> +Compound sentence, <a href="#Page_268">268.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analysis of, <a href= +"#Page_271">271.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Concessive clause, in analysis, <a href="#Page_263">263.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with subjunctive, <a href= +"#Page_143">143.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Concord. See <i>Agreement</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Conditional clause, in analysis, <a href="#Page_263">263.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with subjunctive, <a href= +"#Page_138">138.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Conditional conjunctions, <a href="#Page_196">196.</a><br /> +<br /> +Conditional sentences, <a href="#Page_139">139.</a><br /> +<br /> +Conjugation, definition of, <a href="#Page_149">149.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>be</i>, <a href= +"#Page_149">149.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of other verbs, <a href= +"#Page_151">151.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Conjunctions, and other parts of speech, same words, <a href= +"#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coördinate, <a href= +"#Page_194">194.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">correlative, <a href= +"#Page_194">194.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_193">193.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to parse, <a href= +"#Page_199">199.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subordinate, <a href= +"#Page_195">195.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_328">328.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Conjunctive adverbs, <a href="#Page_188">188.</a><br /> +<br /> +Conjunctive pronoun. See <i>Relative pronoun</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Contracted sentences, analysis of, <a href= +"#Page_255">255.</a><br /> +<br /> +Coördinate clauses, <a href="#Page_269">269.</a><br /> +<br /> +Coördinate conjunctions. See <i>Conjunctions</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Coördinating <i>vs.</i> restrictive use of relative pronouns, +<a href="#Page_289">289.</a><br /> +<br /> +Copulative conjunction, <a href="#Page_194">194.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Could.</i> See <i>Can</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Dative case, in Old English, replaced by objective, <a href= +"#Page_66">66.</a><br /> +<br /> +Declarative sentence, <a href="#Page_231">231.</a><br /> +<br /> +Declension of interrogative pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_73">73.</a><br /> +<br /> +Declension, of nouns, <a href="#Page_51">51.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of personal pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_60">60.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of relative pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_80">80.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Defective verbs, <a href="#Page_160">160.</a><br /> +<br /> +Definite article. See <i>Articles</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Definite tenses, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href= +"#Page_152">152.</a><br /> +<br /> +Degree, adverbs of, <a href="#Page_185">185.</a><br /> +<br /> +Degrees. See <i>Comparison</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Demonstrative adjectives, <a href="#Page_102">102.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_303">303.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Demonstrative pronouns, <a href="#Page_90">90.</a><br /> +<br /> +Dependent clause. See <i>Subordinate clause</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Descriptive adjectives, <a href="#Page_99">99.</a><br /> +<br /> +Descriptive use of nouns, <a href="#Page_26">26.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Dice</i>, <i>dies</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Die by</i>, <i>for</i>, <i>from</i>, <i>of</i>, <i>with</i>, +<a href="#Page_333">333.</a><br /> +<br /> +Direct discourse, <a href="#Page_320">320.</a><br /> +<br /> +Direct object, <i>vs.</i> indirect, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, +<a href="#Page_242">242.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">retained with passive verb, +<a href="#Page_242">242.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Distributive adjectives, <a href="#Page_102">102.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Distributive pronouns, <a href="#Page_91">91.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Double comparative. See <i>Comparative</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Double possessive. See <i>Case</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Drake</i>, <i>duck</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Drank</i>, <i>drunk</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Each</i>, adjective, <a href="#Page_102">102.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pronoun, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, +<a href="#Page_92">92.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_287">287.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Each other</i>, <i>one another</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, +<a href="#Page_299">299.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Eat</i> (ĕt), <a href="#Page_158">158.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Eaves</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Either</i>, as adjective, <a href="#Page_102">102.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_287">287.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as conjunction, <a href= +"#Page_194">194.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_328">328.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as pronoun, <a href= +"#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_300">300.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Page_341" id="Page_341"></a> <i>Elder</i>, <i>older</i>, +<a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112.</a><br /> +<br /> +Elements of the sentence, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href= +"#Page_257">257.</a><br /> +<br /> +Ellipsis, a source of error in pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_280">280.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in complex sentence, <a href= +"#Page_255">255.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>'Em</i>, origin of, <a href="#Page_62">62.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Empress</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>-En</i>, added to plural, <a href="#Page_39">39.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feminine suffix, <a href= +"#Page_32">32.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plural suffix, original, <a href= +"#Page_38">38.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +English, literary, spoken, vulgar, <a href="#Page_12">12.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">periods of, <a href= +"#Page_33">33.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Enlargement of predicate, <a href="#Page_241">241.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of subject, object, complement, +<a href="#Page_240">240.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>-Es</i> original of possessive ending, <a href= +"#Page_51">51.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plural suffix, <a href= +"#Page_40">40.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>-Ess</i>, feminine suffix, <a href="#Page_33">33.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Every</i>, adjective, <a href="#Page_102">102.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_287">287.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Expect of</i>, <i>expect from</i>, <a href= +"#Page_334">334.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Expected to have gone</i>, etc., <a href= +"#Page_319">319.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Factitive object, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href= +"#Page_235">235.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Farther, further</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href= +"#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189.</a><br /> +<br /> +Feminine, <a href="#Page_30">30.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Few, a few</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>First</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href= +"#Page_112">112.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>First two</i>, <i>two first</i>, etc., <a href= +"#Page_308">308.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Fish</i>, <i>fishes</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>For</i>, redundant, with infinitive, used as a noun, <a href= +"#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href= +"#Page_211">211.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Foreign plurals, <a href="#Page_45">45.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Former, the</i>, adjective, <a href="#Page_102">102.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pronoun, <a href= +"#Page_91">91.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>From</i>, uses of, <a href="#Page_212">212.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Further.</i> See <i>Farther</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Future tense, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href= +"#Page_152">152.</a><br /> +<br /> +Future perfect, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href= +"#Page_152">152.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Gander</i>, <i>goose</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Gender</i>, "common gender," <a href="#Page_31">31.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_30">30.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distinguished from sex, <a href= +"#Page_30">30.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in English, as compared with other +languages, <a href="#Page_29">29.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modes of marking, in nouns, +<a href="#Page_32">32.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of personal pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_60">60.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of relative pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_80">80.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Genii</i>, <i>geniuses</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43.</a><br /> +<br /> +Gerund, distinguished from participle and verbal noun, <a href= +"#Page_177">177.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">forms of, <a href= +"#Page_176">176.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in syntax, possessive case with, +<a href="#Page_285">285.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Girl</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Got</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159.</a><br /> +<br /> +Government, definition of, kinds of, <a href= +"#Page_275">275.</a><br /> +<br /> +Grammar, basis of, <a href="#Page_12">12.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_12">12.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">divisions of, <a href= +"#Page_13">13.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opinions on, <a href= +"#Page_9">9.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">province of, <a href= +"#Page_10">10.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +H, <i>an</i> before, <a href="#Page_120">120.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Had better</i>, <i>had rather</i>, <a href= +"#Page_175">175.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Hanged</i>, <i>hung</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>He</i>, <i>she</i>, <i>it</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>His</i> for <i>its</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Husband</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>I</i>, personal pronoun, <a href="#Page_60">60.</a><br /> +<br /> +Imperative mood, <a href="#Page_144">144.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of first person, <a href= +"#Page_145">145.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Imperative sentence, <a href="#Page_231">231.</a><br /> +<br /> +Imperfect participle, <a href="#Page_173">173.</a><br /> +<br /> +Indefinite adjective, <a href="#Page_101">101.</a><br /> +<br /> +Indefinite article. See <i>Articles</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Indefinite pronoun, <a href="#Page_93">93.</a><br /> +<br /> +Indefinite use of <i>you</i>, <i>your</i>, <a href= +"#Page_67">67.</a><br /> +<br /> +Independent clause, <a href="#Page_257">257.</a><br /> +<br /> +Independent elements, <a href="#Page_245">245.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Indexes</i>, <i>indices</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43.</a><br /> +<br /> +Indicative mood, uses of, <a href="#Page_136">136.</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Page_342" id="Page_342"></a> Indirect discourse, <a href= +"#Page_320">320.</a><br /> +<br /> +Indirect object. See <i>Direct object</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Indirect questions. See <i>Questions</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Infinitive, active, with passive meaning, <a href= +"#Page_176">176.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not a mood, <a href= +"#Page_153">153.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href= +"#Page_248">248.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>-Ing</i> words, summary of, <a href="#Page_178">178.</a><br /> +<br /> +Interjections, <a href="#Page_227">227.</a><br /> +<br /> +Interrogative adjectives, <a href="#Page_105">105.</a><br /> +<br /> +Interrogative adverbs, <a href="#Page_188">188.</a><br /> +<br /> +Interrogative pronouns, <a href="#Page_72">72.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">declension of, <a href= +"#Page_73">73.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in indirect questions, <a href= +"#Page_85">85.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_283">283.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Interrogative sentence, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href= +"#Page_233">233.</a><br /> +<br /> +Intransitive verbs, <a href="#Page_131">131.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made transitive, <a href= +"#Page_131">131.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Irregularities in syntax, <a href="#Page_276">276.</a><br /> +<br /> +Irregularly compared adjectives, <a href="#Page_110">110.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adverbs, <a href= +"#Page_189">189.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>It</i>, uses of, <a href="#Page_67">67.</a><br /> +<br /> +"It was <i>me</i>," etc., <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href= +"#Page_281">281.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Its</i>, history of, <a href="#Page_61">61.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Kind</i>, <i>these kind</i>, etc., <a href= +"#Page_303">303.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Kine</i>, double plural, <a href="#Page_39">39.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>King</i>, <i>queen</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Lady</i>, <i>lord</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Last</i>, <i>latest</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href= +"#Page_113">113.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Latter, the</i>, adjective, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, +<a href="#Page_113">113.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pronoun, <a href= +"#Page_91">91.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Lay</i>, <i>lie</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Less</i>, <i>lesser</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Lie</i>. See <i>Lay</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Like</i>, syntax of, <a href="#Page_227">227.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href= +"#Page_226">226.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Literary English, <a href="#Page_12">12.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Little</i>, <i>a little</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126.</a><br /> +<br /> +Logic <i>vs.</i> form, in syntax, <a href= +"#Page_276">276.</a><br /> +<br /> +Logical subject and predicate, <a href="#Page_245">245.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Lord.</i> See <i>Lady</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>-Ly</i>, words in, <a href="#Page_190">190.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Madam</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a><br /> +<br /> +Manner, adverbs of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href= +"#Page_188">188.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjunctions of, <a href= +"#Page_195">195.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Many</i>, comparison of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href= +"#Page_112">112.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Many a</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126.</a><br /> +<br /> +Mapping out sentences, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href= +"#Page_265">265.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Mare</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Master</i>, <i>mistress</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>May</i>, <i>might</i>, <a href="#Page_160">160.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Means</i>, construction of, <a href="#Page_41">41.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Mighty</i> as adverb, <a href="#Page_187">187.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Mine</i>, of <i>mine</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64.</a><br /> +<br /> +Modifier, adverb, position of, <a href="#Page_325">325.</a><br /> +<br /> +Modifiers. See <i>Enlargement</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Mood</i>, definition of, <a href="#Page_135">135.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imperative, <a href= +"#Page_144">144.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indicative, <a href= +"#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subjunctive, 137-<a href= +"#Page_144">144.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>-Most</i>, in superlatives, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, +<a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Much</i>, comparison of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href= +"#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Must</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Near</i>, <i>nearer</i>, <i>nigh</i>, etc., <a href= +"#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112.</a><br /> +<br /> +Negative, double, <a href="#Page_326">326.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Neither</i>, adjective, <a href="#Page_102">102.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_287">287.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjunction, <a href= +"#Page_194">194.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_328">328.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pronoun, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, +<a href="#Page_92">92.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_300">300.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Neuter nouns, definition of, <a href="#Page_30">30.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">or gender nouns, according to use, +<a href="#Page_30">30.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">two kinds of, <a href= +"#Page_32">32.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>News</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>No</i> in analysis, <a href="#Page_246">246.</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Page_343" id="Page_343"></a> Nominative. See +<i>Case</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>None</i>, syntax of, <a href="#Page_301">301.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Nor</i>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href= +"#Page_328">328.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Not a</i>, etc. <a href="#Page_126">126.</a><br /> +<br /> +Noun clause, <a href="#Page_258">258.</a><br /> +<br /> +Nouns, <a href="#Page_17">17.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abstract, <a href= +"#Page_20">20.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">become half abstract, <a href= +"#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">become proper, <a href= +"#Page_25">25.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">formation of, <a href= +"#Page_21">21.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">case of, <a href= +"#Page_46">46.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">collective, <a href= +"#Page_19">19.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">common, <a href= +"#Page_18">18.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_17">17.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">descriptive, <a href= +"#Page_26">26.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gender of, <a href= +"#Page_29">29.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to parse, <a href= +"#Page_56">56.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kinds of, 17</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">material, <a href= +"#Page_19">19.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">become class nouns, <a href= +"#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">neuter, used as gender nouns, +<a href="#Page_30">30.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">number in, <a href= +"#Page_38">38.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">once singular, now plural, <a href= +"#Page_42">42.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">other words used as, <a href= +"#Page_27">27.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plural, how formed, 38-<a href= +"#Page_41">41.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of abstract, 41</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of compound, etc. <a href= +"#Page_43">43.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of foreign, <a href= +"#Page_45">45.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of letters and figures, <a href= +"#Page_46">46.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of material, <a href= +"#Page_41">41.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of proper, <a href= +"#Page_41">41.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">same as singular, <a href= +"#Page_39">39.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">two forms of, 42</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">with titles, <a href= +"#Page_44">44.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proper, <a href= +"#Page_18">18.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">become common, <a href= +"#Page_23">23.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_278">278.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of possessive form of, <a href= +"#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with definite article, <a href= +"#Page_121">121.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with different meaning in plural, +<a href="#Page_42">42.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with indefinite article, <a href= +"#Page_124">124.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Nouns, with no singular, <a href="#Page_42">42.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with one plural, two meanings, +<a href="#Page_43">43.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with plural form, singular meaning, +<a href="#Page_41">41.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with singular or plural +construction, plural form, <a href="#Page_41">41.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Now</i> as conjunction, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href= +"#Page_196">196.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Number</i>, definition of, etc., in nouns.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">See <i>Nouns</i>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in adjectives, <a href= +"#Page_106">106.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in pronouns, personal, <a href= +"#Page_60">60.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in verbs, <a href= +"#Page_148">148.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Numeral adjectives, definite, <a href="#Page_101">101.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distributive, <a href= +"#Page_102">102.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indefinite, <a href= +"#Page_101">101.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Numeral pronouns, <a href="#Page_92">92.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Object, adverbial, <a href="#Page_48">48.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_48">48.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">direct and indirect, <a href= +"#Page_48">48.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in analysis, <a href= +"#Page_235">235.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of preposition. See +<i>Preposition</i>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modifiers of, <a href= +"#Page_240">240.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">retained with passive verb, +<a href="#Page_242">242.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Objective case, adverbial, dative, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, +<a href="#Page_242">242.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in spoken English, <a href= +"#Page_281">281.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">instead of nominative, <a href= +"#Page_279">279.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nominative instead of, <a href= +"#Page_282">282.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of nouns, <a href= +"#Page_48">48.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_66">66.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_279">279.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Of</i>, uses of, <a href="#Page_213">213.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Older.</i> See <i>Elder</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Omission of relative pronoun, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href= +"#Page_293">293.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>On</i>, <i>upon</i>, uses of, <a href="#Page_216">216.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>One</i>, definite numeral adjective, <a href= +"#Page_101">101.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indefinite pronoun, <a href= +"#Page_94">94.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">possessive of, 93</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>One another.</i> See <i>Each other</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>One</i> (<i>the</i>), the other, as adjective, <a href= +"#Page_103">103.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as pronoun, <a href= +"#Page_91">91.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Page_344" id="Page_344"></a> <i>Only</i>, as conjunction, +<a href="#Page_194">194.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of, as adverb, +325</span><br /> +<br /> +Order, a part of syntax, <a href="#Page_275">275.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inverted, in analysis, <a href= +"#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Ordinal adjectives, treatment of, <a href= +"#Page_103">103.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Other</i> with comparatives, <a href="#Page_306">306.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Ought</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Our</i>, <i>ours</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Ourself</i>, <a href="#Page_69">69.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Oxen</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Pains</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41.</a><br /> +<br /> +Parsing, models for, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href= +"#Page_117">117.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of adjectives, <a href= +"#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of adverbs, <a href= +"#Page_191">191.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of articles, <a href= +"#Page_127">127.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of conjunctions, <a href= +"#Page_199">199.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of nouns, <a href= +"#Page_56">56.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of prepositions, <a href= +"#Page_219">219.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_95">95.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of relatives, <a href= +"#Page_80">80.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of verb phrases, <a href= +"#Page_180">180.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of verbals, <a href= +"#Page_181">181.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of verbs, <a href= +"#Page_179">179.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">some idioms not parsed, <a href= +"#Page_56">56.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">what it is, <a href= +"#Page_56">56.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Part from</i>, <i>part with</i>, <a href= +"#Page_335">335.</a><br /> +<br /> +Participial adjective, <a href="#Page_100">100.</a><br /> +<br /> +Participial phrase, <a href="#Page_247">247.</a><br /> +<br /> +Participle, definition of, <a href="#Page_172">172.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distinguished from other +<i>-ing</i> words, <a href="#Page_177">177.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">forms of, <a href= +"#Page_174">174.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kinds of, <a href= +"#Page_173">173.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_322">322.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href= +"#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Parts of speech, article included in, <a href= +"#Page_119">119.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">words used as various, <a href= +"#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Passive voice, <a href="#Page_134">134.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Peas</i>, <i>pease</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Pence</i>, <i>pennies</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43.</a><br /> +<br /> +Person, agreement of verb and subject in, <a href= +"#Page_317">317.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of nouns, <a href= +"#Page_59">59.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_59">59.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of verbs, <a href= +"#Page_148">148.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Personal pronoun, absolute use of, <a href="#Page_63">63.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">agreement of, with antecedent, +<a href="#Page_287">287.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as predicate nominative, <a href= +"#Page_281">281.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">case of, <a href= +"#Page_62">62.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">compound, or reflexive, <a href= +"#Page_69">69.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">uses of, <a href= +"#Page_70">70.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_59">59.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">double possessive of, <a href= +"#Page_64">64.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>'em</i> and <i>them</i>, +<a href="#Page_62">62.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of, <a href= +"#Page_61">61.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">objective of, for nominative in +spoken English, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href= +"#Page_281">281.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_281">281.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">table of, <a href= +"#Page_60">60.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">triple possessive of, <a href= +"#Page_64">64.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of <i>it</i>, <a href= +"#Page_67">67.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Personification, of abstract nouns, <a href= +"#Page_25">25.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of other nouns, <a href= +"#Page_37">37.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Phrase, definition of, <a href="#Page_236">236.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kinds of, <a href= +"#Page_236">236.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">infinitive, <a href= +"#Page_248">248.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">participial, <a href= +"#Page_247">247.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prepositional, <a href= +"#Page_247">247.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Place, adverbs of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href= +"#Page_188">188.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjunctions of, <a href= +"#Page_195">195.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prepositions of, <a href= +"#Page_206">206.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Plural, of adjectives, <a href="#Page_106">106.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_303">303.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of nouns. See +<i>Nouns</i>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of pronouns, <a href= +"#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Politics</i>, singular or plural, <a href= +"#Page_41">41.</a><br /> +<br /> +Positive degree. See <i>Comparison</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Possessive, appositional, of nouns, <a href= +"#Page_49">49.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as antecedent of relative, <a href= +"#Page_285">285.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">double, of nouns, <a href= +"#Page_54">54.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">double, of pronouns. See +<i>Personal pronoun</i>.</span><br /> +<a name="Page_345" id="Page_345"></a> <span style= +"margin-left: 1em;">objective and subjective, <a href= +"#Page_50">50.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of compound nouns, <a href= +"#Page_53">53.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of indefinite pronoun, <a href= +"#Page_303">303.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">omission of <i>s</i> in singular, +<a href="#Page_52">52.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">origin of <i>'s</i>, <a href= +"#Page_51">51.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_278">278.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with modified noun omitted, +<a href="#Page_53">53.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with two objects, <a href= +"#Page_278">278.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Predicate, complement of, <a href="#Page_235">235.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">complete, <a href= +"#Page_245">245.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_232">232.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">logical <i>vs.</i> simple, <a href= +"#Page_245">245.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modifiers of, <a href= +"#Page_241">241.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Prefixes, gender shown by, <a href="#Page_32">32.</a><br /> +<br /> +Prepositions, certain, with certain words, <a href= +"#Page_332">332.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">classification of, <a href= +"#Page_206">206.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_203">203.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">followed by possessive case, +<a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">by nominative case, <a href= +"#Page_283">283.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to parse, <a href= +"#Page_219">219.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">objects of, <a href= +"#Page_203">203.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of, <a href= +"#Page_202">202.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations expressed by certain, +<a href="#Page_208">208.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">same words as other parts of +speech, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, +<a href="#Page_207">207.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_331">331.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href= +"#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href= +"#Page_205">205.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">various, with same meaning, +<a href="#Page_333">333.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Present tense used as future, <a href="#Page_147">147.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Pretty</i> as adverb, <a href="#Page_186">186.</a><br /> +<br /> +Pronominal adjectives, interrogative, <a href= +"#Page_105">105.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relative, <a href= +"#Page_104">104.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>what</i>, exclamatory, <a href= +"#Page_105">105.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Pronouns, <a href="#Page_58">58.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adjective, <a href= +"#Page_89">89.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>all</i>, singular and plural, +<a href="#Page_302">302.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>any</i>, usually plural, +<a href="#Page_300">300.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>each other</i>, <i>one +another</i>, <a href="#Page_299">299.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>either</i>, <i>neither</i>, with +verbs, <a href="#Page_300">300.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>none</i>, usually plural, +<a href="#Page_301">301.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>somebody else's</i>, <a href= +"#Page_303">303.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_58">58.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to parse, <a href= +"#Page_95">95.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indefinite, <a href= +"#Page_93">93.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interrogative, <a href= +"#Page_72">72.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>who</i> as objective, <a href= +"#Page_283">283.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">personal, <a href= +"#Page_59">59.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">after <i>than</i>, <i>as</i>, +<a href="#Page_280">280.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">antecedents of, <a href= +"#Page_287">287.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">nominative and objective, forms of, +<a href="#Page_279">279.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">nominative form of, after +<i>but</i>, <a href="#Page_284">284.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">objective form of, for predicate +nominative, <a href="#Page_281">281.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">objective form of, in exclamations, +<a href="#Page_282">282.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">possessive form of, as antecedent +of relative, <a href="#Page_285">285.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">possessive form of, with gerund, +<a href="#Page_286">286.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relative, <a href= +"#Page_74">74.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">agreement of, with antecedent, +<a href="#Page_291">291.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">anacoluthon with <i>which</i>, +<a href="#Page_295">295.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>and who</i>, <i>and which</i>, +<a href="#Page_296">296.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>as</i>, <i>that</i>, <i>who</i>, +and <i>which</i> after <i>same</i>, <a href= +"#Page_295">295.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">how to parse, <a href= +"#Page_80">80.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">omission of, <a href= +"#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">restrictive and unrestrictive, +<a href="#Page_289">289.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">two relatives, same antecedent, +<a href="#Page_297">297.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_279">279.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">usefulness of, <a href= +"#Page_58">58.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Proper nouns. See <i>Nouns</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Purpose, clauses of, <a href="#Page_263">263.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjunctions of, <a href= +"#Page_195">195.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Page_346" id="Page_346"></a> Quality, adjectives of, +<a href="#Page_99">99.</a><br /> +<br /> +Quantity, adjectives of, <a href="#Page_101">101.</a><br /> +<br /> +Questions, direct and indirect, adverbs in, <a href= +"#Page_188">188.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">pronominal adjectives in, <a href= +"#Page_105">105.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">pronouns in, <a href= +"#Page_85">85.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indirect, subjunctive in, <a href= +"#Page_142">142.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Quotations. See <i>Direct discourse</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Rank, adjectives of same and different, <a href= +"#Page_115">115.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Rather</i>, <a href="#Page_189">189.</a><br /> +<br /> +Reflexive pronouns, history of, <a href="#Page_69">69.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how formed, <a href= +"#Page_69">69.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Reflexive use of personal pronoun, <a href="#Page_68">68.</a><br /> +<br /> +Relative pronoun, <a href="#Page_74">74.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>but</i> and <i>as</i>, <a href= +"#Page_84">84.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distinguished from interrogative, +in indirect questions, <a href="#Page_85">85.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">function of, <a href= +"#Page_74">74.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indefinite or compound, <a href= +"#Page_83">83.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">omission of, <a href= +"#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restrictive use of, <a href= +"#Page_289">289.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_289">289.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of, <a href= +"#Page_74">74.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Result, clauses of, <a href="#Page_263">263.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjunctions of, <a href= +"#Page_196">196.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Retained object, <a href="#Page_242">242.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Riches</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>S</i>, plural suffix, <a href="#Page_40">40.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>'S</i>, possessive ending, <a href="#Page_51">51.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Same as</i>, <i>that</i>, <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, <a href= +"#Page_294">294.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Sat</i>, <i>sate</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Seeing</i>, conjunction, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href= +"#Page_196">196.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Self</i> in reflexive pronoun, <a href="#Page_69">69.</a><br /> +<br /> +Sentences, analysis of complex, 26<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of compound, <a href= +"#Page_271">271.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of elliptical, <a href= +"#Page_255">255.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of simple, <a href= +"#Page_252">252.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">complex in form, simple in effect, +<a href="#Page_259">259.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Sentences, definition of, <a href="#Page_231">231.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kinds of, <a href= +"#Page_231">231.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Sequence of tenses, <a href="#Page_319">319.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Set</i>, <i>sit</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170.</a><br /> +<br /> +Sex and gender, <a href="#Page_29">29.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Shall</i>, <i>should</i>, <i>will</i>, <i>would</i>, <a href= +"#Page_162">162.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Shear</i>, forms of, <a href="#Page_159">159.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Shot</i>, <i>shots</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43.</a><br /> +<br /> +Simple sentence. See <i>Sentences</i>.<br /> +<br /> +Singular number, <a href="#Page_38">38.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Sir</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Somebody else's</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_303">303.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Sort</i>, <i>these sort</i>, <a href="#Page_303">303.</a><br /> +<br /> +Spelling becoming phonetic in verbs, <a href= +"#Page_169">169.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Spinster</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33.</a><br /> +<br /> +Split infinitive, <a href="#Page_323">323.</a><br /> +<br /> +Spoken English, <a href="#Page_12">12.</a><br /> +<br /> +-Ster, feminine suffix, use of, in Middle English, <a href= +"#Page_32">32.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Modern English, <a href= +"#Page_33">33.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Subject, complete, <a href="#Page_245">245.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_233">233.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">grammatical <i>vs.</i> logical, +<a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href= +"#Page_258">258.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modifiers of, <a href= +"#Page_240">240.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">things used as, <a href= +"#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Subjunctive mood, definition of, <a href="#Page_137">137.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gradual disuse of, <a href= +"#Page_144">144.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, in literary English, +<a href="#Page_138">138.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">in spoken English, <a href= +"#Page_144">144.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Subordinate clause, <a href="#Page_257">257.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adjective, <a href= +"#Page_260">260.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adverb, <a href= +"#Page_262">262.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_257">257.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to distinguish, <a href= +"#Page_270">270.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kinds of, <a href= +"#Page_257">257.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">noun, <a href= +"#Page_258">258.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">other names for, <a href= +"#Page_257">257.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Such</i> as adverb, <a href="#Page_186">186.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Such a</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126.</a><br /> +<br /> +Suffix <i>-en</i>. See <i>-En</i>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>-s</i>, <i>-es</i>, <a href= +"#Page_38">38.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Page_347" id="Page_347"></a> Suffixes, foreign, <a href= +"#Page_33">33.</a><br /> +<br /> +Superlative degree, double, <a href="#Page_307">307.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in meaning, not in form, <a href= +"#Page_107">107.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not suggesting comparison, <a href= +"#Page_109">109.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of adjectives, <a href= +"#Page_108">108.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of adverbs, <a href= +"#Page_189">189.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_306">306.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with two objects, <a href= +"#Page_306">306.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Syntax, basis of, <a href="#Page_277">277.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_275">275.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in English not same as in classical +languages, <a href="#Page_275">275.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Tense, definition of, <a href="#Page_147">147.</a><br /> +<br /> +Tenses, definite, meaning of, <a href="#Page_148">148.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Modern English, made up of +auxiliaries, <a href="#Page_147">147.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">number of, in Old English, <a href= +"#Page_147">147.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sequence of, <a href= +"#Page_319">319.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">table of, <a href= +"#Page_152">152.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Than me</i>, <i>than whom</i>, <a href= +"#Page_280">280.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>That</i>, omission of, when subject, <a href= +"#Page_88">88.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">when object, <a href= +"#Page_87">87.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relative, restrictive, and +coördinating, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href= +"#Page_290">290.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>that ... and which</i>, <a href= +"#Page_297">297.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href= +"#Page_222">222.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>That</i>, <i>this</i>, as adjectives, <a href= +"#Page_106">106.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as adverbs, <a href= +"#Page_186">186.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of plural of, <a href= +"#Page_106">106.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>The</i>, as article, <a href="#Page_120">120.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as adverb, <a href= +"#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of, <a href= +"#Page_119">119.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_309">309.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Their</i>, <i>they</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Then</i>, "the <i>then</i> king," etc., <a href= +"#Page_116">116.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>There</i> introductory, <a href="#Page_191">191.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>These kind</i>, syntax of. See <i>Kind</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>These</i>, <i>this</i>, <i>those</i>. See <i>That</i>, history +of.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Thou</i>, <i>thy</i>, <i>thee</i>, uses of, <a href= +"#Page_61">61.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Time</i>, adverbs of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href= +"#Page_188">188.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjunctions of, <a href= +"#Page_195">195.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prepositions of, <a href= +"#Page_207">207.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>To</i>, before infinitive, <a href="#Page_175">175.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in exclamations, <a href= +"#Page_175">175.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">omitted with certain verbs, +<a href="#Page_175">175.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, as preposition, <a href= +"#Page_217">217.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>T'other</i>, <i>the tother</i>, <a href= +"#Page_119">119.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>-Trix</i>, feminine suffix, <a href="#Page_33">33.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Try and</i>, <i>try to</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Two first</i>, <i>first two</i>, etc., <a href= +"#Page_308">308.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Under</i>, adjective, <a href="#Page_114">114.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Upon</i>, uses of. See <i>On</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Upper</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Utter</i>, <i>uttermost</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, +<a href="#Page_114">114.</a><br /> +<br /> +Verb phrases, <a href="#Page_128">128.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">parsing of, <a href= +"#Page_180">180.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Verbal noun, <a href="#Page_20">20.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distinguished from other +<i>-ing</i> words, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href= +"#Page_173">173.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Verbals, cleft infinitive, <a href="#Page_323">323.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gerund, <a href= +"#Page_176">176.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to parse, <a href= +"#Page_181">181.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">infinitive, <a href= +"#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kinds of, <a href= +"#Page_172">172.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">participle, <a href= +"#Page_172">172.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">carelessly used, <a href= +"#Page_322">322.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">uses of, in analysis, <a href= +"#Page_247">247.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_322">322.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Verbs, agreement of, with subject in number, 312-<a href= +"#Page_316">316.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">in person, <a href= +"#Page_317">317.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">auxiliary, <a href= +"#Page_148">148.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjugation of, <a href= +"#Page_149">149.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defective, <a href= +"#Page_160">160.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href= +"#Page_129">129.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to parse, <a href= +"#Page_179">179.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in indirect discourse, <a href= +"#Page_320">320.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intransitive, made transitive, +<a href="#Page_131">131.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mood of, <a href= +"#Page_135">135.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of incomplete predication, <a href= +"#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236.</a></span><br /> +<a name="Page_348" id="Page_348"></a> <span style= +"margin-left: 1em;">passive form, active meaning, <a href= +"#Page_151">151.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">person and number of, <a href= +"#Page_148">148.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">retained object with passive, +<a href="#Page_242">242.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">strong, definition of, <a href= +"#Page_154">154.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">remarks on certain, <a href= +"#Page_157">157.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">table of, <a href= +"#Page_155">155.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_312">312.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tense of, <a href= +"#Page_147">147.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sequence of, <a href= +"#Page_319">319.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">transitive and intransitive, +<a href="#Page_130">130.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">voice of, <a href= +"#Page_133">133.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">weak, definition of, <a href= +"#Page_154">154.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">spelling of, <a href= +"#Page_169">169.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">table of irregular, <a href= +"#Page_167">167.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Vixen</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33.</a><br /> +<br /> +Vocative nominative, <a href="#Page_47">47.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in analysis, <a href= +"#Page_245">245.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Voice, active, <a href="#Page_133">133.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">passive, <a href= +"#Page_134">134.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Vowel change, past tense of verbs formed by, <a href= +"#Page_154">154.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plural formed by, <a href= +"#Page_39">39.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Vulgar English, <a href="#Page_12">12.</a><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Weak verbs, regular, irregular, +<a href="#Page_167">167.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">spelling of, becoming phonetic, +<a href="#Page_169">169.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Went</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>What</i>, uses of, <a href="#Page_223">223.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>but what</i>, <a href= +"#Page_330">330.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>what a</i>, 105. <a href= +"#Page_126">126.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Whereby</i>, <i>whereto</i>, etc., <a href= +"#Page_85">85.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Whether</i>, conjunction, <a href="#Page_194">194.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interrogative pronoun, <a href= +"#Page_72">72.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Which</i>, antecedent of, <a href="#Page_79">79.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as adjective, <a href= +"#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as relative pronoun, <a href= +"#Page_75">75.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in indirect questions, <a href= +"#Page_85">85.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indefinite relative, <a href= +"#Page_83">83.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interrogative pronoun in direct +questions, <a href="#Page_72">72.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, 295-<a href= +"#Page_299">299.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>whose</i>, possessive of, +<a href="#Page_78">78.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Who</i>, as relative, <a href="#Page_75">75.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in direct questions, <a href= +"#Page_72">72.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in indirect questions, <a href= +"#Page_85">85.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indefinite relative, <a href= +"#Page_83">83.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">objective, in spoken English, +<a href="#Page_73">73.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">referring to animals, <a href= +"#Page_77">77.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">syntax of, <a href= +"#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Widower</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Wife</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Will</i>, <i>would</i>. See <i>Shall</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Witch</i>, <i>wizard</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>With</i>, uses of, <a href="#Page_218">218.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Woman</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32.</a><br /> +<br /> +Words in <i>-ing</i>, <a href="#Page_178">178.</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in <i>-ly</i>, <a href= +"#Page_190">190.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Worse</i>, <i>worser</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111.</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Y</i>, plural of nouns ending in. <a href= +"#Page_40">40.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Yes</i> in analysis, <a href="#Page_246">246.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Yon</i>, <i>yonder</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>You</i>, singular and plural, <a href="#Page_61">61.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Yours</i>, <i>of yours</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64.</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Yourself</i>, <i>yourselves</i>, <a href= +"#Page_70">70.</a><br /></p> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of An English Grammar +by W. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: An English Grammar + +Author: W. M. Baskervill and J. W. Sewell + +Release Date: November 10, 2004 [EBook #14006] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR *** + + + + +Produced by Stephen Schulze and the Distributed Proofreaders Team + + + + + +AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR + +FOR THE USE OF + +HIGH SCHOOL, ACADEMY, AND COLLEGE CLASSES + +BY + +W.M. BASKERVILL + +PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN VANDERBILT +UNIVERSITY NASHVILLE, TENN. + +AND + +J.W. SEWELL + +OF THE FOGG HIGH SCHOOL, NASHVILLE, TENN. + + +1895 + + + + +PREFACE. + +Of making many English grammars there is no end; nor should there be +till theoretical scholarship and actual practice are more happily +wedded. In this field much valuable work has already been +accomplished; but it has been done largely by workers accustomed to +take the scholar's point of view, and their writings are addressed +rather to trained minds than to immature learners. To find an advanced +grammar unencumbered with hard words, abstruse thoughts, and difficult +principles, is not altogether an easy matter. These things enhance the +difficulty which an ordinary youth experiences in grasping and +assimilating the facts of grammar, and create a distaste for the +study. It is therefore the leading object of this book to be both as +scholarly and as practical as possible. In it there is an attempt to +present grammatical facts as simply, and to lead the student to +assimilate them as thoroughly, as possible, and at the same time to do +away with confusing difficulties as far as may be. + +To attain these ends it is necessary to keep ever in the foreground +the _real basis of grammar_; that is, good literature. Abundant +quotations from standard authors have been given to show the student +that he is dealing with the facts of the language, and not with the +theories of grammarians. It is also suggested that in preparing +written exercises the student use English classics instead of "making +up" sentences. But it is not intended that the use of literary +masterpieces for grammatical purposes should supplant or even +interfere with their proper use and real value as works of art. It +will, however, doubtless be found helpful to alternate the regular +reading and aesthetic study of literature with a grammatical study, so +that, while the mind is being enriched and the artistic sense +quickened, there may also be the useful acquisition of arousing a keen +observation of all grammatical forms and usages. Now and then it has +been deemed best to omit explanations, and to withhold personal +preferences, in order that the student may, by actual contact with the +sources of grammatical laws, discover for himself the better way in +regarding given data. It is not the grammarian's business to +"correct:" it is simply to record and to arrange the usages of +language, and to point the way to the arbiters of usage in all +disputed cases. Free expression within the lines of good usage should +have widest range. + +It has been our aim to make a grammar of as wide a scope as is +consistent with the proper definition of the word. Therefore, in +addition to recording and classifying the facts of language, we have +endeavored to attain two other objects,--to cultivate mental skill and +power, and to induce the student to prosecute further studies in this +field. It is not supposable that in so delicate and difficult an +undertaking there should be an entire freedom from errors and +oversights. We shall gratefully accept any assistance in helping to +correct mistakes. + +Though endeavoring to get our material as much as possible at first +hand, and to make an independent use of it, we desire to express our +obligation to the following books and articles:-- + +Meiklejohn's "English Language," Longmans' "School Grammar," West's +"English Grammar," Bain's "Higher English Grammar" and "Composition +Grammar," Sweet's "Primer of Spoken English" and "New English +Grammar," etc., Hodgson's "Errors in the Use of English," Morris's +"Elementary Lessons in Historical English Grammar," Lounsbury's +"English Language," Champney's "History of English," Emerson's +"History of the English Language," Kellner's "Historical Outlines of +English Syntax," Earle's "English Prose," and Matzner's "Englische +Grammatik." Allen's "Subjunctive Mood in English," Battler's articles +on "Prepositions" in the "Anglia," and many other valuable papers, +have also been helpful and suggestive. + +We desire to express special thanks to Professor W.D. Mooney of Wall & +Mooney's Battle-Ground Academy, Franklin, Tenn., for a critical +examination of the first draft of the manuscript, and to Professor +Jno. M. Webb of Webb Bros. School, Bell Buckle, Tenn., and Professor +W.R. Garrett of the University of Nashville, for many valuable +suggestions and helpful criticism. + +W.M. BASKERVILL. + +J.W. SEWELL. + +NASHVILLE, TENN., January, 1896. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + INTRODUCTION + + PART I. + + _THE PARTS OF SPEECH_. + + NOUNS + PRONOUNS + ADJECTIVES + ARTICLES + VERBS AND VERBALS + Verbs + Verbals + How to Parse Verbs and Verbals + ADVERBS + CONJUNCTIONS + PREPOSITIONS + WORDS THAT NEED WATCHING + INTERJECTIONS + + PART II. + + _ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES_. + + CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORM + CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF STATEMENTS + Simple Sentences + Contracted Sentences + Complex Sentences + Compound Sentences + + + PART III. + + _SYNTAX_. + + INTRODUCTORY + NOUNS + PRONOUNS + ADJECTIVES + ARTICLES + VERBS + INDIRECT DISCOURSE + VERBALS + ADVERBS + CONJUNCTIONS + PREPOSITIONS + + INDEX + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + +So many slighting remarks have been made of late on the use of +teaching grammar as compared with teaching science, that it is plain +the fact has been lost sight of that grammar is itself a science. The +object we have, or should have, in teaching science, is not to fill a +child's mind with a vast number of facts that may or may not prove +useful to him hereafter, but to draw out and exercise his powers of +observation, and to show him how to make use of what he observes.... +And here the teacher of grammar has a great advantage over the teacher +of other sciences, in that the facts he has to call attention to lie +ready at hand for every pupil to observe without the use of apparatus +of any kind while the use of them also lies within the personal +experience of every one.--DR RICHARD MORRIS. + +The proper study of a language is an intellectual discipline of the +highest order. If I except discussions on the comparative merits of +Popery and Protestantism, English grammar was the most important +discipline of my boyhood.--JOHN TYNDALL. + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +What various opinions writers on English grammar have given in answer +to the question, _What is grammar?_ may be shown by the following-- + +[Sidenote: _Definitions of grammar._] + + English grammar is a description of the usages of the English + language by good speakers and writers of the present + day.--WHITNEY + + A description of account of the nature, build, constitution, or + make of a language is called its grammar--MEIKLEJOHN + + Grammar teaches the laws of language, and the right method of + using it in speaking and writing.--PATTERSON + + Grammar is the science of _letter_; hence the science of using + words correctly.--ABBOTT + + The English word _grammar_ relates only to the laws which govern + the significant forms of words, and the construction of the + sentence.--RICHARD GRANT WHITE + +These are sufficient to suggest several distinct notions about English +grammar-- + +[Sidenote: _Synopsis of the above._] + +(1) It makes rules to tell us how to use words. + +(2) It is a record of usage which we ought to follow. + +(3) It is concerned with the _forms_ of the language. + +(4) English _has_ no grammar in the sense of forms, or inflections, +but takes account merely of the nature and the uses of words in +sentences. + +[Sidenote: _The older idea and its origin._] + +Fierce discussions have raged over these opinions, and numerous works +have been written to uphold the theories. The first of them remained +popular for a very long time. It originated from the etymology of the +word _grammar_ (Greek _gramma_, writing, a letter), and from an effort +to build up a treatise on English grammar by using classical grammar +as a model. + +Perhaps a combination of (1) and (3) has been still more popular, +though there has been vastly more classification than there are forms. + +[Sidenote: _The opposite view_.] + +During recent years, (2) and (4) have been gaining ground, but they +have had hard work to displace the older and more popular theories. It +is insisted by many that the student's time should be used in studying +general literature, and thus learning the fluent and correct use of +his mother tongue. It is also insisted that the study and discussion +of forms and inflections is an inexcusable imitation of classical +treatises. + +[Sidenote: _The difficulty_.] + +Which view shall the student of English accept? Before this is +answered, we should decide whether some one of the above theories must +be taken as the right one, and the rest disregarded. + +The real reason for the diversity of views is a confusion of two +distinct things,--what the _definition_ of grammar should be, and what +the _purpose_ of grammar should be. + +[Sidenote: _The material of grammar_.] + +The province of English grammar is, rightly considered, wider than is +indicated by any one of the above definitions; and the student ought +to have a clear idea of the ground to be covered. + +[Sidenote: _Few inflections_.] + +It must be admitted that the language has very few inflections at +present, as compared with Latin or Greek; so that a small grammar will +hold them all. + +[Sidenote: _Making rules is risky_.] + +It is also evident, to those who have studied the language +historically, that it is very hazardous to make rules in grammar: what +is at present regarded as correct may not be so twenty years from now, +even if our rules are founded on the keenest scrutiny of the +"standard" writers of our time. Usage is varied as our way of thinking +changes. In Chaucer's time two or three negatives were used to +strengthen a negation; as, "Ther _nas no_ man _nowher_ so vertuous" +(There never was no man nowhere so virtuous). And Shakespeare used +good English when he said _more elder_ ("Merchant of Venice") and +_most unkindest_ ("Julius Caesar"); but this is bad English now. + +If, however, we have tabulated the inflections of the language, and +stated what syntax is the most used in certain troublesome places, +there is still much for the grammarian to do. + +[Sidenote: _A broader view_.] + +Surely our noble language, with its enormous vocabulary, its peculiar +and abundant idioms, its numerous periphrastic forms to express every +possible shade of meaning, is worthy of serious study, apart from the +mere memorizing of inflections and formulation of rules. + +[Sidenote: _Mental training. An aesthetic benefit._] + +Grammar is eminently a means of mental training; and while it will +train the student in subtle and acute reasoning, it will at the same +time, if rightly presented, lay the foundation of a keen observation +and a correct literary taste. The continued contact with the highest +thoughts of the best minds will create a thirst for the "well of +English undefiled." + +[Sidenote: _What grammar is_.] + +Coming back, then, from the question, _What ground should grammar +cover?_ we come to answer the question, _What should grammar teach?_ +and we give as an answer the definition,-- + +_English grammar is the science which treats of the nature of words, +their forms, and their uses and relations in the sentence_. + +[Sidenote: _The work it will cover._] + +This will take in the usual divisions, "The Parts of Speech" (with +their inflections), "Analysis," and "Syntax." It will also require a +discussion of any points that will clear up difficulties, assist the +classification of kindred expressions, or draw the attention of the +student to everyday idioms and phrases, and thus incite his +observation. + +[Sidenote: _Authority as a basis_.] + +A few words here as to the _authority_ upon which grammar rests. + +[Sidenote: _Literary English_.] + +The statements given will be substantiated by quotations from the +leading or "standard" literature of modern times; that is, from the +eighteenth century on. This _literary English_ is considered the +foundation on which grammar must rest. + +[Sidenote: _Spoken English_.] + +Here and there also will be quoted words and phrases from _spoken_ or +_colloquial English_, by which is meant the free, unstudied +expressions of ordinary conversation and communication among +intelligent people. + +These quotations will often throw light on obscure constructions, +since they preserve turns of expressions that have long since perished +from the literary or standard English. + +[Sidenote: _Vulgar English_.] + +Occasionally, too, reference will be made to _vulgar English,_--the +speech of the uneducated and ignorant,--which will serve to illustrate +points of syntax once correct, or standard, but now undoubtedly bad +grammar. + +The following pages will cover, then, three divisions:-- + +Part I. The Parts of Speech, and Inflections. + +Part II. Analysis of Sentences. + +Part III. The Uses of Words, or Syntax. + + + + + +PART I. + +_THE PARTS OF SPEECH_. + + + + +NOUNS. + + +1. In the more simple _state_ of the _Arabs_, the _nation_ is free, +because each of her _sons_ disdains a base _submission_ to the _will_ +of a _master_.--GIBBON. + +[Sidenote: _Name words_] + +By examining this sentence we notice several words used as names. The +plainest name is _Arabs_, which belongs to a people; but, besides this +one, the words _sons_ and _master_ name objects, and may belong to any +of those objects. The words _state, submission,_ and _will_ are +evidently names of a different kind, as they stand for ideas, not +objects; and the word _nation_ stands for a whole group. + +When the meaning of each of these words has once been understood, the +word naming it will always call up the thing or idea itself. Such +words are called nouns. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition_.] + +2. A noun is a name word, representing directly to the mind an +object, substance, or idea. + + +[Sidenote: _Classes of nouns_.] + +3. Nouns are classified as follows:-- + +(1) Proper. + +(2) Common. (a) CLASS NAMES: i. Individual. + ii. Collective. + (b) MATERIAL. + +(3) Abstract. (a) ATTRIBUTE. + (b) VERBAL + + +[Sidenote: _Names for special objects._] + +4. A proper noun is a name applied to a particular object, whether +person, place, or thing. + +It specializes or limits the thing to which it is applied, reducing it +to a narrow application. Thus, _city_ is a word applied to any one of +its kind; but _Chicago_ names one city, and fixes the attention upon +that particular city. _King_ may be applied to any ruler of a kingdom, +but _Alfred the Great_ is the name of one king only. + +The word _proper_ is from a Latin word meaning _limited, belonging to +one_. This does not imply, however, that a proper name can be applied +to only one object, but that each time such a name is applied it is +fixed or proper to that object. Even if there are several Bostons or +Manchesters, the name of each is an individual or proper name. + + +[Sidenote: _Name for any individual of a class._] + +5. A common noun is a name possessed by _any_ one of a class of +persons, animals, or things. + +_Common_, as here used, is from a Latin word which means _general, +possessed by all_. + +For instance, _road_ is a word that names _any_ highway outside of +cities; _wagon_ is a term that names _any_ vehicle of a certain kind +used for hauling: the words are of the widest application. We may say, +_the man here_, or _the man in front of you_, but the word _man_ is +here hedged in by other words or word groups: the name itself is of +general application. + +[Sidenote: _Name for a group or collection of objects._] + +Besides considering persons, animals, and things separately, we may +think of them in groups, and appropriate names to the groups. + +Thus, men in groups may be called a _crowd_, or a _mob_, a +_committee_, or a _council_, or a _congress_, etc. + +These are called COLLECTIVE NOUNS. They properly belong under common +nouns, because each group is considered as a unit, and the name +applied to it belongs to any group of its class. + + +[Sidenote: _Names for things thought of in mass._] + +6. The definition given for common nouns applies more strictly to +class nouns. It may, however, be correctly used for another group of +nouns detailed below; for they are common nouns in the sense that the +names apply to _every particle of similar substance_, instead of to +each individual or separate object. + +They are called MATERIAL NOUNS. Such are _glass_, _iron_, _clay_, +_frost_, _rain_, _snow_, _wheat_, _wine_, _tea_, _sugar_, etc. + +They may be placed in groups as follows:-- + +(1) The metals: _iron_, _gold_, _platinum_, etc. + +(2) Products spoken of in bulk: _tea_, _sugar_, _rice_, _wheat_, etc. + +(3) Geological bodies: _mud_, _sand_, _granite_, _rock_, _stone_, etc. + +(4) Natural phenomena: _rain_, _dew_, _cloud_, _frost_, _mist_, etc. + +(5) Various manufactures: _cloth_ (and the different kinds of cloth), +_potash_, _soap_, _rubber_, _paint_, _celluloid_, etc. + +7. NOTE.--There are some nouns, such as _sun_, _moon_, _earth_, +which seem to be the names of particular individual objects, but which +are not called proper names. + +[Sidenote: _Words naturally of limited application not proper._] + +The reason is, that in proper names the intention is _to exclude_ all +other individuals of the same class, and fasten a special name to the +object considered, as in calling a city _Cincinnati_; but in the words +_sun_, _earth_, etc., there is no such intention. If several bodies +like the center of our solar system are known, they also are called +_suns_ by a natural extension of the term: so with the words _earth_, +_world_, etc. They remain common class names. + + +[Sidenote: _Names of ideas, not things._] + +8. Abstract nouns are names of qualities, conditions, or actions, +considered abstractly, or apart from their natural connection. + +When we speak of a _wise man_, we recognize in him an attribute or +quality. If we wish to think simply of that quality without describing +the person, we speak of the _wisdom_ of the man. The quality is still +there as much as before, but it is taken merely as a name. So +_poverty_ would express the condition of a poor person; _proof_ means +the act of proving, or that which shows a thing has been proved; and +so on. + +Again, we may say, "_Painting_ is a fine art," "_Learning_ is hard to +acquire," "a man of _understanding_." + + +9. There are two chief divisions of abstract nouns:-- + +(1) ATTRIBUTE NOUNS, expressing attributes or qualities. + +(2) VERBAL NOUNS, expressing state, condition, or action. + + +[Sidenote: _Attribute abstract nouns._] + +10. The ATTRIBUTE ABSTRACT NOUNS are derived from adjectives and +from common nouns. Thus, (1) _prudence_ from _prudent_, _height_ from +_high_, _redness_ from _red_, _stupidity_ from _stupid_, etc.; (2) +_peerage_ from _peer_, _childhood_ from _child_, _mastery_ from +_master_, _kingship_ from _king_, etc. + + + +[Sidenote: _Verbal abstract nouns._] + +II. The VERBAL ABSTRACT NOUNS Originate in verbs, as their name +implies. They may be-- + +(1) Of the same form as the simple verb. The verb, by altering its +function, is used as a noun; as in the expressions, "a long _run_" "a +bold _move_," "a brisk _walk_." + +(2) Derived from verbs by changing the ending or adding a suffix: +_motion_ from _move_, _speech_ from _speak_, _theft_ from _thieve_, +_action_ from _act_, _service_ from _serve_. + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +(3) Derived from verbs by adding _-ing_ to the simple verb. It must be +remembered that these words are _free from any verbal function_. They +cannot govern a word, and they cannot _express_ action, but are merely +_names_ of actions. They are only the husks of verbs, and are to be +rigidly distinguished from _gerunds_ (Secs. 272, 273). + +To avoid difficulty, study carefully these examples: + +The best thoughts and _sayings_ of the Greeks; the moon caused fearful +_forebodings_; in the _beginning_ of his life; he spread his +_blessings_ over the land; the great Puritan _awakening_; our birth is +but a sleep and a _forgetting_; a _wedding_ or a festival; the rude +_drawings_ of the book; masterpieces of the Socratic _reasoning_; the +_teachings_ of the High Spirit; those opinions and _feelings_; there +is time for such _reasonings_; the _well-being_ of her subjects; her +_longing_ for their favor; _feelings_ which their original _meaning_ +will by no means justify; the main _bearings_ of this matter. + + +[Sidenote: _Underived abstract nouns._] + +12. Some abstract nouns were not derived from any other part of +speech, but were framed directly for the expression of certain ideas +or phenomena. Such are _beauty_, _joy_, _hope_, _ease_, _energy_; +_day_, _night_, _summer_, _winter_; _shadow_, _lightning_, _thunder_, +etc. + +The adjectives or verbs corresponding to these are either themselves +derived from the nouns or are totally different words; as +_glad_--_joy_, _hopeful_--_hope_, etc. + + + +Exercises. + +1. From your reading bring up sentences containing ten common nouns, +five proper, five abstract. + +--NOTE.--Remember that all sentences are to be _selected_ from +standard literature. + +2. Under what class of nouns would you place (_a_) the names of +diseases, as _pneumonia_, _pleurisy_, _catarrh_, _typhus_, +_diphtheria_; (_b_) branches of knowledge, as _physics_, _algebra_, +_geology_, _mathematics_? + +3. Mention collective nouns that will embrace groups of each of the +following individual nouns:-- + + man + horse + bird + fish + partridge + pupil + bee + soldier + book + sailor + child + sheep + ship + ruffian + +4. Using a dictionary, tell from what word each of these abstract +nouns is derived:-- + + sight + speech + motion + pleasure + patience + friendship + deceit + bravery + height + width + wisdom + regularity + advice + seizure + nobility + relief + death + raid + honesty + judgment + belief + occupation + justice + service + trail + feeling + choice + simplicity + + +SPECIAL USES OF NOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Nouns change by use._] + +13. By being used so as to vary their usual meaning, nouns of one +class may be made to approach another class, or to go over to it +entirely. Since words alter their meaning so rapidly by a widening or +narrowing of their application, we shall find numerous examples of +this shifting from class to class; but most of them are in the +following groups. For further discussion see the remarks on articles +(p. 119). + + +[Sidenote: _Proper names transferred to common use._] + +14. Proper nouns are used as common in either of two ways:-- + +(1) _The origin of a thing is used for the thing itself_: that is, the +name of the inventor may be applied to the thing invented, as a +_davy_, meaning the miner's lamp invented by Sir Humphry Davy; the +_guillotine_, from the name of Dr. Guillotin, who was its inventor. Or +the name of the country or city from which an article is derived is +used for the article: as _china_, from China; _arras_, from a town in +France; _port_ (wine), from Oporto, in Portugal; _levant_ and +_morocco_ (leather). + +Some of this class have become worn by use so that at present we can +scarcely discover the derivation from the form of the word; for +example, the word _port_, above. Others of similar character are +_calico_, from Calicut; _damask_, from Damascus; _currants_, from +Corinth; etc. + +(2) _The name of a person or place noted for certain qualities is +transferred to any person or place possessing those qualities_; +thus,-- + + Hercules and Samson were noted for their strength, and we call a + very strong man _a Hercules_ or _a Samson_. Sodom was famous for + wickedness, and a similar place is called _a Sodom_ of sin. + + _A Daniel_ come to judgment!--SHAKESPEARE. + + If it prove a mind of uncommon activity and power, _a Locke_, _a + Lavoisier_, _a Hutton_, _a Bentham_, _a Fourier_, it imposes its + classification on other men, and lo! a new system.--EMERSON. + + +[Sidenote: _Names for things in bulk altered for separate portions._] + +15. Material nouns may be used as class names. Instead of +considering the whole body of material of which certain uses are made, +one can speak of particular uses or phases of the substance; as-- + +(1) _Of individual objects_ made from metals or other substances +capable of being wrought into various shapes. We know a number of +objects made of iron. The material _iron_ embraces the metal contained +in them all; but we may say, "The cook made the _irons_ hot," +referring to flat-irons; or, "The sailor was put in _irons_" meaning +chains of iron. So also we may speak of _a glass_ to drink from or to +look into; _a steel_ to whet a knife on; _a rubber_ for erasing marks; +and so on. + +(2) _Of classes_ or _kinds_ of the same substance. These are the same +in material, but differ in strength, purity, etc. Hence it shortens +speech to make the nouns plural, and say _teas_, _tobaccos_, _paints_, +_oils_, _candies_, _clays_, _coals_. + +(3) _By poetical use_, of certain words necessarily singular in idea, +which are made plural, or used as class nouns, as in the following:-- + + The lone and level _sands_ stretch far away.--SHELLEY. + + From all around-- + Earth and her _waters_, and the depths of air-- + Comes a still voice.--BRYANT. + + Their airy ears + _The winds_ have stationed on the mountain peaks. + --PERCIVAL. + +(4) _Of detached portions_ of matter used as class names; as _stones_, +_slates_, _papers_, _tins_, _clouds_, _mists_, etc. + + +[Sidenote: _Personification of abstract ideas._] + +16. Abstract nouns are frequently used as proper names by being +personified; that is, the ideas are spoken of as residing in living +beings. This is a poetic usage, though not confined to verse. + + Next _Anger_ rushed; his eyes, on fire, + In lightnings owned his secret stings.--COLLINS. + + _Freedom's_ fame finds wings on every wind.--BYRON. + + _Death_, his mask melting like a nightmare dream, smiled.--HAYNE. + + _Traffic_ has lain down to rest; and only _Vice_ and _Misery_, to + prowl or to moan like night birds, are abroad.--CARLYLE. + + +[Sidenote: _A halfway class of words. Class nouns in use, abstract in +meaning._] + +17. Abstract nouns are made half abstract by being spoken of in +the plural. + +They are not then pure abstract nouns, nor are they common class +nouns. For example, examine this:-- + + The _arts_ differ from the _sciences_ in this, that their power + is founded not merely on _facts_ which can be communicated, but + on _dispositions_ which require to be created.--RUSKIN. + +When it is said that _art_ differs from _science_, that the power of +art is founded on _fact_, that _disposition_ is the thing to be +created, the words italicized are pure abstract nouns; but in case _an +art_ or _a science_, or _the arts_ and _sciences_, be spoken of, the +abstract idea is partly lost. The words preceded by the article _a_, +or made plural, are still names of abstract ideas, not material +things; but they widen the application to separate kinds of _art_ or +different branches of _science_. They are neither class nouns nor pure +abstract nouns: they are more properly called _half abstract_. + +Test this in the following sentences:-- + + Let us, if we must have great _actions_, make our own + so.--EMERSON. + + And still, as each repeated _pleasure_ tired, Succeeding _sports_ + the mirthful band inspired.--GOLDSMITH. + + But ah! those _pleasures_, _loves_, and _joys_ + Which I too keenly taste, + The Solitary can despise.--BURNS. + + All these, however, were mere _terrors_ of the night.--IRVING. + + +[Sidenote: _By ellipses, nouns used to modify._] + +18. Nouns used as descriptive terms. Sometimes a noun is attached +to another noun to add to its meaning, or describe it; for example, "a +_family_ quarrel," "a _New York_ bank," "the _State Bank Tax_ bill," +"a _morning_ walk." + +It is evident that these approach very near to the function of +adjectives. But it is better to consider them as nouns, for these +reasons: they do not give up their identity as nouns; they do not +express quality; they cannot be compared, as descriptive adjectives +are. + +They are more like the possessive noun, which belongs to another word, +but is still a noun. They may be regarded as elliptical expressions, +meaning a walk _in the morning_, a bank _in New York_, a bill _as to +tax on the banks_, etc. + +NOTE.--If the descriptive word be a _material_ noun, it may be +regarded as changed to an adjective. The term "_gold_ pen" conveys the +same idea as "_golden_ pen," which contains a pure adjective. + + +WORDS AND WORD GROUPS USED AS NOUNS. + +[Sidenote: _The noun may borrow from any part of speech, or from any +expression._] + +19. Owing to the scarcity of distinctive forms, and to the +consequent flexibility of English speech, words which are usually +other parts of speech are often used as nouns; and various word groups +may take the place of nouns by being used as nouns. + +[Sidenote: _Adjectives, Conjunctions, Adverbs._] + +(1) _Other parts of speech_ used as nouns:-- + + _The great_, _the wealthy_, fear thy blow.--BURNS. + + Every _why_ hath a _wherefore_.--SHAKESPEARE. + + When I was young? Ah, woeful _When_! + Ah! for the change 'twixt _Now_ and _Then_! + --COLERIDGE. + +(2) _Certain word groups_ used like single nouns:-- + + _Too swift_ arrives as tardy as _too slow_.--SHAKESPEARE. + + Then comes the "_Why, sir_!" and the "_What then, sir_?" and the + "_No, sir_!" and the "_You don't see your way through the + question, sir_!"--MACAULAY + +(3) Any part of speech may be considered merely as a word, without +reference to its function in the sentence; also titles of books are +treated as simple nouns. + + The _it_, at the beginning, is ambiguous, whether it mean the sun + or the cold.--Dr BLAIR + + In this definition, is the word "_just_," or "_legal_," finally + to stand?--RUSKIN. + + There was also a book of Defoe's called an "_Essay on Projects_," + and another of Dr. Mather's called "_Essays to do Good_."--B. + FRANKLIN. + + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +20. It is to be remembered, however, that the above cases are +shiftings of the _use_, of words rather than of their _meaning_. We +seldom find instances of complete conversion of one part of speech +into another. + +When, in a sentence above, the terms _the great_, _the wealthy_, are +used, they are not names only: we have in mind the idea of persons and +the quality of being _great_ or _wealthy_. The words are used in the +sentence where nouns are used, but have an adjectival meaning. + +In the other sentences, _why_ and _wherefore_, _When_, _Now_, and +_Then_, are spoken of as if pure nouns; but still the reader considers +this not a natural application of them as name words, but as a figure +of speech. + +NOTE.--These remarks do not apply, of course, to such words as become +pure nouns by use. There are many of these. The adjective _good_ has +no claim on the noun _goods_; so, too, in speaking of the _principal_ +of a school, or a state _secret_, or a faithful _domestic_, or a +_criminal_, etc., the words are entirely independent of any adjective +force. + + +Exercise. + +Pick out the nouns in the following sentences, and tell to which class +each belongs. Notice if any have shifted from one class to another. + + +1. Hope springs eternal in the human breast. + +2. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of Fate. + +3. Stone walls do not a prison make. + Nor iron bars a cage. + +4. Truth-teller was our England's Alfred named. + +5. A great deal of talent is lost to the world for want of a little +courage. + +6. Power laid his rod aside, + And Ceremony doff'd her pride. + +7. She sweeps it through the court with troops of ladies. + +8. Learning, that cobweb of the brain. + +9. A little weeping would ease my heart; + But in their briny bed + My tears must stop, for every drop + Hinders needle and thread. + +10. A fool speaks all his mind, but a wise man reserves something for +hereafter. + +11. Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much; Wisdom is humble +that he knows no more. + +12. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast. + +13. And see, he cried, the welcome, + Fair guests, that waits you here. + +14. The fleet, shattered and disabled, returned to Spain. + +15. One To-day is worth two To-morrows. + +16. Vessels carrying coal are constantly moving. + +17. Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest, + Some Cromwell guiltless of his country's blood. + +18. And oft we trod a waste of pearly sands. + +19. A man he seems of cheerful yesterdays + And confident to-morrows. + +20. The hours glide by; the silver moon is gone. + +21. Her robes of silk and velvet came from over the sea. + +22. My soldier cousin was once only a drummer boy. + +23. But pleasures are like poppies spread, + You seize the flower, its bloom is shed. + +24. All that thou canst call thine own Lies in thy To-day. + + +INFLECTIONS OF NOUNS. + + +GENDER. + + +[Sidenote: _What gender means in English. It is founded on sex._] + +21. In Latin, Greek, German, and many other languages, some general +rules are given that names of male beings are usually masculine, and +names of females are usually feminine. There are exceptions even to +this general statement, but not so in English. Male beings are, in +English grammar, always masculine; female, always feminine. + +When, however, _inanimate_ things are spoken of, these languages are +totally unlike our own in determining the gender of words. For +instance: in Latin, _hortus_ (garden) is masculine, _mensa_ (table) is +feminine, _corpus_ (body) is neuter; in German, _das Messer_ (knife) +is neuter, _der Tisch_ (table) is masculine, _die Gabel_ (fork) is +feminine. + +The great difference is, that in English the gender follows the +_meaning_ of the word, in other languages gender follows the _form_; +that is, in English, gender depends on _sex_: if a thing spoken of is +of the male sex, the _name_ of it is masculine; if of the female sex, +the _name_ of it is feminine. Hence: + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +22. Gender is the mode of distinguishing sex by words, or +additions to words. + + +23. It is evident from this that English can have but two +genders,--masculine and feminine. + +[Sidenote: _Gender nouns. Neuter nouns._] + +All nouns, then, must be divided into two principal classes,--gender +nouns, those distinguishing the sex of the object; and neuter +nouns, those which do not distinguish sex, or names of things without +life, and consequently without sex. + +Gender nouns include names of persons and some names of animals; +neuter nouns include some animals and all inanimate objects. + + +[Sidenote: _Some words either gender or neuter nouns, according to +use._] + +24. Some words may be either gender nouns or neuter nouns, according +to their use. Thus, the word _child_ is neuter in the sentence, "A +little _child_ shall lead them," but is masculine in the sentence +from Wordsworth,-- + + I have seen + A curious _child_ ... applying to _his_ ear + The convolutions of a smooth-lipped shell. + +Of animals, those with which man comes in contact often, or which +arouse his interest most, are named by gender nouns, as in these +sentences:-- + + Before the barn door strutted the gallant _cock_, that pattern of + a husband, ... clapping _his_ burnished wings.--IRVING. + + _Gunpowder_ ... came to a stand just by the bridge, with a + suddenness that had nearly sent _his_ rider sprawling over _his_ + head--_id._ + +Other animals are not distinguished as to sex, but are spoken of as +neuter, the sex being of no consequence. + + Not a _turkey_ but he [Ichabod] beheld daintily trussed up, with + _its_ gizzard under _its_ wing.--IRVING. + + He next stooped down to feel the _pig_, if there were any signs + of life in _it_.--LAMB. + + +[Sidenote: _No "common gender._"] + +25. According to the definition, there can be no such thing as +"common gender:" words either distinguish sex (or the sex is +distinguished by the context) or else they do not distinguish sex. + +If such words as _parent_, _servant_, _teacher_, _ruler_, _relative_, +_cousin_, _domestic_, etc., do not show the sex to which the persons +belong, they are neuter words. + + +26. Put in convenient form, the division of words according to sex, +or the lack of it, is,-- + + (MASCULINE: Male beings. +Gender nouns { + (FEMININE: Female beings. + +Neuter nouns: Names of inanimate things, or of living beings whose +sex cannot be determined. + + +27. The inflections for gender belong, of course, only to masculine +and feminine nouns. _Forms_ would be a more accurate word than +_inflections_, since inflection applies only to the _case_ of nouns. + +There are three ways to distinguish the genders:-- + +(1) By prefixing a gender word to another word. + +(2) By adding a suffix, generally to a masculine word. + +(3) By using a different word for each gender. + + +I. Gender shown by Prefixes. + + +[Sidenote: _Very few of class I._] + +28. Usually the gender words _he_ and _she_ are prefixed to neuter +words; as _he-goat_--_she-goat_, _cock sparrow_--_hen sparrow_, +_he-bear_--_she-bear_. + +One feminine, _woman_, puts a prefix before the masculine _man_. +_Woman_ is a short way of writing _wifeman_. + + +II. Gender shown by Suffixes. + + +29. By far the largest number of gender words are those marked by +suffixes. In this particular the native endings have been largely +supplanted by foreign suffixes. + +[Sidenote: _Native suffixes._] + +The native suffixes to indicate the feminine were _-en_ and _-ster_. +These remain in _vixen_ and _spinster_, though both words have lost +their original meanings. + +The word _vixen_ was once used as the feminine of _fox_ by the +Southern-English. For _fox_ they said _vox_; for _from_ they said +_vram_; and for the older word _fat_ they said _vat_, as in _wine +vat_. Hence _vixen_ is for _fyxen_, from the masculine _fox_. + +_Spinster_ is a relic of a large class of words that existed in Old +and Middle English,[1] but have now lost their original force as +feminines. The old masculine answering to _spinster_ was _spinner_; +but _spinster_ has now no connection with it. + +The foreign suffixes are of two kinds:-- + +[Sidenote: _Foreign suffixes. Unaltered and little used._] + +(1) Those belonging to borrowed words, as _czarina_, _senorita_, +_executrix_, _donna_. These are attached to foreign words, and are +never used for words recognized as English. + +[Sidenote: _Slightly changed and widely used._] + +(2) That regarded as the standard or regular termination of the +feminine, _-ess_ (French _esse_, Low Latin _issa_), the one most used. +The corresponding masculine may have the ending _-er_ (_-or_), but in +most cases it has not. Whenever we adopt a new masculine word, the +feminine is formed by adding this termination _-ess_. + +Sometimes the _-ess_ has been added to a word already feminine by the +ending _-ster_; as _seam-str-ess_, _song-str-ess_. The ending _-ster_ +had then lost its force as a feminine suffix; it has none now in the +words _huckster_, _gamester_, _trickster_, _punster_. + + +[Sidenote: _Ending of masculine not changed._] + +30. The ending _-ess_ is added to many words without changing the +ending of the masculine; as,-- + + baron--baroness + count--countess + lion--lioness + Jew--Jewess + heir--heiress + host--hostess + priest--priestess + giant--giantess + +[Sidenote: _Masculine ending dropped._] + +The masculine ending may be dropped before the feminine _-ess_ is +added; as,-- + + abbot--abbess + negro--negress + murderer--murderess + sorcerer--sorceress + +[Sidenote: _Vowel dropped before adding_ -ess.] + +The feminine may discard a vowel which appears in the masculine; as +in-- + + actor--actress + master--mistress + benefactor--benefactress + emperor--empress + tiger--tigress + enchanter--enchantress + +_Empress_ has been cut down from _emperice_ (twelfth century) and +_emperesse_ (thirteenth century), from Latin _imperatricem_. + +_Master_ and _mistress_ were in Middle English +_maister_--_maistresse_, from the Old French _maistre_--_maistresse_. + + +31. When the older _-en_ and _-ster_ went out of use as the +distinctive mark of the feminine, the ending _-ess_, from the French +_-esse_, sprang into a popularity much greater than at present. + +[Sidenote: _Ending_ -ess _less used now than formerly._] + +Instead of saying _doctress_, _fosteress_, _wagoness_, as was said in +the sixteenth century, or _servauntesse_, _teacheresse_, +_neighboresse_, _frendesse_, as in the fourteenth century, we have +dispensed with the ending in many cases, and either use a prefix word +or leave the masculine to do work for the feminine also. + +Thus, we say _doctor_ (masculine and feminine) or _woman doctor_, +_teacher_ or _lady teacher_, _neighbor_ (masculine and feminine), etc. +We frequently use such words as _author_, _editor_, _chairman_, to +represent persons of either sex. + +NOTE.--There is perhaps this distinction observed: when we speak of a +female _as an active agent_ merely, we use the masculine termination, +as, "George Eliot is the _author_ of 'Adam Bede;'" but when we speak +purposely _to denote a distinction from a male_, we use the feminine, +as, "George Eliot is an eminent _authoress_." + + + +III. Gender shown by Different Words. + + +32. In some of these pairs, the feminine and the masculine are +entirely different words; others have in their origin the same root. +Some of them have an interesting history, and will be noted below:-- + + bachelor--maid + boy--girl + brother--sister + drake--duck + earl--countess + father--mother + gander--goose + hart--roe + horse--mare + husband--wife + king--queen + lord--lady + wizard--witch + nephew--niece + ram--ewe + sir--madam + son--daughter + uncle--aunt + bull--cow + boar--sow + +Girl originally meant a child of either sex, and was used for male +or female until about the fifteenth century. + +Drake is peculiar in that it is formed from a corresponding feminine +which is no longer used. It is not connected historically with our +word _duck_, but is derived from _ened_ (duck) and an obsolete suffix +_rake_ (king). Three letters of _ened_ have fallen away, leaving our +word _drake_. + +Gander and goose were originally from the same root word. _Goose_ +has various cognate forms in the languages akin to English (German +_Gans_, Icelandic _gas_, Danish _gaas_, etc.). The masculine was +formed by adding _-a_, the old sign of the masculine. This _gansa_ was +modified into _gan-ra_, _gand-ra_, finally _gander_; the _d_ being +inserted to make pronunciation easy, as in many other words. + +Mare, in Old English _mere_, had the masculine _mearh_ (horse), but +this has long been obsolete. + +Husband and wife are not connected in origin. _Husband_ is a +Scandinavian word (Anglo-Saxon _husbonda_ from Icelandic _hus-bondi_, +probably meaning house dweller); _wife_ was used in Old and Middle +English to mean woman in general. + +King and queen are said by some (Skeat, among others) to be from +the same root word, but the German etymologist Kluge says they are +not. + +Lord is said to be a worn-down form of the Old English _hlaf-weard_ +(loaf keeper), written _loverd_, _lhauerd_, or _lauerd_ in Middle +English. Lady is from _hloefdige_ (_hloef_ meaning loaf, and +_dige_ being of uncertain origin and meaning). + +Witch is the Old English _wicce_, but wizard is from the Old +French _guiscart_ (prudent), not immediately connected with _witch_, +though both are ultimately from the same root. + +Sir is worn down from the Old French _sire_ (Latin _senior_). +Madam is the French _ma dame_, from Latin _mea domina_. + + +[Sidenote: _Two masculines from feminines._] + +33. Besides _gander_ and _drake_, there are two other masculine +words that were formed from the feminine:-- + +Bridegroom, from Old English _bryd-guma_ (bride's man). The _r_ in +_groom_ has crept in from confusion with the word _groom_. + +Widower, from the weakening of the ending _-a_ in Old English to +_-e_ in Middle English. The older forms, _widuwa_--_widuwe_, became +identical, and a new masculine ending was therefore added to +distinguish the masculine from the feminine (compare Middle English +_widuer_--_widewe_). + + +Personification. + + +34. Just as abstract ideas are personified (Sec. 16), material +objects may be spoken of like gender nouns; for example,-- + + "Now, where the swift _Rhone_ cleaves _his_ way."--BYRON. + + The _Sun_ now rose upon the right: + Out of the sea came _he_. + --COLERIDGE. + + And haply the _Queen Moon_ is on _her_ throne, + Clustered around by all her starry Fays. + --KEATS, + + _Britannia_ needs no bulwarks, + No towers along the steep; + _Her_ march is o'er the mountain waves, + _Her_ home is on the deep. + --CAMPBELL + +This is not exclusively a poetic use. In ordinary speech +personification is very frequent: the pilot speaks of his boat as +feminine; the engineer speaks so of his engine; etc. + +[Sidenote: _Effect of personification._] + +In such cases the gender is marked by the pronoun, and not by the form +of the noun. But the fact that in English the distinction of gender is +confined to difference of sex makes these departures more effective. + + + +NUMBER. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +35. In nouns, number means the mode of indicating whether we are +speaking of one thing or of more than one. + + +36. Our language has two numbers,--_singular_ and _plural_. The +singular number denotes that one thing is spoken of; the plural, more +than one. + + +37. There are three ways of changing the singular form to the +plural:-- + +(1) By adding _-en_. + +(2) By changing the root vowel. + +(3) By adding _-s_ (or _-es_). + +The first two methods prevailed, together with the third, in Old +English, but in modern English _-s_ or _-es_ has come to be the +"standard" ending; that is, whenever we adopt a new word, we make its +plural by adding _-s_ or _-es._ + + +I. Plurals formed by the Suffix _-en_. + + +[Sidenote: _The_ -en _inflection._] + +38. This inflection remains only in the word oxen, though it was +quite common in Old and Middle English; for instance, _eyen_ (eyes), +_treen_ (trees), _shoon_ (shoes), which last is still used in Lowland +Scotch. _Hosen_ is found in the King James version of the Bible, and +_housen_ is still common in the provincial speech in England. + + +39. But other words were inflected afterwards, in imitation of the +old words in _-en_ by making a double plural. + +[Sidenote: -En _inflection imitated by other words._] + +Brethren has passed through three stages. The old plural was +_brothru_, then _brothre_ or _brethre_, finally _brethren_. The +weakening of inflections led to this addition. + +Children has passed through the same history, though the +intermediate form _childer_ lasted till the seventeenth century in +literary English, and is still found in dialects; as,-- + + "God bless me! so then, after all, you'll have a chance to see + your _childer_ get up like, and get settled."--QUOTED BY DE + QUINCEY. + +Kine is another double plural, but has now no singular. + + In spite of wandering _kine_ and other adverse + circumstance.--THOREAU. + + +II. Plurals formed by Vowel Change. + + +40. Examples of this inflection are,-- + + man--men + foot--feet + goose--geese + louse--lice + mouse--mice + tooth--teeth + +Some other words--as _book_, _turf_, _wight_, _borough_--formerly had +the same inflection, but they now add the ending _-s_. + + +41. Akin to this class are some words, originally neuter, that have +the singular and plural alike; such as _deer_, _sheep_, _swine_, etc. + +Other words following the same usage are, _pair_, _brace_, _dozen_, +after numerals (if not after numerals, or if preceded by the +prepositions _in_, _by_, etc, they add _-s_): also _trout_, _salmon_; +_head_, _sail_; _cannon_; _heathen_, _folk_, _people_. + +The words _horse_ and _foot_, when they mean soldiery, retain the +same form for plural meaning; as,-- + + The _foot_ are fourscore thousand, + The _horse_ are thousands ten. + --MACAULAY. + + Lee marched over the mountain wall,-- + Over the mountains winding down, + _Horse_ and _foot_, into Frederick town. + --WHITTIER. + + + +III. Plurals formed by Adding -s or -es. + + +42. Instead of _-s,_ the ending _-es_ is added-- + +(1) If a word ends in a letter which cannot add _-s_ and be +pronounced. Such are _box, cross, ditch, glass, lens, quartz_, etc. + +[Sidenote: _-Es added in certain cases_.] + +If the word ends in a _sound_ which cannot add _-s_, a new syllable is +made; as, _niche--niches, race--races, house--houses, prize--prizes, +chaise--chaises_, etc. + +_-Es_ is also added to a few words ending in -o, though this sound +combines readily with _-s_, and does not make an extra syllable: +_cargo--cargoes, negro--negroes, hero--heroes, volcano--volcanoes_, +etc. + +Usage differs somewhat in other words of this class, some adding _-s_, +and some _-es_. + +(2) If a word ends in _-y_ preceded by a consonant (the _y_ being then +changed to _i_); e.g., _fancies, allies, daisies, fairies_. + +[Sidenote: _Words in -ies._] + +Formerly, however, these words ended in _-ie_, and the real ending is +therefore _-s_. Notice these from Chaucer (fourteenth century):-- + +[Sidenote: _Their old form._] + + The _lilie_ on hir stalke grene. + Of _maladie_ the which he hadde endured. + +And these from Spenser (sixteenth century):-- + + Be well aware, quoth then that _ladie_ milde. + At last fair Hesperus in highest _skie_ + Had spent his lampe. + +(3) In the case of some words ending in -_f_ or -_fe_, which have +the plural in _-ves_: _calf_--_calves_, _half_--_halves_, +_knife_--_knives_, _shelf_--_shelves_, etc. + + +Special Lists. + + +43. Material nouns and abstract nouns are always singular. When +such words take a plural ending, they lose their identity, and go over +to other classes (Secs. 15 and 17). + + +44. Proper nouns are regularly singular, but may be made plural +when we wish to speak of several persons or things bearing the same +name; e.g., _the Washingtons_, _the Americas_. + + +45. Some words are usually singular, though they are plural in +form. Examples of these are, _optics_, _economics_, _physics_, +_mathematics_, _politics_, and many branches of learning; also _news_, +_pains_ (care), _molasses_, _summons_, _means_: as,-- + + _Politics_, in its widest extent, is both the science and the art + of government.--_Century Dictionary_. + + So live, that when thy _summons comes_, etc.--BRYANT. + + It served simply as _a means_ of sight.--PROF. DANA. + +[Sidenote: Means _plural_.] + +Two words, means and politics, _may be plural_ in their +construction with verbs and adjectives:-- + + Words, by strongly conveying the passions, by _those means_ which + we have already mentioned, fully compensate for their weakness in + other respects.--BURKE. + + With great dexterity _these means_ were now applied.--MOTLEY. + + By _these means_, I say, riches will accumulate.--GOLDSMITH. + +[Sidenote: Politics _plural_.] + + Cultivating a feeling that _politics_ are tiresome.--G.W. CURTIS. + + The _politics_ in which he took the keenest interest _were + politics_ scarcely deserving of the name.--MACAULAY. + + Now I read all the _politics_ that _come_ out.--GOLDSMITH. + + +46. Some words have no corresponding singular. + + aborigines + amends + annals + assets + antipodes + scissors + thanks + spectacles + vespers + victuals + matins + nuptials + oats + obsequies + premises + bellows + billiards + dregs + gallows + tongs + +[Sidenote: _Occasionally singular words_.] + +Sometimes, however, a few of these words have the construction of +singular nouns. Notice the following:-- + + They cannot get on without each other any more than one blade of + _a scissors_ can cut without the other.--J.L. LAUGHLIN. + + A relic which, if I recollect right, he pronounced to have been + _a tongs_.--IRVING. + + Besides this, it is furnished with _a forceps_.--GOLDSMITH. + + The air,--was it subdued when...the wind was trained only to turn + a windmill, carry off chaff, or work in _a bellows_?--PROF. DANA. + +In Early Modern English _thank_ is found. + + What _thank_ have ye?--_Bible_ + + +47. Three words were _originally singular_, the present ending _-s_ +not being really a plural inflection, but they are regularly construed +as plural: _alms, eaves, riches_. + + +[Sidenote: _two plurals_.] + +48. A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning. + + brother--brothers (by blood), brethren (of a society or church). + + cloth--cloths (kinds of cloth), clothes (garments). + + die--dies (stamps for coins, etc.), dice (for gaming). + + fish--fish (collectively), fishes (individuals or kinds). + + genius--geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits). + + index--indexes (to books), indices (signs in algebra). + + pea--peas (separately), pease (collectively). + + penny--pennies (separately), pence (collectively). + + shot--shot (collective balls), shots (number of times fired). + +In speaking of coins, _twopence_, _sixpence_, etc., may add _-s_, +making a double plural, as two _sixpences_. + + +[Sidenote: _One plural, two meanings._] + +49. Other words have one plural form with two meanings,--one +corresponding to the singular, the other unlike it. + + custom--customs: (1) habits, ways; (2) revenue duties. + + letter--letters: (1) the alphabet, or epistles; (2) literature. + + number--numbers: (1) figures; (2) poetry, as in the lines,-- + + I lisped in _numbers_, for the numbers came.--POPE. + + Tell me not, in mournful _numbers_.--LONGFELLOW. + +_Numbers_ also means issues, or copies, of a periodical. + + pain--pains: (1) suffering; (2) care, trouble, + + part--parts: (1) divisions; (2) abilities, faculties. + + +[Sidenote: _Two classes of compound words._] + +50. Compound words may be divided into two classes:-- + +(1) _Those whose parts are so closely joined as to constitute one +word._ These make the last part plural. + + courtyard + dormouse + Englishman + fellow-servant + fisherman + Frenchman + forget-me-not + goosequill + handful + mouthful + cupful + maidservant + pianoforte + stepson + spoonful + titmouse + +(2) _Those groups in which the first part is the principal one, +followed by a word or phrase making a modifier._ The chief member adds +_-s_ in the plural. + + aid-de-camp + attorney at law + billet-doux + commander in chief + court-martial + cousin-german + father-in-law + knight-errant + hanger-on + +NOTE.--Some words ending in _-man_ are not compounds of the English +word _man_, but add _-s_; such as _talisman_, _firman_, _Brahman_, +_German_, _Norman_, _Mussulman_, _Ottoman_. + + +51. Some groups pluralize both parts of the group; as _man singer_, +_manservant_, _woman servant_, _woman singer_. + + +[Sidenote: _Two methods in use for names with titles._] + +52. As to plurals of names with titles, there is some disagreement +among English writers. The title may be plural, as _the Messrs. +Allen_, _the Drs. Brown_, _the Misses Rich_; or the name may be +pluralized. + +The former is perhaps more common in present-day use, though the +latter is often found; for example,-- + + Then came Mr. and Mrs. Briggs, and then _the three Miss + Spinneys_, then Silas Peckham.--DR. HOLMES. + + Our immortal Fielding was of the younger branch of the _Earls of + Denbigh_, who drew their origin from the _Counts of + Hapsburgh_.--GIBBON. + + The _Miss Flamboroughs_ were reckoned the best dancers in the + parish.--GOLDSMITH. + + The _Misses Nettengall's_ young ladies come to the Cathedral + too.--DICKENS. + + The _Messrs. Harper_ have done the more than generous thing by + Mr. Du Maurier.--_The Critic_. + + +53. A number of foreign words have been adopted into English +without change of form. These are said to be _domesticated_, and +retain their foreign plurals. + +Others have been adopted, and by long use have altered their power so +as to conform to English words. They are then said to be +_naturalized_, or _Anglicized_, or _Englished_. + +[Sidenote: _Domesticated words._] + +The domesticated words may retain the original plural. Some of them +have a secondary English plural in _-s_ or _-es_. + + +Exercise. + +Find in the dictionary the plurals of these words:-- + +I. FROM THE LATIN. + + apparatus + appendix + axis + datum + erratum + focus + formula + genus + larva + medium + memorandum + nebula + radius + series + species + stratum + terminus + vertex + +II. FROM THE GREEK. + + analysis + antithesis + automaton + basis + crisis + ellipsis + hypothesis + parenthesis + phenomenon + thesis + +[Sidenote: _Anglicized words._] + +When the foreign words are fully naturalized, they form their plurals +in the regular way; as,-- + + bandits + cherubs + dogmas + encomiums + enigmas + focuses + formulas + geniuses + herbariums + indexes + seraphs + apexes + + +[Sidenote: _Usage varies in plurals of letters, figures, etc._] + +54. Letters, figures, etc., form their plurals by adding _-s_ or +_'s_. Words quoted merely as words, without reference to their +meaning, also add _-s_ or _'s_; as, "His _9's_ (or _9s_) look like +_7's_ (or _7s_)," "Avoid using too many _and's_ (or _ands_)," "Change +the _+'s_ (or _+s_) to _-'s_ (or _-s_)." + + +CASE. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +55. Case is an inflection or use of a noun (or pronoun) to show its +relation to other words in the sentence. + +In the sentence, "He sleeps in a felon's cell," the word _felon's_ +modifies _cell_, and expresses a relation akin to possession; _cell_ +has another relation, helping to express the idea of place with the +word _in_. + + +56. In the general wearing-away of inflections, the number of case +forms has been greatly reduced. + +[Sidenote: _Only two_ case forms.] + +There are now only two case forms of English nouns,--one for the +_nominative_ and _objective_, one for the _possessive_: consequently +the matter of inflection is a very easy thing to handle in learning +about cases. + +[Sidenote: _Reasons for speaking of_ three cases _of nouns_.] + +But there are reasons why grammars treat of _three_ cases of nouns +when there are only two forms:-- + +(1) Because the relations of all words, whether inflected or not, must +be understood for purposes of analysis. + +(2) Because pronouns still have three case forms as well as three case +relations. + + +57. Nouns, then, may be said to have three cases,--the +nominative, the objective, and the possessive. + + +I. Uses of the Nominative. + +58. The nominative case is used as follows:-- + +(1) _As the subject of a verb_: "_Water_ seeks its level." + +(2) _As a predicate noun_, completing a verb, and referring to or +explaining the subject: "A bent twig makes a crooked _tree_." + +(3) _In apposition_ with some other nominative word, adding to the +meaning of that word: "The reaper _Death_ with his sickle keen." + +(4) _In direct address_: "_Lord Angus_, thou hast lied!" + +(5) _With a participle in an absolute or independent phrase_ (there is +some discussion whether this is a true nominative): "The _work_ done, +they returned to their homes." + +(6) _With an infinitive in exclamations_: "_David_ to die!" + + +Exercise. + +Pick out the nouns in the nominative case, and tell which use of the +nominative each one has. + +1. Moderate lamentation is the right of the dead; excessive grief, the +enemy of the living. + +2. Excuses are clothes which, when asked unawares, + Good Breeding to naked Necessity spares. + +3. Human experience is the great test of truth. + +4. Cheerfulness and content are great beautifiers. + +5. Three properties belong to wisdom,--nature, learning, and +experience; three things characterize man,--person, fate, and merit. + +6. But of all plagues, good Heaven, thy wrath can send, + Save, save, oh save me from the candid friend! + +7. Conscience, her first law broken, wounded lies. + +8. They charged, sword in hand and visor down. + +9. O sleep! O gentle sleep! + Nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted thee? + + +II. Uses of the Objective. + +59. The objective case is used as follows:-- + +(1) _As the direct object of a verb_, naming the person or thing +directly receiving the action of the verb: "Woodman, spare that +_tree_!" + +(2) _As the indirect object of a verb_, naming the person or thing +indirectly affected by the action of the verb: "Give the _devil_ his +due." + +(3) _Adverbially_, defining the action of a verb by denoting _time_, +_measure_, _distance_, etc. (in the older stages of the language, this +took the regular accusative inflection): "Full _fathom_ five thy +father lies;" "Cowards die many _times_ before their deaths." + +(4) _As the second object_, completing the verb, and thus becoming +part of the predicate in acting upon an object: "Time makes the worst +enemies _friends_;" "Thou makest the storm a _calm_." In these +sentences the real predicates are _makes friends_, taking the object +_enemies_, and being equivalent to one verb, _reconciles_; and _makest +a calm_, taking the object _storm_, and meaning calmest. This is also +called the _predicate objective_ or the _factitive object_. + +(5) _As the object of a preposition_, the word toward which the +preposition points, and which it joins to another word: "He must have +a long spoon that would eat with the _devil_." + +The preposition sometimes takes the _possessive_ case of a noun, as +will be seen in Sec. 68. + +(6) _In apposition with another objective_: "The opinions of this +junto were completely controlled by Nicholas Vedder, a _patriarch_ of +the village, and _landlord_ of the inn." + + +Exercise. + +Point out the nouns in the objective case in these sentences, and tell +which use each has:-- + +1. Tender men sometimes have strong wills. + +2. Necessity is the certain connection between cause and effect. + +3. Set a high price on your leisure moments; they are sands of +precious gold. + +4. But the flood came howling one day. + +5. I found the urchin Cupid sleeping. + +6. Five times every year he was to be exposed in the pillory. + +7. The noblest mind the best contentment has. + +8. Multitudes came every summer to visit that famous natural +curiosity, the Great Stone Face. + +9. And whirling plate, and forfeits paid, + His winter task a pastime made. + +10. He broke the ice on the streamlet's brink, + And gave the leper to eat and drink. + + +III. Uses of the Possessive. + + +60. The possessive case always modifies another word, expressed or +understood. There are three forms of possessive showing how a word is +related in sense to the modified word:-- + +(1) _Appositional possessive_, as in these expressions,-- + + The blind old man of _Scio's_ rocky isle.--BYRON. + + Beside a pumice isle in _Baiae's_ bay.--SHELLEY. + +In these sentences the phrases are equivalent to _of the rocky isle +[of] Scio_, and _in the bay [of] Baiae_, the possessive being really +equivalent here to an appositional objective. It is a poetic +expression, the equivalent phrase being used in prose. + +(2) _Objective possessive_, as shown in the sentences,-- + + Ann Turner had taught her the secret before this last good lady + had been hanged for _Sir Thomas Overbury's_ murder.--HAWTHORNE. + + He passes to-day in building an air castle for to-morrow, or in + writing _yesterday's_ elegy.--THACKERAY + +In these the possessives are equivalent to an objective after a verbal +expression: as, _for murdering Sir Thomas Overbury_; _an elegy to +commemorate yesterday_. For this reason the use of the possessive here +is called objective. + +(3) _Subjective possessive_, the most common of all; as,-- + + The unwearied sun, from day to day, + Does his Creator's power display. + --ADDISON. + +If this were expanded into _the power which his Creator possesses_, +the word _Creator_ would be the subject of the verb: hence it is +called a subjective possessive. + + +61. This last-named possessive expresses a variety of relations. +_Possession_ in some sense is the most common. The kind of relation +may usually be found by expanding the possessive into an equivalent +phrase: for example, "_Winter's_ rude tempests are gathering now" +(i.e., tempests that winter is likely to have); "His beard was of +_several days'_ growth" (i.e., growth which several days had +developed); "The _forest's_ leaping panther shall yield his spotted +hide" (i.e., the panther which the forest hides); "Whoso sheddeth +_man's_ blood" (blood that man possesses). + + +[Sidenote: _How the possessive is formed._] + +62. As said before (Sec. 56), there are only two case forms. One is +the simple form of a word, expressing the relations of nominative and +objective; the other is formed by adding _'s_ to the simple form, +making the possessive singular. To form the possessive plural, only +the apostrophe is added if the plural nominative ends in _-s_; the +_'s_ is added if the plural nominative does not end in _-s_. + + +Case Inflection. + + +[Sidenote: _Declension or inflection of nouns._] + +63. The full declension of nouns is as follows:-- + + SINGULAR. PLURAL. + +1. _Nom. and Obj._ lady ladies + _Poss._ lady's ladies' + +2. _Nom. and Obj._ child children + _Poss._ child's children's + +[Sidenote: _A suggestion._] + +NOTE.--The difficulty that some students have in writing the +possessive plural would be lessened if they would remember there are +two steps to be taken:-- + +(1) Form the nominative plural according to Secs 39-53 + +(2) Follow the rule given in Sec. 62. + + +Special Remarks on the Possessive Case. + + +[Sidenote: _Origin of the possessive with its apostrophe._] + +64. In Old English a large number of words had in the genitive case +singular the ending _-es_; in Middle English still more words took +this ending: for example, in Chaucer, "From every _schires_ ende," +"Full worthi was he in his _lordes_ werre [war]," "at his _beddes_ +syde," "_mannes_ herte [heart]," etc. + +[Sidenote: _A false theory._] + +By the end of the seventeenth century the present way of indicating +the possessive had become general. The use of the apostrophe, however, +was not then regarded as standing for the omitted vowel of the +genitive (as _lord's_ for _lordes_): by a false theory the ending was +thought to be a contraction of _his_, as schoolboys sometimes write, +"George Jones _his_ book." + +[Sidenote: _Use of the apostrophe._] + +Though this opinion was untrue, the apostrophe has proved a great +convenience, since otherwise words with a plural in _-s_ would have +three forms alike. To the eye all the forms are now distinct, but to +the ear all may be alike, and the connection must tell us what form is +intended. + +The use of the apostrophe in the plural also began in the seventeenth +century, from thinking that _s_ was not a possessive sign, and from a +desire to have distinct forms. + + +[Sidenote: _Sometimes_ s _is left out in the possessive singular._] + +65. Occasionally the _s_ is dropped in the possessive singular if +the word ends in a hissing sound and another hissing sound follows, +but the apostrophe remains to mark the possessive; as, _for goodness' +sake, Cervantes' satirical work_. + +In other cases the _s_ is seldom omitted. Notice these three examples +from Thackeray's writings: "Harry ran upstairs to his _mistress's_ +apartment;" "A postscript is added, as by the _countess's_ command;" +"I saw what the _governess's_ views were of the matter." + + +[Sidenote: _Possessive with compound expressions._] + +66. In compound expressions, containing words in apposition, a word +with a phrase, etc., the possessive sign is usually last, though +instances are found with both appositional words marked. + +Compare the following examples of literary usage:-- + + Do not the Miss Prys, my neighbors, know the amount of my income, + the items of my _son's_, _Captain Scrapegrace's_, tailor's + bill--THACKERAY. + + The world's pomp and power sits there on this hand: on that, + stands up for God's truth one man, the _poor miner Hans Luther's_ + son.--CARLYLE. + + They invited me in the _emperor their master's_ name.--SWIFT. + + I had naturally possessed myself of _Richardson the painter's_ + thick octavo volumes of notes on the "Paradise Lost."--DE + QUINCEY. + + They will go to Sunday schools to teach classes of little + children the age of Methuselah or the dimensions of _Og the king + of Bashan's_ bedstead.--HOLMES. + +More common still is the practice of turning the possessive into an +equivalent phrase; as, _in the name of the emperor their master_, +instead of _the emperor their master's name_. + + +[Sidenote: _Possessive and no noun limited._] + +67. The possessive is sometimes used without belonging to any noun +in the sentence; some such word as _house_, _store_, _church_, +_dwelling_, etc., being understood with it: for example,-- + + Here at the _fruiterer's_ the Madonna has a tabernacle of fresh + laurel leaves.--RUSKIN. + + It is very common for people to say that they are disappointed in + the first sight of _St. Peter's_.--LOWELL. + + I remember him in his cradle at _St. James's_.--THACKERAY. + + Kate saw that; and she walked off from the _don's_.--DE QUINCEY. + + +[Sidenote: _The double possessive._] + +68. A peculiar form, a double possessive, has grown up and become a +fixed idiom in modern English. + +In most cases, a possessive relation was expressed in Old English by +the inflection _-es_, corresponding to _'s_. The same relation was +expressed in French by a phrase corresponding to _of_ and its object. +Both of these are now used side by side; sometimes they are used +together, as one modifier, making a double possessive. For this there +are several reasons:-- + +[Sidenote: _Its advantages: Euphony_.] + +(1) When a word is modified by _a_, _the_, _this_, _that_, _every_, +_no_, _any_, _each_, etc., and at the same time by a possessive noun, +it is distasteful to place the possessive before the modified noun, +and it would also alter the meaning: we place it after the modified +noun with _of_. + +[Sidenote: _Emphasis._] + +(2) It is more emphatic than the simple possessive, especially when +used with _this_ or _that_, for it brings out the modified word in +strong relief. + +[Sidenote: _Clearness._] + +(3) It prevents ambiguity. For example, in such a sentence as, "This +introduction _of Atterbury's_ has all these advantages" (Dr. Blair), +the statement clearly means only one thing,--the introduction which +Atterbury made. If, however, we use the phrase _of Atterbury_, the +sentence _might_ be understood as just explained, or it might mean +this act of introducing Atterbury. (See also Sec. 87.) + +The following are some instances of double possessives:-- + + This Hall _of Tinville's_ is dark, ill-lighted except where she + stands.--CARLYLE. + + Those lectures _of Lowell's_ had a great influence with me, and + I used to like whatever they bade me like.--HOWELLS + + Niebuhr remarks that no pointed sentences _of Caesar's_ can have + come down to us.--FROUDE. + + Besides these famous books _of Scott's and Johnson's_, there is a + copious "Life" by Thomas Sheridan.--THACKERAY + + Always afterwards on occasions of ceremony, he wore that quaint + old French sword _of the Commodore's_.--E.E. HALE. + + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Pick out the possessive nouns, and tell whether each is +appositional, objective, or subjective. + +(_b_) Rewrite the sentence, turning the possessives into equivalent +phrases. + +1. I don't choose a hornet's nest about my ears. + +2. Shall Rome stand under one man's awe? + +3. I must not see thee Osman's bride. + +4. At lovers' perjuries, + They say, Jove laughs. + +5. The world has all its eyes on Cato's son. + +6. My quarrel and the English queen's are one. + +7. Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, + Comes dancing from the East. + +8. A man's nature runs either to herbs or weeds; therefore, let him +seasonably water the one, and destroy the other. + +9. 'Tis all men's office to speak patience + To those that wring under the load of sorrow. + +10. A jest's prosperity lies in the ear + Of him that hears it, never in the tongue + Of him that makes it. + +11. No more the juice of Egypt's grape shall moist his lip. + +12. There Shakespeare's self, with every garland crowned, + Flew to those fairy climes his fancy sheen. + +13. What supports me? dost thou ask? + The conscience, Friend, to have lost them [his eyes] overplied + In liberty's defence. + +14. Or where Campania's plain forsaken lies, + A weary waste expanding to the skies. + +15. Nature herself, it seemed, would raise + A minster to her Maker's praise! + + +HOW TO PARSE NOUNS. + + +69. Parsing a word is putting together all the facts about its +form and its relations to other words in the sentence. + +In parsing, some idioms--the double possessive, for example--do not +come under regular grammatical rules, and are to be spoken of merely +as idioms. + +70. Hence, in parsing a noun, we state,-- + +(1) The class to which it belongs,--common, proper, etc. + +(2) Whether a neuter or a gender noun; if the latter, which gender. + +(3) Whether singular or plural number. + +(4) Its office in the sentence, determining its case. + +[Sidenote: _The correct method._] + +71. In parsing any word, the following method should always be +followed: tell the facts about what the word _does_, then make the +grammatical statements as to its class, inflections, and relations. + + +MODEL FOR PARSING. + +"What is bolder than a miller's neckcloth, which takes a thief by the +throat every morning?" + +_Miller's_ is a name applied to every individual of its class, hence +it is a common noun; it is the name of a male being, hence it is a +gender noun, masculine; it denotes only one person, therefore +singular number; it expresses possession or ownership, and limits +_neckcloth_, therefore possessive case. + +_Neckcloth_, like _miller's_, is a common class noun; it has no sex, +therefore neuter; names one thing, therefore singular number; subject +of the verb _is_ understood, and therefore nominative case. + +_Thief_ is a common class noun; the connection shows a male is meant, +therefore masculine gender; singular number; object of the verb +_takes_, hence objective case. + +_Throat_ is neuter, of the same class and number as the word +_neckcloth_; it is the object of the preposition _by_, hence it is +objective case. + +NOTE.--The preposition sometimes takes the possessive case (see Sec. +68). + +_Morning_ is like _throat_ and _neckcloth_ as to class, gender, and +number; as to case, it expresses time, has no governing word, but is +the adverbial objective. + + +Exercise. + + +Follow the model above in parsing all the nouns in the following +sentences:-- + + +1. To raise a monument to departed worth is to perpetuate virtue. + +2. The greatest pleasure I know is to do a good action by stealth, and +to have it found out by accident. + +3. An old cloak makes a new jerkin; a withered serving man, a fresh +tapster. + +4. That in the captain's but a choleric word, + Which in the soldier is flat blasphemy. + +5. Now, blessings light on him that first invented ... sleep! + +6. Necker, financial minister to Louis XVI., and his daughter, Madame +de Stael, were natives of Geneva. + +7. He giveth his beloved sleep. + +8. Time makes the worst enemies friends. + +9. A few miles from this point, where the Rhone enters the lake, +stands the famous Castle of Chillon, connected with the shore by a +drawbridge,--palace, castle, and prison, all in one. + +10. Wretches! ye loved her for her wealth, + And hated her for her pride. + +11. Mrs. Jarley's back being towards him, the military gentleman shook +his forefinger. + + + + +PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _The need of pronouns._] + +72. When we wish to speak of a name several times in succession, it +is clumsy and tiresome to repeat the noun. For instance, instead of +saying, "_The pupil_ will succeed in _the pupil's_ efforts if _the +pupil_ is ambitious," we improve the sentence by shortening it thus, +"The pupil will succeed in _his_ efforts if _he_ is ambitious." + +Again, if we wish to know about the ownership of a house, we evidently +cannot state the owner's name, but by a question we say, "_Whose_ +house is that?" thus placing a word instead of the name till we learn +the name. + +This is not to be understood as implying that pronouns were _invented_ +because nouns were tiresome, since history shows that pronouns are as +old as nouns and verbs. The use of pronouns must have sprung up +naturally, from a necessity for short, definite, and representative +words. + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +A pronoun is a reference word, standing for a name, or for a person +or thing, or for a group of persons or things. + + +[Sidenote: _Classes of pronouns._] + +73. Pronouns may be grouped in five classes:-- + +(1) Personal pronouns, which distinguish person by their form (Sec. +76). + +(2) Interrogative pronouns, which are used to ask questions about +persons or things. + +(3) Relative pronouns, which relate or refer to a noun, pronoun, or +other word or expression, and at the same time connect two statements +They are also called conjunctive. + +(4) Adjective pronouns, words, primarily adjectives, which are +classed as adjectives when they modify nouns, but as pronouns when +they stand for nouns. + +(5) Indefinite pronouns, which cannot be used as adjectives, but +stand for an indefinite number of persons or things. + +Numerous examples of all these will be given under the separate +classes hereafter treated. + + +PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Person in grammar._] + +74. Since pronouns stand for persons as well as names, they must +represent the person talking, the person or thing spoken to, and the +person or thing talked about. + +This gives rise to a new term, "the distinction of _person_." + +[Sidenote: Person _of nouns_.] + +75. This distinction was not needed in discussing nouns, as nouns +have the _same form_, whether representing persons and things spoken +to or spoken of. It is evident that a noun could not represent the +person speaking, even if it had a special form. + +From analogy to pronouns, which have _forms_ for person, nouns are +sometimes spoken of as first or second person by their _use_; that is, +if they are in apposition with a pronoun of the first or second +person, they are said to have person by agreement. + +But usually nouns represent something spoken of. + + +[Sidenote: _Three persons of pronouns._] + +76. Pronouns naturally are of three persons:-- + +(1) First person, representing the person speaking. + +(2) Second person, representing a person or thing spoken to. + +(3) Third person, standing for a person or thing spoken of. + + + +FORMS OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + +77. Personal pronouns are inflected thus:-- + + FIRST PERSON. + _Singular._ +_Nom._ I +_Poss._ mine, my +_Obj._ me + + _Plural._ +_Nom._ we +_Poss._ our, ours +_Obj._ us + + + SECOND PERSON. + _Singular._ + _Old Form_ _Common Form._ +_Nom._ thou you +_Poss._ thine, thy your, yours +_Obj._ thee you + + _Plural._ +_Nom._ ye you +_Poss._ your, yours your, yours +_Obj._ you you + + THIRD PERSON. + _Singular._ + _Masc._ _Fem._ _Neut._. +_Nom._ he she it +_Poss._ his her, hers its +_Obj._ him her it + + _Plur. of all Three_. +_Nom._ they +_Poss._ their, theirs +_Obj._ them + + +Remarks on These Forms. + + +[Sidenote: _First and second persons without gender._] + +78. It will be noticed that the pronouns of the first and second +persons have no forms to distinguish gender. The speaker may be either +male or female, or, by personification, neuter; so also with the +person or thing spoken to. + +[Sidenote: _Third person_ singular _has gender_.] + +But the third person has, in the singular, a separate form for each +gender, and also for the neuter. + +[Sidenote: _Old forms_.] + +In Old English these three were formed from the same root; namely, +masculine _he_, feminine _heo_, neuter _hit_. + +The form _hit_ (for _it_) is still heard in vulgar English, and _hoo_ +(for _heo_) in some dialects of England. + +The plurals were _hi_, _heora_, _heom_, in Old English; the forms +_they_, _their_, _them_, perhaps being from the English demonstrative, +though influenced by the cognate Norse forms. + + +[Sidenote: _Second person always plural in ordinary English._] + +79. _Thou_, _thee_, etc., are old forms which are now out of use in +ordinary speech. The consequence is, that we have no singular pronoun +of the second person in ordinary speech or prose, but make the plural +_you_ do duty for the singular. We use it with a plural verb always, +even when referring to a single object. + +[Sidenote: _Two uses of the old singulars._] + + +80. There are, however, two modern uses of _thou, thy_, etc.:-- + +(1) _In elevated style_, especially in poetry; as,-- + + With _thy_ clear keen joyance + Languor cannot be; + Shadow of annoyance + Never came near _thee_; + _Thou_ lovest; but ne'er knew love's sad satiety.--SHELLEY. + +(2) _In addressing the Deity_, as in prayers, etc.; for example,-- + + Oh, _thou_ Shepherd of Israel, that didst comfort _thy_ people of + old, to _thy_ care we commit the helpless.--BEECHER. + + +[Sidenote: _The form_ its.] + +81. It is worth while to consider the possessive _its_. This is of +comparatively recent growth. The old form was _his_ (from the +nominative _hit_), and this continued in use till the sixteenth +century. The transition from the old _his_ to the modern _its_ is +shown in these sentences:-- + + 1 He anointed the altar and all _his_ vessels.--_Bible_ + +Here _his_ refers to _altar_, which is a neuter noun. The quotation +represents the usage of the early sixteenth century. + + 2 It's had _it_ head bit off by _it_ young--SHAKESPEARE + +Shakespeare uses _his_, _it_, and sometimes _its_, as possessive of +_it_. + +In Milton's poetry (seventeenth century) _its_ occurs only three +times. + + 3 See heaven _its_ sparkling portals wide display--POPE + + +[Sidenote: _A relic of the olden time._] + +82. We have an interesting relic in such sentences as this from +Thackeray: "One of the ways to know '_em_ is to watch the scared looks +of the ogres' wives and children." + +As shown above, the Old English objective was _hem_ (or _heom_), which +was often sounded with the _h_ silent, just as we now say, "I saw +'_im_ yesterday" when the word _him_ is not emphatic. In spoken +English, this form '_em_ has survived side by side with the literary +_them_. + + +[Sidenote: _Use of the pronouns in personification._] + +83. The pronouns _he_ and _she_ are often used in poetry, and +sometimes in ordinary speech, to personify objects (Sec. 34). + + + +CASES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + + +I The Nominative. + + +[Sidenote: _Nominative forms._] + +84. The nominative forms of personal pronouns have the same uses as +the nominative of nouns (see Sec. 58). The case of most of these +pronouns can be determined more easily than the case of nouns, for, +besides a nominative _use_, they have a nominative form. The words +_I_, _thou_, _he_, _she_, _we_, _ye_, _they_, are very rarely anything +but nominative in literary English, though _ye_ is occasionally used +as objective. + + +[Sidenote: _Additional nominatives in spoken English._] + +85. In spoken English, however, there are some others that are added +to the list of nominatives: they are, _me_, _him_, _her_, _us_, +_them_, when they occur in the _predicate position_. That is, in such +a sentence as, "I am sure it was _him_," the literary language would +require _he_ after _was_; but colloquial English regularly uses as +predicate nominatives the forms _me_, _him_, _her_, _us_, _them_, +though those named in Sec. 84 are always subjects. Yet careful +speakers avoid this, and follow the usage of literary English. + + +II. The Possessive. + + +[Sidenote: _Not a separate class._] + +86. The forms _my_, _thy_, _his_, _her_, _its_, _our_, _your_, +_their_, are sometimes grouped separately as POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS, but +it is better to speak of them as the possessive case of personal +pronouns, just as we speak of the possessive case of nouns, and not +make more classes. + +[Sidenote: Absolute _personal pronouns._] + +The forms _mine_, _thine_, _yours_, _hers_, _theirs_, sometimes _his_ +and _its_, have a peculiar use, standing apart from the words they +modify instead of immediately before them. From this use they are +called ABSOLUTE PERSONAL PRONOUNS, or, some say, ABSOLUTE POSSESSIVES. + +As instances of the use of absolute pronouns, note the following:-- + + 'Twas _mine_, 'tis _his_, and has been slave to thousands. + --SHAKESPEARE. + + And since thou own'st that praise, I spare thee _mine_.--COWPER. + + My arm better than _theirs_ can ward it off.--LANDOR. + + _Thine_ are the city and the people of Granada.--BULWER. + +[Sidenote: _Old use of_ mine _and_ thine.] + +Formerly _mine_ and _thine_ stood before their nouns, if the nouns +began with a vowel or _h_ silent; thus,-- + + Shall I not take _mine_ ease in _mine_ inn?--SHAKESPEARE. + + Give every man _thine_ ear, but few thy voice.--_Id._ + + If _thine_ eye offend thee, pluck it out.--_Bible._ + + My greatest apprehension was for _mine_ eyes.--SWIFT. + +This usage is still preserved in poetry. + + +[Sidenote: _Double and triple possessives._] + +87. The forms _hers_, _ours_, _yours_, _theirs_, are really double +possessives, since they add the possessive _s_ to what is already a +regular possessive inflection. + +Besides this, we have, as in nouns, a possessive phrase made up of the +preposition _of_ with these double possessives, _hers_, _ours_, +_yours_, _theirs_, and with _mine_, _thine_, _his_, sometimes _its_. + +[Sidenote: _Their uses._] + +Like the noun possessives, they have several uses:-- + +(1) _To prevent ambiguity_, as in the following:-- + + I have often contrasted the habitual qualities of that gloomy + friend _of theirs_ with the astounding spirits of Thackeray and + Dickens.--J.T. FIELDS. + + No words _of ours_ can describe the fury of the conflict.--J.F. + COOPER. + +(2) _To bring emphasis_, as in these sentences:-- + + This thing _of yours_ that you call a Pardon of Sins, it is a bit + of rag-paper with ink.--CARLYLE. + + This ancient silver bowl _of mine_, it tells of good old times. + --HOLMES. + +(3) _To express contempt, anger, or satire_; for example,-- + + "Do you know the charges that unhappy sister _of mine_ and her + family have put me to already?" says the Master.--THACKERAY. + + He [John Knox] had his pipe of Bordeaux too, we find, in that old + Edinburgh house _of his_.--CARLYLE. + + "Hold thy peace, Long Allen," said Henry Woodstall, "I tell thee + that tongue _of thine_ is not the shortest limb about + _thee_."--SCOTT. + +(4) _To make a noun less limited in application_; thus,-- + + A favorite liar and servant _of mine_ was a man I once had to + drive a brougham.--THACKERAY. + + In New York I read a newspaper criticism one day, commenting upon + a letter _of mine_.--_Id._ + +What would the last two sentences mean if the word _my_ were written +instead of _of mine_, and preceded the nouns? + + +[Sidenote: _About the case of absolute pronouns._] + +88. In their function, or use in a sentence, the absolute possessive +forms of the personal pronouns are very much like adjectives used as +nouns. + +In such sentences as, "_The good_ alone are great," "None but _the +brave_ deserves _the fair_," the words italicized have an adjective +force and also a noun force, as shown in Sec. 20. + +So in the sentences illustrating absolute pronouns in Sec. 86: _mine_ +stands for _my property_, _his_ for _his property_, in the first +sentence; _mine_ stands for _my praise_ in the second. But the first +two have a nominative use, and _mine_ in the second has an objective +use. + +They may be spoken of as possessive in form, but nominative or +objective in use, according as the modified word is in the nominative +or the objective. + + + +III. The Objective. + + +[Sidenote: _The old_ dative _case._] + +89. In Old English there was one case which survives in use, but not +in form. In such a sentence as this one from Thackeray, "Pick _me_ out +a whip-cord thong with some dainty knots in it," the word _me_ is +evidently not the direct object of the verb, but expresses _for whom_, +_for whose benefit_, the thing is done. In pronouns, this dative +use, as it is called, was marked by a separate case. + +[Sidenote: _Now the objective._] + +In Modern English the same _use_ is frequently seen, but the _form_ is +the same as the objective. For this reason a word thus used is called +a dative-objective. + +The following are examples of the dative-objective:-- + + Give _me_ neither poverty nor riches.--_Bible._ + + Curse _me_ this people.--_Id._ + + Both joined in making _him_ a present.--MACAULAY + + Is it not enough that you have _burnt me_ down three houses with + your dog's tricks, and be hanged to you!--LAMB + + I give _thee_ this to wear at the collar.--SCOTT + + +[Sidenote: _Other uses of the objective._] + +90. Besides this use of the objective, there are others:-- + +(1) _As the direct object of a verb._ + + They all handled _it_.--LAMB + +(2) _As the object of a preposition._ + + Time is behind _them_ and before _them_.--CARLYLE. + +(3) _In apposition._ + + She sate all last summer by the bedside of the blind beggar, + _him_ that so often and so gladly I talked with.--DE QUINCEY. + + + +SPECIAL USES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Indefinite use of_ you _and_ your.] + +91. The word _you_, and its possessive case _yours_ are sometimes +used without reference to a particular person spoken to. They approach +the indefinite pronoun in use. + + _Your_ mere puny stripling, that winced at the least flourish of + the rod, was passed by with indulgence.--IRVING + + To empty here, _you_ must condense there.--EMERSON. + + The peasants take off their hats as _you_ pass; _you_ sneeze, and + they cry, "God bless you!" The thrifty housewife shows _you_ into + her best chamber. _You_ have oaten cakes baked some months + before.--LONGFELLOW + + +[Sidenote: _Uses of_ it.] + +92. The pronoun _it_ has a number of uses:-- + +(1) _To refer to some single word preceding_; as,-- + + Ferdinand ordered the _army_ to recommence _its_ march.--BULWER. + + _Society_, in this century, has not made _its_ progress, like + Chinese skill, by a greater acuteness of ingenuity in + trifles.--D. WEBSTER. + +(2) _To refer to a preceding word group_; thus,-- + + If any man should do wrong merely out of ill nature, why, yet + _it_ is but like the thorn or brier, which prick and scratch + because they can do no other.--BACON. + +Here _it_ refers back to the whole sentence before it, or to the idea, +"any man's doing wrong merely out of ill nature." + +(3) _As a grammatical subject, to stand for the real, logical +subject, which follows the verb_; as in the sentences,-- + + _It_ is easy in the world _to live after the world's opinion_. + --EMERSON. + + _It_ is this _haziness_ of intellectual vision which is the + malady of all classes of men by nature.--NEWMAN. + + _It_ is a pity _that he has so much learning, or that he has not + a great deal more_.--ADDISON. + +(4) _As an impersonal subject in certain expressions which need no +other subject_; as,-- + + _It_ is finger-cold, and prudent farmers get in their barreled + apples.--THOREAU. + + And when I awoke, _it_ rained.--COLERIDGE. + + For when _it_ dawned, they dropped their arms.--_Id._ + + _It_ was late and after midnight.--DE QUINCEY. + +(5) _As an impersonal or indefinite object of a verb or a +preposition_; as in the following sentences:-- + + (_a_) Michael Paw, who _lorded it_ over the fair regions of + ancient Pavonia.--IRVING. + + I made up my mind _to foot it_.--HAWTHORNE. + + A sturdy lad ... who in turn tries all the professions, who + _teams it, farms it, peddles it_, keeps a school.--EMERSON. + + (_b_) "Thy mistress leads thee a dog's life _of it_."--IRVING. + + There was nothing _for it_ but to return.--SCOTT. + + An editor has only to say "respectfully declined," and there is + an end _of it_.--HOLMES. + + Poor Christian was hard put _to it_.--BUNYAN. + + +[Sidenote: _Reflexive use of the personal pronouns._] + +93. The personal pronouns in the objective case are often used +_reflexively_; that is, referring to the same person as the subject of +the accompanying verb. For example, we use such expressions as, "I +found _me_ a good book," "He bought _him_ a horse," etc. This +reflexive use of the _dative_-objective is very common in spoken and +in literary English. + +The personal pronouns are not often used reflexively, however, when +they are _direct_ objects. This occurs in poetry, but seldom in prose; +as,-- + + Now I lay _me_ down to sleep.--ANON. + + I set _me_ down and sigh.--BURNS. + + And millions in those solitudes, since first + The flight of years began, have laid _them_ down + In their last sleep.--BRYANT. + + + +REFLEXIVE OR COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Composed of the personal pronouns with_ -self, -selves.] + +94. The REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS, or COMPOUND PERSONAL, as they are also +called, are formed from the personal pronouns by adding the word +_self_, and its plural _selves_. + +They are _myself_, (_ourself_), _ourselves_, _yourself_, (_thyself_), +_yourselves_, _himself_, _herself_, _itself_, _themselves_. + +Of the two forms in parentheses, the second is the old form of the +second person, used in poetry. + +_Ourself_ is used to follow the word _we_ when this represents a +single person, especially in the speech of rulers; as,-- + + Methinks he seems no better than a girl; + As girls were once, as we _ourself_ have been.--TENNYSON. + + +[Sidenote: _Origin of these reflexives._] + +95. The question might arise, Why are _himself_ and _themselves_ not +_hisself_ and _theirselves_, as in vulgar English, after the analogy +of _myself_, _ourselves_, etc.? + +The history of these words shows they are made up of the +dative-objective forms, not the possessive forms, with _self_. In +Middle English the forms _meself_, _theself_, were changed into the +possessive _myself_, _thyself_, and the others were formed by analogy +with these. _Himself_ and _themselves_ are the only ones retaining a +distinct objective form. + +In the forms _yourself_ and _yourselves_ we have the possessive _your_ +marked as singular as well as plural. + + +[Sidenote: _Use of the reflexives._] + +96. There are three uses of reflexive pronouns:-- + +(1) _As object of a verb or preposition, and referring to the same +person or thing as the subject_; as in these sentences from Emerson:-- + + He who offers _himself_ a candidate for that covenant comes up + like an Olympian. + + I should hate _myself_ if then I made my other friends my asylum. + + We fill _ourselves_ with ancient learning. + + What do we know of nature or of _ourselves_? + +(2) _To emphasize a noun or pronoun_; for example,-- + + The great globe _itself_ ... shall dissolve.--SHAKESPEARE. + + Threats to all; + To _you yourself_, to us, to every one.--_Id._ + + Who would not sing for Lycidas! he knew + _Himself_ to sing, and build the lofty rhyme.--MILTON. + +NOTE.--In such sentences the pronoun is sometimes omitted, and the +reflexive modifies the pronoun understood; for example,-- + + Only _itself_ can inspire whom it will.--EMERSON. + + My hands are full of blossoms plucked before, Held dead within + them till _myself_ shall die.--E.B. BROWNING. + + As if it were _thyself_ that's here, I shrink with + pain.--WORDSWORTH. + +(3) _As the precise equivalent of a personal pronoun_; as,-- + + Lord Altamont designed to take his son and _myself_.--DE QUINCEY. + + Victories that neither _myself_ nor my cause always deserved.--B. + FRANKLIN. + + For what else have our forefathers and _ourselves_ been + taxed?--LANDOR. + + Years ago, Arcturus and _myself_ met a gentleman from China who + knew the language.--THACKERAY. + + + +Exercises on Personal Pronouns. + + +(_a_) Bring up sentences containing ten personal pronouns, some each +of masculine, feminine, and neuter. + +(_b_) Bring up sentences containing five personal pronouns in the +possessive, some of them being double possessives. + +(_c_) Tell which use each _it_ has in the following sentences:-- + +1. Come and trip it as we go, + On the light fantastic toe. + +2. Infancy conforms to nobody; all conform to it. + +3. It is an ill wind that blows nobody good. + +4. Courage, father, fight it out. + +5. And it grew wondrous cold. + +6. To know what is best to do, and how to do it, is wisdom. + +7. If any phenomenon remains brute and dark, it is because the +corresponding faculty in the observer is not yet active. + +8. But if a man do not speak from within the veil, where the word is +one with that it tells of, let him lowly confess it. + +9. It behooved him to keep on good terms with his pupils. + +10. Biscuit is about the best thing I know; but it is the soonest +spoiled; and one would like to hear counsel on one point, why it is +that a touch of water utterly ruins it. + + + +INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Three now in use._] + +97. The interrogative pronouns now in use are _who_ (with the forms +_whose_ and _whom_), _which_, and _what_. + +[Sidenote: _One obsolete._] + +There is an old word, _whether_, used formerly to mean which of two, +but now obsolete. Examples from the Bible:-- + + _Whether_ of them twain did the will of his father? + + _Whether_ is greater, the gold, or the temple? + +From Steele (eighteenth century):-- + + It may be a question _whether_ of these unfortunate persons had + the greater soul. + + +[Sidenote: _Use of_ who _and its forms._] + +98. The use of _who_, with its possessive and objective, is seen in +these sentences:-- + + _Who_ is she in bloody coronation robes from Rheims?--DE QUINCEY. + + _Whose_ was that gentle voice, that, whispering sweet, + Promised, methought, long days of bliss sincere?--BOWLES. + + What doth she look on? _Whom_ doth she behold?--WORDSWORTH. + +From these sentences it will be seen that interrogative _who_ refers +to _persons only_; that it is not inflected for gender or number, but +for case alone, having three forms; it is always third person, as it +always asks _about_ somebody. + + +[Sidenote: _Use of_ which.] + +99. Examples of the use of interrogative _which_:-- + + _Which_ of these had speed enough to sweep between the question + and the answer, and divide the one from the other?--DE QUINCEY. + + _Which_ of you, shall we say, doth love us most?--SHAKESPEARE. + + _Which_ of them [the sisters] shall I take?--_Id._ + +As shown here, _which_ is not inflected for gender, number, or case; +it refers to either persons or things; it is selective, that is, picks +out one or more from a number of known persons or objects. + + +[Sidenote: _Use of_ what.] + +100. Sentences showing the use of interrogative _what_:-- + + Since I from Smaylho'me tower have been, + _What_ did thy lady do?--SCOTT. + + _What_ is so rare as a day in June?--LOWELL. + + _What_ wouldst thou do, old man?--SHAKESPEARE. + +These show that _what_ is not inflected for case; that it is always +singular and neuter, referring to things, ideas, actions, etc., not to +persons. + + + +DECLENSION OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. + + +101. The following are all the interrogative forms:-- + + SING. AND PLUR. SING. AND PLUR. SINGULAR + +_Nom._ who? which? what? +_Poss._ whose? -- -- +_Obj._ whom? which? what? + +In spoken English, _who_ is used as objective instead of _whom_; as, +"_Who_ did you see?" "_Who_ did he speak to?" + + +[Sidenote: _To tell the case of interrogatives._] + +102. The interrogative _who_ has a separate form for each case, +consequently the case can be told by the form of the word; but the +case of _which_ and _what_ must be determined exactly as in nouns,--by +the _use_ of the words. + +For instance, in Sec. 99, _which_ is nominative in the first sentence, +since it is subject of the verb _had_; nominative in the second also, +subject of _doth love_; objective in the last, being the direct +object of the verb _shall take_. + + +[Sidenote: _Further treatment of_ who, which _and_ what.] + +103. _Who_, _which_, and _what_ are also relative pronouns; _which_ +and _what_ are sometimes adjectives; _what_ may be an adverb in some +expressions. + +They will be spoken of again in the proper places, especially in the +treatment of indirect questions (Sec. 127). + + + +RELATIVE PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Function of the relative pronoun_.] + +104. Relative pronouns differ from both personal and interrogative +pronouns in referring to an antecedent, and also in having a +conjunctive use. The advantage in using them is to unite short +statements into longer sentences, and so to make smoother discourse. +Thus we may say, "The last of all the Bards was he. These bards sang +of Border chivalry." Or, it may be shortened into,-- + + "The last of all the Bards was he, + _Who_ sung of Border chivalry." + +In the latter sentence, _who_ evidently refers to _Bards_, which is +called the antecedent of the relative. + + +[Sidenote: _The antecedent._] + +105. The antecedent of a pronoun is the noun, pronoun, or other +word or expression, for which the pronoun stands. It usually precedes +the pronoun. + +Personal pronouns of the third person may have antecedents also, as +they take the place usually of a word already used; as,-- + + The priest hath _his_ fee who comes and shrives us.--LOWELL + +In this, both _his_ and _who_ have the antecedent _priest_. + +The pronoun _which_ may have its antecedent following, and the +antecedent may be a word or a group of words, as will be shown in the +remarks on _which_ below. + + +[Sidenote: _Two kinds._] + +106. Relatives may be SIMPLE or INDEFINITE. + +When the word _relative_ is used, a simple relative is meant. +Indefinite relatives, and the indefinite use of simple relatives, will +be discussed further on. + +The SIMPLE RELATIVES are _who_, _which_, _that_, _what_. + + +[Sidenote: Who _and its forms._] + +107. Examples of the relative _who_ and its forms:-- + + 1. Has a man gained anything _who_ has received a hundred favors + and rendered none?--EMERSON. + + 2. That man is little to be envied _whose_ patriotism would not + gain force upon the plain of Marathon.--DR JOHNSON. + +3. For her enchanting son, + _Whom_ universal nature did lament.--MILTON. + + 4. The nurse came to us, _who_ were sitting in an adjoining + apartment.--THACKERAY. + +5. Ye mariners of England, + That guard our native seas; + _Whose_ flag has braved, a thousand years, + The battle and the breeze!--CAMPBELL. + + 6. The men _whom_ men respect, the women _whom_ women approve, + are the men and women _who_ bless their species.--PARTON + + +[Sidenote: Which _and its forms._] + +108. Examples of the relative _which_ and its forms:-- + + 1. They had not their own luster, but the look _which_ is not of + the earth.--BYRON. + + 2. The embattled portal arch he pass'd, + _Whose_ ponderous grate and massy bar + Had oft roll'd back the tide of war.--SCOTT. + + 3. Generally speaking, the dogs _which_ stray around the butcher + shops restrain their appetites.--COX. + + 4. The origin of language is divine, in the same sense in _which_ + man's nature, with all its capabilities ..., is a divine + creation.--W.D. WHITNEY. + + 5. (_a_) This gradation ... ought to be kept in view; else this + description will seem exaggerated, _which_ it certainly is + not.--BURKE. + + (_b_) The snow was three inches deep and still falling, _which_ + prevented him from taking his usual ride.--IRVING. + +[Sidenote: That.] + +109. Examples of the relative _that_:-- + + + 1. The man _that_ hath no music in himself,... + Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. + --SHAKESPEARE + + 2. The judge ... bought up all the pigs _that_ could be + had.--LAMB + + 3. Nature and books belong to the eyes _that_ see them.--EMERSON. + + 4. For the sake of country a man is told to yield everything + _that_ makes the land honorable.--H.W. BEECHER + + 5. Reader, _that_ do not pretend to have leisure for very much + scholarship, you will not be angry with me for telling you.--DE + QUINCEY. + + 6. The Tree Igdrasil, _that_ has its roots down in the kingdoms + of Hela and Death, and whose boughs overspread the highest + heaven!--CARLYLE. + +[Sidenote: What.] + +110. Examples of the use of the relative _what_:-- + + 1. Its net to entangle the enemy seems to be _what_ it chiefly + trusts to, and _what_ it takes most pains to render as complete + as possible.--GOLDSMITH. + + 2. For _what_ he sought below is passed above, Already done is + all that he would do.--MARGARET FULLER. + + 3. Some of our readers may have seen in India a crowd of crows + picking a sick vulture to death, no bad type of _what_ often + happens in that country.--MACAULAY + +[_To the Teacher._--If pupils work over the above sentences carefully, +and test every remark in the following paragraphs, they will get a +much better understanding of the relatives.] + + + +REMARKS ON THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. + +[Sidenote: Who.] + +111. By reading carefully the sentences in Sec. 107, the following +facts will be noticed about the relative _who_:-- + +(1) It usually refers to persons: thus, in the first sentence, Sec. +107, _a man...who_; in the second, _that man...whose_; in the third, +_son_, _whom_; and so on. + +(2) It has three case forms,--_who_, _whose_, _whom_. + +(3) The forms do not change for person or number of the antecedent. In +sentence 4, _who_ is first person; in 5, _whose_ is second person; the +others are all third person. In 1, 2, and 3, the relatives are +singular; in 4, 5, and 6, they are plural. + +[Sidenote: Who _referring to animals_.] + +112. Though in most cases _who_ refers to persons there are +instances found where it refers to animals. It has been seen (Sec. 24) +that animals are referred to by personal pronouns when their +characteristics or habits are such as to render them important or +interesting to man. Probably on the same principle the personal +relative _who_ is used not infrequently in literature, referring to +animals. + +Witness the following examples:-- + + And you, warm little housekeeper [the cricket], _who_ class With + those who think the candles come too soon.--LEIGH HUNT. + + The robins...have succeeded in driving off the bluejays _who_ + used to build in our pines.--LOWELL. + + The little gorilla, _whose_ wound I had dressed, flung its arms + around my neck.--THACKERAY. + + A lake frequented by every fowl _whom_ Nature has taught to dip + the wing in water.--DR. JOHNSON. + + While we had such plenty of domestic insects _who_ infinitely + excelled the former, because they understood how to weave as well + as to spin.--SWIFT. + + My horse, _who_, under his former rider had hunted the buffalo, + seemed as much excited as myself.--IRVING. + +Other examples might be quoted from Burke, Kingsley, Smollett, Scott, +Cooper, Gibbon, and others. + +[Sidenote: Which.] + +113. The sentences in Sec. 108 show that-- + +(1) _Which_ refers to animals, things, or ideas, not persons. + +(2) It is not inflected for gender or number. + +(3) It is nearly always third person, rarely second (an example of its +use as second person is given in sentence 32, p. 96). + +(4) It has two case forms,--_which_ for the nominative and objective, +_whose_ for the possessive. + +[Sidenote: _Examples of_ whose, _possessive case of_ which.] + +114. Grammarians sometimes object to the statement that _whose_ is +the possessive of _which_, saying that the phrase _of which_ should +always be used instead; yet a search in literature shows that the +possessive form _whose_ is quite common in prose as well as in poetry: +for example,-- + + I swept the horizon, and saw at one glance the glorious + elevations, on _whose_ tops the sun kindled all the melodies and + harmonies of light.--BEECHER. + + Men may be ready to fight to the death, and to persecute without + pity, for a religion _whose_ creed they do not understand, and + _whose_ precepts they habitually disobey.--MACAULAY + + Beneath these sluggish waves lay the once proud cities of the + plain, _whose_ grave was dug by the thunder of the + heavens.--SCOTT. + + Many great and opulent cities _whose_ population now exceeds that + of Virginia during the Revolution, and _whose_ names are spoken + in the remotest corner of the civilized world.--MCMASTER. + + Through the heavy door _whose_ bronze network closes the place of + his rest, let us enter the church itself.--RUSKIN. + + This moribund '61, _whose_ career of life is just coming to its + terminus.--THACKERAY. + +So in Matthew Arnold, Kingsley, Burke, and numerous others. + +[Sidenote: Which _and its antecedents_.] + +115. The last two sentences in Sec. 108 show that _which_ may have +other antecedents than nouns and pronouns. In 5 (_a_) there is a +participial adjective used as the antecedent; in 5 (_b_) there is a +complete clause employed as antecedent. This often occurs. + +Sometimes, too, the antecedent follows _which_; thus,-- + + And, which is worse, _all you have done + Hath been but for a wayward son_. + --SHAKESPEARE. + + Primarily, which is very notable and curious, I observe that _men + of business rarely know the meaning of the word "rich_."--RUSKIN. + + I demurred to this honorary title upon two grounds,--first, as + being one toward which I had no natural aptitudes or predisposing + advantages; secondly (which made her stare), _as carrying with it + no real or enviable distinction_.--DE QUINCEY. + +[Sidenote: That.] + +116. In the sentences of Sec. 109, we notice that-- + +(1) _That_ refers to persons, animals, and things. + +(2) It has only one case form, no possessive. + +(3) It is the same form for first, second, and third persons. + +(4) It has the same form for singular and plural. + +It sometimes borrows the possessive _whose_, as in sentence 6, Sec. +109, but this is not sanctioned as good usage. + +[Sidenote: What.] + +117. The sentences of Sec. 110 show that-- + +(1) _What_ always refers to things; is always neuter. + +(2) It is used almost entirely in the singular. + 1. The man _that_ hath no music in himself,... + Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. + --SHAKESPEARE +(3) Its antecedent is hardly ever expressed. When expressed, it +usually follows, and is emphatic; as, for example,-- + + What I would, _that_ do I not; but what I hate, _that_ do + I.--_Bible_ + + What fates impose, _that_ men must needs abide.--SHAKESPEARE. + + What a man does, _that_ he has.--EMERSON. + +Compare this:-- + + Alas! is _it_ not too true, what we said?--CARLYLE. + + + +DECLENSION OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. + + +118. These are the forms of the simple relatives:-- + + SINGULAR AND PLURAL. + + _Nom._ who which that what + _Poss._ whose whose -- -- + _Obj._ whom which that what + + +HOW TO PARSE RELATIVES. + +119. The _gender_, _number_, and _person_ of the relatives _who_, +_which_, and _that_ must be determined by those of the antecedent; the +_case_ depends upon the function of the relative in its own clause. + +For example, consider the following sentence: + + "He uttered truths _that_ wrought upon and molded the lives of + those _who_ heard him." + +Since the relatives hold the sentence together, we can, by taking them +out, let the sentence fall apart into three divisions: (1) "He uttered +truths;" (2) "The truths wrought upon and molded the lives of the +people;" (3) "These people heard him." + +_That_ evidently refers to _truths_, consequently is neuter, third +person, plural number. _Who_ plainly stands for _those_ or _the +people_, either of which would be neuter, third person, plural number. +Here the relative agrees with its antecedent. + +We cannot say the relative agrees with its antecedent in _case_. +_Truths_ in sentence (2), above, is subject of _wrought upon and +molded_; in (1), it is object of _uttered_. In (2), _people_ is the +object of the preposition _of_; in (3), it is subject of the verb +_heard_. Now, _that_ takes the case of _the truths_ in (2), not of +_truths_ which is expressed in the sentence: consequently _that_ is in +the nominative case. In the same way _who_, standing for _the people_ +understood, subject of _heard_, is in the nominative case. + +Exercise. + +First find the antecedents, then parse the relatives, in the following +sentences:-- + +1. How superior it is in these respects to the pear, whose blossoms +are neither colored nor fragrant! + +2. Some gnarly apple which I pick up in the road reminds me by its +fragrance of all the wealth of Pomona. + +3. Perhaps I talk with one who is selecting some choice barrels for +filling an order. + +4. Ill blows the wind that profits nobody. + +5. Alas! it is we ourselves that are getting buried alive under this +avalanche of earthly impertinences. + +6. This method also forces upon us the necessity of thinking, which +is, after all, the highest result of all education. + +7. I know that there are many excellent people who object to the +reading of novels as a waste of time. + +8. I think they are trying to outwit nature, who is sure to be +cunninger than they. + + +[Sidenote: _Parsing_ what, _the simple relative_.] + +120. The relative _what_ is handled differently, because it has +usually no antecedent, but is singular, neuter, third person. Its case +is determined exactly as that of other relatives. In the sentence, +"What can't be cured must be endured," the verb _must be endured_ is +the predicate of something. What must be endured? Answer, _What can't +be cured_. The whole expression is its subject. The word _what_, +however, is subject of the verb _can't be cured_, and hence is in the +nominative case. + +"What we call nature is a certain self-regulated motion or change." +Here the subject of _is_, etc., is _what we call nature_; but of this, +_we_ is the subject, and _what_ is the direct object of the verb +_call_, so is in the objective case. + +[Sidenote: _Another way._] + +Some prefer another method of treatment. As shown by the following +sentences, _what_ is equivalent to _that which_:-- + + It has been said that "common souls pay with _what_ they do, + nobler souls with _that which_ they are."--EMERSON. + + _That which_ is pleasant often appears under the name of evil; + and _what_ is disagreeable to nature is called good and + virtuous.--BURKE. + +Hence some take _what_ as a double relative, and parse _that_ in the +first clause, and _which_ in the second clause; that is, "common +souls pay with _that_ [singular, object of _with_] _which_ [singular, +object of _do_] they do." + + + +INDEFINITE RELATIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _List and examples._] + +121. INDEFINITE RELATIVES are, by meaning and use, not as direct as +the simple relatives. + +They are _whoever_, _whichever_, _whatever_, _whatsoever_; less common +are _whoso_, _whosoever_, _whichsoever_, _whatsoever_. The simple +relatives _who_, _which_, and _what_ may also be used as indefinite +relatives. Examples of indefinite relatives (from Emerson):-- + + 1. _Whoever_ has flattered his friend successfully must at once + think himself a knave, and his friend a fool. + + 2. It is no proof of a man's understanding, to be able to affirm + _whatever_ he pleases. + + 3. They sit in a chair or sprawl with children on the floor, or + stand on their head, or _what_ else _soever_, in a new and + original way. + + 4. _Whoso_ is heroic will always find crises to try his edge. + + 5. Only itself can inspire _whom_ it will. + + 6. God offers to every mind its choice between truth and repose. + Take _which_ you please,--you cannot have both. + + 7. Do _what_ we can, summer will have its flies. + +[Sidenote: _Meaning and use._] + +122. The fitness of the term _indefinite_ here cannot be shown +better than by examining the following sentences:-- + + 1. There is something so overruling in _whatever_ inspires us + with awe, in _all things which_ belong ever so remotely to + terror, that nothing else can stand in their presence.--BURKE. + + 2. Death is there associated, not with _everything that_ is most + endearing in social and domestic charities, but with _whatever_ + is darkest in human nature and in human destiny.--MACAULAY. + +It is clear that in 1, _whatever_ is equivalent to _all things +which_, and in 2, to _everything that_; no certain antecedent, no +particular thing, being referred to. So with the other indefinites. + +[Sidenote: What _simple relative and_ what _indefinite relative_.] + +123. The above helps us to discriminate between _what_ as a simple +and _what_ as an indefinite relative. + +As shown in Sec. 120, the simple relative _what_ is equivalent to +_that which_ or the _thing which_,--some particular thing; as shown by +the last sentence in Sec. 121, _what_ means _anything that_, +_everything that_ (or _everything which_). The difference must be seen +by the meaning of the sentence, as _what_ hardly ever has an +antecedent. + +The examples in sentences 5 and 6, Sec. 121, show that _who_ and +_which_ have no antecedent expressed, but mean _any one whom_, _either +one that_, etc. + + + +OTHER WORDS USED AS RELATIVES. + + +[Sidenote: But _and_ as.] + +124. Two words, but and as, are used with the force of relative +pronouns in some expressions; for example,-- + + 1. There is not a leaf rotting on the highway _but_ has force in + it: how else could it rot?--CARLYLE. + + 2. This, amongst such other troubles _as_ most men meet with in + this life, has been my heaviest affliction.--DE QUINCEY. + +[Sidenote: _Proof that they have the force of relatives._] + +Compare with these the two following sentences:-- + + 3. There is nothing _but_ is related to us, nothing _that_ does + _not_ interest us.--EMERSON. + + 4. There were articles of comfort and luxury such _as_ Hester + never ceased to use, but _which_ only wealth could have + purchased.--HAWTHORNE. + +Sentence 3 shows that _but_ is equivalent to the relative _that_ with +_not_, and that _as_ after _such_ is equivalent to _which_. + +For _as_ after _same_ see "Syntax" (Sec. 417). + +[Sidenote: _Former use of_ as.] + +125. In early modern English, _as_ was used just as we use _that_ or +_which_, not following the word _such_; thus,-- + + I have not from your eyes that gentleness + And show of love _as_ I was wont to have.--SHAKESPEARE + +This still survives in vulgar English in England; for example,-- + + "Don't you mind Lucy Passmore, _as_ charmed your warts for you + when you was a boy? "--KINGSLEY + +This is frequently illustrated in Dickens's works. + + +[Sidenote: _Other substitutes._] + +126. Instead of the phrases _in which_, _upon which_, _by which_, +etc., the conjunctions _wherein_, _whereupon_, _whereby_, etc., are +used. + + A man is the facade of a temple _wherein_ all wisdom and good + abide.--EMERSON. + + The sovereignty of this nature _whereof_ we speak.--_Id._ + + The dear home faces _whereupon_ + That fitful firelight paled and shone.--WHITTIER. + + + +PRONOUNS IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS. + + +[Sidenote: _Special caution needed here._] + +127. It is sometimes hard for the student to tell a relative from an +interrogative pronoun. In the regular direct question the +interrogative is easily recognized; so is the relative when an +antecedent is close by. But compare the following in pairs:-- + +1. (_a_) Like a gentleman of leisure _who_ is strolling out for + pleasure. + + (_b_) Well we knew _who_ stood behind, though the earthwork hid + them. + +2. (_a_) But _what_ you gain in time is perhaps lost in power. + + (_b_) But _what_ had become of them they knew not. + +3. (_a_) These are the lines _which_ heaven-commanded Toil shows on + his deed. + + (_b_) And since that time I thought it not amiss To judge _which_ + were the best of all these three. + +In sentences 1 (_a_), 2 (_a_) and 3 (_a_) the regular relative use is +seen; _who_ having the antecedent _gentleman_, _what_ having the +double use of pronoun and antecedent, _which_ having the antecedent +_lines_. + +But in 1 (_b_), 2 (_b_), and 3 (_b_), there are two points of +difference from the others considered: first, no antecedent is +expressed, which would indicate that they are not relatives; second, a +question is disguised in each sentence, although each sentence as a +whole is declarative in form. Thus, 1 (_b_), if expanded, would be, +"Who stood behind? We knew," etc., showing that _who_ is plainly +interrogative. So in 2 (_b_), _what_ is interrogative, the full +expression being, "But what had become of them? They knew not." +Likewise with _which_ in 3 (_b_). + +[Sidenote: _How to decide._] + +In studying such sentences, (1) see whether there is an antecedent of +_who_ or _which_, and whether _what_ = _that_ + _which_ (if so, it is +a simple relative; if not, it is either an indefinite relative or an +interrogative pronoun); (2) see if the pronoun introduces an indirect +question (if it does, it is an interrogative; if not, it is an +indefinite relative). + +[Sidenote: _Another caution._] + +128. On the other hand, care must be taken to see whether the +pronoun is the word that really _asks the question_ in an +interrogative sentence. Examine the following:-- + +1. Sweet rose! whence is this hue + _Which_ doth all hues excel? + --DRUMMOND + +2. And then what wonders shall you do + _Whose_ dawning beauty warms us so? + --WALKER + +3. Is this a romance? Or is it a faithful picture of _what_ has + lately been in a neighboring land?--MACAULAY + + +These are interrogative sentences, but in none of them does the +pronoun ask the question. In the first, _whence_ is the interrogative +word, _which_ has the antecedent _hue_. In the second, _whose_ has the +antecedent _you_, and asks no question. In the third, the question is +asked by the verb. + + + +OMISSION OF THE RELATIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _Relative omitted when_ object.] + +129. The relative is frequently omitted in spoken and in literary +English when it would be the object of a preposition or a verb. Hardly +a writer can be found who does not leave out relatives in this way +when they can be readily supplied in the mind of the reader. Thus,-- + + These are the sounds we feed upon.--FLETCHER. + + I visited many other apartments, but shall not trouble my reader + with all the curiosities I observed.--SWIFT. + + +Exercise. + +Put in the relatives _who_, _which_, or _that_ where they are omitted +from the following sentences, and see whether the sentences are any +smoother or clearer:-- + + 1. The insect I am now describing lived three years,--GOLDSMITH. + + 2. They will go to Sunday schools through storms their brothers + are afraid of.--HOLMES. + + 3. He opened the volume he first took from the shelf.--G. ELIOT. + + 4. He could give the coals in that queer coal scuttle we read of + to his poor neighbor.--THACKERAY. + + 5. When Goldsmith died, half the unpaid bill he owed to Mr. + William Filby was for clothes supplied to his nephew.--FORSTER + + 6. The thing I want to see is not Redbook Lists, and Court + Calendars, but the life of man in England.--CARLYLE. + + 7. The material they had to work upon was already democratical by + instinct and habitude.--LOWELL. + + +[Sidenote: _Relative omitted when_ subject.] + +130. We often hear in spoken English expressions like these:-- + + There isn't one here * knows how to play ball. + + There was such a crowd * went, the house was full. + +Here the omitted relative would be in the nominative case. Also in +literary English we find the same omission. It is rare in prose, and +comparatively so in poetry. Examples are,-- + + The silent truth that it was she was superior.--THACKERAY + + I have a mind presages me such thrift.--SHAKESPEARE. + + There is a nun in Dryburgh bower, + Ne'er looks upon the sun. + --SCOTT. + + And you may gather garlands there + Would grace a summer queen. + _Id._ + + 'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view.--CAMPBELL. + + +Exercises on the Relative Pronoun. + +(_a_) Bring up sentences containing ten instances of the relatives +_who_, _which_, _that_, and _what_. + +(_b_) Bring up sentences having five indefinite relatives. + +(_c_) Bring up five sentences having indirect questions introduced by +pronouns. + +(_d_) Tell whether the pronouns in the following are interrogatives, +simple relatives, or indefinite relatives:-- + +1. He ushered him into one of the wherries which lay ready to attend +the Queen's barge, which was already proceeding. + +2. The nobles looked at each other, but more with the purpose to see +what each thought of the news, than to exchange any remarks on what +had happened. + +3. Gracious Heaven! who was this that knew the word? + +4. It needed to be ascertained which was the strongest kind of men; +who were to be rulers over whom. + +5. He went on speaking to who would listen to him. + +6. What kept me silent was the thought of my mother. + + + +ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. + +[Sidenote: _Function of adjective pronouns._] + +131. Most of the words how to be considered are capable of a double +use,--they may be pure modifiers of nouns, or they may stand for +nouns. In the first use they are adjectives; in the second they retain +an adjective _meaning_, but have lost their adjective _use_. Primarily +they are adjectives, but in this function, or use, they are properly +classed as adjective pronouns. + +The following are some examples of these:-- + + _Some_ say that the place was bewitched.--IRVING. + + That mysterious realm where _each_ shall take + His chamber in the silent halls of death. + --BRYANT. + + How happy is he born or taught + That serveth not _another's_ will. + --WOTTON + + _That_ is more than any martyr can stand.--EMERSON. + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +[Sidenote: _Adjectives, not pronouns._] + +Hence these words are like adjectives used as nouns, which we have +seen in such expressions as, "_The dead_ are there;" that is, a word, +in order to be an adjective pronoun, _must not modify any word, +expressed or understood_. It must come under the requirement of +pronouns, and _stand for a noun_. For instance, in the following +sentences--"The cubes are of stainless ivory, and on _each_ is +written, in letters of gold, '_Truth_;'" "You needs must play such +pranks as _these_;" "They will always have one bank to sun themselves +upon, and _another_ to get cool under;" "Where two men ride on a +horse, _one_ must ride behind"--the words italicized modify nouns +understood, necessarily thought of: thus, in the first, "each _cube_;" +in the second, "these _pranks_," in the others, "another _bank_," "one +_man_." + + +[Sidenote: _Classes of adjective pronouns._] + +132. Adjective pronouns are divided into three classes:-- + +(1) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, such as _this_, _that_, _the former_, etc. + +(2) DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS, such as _each_, _either_, _neither_, etc. + +(3) NUMERAL PRONOUNS, as _some_, _any_, _few_, _many_, _none_, _all_, +etc. + + +DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. + +[Sidenote: _Definition and examples._] + +133. A DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN is one that definitely points out what +persons or things are alluded to in the sentence. + +The person or thing alluded to by the demonstrative may be in another +sentence, or may be the whole of a sentence. For example, "Be _that_ +as it may" could refer to a sentiment in a sentence, or an argument in +a paragraph; but the demonstrative clearly points to that thing. + +The following are examples of demonstratives:-- + + I did not say _this_ in so many words. + + All _these_ he saw; but what he fain had seen He could not see. + + Beyond _that_ I seek not to penetrate the veil. + + How much we forgive in _those_ who yield us the rare spectacle of + heroic manners! + + The correspondence of Bonaparte with his brother Joseph, when + _the latter_ was the King of Spain. + + _Such_ are a few isolated instances, accidentally preserved. + + Even as I have seen, they that plow iniquity, and sow wickedness, + reap _the same_. + + They know that patriotism has its glorious opportunities and its + sacred duties. They have not shunned _the one_, and they have + well performed _the other_. + +NOTE.--It will be noticed in the first four sentences that _this_ and +_that_ are inflected for number. + + + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Find six sentences using demonstrative adjective pronouns. + +(_b_) In which of the following is _these_ a pronoun?-- + + 1. Formerly the duty of a librarian was to keep people as much as + possible from the books, and to hand _these_ over to his + successor as little worn as he could.--LOWELL. + + 2. They had fewer books, but _these_ were of the best.--_Id._ + + 3. A man inspires affection and honor, because he was not lying + in wait for _these_.--EMERSON + + 4. Souls such as _these_ treat you as gods would.--_Id._ + + 5. _These_ are the first mountains that broke the uniform level + of the earth's surface.--AGASSIZ + + +DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS. + +[Sidenote: _Definition and examples._] + +134. The DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS are those which stand for the names +of persons or things considered singly. + +[Sidenote: _Simple._] + +Some of these are _simple_ pronouns; for example,-- + + They stood, or sat, or reclined, as seemed good to _each_. + + As two yoke devils sworn to _other's_ purpose. + + Their minds accorded into one strain, and made delightful music + which _neither_ could have claimed as all his own. + +[Sidenote: _Compound_.] + +Two are compound pronouns,--_each other_, _one another_. They may be +separated into two adjective pronouns; as, + + We violated our reverence _each_ for _the other's_ soul. + --HAWTHORNE. + +More frequently they are considered as one pronoun. + + They led one another, as it were, into a high pavilion of their + thoughts.--HAWTHORNE. + + Men take each other's measure when they react.--EMERSON. + +Exercise.--Find sentences containing three distributive pronouns. + + +NUMERAL PRONOUNS. + +[Sidenote: _Definition and examples_.] + +135. The NUMERAL PRONOUNS are those which stand for an uncertain +number or quantity of persons or things. + +The following sentences contain numeral pronouns:-- + + Trusting too much to _others'_ care is the ruin of _many_. + + 'Tis of no importance how large his house, you quickly come to + the end of _all_. + + _Another_ opposes him with sound argument. + + It is as if _one_ should be so enthusiastic a lover of poetry as + to care nothing for Homer or Milton. + + There were plenty _more_ for him to fall in company with, as + _some_ of the rangers had gone astray. + + The Soldan, imbued, as _most_ were, with the superstitions of his + time, paused over a horoscope. + + If those [taxes] were the only _ones_ we had to pay, we might the + more easily discharge them. + + _Much_ might be said on both sides. + + If hand of mine _another's_ task has lightened. + It felt the guidance that it does not claim. + So perish _all_ whose breast ne'er learned to glow + For _others_' good, or melt for _others_' woe. + + _None_ shall rule but the humble. + +[Sidenote: _Some inflected._] + +It will be noticed that some of these are inflected for case and +number; such as _one other_, _another_. + +The word _one_ has a reflexive form; for example,-- + +[Sidenote: One _reflexive_.] + + The best way to punish _oneself_ for doing ill seems to me to go + and do good.--KINGSLEY. + + The lines sound so prettily to _one's self_. HOLMES. + +Exercise.--Find sentences containing ten numeral pronouns. + + + +INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition and examples._] + +136. Indefinite pronouns are words which stand for an indefinite +number or quantity of persons or things; but, unlike adjective +pronouns, they are never used as adjectives. + +Most of them are compounds of two or more words:-- + +[Sidenote: _List._] + +_Somebody_, _some one_, _something_; _anybody_, _any one_ (or +_anyone_), _anything_; _everybody_, _every one_ (or _everyone_), +_everything_; _nobody_, _no one_, _nothing_; _somebody else_, _anyone +else_, _everybody else_, _every one else_, etc.; also _aught_, +_naught_; and _somewhat_, _what_, and _they_. + +The following sentences contain indefinite pronouns:-- + + As he had them of all hues, he hoped to fit _everybody's_ fancy. + + _Every one_ knows how laborious the usual method is of attaining + to arts and sciences. + + _Nothing_ sheds more honor on our early history than the + impression which these measures everywhere produced in America. + + Let us also perform _something_ worthy to be remembered. + + William of Orange was more than _anything else_ a religious man. + + Frederick was discerned to be a purchaser of _everything_ that + _nobody else_ would buy. + + These other souls draw me as _nothing else_ can. + + The genius that created it now creates _somewhat else_. + + _Every one else_ stood still at his post. + + That is perfectly true: I did not want _anybody else's_ authority + to write as I did. + +_They_ indefinite means people in general; as,-- + + At lovers' perjuries, _they_ say, Jove laughs.--SHAKESPEARE. + +_What_ indefinite is used in the expression "I tell you _what_." It +means _something_, and was indefinite in Old English. + + Now, in building of chaises, I tell you _what_, + There is always somewhere a weakest spot. + + +Exercise.--Find sentences with six indefinite pronouns. + + +137. Some indefinite pronouns are inflected for case, as shown in +the words _everybody's_, _anybody else's_, etc. + +See also "Syntax" (Sec. 426) as to the possessive case of the forms +with _else_. + + + +HOW TO PARSE PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _A reminder._] + +138. In parsing pronouns the student will need particularly to +guard against the mistake of parsing words according to _form_ instead +of according to function or use. + + +Exercise. + +Parse in full the pronouns in the following sentences:-- + + 1. She could not help laughing at the vile English into which + they were translated. + + 2. Our readers probably remember what Mrs. Hutchinson tells us of + herself. + + 3. Whoever deals with M. de Witt must go the plain way that he + pretends to, in his negotiations. + + 4. Some of them from whom nothing was to be got, were suffered to + depart; but those from whom it was thought that anything could be + extorted were treated with execrable cruelty. + + 5. All was now ready for action. + + 6. Scarcely had the mutiny broken up when he was himself again. + + 7. He came back determined to put everything to the hazard. + + 8. Nothing is more clear than that a general ought to be the + servant of his government, and of no other. + + 9. Others did the same thing, but not to quite so enormous an + extent. + + 10. On reaching the approach to this about sunset of a beautiful + evening in June, I first found myself among the mountains,--a + feature of natural scenery for which, from my earliest days, it + was not extravagant to say that I hungered and thirsted. + + 11. I speak of that part which chiefly it is that I know. + + 12. A smaller sum I had given to my friend the attorney (who was + connected with the money lenders as their lawyer), to which, + indeed, he was entitled for his unfurnished lodgings. + + 13. Whatever power the law gave them would be enforced against + me to the utmost. + + 14. O thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my fathers! + + 15. But there are more than you ever heard of who die of grief in + this island of ours. + + 16. But amongst themselves is no voice nor sound. + + 17. For this did God send her a great reward. + + 18. The table was good; but that was exactly what Kate cared + little about. + + 19. Who and what was Milton? That is to say, what is the place + which he fills in his own vernacular literature? + + 20. These hopes are mine as much as theirs. + + 21. What else am I who laughed or wept yesterday, who slept last + night like a corpse? + + 22. I who alone am, I who see nothing in nature whose existence I + can affirm with equal evidence to my own, behold now the + semblance of my being, in all its height, variety, and curiosity + reiterated in a foreign form. + + 23. What hand but would a garland cull + For thee who art so beautiful? + + 24. And I had done a hellish thing, + And it would work 'em woe. + + 25. Whatever he knows and thinks, whatever in his apprehension is + worth doing, that let him communicate. + + 26. Rip Van Winkle was one of those foolish, well-oiled + dispositions, who take the world easy, eat white bread or brown, + whichever can be got with least thought or trouble. + + + 27. And will your mother pity me, + Who am a maiden most forlorn? + + 28. They know not I knew thee, + Who knew thee too well. + + 29. I did remind thee of our own dear Lake, + By the old Hall which may be mine no more. + + 30. He sate him down, and seized a pen, and traced + Words which I could not guess of. + + 31. Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow: + Such as creation's dawn beheld, thou rollest now. + + 32. Wild Spirit which art moving everywhere; + Destroyer and preserver; hear, oh, hear! + + 33. A smile of hers was like an act of grace. + + 34. No man can learn what he has not preparation for learning. + + 35. What can we see or acquire but what we are? + + 36. He teaches who gives, and he learns who receives. + + 37. We are by nature observers; that is our permanent state. + + 38. He knew not what to do, and so he read. + + 39. Who hears me, who understands me, becomes mine. + + 40. The men who carry their points do not need to inquire of + their constituents what they should say. + + 41. Higher natures overpower lower ones by affecting them with a + certain sleep. + + 42. Those who live to the future must always appear selfish to + those who live to the present. + + 43. I am sorry when my independence is invaded or when a gift + comes from such as do not know my spirit. + + 44. Here I began to howl and scream abominably, which was no bad + step towards my liberation. + + 45. The only aim of the war is to see which is the stronger of + the two--which is the master. + + + + +ADJECTIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _Office of Adjectives._] + +139. Nouns are seldom used as names of objects without additional +words joined to them to add to their meaning. For example, if we wish +to speak of a friend's house, we cannot guide one to it by merely +calling it _a house_. We need to add some words to tell its color, +size, position, etc., if we are at a distance; and if we are near, we +need some word to point out the house we speak of, so that no other +will be mistaken for it. So with any object, or with persons. + +As to the kind of words used, we may begin with the common adjectives +telling the _characteristics_ of an object. If a chemist discovers a +new substance, he cannot describe it to others without telling its +qualities: he will say it is _solid_, or _liquid_, or _gaseous_; +_heavy_ or _light_; _brittle_ or _tough_; _white_ or _red_; etc. + +Again, in _pointing out_ an object, adjectives are used; such as in +the expressions "_this_ man," "_that_ house," "_yonder_ hill," etc. + +Instead of using nouns indefinitely, the _number_ is limited by +adjectives; as, "_one_ hat," "_some_ cities," "_a hundred_ men." + +The office of an adjective, then, is to narrow down or limit the +application of a noun. It may have this office alone, or it may at the +same time add to the meaning of the noun. + + +[Sidenote: _Substantives._] + +140. Nouns are not, however, the only words limited by adjectives: +pronouns and other words and expressions also have adjectives joined +to them. Any word or word group that performs the same office as a +noun may be modified by adjectives. + +To make this clear, notice the following sentences:-- + +[Sidenote: _Pronoun._] + + If _he_ be _thankful_ for small benefits, it shows that he weighs + men's minds, and their trash.--BACON. + +[Sidenote: _Infinitives._] + + _To err_ is _human_; _to forgive, divine_.--POPE. + + With exception of the "and then," the "and there," and the still + less _significant_ "_and so_," they constitute all his + connections.--COLERIDGE. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +141. An adjective is a word joined to a noun or other substantive +word or expression, to describe it or to limit its application. + + +[Sidenote: _Classes of adjectives._] + +142. Adjectives are divided into four classes:-- + +(1) Descriptive adjectives, which describe by expressing qualities +or attributes of a substantive. + +(2) Adjectives of quantity, used to tell how many things are spoken +of, or how much of a thing. + +(3) Demonstrative adjectives, pointing out particular things. + +(4) Pronominal adjectives, words primarily pronouns, but used +adjectively sometimes in modifying nouns instead of standing for them. +They include relative and interrogative words. + + + +DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES. + + +143. This large class includes several kinds of words:-- + +(1) SIMPLE ADJECTIVES expressing quality; such as _safe_, _happy_, +_deep_, _fair_, _rash_, _beautiful_, _remotest_, _terrible_, etc. + +(2) COMPOUND ADJECTIVES, made up of various words thrown together to +make descriptive epithets. Examples are, "_Heaven-derived_ power," +"this _life-giving_ book," "his spirit wrapt and _wonder-struck_," +"_ice-cold_ water," "_half-dead_ traveler," "_unlooked-for_ burden," +"_next-door_ neighbor," "_ivory-handled_ pistols," "the +_cold-shudder-inspiring_ Woman in White." + +(3) PROPER ADJECTIVES, derived from proper nouns; such as, "an old +_English_ manuscript," "the _Christian_ pearl of charity," "the +well-curb had a _Chinese_ roof," "the _Roman_ writer Palladius." + +(4) PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES, which are either pure participles used to +describe, or participles which have lost all verbal force and have no +function except to express quality. Examples are,-- + +_Pure participial adjectives_: "The _healing_ power of the Messiah," +"The _shattering_ sway of one strong arm," "_trailing_ clouds," "The +_shattered_ squares have opened into line," "It came on like the +_rolling_ simoom," "God tempers the wind to the _shorn_ lamb." + +_Faded participial adjectives_: "Sleep is a _blessed_ thing;" "One is +hungry, and another is _drunken_;" "under the _fitting_ drapery of the +jagged and trailing clouds;" "The clearness and quickness are +_amazing_;" "an _aged_ man;" "a _charming_ sight." + + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +144. Care is needed, in studying these last-named words, to +distinguish between a participle that forms part of a verb, and a +participle or participial adjective that belongs to a noun. + +For instance: in the sentence, "The work was well and rapidly +accomplished," _was accomplished_ is a verb; in this, "No man of his +day was more brilliant or more accomplished," _was_ is the verb, and +_accomplished_ is an adjective. + + + +Exercises. + +1. Bring up sentences with twenty descriptive adjectives, having some +of each subclass named in Sec. 143. + +2. Is the italicized word an adjective in this?-- + +The old sources of intellectual excitement seem to be well-nigh +_exhausted_. + + + +ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY. + + +145. Adjectives of quantity tell _how much_ or _how many_. They have +these three subdivisions:-- + +[Sidenote: _How much._] + +(1) QUANTITY IN BULK: such words as _little_, _much_, _some_, _no_, +_any_, _considerable_, sometimes _small_, joined usually to singular +nouns to express an indefinite measure of the thing spoken of. + +The following examples are from Kingsley:-- + + So he parted with _much_ weeping of the lady. + Which we began to do with _great_ labor and _little_ profit. + Because I had _some_ knowledge of surgery and blood-letting. + But ever she looked on Mr. Oxenham, and seemed to take _no_ + care as long as he was by. + +Examples of _small_ an adjective of quantity:-- + + "The deil's in it but I bude to anger him!" said the woman, and + walked away with a laugh of _small_ satisfaction.--MACDONALD. + + 'Tis midnight, but _small_ thoughts have I of sleep.--COLERIDGE. + + It gives _small_ idea of Coleridge's way of talking.--CARLYLE. + +When _some_, _any_, _no_, are used with plural nouns, they come under +the next division of adjectives. + +[Sidenote: _How many._] + +(2) QUANTITY IN NUMBER, which may be expressed exactly by numbers or +remotely designated by words expressing indefinite amounts. Hence the +natural division into-- + +(_a_) _Definite numerals_; as, "_one_ blaze of musketry;" "He found in +the pathway _fourteen_ Spaniards;" "I have lost _one_ brother, but I +have gained _fourscore_;" "_a dozen_ volunteers." + +(_b_) _Indefinite numerals_, as the following from Kingsley: "We gave +_several_ thousand pounds for it;" "In came some five and twenty more, +and with them _a few_ negroes;" "Then we wandered for _many_ days;" +"Amyas had evidently _more_ schemes in his head;" "He had lived by +hunting for _some_ months;" "That light is far too red to be the +reflection of _any_ beams of hers." + + +[Sidenote: _Single ones of any number of changes._] + +(3) DISTRIBUTIVE NUMERALS, which occupy a place midway between the +last two subdivisions of numeral adjectives; for they are indefinite +in telling how many objects are spoken of, but definite in referring +to the objects one at a time. Thus,-- + + _Every_ town had its fair; _every_ village, its wake.--THACKERAY. + + An arrow was quivering in _each_ body.--KINGSLEY. + + Few on _either_ side but had their shrewd scratch to show.--_Id._ + + Before I taught my tongue to wound + My conscience with a sinful sound, + Or had the black art to dispense + A _several_ sin to _every_ sense.--VAUGHAN. + + +Exercise.--Bring up sentences with ten adjectives of quantity. + + + +DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _Not primarily pronouns._] + +146. The words of this list are placed here instead of among +pronominal adjectives, for the reason that they are felt to be +primarily adjectives; their pronominal use being evidently a +shortening, by which the words point out but stand for words omitted, +instead of modifying them. Their natural and original use is to be +joined to a noun following or in close connection. + +[Sidenote: _The list._] + +The demonstrative adjectives are _this_, _that_, (plural _these_, +_those_), _yonder_ (or _yon_), _former_, _latter_; also the pairs +_one_ (or _the one_)--_the other_, _the former_--_the latter_, used to +refer to two things which have been already named in a sentence. + +[Sidenote: _Examples._] + +The following sentences present some examples:-- + + The bashful virgin's sidelong looks of love, The matron's glance + that would _those_ looks reprove.--GOLDSMITH. + + These were thy charms...but all _these_ charms are fled.--_Id._ + + About _this_ time I met with an odd volume of the + "Spectator."--B. FRANKLIN. + + _Yonder_ proud ships are not means of annoyance to you.--D. + WEBSTER. + + _Yon_ cloud with _that_ long purple cleft.--WORDSWORTH. + + I chose for the students of Kensington two characteristic + examples of early art, of equal skill; but in _the one_ case, + skill which was progressive--in _the other_, skill which was at + pause.--RUSKIN. + +Exercise.--Find sentences with five demonstrative adjectives. + + +[Sidenote: _Ordinal numerals classed under demonstratives._] + +147. The class of numerals known as ordinals must be placed here, +as having the same function as demonstrative adjectives. They point +out which thing is meant among a series of things mentioned. The +following are examples:-- + + The _first_ regular provincial newspapers appear to have been + created in the last decade of the _seventeenth_ century, and by + the middle of the _eighteenth_ century almost every important + provincial town had its local organ.--BANCROFT. + +These do not, like the other numerals, tell _how many_ things are +meant. When we speak of the seventeenth century, we imply nothing as +to how many centuries there may be. + + + +PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +148. As has been said, pronominal adjectives are primarily +pronouns; but, when they _modify_ words instead of referring to them +as antecedents, they are changed to adjectives. They are of two +kinds,--RELATIVE and INTERROGATIVE,--and are used to join sentences or +to ask questions, just as the corresponding pronouns do. + + +[Sidenote: _Modify names of persons or things._] + +149. The RELATIVE ADJECTIVES are _which_ and _what_; for example,-- + + It matters not _what_ rank he has, _what_ revenues or garnitures. + --CARLYLE. + + The silver and laughing Xenil, careless _what_ lord should + possess the banks that bloomed by its everlasting + course.--BULWER. + + The taking of _which_ bark. I verily believe, was the ruin of + every mother's son of us.--KINGSLEY. + + In _which_ evil strait Mr. Oxenham fought desperately.--_Id._ + + +[Sidenote: _Indefinite relative adjectives._] + +150. The INDEFINITE RELATIVE adjectives are _what_, _whatever_, +_whatsoever_, _whichever_, _whichsoever_. Examples of their use are,-- + + He in his turn tasted some of its flavor, which, make _what_ sour + mouths he would for pretense, proved not altogether displeasing + to him.--LAMB. + + _Whatever_ correction of our popular views from insight, nature + will be sure to bear us out in.--EMERSON. + + _Whatsoever_ kind of man he is, you at least give him full + authority over your son.--RUSKIN. + + Was there, as it rather seemed, a circle of ominous shadow moving + along with his deformity, _whichever_ way he turned + himself?--HAWTHORNE. + + New torments I behold, and new tormented + Around me, _whichsoever_ way I move, + And _whichsoever_ way I turn, and gaze. + --LONGFELLOW (FROM DANTE). + + +151. The INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES are _which_ and _what_. They may +be used in direct and indirect questions. As in the pronouns, _which_ +is selective among what is known; _what_ inquires about things or +persons not known. + +[Sidenote: _In direct questions._] + +Sentences with _which_ and _what_ in direct questions:-- + + _Which_ debt must I pay first, the debt to the rich, or the debt + to the poor?--EMERSON. + + But when the Trojan war comes, _which_ side will you take? + --THACKERAY. + + But _what_ books in the circulating library circulate?--LOWELL. + + _What_ beckoning ghost along the moonlight shade + Invites my steps, and points to yonder glade?--POPE. + +[Sidenote: _In indirect questions._] + +Sentences with _which_ and _what_ in indirect questions:-- + + His head...looked like a weathercock perched upon his spindle + neck to tell _which_ way the wind blew.--IRVING. + + A lady once remarked, he [Coleridge] could never fix _which_ side + of the garden walk would suit him best.--CARLYLE. + + He was turned before long into all the universe, where it was + uncertain _what_ game you would catch, or whether any.--_Id._ + + At _what_ rate these materials would be distributed and + precipitated in regular strata, it is impossible to + determine.--AGASSIZ. + + +[Sidenote: _Adjective_ what _in exclamations_.] + +152. In exclamatory expressions, _what_ (or _what a_) has a force +somewhat like a descriptive adjective. It is neither relative nor +interrogative, but might be called an EXCLAMATORY ADJECTIVE; as,-- + + Oh, _what a_ revolution! and _what a_ heart must I have, to + contemplate without emotion that elevation and that fall!--BURKE. + + _What a_ piece of work is man!--SHAKESPEARE. + + And yet, alas, the making of it right, _what a_ business for long + time to come!--CARLYLE + + Through _what_ hardships it may attain to bear a sweet + fruit!--THOREAU. + + +Exercise.--Find ten sentences containing pronominal adjectives. + + + +INFLECTIONS OF ADJECTIVES. + + +153 .Adjectives have two inflections,--number and comparison. + + +NUMBER.--_This_, _That_. + + +[Sidenote: _History of_ this--these _and_ that--those.] + +154. The only adjectives having a plural form are _this_ and _that_ +(plural _these_, _those_). + +_This_ is the old demonstrative; _that_ being borrowed from the forms +of the definite article, which was fully inflected in Old English. The +article _that_ was used with neuter nouns. + +In Middle English the plural of _this_ was _this_ or _thise_, which +changed its spelling to the modern form _these_. + +[Sidenote: Those _borrowed from_ this.] + +But _this_ had also another plural, _thas_ (modern _those_). The old +plural of _that_ was _tha_ (Middle English _tho_ or _thow_): +consequently _tho_ (plural of _that_) and _those_ (plural of _this_) +became confused, and it was forgotten that _those_ was really the +plural of _this_; and in Modern English we speak of _these_ as the +plural of _this_, and _those_ as the plural of _that_. + + +COMPARISON. + +155. Comparison is an inflection not possessed by nouns and +pronouns: it belongs to adjectives and adverbs. + +[Sidenote: _Meaning of comparison._] + +When we place two objects side by side, we notice some differences +between them as to size, weight, color, etc. Thus, it is said that a +cow is _larger_ than a sheep, gold is _heavier_ than iron, a sapphire +is _bluer_ than the sky. All these have certain qualities; and when we +compare the objects, we do so by means of their qualities,--cow and +sheep by the quality of largeness, or size; gold and iron by the +quality of heaviness, or weight, etc.,--but not the same degree, or +amount, of the quality. + +The degrees belong to any beings or ideas that may be known or +conceived of as possessing quality; as, "untamed thought, great, +giant-like, enormous;" "the commonest speech;" "It is a nobler valor;" +"the largest soul." + +Also words of quantity may be compared: for example, "more matter, +with less wit;" "no fewer than a hundred." + + +[Sidenote: _Words that cannot be compared._] + +156. There are some descriptive words whose meaning is such as not +to admit of comparison; for example,-- + + His company became very agreeable to the brave old professor of + arms, whose _favorite_ pupil he was.--THACKERAY. + + A _main_ difference betwixt men is, whether they attend their own + affair or not.--EMERSON + + It was his business to administer the law in its _final_ and + closest application to the offender--HAWTHORNE. + + Freedom is a _perpetual, organic, universal_ institution, in + harmony with the Constitution of the United States.--SEWARD. + +So with the words _sole_, _sufficient_, _infinite_, _immemorial_, +_indefatigable_, _indomitable_, _supreme_, and many others. + +It is true that words of comparison are sometimes prefixed to them, +but, strictly considered, they are not compared. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +157. Comparison means the changes that words undergo to express +degrees in quality, or amounts in quantity. + +[Sidenote: _The two forms._] + +158. There are two forms for this inflection: the comparative, +expressing a greater degree of quality; and the superlative, +expressing the greatest degree of quality. + +These are called degrees of comparison. + +These are properly the only degrees, though the simple, uninflected +form is usually called the positive degree. + + +159. The comparative is formed by adding _-er_, and the superlative +by adding _-est_, to the simple form; as, _red_, _redder_, _reddest_; +_blue_, _bluer_, _bluest_; _easy_, _easier_, _easiest_. + + +[Sidenote: _Substitute for inflection in comparison._] + +160. Side by side with these inflected forms are found comparative +and superlative expressions making use of the adverbs more and +most. These are often useful as alternative with the inflected +forms, but in most cases are used before adjectives that are never +inflected. + +They came into use about the thirteenth century, but were not common +until a century later. + + +[Sidenote: _Which rule_,-- -er _and_ -est _or_ more _and_ most?] + +161. The English is somewhat capricious in choosing between the +inflected forms and those with _more_ and _most_, so that no +inflexible rule can be given as to the formation of the comparative +and the superlative. + +The general rule is, that monosyllables and easily pronounced words of +two syllables add _-er_ and _-est_; and other words are preceded by +_more_ and _most_. + +But room must be left in such a rule for pleasantness of sound and for +variety of expression. + +To see how literary English overrides any rule that could be given, +examine the following taken at random:-- + +From Thackeray: "The _handsomest_ wives;" "the _immensest_ quantity of +thrashing;" "the _wonderfulest_ little shoes;" "_more odd, strange_, +and yet familiar;" "_more austere_ and _holy_." + +From Ruskin: "The sharpest, finest chiseling, and _patientest_ +fusing;" "_distantest_ relationships;" "_sorrowfulest_ spectacles." + +Carlyle uses _beautifulest_, _mournfulest_, _honestest_, +_admirablest_, _indisputablest_, _peaceablest_, _most small_, etc. + +These long, harsh forms are usually avoided, but _more_ and _most_ are +frequently used with monosyllables. + + +162. Expressions are often met with in which a superlative form does +not carry the superlative meaning. These are equivalent usually to +_very_ with the positive degree; as,-- + + To this the Count offers a _most wordy_ declaration of the + benefits conferred by Spain.--_The Nation_, No 1507 + + In all formulas that Johnson could stand by, there needed to be a + _most genuine_ substance.--CARLYLE + + A gentleman, who, though born in no very high degree, was _most + finished_, _polished_, _witty_, _easy_, _quiet_.--THACKERAY + + He had actually nothing else save a rope around his neck, which + hung behind in the _queerest_ way.--_Id._ + + "So help me God, madam, I will," said Henry Esmond, falling on + his knees, and kissing the hand of his _dearest_ mistress.--_Id._ + + +[Sidenote: _Adjectives irregularly compared._] + +163. Among the variously derived adjectives now in our language +there are some which may always be recognized as native English. These +are adjectives irregularly compared. + +Most of them have worn down or become confused with similar words, but +they are essentially the same forms that have lived for so many +centuries. + +The following lists include the majority of them:-- + + + LIST I. + + 1. Good or well Better Best + 2. Evil, bad, ill Worse Worst + 3. Little Less, lesser Least + 4. Much or many More Most + 5. Old Elder, older Eldest, oldest + 6. Nigh Nigher Nighest, next + 7. Near Nearer Nearest + 8. Far Farther, further Farthest, furthest + 9. Late Later, latter Latest, last + 10. Hind Hinder Hindmost, hindermost + + + LIST II. + + These have no adjective positive:-- + + 1. [In] Inner Inmost, innermost + 2. [Out] Outer, utter {Outmost, outermost + {Utmost, uttermost + 3. [Up] Upper Upmost, uppermost + + + LIST III. + + A few of comparative form but not comparative meaning:-- + + After Over Under Nether + +Remarks on Irregular Adjectives. + + +[Sidenote: _List I._] + +164. (1) The word good has no comparative or superlative, but takes +the place of a positive to _better_ and _best_. There was an old +comparative _bet_, which has gone out of use; as in the sentence (14th +century), "Ich singe _bet_ than thu dest" (I sing better than thou +dost). The superlative I form was _betst_, which has softened to the +modern _best_. + +(2) In Old English, evil was the positive to _worse_, _worst_; but +later _bad_ and _ill_ were borrowed from the Norse, and used as +positives to the same comparative and superlative. _Worser_ was once +used, a double comparative; as in Shakespeare,-- + + O, throw away the _worser_ part of it.--HAMLET. + +(3) Little is used as positive to _less_, _least_, though from a +different root. A double comparative, _lesser_, is often used; as,-- + + We have it in a much _lesser_ degree.--MATTHEW ARNOLD. + + Thrust the _lesser_ half by main force into the fists of Ho-ti. + --LAMB. + +(4) The words much and many now express quantity; but in former +times _much_ was used in the sense of _large_, _great_, and was the +same word that is found in the proverb, "Many a little makes _a +mickle_." Its spelling has been _micel_, _muchel_, _moche_, _much_, +the parallel form _mickle_ being rarely used. + +The meanings _greater_, _greatest_, are shown in such phrases as,-- + + The _more_ part being of one mind, to England we + sailed.--KINGSLEY. + + The _most_ part kept a stolid indifference.--_Id._ + +The latter, meaning _the largest part_, is quite common. + +(5) The forms elder, eldest, are earlier than _older_, _oldest_. A +few other words with the vowel _o_ had similar change in the +comparative and superlative, as _long_, _strong_, etc.; but these have +followed _old_ by keeping the same vowel _o_ in all the forms, instead +of _lenger_, _strenger_, etc., the old forms. + +(6) and (7) Both nigh and near seem regular in Modern English, +except the form _next_; but originally the comparison was _nigh_, +_near_, _next_. In the same way the word high had in Middle English +the superlative _hexte_. + +By and by the comparative _near_ was regarded as a positive form, and +on it were built a double comparative _nearer_, and the superlative +_nearest_, which adds _-est_ to what is really a comparative instead +of a simple adjective. + +(8) These words also show confusion and consequent modification, +coming about as follows: further really belongs to another +series,--_forth_, _further_, _first_. First became entirely +detached from the series, and _furthest_ began to be used to follow +the comparative _further_; then these were used as comparative and +superlative of _far_. + +The word far had formerly the comparative and superlative _farrer_, +_farrest_. In imitation of _further_, _furthest_, _th_ came into the +others, making the modern _farther_, _farthest_. Between the two sets +as they now stand, there is scarcely any distinction, except perhaps +_further_ is more used than _farther_ in the sense of _additional_; +as, for example,-- + + When that evil principle was left with no _further_ material to + support it.--HAWTHORNE. + +(9) Latter and last are the older forms. Since _later_, _latest_, +came into use, a distinction has grown up between the two series. +_Later_ and _latest_ have the true comparative and superlative force, +and refer to time; _latter_ and _last_ are used in speaking of +succession, or series, and are hardly thought of as connected in +meaning with the word _late_. + +(10) Hinder is comparative in form, but not in meaning. The form +_hindmost_ is really a double superlative, since the _m_ is for _-ma_, +an old superlative ending, to which is added _-ost_, doubling the +inflection. _Hind-er-m-ost_ presents the combination comparative + +superlative + superlative. + + +[Sidenote: _List II._] + +165. In List II. (Sec. 163) the comparatives and superlatives are +adjectives, but they have no adjective positives. + +The comparatives are so in form, but not in their meaning. + +The superlatives show examples again of double inflection, and of +comparative added to double-superlative inflection. + +Examples (from Carlyle) of the use of these adjectives: "revealing the +_inner_ splendor to him;" "a mind that has penetrated into the +_inmost_ heart of a thing;" "This of painting is one of the +_outermost_ developments of a man;" "The _outer_ is of the day;" +"far-seeing as the sun, the _upper_ light of the world;" "the +_innermost_ moral soul;" "their _utmost_ exertion." + + +[Sidenote: -Most _added to other words_.] + +166. The ending _-most_ is added to some words that are not usually +adjectives, or have no comparative forms. + + There, on the very _topmost_ twig, sits that ridiculous but + sweet-singing bobolink.--H.W. BEECHER. + + Decidedly handsome, having such a skin as became a young woman of + family in _northernmost_ Spain.--DE QUINCEY. + + Highest and _midmost_, was descried The royal banner floating + wide.--SCOTT. + + +[Sidenote: _List III._] + +167. The adjectives in List III. are like the comparative forms in +List II. in having no adjective positives. They have no superlatives, +and have no comparative force, being merely descriptive. + + Her bows were deep in the water, but her _after_ deck was still + dry.--KINGSLEY. + + Her, by the by, in _after_ years I vainly endeavored to + trace.--DE QUINCEY. + + The upper and the _under_ side of the medal of Jove.--EMERSON. + + Have you ever considered what a deep _under_ meaning there lies + in our custom of strewing flowers?--RUSKIN. + + Perhaps he rose out of some _nether_ region.--HAWTHORNE. + +_Over_ is rarely used separately as an adjective. + + + +CAUTION FOR ANALYZING OR PARSING. + +[Sidenote: _Think what each adjective belongs to._] + +168. Some care must be taken to decide what word is modified by an +adjective. In a series of adjectives in the same sentence, all may +belong to the same noun, or each may modify a different word or group +of words. + +For example, in this sentence, "The young pastor's voice was +tremulously sweet, rich, deep, and broken," it is clear that all four +adjectives after _was_ modify the noun _voice_. But in this sentence, +"She showed her usual prudence and her usual incomparable decision," +_decision_ is modified by the adjective _incomparable_; _usual_ +modifies _incomparable decision_, not _decision_ alone; and the +pronoun _her_ limits _usual incomparable decision_. + +Adjectives modifying the same noun are said to be of the _same rank_; +those modifying different words or word groups are said to be +adjectives of _different rank_. This distinction is valuable in a +study of punctuation. + +Exercise. + +In the following quotations, tell what each adjective modifies:-- + + 1. Whenever that look appeared in her wild, bright, deeply black + eyes, it invested them with a strange remoteness and + intangibility.--HAWTHORNE. + + 2. It may still be argued, that in the present divided state of + Christendom a college which is positively Christian must be + controlled by some religious denomination.--NOAH PORTER. + + 3. Every quaking leaf and fluttering shadow sent the blood + backward to her heart.--MRS. STOWE. + + 4. This, our new government, is the first in the history of the + world based upon this great physical, philosophical, and moral + truth.--A.H. STEPHENS + + 5. May we not, therefore, look with confidence to the ultimate + universal acknowledgment of the truths upon which our system + rests?--_Id._ + + 6. A few improper jests and a volley of good, round, solid, + satisfactory, and heaven-defying oaths.--HAWTHORNE. + + 7. It is well known that the announcement at any private rural + entertainment that there is to be ice cream produces an immediate + and profound impression.--HOLMES. + + + +ADVERBS USED AS ADJECTIVES. + +169. By a convenient brevity, adverbs are sometimes used as +adjectives; as, instead of saying, "the one who was then king," in +which _then_ is an adverb, we may say "the _then_ king," making _then_ +an adjective. Other instances are,-- + + My _then_ favorite, in prose, Richard Hooker.--RUSKIN. + + Our _sometime_ sister, now our queen.--SHAKESPEARE + + Messrs. Bradbury and Evans, the _then_ and _still_ owners. + --TROLLOPE. + + The _seldom_ use of it.--TRENCH. + + For thy stomach's sake, and thine _often_ infirmities.--_Bible._ + + + +HOW TO PARSE ADJECTIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _What to tell in parsing._] + +170. Since adjectives have no gender, person, or case, and very few +have number, the method of parsing is simple. + +In parsing an adjective, tell-- + +(1) The class and subclass to which it belongs. + +(2) Its number, if it has number. + +(3) Its degree of comparison, if it can be compared. + +(4) What word or words it modifies. + + +MODEL FOR PARSING. + +These truths are not unfamiliar to your thoughts. + +_These_ points out _what_ truths, therefore demonstrative; plural +number, having a singular, _this_; cannot be compared; modifies the +word _truths_. + +_Unfamiliar_ describes _truths_, therefore descriptive; not inflected +for number; compared by prefixing _more_ and _most_; positive degree; +modifies _truths_. + + +Exercise. + +Parse in full each adjective in these sentences:-- + + 1. A thousand lives seemed concentrated in that one moment to + Eliza. + + 2. The huge green fragment of ice on which she alighted pitched + and creaked. + + 3. I ask nothing of you, then, but that you proceed to your end + by a direct, frank, manly way. + + 4. She made no reply, and I waited for none. + + 5. A herd of thirty or forty tall ungainly figures took their + way, with awkward but rapid pace, across the plain. + + 6. Gallantly did the lion struggle in the folds of his terrible + enemy, whose grasp each moment grew more fierce and secure, and + most astounding were those frightful yells. + + 7. This gave the young people entire freedom, and they enjoyed it + to the fullest extent. + + 8. I will be as harsh as truth and as uncompromising as justice. + + 9. To every Roman citizen he gives, To every several man, + seventy-five drachmas. + + 10. Each member was permitted to entertain all the rest on his or + her birthday, on which occasion the elders of the family were + bound to be absent. + + 11. Instantly the mind inquires whether these fishes under the + bridge, yonder oxen in the pasture, those dogs in the yard, are + immutably fishes, oxen, and dogs. + + 12. I know not what course others may take. + + 13. With every third step, the tomahawk fell. + + 14. What a ruthless business this war of extermination is! + + 15. I was just emerging from that many-formed crystal country. + + 16. On what shore has not the prow of your ships dashed? + + 17. The laws and institutions of his country ought to have been + more to him than all the men in his country. + + 18. Like most gifted men, he won affections with ease. + + 19. His letters aim to elicit the inmost experience and outward + fortunes of those he loves, yet are remarkably self-forgetful. + + 20. Their name was the last word upon his lips. + + 21. The captain said it was the last stick he had seen. + + 22. Before sunrise the next morning they let us out again. + + 23. He was curious to know to what sect we belonged. + + 24. Two hours elapsed, during which time I waited. + + 25. In music especially, you will soon find what personal benefit + there is in being serviceable. + + 26. To say what good of fashion we can, it rests on reality, and + hates nothing so much as pretenders. + + 27. Here lay two great roads, not so much for travelers that were + few, as for armies that were too many by half. + + 28. On whichever side of the border chance had thrown Joanna, the + same love to France would have been nurtured. + + 29. What advantage was open to him above the English boy? + + 30. Nearer to our own times, and therefore more interesting to + us, is the settlement of our own country. + + 31. Even the topmost branches spread out and drooped in all + directions, and many poles supported the lower ones. + + 32. Most fruits depend entirely on our care. + + 33. Even the sourest and crabbedest apple, growing in the most + unfavorable position, suggests such thoughts as these, it is so + noble a fruit. + + 34. Let him live in what pomps and prosperities he like, he is no + literary man. + + 35. Through what hardships it may bear a sweet fruit! + + 36. Whatsoever power exists will have itself organized. + + 37. A hard-struggling, weary-hearted man was he. + + + + +ARTICLES. + +171. There is a class of words having always an adjectival use in +general, but with such subtle functions and various meanings that they +deserve separate treatment. In the sentence, "He passes an ordinary +brick house on the road, with an ordinary little garden," the words +_the_ and _an_ belong to nouns, just as adjectives do; but they cannot +be accurately placed under any class of adjectives. They are nearest +to demonstrative and numeral adjectives. + +[Sidenote: _Their origin._] + +172. The article the comes from an old demonstrative adjective +(_se_, _seo_, _ethat_, later _the_, _theo_, _that_) which was also an +article in Old English. In Middle English _the_ became an article, and +_that_ remained a demonstrative adjective. + +An or a came from the old numeral _an_, meaning _one_. + +[Sidenote: _Two relics._] + +Our expressions _the one_, _the other_, were formerly _that one_, +_that other_; the latter is still preserved in the expression, in +vulgar English, _the tother_. Not only this is kept in the Scotch +dialect, but the former is used, these occurring as _the tane, the +tother_, or _the tane, the tither_; for example,-- + + We ca' her sometimes _the tane_, sometimes _the tother_.--SCOTT. + +[Sidenote: An _before vowel sounds_, a _before consonant sounds_.] + +173. Ordinarily _an_ is used before vowel sounds, and _a_ before +consonant sounds. Remember that a _vowel sound_ does not necessarily +mean beginning with a vowel, nor does _consonant sound_ mean +beginning with a consonant, because English spelling does not +coincide closely with the sound of words. Examples: "_a_ house," "_an_ +orange," "_a_ European," "_an_ honor," "_a_ yelling crowd." + +[Sidenote: An _with consonant sounds_.] + +174. Many writers use _an_ before _h_, even when not silent, when +the word is not accented on the first syllable. + + _An_ historian, such as we have been attempting to describe, + would indeed be an intellectual prodigy.--MACAULAY. + + The Persians were _an_ heroic people like the Greeks.--BREWER. + + He [Rip] evinced _an_ hereditary disposition to attend to + anything else but his business.--IRVING. + + _An_ habitual submission of the understanding to mere events and + images.--COLERIDGE. + + _An_ hereditary tenure of these offices.--THOMAS JEFFERSON. + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +175. An article is a limiting word, not descriptive, which cannot +be used alone, but always joins to a substantive word to denote a +particular thing, or a group or class of things, or any individual of +a group or class. + +[Sidenote: _Kinds._] + +176. Articles are either definite or indefinite. + +The is the definite article, since it points out a particular +individual, or group, or class. + +An or a is the indefinite article, because it refers to any one of +a group or class of things. + +An and a are different forms of the same word, the older _an_. + + + +USES OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. + + +[Sidenote: _Reference to a known object._] + +177. The most common use of the definite article is to refer to an +object that the listener or reader is already acquainted with; as in +the sentence,-- + + Don't you remember how, when _the_ dragon was infesting _the_ + neighborhood of Babylon, _the_ citizens used to walk dismally out + of evenings, and look at _the_ valleys round about strewed with + _the_ bones?--THACKERAY. + + NOTE.--This use is noticed when, on opening a story, a person is + introduced by _a_, and afterwards referred to by _the_:-- + + By and by _a_ giant came out of the dark north, and lay down on + the ice near Audhumla.... _The_ giant frowned when he saw the + glitter of the golden hair.--_Heroes of Asgard._ + + +[Sidenote: _With names of rivers._] + +178. _The_ is often prefixed to the names of rivers; and when the +word _river_ is omitted, as "_the_ Mississippi," "_the_ Ohio," the +article indicates clearly that a river, and not a state or other +geographical division, is referred to. + + No wonder I could face _the_ Mississippi with so much courage + supplied to me.--THACKERAY. + + The Dakota tribes, doubtless, then occupied the country southwest + of _the_ Missouri.--G. BANCROFT. + + +[Sidenote: _To call attention to attributes._] + +179. When _the_ is prefixed to a proper name, it alters the force of +the noun by directing attention to _certain qualities_ possessed by +the person or thing spoken of; thus,-- + + _The_ Bacon, _the_ Spinoza, _the_ Hume, Schelling, Kant, or + whosoever propounds to you a philosophy of the mind, is only a + more or less awkward translator of things in your + consciousness.--EMERSON. + + +[Sidenote: _With plural of abstract nouns._] + +180. _The_, when placed before the pluralized abstract noun, marks +it as half abstract or a common noun. + +[Sidenote: _Common._] + + His messages to _the_ provincial _authorities_.--MOTLEY. + +[Sidenote: _Half abstract._] + + He was probably skilled in _the subtleties_ of Italian + statesmanship.--_Id._ + +[Sidenote: _With adjectives used as nouns._] + +181. When _the_ precedes adjectives of the positive degree used +substantively, it marks their use as common and plural nouns when they +refer to persons, and as singular and abstract when they refer to +qualities. + + 1. _The simple_ rise as by specific levity, not into a particular + virtue, but into the region of all the virtues.--EMERSON. + + 2. If _the good_ is there, so is _the evil_.--_Id._ + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +NOTE.--This is not to be confused with words that have shifted from +adjectives and become pure nouns; as,-- + + As she hesitated to pass on, _the gallant_, throwing his cloak + from his shoulders, laid it on the miry spot.--SCOTT. + + But De Soto was no longer able to abate the confidence or punish + the temerity of _the natives_.--G. BANCROFT. + +[Sidenote: _One thing for its class._] + +182. _The_ before class nouns may mark one thing as a representative +of the class to which it belongs; for example,-- + + The faint, silvery warblings heard over the partially bare and + moist fields from _the bluebird_, _the song sparrow_, and _the + redwing_, as if the last flakes of winter tinkled as they + fell!--THOREAU. + + In the sands of Africa and Arabia _the camel_ is a sacred and + precious gift.--GIBBON. + +[Sidenote: _For possessive person pronouns._] + +183. _The_ is frequently used instead of the possessive case of the +personal pronouns _his_, _her_, etc. + + More than one hinted that a cord twined around _the head_, or a + match put between _the fingers_, would speedily extract the + required information.--KINGSLEY. + + _The_ mouth, and the region of the mouth, were about the + strongest features in Wordsworth's face.--DE QUINCEY. + + +[Sidenote: The _for_ a.] + +184. In England and Scotland _the_ is often used where we use _a_, +in speaking of measure and price; as,-- + + Wheat, the price of which necessarily varied, averaged in the + middle of the fourteenth century tenpence _the bushel_, barley + averaging at the same time three shillings _the + quarter_.--FROUDE. + + +[Sidenote: _A very strong restrictive._] + +185. Sometimes _the_ has a strong force, almost equivalent to a +descriptive adjective in emphasizing a word,-- + + No doubt but ye are _the_ people, and wisdom shall die with + you.--_Bible._ + + As for New Orleans, it seemed to me _the_ city of the world where + you can eat and drink the most and suffer the least.--THACKERAY. + + He was _the_ man in all Europe that could (if any could) have + driven six-in-hand full gallop over Al Sirat.--DE QUINCEY. + + +[Sidenote: _Mark of a substantive._] + +186. _The_, since it belongs distinctively to substantives, is a +sure indication that a word of verbal form is not used participially, +but substantively. + + In the hills of Sacramento there is gold for _the + gathering_.--EMERSON. + + I thought _the writing_ excellent, and wished, if possible, to + imitate it.--FRANKLIN. + + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +187. There is one use of _the_ which is different from all the +above. It is an adverbial use, and is spoken of more fully in Sec. +283. Compare this sentence with those above:-- + + There was something ugly and evil in his face, which they had not + previously noticed, and which grew still _the more obvious_ to + the sight _the oftener_ they looked upon him.--HAWTHORNE. + +Exercise.--Find sentences with five uses of the definite article. + + + +USES OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. + + +[Sidenote: _Denotes any one of a class._] + +188. The most frequent use of the indefinite article is to denote +any one of a class or group of objects: consequently it belongs to +singular words; as in the sentence,-- + + Near the churchyard gate stands _a_ poor-box, fastened to _a_ + post by iron bands and secured by _a_ padlock, with _a_ sloping + wooden roof to keep off the rain.--LONGFELLOW + +[Sidenote: _Widens the scope of proper nouns._] + +189. When the indefinite article precedes proper names, it alters +them to class names. The qualities or attributes of the object are +made prominent, and transferred to any one possessing them; as,-- + + The vulgar riot and debauchery, which scarcely disgraced _an + Alcibiades_ or _a Caesar_, have been exchanged for the higher + ideals of _a Bayard_ or _a Sydney_.--PEARSON + +[Sidenote: _With abstract nouns._] + +190. _An_ or _a_ before abstract nouns often changes them to half +abstract: the idea of quality remains, but the word now denotes only +one instance or example of things possessing the quality. + +[Sidenote: _Become half abstract._] + + The simple perception of natural forms is _a delight_.--EMERSON + + If thou hadst _a sorrow_ of thine own, the brook might tell thee + of it.--HAWTHORNE + +In the first sentence, instead of the general abstract notion of +delight, which cannot be singular or plural, _a delight_ means one +thing delightful, and implies others having the same quality. + +So _a sorrow_ means one cause of sorrow, implying that there are +other things that bring sorrow. + +[Sidenote: _Become pure class nouns._] + +NOTE.--Some abstract nouns become common class nouns with the +indefinite article, referring simply to persons; thus,-- + + If the poet of the "Rape of the Lock" be not _a wit_, who + deserves to be called so?--THACKERAY. + + He had a little brother in London with him at this time,--as + great _a beauty_, as great a dandy, as great a villain.--_Id._ + + _A youth_ to fortune and to fame unknown.--GRAY. + +[Sidenote: _Changes material to class nouns._] + +191. _An_ or _a_ before a material noun indicates the change to a +class noun, meaning one kind or a detached portion; as,-- + + They that dwell up in the steeple,... + Feel a glory in so rolling + On the human heart _a stone_. + --POE. + + When God at first made man, + Having _a glass_ of blessings standing by. + --HERBERT. + + The roofs were turned into arches of massy stone, joined by _a + cement_ that grew harder by time.--JOHNSON. + +[Sidenote: _Like the numeral adjective_ one.] + +192. In some cases _an_ or _a_ has the full force of the numeral +adjective _one_. It is shown in the following:-- + + To every room there was _an_ open and _a_ secret + passage.--JOHNSON. + + In a short time these become a small tree, _an_ inverted pyramid + resting on the apex of the other.--THOREAU. + + All men are at last of _a_ size.--EMERSON. + + At the approach of spring the red squirrels got under my house, + two at _a_ time.--THOREAU. + +[Sidenote: _Equivalent to the word_ each _or_ every.] + +193. Often, also, the indefinite article has the force of _each_ or +_every_, particularly to express measure or frequency. + + It would be so much more pleasant to live at his ease than to + work eight or ten hours _a day_.--BULWER + +[Sidenote: _Compare to Sec. 184._] + + Strong beer, such as we now buy for eighteenpence _a gallon_, was + then a penny _a gallon_.--FROUDE + + +[Sidenote: _With_ such, many, what.] + +194. _An_ or _a_ is added to the adjectives _such_, _many_, and +_what_, and may be considered a part of these in modifying +substantives. + + How was I to pay _such a_ debt?--THACKERAY. + + _Many a_ one you and I have had here below.--THACKERAY. + + _What a_ world of merriment then melody foretells!--POE. + +[Sidenote: _With_ not _and_ many.] + +195 LIST III. + + A few of comparative form but not comparative meaning:-- + + After Over Under Nether. + +_Not_ and _never_ with _a_ or _an_ are numeral adjectives, +instead of adverbs, which they are in general. + + _Not a_ drum was heard, _not a_ funeral note.--WOLFE + + My Lord Duke was as hot as a flame at this salute, but said + _never a_ word.--THACKERAY. + +NOTE.--All these have the function of adjectives; but in the last +analysis of the expressions, _such_, _many_, _not_, etc., might be +considered as adverbs modifying the article. + + +[Sidenote: _With_ few _or_ little.] + +196. The adjectives _few_ and _little_ have the negative meaning of +_not much_, _not many_, without the article; but when _a_ is put +before them, they have the positive meaning of _some_. Notice the +contrast in the following sentences:-- + + Of the country beyond the Mississippi _little_ more was known + than of the heart of Africa.--MCMASTER + + To both must I of necessity cling, supported always by the hope + that when _a little_ time, _a few_ years, shall have tried me + more fully in their esteem, I may be able to bring them + together.--_Keats's Letters_. + + _Few_ of the great characters of history have been so differently + judged as Alexander.--SMITH, _History of Greece_ + +[Sidenote: _With adjectives, changed to nouns_.] + +197. When _the_ is used before adjectives with no substantive +following (Sec. 181 and note), these words are adjectives used as +nouns, or pure nouns; but when _an_ or _a_ precedes such words, they +are always nouns, having the regular use and inflections of nouns; for +example,-- + + Such are the words _a brave_ should use.--COOPER. + + In the great society of wits, John Gay deserves to be _a + favorite_, and to have a good place.--THACKERAY + + Only the name of one obscure epigrammatist has been embalmed for + use in the verses of _a rival_.--PEARSON. + +Exercise.--Bring up sentences with five uses of the indefinite +article. + + + +HOW TO PARSE ARTICLES. + +198. In parsing the article, tell-- + + +(1) What word it limits. + +(2) Which of the above uses it has. + + +Exercise. + +Parse the articles in the following:-- + + 1. It is like gathering a few pebbles off the ground, or bottling + a little air in a phial, when the whole earth and the whole + atmosphere are ours. + + 2. Aristeides landed on the island with a body of Hoplites, + defeated the Persians and cut them to pieces to a man. + + 3. The wild fire that lit the eye of an Achilles can gleam no + more. + + 4. But it is not merely the neighborhood of the cathedral that is + mediaeval; the whole city is of a piece. + + 5. To the herdsman among his cattle in remote woods, to the + craftsman in his rude workshop, to the great and to the little, a + new light has arisen. + + 6. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid become + intelligent, and the wavering, determined. + + 7. The student is to read history actively, and not passively. + + 8. This resistance was the labor of his life. + + 9. There was always a hope, even in the darkest hour. + + 10. The child had a native grace that does not invariably coexist + with faultless beauty. + + 11. I think a mere gent (which I take to be the lowest form of + civilization) better than a howling, whistling, clucking, + stamping, jumping, tearing savage. + + 12. Every fowl whom Nature has taught to dip the wing in water. + + 13. They seem to be lines pretty much of a length. + + 14. Only yesterday, but what a gulf between now and then! + + 15. Not a brick was made but some man had to think of the making + of that brick. + + 16. The class of power, the working heroes, the Cortes, the + Nelson, the Napoleon, see that this is the festivity and + permanent celebration of such as they; that fashion is funded + talent. + + + + +VERBS AND VERBALS.. + + + + +VERBS. + + +[Sidenote: _Verb,--the word of the sentence._] + +199. The term _verb_ is from the Latin _verbum_ meaning _word_: +hence it is _the_ word of a sentence. A thought cannot be expressed +without a verb. When the child cries, "Apple!" it means, _See_ the +apple! or I _have_ an apple! In the mariner's shout, "A sail!" the +meaning is, "Yonder _is_ a sail!" + +Sentences are in the form of declarations, questions, or commands; and +none of these can be put before the mind without the use of a verb. + +[Sidenote: _One group or a group of words._] + +200. The verb may not always be a single word. On account of the +lack of inflections, _verb phrases_ are very frequent. Hence the verb +may consist of: + +(1) _One word_; as, "The young man _obeyed_." + +(2) _Several words of verbal nature, making one expression_; as, (_a_) +"Some day it _may be considered_ reasonable," (_b_) "Fearing lest he +_might have been anticipated_." + +(3) _One or more verbal words united with other words to compose one +verb phrase_: as in the sentences, (_a_) "They knew well that this +woman _ruled over_ thirty millions of subjects;" (_b_) "If all the +flummery and extravagance of an army _were done away with_, the money +could be made to go much further;" (_c_) "It is idle cant to pretend +anxiety for the better distribution of wealth until we can devise +means by which this preying upon people of small incomes _can be put a +stop to_." + +In (_a_), a verb and a preposition are used as one verb; in (_b_), a +verb, an adverb, and a preposition unite as a verb; in (_c_), an +article, a noun, a preposition, are united with verbs as one verb +phrase. + +[Sidenote: _Definition and caution._] + +201. A verb is a word used as a predicate, to say something to or +about some person or thing. In giving a definition, we consider a verb +as one word. + +Now, it is indispensable to the nature of a verb that it is "a word +used as a predicate." Examine the sentences in Sec. 200: In (1), +_obeyed_ is a predicate; in (2, _a_), _may be considered_ is a unit in +doing the work of one predicate; in (2, _b_), _might have been +anticipated_ is also one predicate, but _fearing_ is not a predicate, +hence is not a verb; in (3, _b_), _to go_ is no predicate, and not a +verb; in (3, _c_), _to pretend_ and _preying_ have something of +verbal nature in expressing action in a faint and general way, but +cannot be predicates. + +In the sentence, "_Put_ money in thy purse," _put_ is the predicate, +with some word understood; as, "Put _thou_ money in thy purse." + + + +VERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO MEANING AND USE. + +TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. + + +[Sidenote: _The nature of the transitive verb._] + +202. By examining a few verbs, it may be seen that not all verbs are +used alike. All do not express action: some denote state or condition. +Of those expressing action, all do not express it in the same way; for +example, in this sentence from Bulwer,--"The proud lone _took_ care to +conceal the anguish she _endured_; and the pride of woman _has_ an +hypocrisy which _can deceive_ the most penetrating, and _shame_ the +most astute,"--every one of the verbs in Italics has one or more words +before or after it, representing something which it influences or +controls. In the first, lone _took_ what? answer, _care_; _endured_ +what? _anguish_; etc. Each influences some object, which may be a +person, or a material thing, or an idea. _Has_ takes the object +_hypocrisy_; _can deceive_ has an object, _the most penetrating_; +(can) _shame_ also has an object, _the most astute_. + +In each case, the word following, or the object, is necessary to the +completion of the action expressed in the verb. + +All these are called transitive verbs, from the Latin _transire_, +which means _to go over_. Hence + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +203. A transitive verb is one which must have an object to complete +its meaning, and to receive the action expressed. + +[Sidenote: _The nature of intransitive verbs._] + +204. Examine the verbs in the following paragraph:-- + + She _sprang up_ at that thought, and, taking the staff which + always guided her steps, she _hastened_ to the neighboring shrine + of Isis. Till she _had been_ under the guardianship of the kindly + Greek, that staff _had sufficed_ to conduct the poor blind girl + from corner to corner of Pompeii.--BULWER + +In this there are some verbs unlike those that have been examined. +_Sprang_, or _sprang up_, expresses action, but it is complete in +itself, does not affect an object; _hastened_ is similar in use; _had +been_ expresses condition, or state of being, and can have no object; +_had sufficed_ means _had been sufficient_, and from its meaning +cannot have an object. + +Such verbs are called intransitive (not crossing over). Hence + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +205. An intransitive verb is one which is complete in itself, or +which is completed by other words without requiring an object. + + +[Sidenote: _Study_ use, _not_ form, _of verbs here._] + +206. Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, according to +their use in the sentence, It can be said, "The boy _walked_ for two +hours," or "The boy _walked_ the horse;" "The rains _swelled_ the +river," or "The river _swelled_ because of the rain;" etc. + +The important thing to observe is, many words must be distinguished as +transitive or intransitive by _use_, not by _form_. + + +207. Also verbs are sometimes made transitive by prepositions. +These may be (1) compounded with the verb; or (2) may follow the verb, +and be used as an integral part of it: for example,-- + + Asking her pardon for having _withstood_ her.--SCOTT. + + I can wish myself no worse than to have it all to _undergo_ a + second time.--KINGSLEY. + + A weary gloom in the deep caverns of his eyes, as of a child that + has _outgrown_ its playthings.--HAWTHORNE. + + It is amusing to walk up and down the pier and _look at_ the + countenances passing by.--B. TAYLOR. + + He was at once so out of the way, and yet so sensible, that I + loved, _laughed at_, and pitied him.--GOLDSMITH. + + My little nurse told me the whole matter, which she had cunningly + _picked out_ from her mother.--SWIFT. + + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Pick out the transitive and the intransitive verbs in the +following:-- + +1. The women and children collected together at a distance. + +2. The path to the fountain led through a grassy savanna. + +3. As soon as I recovered my senses and strength from so sudden a +surprise, I started back out of his reach where I stood to view him; +he lay quiet whilst I surveyed him. + +4. At first they lay a floor of this kind of tempered mortar on the +ground, upon which they deposit a layer of eggs. + +5. I ran my bark on shore at one of their landing places, which was a +sort of neck or little dock, from which ascended a sloping path or +road up to the edge of the meadow, where their nests were; most of +them were deserted, and the great thick whitish eggshells lay broken +and scattered upon the ground. + +6. Accordingly I got everything on board, charged my gun, set sail +cautiously, along shore. As I passed by Battle Lagoon, I began to +tremble. + +7. I seized my gun, and went cautiously from my camp: when I had +advanced about thirty yards, I halted behind a coppice of orange +trees, and soon perceived two very large bears, which had made their +way through the water and had landed in the grove, and were advancing +toward me. + +(_b_) Bring up sentences with five transitive and five intransitive +verbs. + + + +VOICE, ACTIVE AND PASSIVE. + + +[Sidenote: _Meaning of active voice._] + +208. As has been seen, transitive verbs are the only kind that can +express action so as to go over to an object. This implies three +things,--the agent, or person or thing acting; the verb representing +the action; the person or object receiving the act. + +In the sentence, "We reached the village of Sorgues by dusk, and +accepted the invitation of an old dame to lodge at her inn," these +three things are found: the actor, or agent, is expressed by _we_; the +action is asserted by _reached_ and _accepted_; the things acted upon +are _village_ and _invitation_. Here the subject is represented as +doing something. The same word is the subject and the agent. This use +of a transitive verb is called the active voice. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +209. The active voice is that form of a verb which represents the +subject as acting; or + +The active voice is that form of a transitive verb which makes the +_subject_ and the _agent_ the same word. + + +[Sidenote: _A question._] + +210. Intransitive verbs are _always active voice_. Let the student +explain why. + + +[Sidenote: _Meaning of passive voice._] + +211. In the assertion of an action, it would be natural to suppose, +that, instead of always representing the subject as acting upon some +person or thing, it must often happen that the subject is spoken of as +_acted upon_; and the person or thing acting may or may not be +expressed in the sentence: for example,-- + + All infractions of love and equity in our social relations are + speedily punished. They are punished by fear.--EMERSON. + +Here the subject _infractions_ does nothing: it represents the object +toward which the action of _are punished_ is directed, yet it is the +subject of the same verb. In the first sentence the agent is not +expressed; in the second, _fear_ is the agent of the same action. + +So that in this case, instead of having the agent and subject the same +word, we have the _object_ and _subject_ the same word, and the agent +may be omitted from the statement of the action. + +_Passive_ is from the Latin word _patior_, meaning _to endure_ or +_suffer_; but in ordinary grammatical use _passive_ means _receiving +an action_. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +212. The passive voice is that form of the verb which represents the +subject as being acted upon; or-- + +The passive voice is that form of the verb which represents the +_subject_ and the _object_ by the same word. + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Pick out the verbs in the active and the passive voice:-- + +1. In the large room some forty or fifty students were walking about +while the parties were preparing. + +2. This was done by taking off the coat and vest and binding a great +thick leather garment on, which reached to the knees. + +3. They then put on a leather glove reaching nearly to the shoulder, +tied a thick cravat around the throat, and drew on a cap with a large +visor. + +4. This done, they were walked about the room a short time; their +faces all this time betrayed considerable anxiety. + +5. We joined the crowd, and used our lungs as well as any. + +6. The lakes were soon covered with merry skaters, and every afternoon +the banks were crowded with spectators. + +7. People were setting up torches and lengthening the rafts which had +been already formed. + +8. The water was first brought in barrels drawn by horses, till some +officer came and opened the fire plug. + +9. The exclusive in fashionable life does not see that he excludes +himself from enjoyment, in the attempt to appropriate it. + + +(_b_) Find sentences with five verbs in the active and five in the +passive voice. + + + +MOOD. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +213. The word _mood_ is from the Latin _modus_, meaning _manner_, +_way_, _method_. Hence, when applied to verbs,-- + +Mood means the manner of conceiving and expressing action or being +of some subject. + + +[Sidenote: _The three ways._] + +214. There are three chief ways of expressing action or being:-- + +(1) As a fact; this may be a question, statement, or assumption. + +(2) As doubtful, or merely conceived of in the mind. + +(3) As urged or commanded. + + + +INDICATIVE MOOD. + + +[Sidenote: _Deals with facts._] + +215. The term _indicative_ is from the Latin _indicare_ (to declare, +or assert). The indicative represents something as a fact,-- + +[Sidenote: _Affirms or denies._] + +(1) _By declaring a thing to be true or not to be true_; thus,-- + + Distinction _is_ the consequence, never the object, of a great + mind.--ALLSTON. + + I _do not remember_ when or by whom I _was taught_ to read; + because I _cannot_ and never _could recollect_ a time when I + _could not read_ my Bible.--D. WEBSTER. + +[Sidenote: _Assumed as a fact._] + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +(2) _By assuming a thing to be true_ without declaring it to be so. +This kind of indicative clause is usually introduced by _if_ (meaning +_admitting that, granting that_, etc.), _though, although_, etc. +Notice that the action is not merely conceived as possible; it is +assumed to be a fact: for example,-- + + If the penalties of rebellion hung over an unsuccessful contest; + if America was yet in the cradle of her political existence; if + her population little exceeded two millions; if she was without + government, without fleets or armies, arsenals or magazines, + without military knowledge,--still her citizens had a just and + elevated sense of her rights.--A. HAMILTON. + +(3) _By asking a question to find out some fact_; as,-- + + Is private credit the friend and patron of industry?--HAMILTON. + + With respect to novels what shall I say?--N. WEBSTER. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +216 .The indicative mood is that form of a verb which represents a +thing as a fact, or inquires about some fact. + + + +SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. + + +[Sidenote: _Meaning of the word._] + +217. _Subjunctive_ means _subjoined_, or joined as dependent or +subordinate to something else. + +[Sidenote: _This meaning is misleading._] + +If its original meaning be closely adhered to, we must expect every +dependent clause to have its verb in the subjunctive mood, and every +clause _not_ dependent to have its verb in some other mood. + +But this is not the case. In the quotation from Hamilton (Sec. 215, 2) +several subjoined clauses introduced by _if_ have the indicative mood, +and also independent clauses are often found having the verb in the +subjunctive mood. + +[Sidenote: _Cautions._] + +Three cautions will be laid down which must be observed by a student +who wishes to understand and use the English subjunctive:-- + +(1) You cannot tell it always by the form of the word. The main +difference is, that the subjunctive has no _-s_ as the ending of the +present tense, third person singular; as, "If he _come_." + +(2) The fact that its clause is dependent or is introduced by certain +words will not be a safe rule to guide you. + +(3) The _meaning_ of the verb itself must be keenly studied. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +218. The subjunctive mood is that form or use of the verb which +expresses action or being, not as a fact, but as merely conceived of +in the mind. + + +Subjunctive in Independent Clauses. + + +I. Expressing a Wish. + +219. The following are examples of this use:-- + + Heaven _rest_ her soul!--MOORE. + + God _grant_ you find one face there You loved when all was + young.--KINGSLEY. + + Now _tremble_ dimples on your cheek, Sweet _be_ your lips to + taste and speak.--BEDDOES. + + Long _die_ thy happy days before thy death.--SHAKESPEARE. + + +II. A Contingent Declaration or Question. + +220. This really amounts to the conclusion, or principal clause, in +a sentence, of which the condition is omitted. + + Our chosen specimen of the hero as literary man [if we were to + choose one] _would be_ this Goethe.--CARLYLE. + + I _could lie_ down like a tired child, + And _weep_ away the life of care + Which I have borne and yet must bear.--SHELLEY. + + Most excellent stranger, as you come to the lakes simply to see + their loveliness, _might_ it not _be_ as well to ask after the + most beautiful road, rather than the shortest?--DE QUINCEY. + + +Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses. + + +I. Condition or Supposition. + + +221. The most common way of representing the action or being as +merely thought of, is by putting it into the form of a _supposition_ +or _condition_; as,-- + + Now, if the fire of electricity and that of lightning _be_ the + same, this pasteboard and these scales may represent electrified + clouds.--FRANKLIN. + +Here no assertion is made that the two things _are_ the same; but, if +the reader merely _conceives_ them for the moment to be the same, the +writer can make the statement following. Again,-- + + If it _be_ Sunday [supposing it to be Sunday], the peasants sit + on the church steps and con their psalm books.--LONGFELLOW. + + + +STUDY OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. + + +222. There are three kinds of conditional sentences:-- + +[Sidenote: _Real or true._] + +(1) Those in which an assumed or admitted fact is placed before the +mind in the form of a condition (see Sec. 215, 2); for example,-- + + If they _were_ unacquainted with the works of philosophers and + poets, they were deeply read in the oracles of God. If their + names _were not found_ in the registers of heralds, they were + recorded in the Book of Life.--MACAULAY. + +[Sidenote: _Ideal,--may or may not be true._] + +(2) Those in which the condition depends on something uncertain, and +_may or may not be regarded true, or be fulfilled_; as,-- + + If, in our case, the representative system ultimately _fail_, + popular government must be pronounced impossible.--D. WEBSTER. + + If this _be_ the glory of Julius, the first great founder of the + Empire, so it is also the glory of Charlemagne, the second + founder.--BRYCE. + + If any man _consider_ the present aspects of what is called by + distinction society, he will see the need of these ethics. + --EMERSON. + +[Sidenote: _Unreal--cannot be true._] + +(3) Suppositions _contrary to fact_, which cannot be true, or +conditions that cannot be fulfilled, but are presented only in order +to suggest what _might be_ or _might have been_ true; thus,-- + + If these things _were_ true, society could not hold together. + --LOWELL. + + _Did not_ my writings _produce_ me some solid pudding, the great + deficiency of praise would have quite discouraged me.--FRANKLIN. + + _Had_ he for once _cast_ all such feelings aside, and _striven_ + energetically to save Ney, it _would have cast_ such an enhancing + light over all his glories, that we cannot but regret its + absence.--BAYNE. + + + NOTE.--Conditional sentences are usually introduced by _if_, + _though_, _except_, _unless_, etc.; but when the verb precedes + the subject, the conjunction is often omitted: for example, + "_Were I bidden_ to say how the highest genius could be most + advantageously employed," etc. + + +Exercise. + +In the following conditional clauses, tell whether each verb is +indicative or subjunctive, and what kind of condition:-- + + 1. The voice, if he speak to you, is of similar physiognomy, + clear, melodious, and sonorous.--CARLYLE. + + 2. Were you so distinguished from your neighbors, would you, do + you think, be any the happier?--THACKERAY. + + 3. Epaminondas, if he was the man I take him for, would have sat + still with joy and peace, if his lot had been mine.--EMERSON. + + 4. If a damsel had the least smattering of literature, she was + regarded as a prodigy.--MACAULAY. + + 5. I told him, although it were the custom of our learned in + Europe to steal inventions from each other,... yet I would take + such caution that he should have the honor entire.--SWIFT. + + 6. If he had reason to dislike him, he had better not have + written, since he [Byron] was dead.--N.P. WILLIS. + + 7. If it were prostrated to the ground by a profane hand, what + native of the city would not mourn over its fall?--GAYARRE. + + 8. But in no case could it be justified, except it be for a + failure of the association or union to effect the object for + which it was created.--CALHOUN. + + + +II. Subjunctive of Purpose. + + +223. The subjunctive, especially _be_, _may_, _might_, and _should_, +is used to express purpose, the clause being introduced by _that_ or +_lest_; as,-- + + It was necessary, he supposed, to drink strong beer, that he + _might be_ strong to labor.--FRANKLIN. + + I have been the more particular...that you _may compare_ such + unlikely beginnings with the figure I have since made + there.--_Id._ + + He [Roderick] with sudden impulse that way rode, To tell of what + had passed, lest in the strife They _should engage_ with Julian's + men.--SOUTHEY. + + + +III. Subjunctive of Result. + + +224. The subjunctive may represent the result toward which an action +tends:-- + + So many thoughts move to and fro, + That vain it _were_ her eyes to close. + --COLERIDGE. + + So live, that when thy summons comes to join + The innumerable caravan... + Thou _go_ not, like the quarry-slave at night. + --BRYANT. + + + +IV. In Temporal Clauses. + +225. The English subjunctive, like the Latin, is sometimes used in a +clause to express the time when an action is to take place. + + Let it rise, till it _meet_ the sun in his coming.--D. WEBSTER. + + Rise up, before it _be_ too late!--HAWTHORNE. + + But it will not be long + Ere this _be thrown_ aside. + --WORDSWORTH. + + + +V. In Indirect Questions. + + +226. The subjunctive is often found in indirect questions, the +answer being regarded as doubtful. + + Ask the great man if there _be_ none greater.--EMERSON + + What the best arrangement _were_, none of us could say.--CARLYLE. + + Whether it _were_ morning or whether it _were_ afternoon, in her + confusion she had not distinctly known.--DE QUINCEY. + + + +VI. Expressing a Wish. + + +227. After a verb of wishing, the subjunctive is regularly used in +the dependent clause. + + The transmigiation of souls is no fable. I would it _were_! + --EMERSON. + + Bright star! Would I _were_ steadfast as thou art!--KEATS. + + I've wished that little isle _had_ wings, + And we, within its fairy bowers, + _Were wafted_ off to seas unknown. + --MOORE. + + + +VII. In a Noun Clause. + + +[Sidenote: _Subject._] + +228. The noun clause, in its various uses as subject, object, in +apposition, etc., often contains a subjunctive. + + The essence of originality is not that it _be_ new.--CARLYLE + +[Sidenote: _Apposition or logical subject._] + + To appreciate the wild and sharp flavors of those October fruits, + it is necessary that you _be breathing_ the sharp October or + November air.--THOREAU. + +[Sidenote: _Complement._] + + The first merit, that which admits neither substitute nor + equivalent, is, that everything _be_ in its place.--COLERIDGE. + +[Sidenote: _Object._] + + As sure as Heaven shall rescue me, I have no thought what men + they _be_.--COLERIDGE. + + Some might lament that I _were_ cold.--SHELLEY. + +[Sidenote: _After verbs of commanding._] + +This subjunctive is very frequent after verbs of _commanding_. + + See that there _be_ no traitors in your camp.--TENNYSON. + + Come, tell me all that thou hast seen, + And look thou _tell_ me true. + --SCOTT. + + See that thy scepter _be_ heavy on his head.--DE QUINCEY. + + + +VIII. Concessive Clauses. + + +229. The concession may be expressed-- + +(1) In the nature of the verb; for example,-- + + _Be_ the matter how it may, Gabriel Grub was afflicted with + rheumatism to the end of his days.--DICKENS. + + _Be_ the appeal _made_ to the understanding or the heart, the + sentence is the same--that rejects it.--BROUGHAM + +(2) By an indefinite relative word, which may be + +(_a_) _Pronoun._ + + Whatever _betide_, we'll turn aside, + And see the Braes of Yarrow. + --WORDSWORTH. + +(_b_) _Adjective._ + + That hunger of applause, of cash, or whatsoever victual it _may + be_, is the ultimate fact of man's life.--CARLYLE. + +(_c_) _Adverb._ + + Wherever he _dream_ under mountain or stream, + The spirit he loves remains. + --SHELLEY. + + + +Prevalence of the Subjunctive Mood. + + +230. As shown by the wide range of literature from which these +examples are selected, the subjunctive is very much used in literary +English, especially by those who are artistic and exact in the +expression of their thought. + +At the present day, however, the subjunctive is becoming less and +less used. Very many of the sentences illustrating the use of the +subjunctive mood could be replaced by numerous others using the +indicative to express the same thoughts. + +The three uses of the subjunctive now most frequent are, to express a +wish, a concession, and condition contrary to fact. + +In spoken English, the subjunctive _were_ is much used in a wish or a +condition contrary to fact, but hardly any other subjunctive forms +are. + +It must be remembered, though, that many of the verbs in the +subjunctive have the same form as the indicative. Especially is this +true of unreal conditions in past time; for example,-- + + Were we of open sense as the Greeks were, we _had found_ [should + have found] a poem here.--CARLYLE. + + + +IMPERATIVE MOOD. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +231. The imperative mood is the form of the verb used in direct +commands, entreaties, or requests. + + +[Sidenote: _Usually second person._] + +232. The imperative is naturally used mostly with the second +person, since commands are directed to a person addressed. + +(1) _Command._ + + _Call up_ the shades of Demosthenes and Cicero to vouch for your + words; _point_ to their immortal works.--J.Q. ADAMS. + + _Honor_ all men; _love_ all men; _fear_ none.--CHANNING. + +(2) _Entreaty._ + + Oh, from these sterner aspects of thy face + _Spare_ me and mine, nor _let_ us need the wrath + Of the mad unchained elements. + --BRYANT. + +(3) _Request._ + + "_Hush_! mother," whispered Kit. "_Come_ along with me."--DICKENS + + _Tell_ me, how was it you thought of coming here?--_Id._ + +[Sidenote: _Sometimes with_ first person _in the plural_.] + +But the imperative may be used with the plural of the first person. +Since the first person plural person is not really I + I, but I + you, +or I + they, etc., we may use the imperative with _we_ in a command, +request, etc., to _you_ implied in it. This is scarcely ever found +outside of poetry. + + _Part we_ in friendship from your land, + And, noble earl, receive my hand. + --SCOTT. + + Then _seek we_ not their camp--for there + The silence dwells of my despair. + --CAMPBELL. + + _Break we_ our watch up.--SHAKESPEARE. + +Usually this is expressed by _let_ with the objective: "_Let_ us go." +And the same with the third person: "_Let_ him be accursed." + + +Exercises on the Moods. + +(_a_) Tell the mood of each verb in these sentences, and what special +use it is of that mood:-- + + 1. Wherever the standard of freedom and independence has been or + shall be unfurled, there will her heart and her prayers be. + + 2. Mark thou this difference, child of earth! + While each performs his part, + Not all the lip can speak is worth + The silence of the heart. + + 3. Oh, that I might be admitted to thy presence! that mine were + the supreme delight of knowing thy will! + + 4. 'Twere worth ten years of peaceful life, + One glance at their array! + + 5. Whatever inconvenience ensue, nothing is to be preferred + before justice. + + 6. The vigorous sun would catch it up at eve + And use it for an anvil till he had filled + The shelves of heaven with burning thunderbolts. + + 7. Meet is it changes should control + Our being, lest we rust in ease. + + 8. Quoth she, "The Devil take the goose, + And God forget the stranger!" + + 9. Think not that I speak for your sakes. + + 10. "Now tread we a measure!" said young Lochinvar. + + 11. Were that a just return? Were that Roman magnanimity? + + 12. Well; how he may do his work, whether he do it right or + wrong, or do it at all, is a point which no man in the world has + taken the pains to think of. + + 13. He is, let him live where else he like, in what pomps and + prosperities he like, no literary man. + + 14. Could we one day complete the immense figure which these + flagrant points compose! + + 15. "Oh, then, my dear madam," cried he, "tell me where I may + find my poor, ruined, but repentant child." + + 16. That sheaf of darts, will it not fall unbound, + Except, disrobed of thy vain earthly vaunt, + Thou bring it to be blessed where saints and angels haunt? + + 17. Forget thyself to marble, till + With a sad leaden downward cast + Thou fix them on the earth as fast. + + 18. He, as though an instrument, + Blew mimic hootings to the silent owls, + That they might answer him. + + 19. From the moss violets and jonquils peep, + And dart their arrowy odor through the brain, + Till you might faint with that delicious pain. + + 20. That a man parade his doubt, and get to imagine that debating + and logic is the triumph and true work of what intellect he has; + alas! this is as if you should overturn the tree. + + 21. The fat earth feed thy branchy root + That under deeply strikes! + The northern morning o'er thee shoot, + High up in silver spikes! + + 22. Though abyss open under abyss, and opinion displace opinion, + all are at last contained in the Eternal cause. + + 23. God send Rome one such other sight! + + 24. "Mr. Marshall," continued Old Morgan, "see that no one + mentions the United States to the prisoner." + + 25. If there is only one woman in the nation who claims the right + to vote, she ought to have it. + + 26. Though he were dumb, it would speak. + + 27. Meantime, whatever she did,--whether it were in display of + her own matchless talents, or whether it were as one member of a + general party,--nothing could exceed the amiable, kind, and + unassuming deportment of Mrs. Siddons. + + 28. It makes a great difference to the force of any sentence + whether there be a man behind it or no. + +(_b_) Find sentences with five verbs in the indicative mood, five in +the subjunctive, five in the imperative. + + +TENSE. + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +233. _Tense_ means _time_. The tense of a verb is the form or use +indicating the time of an action or being. + +[Sidenote: _Tenses in English._] + +Old English had only two tenses,--the present tense, which represented +present and future time; and the past tense. We still use the present +for the future in such expressions as, "I _go_ away to-morrow;" "If he +_comes_, tell him to wait." + +But English of the present day not only has a tense for each of the +natural time divisions,--present, past, and future,--but has other +tenses to correspond with those of highly inflected languages, such as +Latin and Greek. + +The distinct inflections are found only in the present and past +tenses, however: the others are compounds of verbal forms with +various helping verbs, called auxiliaries; such as _be_, _have_, +_shall_, _will_. + +[Sidenote: _The tenses in detail._] + +234. Action or being may be represented as occurring in present, +past, or future time, by means of the present, the past, and the +future tense. It may also be represented as _finished_ in present or +past or future time by means of the present perfect, past perfect, and +future perfect tenses. + +Not only is this so: there are what are called definite forms of +these tenses, showing more exactly the time of the action or being. +These make the English speech even more exact than other languages, as +will be shown later on, in the conjugations. + + +PERSON AND NUMBER. + +235. The English verb has never had full inflections for number and +person, as the classical languages have. + +When the older pronoun _thou_ was in use, there was a form of the verb +to correspond to it, or agree with it, as, "Thou walk_est_," present; +"Thou walked_st_," past; also, in the third person singular, a form +ending in -_eth_, as, "It is not in man that walk_eth_, to direct his +steps." + +But in ordinary English of the present day there is practically only +one ending for person and number. This is the third person, singular +number; as, "He walk_s_;" and this only in the present tense +indicative. This is important in questions of agreement when we come +to syntax. + + + +CONJUGATION. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +236. Conjugation is the regular arrangement of the forms of the +verb in the various voices, moods, tenses, persons, and numbers. + +In classical languages, conjugation means _joining together_ the +numerous endings to the stem of the verb; but in English, inflections +are so few that conjugation means merely the exhibition of the forms +and the different verb phrases that express the relations of voice, +mood, tense, etc. + +[Sidenote: _Few forms._] + +237. Verbs in modern English have only four or five forms; for +example, _walk_ has _walk_, _walks_, _walked_, _walking_, sometimes +adding the old forms _walkest_, _walkedst_, _walketh_. Such verbs as +_choose_ have five,--_choose_, _chooses_, _chose_, _choosing_, +_chosen_ (old, _choosest_, _chooseth_, _chosest_). + +The verb _be_ has more forms, since it is composed of several +different roots,--_am_, _are_, _is_, _were_, _been_, etc. + +238. INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB _BE_. + + + Indicative Mood. + + PRESENT TENSE. | PAST TENSE. + | + _Singular_ _Plural_ | _Singular_ _Plural_ + | +1. I am We are | 1. I was We were +2. You are You are | 2. You were You were + (thou art) | (thou wast, wert) +3. [He] is [They] are | 3. [He] was [They were] + + + Subjunctive Mood. + + PRESENT TENSE. | PAST TENSE. + | + _Singular_ _Plural_ | _Singular_ _Plural_ + | +1. I be We be | 1. I were We were +2. You (thou) be You be | 2. You were You were + | (thou wert) +3. [He] be [They] be | 3. [He] were [They] were + + + Imperative Mood. + + PRESENT TENSE, _Singular and Plural_, Be. + +[Sidenote: _Remarks on the verb_ be.] + +239. This conjugation is pieced out with three different roots: (1) +_am_, _is_; (2) _was_, _were_; (3) _be_. + +Instead of the plural _are_, Old English had _beoth_ and _sind_ or +_sindon_, same as the German _sind_. _Are_ is supposed to have come +from the Norse language. + +The old indicative third person plural _be_ is sometimes found in +literature, though it is usually a dialect form; for example,-- + + Where _be_ the sentries who used to salute as the Royal chariots + drove in and out?--THACKERAY + + Where _be_ the gloomy shades, and desolate mountains?--WHITTIER + +[Sidenote: _Uses of_ be.] + +240. The forms of the verb _be_ have several uses:-- + +(1) _As principal verbs._ + + The light that never _was_ on sea and land.--WORDSWORTH. + +(2) _As auxiliary verbs_, in four ways,-- + +(_a_) With verbal forms in _-ing_ (imperfect participle) to form the +definite tenses. + + Broadswords _are maddening_ in the rear,--Each broadsword bright + _was brandishing_ like beam of light.--SCOTT. + +(_b_) With the past participle in _-ed_, _-en_, etc., to form the +passive voice. + + By solemn vision and bright silver dream, + His infancy _was nurtured_. + --SHELLEY. + +(_c_) With past participle of intransitive verbs, being equivalent to +the present perfect and past perfect tenses active; as, + + When we _are gone_ + From every object dear to mortal sight. + --WORDSWORTH + + We drank tea, which _was_ now _become_ an occasional + banquet.--GOLDSMITH. + +(_d_) With the infinitive, to express intention, obligation, +condition, etc.; thus, + + It _was to have been called_ the Order of Minerva.--THACKERAY. + + Ingenuity and cleverness _are to be rewarded_ by State + prizes.--_Id._ + + If I _were to explain_ the motion of a body falling to the + ground.--BURKE + + +241. INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB _CHOOSE_. + + Indicative Mood. + + PRESENT TENSE. + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + + 1. I choose We choose + 2. You choose You choose + 3. [He] chooses [They] choose + + PAST TENSE. + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + + 1. I chose We chose + 2. You chose You chose + 3. [He] chose [They] chose + + Subjunctive Mood. + + PRESENT TENSE. + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + + 1. I choose We choose + 2. You choose You choose + 3. [He] choose [They] choose + + PAST TENSE. + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + + 1. I chose We chose + 2. You chose You chose + 3. [He] chose [They] chose + + Imperative Mood. + + PRESENT TENSE, _Singular and Plural_, Choose. + + +FULL CONJUGATION OF THE VERB _CHOOSE_. + + +[Sidenote: _Machinery of a verb in the voices, tenses, etc._] + +242. In addition to the above _inflected_ forms, there are many +periphrastic or _compound_ forms, made up of auxiliaries with the +infinitives and participles. Some of these have been indicated in +Sec. 240, (2). + +The ordinary tenses yet to be spoken of are made up as follows:-- + +(1) _Future tense_, by using _shall_ and _will_ with the simple or +root form of the verb; as, "I _shall be_," "He _will choose._" + +(2) _Present perfect_, _past perfect_, _future perfect_, tenses, by +placing _have_, _had_, and _shall_ (or _will_) _have_ before the past +participle of any verb; as, "I _have gone_" (present perfect), "I _had +gone_" (past perfect), "I _shall have gone_" (future perfect). + +(3) The _definite form_ of each tense, by using auxiliaries with the +imperfect participle active; as, "I _am running_," "They _had been +running_." + +(4) The _passive forms_, by using the forms of the verb _be_ before +the past participle of verbs; as, "I _was chosen_," "You _are +chosen_." + + +243. The following scheme will show how rich our language is in verb +phrases to express every variety of meaning. Only the third person, +singular number, of each tense, will be given. + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Indicative Mood. + + + _Present._ He chooses. + _Present definite._ He is choosing. + _Past._ He chose. + _Past definite._ He was choosing. + _Future._ He will choose. + _Future definite._ He will he choosing. + _Present perfect._ He has chosen. + _Present perfect definite._ He has been choosing. + _Past perfect._ He had chosen. + _Past perfect definite._ He had been choosing. + _Future perfect._ He will have chosen. + _Future perfect definite._ He will have been choosing. + + Subjunctive Mood. + + _Present._ [If, though, he choose. + _Present definite._ lest, etc.] he be choosing. + _Past._ " he chose (or were to choose). + _Past definite._ " he were choosing + (or were to be choosing). + _Present perfect._ " he have chosen. + _Present perfect definite._ " he have been choosing. + _Past perfect._ " Same as indicative. + _Past perfect definite._ " " " + + + + Imperative Mood. + + + _Present._ (2d per.) Choose. + _Present definite._ " Be choosing. + +NOTE.--Since participles and infinitives are not really verbs, but +verbals, they will be discussed later (Sec. 262). + + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + Indicative Mood. + + + _Present._ He is chosen. + _Present definite._ He is being chosen. + _Past._ He was chosen. + _Past definite._ He was being chosen. + _Future._ He will be chosen. + _Future definite._ None. + _Present perfect._ He has been chosen. + _Present perfect definite._ None. + _Past perfect._ He had been chosen. + _Past perfect definite._ None. + _Future perfect._ He will have been chosen. + _Future perfect definite._ None. + + Subjunctive Mood. + + + _Present._. [If, though, he be chosen. + _Present definite._ lest, etc.] None. + _Past._ " he were chosen + (or were to be chosen). + _Past definite._ " he were being chosen. + _Present perfect._ " he have been chosen. + _Present perfect definite._ " None. + _Past Perfect._ " he had been chosen. + _Past perfect definite._ " None. + + + Imperative Mood. + + + _Present tense._ (2d per.) Be chosen. + +Also, in _affirmative sentences_, the indicative present and past +tenses have emphatic forms made up of _do_ and _did_ with the +infinitive or simple form; as, "He _does strike_," "He _did strike_." + +[_Note to Teacher_.--This table is not to be learned now; if learned +at all, it should be as practice work on strong and weak verb forms. +Exercises should be given, however, to bring up sentences containing +such of these conjugation forms as the pupil will find readily in +literature.] + + + +VERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FORM. + +[Sidenote: _Kinds._] + +244. According to form, verbs are strong or weak. + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +A strong verb forms its past tense by changing the vowel of the +present tense form, but adds no ending; as, _run_, _ran_; _drive_, +_drove_. + +A weak verb always adds an ending to the present to form the past +tense, and _may_ or _may not_ change the vowel: as, _beg_, _begged_; +_lay_, _laid_; _sleep_, _slept_; _catch_, _caught_. + + +245. TABLE OF STRONG VERBS. + +NOTE. Some of these also have weak forms, which are in parentheses + + _Present Tense._ _Past Tense._ _Past Participle._ + + abide abode abode + arise arose arisen + awake awoke (awaked) awoke (awaked) + bear bore {borne (active) + {born (passive) + begin began begun + behold beheld beheld + bid bade, bid bidden, bid + bind bound {bound, + {[_adj._ bounden] + bite bit bitten, bit + blow blew blown + break broke broken + chide chid chidden, chid + choose chose chosen + cleave clove, clave (cleft) cloven (cleft) + climb [clomb] climbed climbed + cling clung clung + come came come + crow crew (crowed) (crowed) + dig dug dug + do did done + draw drew drawn + drink drank {drunk, drank + {[_adj._ drunken] + drive drove driven + eat ate, eat eaten, eat + fall fell fallen + fight fought fought + find found found + fling flung flung + fly flew flown + forbear forbore forborne + forget forgot forgotten + forsake forsook forsaken + freeze froze frozen + get got got [gotten] + give gave given + go went gone + grind ground ground + grow grew grown + hang hung (hanged) hung (hanged) + hold held held + know knew known + lie lay lain + ride rode ridden + ring rang rung + run ran run + see saw seen + shake shook shaken + shear shore (sheared) shorn (sheared) + shine shone shone + shoot shot shot + shrink shrank or shrunk shrunk + shrive shrove shriven + sing sang or sung sung + sink sank or sunk sunk _[adj._ sunken] + sit sat [sate] sat + slay slew slain + slide slid slidden, slid + sling slung slung + slink slunk slunk + smite smote smitten + speak spoke spoken + spin spun spun + spring sprang, sprung sprung + stand stood stood + stave stove (staved) (staved) + steal stole stolen + stick stuck stuck + sting stung stung + stink stunk, stank stunk + stride strode stridden + strike struck struck, stricken + string strung strung + strive strove striven + swear swore sworn + swim swam or swum swum + swing swung swung + take took taken + tear tore torn + thrive throve (thrived) thriven (thrived) + throw threw thrown + tread trod trodden, trod + wear wore worn + weave wove woven + win won won + wind wound wound + wring wrung wrung + write wrote written + + + +Remarks on Certain Verb Forms. + +246. Several of the perfect participles are seldom used except as +adjectives: as, "his _bounden_ duty," "the _cloven_ hoof," "a +_drunken_ wretch," "a _sunken_ snag." _Stricken_ is used mostly of +diseases; as, "_stricken_ with paralysis." + +The verb bear (to bring forth) is peculiar in having one participle +(_borne_) for the active, and another (_born_) for the passive. When +it means _to carry_ or to _endure_, _borne_ is also a passive. + +The form clomb is not used in prose, but is much used in vulgar +English, and sometimes occurs in poetry; as,-- + + Thou hast _clomb_ aloft.--WORDSWORTH + + Or pine grove whither woodman never _clomb_.--COLERIDGE + +The forms of cleave are really a mixture of two verbs,--one meaning +_to adhere_ or _cling_; the other, _to split_. The former used to be +_cleave_, _cleaved_, _cleaved_; and the latter, _cleave_, _clave_ or +_clove_, _cloven_. But the latter took on the weak form _cleft_ in the +past tense and past participle,--as (from Shakespeare), "O Hamlet! +thou hast _cleft_ my heart in twain,"--while _cleave_ (to cling) +sometimes has _clove_, as (from Holmes), "The old Latin tutor _clove_ +to Virgilius Maro." In this confusion of usage, only one set remains +certain,--_cleave_, _cleft_, _cleft_ (to split). + +Crew is seldom found in present-day English. + + Not a cock _crew_, nor a dog barked.--IRVING. + + Our cock, which always _crew_ at eleven, now told us it was time + for repose.--GOLDSMITH. + +Historically, drunk is the one correct past participle of the verb +_drink_. But _drunk_ is very much used as an adjective, instead of +_drunken_ (meaning intoxicated); and, probably to avoid confusion with +this, drank is a good deal used as a past participle: thus,-- + + We had each _drank_ three times at the well.--B. TAYLOR. + + This liquor _was_ generally _drank_ by Wood and Billings. + --THACKERAY. + +Sometimes in literary English, especially in that of an earlier +period, it is found that the verb eat has the past tense and past +participle _eat_ (et), instead of _ate_ and _eaten_; as, for +example,-- + + It ate the food it ne'er had _eat_.--COLERIDGE. + + How fairy Mab the junkets _eat_.--MILTON. + + The island princes overbold + Have _eat_ our substance.--TENNYSON. + +This is also very much used in spoken and vulgar English. + +The form gotten is little used, _got_ being the preferred form of +past participle as well as past tense. One example out of many is,-- + + We _had_ all _got_ safe on shore.--DE FOE. + +Hung and hanged both are used as the past tense and past +participle of _hang_; but _hanged_ is the preferred form when we speak +of execution by hanging; as, + + The butler _was hanged_.--_Bible._ + +The verb sat is sometimes spelled _sate_; for example,-- + + Might we have _sate_ and talked where gowans blow.--WORDSWORTH. + + He _sate_ him down, and seized a pen.--BYRON. + + "But I _sate_ still and finished my plaiting."--KINGSLEY. + +Usually shear is a weak verb. _Shorn_ and _shore_ are not commonly +used: indeed, _shore_ is rare, even in poetry. + + This heard Geraint, and grasping at his sword, + _Shore_ thro' the swarthy neck.--TENNYSON. + +_Shorn_ is used sometimes as a participial adjective, as "a _shorn_ +lamb," but not much as a participle. We usually say, "The sheep were +_sheared_" instead of "The sheep were _shorn_." + +Went is borrowed as the past tense of _go_ from the old verb _wend_, +which is seldom used except in poetry; for example,-- + + If, maiden, thou would'st _wend_ with me + To leave both tower and town.--SCOTT. + +Exercises. + +(_a_) From the table (Sec. 245), make out lists of verbs having the +same vowel changes as each of the following:-- + + 1. Fall, fell, fallen. + + 2. Begin, began, begun. + + 3. Find, found, found. + + 4. Give, gave, given. + + 5. Drive, drove, driven. + + 6. Throw, threw, thrown. + + 7. Fling, flung, flung. + + 8. Break, broke, broken. + + 9. Shake, shook, shaken. + + 10. Freeze, froze, frozen. + +(_b_) Find sentences using ten past-tense forms of strong verbs. + +(_c_) Find sentences using ten past participles of strong verbs. + +[_To the Teacher_,--These exercises should be continued for several +lessons, for full drill on the forms.] + + + +DEFECTIVE STRONG VERBS. + + +247. There are several verbs which are lacking in one or more +principal parts. They are as follows:-- + + PRESENT. PAST. | PRESENT. PAST. + | + may might | [ought] ought + can could | shall should + [must] must | will would + + +248. May is used as either indicative or subjunctive, as it has two +meanings. It is indicative when it expresses _permission_, or, as it +sometimes does, _ability_, like the word _can_: it is subjunctive when +it expresses doubt as to the reality of an action, or when it +expresses wish, purpose, etc. + +[Sidenote: _Indicative Use: Permission. Ability._] + + If I _may_ lightly employ the Miltonic figure, "far off his + coming shines."--WINIER. + + A stripling arm _might_ sway + A mass no host could raise.--SCOTT. + + His superiority none _might_ question.--CHANNING. + +[Sidenote: _Subjunctive use._] + + In whatever manner the separate parts of a constitution _may_ be + arranged, there is one general principle, etc.--PAINE. + +[Sidenote: (_See also Sec. 223._)] + + And from her fair and unpolluted flesh + _May_ violets spring! + --SHAKESPEARE. + + +249. Can is used in the indicative only. The _l_ in _could_ did +not belong there originally, but came through analogy with _should_ +and _would_. _Could_ may be subjunctive, as in Sec. 220. + +250. Must is historically a past-tense form, from the obsolete +verb _motan_, which survives in the sentence, "So _mote_ it be." +_Must_ is present or past tense, according to the infinitive used. + + All _must concede_ to him a sublime power of action.--CHANNING + + This, of course, _must have been_ an ocular + deception.--HAWTHORNE. + +251. The same remarks apply to ought, which is historically the +past tense of the verb _owe_. Like _must_, it is used only in the +indicative mood; as, + + The just imputations on our own faith _ought_ first _to be + removed_.... Have we valuable territories and important + posts...which _ought_ long since _to have been surrendered_?--A. + HAMILTON. + +It will be noticed that all the other defective verbs take the pure +infinitive without _to_, while _ought_ always has _to_. + +Shall and Will. + +252. The principal trouble in the use of _shall_ and _will_ is the +disposition, especially in the United States, to use _will_ and +_would_, to the neglect of _shall_ and _should_, with pronouns of the +first person; as, "I think I _will_ go." + +[Sidenote: _Uses of_ shall _and_ should.] + +The following distinctions must be observed:-- + +(1) With the FIRST PERSON, shall and should are used,-- + +[Sidenote: _Futurity and questions--first person._] + +(_a_) In making simple statements or predictions about future time; +as,-- + + The time will come full soon, I _shall_ be gone.--L.C. MOULTON. + +(_b_) In questions asking for orders, or implying obligation or +authority resting upon the subject; as,-- + + With respect to novels, what _shall_ I say?--N. WEBSTER. + + How _shall_ I describe the luster which at that moment burst upon + my vision?--C. BROCKDEN BROWN. + +[Sidenote: _Second and third persons._] + +(2) With the SECOND AND THIRD PERSONS, _shall_ and _should_ are +used,-- + +(_a_) To express authority, in the form of command, promise, or +confident prediction. The following are examples:-- + + Never mind, my lad, whilst I live thou _shalt_ never want a + friend to stand by thee.--IRVING. + + They _shall_ have venison to eat, and corn to hoe.--COOPER. + + The sea _shall_ crush thee; yea, the ponderous wave up the loose + beach _shall_ grind and scoop thy grave.--THAXTER. + + She _should_ not walk, he said, through the dust and heat of + the noonday; + Nay, she _should_ ride like a queen, not plod along like a + peasant.--LONGFELLOW. + +(_b_) In _indirect quotations_, to express the same idea that the +original speaker put forth (i.e., future action); for example,-- + + He declares that he _shall_ win the purse from you.--BULWER. + + She rejects his suit with scorn, but assures him that she _shall_ + make great use of her power over him.--MACAULAY. + + Fielding came up more and more bland and smiling, with the + conviction that he _should_ win in the end.--A. LARNED. + + Those who had too presumptuously concluded that they _should_ + pass without combat were something disconcerted.--SCOTT. + +(_c_) With _direct questions_ of the second person, when the answer +expected would express simple futurity; thus,-- + + "_Should_ you like to go to school at Canterbury?"--DICKENS. + +[Sidenote: _First, second and third persons._] + +(3) With ALL THREE PERSONS,-- + +(_a_) _Should_ is used with the meaning of obligation, and is +equivalent to _ought_. + + I never was what I _should_ be.--H. JAMES, JR. + + Milton! thou _should'st_ be living at this hour.--WORDSWORTH. + + He _should_ not flatter himself with the delusion that he can + make or unmake the reputation of other men.--WINTER. + +(_b_) _Shall_ and _should_ are both used in _dependent clauses_ of +condition, time, purpose, etc.; for example,-- + + When thy mind + _Shall_ be a mansion for all stately forms.--WORDSWORTH. + + Suppose this back-door gossip _should_ be utterly blundering and + untrue, would any one wonder?--THACKERAY. + + Jealous lest the sky _should_ have a listener.--BYRON. + + If thou _should'st_ ever come by chance or choice to + Modena.--ROGERS. + + If I _should_ be where I no more can hear thy voice.--WORDSWORTH. + + That accents and looks so winning _should_ disarm me of my + resolution, was to be expected.--C.B. BROWN. + + +253. Will and would are used as follows:-- + +[Sidenote: _Authority as to future action--first person._] + +(1) With the FIRST PERSON, _will_ and _would_ are used to express +determination as to the future, or a promise; as, for example,-- + + I _will_ go myself now, and _will_ not return until all is + finished.--CABLE. + + And promised...that I _would_ do him justice, as the sole + inventor.--SWIFT. + +[Sidenote: _Disguising a command._] + +(2) With the SECOND PERSON, _will_ is used to express command. This +puts the order more mildly, as if it were merely expected action; +as,-- + + Thou _wilt_ take the skiff, Roland, and two of my people,... and + fetch off certain plate and belongings.--SCOTT. + + You _will_ proceed to Manassas at as early a moment as + practicable, and mark on the grounds the works, etc.--_War + Records._ + +[Sidenote: _Mere futurity._] + +(3) With both SECOND AND THIRD PERSONS, _will_ and _would_ are used to +express simple futurity, action merely expected to occur; for +example,-- + + All this _will_ sound wild and chimerical.--BURKE. + + She _would_ tell you that punishment is the reward of the + wicked.--LANDOR. + + When I am in town, _you'll_ always have somebody to sit with you. + To be sure, so you _will_.--DICKENS. + +(4) With FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD PERSONS, _would_ is used to express +a _wish_,--the original meaning of the word _will_; for example,-- + +[Sidenote: _Subject_ I _omitted: often so._] + + _Would_ that a momentary emanation from thy glory would visit + me!--C.B. BROWN. + + Thine was a dangerous gift, when thou wast born, The gift of + Beauty. _Would_ thou hadst it not.--ROGERS + + It shall be gold if thou _wilt_, but thou shalt answer to me for + the use of it.--SCOTT. + + What _wouldst_ thou have a good great man obtain?--COLERIDGE. + +(5) With the THIRD PERSON, _will_ and _would_ often denote an action +as customary, without regard to future time; as, + + They _will_ go to Sunday schools, through storms their brothers + are afraid of.... They _will_ stand behind a table at a fair all + day.--HOLMES + + On a slight suspicion, they _would_ cut off the hands of numbers + of the natives, for punishment or intimidation.--BANCROFT. + + In this stately chair _would_ he sit, and this magnificent pipe + _would_ he smoke, shaking his right knee with a constant + motion.--IRVING. + + +Conjugation of _Shall_ and _Will_ as Auxiliaries (with _Choose_). + + +254. To express simply expected action:-- + + ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Singular_. _Singular_. + + 1. I shall choose. I shall be chosen. + 2. You will choose. You will be chosen. + 3. [He] will choose. [He] will be chosen. + + _Plural_. _Plural_. + + 1. We shall choose. We shall be chosen. + 2. You will choose. You will be chosen. + 3. [They] will choose. [They] will be chosen. + + To express determination, promise, etc.:-- + + ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Singular_. _Singular_. + + 1. I will choose. I will be chosen. + 2. You shall choose. You shall be chosen. + 3. [He] shall choose. [He] shall be chosen. + + ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Plural_. _Plural_. + + 1. We will choose. 1. We will be chosen. + 2. You shall choose. 2. You shall be chosen. + 3. [They] shall choose. 3. [They] shall be chosen. + + +Exercises on _Shall_ and _Will_. + +(_a_) From Secs. 252 and 253, write out a summary or outline of the +various uses of _shall_ and _will_. + +(_b_) Examine the following sentences, and justify the use of _shall_ +and _will_, or correct them if wrongly used:-- + +1. Thou art what I would be, yet only seem. + +2. We would be greatly mistaken if we thought so. + +3. Thou shalt have a suit, and that of the newest cut; the wardrobe +keeper shall have orders to supply you. + +4. "I shall not run," answered Herbert stubbornly. + +5. He informed us, that in the course of another day's march we would +reach the prairies on the banks of the Grand Canadian. + +6. What shall we do with him? This is the sphinx-like riddle which we +must solve if we would not be eaten. + +7. Will not our national character be greatly injured? Will we not be +classed with the robbers and destroyers of mankind? + +8. Lucy stood still, very anxious, and wondering whether she should +see anything alive. + +9. I would be overpowered by the feeling of my disgrace. + +10. No, my son; whatever cash I send you is yours: you will spend it +as you please, and I have nothing to say. + +11. But I will doubtless find some English person of whom to make +inquiries. + +12. Without having attended to this, we will be at a loss to +understand several passages in the classics. + +13. "I am a wayfarer," the stranger said, "and would like permission +to remain with you a little while." + +14. The beast made a sluggish movement, then, as if he would have more +of the enchantment, stirred her slightly with his muzzle. + + +WEAK VERBS. + + +255. Those weak verbs which add _-d_ or _-ed_ to form the past tense +and past participle, and have no change of vowel, are so easily +recognized as to need no special treatment. Some of them are already +given as secondary forms of the strong verbs. + +But the rest, which may be called irregular weak verbs, need some +attention and explanation. + + +256. The irregular weak verbs are divided into two classes,-- + +[Sidenote: _The two classes of irregular weak verbs._] + +(1) Those which retain the _-d_ or _-t_ in the past tense, with some +change of form for the past tense and past participle. + +(2) Those which end in _-d_ or _-t_, and have lost the ending which +formerly was added to this. + +The old ending to verbs of Class II. was _-de_ or _-te_; as,-- + + This worthi man ful wel his wit _bisette_ [used].--CHAUCER. + + Of smale houndes _hadde_ she, that sche _fedde_ With rosted + flessh, or mylk and wastel breed.--_Id._ + +This ending has now dropped off, leaving some weak verbs with the same +form throughout: as set, set, set; put, put, put. + + +257. Irregular Weak Verbs.--Class I. + + _Present Tense_. _Past Tense_. _Past Participle_. + + bereave bereft, bereave bereft, bereaved + beseech besought besought + burn burned, burnt burnt + buy bought bought + catch caught caught + creep crept crept + deal dealt dealt + dream dreamt, dreamed dreamt, dreamed + dwell dwelt dwelt + feel felt felt + flee fled fled + have had had (_once_ haved) + hide hid hidden, hid + keep kept kept + kneel knelt knelt + lay laid laid + lean leaned, leant leaned, leant + leap leaped, leapt leaped, leapt + leave left left + lose lost lost + make made (_once_ maked) made + mean meant meant + pay paid paid + pen [inclose] penned, pen penned, pent + say said said + seek sought sought + sell sold sold + shoe shod shod + sleep slept slept + spell spelled, spelt spelt + spill spilt spilt + stay staid, stayed staid, stayed + sweep swept swept + teach taught taught + tell told told + think thought thought + weep wept wept + work worked, wrought worked, wrought + + +258. Irregular Weak Verbs.--Class II. + + _Present Tense_. _Past Tense_. _Past Participle_. + + bend bent, bended bent, bended + bleed bled bled + breed bred bred + build built built + cast cast cast + cost cost cost + feed fed fed + gild gilded, gilt gilded, gilt + gird girt, girded girt, girded + hit hit hit + hurt hurt hurt + knit knit, knitted knit, knitted + lead led led + let let let + light lighted, lit lighted, lit + meet met met + put put put + quit quit, quitted quit, quitted + read read read + rend rent rent + rid rid rid + send sent sent + set set set + shed shed shed + shred shred shred + shut shut shut + slit slit slit + speed sped sped + spend spent spent + spit spit [_obs._ spat] spit [_obs._ spat] + split split split + spread spread spread + sweat sweat sweat + thrust thrust thrust + wed wed, wedded wed, wedded + wet wet, wetted wet, wetted + + +[Sidenote: _Tendency to phonetic spelling._] + +250. There seems to be in Modern English a growing tendency toward +phonetic spelling in the past tense and past participle of weak verbs. +For example, _-ed_, after the verb _bless_, has the sound of _t_: +hence the word is often written _blest_. So with _dipt_, _whipt_, +_dropt_, _tost_, _crost_, _drest_, _prest_, etc. This is often seen in +poetry, and is increasing in prose. + + +Some Troublesome Verbs. + + +[Sidenote: Lie _and_ lay _in use and meaning._] + +260. Some sets of verbs are often confused by young students, weak +forms being substituted for correct, strong forms. + +Lie and lay need close attention. These are the forms:-- + + _Present Tense._ _Past Tense._ _Pres. Participle._ _Past Participle._ + + 1. Lie lay lying lain + 2. Lay laid laying laid + +The distinctions to be observed are as follows:-- + +(1) _Lie_, with its forms, is regularly _intransitive_ as to use. As +to meaning, _lie_ means to rest, to recline, to place one's self in a +recumbent position; as, "There _lies_ the ruin." + +(2) _Lay_, with its forms, is always _transitive_ as to use. As to +meaning, _lay_ means to put, to place a person or thing in position; +as, "Slowly and sadly we _laid_ him down." Also _lay_ may be used +without any object expressed, but there is still a transitive meaning; +as in the expressions, "to _lay_ up for future use," "to _lay_ on with +the rod," "to _lay_ about him lustily." + + +[Sidenote: Sit _and_ set.] + +261. Sit and set have principal parts as follows:-- + + _Present Tense._ _Past Tense._ _Pres. Participle._ _Past Participle._ + + 1. Sit sat sitting sat + 2. Set set setting set + +Notice these points of difference between the two verbs:-- + +(1) _Sit_, with its forms, is always _intransitive_ in use. In +meaning, _sit_ signifies (_a_) to place one's self on a seat, to rest; +(_b_) to be adjusted, to fit; (_c_) to cover and warm eggs for +hatching, as, "The hen _sits_." + +(2) _Set_, with its forms, is always _transitive_ in use when it has +the following meanings: (_a_) to put or place a thing or person in +position, as "He _set_ down the book;" (_b_) to fix or establish, as, +"He _sets_ a good example." + +_Set_ is _intransitive_ when it means (_a_) to go down, to decline, +as, "The sun has _set_;" (_b_) to become fixed or rigid, as, "His eyes +_set_ in his head because of the disease;" (_c_) in certain idiomatic +expressions, as, for example, "to _set_ out," "to _set_ up in +business," "to _set_ about a thing," "to _set_ to work," "to _set_ +forward," "the tide _sets_ in," "a strong wind _set_ in," etc. + + +Exercise. + +Examine the forms of _lie_, _lay_, _sit_ and _set_ in these sentences; +give the meaning of each, and correct those used wrongly. + +1. If the phenomena which lie before him will not suit his purpose, +all history must be ransacked. + +2. He sat with his eyes fixed partly on the ghost and partly on +Hamlet, and with his mouth open. + +3. The days when his favorite volume set him upon making wheelbarrows +and chairs,... can never again be the realities they were. + +4. To make the jacket sit yet more closely to the body, it was +gathered at the middle by a broad leathern belt. + +5. He had set up no unattainable standard of perfection. + +6. For more than two hundred years his bones lay undistinguished. + +7. The author laid the whole fault on the audience. + +8. Dapple had to lay down on all fours before the lads could bestride +him. + +9. And send'st him...to his gods where happy lies + His petty hope in some near port or bay, + And dashest him again to earth:--there let him lay. + +10. Achilles is the swift-footed when he is sitting still. + +11. It may be laid down as a general rule, that history begins in +novel, and ends in essay. + +12. I never took off my clothes, but laid down in them. + + + + +VERBALS. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +262. Verbals are words that express action in a general way, +without limiting the action to any time, or asserting it of any +subject. + +[Sidenote: _Kinds._] + +Verbals may be participles, infinitives, or gerunds. + + +PARTICIPLES. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +263. Participles are _adjectival_ verbals; that is, they either +belong to some substantive by expressing action in connection with it, +or they express action, and directly modify a substantive, thus having +a descriptive force. Notice these functions. + +[Sidenote: _Pure participle in function._] + + 1. At length, _wearied_ by his cries and agitations, and not + _knowing_ how to put an end to them, he addressed the animal as + if he had been a rational being.--DWIGHT. + +Here _wearied_ and _knowing_ belong to the subject _he_, and express +action in connection with it, but do not describe. + +[Sidenote: _Express action and also describe._] + + 2. Another name glided into her petition--it was that of the + _wounded_ Christian, whom fate had placed in the hands of + bloodthirsty men, his _avowed_ enemies.--SCOTT. + +Here _wounded_ and _avowed_ are participles, but are used with the +same adjectival force that _bloodthirsty_ is (see Sec. 143, 4). + +Participial adjectives have been discussed in Sec. 143 (4), but we +give further examples for the sake of comparison and distinction. + +[Sidenote: _Fossil participles as adjectives._] + + 3. As _learned_ a man may live in a cottage or a college + commmon-room.--THACKERAY + + 4. Not merely to the soldier are these campaigns _interesting_ + --BAYNE. + + 5. How _charming_ is divine philosophy!--MILTON. + + +[Sidenote: _Forms of the participle._] + +264. Participles, in expressing action, may be active or +passive, incomplete (or imperfect), complete (perfect or past), +and perfect definite. + +They cannot be divided into tenses (present, past, etc.), because they +have no tense of their own, but derive their tense from the verb on +which they depend; for example,-- + + 1. He walked conscientiously through the services of the day, + _fulfilling_ every section the minutest, etc.--DE QUINCEY. + +_Fulfilling_ has the form to denote continuance, but depends on the +verb _walked_, which is past tense. + + + 2. Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, + Comes _dancing_ from the East.--MILTON. + +_Dancing_ here depends on a verb in the present tense. + + +265. PARTICIPLES OF THE VERB _CHOOSE_. + + ACTIVE VOICE. + +_Imperfect._ Choosing. +_Perfect._ Having chosen. +_Perfect definite._ Having been choosing. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + +_Imperfect._ None +_Perfect._ Chosen, being chosen, having been chosen. +_Perfect definite._ None. + + +Exercise. + +Pick out the participles, and tell whether active or passive, +imperfect, perfect, or perfect definite. If pure participles, tell to +what word they belong; if adjectives, tell what words they modify. + +1. The change is a large process, accomplished within a large and +corresponding space, having, perhaps, some central or equatorial line, +but lying, like that of our earth, between certain tropics, or limits +widely separated. + +2. I had fallen under medical advice the most misleading that it is +possible to imagine. + +3. These views, being adopted in a great measure from my mother, were +naturally the same as my mother's. + +4. Endowed with a great command over herself, she soon obtained an +uncontrolled ascendency over her people. + +5. No spectacle was more adapted to excite wonder. + +6. Having fully supplied the demands of nature in this respect, I +returned to reflection on my situation. + +7. Three saplings, stripped of their branches and bound together at +their ends, formed a kind of bedstead. + +8. This all-pervading principle is at work in our system,--the +creature warring against the creating power. + +9. Perhaps I was too saucy and provoking. + +10. Nothing of the kind having been done, and the principles of this +unfortunate king having been distorted,... try clemency. + + + +INFINITIVES. + + +266. Infinitives, like participles, have no tense. When active, +they have an indefinite, an imperfect, a perfect, and a perfect +definite form; and when passive, an indefinite and a perfect form, to +express action unconnected with a subject. + + +267. INFINITIVES OF THE VERB _CHOOSE._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + +_Indefinite._ [To] choose. _Imperfect._ [To] be choosing. + _Perfect._ [To] have chosen. + _Perfect definite._ [To] have been choosing. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + +_Indefinite._ [To] be chosen. _Perfect._ [To] have been chosen. + + +[Sidenote: To _with the infinitive._] + +268. In Sec. 267 the word _to_ is printed in brackets because it is +not a necessary part of the infinitive. + +It originally belonged only to an inflected form of the infinitive, +expressing purpose; as in the Old English, "Ut eode se saedere his saed +to sawenne" (Out went the sower his seed _to sow_). + +[Sidenote: _Cases when_ to _is omitted._] + +But later, when inflections became fewer, _to_ was used before the +infinitive generally, except in the following cases:-- + +(1) After the auxiliaries _shall_, _will_ (with _should_ and _would_). + +(2) After the verbs _may (might), can (could), must_; also _let_, +_make_, _do_ (as, "I _do go_" etc.), _see_, _bid_ (command), _feel_, +_hear_, _watch_, _please_; sometimes _need_ (as, "He _need_ not _go_") +and _dare_ (to venture). + +(3) After _had_ in the idiomatic use; as, "You _had_ better _go_" "He +_had_ rather _walk_ than _ride_." + +(4) In exclamations; as in the following examples:-- + + "He _find_ pleasure in doing good!" cried Sir + William.--GOLDSMITH. + + + + I _urge_ an address to his kinswoman! I _approach_ her when in a + base disguise! I _do_ this!--SCOTT. + + "She _ask_ my pardon, poor woman!" cried Charles.--MACAULAY. + + +269. _Shall_ and _will_ are not to be taken as separate verbs, but +with the infinitive as one tense of a verb; as, "He _will choose_," "I +_shall have chosen_," etc. + +Also _do_ may be considered an auxiliary in the interrogative, +negative, and emphatic forms of the present and past, also in the +imperative; as,-- + + What! _doth_ she, too, as the credulous imagine, _learn_ [_doth + learn_ is one verb, present tense] the love of the great stars? + --BULWER. + + _Do_ not _entertain_ so weak an imagination--BURKE. + + She _did_ not _weep_--she _did_ not _break forth_ into + reproaches.--IRVING. + + +270. The infinitive is sometimes active in form while it is passive +in meaning, as in the expression, "a house _to let_." Examples are,-- + + She was a kind, liberal woman; rich rather more than needed where + there were no opera boxes _to rent_.--DE QUINCEY. + + Tho' it seems my spurs are yet _to win_.--TENNYSON. + + But there was nothing _to do_.--HOWELLS. + + They shall have venison _to eat_, and corn _to hoe_.--COOPER. + + Nolan himself saw that something was _to pay_.--E.E. HALE. + + +271. The various offices which the infinitive and the participle +have in the sentence will be treated in Part II., under "Analysis," as +we are now learning merely to recognize the forms. + + + +GERUNDS. + + +272. The gerund is like the participle in form, and like a noun in +use. + +The participle has been called an adjectival verbal; the gerund may +be called a _noun verbal_. While the gerund expresses action, it has +several attributes of a noun,--it may be governed as a noun; it may be +the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or a preposition; it is +often preceded by the definite article; it is frequently modified by a +possessive noun or pronoun. + + +[Sidenote: _Distinguished from participle and verbal noun._] + +273. It differs from the participle in being always used as a noun: +it never belongs to or limits a noun. + +It differs from the verbal noun in having the property of governing a +noun (which the verbal noun has not) and of expressing action (the +verbal noun merely names an action, Sec. II). + +The following are examples of the uses of the gerund:-- + +(1) _Subject_: "The _taking_ of means not to see another morning had +all day absorbed every energy;" "Certainly _dueling_ is bad, and has +been put down." + +(2) _Object_: (_a_) "Our culture therefore must not omit the _arming_ +of the man." (_b_) "Nobody cares for _planting_ the poor fungus;" "I +announce the good of _being interpenetrated_ by the mind that made +nature;" "The guilt of _having been cured_ of the palsy by a Jewish +maiden." + +(3) _Governing and Governed_: "We are far from _having exhausted_ the +significance of the few symbols we use," also (2, _b_), above; "He +could embellish the characters with new traits without _violating_ +probability;" "He could not help _holding_ out his hand in return." + +Exercise.--Find sentences containing five participles, five +infinitives, and five gerunds. + + + +SUMMARY OF WORDS IN _-ING_. + + +274. Words in -ing are of six kinds, according to use as well as +meaning. They are as follows:-- + +(1) _Part of the verb_, making the definite tenses. + +(2) _Pure participles_, which express action, but do not assert. + +(3) _Participial adjectives_, which express action and also modify. + +(4) _Pure adjectives_, which have lost all verbal force. + +(5) _Gerunds_, which express action, may govern and be governed. + +(6) _Verbal nouns,_ which name an action or state, but cannot govern. + + +Exercise. + +Tell to which of the above six classes each _-ing_ word in the +following sentences belongs:-- + +1. Here is need of apologies for shortcomings. + +2. Then how pleasing is it, on your leaving the spot, to see the +returning hope of the parents, when, after examining the nest, they +find the nurslings untouched! + +3. The crowning incident of my life was upon the bank of the Scioto +Salt Creek, in which I had been unhorsed by the breaking of the saddle +girths. + +4. What a vast, brilliant, and wonderful store of learning! + +5. He is one of the most charming masters of our language. + +6. In explaining to a child the phenomena of nature, you must, by +object lessons, give reality to your teaching. + +7. I suppose I was dreaming about it. What is dreaming? + +8. It is years since I heard the laughter ringing. + +9. Intellect is not speaking and logicizing: it is seeing and +ascertaining. + +10. We now draw toward the end of that great martial drama which we +have been briefly contemplating. + +11. The second cause of failure was the burning of Moscow. + +12. He spread his blessings all over the land. + +13. The only means of ascending was by my hands. + +14. A marble figure of Mary is stretched upon the tomb, round which is +an iron railing, much corroded, bearing her national emblem. + +15. The exertion left me in a state of languor and sinking. + +16. Thackeray did not, like Sir Walter Scott, write twenty pages +without stopping, but, dictating from his chair, he gave out sentence +by sentence, slowly. + + + + +HOW TO PARSE VERBS AND VERBALS. + + +I. VERBS. + + +275. In parsing verbs, give the following points:-- + +(1) Class: (_a_) as to _form_,--strong or weak, giving principal +parts; (_b_) as to _use_,--transitive or intransitive. + +(2) Voice,--active or passive. + +(3) Mood,--indicative, subjunctive, or imperative. + +(4) Tense,--which of the tenses given in Sec. 234. + +(5) Person and number, in determining which you must tell-- + +(6) What the subject is, for the form of the verb may not show the +person and number. + + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +276. It has been intimated in Sec. 235, we must beware of the rule, +"A verb agrees with its subject in person and number." Sometimes it +does; usually it does not, if _agrees_ means that the verb changes its +form for the different persons and numbers. The verb _be_ has more +forms than other verbs, and may be said to _agree_ with its subject in +several of its forms. But unless the verb is present, and ends in +_-s_, or is an old or poetic form ending in _-st_ or _-eth_, it is +best for the student not to state it as a general rule that "the verb +agrees with its subject in person and number," but merely to _tell +what the subject of the verb is_. + + + +II. VERB PHRASES. + + +277. Verb phrases are made up of a principal verb followed by an +infinitive, and should always be analyzed as phrases, and not taken as +single verbs. Especially frequent are those made up of _should_, +_would_, _may_, _might_, _can_, _could_, _must_, followed by a pure +infinitive without _to_. Take these examples:-- + +1. Lee _should_ of himself _have replenished_ his stock. + +2. The government _might have been_ strong and prosperous. + +In such sentences as 1, call _should_ a weak verb, intransitive, +therefore active; indicative, past tense; has for its subject _Lee_. +_Have replenished_ is a perfect active infinitive. + +In 2, call _might_ a weak verb, intransitive, active, indicative (as +it means could), past tense; has the subject _government_. _Have been_ +is a perfect active infinitive. + +For fuller parsing of the infinitive, see Sec. 278(2). + + +III. VERBALS. + + +278. (1) Participle. Tell (_a_) from what verb it is derived; +(_b_) whether active or passive, imperfect, perfect, etc.; (_c_) to +what word it belongs. If a participial adjective, give points (_a_) +and (_b_), then parse it as an adjective. + +(2) Infinitive. Tell (_a_) from what verb it is derived; (_b_) +whether indefinite, perfect, definite, etc. + +(3) Gerund. (_a_) From what verb derived; (_b_) its use (Sec. 273). + + +Exercise. + +Parse the verbs, verbals, and verb phrases in the following +sentences:-- + +1. Byron builds a structure that repeats certain elements in nature or +humanity. + +2. The birds were singing as if there were no aching hearts, no sin +nor sorrow, in the world. + +3. Let it rise! let it rise, till it meet the sun in his coming; let +the earliest light of the morning gild it, and parting day linger and +play on its summit. + +4. You are gathered to your fathers, and live only to your country in +her grateful remembrance. + +5. Read this Declaration at the head of the army. + +6. Right graciously he smiled on us, as rolled from wing to wing, + Down all the line, a deafening shout, "God save our Lord the King!" + +7. When he arose in the morning, he thought only of her, and wondered +if she were yet awake. + +8. He had lost the quiet of his thoughts, and his agitated soul +reflected only broken and distorted images of things. + +9. So, lest I be inclined + To render ill for ill, + Henceforth in me instill, + O God, a sweet good will. + +10. The sun appears to beat in vain at the casements. + +11. Margaret had come into the workshop with her sewing, as usual. + +12. Two things there are with memory will abide-- + Whatever else befall--while life flows by. + +13. To the child it was not permitted to look beyond into the hazy +lines that bounded his oasis of flowers. + +14. With them, morning is not a new issuing of light, a new bursting +forth of the sun; a new waking up of all that has life, from a sort of +temporary death. + +15. Whatever ground you sow or plant, see that it is in good +condition. + +16. However that be, it is certain that he had grown to delight in +nothing else than this conversation. + +17. The soul having been often born, or, as the Hindoos say, +"traveling the path of existence through thousands of births," there +is nothing of which she has not gained knowledge. + +18. The ancients called it ecstasy or absence,--a getting-out of their +bodies to think. + +19. Such a boy could not whistle or dance. + +20. He had rather stand charged with the imbecility of skepticism than +with untruth. + +21. He can behold with serenity the yawning gulf between the ambition +of man and his power of performance. + +22. He passed across the room to the washstand, leaving me upon the +bed, where I afterward found he had replaced me on being awakened by +hearing me leap frantically up and down on the floor. + +23. In going for water, he seemed to be traveling over a desert plain +to some far-off spring. + +24. Hasheesh always brings an awakening of perception which magnifies +the smallest sensation. + +25. I have always talked to him as I would to a friend. + +26. Over them multitudes of rosy children came leaping to throw +garlands on my victorious road. + +27. Oh, had we some bright little isle of our own! + +28. Better it were, thou sayest, to consent; + Feast while we may, and live ere life be spent. + +29. And now wend we to yonder fountain, for the hour of rest is at +hand. + + + + +ADVERBS. + + +[Sidenote: _Adverbs modify._] + +279. The word _adverb_ means _joined to a verb_. The adverb is the +only word that can join to a verb to modify it. + +[Sidenote: _A verb._] + +When action is expressed, an adverb is usually added to define the +action in some way,--time, place, or manner: as, "He began _already_ +to be proud of being a Rugby boy [time];" "One of the young heroes +scrambled up _behind_ [place];" "He was absolute, but _wisely_ and +_bravely_ ruling [manner]." + +[Sidenote: _An adjective or an adverb._] + +But this does not mean that adverbs modify verbs _only_: many of them +express degree, and limit adjectives or adverbs; as, "William's +private life was _severely_ pure;" "Principles of English law are put +down _a little_ confusedly." + +[Sidenote: _Sometimes a noun or pronoun._] + +Sometimes an adverb may modify a noun or pronoun; for example,-- + + The young man reveres men of genius, because, to speak truly, + they are _more_ himself than he is.--EMERSON. + + Is it _only_ poets, and men of leisure and cultivation, who live + with nature?--_Id._ + + To the _almost_ terror of the persons present, Macaulay began + with the senior wrangler of 1801-2-3-4, and so on.--THACKERAY. + + Nor was it _altogether_ nothing.--CARLYLE. + + Sounds overflow the listener's brain So sweet that joy is + _almost_ pain.--SHELLEY. + + The condition of Kate is _exactly_ that of Coleridge's "Ancient + Mariner."--DE QUINCEY. + + He was _incidentally_ news dealer.--T.B. ALDRICH. + +NOTE.--These last differ from the words in Sec. 169, being adverbs +naturally and fitly, while those in Sec. 169 are felt to be +elliptical, and rather forced into the service of adjectives. + +Also these adverbs modifying nouns are to be distinguished from those +standing _after_ a noun by ellipsis, but really modifying, not the +noun, but some verb understood; thus,-- + + The gentle winds and waters [that are] near, Make music to the + lonely ear.--BYRON. + + With bowering leaves [that grow] _o'erhead_, to which the eye + Looked up half sweetly, and half awfully.--LEIGH HUNT. + +[Sidenote: _A phrase._] + +An adverb may modify a phrase which is equivalent to an adjective or +an adverb, as shown in the sentences,-- + + They had begun to make their effort much _at the same + time_.--TROLLOPE. + + I draw forth the fruit, all wet and glossy, maybe _nibbled by + rabbits and hollowed out by crickets_, and perhaps _with a leaf + or two cemented to it_, but still _with a rich bloom to + it_.--THOREAU. + +[Sidenote: _A clause or sentence._] + +It may also modify a sentence, emphasizing or qualifying the +statement expressed; as, for example,-- + + And _certainly_ no one ever entered upon office with so few + resources of power in the past.--LOWELL. + + _Surely_ happiness is reflective, like the light of heaven. + --IRVING. + + We are offered six months' credit; and that, _perhaps_, has + induced some of us to attend it.--FRANKLIN. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +280. An adverb, then, is a modifying word, which may qualify an +action word or a statement, and may add to the meaning of an adjective +or adverb, or a word group used as such. + +NOTE.--The expression _action word_ is put instead of _verb_, because +_any_ verbal word may be limited by an adverb, not simply the forms +used in predication. + + +281. Adverbs may be classified in two ways: (1) according to the +meaning of the words; (2) according to their use in the sentence. + + +ADVERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO MEANING. + + +282. Thus considered, there are six classes:-- + +(1) Time; as _now_, _to-day_, _ever_, _lately_, _before_, +_hitherto_, etc. + +(2) Place. These may be adverbs either of + +(_a_) PLACE WHERE; as _here_, _there_, _where_, _near_, _yonder_, +_above_, etc. + +(_b_) PLACE TO WHICH; as _hither_, _thither_, _whither_, +_whithersoever_, etc. + +(_c_) PLACE FROM WHICH; as _hence_, _thence_, _whence_, +_whencesoever_, etc. + +(3) Manner, telling _how_ anything is done; as _well_, _slowly_, +_better_, _bravely_, _beautifully_. Action is conceived or performed +in so many ways, that these adverbs form a very large class. + +(4) Number, telling _how many times_: _once_, _twice_, _singly_, +_two by two_, etc. + +(5) Degree, telling _how much_; as _little_, _slightly_, _too_, +_partly_, _enough_, _greatly_, _much_, _very_, _just_, etc. (see also +Sec. 283). + +(6) Assertion, telling the speaker's belief or disbelief in a +statement, or how far he believes it to be true; as _perhaps_, +_maybe_, _surely_, _possibly_, _probably_, _not_, etc. + + +[Sidenote: _Special remarks on adverbs of degree._] + +283. The is an adverb of degree when it limits an adjective or an +adverb, especially the comparative of these words; thus,-- + + But not _the_ less the blare of the tumultuous organ wrought its + own separate creations.--DE QUINCEY. + + _The_ more they multiply, _the_ more friends you will have; _the_ + more evidently they love liberty, _the_ more perfect will be + their obedience.--BURKE. + +This and that are very common as adverbs in spoken English, and +not infrequently are found in literary English; for example,-- + + The master...was for _this_ once of her opinion.--R. LOUIS + STEVENSON. + + Death! To die! I owe _that_ much To what, at least, I + was.--BROWNING. + + _This_ long's the text.--SHAKESPEARE. + +[Sidenote _The status of such_.] + +Such is frequently used as an equivalent of _so_: _such_ precedes an +adjective with its noun, while _so_ precedes only the adjective +usually. + + Meekness,...which gained him _such_ universal + popularity.--IRVING. + + _Such_ a glittering appearance that no ordinary man would have + been able to close his eyes there.--HAWTHORNE. + + An eye of _such_ piercing brightness and _such_ commanding power + that it gave an air of inspiration.--LECKY. + +So also in Grote, Emerson, Thackeray, Motley, White, and others. + +[Sidenote: _Pretty._] + +Pretty has a wider adverbial use than it gets credit for. + + I believe our astonishment is _pretty_ equal.--FIELDING. + + Hard blows and hard money, the feel of both of which you know + _pretty_ well by now.--KINGSLEY. + + The first of these generals is _pretty_ generally recognized as + the greatest military genius that ever lived.--BAYNE. + + A _pretty_ large experience.--THACKERAY. + +_Pretty_ is also used by Prescott, Franklin, De Quincey, Defoe, +Dickens, Kingsley, Burke, Emerson, Aldrich, Holmes, and other writers. + +[Sidenote: Mighty.] + +The adverb mighty is very common in colloquial English; for example,-- + + "_Mighty_ well, Deacon Gookin!" replied the solemn tones of the + minister.--HAWTHORNE. + + "Maybe you're wanting to get over?--anybody sick? Ye seem + _mighty_ anxious!"--H.B. STOWE. + +It is only occasionally used in literary English; for example,-- + + You are _mighty_ courteous.--BULWER. + + Beau Fielding, a _mighty_ fine gentleman.--THACKERAY. + + "Peace, Neville," said the king, "thou think'st thyself _mighty_ + wise, and art but a fool."--SCOTT. + + I perceived his sisters _mighty_ busy.--GOLDSMITH. + + +[Sidenote: _Notice meanings._] + +284. Again, the meaning of words must be noticed rather than their +form; for many words given above may be moved from one class to +another at will: as these examples,--"He walked too _far_ [place];" +"That were _far_ better [degree];" "He spoke _positively_ [manner];" +"That is _positively_ untrue [assertion];" "I have seen you _before_ +[time];" "The house, and its lawn _before_ [place]." + + + +ADVERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO USE. + + +[Sidenote: _Simple._] + +285. All adverbs which have no function in the sentence except to +modify are called simple adverbs. Such are most of those given +already in Sec. 282. + +[Sidenote: _Interrogative._] + +286. Some adverbs, besides modifying, have the additional function +of asking a question. + +[Sidenote: _Direct questions._] + +These may introduce direct questions of-- + +(1) Time. + + _When_ did this humane custom begin?--H. CLAY. + +(2) Place. + + _Where_ will you have the scene?--LONGFELLOW + +(3) Manner. + + And _how_ looks it now?--HAWTHORNE. + +(4) Degree. + + "_How_ long have you had this whip?" asked he.--BULWER. + +(5) Reason. + + _Why_ that wild stare and wilder cry?--WHITTIER + + Now _wherefore_ stopp'st thou me?--COLERIDGE + +[Sidenote: _Indirect questions._] + +Or they may introduce indirect questions of-- + +(1) Time. + + I do not remember _when_ I was taught to read.--D. WEBSTER. + +(2) Place. + + I will not ask _where_ thou liest low.--BYRON + +(3) Manner. + + Who set you to cast about what you should say to the select + souls, or _how_ to say anything to such?--EMERSON. + +(4) Degree. + + Being too full of sleep to understand + _How_ far the unknown transcends the what we know. + --LONGFELLOW + +(5) Reason. + + I hearkened, I know not _why_.--POE. + + +287. There is a class of words usually classed as conjunctive +adverbs, as they are said to have the office of conjunctions in +joining clauses, while having the office of adverbs in modifying; for +example,-- + + _When_ last I saw thy young blue eyes, they smiled.--BYRON. + +But in reality, _when_ does not express time and modify, but the whole +clause, _when_..._eyes_; and _when_ has simply the use of a +conjunction, not an adverb. For further discussion, see Sec. 299 under +"Subordinate Conjunctions." + + +Exercise.--Bring up sentences containing twenty adverbs, +representing four classes. + + + +COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. + + +288. Many adverbs are compared, and, when compared, have the same +inflection as adjectives. + +The following, irregularly compared, are often used as adjectives:-- + + _Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._ + + well better best + ill or badly worse worst + much more most + little less least + nigh or near nearer nearest or next + far farther, further farthest, furthest + late later latest, last + (rathe, _obs._) rather + + +289. Most monosyllabic adverbs add _-er_ and _-est_ to form the +comparative and superlative, just as adjectives do; as, _high_, +_higher_, _highest_; _soon_, _sooner_, _soonest_. + +Adverbs in _-ly_ usually have _more_ and _most_ instead of the +inflected form, only occasionally having _-er_ and _-est_. + + Its strings _boldlier_ swept.--COLERIDGE. + + None can deem _harshlier_ of me than I deem.--BYRON. + + Only that we may _wiselier_ see.--EMERSON. + + Then must she keep it _safelier_.--TENNYSON. + + I should _freelier_ rejoice in that absence.--SHAKESPEARE. + + +[Sidenote: _Form_ vs. _use._] + +290. The fact that a word ends in _-ly_ does not make it an adverb. +Many adjectives have the same ending, and must be distinguished by +their use in the sentence. + + +Exercise. + +Tell what each word in _ly_ modifies, then whether it is an adjective +or an adverb. + +1. It seems certain that the Normans were more cleanly in their +habits, more courtly in their manners. + +2. It is true he was rarely heard to speak. + +3. He would inhale the smoke slowly and tranquilly. + +4. The perfectly heavenly law might be made law on earth. + +5. The king winced when he saw his homely little bride. + +6. With his proud, quick-flashing eye, + And his mien of kingly state. + +7. And all about, a lovely sky of blue + Clearly was felt, or down the leaves laughed through. + +8. He is inexpressibly mean, curiously jolly, kindly and good-natured +in secret. + + +291. Again, many words without _-ly_ have the same form, whether +adverbs or adjectives. + +The reason is, that in Old and Middle English, adverbs derived from +adjectives had the ending _-e_ as a distinguishing mark; as,-- + + If men smoot it with a yerde _smerte_ [If men smote it with a rod + smartly].--CHAUCER. + +This _e_ dropping off left both words having the same form. + + Weeds were sure to grow _quicker_ in his fields.--IRVING. + + O _sweet_ and _far_ from cliff and scar The horns of Elfland + faintly blowing.--TENNYSON. + + But he must do his errand _right._--DRAKE + + _Long_ she looked in his tiny face.--_Id._ + + Not _near_ so black as he was painted.--THACKERAY. + +In some cases adverbs with _-ly_ are used side by side with those +without _-ly_, but with a different meaning. Such are _most_, +_mostly_; _near_, _nearly_; _even_, _evenly_; _hard_, _hardly_; etc. + + +[Sidenote: _Special use of_ there.] + +292. Frequently the word there, instead of being used adverbially, +merely introduces a sentence, and inverts the usual order of subject +and predicate. + +This is such a fixed idiom that the sentence, if it has the verb _be_, +seems awkward or affected without this "_there_ introductory." Compare +these:-- + + 1. _There_ are eyes, to be sure, that give no more admission into + the man than blueberries.--EMERSON. + + 2. Time was when field and watery cove With modulated echoes + rang.--WORDSWORTH. + + + +HOW TO PARSE ADVERBS. + + +293. In parsing adverbs, give-- + +(1) The class, according to meaning and also use. + +(2) Degree of comparison, if the word is compared. + +(3) What word or word group it modifies. + + +Exercise. + +Parse all the adverbs in the following sentences:-- + +1. Now the earth is so full that a drop overfills it. + +2. The higher we rise in the scale of being, the more certainly we +quit the region of the brilliant eccentricities and dazzling contrasts +which belong to a vulgar greatness. + +3. We sit in the warm shade and feel right well + How the sap creeps up and blossoms swell. + +4. Meanwhile the Protestants believed somewhat doubtfully that he was +theirs. + +5. Whence else could arise the bruises which I had received, but from +my fall? + +6. We somehow greedily gobble down all stories in which the characters +of our friends are chopped up. + +7. How carefully that blessed day is marked in their little calendars! + +8. But a few steps farther on, at the regular wine-shop, the Madonna +is in great glory. + +9. The foolish and the dead alone never change their opinion. + +10. It is the Cross that is first seen, and always, burning in the +center of the temple. + +11. For the impracticable, however theoretically enticing, is always +politically unwise. + +12. Whence come you? and whither are you bound? + +13. How comes it that the evil which men say spreads so widely and +lasts so long, whilst our good kind words don't seem somehow to take +root and blossom? + +14. At these carousals Alexander drank deep. + +15. Perhaps he has been getting up a little architecture on the road +from Florence. + +16. It is left you to find out why your ears are boxed. + +17. Thither we went, and sate down on the steps of a house. + +18. He could never fix which side of the garden walk would suit him +best, but continually shifted. + +19. But now the wind rose again, and the stern drifted in toward the +bank. + +20. He caught the scent of wild thyme in the air, and found room to +wonder how it could have got there. + +21. They were soon launched on the princely bosom of the Thames, upon +which the sun now shone forth. + +22. Why should we suppose that conscientious motives, feeble as they +are constantly found to be in a good cause, should be omnipotent for +evil? + +24. It was pretty bad after that, and but for Polly's outdoor +exercise, she would undoubtedly have succumbed. + + + + +CONJUNCTIONS. + + +294. Unlike adverbs, conjunctions do not modify: they are used +solely for the purpose of connecting. + +Examples of the use of conjunctions:-- + +[Sidenote: _They connect_ words.] + +(1) _Connecting words_: "It is the very necessity _and_ condition of +existence;" "What a simple _but_ exquisite illustration!" + +[Sidenote: Word groups: _Phrases._] + +[Sidenote: _Clauses._] + +(2) _Connecting word groups_: "Hitherto the two systems have existed +in different States, _but_ side by side within the American Union;" +"This has happened _because_ the Union is a confederation of States." + +[Sidenote: _Sentences._] + +(3) _Connecting sentences_: "Unanimity in this case can mean only a +very large majority. _But_ even unanimity itself is far from +indicating the voice of God." + +[Sidenote: _Paragraphs._] + +(4) _Connecting sentence groups_: Paragraphs would be too long to +quote here, but the student will readily find them, in which the +writer connects the divisions of narration or argument by such words +as _but_, _however_, _hence_, _nor_, _then_, _therefore_, etc. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +295. A conjunction is a linking word, connecting words, word +groups, sentences, or sentence groups. + + +[Sidenote: _Classes of conjunctions._] + +296. Conjunctions have two principal divisions:-- + +(1) Cooerdinate, joining words, word groups, etc., of the _same +rank_. + +(2) Subordinate, joining a subordinate or dependent clause to a +principal or independent clause. + + + +COOeRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. + +297. Cooerdinate conjunctions are of four kinds: + +(1) COPULATIVE, coupling or uniting words and expressions in the same +line of thought; as _and_, _also_, _as well as_, _moreover_, etc. + +(2) ADVERSATIVE, connecting words and expressions that are opposite in +thought; as _but_, _yet_, _still_, _however_, _while_, _only_, etc. + +(3) CAUSAL, introducing a reason or cause. The chief ones are, _for_, +_therefore_, _hence_, _then_. + +(4) ALTERNATIVE, expressing a choice, usually between two things. They +are _or_, _either_, _else_, _nor_, _neither_, _whether_. + +[Sidenote: _Correlatives._] + +298. Some of these go in pairs, answering to each other in the same +sentence; as, _both_..._and_; _not only_..._but_ (or _but also_); +_either_..._or_; _whether_..._or_; _neither_..._nor_; _whether_..._or +whether_. + +Some go in threes; as, _not only_..._but_... _and_; +_either_..._or_..._or_; _neither_..._nor_... _nor_. + +Further examples of the use of cooerdinate conjunctions:-- + +[Sidenote: _Copulative._] + +Your letter, _likewise_, had its weight; the bread was spent, the +butter _too_; the window being open, _as well as_ the room door. + +[Sidenote: _Adversative._] + +The assertion, _however_, serves but to show their ignorance. "Can +this be so?" said Goodman Brown. "_Howbeit_, I have nothing to do with +the governor and council." + +_Nevertheless_, in this mansion of gloom I now proposed to myself a +sojourn of some weeks. + +[Sidenote: _Alternative._] + +While the earth bears a plant, _or_ the sea rolls its waves. + + _Nor_ mark'd they less, where in the air + A thousand streamers flaunted fair. + +[Sidenote: _Causal._] + +_Therefore_ the poet is not any permissive potentate, but is emperor +in his own right. _For_ it is the rule of the universe that corn shall +serve man, and not man corn. + +Examples of the use of correlatives:-- + + He began to doubt whether _both_ he _and_ the world around him + were not bewitched.--IRVING. + + He is _not only_ bold and vociferous, _but_ possesses a + considerable talent for mimicry, _and_ seems to enjoy great + satisfaction in mocking and teasing other birds.--WILSON. + + It is...the same _whether_ I move my hand along the surface of a + body, _or whether_ such a body is moved along my hand.--BURKE. + + _Neither_ the place in which he found himself, _nor_ the + exclusive attention that he attracted, disturbed the + self-possession of the young Mohican.--COOPER. + + _Neither_ was there any phantom memorial of life, _nor_ wing of + bird, _nor_ echo, _nor_ green leaf, _nor_ creeping thing, that + moved or stirred upon the soundless waste.--DE QUINCEY. + + + +SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. + +299. Subordinate conjunctions are of the following kinds:-- + +(1) PLACE: _where_, _wherever_, _whither_, _whereto_, _whithersoever_, +_whence_, etc. + +(2) TIME: _when_, _before_, _after_, _since_, _as_, _until_, +_whenever_, _while_, _ere_, etc. + +(3) MANNER: _how_, _as_, _however_, _howsoever_. + +(4) CAUSE or REASON: _because_, _since_, _as_, _now_, _whereas_, +_that_, _seeing_, etc. + +(5) COMPARISON: _than_ and _as_. + +(6) PURPOSE: _that_, _so_, _so that_, _in order that_, _lest_, +_so_..._as_. + +(7) RESULT: _that_, _so that_, especially _that_ after _so_. + +(8) CONDITION or CONCESSION: _if_, _unless_, _so_, _except_, _though_, +_although_; _even if_, _provided_, _provided that_, _in case_, _on +condition that_, etc. + +(9) SUBSTANTIVE: _that_, _whether_, sometimes _if_, are used +frequently to introduce noun clauses used as _subject, object, in +apposition_, etc. + +Examples of the use of subordinate conjunctions:-- + +[Sidenote: _Place._] + + Where the treasure is, there will the heart be also.--_Bible._ + + To lead from eighteen to twenty millions of men _whithersoever_ + they will.--J. QUINCY. + + An artist will delight in excellence _wherever_ he meets it. + --ALLSTON. + +[Sidenote: _Time._] + + I promise to devote myself to your happiness _whenever_ you shall + ask it of me.--PAULDING. + + It is sixteen years _since_ I saw the Queen of France.--BURKE. + +[Sidenote: _Manner._] + + Let the world go _how_ it will.--CARLYLE + + Events proceed, not _as_ they were expected or intended, but _as_ + they are impelled by the irresistible laws.--AMES. + +[Sidenote: _Cause, reason._] + + I see no reason _why_ I should not have the same + thought.--EMERSON. + + Then Denmark blest our chief, + _That_ he gave her wounds repose. + --CAMPBELL. + + _Now_ he is dead, his martyrdom will reap + Late harvests of the palms he should have had in life. + --H.H. JACKSON + + Sparing neither whip nor spur, _seeing that_ he carried the + vindication of his patron's fame in his saddlebags.--IRVING. + +[Sidenote: _Comparison._] + + As a soldier, he was more solicitous to avoid mistakes _than_ to + perform exploits that are brilliant.--AMES. + + All the subsequent experience of our race had gone over him with + as little permanent effect _as_ [_as_ follows the semi-adverbs + _as_ and _so_ in expressing comparison] the passing + breeze.--HAWTHORNE. + +[Sidenote: _Purpose._] + + We wish for a thousand heads, a thousand bodies, _that_ we might + celebrate its immense beauty.--EMERSON. + +[Sidenote: _Result._] + + So many thoughts moved to and fro, + _That_ vain it were her eyes to close. + --COLERIDGE. + + I was again covered with water, but not so long _but_ I held it + out.--DEFOE. + +[Sidenote: _Condition._] + + A ridicule which is of no import _unless_ the scholar heed + it.--EMERSON. + + There flowers or weeds at will may grow, + _So_ I behold them not. + --BYRON. + +[Sidenote: _Concession_.] + + What _though_ the radiance which was once so bright + Be now forever taken from my sight.--WORDSWORTH. + +[Sidenote: _Substantive._] + + It seems a pity _that_ we can only spend it once.--EMERSON. + + We do not believe _that_ he left any worthy man his foe who had + ever been his friend.--AMES. + + Let us see _whether_ the greatest, the wisest, the purest-hearted + of all ages are agreed in any wise on this point.--RUSKIN. + + Who can tell _if_ Washington be a great man or no?--EMERSON. + +300. As will have been noticed, some words--for example, _since_, +_while_, _as_, _that_, etc.--may belong to several classes of +conjunctions, according to their meaning and connection in the +sentence. + + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Bring up sentences containing five examples of cooerdinate +conjunctions. + +(_b_) Bring up sentences containing three examples of correlatives. + +(_c_) Bring up sentences containing ten subordinate conjunctions. + +(_d_) Tell whether the italicized words in the following sentences are +conjunctions or adverbs; classify them if conjunctions:-- + +1. _Yet_ these were often exhibited throughout our city. + +2. No one had _yet_ caught his character. + +3. _After_ he was gone, the lady called her servant. + +4. And they lived happily forever _after_. + +5. They, _however_, hold a subordinate rank. + +6. _However_ ambitious a woman may be to command admiration abroad, +her real merit is known at home. + +7. _Whence_ else could arise the bruises which I had received? + +8. He was brought up for the church, _whence_ he was occasionally +called the Dominie. + +9. And _then_ recovering, she faintly pressed her hand. + +10. In what point of view, _then_, is war not to be regarded with +horror? + +11. The moth fly, _as_ he shot in air, Crept under the leaf, and hid +her there. + +12. Besides, _as_ the rulers of a nation are _as_ liable _as_ other +people to be governed by passion and prejudice, there is little +prospect of justice in permitting war. + +13. _While_ a faction is a minority, it will remain harmless. + +14. _While_ patriotism glowed in his heart, wisdom blended in his +speech her authority with her charms. + +15. _Hence_ it is highly important that the custom of war should be +abolished. + +16. The raft and the money had been thrown near her, none of the +lashings having given way; _only_ what is the use of a guinea amongst +tangle and sea gulls? + +17. _Only_ let his thoughts be of equal scope, and the frame will suit +the picture. + + +SPECIAL REMARKS. + +[Sidenote: As if.] + +301. _As if_ is often used as one conjunction of manner, but really +there is an ellipsis between the two words; thus,-- + + But thy soft murmuring + Sounds sweet _as if_ a sister's voice reproved. + --BYRON. + + +If analyzed, the expression would be, "sounds sweet _as_ [the sound +would be] _if_ a sister's voice reproved;" _as_, in this case, +expressing degree if taken separately. + +But the ellipsis seems to be lost sight of frequently in writing, as +is shown by the use of _as though_. + +[Sidenote: As though.] + +302. In Emerson's sentence, "We meet, and part _as though_ we parted +not," it cannot be said that there is an ellipsis: it cannot mean "we +part _as_ [we should part] _though_" etc. + +Consequently, _as if_ and _as though_ may be taken as double +conjunctions expressing manner. _As though_ seems to be in as wide use +as the conjunction _as if_; for example,-- + + Do you know a farmer who acts and lives _as though_ he believed + one word of this?--H GREELEY. + + His voice ... sounded _as though_ it came out of a + barrel.--IRVING. + + Blinded alike from sunshine and from rain, + _As though_ a rose should shut, and be a bud again. + --KEATS + +Examples might be quoted from almost all authors. + +[Sidenote: As _for_ as if.] + +303. In poetry, _as_ is often equivalent to _as if_. + + And their orbs grew strangely dreary, + Clouded, even _as_ they would weep. + --EMILY BRONTE. + + So silently we seemed to speak, + So slowly moved about, + _As_ we had lent her half our powers + To eke her living out. + --HOOD. + + +HOW TO PARSE CONJUNCTIONS. + +304. In parsing conjunctions, tell-- + +(1) To what class and subclass they belong. + +(2) What words, word groups, etc., they connect. + +[Sidenote: _Caution_.] + +In classifying them, particular attention must be paid to the +_meaning_ of the word. Some conjunctions, such as _nor, and, because, +when_, etc., are regularly of one particular class; others belong to +several classes. For example, compare the sentences,-- + + 1. It continued raining, _so_ that I could not stir + abroad.--DEFOE + + 2. There will be an agreement in whatever variety of actions, + _so_ they be each honest and natural in their hour.--EMERSON + + 3. It was too dark to put an arrow into the creature's eye; _so_ + they paddled on.--KINGSLEY + +In sentence 1, _so that_ expresses result, and its clause depends on +the other, hence it is a subordinate conjunction of result; in 2, _so_ +means provided,--is subordinate of condition; in 3, _so_ means +therefore, and its clause is independent, hence it is a cooerdinate +conjunction of reason. + + +Exercise. + +Parse all the conjunctions in these sentences:-- + +1. When the gods come among men, they are not known. + +2. If he could solve the riddle, the Sphinx was slain. + +3. A lady with whom I was riding in the forest said to me that the +woods always seemed to wait, as if the genii who inhabit them +suspended their deeds until the wayfarer had passed. + +4. The mountain of granite blooms into an eternal flower, with the +lightness and delicate finish as well as the aerial proportions and +perspective of vegetable scenery. + +5. At sea, or in the forest, or in the snow, he sleeps as warm, dines +with as good an appetite, and associates as happily, as beside his own +chimneys. + +6. Our admiration of the antique is not admiration of the old, but of +the natural. + +7. "Doctor," said his wife to Martin Luther, "how is it that whilst +subject to papacy we prayed so often and with such fervor, whilst now +we pray with the utmost coldness, and very seldom?" + +8. All the postulates of elfin annals,--that the fairies do not like +to be named; that their gifts are capricious and not to be trusted; +and the like,--I find them true in Concord, however they might be in +Cornwall or Bretagne. + +9. He is the compend of time; he is also the correlative of nature. + +10. He dismisses without notice his thought, because it is his. + +11. The eye was placed where one ray should fall, that it might +testify of that particular ray. + +12. It may be safely trusted, so it be faithfully imparted. + +13. He knows how to speak to his contemporaries. + +14. Goodness must have some edge to it,--else it is none. + +15. I hope it is somewhat better than whim at last. + +16. Now you have the whip in your hand, won't you lay on? + +17. I scowl as I dip my pen into the inkstand. + +18. I speak, therefore, of good novels only. + +19. Let her loose in the library as you do a fawn in a field. + +20. And whether consciously or not, you must be, in many a heart, +enthroned. + +21. It is clear, however, the whole conditions are changed. + +22. I never rested until I had a copy of the book. + +23. For, though there may be little resemblance otherwise, in this +they agree, that both were wayward. + +24. Still, she might have the family countenance; and Kate thought he +looked with a suspicious scrutiny into her face as he inquired for the +young don. + +25. He follows his genius whithersoever it may lead him. + +26. The manuscript indeed speaks of many more, whose names I omit, +seeing that it behooves me to hasten. + +27. God had marked this woman's sin with a scarlet letter, which had +such efficacy that no human sympathy could reach her, save it were +sinful like herself. + +28. I rejoice to stand here no longer, to be looked at as though I +had seven heads and ten horns. + +29. He should neither praise nor blame nor defend his equals. + +30. There was no iron to be seen, nor did they appear acquainted with +its properties; for they unguardedly took a drawn sword by the edge, +when it was presented to them. + + + + +PREPOSITIONS.. + +305. The word _preposition_ implies _place before_: hence it would +seem that a preposition is always _before_ its object. It may be so in +the majority of cases, but in a considerable proportion of instances +the preposition is _after_ its object. + +This occurs in such cases as the following:-- + +[Sidenote: Preposition not before its object.] + +(1) _After a relative pronoun_, a very common occurrence; thus,-- + + The most dismal Christmas fun _which_ these eyes ever looked + _on_.--THACKERAY. + + An ancient nation _which_ they know nothing _of_.--EMERSON. + + A foe, _whom_ a champion has fought _with_ to-day.--SCOTT. + + Some little toys _that_ girls are fond _of_.--SWIFT. + + "It's the man _that_ I spoke to you _about_" said Mr. + Pickwick.--DICKENS. + +(2) _After an interrogative adverb, adjective, or pronoun_, also +frequently found:-- + + _What_ God doth the wizard pray _to_?--HAWTHORNE. + + _What_ is the little one thinking about?--J.G. HOLLAND. + + _Where_ the Devil did it come _from_, I wonder?--DICKENS. + +(3) _With an infinitive_, in such expressions as these:-- + + A proper _quarrel_ for a Crusader to do battle _in_.--SCOTT. + + "You know, General, it was _nothing_ to joke _about_."--CABLE + + Had no harsh _treatment_ to reproach herself _with_.--BOYESEN + + A _loss of vitality_ scarcely to be accounted _for_.--HOLMES. + + Places for _horses_ to be hitched _to_.--_Id._ + +(4) _After a noun_,--the case in which the preposition is expected to +be, and regularly is, before its object; as,-- + + And unseen mermaids' pearly song + Comes bubbling up, the weeds _among_. + --BEDDOES. + + Forever panting and forever young, + All breathing human passion far _above_. + --KEATS. + +306. Since the object of a preposition is most often a noun, the +statement is made that the preposition usually precedes its object; as +in the following sentence, "Roused _by_ the shock, he started _from_ +his trance." + +Here the words _by_ and _from_ are connectives; but they do more than +connect. _By_ shows the relation in thought between _roused_ and +_shock_, expressing means or agency; _from_ shows the relation in +thought between _started_ and _trance_, and expresses separation. Both +introduce phrases. + +[Sidenote: _Definition_.] + +307. A preposition is a word joined to a noun or its equivalent to +make up a qualifying or an adverbial phrase, and to show the relation +between its object and the word modified. + +[Sidenote: _Objects, nouns and the following_.] + +308. Besides nouns, prepositions may have as objects-- + +(1) _Pronouns_: "Upon _them_ with the lance;" "With _whom_ I traverse +earth." + +(2) _Adjectives_: "On _high_ the winds lift up their voices." + +(3) _Adverbs_: "If I live wholly from _within_;" "Had it not been for +the sea from _aft_." + +(4) _Phrases_: "Everything came to her from _on high_;" "From _of old_ +they had been zealous worshipers." + +(5) _Infinitives_: "The queen now scarce spoke to him save _to convey_ +some necessary command for her service." + +(6) _Gerunds_: "They shrink from _inflicting_ what they threaten;" "He +is not content with _shining_ on great occasions." + +(7) _Clauses_: + + "Each soldier eye shall brightly turn + To _where thy sky-born glories burn_." + +[Sidenote: _Object usually objective case, if noun or pronoun_.] + +309. The object of a preposition, if a noun or pronoun, is usually +in the objective case. In pronouns, this is shown by the form of the +word, as in Sec. 308 (1). + +[Sidenote: _Often possessive_.] + +In the double-possessive idiom, however, the object is in the +possessive case after _of_; for example,-- + + There was also a book _of Defoe's_,... and another _of_ + _Mather's_.--FRANKLIN. + +See also numerous examples in Secs. 68 and 87. + +[Sidenote: _Sometimes nominative_.] + +And the prepositions _but_ and _save_ are found with the nominative +form of the pronoun following; as,-- + + Nobody knows _but_ my mate and _I_ + Where our nest and our nestlings lie. + --BRYANT. + + + +USES OF PREPOSITIONS. + + +[Sidenote: _Inseparable._] + +310. Prepositions are used in three ways:-- + +(1) _Compounded with verbs_, _adverbs_, or _conjunctions_; as, for +example, with verbs, _with_draw, _under_stand, _over_look, _over_take, +_over_flow, _under_go, _out_stay, _out_number, _over_run, _over_grow, +etc.; with adverbs, there_at_, there_in_, there_from_, there_by_, +there_with_, etc.; with conjunctions, where_at_, where_in_, where_on_, +where_through_, where_upon_, etc. + +[Sidenote: _Separable._] + +(2) _Following a verb_, and being really a part of the verb. This use +needs to be watched closely, to see whether the preposition belongs to +the verb or has a separate prepositional function. For example, in the +sentences, (_a_) "He broke a pane _from_ the window," (_b_) "He broke +_into_ the bank," in (_a_), the verb _broke_ is a predicate, modified +by the phrase introduced by _from_; in (_b_), the predicate is not +_broke_, modified by _into the bank_, but _broke into_--the object, +_bank_. + +Study carefully the following prepositions with verbs:-- + + Considering the space they _took up_.--SWIFT. + + I loved, _laughed at_, and pitied him.--GOLDSMITH. + + The sun _breaks through_ the darkest clouds.--SHAKESPEARE. + + They will _root up_ the whole ground.--SWIFT. + + A friend _prevailed upon_ one of the interpreters.--ADDISON + + My uncle _approved of_ it.--FRANKLIN. + + The robber who _broke into_ them.--LANDOR. + + This period is not obscurely _hinted at_.--LAMB. + + The judge _winked at_ the iniquity of the decision.--_Id._ + + The pupils' voices, _conning over_ their lessons.--IRVING. + + To _help out_ his maintenance.--_Id._ + + With such pomp is Merry Christmas _ushered in_.--LONGFELLOW. + +[Sidenote: _Ordinary use as connective, relation words._] + +(3) As _relation words_, introducing phrases,--the most common use, in +which the words have their own proper function. + + +[Sidenote: _Usefulness of prepositions._] + +311. Prepositions are the subtlest and most useful words in the +language for compressing a clear meaning into few words. Each +preposition has its proper and general meaning, which, by frequent and +exacting use, has expanded and divided into a variety of meanings more +or less close to the original one. + +Take, for example, the word _over_. It expresses place, with motion, +as, "The bird flew _over_ the house;" or rest, as, "Silence broods +_over_ the earth." It may also convey the meaning of _about_, +_concerning_; as, "They quarreled _over_ the booty." Or it may express +time: "Stay _over_ night." + +The language is made richer and more flexible by there being several +meanings to each of many prepositions, as well as by some of them +having the same meaning as others. + + + +CLASSES OF PREPOSITIONS. + + +312. It would be useless to attempt to classify all the +prepositions, since they are so various in meaning. + +The largest groups are those of place, time, and exclusion. + + + +PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE. + + +313. The following are the most common to indicate place:-- + +(1) PLACE WHERE: _abaft_, _about_, _above_, _across_, _amid_ +(_amidst_), _among_ (_amongst_), _at_, _athwart_, _below_, _beneath_, +_beside_, _between_ (_betwixt_), _beyond_, _in_, _on_, _over_, _under_ +(_underneath_), _upon_, _round_ or _around_, _without_. + +(2) PLACE WHITHER: _into_, _unto_, _up_, _through_, _throughout_, +_to_, _towards_. + +(3) PLACE WHENCE: _down_, _from_ (_away from_, _down from_, _from +out_, etc.), _off_, _out of_. + +Abaft is exclusively a sea term, meaning _back of_. + +Among (or amongst) and between (or betwixt) have a difference +in meaning, and usually a difference in use. _Among_ originally meant +in the crowd (_on gemong_), referring to several objects; _between_ +and _betwixt_ were originally made up of the preposition _be_ (meaning +_by_) and _tweon_ or _tweonum_ (modern _twain_), _by two_, and _be_ +with _twih_ (or _twuh_), having the same meaning, _by two_ objects. + +As to modern use, see "Syntax" (Sec. 459). + + + +PREPOSITIONS OF TIME. + + +314. They are _after_, _during_, _pending_, _till_ or _until_; also +many of the prepositions of place express time when put before words +indicating time, such as _at_, _between_, _by_, _about_, _on_, +_within_, etc. + +These are all familiar, and need no special remark. + + + +EXCLUSION OR SEPARATION. + + +315. The chief ones are _besides_, _but_, _except_, _save_, +_without_. The participle _excepting_ is also used as a preposition. + + + +MISCELLANEOUS PREPOSITIONS. + + +316. Against implies opposition, sometimes place where. In +colloquial English it is sometimes used to express time, now and then +also in literary English; for example,-- + + She contrived to fit up the baby's cradle for me _against_ + night.--SWIFT + +About, and the participial prepositions concerning, respecting, +regarding, mean _with reference to_. + + +[Sidenote: _Phrase prepositions._] + +317. Many phrases are used as single prepositions: _by means of_, +_by virtue of_, _by help of_, _by dint of_, _by force of_; _out of_, +_on account of_, _by way of_, _for the sake of_; _in consideration +of_, _in spite of_, _in defiance of_, _instead of_, _in view of_, _in +place of_; _with respect to_, _with regard to_, _according to_, +_agreeably to_; and some others. + + +318. Besides all these, there are some prepositions that have so +many meanings that they require separate and careful treatment: _on_ +(_upon_), _at_, _by_, _for_, _from_, _of_, _to_, _with_. + +No attempt will be made to give _all_ the meanings that each one in +this list has: the purpose is to stimulate observation, and to show +how useful prepositions really are. + + +At. + + +319. The general meaning of at is _near_, _close to_, after a verb +or expression implying position; and _towards_ after a verb or +expression indicating motion. It defines position approximately, while +_in_ is exact, meaning _within_. + +Its principal uses are as follows:-- + +(1) _Place where._ + + They who heard it listened with a curling horror _at_ the + heart.--J.F. COOPER. + + There had been a strike _at_ the neighboring manufacturing + village, and there was to be a public meeting, _at_ which he was + besought to be present.--T.W. HIGGINSON. + +(2) _Time_, more exact, meaning the point of time at which. + + He wished to attack _at_ daybreak.--PARKMAN. + + They buried him darkly, _at_ dead of night.--WOLFE + +(3) _Direction._ + + The mother stood looking wildly down _at_ the unseemly + object.--COOPER. + + You are next invited...to grasp _at_ the opportunity, and take + for your subject, "Health."--HIGGINSON. + +Here belong such expressions as _laugh at_, _look at_, _wink at_, +_gaze at_, _stare at_, _peep at_, _scowl at_, _sneer at_, _frown at_, +etc. + + We _laugh at_ the elixir that promises to prolong life to a + thousand years.--JOHNSON. + + "You never mean to say," pursued Dot, sitting on the floor and + _shaking_ her head _at_ him.--DICKENS. + +(4) _Source_ or _cause_, meaning _because of_, _by reason of_. + + I felt my heart chill _at_ the dismal sound.--T.W. KNOX. + + Delighted _at_ this outburst against the Spaniards.--PARKMAN. + +(5) Then the idiomatic phrases _at last_, _at length_, _at any rate_, +_at the best_, _at the worst_, _at least_, _at most_, _at first_, _at +once_, _at all_, _at one_, _at naught_, _at random_, etc.; and phrases +signifying state or condition of being, as, _at work_, _at play_, _at +peace_, _at war_, _at rest_, etc. + + +Exercise.--Find sentences with three different uses of _at_. + + +By. + + +320. Like _at_, by means _near_ or _close to_, but has several +other meanings more or less connected with this,-- + +(1) The general meaning of _place_. + + Richard was standing _by_ the window.--ALDRICH. + + Provided always the coach had not shed a wheel _by_ the + roadside.--_Id._ + +(2) _Time._ + + But _by_ this time the bell of Old Alloway began tolling.--B. + TAYLOR + + The angel came _by_ night.--R.H. STODDARD. + +(3) _Agency_ or _means_. + + Menippus knew which were the kings _by_ their howling + louder.--M.D. CONWAY. + + At St. Helena, the first port made _by_ the ship, he stopped. + --PARTON. + +(4) _Measure of excess_, expressing the degree of difference. + + At that time [the earth] was richer, _by_ many a million of + acres.--DE QUINCEY. + + He was taller _by_ almost the breadth of my nail.--SWIFT. + +(5) It is also used in _oaths and adjurations_. + + _By_ my faith, that is a very plump hand for a man of + eighty-four!--PARTON. + + They implore us _by_ the long trials of struggling humanity; _by_ + the blessed memory of the departed; _by_ the wrecks of time; _by_ + the ruins of nations.--EVERETT. + + +Exercise.--Find sentences with three different meanings of _by_. + + +For. + + +321. The chief meanings of for are as follows:-- + +(1) _Motion towards_ a place, or a tendency or action toward the +attainment of any object. + + Pioneers who were opening the way _for_ the march of the + nation.--COOPER. + + She saw the boat headed _for_ her.--WARNER. + +(2) _In favor of_, _for the benefit of_, _in behalf of_, a person or +thing. + + He and they were _for_ immediate attack.--PARKMAN + + The people were then against us; they are now _for_ us.--W.L. + GARRISON. + +(3) _Duration of time_, or _extent of space_. + + _For_ a long time the disreputable element outshone the + virtuous.--H.H. BANCROFT. + + He could overlook all the country _for_ many a mile of rich + woodland.--IRVING. + +(4) _Substitution_ or _exchange_. + + There are gains _for_ all our losses.--STODDARD. + + Thus did the Spaniards make bloody atonement _for_ the butchery + of Fort Caroline.--PARKMAN. + +(5) _Reference_, meaning _with regard to_, _as to_, _respecting_, etc. + + _For_ the rest, the Colonna motto would fit you best.--EMERSON. + + _For_ him, poor fellow, he repented of his folly.--E.E. HALE + +This is very common with _as_--_as for_ me, etc. + +(6) Like _as_, meaning _in the character of_, _as being_, etc. + + "Nay, if your worship can accomplish that," answered Master + Brackett, "I shall own you _for_ a man of skill indeed!" + --HAWTHORNE. + + Wavering whether he should put his son to death _for_ an + unnatural monster.--LAMB. + +(7) _Concession_, meaning _although_, _considering that_ etc. + + "_For_ a fool," said the Lady of Lochleven, "thou hast counseled + wisely."--SCOTT + + By my faith, that is a very plump hand _for_ a man of + eighty-four!--PARTON. + +(8) Meaning _notwithstanding_, or _in spite of_. + + But the Colonel, _for_ all his title, had a forest of poor + relations.--HOLMES. + + Still, _for_ all slips of hers, + One of Eve's family.--HOOD. + +(9) _Motive, cause, reason, incitement to action._ + + The twilight being...hardly more wholesome _for_ its glittering + mists of midge companies.--RUSKIN. + + An Arab woman, but a few sunsets since, ate her child, _for_ + famine.--_Id._ + + Here Satouriona forgot his dignity, and leaped _for_ + joy.--PARKMAN. + +(10) _For_ with its object preceding the infinitive, and having the +same meaning as a noun clause, as shown by this sentence:-- + + It is by no means necessary _that he should devote his whole + school existence to physical science_; nay, more, it is not + necessary for _him to give up more than a moderate share of his + time to such studies_.--HUXLEY. + + +Exercise.--Find sentences with five meanings of _for_. + + +From. + + +322. The general idea in from is separation or source. It may be +with regard to-- + +(1) _Place._ + + Like boys escaped _from_ school.--H.H. BANCROFT + + Thus they drifted _from_ snow-clad ranges to burning + plain.--_Id._ + +(2) _Origin._ + + Coming _from_ a race of day-dreamers, Ayrault had inherited the + faculty of dreaming also by night.--HIGGINSON. + + _From_ harmony, _from_ heavenly harmony + This universal frame began.--DRYDEN. + +(3) _Time._ + + A distrustful, if not a desperate man, did he become _from_ the + night of that fearful dream--HAWTHORNE. + +(4) _Motive_, _cause_, or _reason_. + + It was _from_ no fault of Nolan's.--HALE. + + The young cavaliers, _from_ a desire of seeming valiant, ceased + to be merciful.--BANCROFT. + + +Exercise.--Find sentences with three meanings of _from_. + + +Of. + + +323. The original meaning of of was separation or source, like +_from_. The various uses are shown in the following examples:-- + +I. The _From_ Relation. + +(1) _Origin or source._ + + The king holds his authority _of_ the people.--MILTON. + + Thomas a Becket was born _of_ reputable parents in the city of + London.--HUME. + +(2) _Separation_: (_a_) After certain verbs, such as _ease_, _demand_, +_rob_, _divest_, _free_, _clear_, _purge_, _disarm_, _deprive_, +_relieve_, _cure_, _rid_, _beg_, _ask_, etc. + + Two old Indians cleared the spot _of_ brambles, weeds, and + grass.--PARKMAN. + + Asked no odds _of_, acquitted them _of,_ etc.--ALDRICH. + +(_b_) After some adjectives,--_clear of_, _free of_, _wide of_, _bare +of_, etc.; especially adjectives and adverbs of direction, as _north +of_, _south of_, etc. + + The hills were bare _of_ trees.--BAYARD TAYLOR. + + Back _of_ that tree, he had raised a little Gothic chapel. + --GAVARRE. + +(_c_) After nouns expressing lack, deprivation, etc. + + A singular want _of_ all human relation.--HIGGINSON. + +_(d)_ With words expressing distance. + + Until he had come within a staff's length _of_ the old dame. + --HAWTHORNE + + Within a few yards _of_ the young man's hiding place.--_Id._ + +(3) _With expressions of material_, especially _out of_. + + White shirt with diamond studs, or breastpin _of_ native + gold.--BANCROFT. + + Sandals, bound with thongs _of_ boar's hide.--SCOTT + + Who formed, _out of_ the most unpromising materials, the finest + army that Europe had yet seen.--MACAULAY + +(4) _Expressing cause, reason, motive._ + + The author died _of_ a fit of apoplexy.--BOSWELL. + + More than one altar was richer _of_ his vows.--LEW WALLACE. + + "Good for him!" cried Nolan. "I am glad _of_ that."--E.E. HALE. + +(5) _Expressing agency._ + + You cannot make a boy know, _of_ his own knowledge, that Cromwell + once ruled England.--HUXLEY. + + He is away _of_ his own free will.--DICKENS + + +II. Other Relations expressed by _Of_. + +(6) _Partitive_, expressing a part of a number or quantity. + + _Of_ the Forty, there were only twenty-one members present. + --PARTON. + + He washed out some _of_ the dirt, separating thereby as much of + the dust as a ten-cent piece would hold.--BANCROFT. + +[Sidenote: _See also Sec. 309._] + +(7) _Possessive_, standing, with its object, for the possessive, or +being used with the possessive case to form the double possessive. + + Not even woman's love, and the dignity _of_ a queen, could give + shelter from his contumely.--W.E. CHANNING. + + And the mighty secret _of_ the Sierra stood revealed.--BANCROFT. + + +(8) _Appositional_, which may be in the case of-- + +(_a_) Nouns. + + Such a book as that _of_ Job.--FROUDE. + + The fair city _of_ Mexico.--PRESCOTT. + + The nation _of_ Lilliput.--SWIFT. + +(_b_) Noun and gerund, being equivalent to an infinitive. + + In the vain hope _of_ appeasing the savages.--COOPER. + + Few people take the trouble _of_ finding out what democracy + really is.--LOWELL. + +(_c_) Two nouns, when the first is descriptive of the second. + + This crampfish _of_ a Socrates has so bewitched him.--EMERSON + + A sorry antediluvian makeshift _of_ a building you may think + it.--LAMB. + + An inexhaustible bottle _of_ a shop.--ALDRICH. + +(9) _Of time._ Besides the phrases _of old_, _of late_, _of a sudden_, +etc., _of_ is used in the sense of _during_. + + I used often to linger _of_ a morning by the high gate.--ALDRICH + + I delighted to loll over the quarter railing _of_ a calm day. + --IRVING. + +(10) _Of reference_, equal to _about_, _concerning_, _with regard to_. + + The Turk lay dreaming _of_ the hour.--HALLECK. + + Boasted _of_ his prowess as a scalp hunter and + duelist.--BANCROFT. + + Sank into reverie _of_ home and boyhood scenes.--_Id._ + +[Sidenote: _Idiomatic use with verbs._] + +_Of_ is also used as an appendage of certain verbs, such as _admit_, +_accept_, _allow_, _approve_, _disapprove_, _permit_, without adding +to their meaning. It also accompanies the verbs _tire_, _complain_, +_repent_, _consist_, _avail_ (one's self), and others. + + +Exercise.--Find sentences with six uses of _of_. + + +On, Upon. + + +324. The general meaning of on is position or direction. _On_ and +_upon_ are interchangeable in almost all of their applications, as +shown by the sentences below:-- + +(1) _Place_: (_a_) Where. + + Cannon were heard close _on_ the left.--PARKMAN. + + The Earl of Huntley ranged his host + _Upon_ their native strand.--MRS. SIGOURNEY. + +(_b_) With motion. + + It was the battery at Samos firing _on_ the boats.--PARKMAN. + + Thou didst look down _upon_ the naked earth.--BRYANT. + +(2) _Time._ + + The demonstration of joy or sorrow _on_ reading their letters. + --BANCROFT. + + _On_ Monday evening he sent forward the Indians.--PARKMAN. + +Upon is seldom used to express time. + +(3) _Reference_, equal to _about_, _concerning_, etc. + + I think that one abstains from writing _on_ the immortality of + the soul.--EMERSON. + + He pronounced a very flattering opinion _upon_ my brother's + promise of excellence.--DE QUINCEY. + +(4) _In adjurations._ + + _On_ my life, you are eighteen, and not a day more.--ALDRICH. + + _Upon_ my reputation and credit.--SHAKESPEARE + +(5) _Idiomatic phrases_: _on fire_, _on board_, _on high_, _on the +wing_, _on the alert_, _on a sudden_, _on view_, _on trial_, etc. + +Exercise.--Find sentences with three uses of _on_ or _upon_. + + +To. + +325. Some uses of to are the following:-- + +(1) _Expressing motion_: (_a_) To a place. + + Come _to_ the bridal chamber, Death!--HALLECK. + + Rip had scrambled _to_ one of the highest peaks.--IRVING. + +(_b_) Referring to time. + + Full of schemes and speculations _to_ the last.--PARTON. + + Revolutions, whose influence is felt _to_ this hour.--PARKMAN. + +(2) _Expressing result._ + + He usually gave his draft to an aid...to be written over,--often + _to_ the loss of vigor.--BENTON + + _To_ our great delight, Ben Lomond was unshrouded.--B. TAYLOR + +(3) _Expressing comparison._ + + But when, unmasked, gay Comedy appears, + 'Tis ten _to_ one you find the girl in tears. + --ALDRICH + + They are arrant rogues: Cacus was nothing _to_ them.--BULWER. + + Bolingbroke and the wicked Lord Littleton were saints _to_ + him.--WEBSTER + +(4) _Expressing concern, interest._ + + _To_ the few, it may be genuine poetry.--BRYANT. + + His brother had died, had ceased to be, _to_ him.--HALE. + + Little mattered _to_ them occasional privations--BANCROFT. + +(5) _Equivalent to_ according to. + + Nor, _to_ my taste, does the mere music...of your style fall far + below the highest efforts of poetry.--LANG. + + We cook the dish _to_ our own appetite.--GOLDSMITH. + +(6) _With the infinitive_ (see Sec. 268). + +Exercise.--Find sentences containing three uses of _to_. + + +With. + + +326. With expresses the idea of accompaniment, and hardly any of +its applications vary from this general signification. + +In Old English, _mid_ meant _in company with_, while _wieth_ meant +_against_: both meanings are included in the modern _with_. + +The following meanings are expressed by _with_:-- + +(1) _Personal accompaniment._ + + The advance, _with_ Heyward at its head, had already reached the + defile.--COOPER. + + For many weeks I had walked _with_ this poor friendless girl.--DE + QUINCEY. + +(2) _Instrumentality._ + + _With_ my crossbow I shot the albatross.--COLERIDGE. + + Either _with_ the swingle-bar, or _with_ the haunch of our near + leader, we had struck the off-wheel of the little gig.--DE + QUINCEY. + +(3) _Cause, reason, motive._ + + He was wild _with_ delight about Texas.--HALE. + + She seemed pleased _with_ the accident.--HOWELLS. + +(4) _Estimation, opinion._ + + How can a writer's verses be numerous if _with_ him, as _with_ + you, "poetry is not a pursuit, but a pleasure"?--LANG. + + It seemed a supreme moment _with_ him.--HOWELLS. + +(5) _Opposition_. + + After battling _with_ terrific hurricanes and typhoons on every + known sea.--ALDRICH. + + The quarrel of the sentimentalists is not _with_ life, but _with_ + you.--LANG. + +(6) _The equivalent of_ notwithstanding, in spite of. + + _With_ all his sensibility, he gave millions to the + sword.--CHANNING. + + Messala, _with_ all his boldness, felt it unsafe to trifle + further.--WALLACE + +(7) _Time._ + + He expired _with_ these words.--SCOTT. + + _With_ each new mind a new secret of nature transpires.--EMERSON. + +Exercise.--Find sentences with four uses of _with_. + + +HOW TO PARSE PREPOSITIONS. + + +327. Since a preposition introduces a phrase and shows the relation +between two things, it is necessary, first of all, to find the object +of the preposition, and then to find what word the prepositional +phrase limits. Take this sentence:-- + + The rule adopted on board the ships on which I have met "the man + without a country" was, I think, transmitted from the + beginning.--E.E. HALE. + +The phrases are (1) _on board the ships_, (2) _on which_, (3) _without +a country_, (4) _from the beginning_. The object of _on board_ is +_ships_; of _on_, _which_; of _without_, _country_; of _from_, +_beginning_. + +In (1), the phrase answers the question _where_, and has the office of +an adverb in telling _where_ the rule is adopted; hence we say, _on +board_ shows the relation between _ships_ and the participle +_adopted_. + +In (2), _on which_ modifies the verb _have met_ by telling where: +hence _on_ shows the relation between _which_ (standing for _ships_) +and the verb _have met_. + +In (3), _without a country_ modifies _man_, telling what man, or the +verb _was_ understood: hence _without_ shows the relation between +_country_ and _man_, or _was_. And so on. + +The parsing of prepositions means merely telling between what words +or word groups they show relation. + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Parse the prepositions in these paragraphs:-- + + 1. I remember, before the dwarf left the queen, he followed us + one day into those gardens. I must needs show my wit by a silly + illusion between him and the trees, which happens to hold in + their language as it does in ours. Whereupon, the malicious + rogue, watching his opportunity when I was walking under one of + them, shook it directly over my head, by which a dozen apples, + each of them near as large as a Bristol barrel, came tumbling + about my ears; one of them hit me on the back as I chanced to + stoop, and knocked me down flat on my face; but I received no + other hurt, and the dwarf was pardoned at my desire, because I + had given the provocation.--SWIFT + + 2. Be that as it will, I found myself suddenly awakened with a + violent pull upon the ring, which was fastened at the top of my + box for the conveniency of carriage. I felt my box raised very + high in the air, and then borne forward with prodigious speed. + The first jolt had like to have shaken me out of my hammock. I + called out several times, but all to no purpose. I looked towards + my windows, and could see nothing but the clouds and the sky. I + heard a noise just over my head, like the clapping of wings, and + then began to perceive the woeful condition I was in; that some + eagle had got the ring of my box in his beak, with an intent to + let it fall on a rock: for the sagacity and smell of this bird + enabled him to discover his quarry at a great distance, though + better concealed than I could be within a two-inch board.--_Id._ + + +(_b_) Give the exact meaning of each italicized preposition in the +following sentences:-- + +1. The guns were cleared _of_ their lumber. + +2. They then left _for_ a cruise up the Indian Ocean. + +3. I speak these things _from_ a love of justice. + +4. _To_ our general surprise, we met the defaulter here. + +5. There was no one except a little sunbeam _of_ a sister. + +6. The great gathering in the main street was _on_ Sundays, when, +after a restful morning, though unbroken _by_ the peal of church +bells, the miners gathered _from_ hills and ravines _for_ miles around +_for_ marketing. + +7. The troops waited in their boats _by_ the edge of a strand. + +8. His breeches were _of_ black silk, and his hat was garnished _with_ +white and sable plumes. + +9. A suppressed but still distinct murmur of approbation ran through +the crowd _at_ this generous proposition. + +10. They were shriveled and colorless _with_ the cold. + +11. On every solemn occasion he was the striking figure, even _to_ the +eclipsing of the involuntary object of the ceremony. + +12. _On_ all subjects known to man, he favored the world with his +opinions. + +13. Our horses ran _on_ a sandy margin of the road. + +14. The hero of the poem is _of_ a strange land and a strange +parentage. + +15. He locked his door _from_ mere force of habit. + +16. The lady was remarkable _for_ energy and talent. + +17. Roland was acknowledged _for_ the successor and heir. + +18. _For_ my part, I like to see the passing, in town. + +19. A half-dollar was the smallest coin that could be tendered _for_ +any service. + +20. The mother sank and fell, grasping _at_ the child. + +21. The savage army was in war-paint, plumed _for_ battle. + +22. He had lived in Paris _for_ the last fifty years. + +23. The hill stretched _for_ an immeasurable distance. + +24. The baron of Smaylho'me rose _with_ day, + He spurred his courser on, + Without stop or stay, down the rocky way + That leads _to_ Brotherstone. + +25. _With_ all his learning, Carteret was far from being a pedant. + +26. An immense mountain covered with a shining green turf is nothing, +in this respect, _to_ one dark and gloomy. + +27. Wilt thou die _for_ very weakness? + +28. The name of Free Joe strikes humorously _upon_ the ear of memory. + +29. The shout I heard was _upon_ the arrival of this engine. + +30. He will raise the price, not merely _by_ the amount of the tax. + + + + +WORDS THAT NEED WATCHING. + + +328. If the student has now learned fully that words must be studied +in grammar according to their function or use, and not according to +form, he will be able to handle some words that are used as several +parts of speech. A few are discussed below,--a summary of their +treatment in various places as studied heretofore. + + +THAT. + + +329. That may be used as follows: + +(1) _As a demonstrative adjective._ + + _That_ night was a memorable one.--STOCKTON. + +(2) _As an adjective pronoun._ + + _That_ was a dreadful mistake.--WEBSTER. + +(3) _As a relative pronoun._ + + And now it is like an angel's song, + _That_ makes the heavens be mute.--COLERIDGE. + +(4) _As an adverb of degree._ + + _That_ far I hold that the Scriptures teach.--BEECHER. + +(5) _As a conjunction_: (_a_) Of purpose. + + Has bounteously lengthened out your lives, _that_ you might + behold this joyous day.--WEBSTER. + +(_b_) Of result. + + Gates of iron so massy _that_ no man could without the help of + engines open or shut them.--JOHNSON. + +(_c_) Substantive conjunction. + + We wish _that_ labor may look up here, and be proud in the midst + of its toil.--WEBSTER. + + +WHAT. + + +330. (1) _Relative pronoun._ + + That is _what_ I understand by scientific education.--HUXLEY. + +(_a_) Indefinite relative. + + Those shadowy recollections, + Which be they _what_ they may, + Are yet the fountain light of all our day.--WORDSWORTH. + +(2) _Interrogative pronoun_: (_a_) Direct question. + + _What_ would be an English merchant's character after a few such + transactions?--THACKERAY. + +(_b_) Indirect question. + + I have not allowed myself to look beyond the Union, to see _what_ + might be hidden.--WEBSTER. + +(3) _Indefinite pronoun:_ The saying, "I'll tell you _what_." + +(4) _Relative adjective._ + + But woe to _what_ thing or person stood in the way.--EMERSON. + +(_a_) Indefinite relative adjective. + + To say _what_ good of fashion we can, it rests on reality.--_Id._ + +(5) _Interrogative adjective_: (_a_) Direct question. + + _What_ right have you to infer that this condition was caused by + the action of heat?--AGASSIZ. + +(_b_) Indirect question. + + At _what_ rate these materials would be distributed,...it is + impossible to determine.--_Id._ + +(6) _Exclamatory adjective._ + + Saint Mary! _what_ a scene is here!--SCOTT. + +(7) _Adverb of degree._ + + If he has [been in America], he knows _what_ good people are to + be found there.--THACKERAY. + +(8) _Conjunction_, nearly equivalent to _partly_... _partly_, or _not +only...but_. + + _What_ with the Maltese goats, who go tinkling by to their + pasturage; _what_ with the vocal seller of bread in the early + morning;...these sounds are only to be heard...in Pera.--S.S. + Cox. + +(9) _As an exclamation._ + + _What_, silent still, and silent all!--BYRON. + + _What_, Adam Woodcock at court!--SCOTT. + + +BUT. + + +331. (1) _Cooerdinate conjunction_: (_a_) Adversative. + + His very attack was never the inspiration of courage, _but_ the + result of calculation.--EMERSON. + +(_b_) Copulative, after _not only_. + + Then arose not only tears, _but_ piercing cries, on all sides. + --CARLYLE. + +(2) _Subordinate conjunction_: (_a_) Result, equivalent to _that_ ... +_not_. + + Nor is Nature so hard _but_ she gives me this joy several + times.--EMERSON. + +(_b_) Substantive, meaning _otherwise_ ... _than_. + + Who knows _but_, like the dog, it will at length be no longer + traceable to its wild original--THOREAU. + +(3) _Preposition_, meaning _except_. + + Now there was nothing to be seen _but_ fires in every + direction.--LAMB. + +(4) _Relative pronoun_, after a negative, stands for _that_ ... _not_, +or _who_ ... _not_. + + There is not a man in them _but_ is impelled withal, at all + moments, towards order.--CARLYLE. + +(5) _Adverb_, meaning _only_. + + The whole twenty years had been to him _but_ as one + night.--IRVING. + + To lead _but_ one measure.--SCOTT. + + +AS. + + +332. (1) _Subordinate conjunction_: (_a_) Of time. + + Rip beheld a precise counterpart of himself _as_ he went up the + mountain.--IRVING. + +(_b_) Of manner. + + _As_ orphans yearn on to their mothers, + He yearned to our patriot bands.--MRS BROWNING. + +(_c_) Of degree. + + His wan eyes + Gaze on the empty scene _as_ vacantly + _As_ ocean's moon looks on the moon in heaven. + --SHELLEY. + +(_d_) Of reason. + + I shall see but little of it, _as_ I could neither bear walking + nor riding in a carriage.--FRANKLIN. + +(_e_) Introducing an appositive word. + + Reverenced _as_ one of the patriarchs of the village.--IRVING. + + Doing duty _as_ a guard.--HAWTHORNE. + +(2) _Relative pronoun_, after _such_, sometimes _same_. + + And was there such a resemblance _as_ the crowd had + testified?--HAWTHORNE. + + +LIKE. + + +[Sidenote: _Modifier of a noun or pronoun._] + +333. (1) _An adjective._ + + The aforesaid general had been exceedingly _like_ the majestic + image.--HAWTHORNE. + + They look, indeed, _liker_ a lion's mane than a Christian man's + locks.-SCOTT. + + No Emperor, this, _like_ him awhile ago.--ALDRICH. + + There is no statue _like_ this living man.--EMERSON. + + That face, _like_ summer ocean's.--HALLECK. + +In each case, _like_ clearly modifies a noun or pronoun, and is +followed by a dative-objective. + +[Sidenote: _Introduces a clause, but its verb is omitted._] + +(2) _A subordinate conjunction_ of manner. This follows a verb or a +verbal, but the verb of the clause introduced by _like_ is _regularly +omitted_. Note the difference between these two uses. In Old English +_gelic_ (like) was followed by the dative, and was clearly an +adjective. In this second use, _like_ introduces a shortened clause +modifying a verb or a verbal, as shown in the following sentences:-- + + Goodman Brown came into the street of Salem village, staring + _like_ a bewildered man.--HAWTHORNE. + + Give Ruskin space enough, and he grows frantic and beats the air + _like_ Carlyle.--HIGGINSON. + + They conducted themselves much _like_ the crew of a man-of-war. + --PARKMAN. + + [The sound] rang in his ears _like_ the iron hoofs of the steeds + of Time.--LONGFELLOW. + + Stirring it vigorously, _like_ a cook beating eggs.--ALDRICH. + +If the verb is expressed, _like_ drops out, and _as_ or _as if_ takes +its place. + + The sturdy English moralist may talk of a Scotch supper _as_ he + pleases.--CASS. + + Mankind for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw, + just _as_ they do in Abyssinia to this day.--LAMB. + + I do with my friends _as_ I do with my books.--EMERSON. + +NOTE.--Very rarely _like_ is found with a verb following, but this is +not considered good usage: for example,-- + + A timid, nervous child, _like_ Martin _was_.--MAYHEW. + + Through which they put their heads, _like_ the Gauchos _do_ + through their cloaks.--DARWIN. + + _Like_ an arrow shot + From a well-experienced archer _hits_ the mark.--SHAKESPEARE. + + + + +INTERJECTIONS. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +334. Interjections are exclamations used to express emotion, and +are not parts of speech in the same sense as the words we have +discussed; that is, entering into the structure of a sentence. + +Some of these are imitative sounds; as, tut! buzz! etc. + +_Humph_! attempts to express a contemptuous nasal utterance that no +letters of our language can really spell. + +[Sidenote: _Not all exclamatory words are interjections._] + +Other interjections are _oh_! _ah_! _alas_! _pshaw_! _hurrah_! etc. +But it is to be remembered that almost any word may be used as an +exclamation, but it still retains its identity as noun, pronoun, +verb, etc.: for example, "Books! lighthouses built on the sea of time +[noun];" "Halt! the dust-brown ranks stood fast [verb]," "Up! for +shame! [adverb]," "Impossible! it cannot be [adjective]." + + + + +PART II. + + + + +_ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES._ + + +CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORM. + + +[Sidenote: _What analysis is._.] + +335. All discourse is made up of sentences: consequently the +sentence is the unit with which we must begin. And in order to get a +clear and practical idea of the structure of sentences, it is +necessary to become expert in analysis; that is, in separating them +into their component parts. + +A general idea of analysis was needed in our study of the parts of +speech,--in determining case, subject and predicate, clauses +introduced by conjunctions, etc. + +[Sidenote: _Value of analysis._] + +A more thorough and accurate acquaintance with the subject is +necessary for two reasons,--not only for a correct understanding of +the principles of syntax, but for the study of punctuation and other +topics treated in rhetoric. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +336. A sentence is the expression of a thought in words. + + +[Sidenote: _Kinds of sentences as to form._] + +337. According to the way in which a thought is put before a +listener or reader, sentences may be of three kinds:-- + +(1) Declarative, which puts the thought in the form of a declaration +or assertion. This is the most common one. + +(2) Interrogative, which puts the thought in a question. + +(3) Imperative, which expresses command, entreaty, or request. + +Any one of these may be put in the form of an exclamation, but the +sentence would still be declarative, interrogative, or imperative; +hence, _according to form_, there are only the three kinds of +sentences already named. + +Examples of these three kinds are, declarative, "Old year, you must +not die!" interrogative, "Hath he not always treasures, always +friends?" imperative, "Come to the bridal chamber, Death!" + + + + +CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF STATEMENTS. + + + + +SIMPLE SENTENCES. + + +[Sidenote: _Division according to number of statements._] + +338. But the division of sentences most necessary to analysis is the +division, not according to the form in which a thought is put, but +according to how many statements there are. + +The one we shall consider first is the simple sentence. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +339. A simple sentence is one which contains a single statement, +question, or command: for example, "The quality of mercy is not +strained;" "What wouldst thou do, old man?" "Be thou familiar, but by +no means vulgar." + + +340. Every sentence must contain two parts,--a subject and a +predicate. + +[Sidenote: _Definition: Predicate._] + +The predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb phrase which says +something about the subject. + +In order to get a correct definition of the subject, let us examine +two specimen sentences:-- + +1. But now all is to be changed. + +2. A rare old plant is the ivy green. + +In the first sentence we find the subject by placing the word _what_ +before the predicate,--_What_ is to be changed? Answer, _all_. +Consequently, we say _all_ is the subject of the sentence. + +But if we try this with the second sentence, we have some +trouble,--_What_ is the ivy green? Answer, _a rare old plant_. But we +cannot help seeing that an assertion is made, not of _a rare old +plant_, but about _the ivy green_; and the real subject is the latter. +Sentences are frequently in this inverted order, especially in poetry; +and our definition must be the following, to suit all cases:-- + +[Sidenote: _Subject._] + +The subject is that which answers the question _who_ or _what_ +placed before the predicate, and which at the same time names that of +which the predicate says something. + + +[Sidenote: _The subject in interrogative and imperative simple +sentences._] + +341. In the interrogative sentence, the subject is frequently after +the verb. Either the verb is the first word of the sentence, or an +interrogative pronoun, adjective, or adverb that asks about the +subject. In analyzing such sentences, _always reduce them to the order +of a statement_. Thus,-- + +(1) "When should this scientific education be commenced?" + +(2) "This scientific education should be commenced when?" + +(3) "What wouldst thou have a good great man obtain?" + +(4) "Thou wouldst have a good great man obtain what?" + +In the imperative sentence, the subject (_you_, _thou_, or _ye_) is in +most cases omitted, and is to be supplied; as, "[You] behold her +single in the field." + + +Exercise. + +Name the subject and the predicate in each of the following +sentences:-- + + +1. The shadow of the dome of pleasure + Floated midway on the waves. + +2. Hence originated their contempt for terrestrial distinctions. + +3. Nowhere else on the Mount of Olives is there a view like this. + +4. In the sands of Africa and Arabia the camel is a sacred and +precious gift. + +5. The last of all the Bards was he. + +6. Slavery they can have anywhere. + +7. Listen, on the other hand, to an ignorant man. + +8. What must have been the emotions of the Spaniards! + +9. Such was not the effect produced on the sanguine spirit of the +general. + +10. What a contrast did these children of southern Europe present to +the Anglo-Saxon races! + + +ELEMENTS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. + +342. All the elements of the simple sentence are as follows:-- + +(1) The subject. + +(2) The predicate. + +(3) The object. + +(4) The complements. + +(5) Modifiers. + +(6) Independent elements. + +The subject and predicate have been discussed. + + +343. The object may be of two kinds:-- + +[Sidenote: _Definitions. Direct Object_.] + +(1) The DIRECT OBJECT is that word or expression which answers the +question _who_ or _what_ placed after the verb; or the direct object +names that toward which the action of the predicate is directed. + +It must be remembered that any verbal may have an object; but for the +present we speak of the object of the verb, and by _object_ we mean +the _direct_ object. + +[Sidenote: _Indirect object_.] + +(2) The INDIRECT OBJECT is a noun or its equivalent used as the +modifier of a verb or verbal to name the person or thing for whose +benefit an action is performed. + +Examples of direct and indirect objects are, direct, "She seldom saw +her _course_ at a glance;" indirect, "I give _thee_ this to wear at +the collar." + +[Sidenote: _Complement_:] + +344. A complement is a word added to a verb of incomplete +predication to complete its meaning. + +Notice that a verb of incomplete predication may be of two +kinds,--transitive and intransitive. + +[Sidenote: _Of a transitive verb_.] + +The _transitive verb_ often requires, in addition to the object, a +word to define fully the action that is exerted upon the object; for +example, "Ye call me chief." Here the verb _call_ has an object _me_ +(if we leave out _chief_), and means summoned; but _chief_ belongs to +the verb, and _me_ here is not the object simply of _call_, but of +_call chief_, just as if to say, "Ye _honor me_." This word completing +a transitive verb is sometimes called a _factitive object_, or _second +object_, but it is a true complement. + +The fact that this is a complement can be more clearly seen when the +verb is in the passive. See sentence 19, in exercise following Sec. +364. + +[Sidenote: _Complement of an intransitive verb_.] + +An _intransitive verb_, especially the forms of _be_, _seem_, +_appear_, _taste_, _feel_, _become_, etc., must often have a word to +complete the meaning: as, for instance, "Brow and head were _round, +and of massive weight_;" "The good man, he was now getting _old_, +above sixty;" "Nothing could be _more copious_ than his talk;" "But in +general he seemed _deficient in laughter_." + +All these complete intransitive verbs. The following are examples of +complements of transitive verbs: "Hope deferred maketh the heart +_sick_;" "He was termed _Thomas_, or, more familiarly, _Thom of the +Gills_;" "A plentiful fortune is reckoned _necessary_, in the popular +judgment, to the completion of this man of the world." + +345. The modifiers and independent elements will be discussed in +detail in Secs. 351, 352, 355. + +[Sidenote: _Phrases_.] + +346. A phrase is a group of words, not containing a verb, but used +as a single modifier. + +As to _form_, phrases are of three kinds:-- + +[Sidenote: _Three kinds_.] + +(1) PREPOSITIONAL, introduced by a preposition: for example, "Such a +convulsion is the struggle _of gradual suffocation_, as _in drowning_; +and, _in the original Opium Confessions_, I mentioned a case _of that +nature_." + +(2) PARTICIPIAL, consisting of a participle and the words dependent on +it. The following are examples: "Then _retreating into the warm +house_, and _barring the door_, she sat down to undress the two +youngest children." + +(3) INFINITIVE, consisting of an infinitive and the words dependent +upon it; as in the sentence, "She left her home forever in order _to +present herself at the Dauphin's court_." + + +Things used as Subject. + +347. The subject of a simple sentence may be-- + +(1) _Noun_: "There seems to be no _interval_ between greatness and +meanness." Also an expression used as a noun; as, "A cheery, '_Ay, ay, +sir_!' rang out in response." + +(2) _Pronoun_: "We are fortified by every heroic anecdote." + +(3) _Infinitive phrase_: "_To enumerate and analyze these relations_ +is to teach the science of method." + +(4) _Gerund_: "There will be _sleeping_ enough in the grave;" "What +signifies _wishing_ and _hoping_ for better things?" + +(5) _Adjective used as noun_: "_The good_ are befriended even by +weakness and defect;" "_The dead_ are there." + +(6) _Adverb_: "_Then_ is the moment for the humming bird to secure the +insects." + +348. The subject is often found _after the verb_-- + +(1) _By simple inversion_: as, "Therein has been, and ever will be, my +_deficiency_,--the talent of starting the game;" "Never, from their +lips, was heard one _syllable_ to justify," etc. + +(2) _In interrogative sentences_, for which see Sec. 341. + +(3) _After_ "it _introductory_:" "It ought not to need _to print_ in +a reading room a caution not to read aloud." + +In this sentence, _it_ stands in the position of a grammatical +subject; but the real or logical subject is _to print_, etc. _It_ +merely serves to throw the subject after a verb. + +[Sidenote: _Disguised infinitive subject_.] + +There is one kind of expression that is really an infinitive, though +disguised as a prepositional phrase: "It is hard _for honest men to +separate_ their country from their party, or their religion from their +sect." + +The _for_ did not belong there originally, but obscures the real +subject,--the infinitive phrase. Compare Chaucer: "No wonder is a +lewed man to ruste" (No wonder [it] is [for] a common man to rust). + +(4) _After_ "there _introductory_," which has the same office as _it_ +in reversing the order (see Sec. 292): "There was a _description_ of +the destructive operations of time;" "There are _asking eyes_, +_asserting eyes_, _prowling eyes_." + + +Things used as Direct Object. + +349. The words used as direct object are mainly the same as those +used for subject, but they will be given in detail here, for the sake +of presenting examples:-- + +(1) _Noun_: "Each man has his own _vocation_." Also expressions used +as nouns: for example, "'_By God, and by Saint George!_' said the +King." + +(2) _Pronoun_: "Memory greets _them_ with the ghost of a smile." + +(3) _Infinitive_: "We like _to see_ everything do its office." + +(4) _Gerund_: "She heard that _sobbing_ of litanies, or the +_thundering_ of organs." + +(5) _Adjective used as a noun_: "For seventy leagues through the +mighty cathedral, I saw _the quick_ and _the dead_." + + +Things used as Complement. + +[Sidenote: _Complement: Of an intransitive verb_.] + +350. As complement of an _intransitive_ verb,-- + +(1) _Noun_: "She had been an ardent _patriot_." + +(2) _Pronoun_: "_Who_ is she in bloody coronation robes from Rheims?" +"This is _she_, the shepherd girl." + +(3) _Adjective_: "Innocence is ever _simple_ and _credulous_." + +(4) _Infinitive_: "To enumerate and analyze these relations is _to +teach_ the science of method." + +(5) _Gerund_: "Life is a _pitching_ of this penny,--heads or tails;" +"Serving others is _serving_ us." + +(6) _A prepositional phrase_: "His frame is _on a larger scale_;" "The +marks were _of a kind_ not to be mistaken." + +It will be noticed that all these complements have a double +office,--completing the predicate, and explaining or modifying the +subject. + +[Sidenote: _Of a transitive verb_.] + +As complement of a _transitive_ verb,-- + +(1) _Noun_: "I will not call you _cowards_." + +(2) _Adjective_: "Manners make beauty _superfluous_ and _ugly_;" +"Their tempers, doubtless, are rendered _pliant_ and _malleable_ in +the fiery furnace of domestic tribulation." In this last sentence, the +object is made the subject by being passive, and the words italicized +are still complements. Like all the complements in this list, they are +adjuncts of the object, and, at the same time, complements of the +predicate. + +(3) _Infinitive_, or _infinitive phrase_: "That cry which made me +_look a thousand ways_;" "I hear the echoes _throng_." + +(4) _Participle_, or _participial phrase_: "I can imagine him _pushing +firmly on, trusting the hearts of his countrymen_." + +(5) _Prepositional phrase:_ "My antagonist would render my poniard and +my speed _of no use_ to me." + + + +Modifiers. + + +I. Modifiers of Subject, Object, or Complement. + + +351. Since the subject and object are either nouns or some +equivalent of a noun, the words modifying them must be adjectives or +some equivalent of an adjective; and whenever the complement is a +noun, or the equivalent of the noun, it is modified by the same words +and word groups that modify the subject and the object. + +These modifiers are as follows:-- + +(1) _A possessive_: "_My_ memory assures me of this;" "She asked her +_father's_ permission." + +(2) _A word in apposition_: "Theodore Wieland, the _prisoner_ at the +bar, was now called upon for his defense;" "Him, this young +_idolater_, I have seasoned for thee." + +(3) _An adjective_: "_Great_ geniuses have the _shortest_ +biographies;" "Her father was a prince in Lebanon,--_proud_, +_unforgiving_, _austere_." + +(4) _Prepositional phrase_: "Are the opinions _of a man on right and +wrong on fate and causation_, at the mercy of a broken sleep or an +indigestion?" "The poet needs a ground _in popular tradition_ to work +on." + +(5) _Infinitive phrase_: "The way _to know him_ is to compare him, not +with nature, but with other men;" "She has a new and unattempted +problem _to solve_;" "The simplest utterances are worthiest _to be +written_." + +(6) _Participial phrase_: "Another reading, _given at the request of a +Dutch lady_, was the scene from King John;" "This was the hour +_already appointed for the baptism_ of the new Christian daughter." + + +Exercise.--In each sentence in Sec. 351, tell whether the subject, +object, or complement is modified. + + +II. Modifiers of the Predicate. + + +352. Since the predicate is always a verb, the word modifying it +must be an adverb or its equivalent:-- + +(1) _Adverb:_ "_Slowly_ and _sadly_ we laid him down." + +(2) _Prepositional phrase_: "The little carriage is creeping on _at +one mile an hour_;" "_In the twinkling of an eye_, our horses had +carried us _to the termination of the umbrageous isle_." + +In such a sentence as, "He died like a God," the word group _like a +God_ is often taken as a phrase; but it is really a contracted clause, +the verb being omitted. + +[Sidenote: _Tells how._] + +(3) _Participial phrase:_ "She comes down from heaven to his help, +_interpreting for him the most difficult truths_, and _leading him +from star to star_." + +(4) _Infinitive phrase:_ "No imprudent, no sociable angel, ever +dropped an early syllable _to answer his longing_." + +(For participial and infinitive phrases, see further Secs. 357-363.) + +(5) _Indirect object:_ "I gave _every man_ a trumpet;" "Give _them_ +not only noble teachings, but noble teachers." + +These are equivalent to the phrases _to every man_ and _to them_, and +modify the predicate in the same way. + +[Sidenote: _Retained with passive; or_] + +When the verb is changed from active to passive, the indirect object +is retained, as in these sentences: "It is left _you_ to find out the +reason why;" "All such knowledge should be given _her_." + +[Sidenote: _subject of passive verb and direct object retained._] + +Or sometimes the indirect object of the active voice becomes the +subject of the passive, and the direct object is retained: for +example, "She is to be taught _to extend the limits of her sympathy_;" +"I was shown an immense _sarcophagus_." + +(6) _Adverbial objective._ These answer the question _when_, or _how +long_, _how far_, etc., and are consequently equivalent to adverbs in +modifying a predicate: "We were now running _thirteen miles an hour_;" +"_One way_ lies hope;" "_Four hours_ before midnight we approached a +mighty minster." + + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Pick out subject, predicate, and (direct) object:-- + +1. This, and other measures of precaution, I took. + +2. The pursuing the inquiry under the light of an end or final cause, +gives wonderful animation, a sort of personality to the whole writing. + +3. Why does the horizon hold me fast, with my joy and grief, in this +center? + +4. His books have no melody, no emotion, no humor, no relief to the +dead prosaic level. + +5. On the voyage to Egypt, he liked, after dinner, to fix on three or +four persons to support a proposition, and as many to oppose it. + +6. Fashion does not often caress the great, but the children of the +great. + +7. No rent roll can dignify skulking and dissimulation. + +8. They do not wish to be lovely, but to be loved. + + +(_b_) Pick out the subject, predicate, and complement: + +1. Evil, according to old philosophers, is good in the making. + +2. But anger drives a man to say anything. + +3. The teachings of the High Spirit are abstemious, and, in regard to +particulars, negative. + +4. Spanish diet and youth leave the digestion undisordered and the +slumbers light. + +5. Yet they made themselves sycophantic servants of the King of Spain. + +6. A merciless oppressor hast thou been. + +7. To the men of this world, to the animal strength and spirits, the +man of ideas appears out of his reason. + +8. I felt myself, for the first time, burthened with the anxieties of +a man, and a member of the world. + + +(_c_) Pick out the direct and the indirect object in each:-- + +1. Not the less I owe thee justice. + +2. Unhorse me, then, this imperial rider. + +3. She told the first lieutenant part of the truth. + +4. I promised her protection against all ghosts. + +5. I gave him an address to my friend, the attorney. + +6. Paint me, then, a room seventeen feet by twelve. + + +(_d_) Pick out the words and phrases in apposition:-- + +1. To suffer and to do, that was thy portion in life. + +2. A river formed the boundary,--the river Meuse. + +3. In one feature, Lamb resembles Sir Walter Scott; viz., in the +dramatic character of his mind and taste. + +4. This view was luminously expounded by Archbishop Whately, the +present Archbishop of Dublin. + +5. Yes, at length the warrior lady, the blooming cornet, this nun so +martial, this dragoon so lovely, must visit again the home of her +childhood. + + +(_e_) Pick out the modifiers of the predicate:-- + +1. It moves from one flower to another like a gleam of light, upwards, +downwards, to the right and to the left. + +2. And hark! like the roar of the billows on the shore, + The cry of battle rises along their changing line. + +3. Their intention was to have a gay, happy dinner, after their long +confinement to a ship, at the chief hotel. + +4. That night, in little peaceful Easedale, six children sat by a peat +fire, expecting the return of their parents. + + +Compound Subject, Compound Predicate, etc. + + +[Sidenote: _Not compound sentences._] + +353. Frequently in a simple sentence the writer uses two or more +predicates to the same subject, two or more subjects of the same +predicate, several modifiers, complements, etc.; but it is to be +noticed that, in all such sentences as we quote below, the writers of +them purposely combined them _in single statements_, and they are not +to be expanded into compound sentences. In a compound sentence the +object is to make two or more full statements. + +Examples of compound subjects are, "By degrees Rip's _awe_ and +_apprehension_ subsided;" "The _name of the child_, _the air of the +mother_, the _tone of her voice_,--all awakened a train of +recollections in his mind." + +Sentences with compound predicates are, "The company _broke up_, and +_returned_ to the more important concerns of the election;" "He +_shook_ his head, _shouldered_ the rusty firelock, and, with a heart +full of trouble and anxiety, _turned_ his steps homeward." + +Sentences with compound objects of the same verb are, "He caught his +_daughter_ and her _child_ in his arms;" "_Voyages_ and _travels_ I +would also have." + +And so with complements, modifiers, etc. + + +Logical Subject and Logical Predicate. + + +354. The logical subject is the simple or grammatical subject, +together with all its modifiers. + +The logical predicate is the simple or grammatical predicate (that +is, the verb), together with its modifiers, and its object or +complement. + +[Sidenote: _Larger view of a sentence._] + +It is often a help to the student to find the logical subject and +predicate first, then the grammatical subject and predicate. For +example, in the sentence, "The situation here contemplated exposes a +dreadful ulcer, lurking far down in the depths of human nature," the +logical subject is _the situation here contemplated_, and the rest is +the logical predicate. Of this, the simple subject is _situation_; the +predicate, _exposes_; the object, _ulcer_, etc. + + +Independent Elements of the Sentence. + + +355. The following words and expressions are grammatically +independent of the rest of the sentence; that is, they are not a +necessary part, do not enter into its structure:-- + +(1) _Person or thing addressed_: "But you know them, _Bishop_;" "_Ye +crags and peaks_, I'm with you once again." + +(2) _Exclamatory expressions_: "But the _lady_--! Oh, _heavens_! will +that spectacle ever depart from my dreams?" + +[Sidenote: _Caution._] + +The exclamatory expression, however, may be the person or thing +addressed, same as (1), above: thus, "Ah, _young sir_! what are you +about?" Or it may be an imperative, forming a sentence: "Oh, _hurry, +hurry_, my brave young man!" + +(3) _Infinitive phrase_ thrown in loosely: "_To make a long story +short_, the company broke up;" "_Truth to say_, he was a conscientious +man." + +(4) _Prepositional phrase_ not modifying: "Within the railing sat, _to +the best of my remembrance_, six quill-driving gentlemen;" "_At all +events_, the great man of the prophecy had not yet appeared." + +(5) _Participial phrase:_ "But, _generally speaking_, he closed his +literary toils at dinner;" "_Considering the burnish of her French +tastes_, her noticing even this is creditable." + +(6) _Single words_: as, "Oh, _yes_! everybody knew them;" "_No_, let +him perish;" "_Well_, he somehow lived along;" "_Why_, grandma, how +you're winking!" "_Now_, this story runs thus." + +[Sidenote: _Another caution._] + +There are some adverbs, such as _perhaps_, _truly_, _really_, +_undoubtedly_, _besides_, etc., and some conjunctions, such as +_however_, _then_, _moreover_, _therefore_, _nevertheless_, etc., that +have an office in the sentence, and should not be confused with the +words spoken of above. The words _well_, _now_, _why_, and so on, are +independent when they merely arrest the attention without being +necessary. + + +PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. + + +356. In their use, prepositional phrases may be, + +(1) _Adjectival_, modifying a noun, pronoun, or word used as a noun: +for example, "He took the road _to King Richard's pavilion_;" "I bring +reports _on that subject_ from Ascalon." + +(2) _Adverbial_, limiting in the same way an adverb limits: as, "All +nature around him slept _in calm moonshine_ or _in deep shadow_;" "Far +_from the madding crowd's ignoble strife_." + +(3) _Independent_, not dependent on any word in the sentence (for +examples, see Sec. 355, 4). + + +PARTICIPLES AND PARTICIPIAL PHRASES. + + +357. It will be helpful to sum up here the results of our study of +participles and participial phrases, and to set down all the uses +which are of importance in analysis:-- + +(1) _The adjectival use_, already noticed, as follows:-- + +(_a_) As a complement of a transitive verb, and at the same time a +modifier of the object (for an example, see Sec. 350, 4). + +(_b_) As a modifier of subject, object, or complement (see Sec. 351, +6). + +(2) _The adverbial use_, modifying the predicate, instances of which +were seen in Sec. 352, 3. In these the participial phrases connect +closely with the verb, and there is no difficulty in seeing that they +modify. + +[Sidenote: _These need close watching._] + +There are other participial phrases which are used adverbially, but +require somewhat closer attention; thus, "The letter of +introduction_, containing no matters of business_, was speedily run +through." + +In this sentence, the expression _containing no matters of business_ +does not describe _letter_, but it is equivalent to _because it +contained no matters of business_, and hence is adverbial, modifying +_was speedily run through_. + +Notice these additional examples:-- + +_Being a great collector of everything relating to Milton_ [reason, +"Because I was," etc.], I had naturally possessed myself of Richardson +the painter's thick octavo volumes. + +Neither the one nor the other writer was valued by the public, _both +having_ [since they had] _a long warfare to accomplish of contumely +and ridicule_. + +Wilt thou, therefore, _being now wiser_ [as thou art] _in thy +thoughts_, suffer God to give by seeming to refuse? + +(3) _Wholly independent_ in meaning and grammar. See Sec. 355, (5), +and these additional examples:-- + +_Assuming the specific heat to be the same as that of water_, the +entire mass of the sun would cool down to 15,000 deg. Fahrenheit in five +thousand years. + +_This case excepted_, the French have the keenest possible sense of +everything odious and ludicrous in posing. + + +INFINITIVES AND INFINITIVE PHRASES. + + +358. The various uses of the infinitive give considerable trouble, +and they will be presented here in full, or as nearly so as the +student will require. + +I. The verbal use. (1) Completing an incomplete verb, but having no +other office than a verbal one. + +(_a_) With _may (might)_, _can (could)_, _should_, _would_, _seem_, +_ought_, etc.: "My weekly bill used invariably _to be_ about fifty +shillings;" "There, my dear, he should not _have known_ them at all;" +"He would _instruct_ her in the white man's religion, and _teach_ her +how to be happy and good." + +(_b_) With the forms of _be_, being equivalent to a future with +obligation, necessity, etc.: as in the sentences, "Ingenuity and +cleverness are _to be rewarded_ by State prizes;" "'The Fair Penitent' +was _to be acted_ that evening." + +(_c_) With the definite forms of _go_, equivalent to a future: "I was +going _to repeat_ my remonstrances;" "I am not going _to dissert_ on +Hood's humor." + +(2) Completing an incomplete transitive verb, but also belonging to a +subject or an object (see Sec. 344 for explanation of the complements +of transitive verbs): "I am constrained every moment _to acknowledge_ +a higher origin for events" (retained with passive); "Do they not +cause the heart _to beat_, and the eyes _to fill_?" + + +359. II. The substantive use, already examined; but see the +following examples for further illustration:-- + +(1) _As the subject: "To have_ the wall there, was to have the foe's +life at their mercy;" "_To teach_ is to learn." + +(2) _As the object_: "I like _to hear_ them tell their old stories;" +"I don't wish _to detract_ from any gentleman's reputation." + +(3) _As complement:_ See examples under (1), above. + +(4) _In apposition_, explanatory of a noun preceding: as, "She +forwarded to the English leaders a touching invitation _to unite_ with +the French;" "He insisted on his right _to forget_ her." + + +360. III. The adjectival use, modifying a noun that may be a +subject, object, complement, etc.: for example, "But there was no time +_to be lost_;" "And now Amyas had time _to ask_ Ayacanora the meaning +of this;" "I have such a desire _to be_ well with my public" (see also +Sec. 351, 5). + + +361. IV. The adverbial use, which may be to express-- + +(1) _Purpose:_ "The governor, Don Guzman, sailed to the eastward only +yesterday _to look_ for you;" "Isn't it enough to bring us to death, +_to please_ that poor young gentleman's fancy?" + +(2) _Result:_ "Don Guzman returns to the river mouth _to find_ the +ship a blackened wreck;" "What heart could be so hard as _not to take_ +pity on the poor wild thing?" + +(3) _Reason:_ "I am quite sorry _to part_ with them;" "Are you mad, +_to betray_ yourself by your own cries?" "Marry, hang the idiot, _to +bring me_ such stuff!" + +(4) _Degree:_ "We have won gold enough _to serve_ us the rest of our +lives;" "But the poor lady was too sad _to talk_ except to the boys +now and again." + +(5) _Condition:_ "You would fancy, _to hear_ McOrator after dinner, +the Scotch fighting all the battles;" "_To say_ what good of fashion +we can, it rests on reality" (the last is not a simple sentence, but +it furnishes a good example of this use of the infinitive). + + +362. The fact that the infinitives in Sec. 361 are used adverbially, +is evident from the meaning of the sentences. + +Whether each sentence containing an adverbial infinitive has the +meaning of purpose, result, etc., may be found out by turning the +infinitive into an equivalent clause, such as those studied under +subordinate conjunctions. + +To test this, notice the following:-- + +In (1), _to look_ means _that he might look_; _to please_ is +equivalent to _that he may please_,--both purpose clauses. + +In (2), _to find_ shows the result of the return; _not to take pity_ +is equivalent to _that it would not take pity_. + +In (3), _to part_ means _because I part_, etc.; and _to betray_ and +_to bring_ express the reason, equivalent to _that you betray_, etc. + +In (4), _to serve_ and _to talk_ are equivalent to [_as much gold_] +_as will serve us_; and "too sad _to talk_" also shows degree. + +In (5), _to hear_ means _if you should hear_, and _to say_ is +equivalent to _if we say_,--both expressing condition. + + +363. V. The independent use, which is of two kinds,-- + +(1) Thrown loosely into the sentence; as in Sec. 355, (3). + +(2) _Exclamatory:_ "I a philosopher! I _advance_ pretensions;" "'He +_to die_!' resumed the bishop." (See also Sec. 268, 4.) + + +OUTLINE OF ANALYSIS. + + +364. In analyzing simple sentences, give-- + +(1) The predicate. If it is an incomplete verb, give the complement +(Secs. 344 and 350) and its modifiers (Sec. 351). + +(2) The object of the verb (Sec. 349). + +(3) Modifiers of the object (Sec. 351). + +(4) Modifiers of the predicate (Sec. 352). + +(5) The subject (Sec. 347). + +(6) Modifiers of the subject (Sec. 351). + +(7) Independent elements (Sec. 355). + +This is not the same order that the parts of the sentence usually +have; but it is believed that the student will proceed more easily by +finding the predicate with its modifiers, object, etc., and then +finding the subject by placing the question _who_ or _what_ before it. + + +Exercise in Analyzing Simple Sentences. + +Analyze the following according to the directions given:-- + +1. Our life is March weather, savage and serene in one hour. + +2. I will try to keep the balance true. + +3. The questions of Whence? What? and Whither? and the solution of +these, must be in a life, not in a book. + +4. The ward meetings on election days are not softened by any +misgiving of the value of these ballotings. + +5. Our English Bible is a wonderful specimen of the strength and music +of the English language. + +6. Through the years and the centuries, through evil agents, through +toys and atoms, a great and beneficent tendency irresistibly streams. + +7. To be hurried away by every event, is to have no political system +at all. + +8. This mysticism the ancients called ecstasy,--a getting-out of their +bodies to think. + +9. He risked everything, and spared nothing, neither ammunition, nor +money, nor troops, nor generals, nor himself. + +10. We are always in peril, always in a bad plight, just on the edge +of destruction, and only to be saved by invention and courage. + +11. His opinion is always original, and to the purpose. + +12. To these gifts of nature, Napoleon added the advantage of having +been born to a private and humble fortune. + +13. The water, like a witch's oils, + Burnt green and blue and white. + +14. We one day descried some shapeless object floating at a distance. + +15. Old Adam, the carrion crow, + The old crow of Cairo; + He sat in the shower, and let it flow + Under his tail and over his crest. + +16. It costs no more for a wise soul to convey his quality to other +men. + +17. It is easy to sugar to be sweet. + +18. At times the black volume of clouds overhead seemed rent asunder +by flashes of lightning. + +19. The whole figure and air, good and amiable otherwise, might be +called flabby and irresolute. + +20. I have heard Coleridge talk, with eager energy, two stricken +hours, and communicate no meaning whatsoever to any individual. + +21. The word _conscience_ has become almost confined, in popular use, +to the moral sphere. + +22. You may ramble a whole day together, and every moment discover +something new. + +23. She had grown up amidst the liberal culture of Henry's court a +bold horsewoman, a good shot, a graceful dancer, a skilled musician, +an accomplished scholar. + +24. Her aims were simple and obvious,--to preserve her throne, to keep +England out of war, to restore civil and religious order. + +25. Fair name might he have handed down, + Effacing many a stain of former crime. + +26. Of the same grandeur, in less heroic and poetic form, was the +patriotism of Peel in recent history. + +27. Oxford, ancient mother! hoary with ancestral honors, time-honored, +and, haply, time-shattered power--I owe thee nothing! + +28. The villain, I hate him and myself, to be a reproach to such +goodness. + +29. I dare this, upon my own ground, and in my own garden, to bid you +leave the place now and forever. + +30. Upon this shore stood, ready to receive her, in front of all this +mighty crowd, the prime minister of Spain, the same Conde Olivarez. + +31. Great was their surprise to see a young officer in uniform +stretched within the bushes upon the ground. + +32. She had made a two days' march, baggage far in the rear, and no +provisions but wild berries. + +33. This amiable relative, an elderly man, had but one foible, or +perhaps one virtue, in this world. + +34. Now, it would not have been filial or ladylike. + +35. Supposing this computation to be correct, it must have been in the +latitude of Boston, the present capital of New England. + +36. The cry, "A strange vessel close aboard the frigate!" having +already flown down the hatches, the ship was in an uproar. + +37. But yield, proud foe, thy fleet + With the crews at England's feet. + +38. Few in number, and that number rapidly perishing away through +sickness and hardships; surrounded by a howling wilderness and savage +tribes; exposed to the rigors of an almost arctic winter,--their minds +were filled with doleful forebodings. + +39. List to the mournful tradition still sung by the pines of the +forest. + +40. In the Acadian land, on the shores of the Basin of Minas, + Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand-Pre + Lay in the fruitful valley. + +41. Must we in all things look for the how, and the why, and the +wherefore? + + + + +CONTRACTED SENTENCES. + + +[Sidenote: _Words left out after_ than _or_ as.] + +365. Some sentences look like simple ones in form, but have an +essential part omitted that is so readily supplied by the mind as not +to need expressing. Such are the following:-- + + "There is no country more worthy of our study than England [is + worthy of our study]." + + "The distinctions between them do not seem to be so marked as + [they are marked] in the cities." + +To show that these words are really omitted, compare with them the two +following:-- + + "The nobility and gentry are more popular among the inferior + orders than _they are_ in any other country." + + "This is not so universally the case at present as _it was_ + formerly." + + +[Sidenote: _Sentences with_ like.] + +366. As shown in Part I. (Sec. 333). the expressions _of manner_ +introduced by _like_, though often treated as phrases, are really +contracted clauses; but, if they were expanded, _as_ would be the +connective instead of _like_; thus,-- + + "They'll shine o'er her sleep, like [as] a smile from the west + [would shine]. + From her own loved island of sorrow." + +This must, however, be carefully discriminated from cases where _like_ +is an adjective complement; as,-- + + "She is _like_ some tender tree, the pride and beauty of the + grove;" "The ruby seemed _like_ a spark of fire burning upon her + white bosom." + +Such contracted sentences form a connecting link between our study of +simple and complex sentences. + + + + +COMPLEX SENTENCES. + + +[Sidenote: _The simple sentence the basis._] + +367. Our investigations have now included all the machinery of the +simple sentence, which is the _unit of speech_. + +Our further study will be in sentences which are combinations of +simple sentences, made merely for convenience and smoothness, to avoid +the tiresome repetition of short ones of monotonous similarity. + +Next to the simple sentence stands the complex sentence. The basis of +it is two or more simple sentences, which are so united that one +member is the main one,--the backbone,--the other members subordinate +to it, or dependent on it; as in this sentence,-- + + "When such a spirit breaks forth into complaint, we are aware how + great must be the suffering that extorts the murmur." + +The relation of the parts is as follows:-- + + we are aware + _______ _____ + | | + __| _when such a spirit breaks_ + | _forth into complaint_, + | + _how great must be the suffering_ + | + that extorts the murmur. + +This arrangement shows to the eye the picture that the sentence forms +in the mind,--how the first clause is held in suspense by the mind +till the second, we are aware, is taken in; then we recognize this +as the main statement; and the next one, _how great ... suffering_, +drops into its place as subordinate to _we are aware_; and the last, +_that ... murmur_, logically depends on _suffering_. + +Hence the following definition:-- + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +368. A complex sentence is one containing one main or independent +clause (also called the principal proposition or clause), and _one or +more_ subordinate or dependent clauses. + +369. The elements of a complex sentence are the same as those of +the simple sentence; that is, each clause has its subject, predicate, +object, complements, modifiers, etc. + +But there is this difference: whereas the simple sentence always has a +word or a phrase for subject, object, complement, and modifier, the +complex sentence has _statements_ or _clauses_ for these places. + + +CLAUSES. + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +370. A clause is a division of a sentence, containing a verb with +its subject. + +Hence the term _clause_ may refer to the main division of the complex +sentence, or it may be applied to the others,--the dependent or +subordinate clauses. + + +[Sidenote: _Independent clause._] + +371. A principal, main, or independent clause is one making a +statement without the help of any other clause. + +[Sidenote: _Dependent clause._] + +A subordinate or dependent clause is one which makes a statement +depending upon or modifying some word in the principal clause. + + +[Sidenote: _Kinds._] + +372. As to their office in the sentence, clauses are divided into +NOUN, ADJECTIVE, and ADVERB clauses, according as they are equivalent +in use to nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. + + +Noun Clauses. + +373. Noun clauses have the following uses:-- + +(1) _Subject_: "_That such men should give prejudiced views of +America_ is not a matter of surprise." + +(2) _Object of a verb_, _verbal_, _or the equivalent of a verb_: (_a_) +"I confess _these stories, for a time, put an end to my fancies_;" +(_b_) "I am aware [I know] _that a skillful illustrator of the +immortal bard would have swelled the materials_." + +Just as the object noun, pronoun, infinitive, etc., is retained after +a passive verb (Sec. 352, 5), so the object clause is retained, and +should not be called an adjunct of the subject; for example, "We are +persuaded _that a thread runs through all things_;" "I was told _that +the house had not been shut, night or day, for a hundred years_." + +(3) _Complement_: "The terms of admission to this spectacle are, _that +he have a certain solid and intelligible way of living_." + +(4) _Apposition_. (_a_) Ordinary apposition, explanatory of some noun +or its equivalent: "Cecil's saying of Sir Walter Raleigh, '_I know +that he can toil terribly_,' is an electric touch." + +(_b_) After "it _introductory_" (logically this is a subject clause, +but it is often treated as in apposition with _it_): "_It_ was the +opinion of some, _that this might be the wild huntsman famous in +German legend_." + +(5) _Object of a preposition_: "At length he reached to _where the +ravine had opened through the cliffs_." + +Notice that frequently only the introductory word is the object of +the preposition, and the whole clause is not; thus, "The rocks +presented a high impenetrable wall, _over which_ the torrent came +tumbling." + +374. Here are to be noticed certain sentences seemingly complex, +with a noun clause in apposition with _it_; but logically they are +nothing but simple sentences. But since they are _complex in form_, +attention is called to them here; for example,-- + + "Alas! it is we ourselves that are getting buried alive under + this avalanche of earthly impertinences." + +To divide this into two clauses--(_a_) _It is we ourselves_, (_b_) +_that are ... impertinences_--would be grammatical; but logically the +sentence is, _We ourselves are getting ... impertinences_, and _it is +... that_ is merely a framework used to effect emphasis. The sentence +shows how _it_ may lose its pronominal force. + +Other examples of this construction are,-- + + "It is on the understanding, and not on the sentiment, of a + nation, that all safe legislation must be based." + + "Then it is that deliberative Eloquence lays aside the plain + attire of her daily occupation." + + +Exercise. + +Tell how each noun clause is used in these sentences:-- + +1. I felt that I breathed an atmosphere of sorrow. + +2. But the fact is, I was napping. + +3. Shaking off from my spirit what must have been a dream, I scanned +more narrowly the aspect of the building. + +4. Except by what he could see for himself, he could know nothing. + +5. Whatever he looks upon discloses a second sense. + +6. It will not be pretended that a success in either of these kinds is +quite coincident with what is best and inmost in his mind. + +7. The reply of Socrates, to him who asked whether he should choose a +wife, still remains reasonable, that, whether he should choose one or +not, he would repent it. + +8. What history it had, how it changed from shape to shape, no man +will ever know. + +9. Such a man is what we call an original man. + +10. Our current hypothesis about Mohammed, that he was a scheming +impostor, a falsehood incarnate, that his religion is a mere mass of +quackery and fatuity, begins really to be no longer tenable to any +one. + + +Adjective Clauses. + +375. As the office of an adjective is to modify, the only use of an +adjective clause is to limit or describe some noun, or equivalent of a +noun: consequently the adjective may modify _any_ noun, or equivalent +of a noun, in the sentence. + +The adjective clause may be introduced by the relative pronouns _who_, +_which_, _that_, _but_, _as_; sometimes by the conjunctions _when_, +_where_, _whither_, _whence_, _wherein_, _whereby_, etc. + +Frequently there is no connecting word, a relative pronoun being +understood. + +[Sidenote: _Examples of adjective clauses_.] + +376. Adjective clauses may modify-- + +(1) _The subject_: "The themes _it offers for contemplation_ are too +vast for their capacities;" "Those _who see the Englishman only in +town_, are apt to form an unfavorable opinion of his social +character." + +(2) _The object_: "From this piazza Ichabod entered the hall, _which +formed the center of the mansion_." + +(3) _The complement_: "The animal he bestrode was a broken-down +plow-horse, _that had outlived almost everything but his usefulness_;" +"It was such an apparition _as is seldom to be met with in broad +daylight_." + +(4) _Other words_: "He rode with short stirrups, _which brought his +knees nearly up to the pommel of the saddle_;" "No whit anticipating +the oblivion _which awaited their names and feats_, the champions +advanced through the lists;" "Charity covereth a multitude of sins, in +another sense than that _in which it is said to do so in Scripture_." + + +Exercise. + +Pick out the adjective clauses, and tell what each one modifies; i.e., +whether subject, object, etc. + +1. There were passages that reminded me perhaps too much of Massillon. + +2. I walked home with Calhoun, who said that the principles which I +had avowed were just and noble. + +3. Other men are lenses through which we read our own minds. + +4. In one of those celestial days when heaven and earth meet and adorn +each other, it seems a pity that we can only spend it once. + +5. One of the maidens presented a silver cup, containing a rich +mixture of wine and spice, which Rowena tasted. + +6. No man is reason or illumination, or that essence we were looking +for. + +7. In the moment when he ceases to help us as a cause, he begins to +help us more as an effect. + +8. Socrates took away all ignominy from the place, which could not be +a prison whilst he was there. + +9. This is perhaps the reason why we so seldom hear ghosts except in +our long-established Dutch settlements. + +10. From the moment you lose sight of the land you have left, all is +vacancy. + +11. Nature waited tranquilly for the hour to be struck when man should +arrive. + + +Adverbial Clauses. + +377. The adverb clause takes the place of an adverb in modifying a +verb, a verbal, an adjective, or an adverb. The student has met with +many adverb clauses in his study of the subjunctive mood and of +subordinate conjunctions; but they require careful study, and will be +given in detail, with examples. + +378. Adverb clauses are of the following kinds: + +(1) TIME: "_As we go_, the milestones are grave-stones;" "He had gone +but a little way _before he espied a foul fiend coming_;" "_When he +was come up to Christian_, he beheld him with a disdainful +countenance." + +(2) PLACE: "_Wherever the sentiment of right comes in_, it takes +precedence of everything else;" "He went several times to England, +_where he does not seem to have attracted any attention_." + +(3) REASON, or CAUSE: "His English editor lays no stress on his +discoveries, _since he was too great to care to be original_;" "I give +you joy _that truth is altogether wholesome_." + +(4) MANNER: "The knowledge of the past is valuable only _as it leads +us to form just calculations with respect to the future_;" "After +leaving the whole party under the table, he goes away _as if nothing +had happened_." + +(5) DEGREE, or COMPARISON: "They all become wiser _than they were_;" +"The right conclusion is, that we should try, so far _as we can_, to +make up our shortcomings;" "Master Simon was in as chirping a humor +_as a grasshopper filled with dew_ [is];" "_The broader their +education is_, the wider is the horizon of their thought." The first +clause in the last sentence is dependent, expressing the degree in +which the horizon, etc., is wider. + +(6) PURPOSE: "Nature took us in hand, shaping our actions, _so that we +might not be ended untimely by too gross disobedience_." + +(7) RESULT, or CONSEQUENCE: "He wrote on the scale of the mind itself, +_so that all things have symmetry in his tablet_;" "The window was so +far superior to every other in the church, _that the vanquished artist +killed himself from mortification_." + +(8) CONDITION: "_If we tire of the saints_, Shakespeare is our city of +refuge;" "Who cares for that, _so thou gain aught wider and nobler_?" +"You can die grandly, and as goddesses would die _were goddesses +mortal_." + +(9) CONCESSION, introduced by indefinite relatives, adverbs, and +adverbial conjunctions,--_whoever_, _whatever_, _however_, etc.: "But +still, _however good she may be as a witness_, Joanna is better;" +"_Whatever there may remain of illiberal in discussion_, there is +always something illiberal in the severer aspects of study." + +These mean _no matter how good, no matter what remains_, etc. + +Exercise. + +Pick out the adverbial clauses in the following sentences; tell what +kind each is, and what it modifies:-- + +1. As I was clearing away the weeds from this epitaph, the little +sexton drew me on one side with a mysterious air, and informed me in a +low voice that once upon a time, on a dark wintry night, when the wind +was unruly, howling and whistling, banging about doors and windows, +and twirling weathercocks, so that the living were frightened out of +their beds, and even the dead could not sleep quietly in their graves, +the ghost of honest Preston was attracted by the well-known call of +"waiter," and made its sudden appearance just as the parish clerk was +singing a stave from the "mirrie garland of Captain Death." + +2. If the children gathered about her, as they sometimes did, Pearl +would grow positively terrible in her puny wrath, snatching up stones +to fling at them, with shrill, incoherent exclamations, that made her +mother tremble because they had so much the sound of a witch's +anathemas. + +3. The spell of life went forth from her ever-creative spirit, and +communicated itself to a thousand objects, as a torch kindles a flame +wherever it may be applied. + + +ANALYZING COMPLEX SENTENCES. + + +379. These suggestions will be found helpful:-- + +(1) See that the sentence and all its parts are placed in the natural +order of subject, predicate, object, and modifiers. + +(2) First take the sentence _as a whole_; find the principal subject +and principal predicate; then treat noun clauses as nouns, adjective +clauses as adjectives modifying certain words, and adverb clauses as +single modifying adverbs. + +(3) Analyze each clause as a simple sentence. For example, in the +sentence, "Cannot we conceive that Odin was a reality?" _we_ is the +principal subject; _cannot conceive_ is the principal predicate; its +object is _that Odin was a reality_, of which clause _Odin_ is the +subject, etc. + + +380. It is sometimes of great advantage to map out a sentence after +analyzing it, so as to picture the parts and their relations. To take +a sentence:-- + + "I cannot help thinking that the fault is in themselves, and that + if the church and the cataract were in the habit of giving away + their thoughts with that rash generosity which characterizes + tourists, they might perhaps say of their visitors, 'Well, if you + are those men of whom we have heard so much, we are a little + disappointed, to tell the truth.'" + +This may be represented as follows:-- + + I cannot help thinking + ____________________ + | + _______________________| + | + | (_a_) THAT THE FAULT IS IN THEMSELVES, AND + | + | (_b_) [THAT] THEY MIGHT (PERHAPS) SAY OF THEIR VISITORS + | ___________________ + | | + | _____________________________|_________________________________ + | | | + | | (_a_) We are (a little) disappointed | + | O| ___________________________ | + O| b| ________________________| | + b| j| M| | + j| e| o| (_b_) If you are those men | + e| c| d| ___ | + c| t| i| _________________________| | + t| | f| M| | + | | i| o| Of whom we have heard so much. | + | | e| d. | + | \ r\ \ | + | _____________________________________________________| + | M| + | o| (_a_) If the church and ... that rash generosity + | d| __________ + | i| | + | f| _______________________________________________| + | i| | + | e| | (_b_) Which characterizes tourists. + | r| | + \ \ \ + + +OUTLINE + + +381. (1) Find the principal clause. + +(2) Analyze it according to Sec. 364. + +(3) Analyze the dependent clauses according to Sec. 364. This of +course includes dependent clauses that depend on other dependent +clauses, as seen in the "map" (Sec. 380). +107 | + +Exercises. + +(_a_) Analyze the following complex sentences:-- + +1. Take the place and attitude which belong to you. + +2. That mood into which a friend brings us is his dominion over us. + +3. True art is only possible on the condition that every talent has +its apotheosis somewhere. + +4. The deep eyes, of a light hazel, were as full of sorrow as of +inspiration. + +5. She is the only church that has been loyal to the heart and soul of +man, that has clung to her faith in the imagination. + +6. She has never lost sight of the truth that the product human nature +is composed of the sum of flesh and spirit. + +7. But now that she has become an establishment, she begins to +perceive that she made a blunder in trusting herself to the intellect +alone. + +8. Before long his talk would wander into all the universe, where it +was uncertain what game you would catch, or whether any. + +9. The night proved unusually dark, so that the two principals had to +tie white handkerchiefs round their elbows in order to descry each +other. + +10. Whether she would ever awake seemed to depend upon an accident. + +11. Here lay two great roads, not so much for travelers that were few, +as for armies that were too many by half. + +12. It was haunted to that degree by fairies, that the parish priest +was obliged to read mass there once a year. + +13. More than one military plan was entered upon which she did not +approve. + +14. As surely as the wolf retires before cities, does the fairy +sequester herself from the haunts of the licensed victualer. + +15. M. Michelet is anxious to keep us in mind that this bishop was but +an agent of the English. + +16. Next came a wretched Dominican, that pressed her with an +objection, which, if applied to the Bible, would tax every miracle +with unsoundness. + +17. The reader ought to be reminded that Joanna D'Arc was subject to +an unusually unfair trial. + +18. Now, had she really testified this willingness on the scaffold, it +would have argued nothing at all but the weakness of a genial nature. + +19. And those will often pity that weakness most, who would yield to +it least. + +20. Whether she said the word is uncertain. + +21. This is she, the shepherd girl, counselor that had none for +herself, whom I choose, bishop, for yours. + +22. Had _they_ been better chemists, had _we_ been worse, the mixed +result, namely, that, dying for _them_, th107 |e flower should revive for +_us_, could not have been effected. + +23. I like that representation they have of the tree. + +24. He was what our country people call _an old one_. + +25. He thought not any evil happened to men of such magnitude as false +opinion. +107 | +26. These things we are forced to say, if we must consider the effort +of Plato to dispose of Nature,--which will not be disposed of. + +27. He showed one who was afraid to go on foot to Olympia, that it was +no more than his daily walk, if continuously extended, would easily +reach. + +28. What can we see or acquire but what we are? + +29. Our eyes are holden that we cannot see things that stare us in the +face, until the hour arrives when the mind is ripened. + +30. There is good reason why we should prize this liberation. + + +_(b)_ First analyze, then map out as in Sec. 380, the following +complex sentences:-- + +1. The way to speak and write what shall not go out of fashion, is to +speak and write sincerely. + +2. The writer who takes his subject from his ear, and not from his +heart, should know that he has lost as much as he has gained. + +3. "No book," said Bentley, "was ever written down by any but itself." + +4. That which we do not believe, we cannot adequately say, though we +may repeat the words never so often. + +5. We say so because we feel that what we love is not in your will, +but above it. + +6. It makes no difference how many friends I have, and what content I +can find in conversing with each, if there be one to whom I am not +equal. + +7. In every troop of boys that whoop and run in each yard and square, +a new-comer is as well and accurately weighed in the course of a few +days, and stamped with his right number, as if he had undergone a +formal trial of his strength, speed, and temper. + + + + +COMPOUND SENTENCES. + + +[Sidenote: _How formed._] + +382. The compound sentence is a combination of two or more simple +or complex sentences. While the complex sentence has only _one_ main +clause, the compound has _two or more_ independent clauses making +statements, questions, or commands. Hence the definition,-- + + +[Sidenote: _Definition._] + +383. A compound sentence is one which contains two or more +independent clauses. + +This leaves room for any number of subordinate clauses in a compound +sentence: the requirement is simply that it have at least two +independent clauses. + +Examples of compound sentences:-- + +[Sidenote: _Examples._] + +(1) _Simple sentences united:_ "He is a palace of sweet sounds and +sights; he dilates; he is twice a man; he walks with arms akimbo; he +soliloquizes." + +(2) _Simple with complex:_ "The trees of the forest, the waving grass, +and the peeping flowers have grown intelligent; and he almost fears to +trust them with the secret which they seem to invite." + +(3) _Complex with complex:_ "The power which resides in him is new in +nature, and none but he knows what that is which he can do, nor does +he know until he has tried." + + +384. From this it is evident that nothing new is added to the work +of analysis already done. + +The same analysis of simple sentences is repeated in (1) and (2) +above, and what was done in complex sentences is repeated in (2) and +(3). + +The division into members will be easier, for the cooerdinate +independent statements are readily taken apart with the subordinate +clauses attached, if there are any. + +Thus in (1), the semicolons cut apart the independent members, which +are simple statements; in (2), the semicolon separates the first, a +simple member, from the second, a complex member; in (3), _and_ +connects the first and second complex members, and _nor_ the second +and third complex members. + + +[Sidenote: _Connectives._] + +385. The cooerdinate conjunctions _and_, _nor_, _or_ _but_, etc., +introduce independent clauses (see Sec. 297). + +But the conjunction is often omitted in copulative and adversative +clauses, as in Sec. 383 (1). Another example is, "Only the star +dazzles; the planet has a faint, moon-like ray" (adversative). + + +[Sidenote: _Study the thought._] + +386. The one point that will give trouble is the variable use of +some connectives; as _but_, _for_, _yet_, _while_ (_whilst_), +_however_, _whereas_, etc. Some of these are now conjunctions, now +adverbs or prepositions; others sometimes cooerdinate, sometimes +subordinate conjunctions. + +The student must watch _the logical connection_ of the members of the +sentence, and not the form of the connective. + + +Exercise. + +Of the following illustrative sentences, tell which are compound, and +which complex:-- + +1. Speak your latent conviction, and it shall be the universal sense; +for the inmost in due time becomes the outmost. + +2. I no longer wish to meet a good I do not earn, for example, to find +a pot of buried gold. + +3. Your goodness must have some edge to it--else it is none. + +4. Man does not stand in awe of man, nor is his genius admonished to +stay at home, but it goes abroad to beg a cup of water of the urns of +other men. + +5. A man cannot speak but he judges himself. + +6. In your metaphysics you have denied personality to the Deity, yet +when the devout motions of the soul come, yield to them heart and +life. + +7. I thought that it was a Sunday morning in May; that it was Easter +Sunday, and as yet very early in the morning. + +8. We denote the primary wisdom as intuition, whilst all later +teachings are tuitions. + +9. Whilst the world is thus dual, so is every one of its parts. + +10. They measure the esteem of each other by what each has, and not by +what each is. + +11. For everything you have missed, you have gained something else; +and for everything you gain, you lose something. + +12. I sometimes seemed to have lived for seventy or one hundred years +in one night; nay, I sometimes had feelings representative of a +millennium, passed in that time, or, however, of a duration far beyond +the limits of experience. + +13. However some may think him wanting in zeal, the most fanatical +can find no taint of apostasy in any measure of his. + +14. In this manner, from a happy yet often pensive child, he grew up +to be a mild, quiet, unobtrusive boy, and sun-browned with labor in +the fields, but with more intelligence than is seen in many lads from +the schools. + + + +OUTLINE FOR ANALYZING COMPOUND SENTENCES. + +387. (i) Separate it into its main members. (2) Analyze each complex +member as in Sec. 381. (3) Analyze each simple member as in Sec. 364. + + +Exercise. + +Analyze the following compound sentences:-- + +1. The gain is apparent; the tax is certain. + +2. If I feel overshadowed and outdone by great neighbors, I can yet +love; I can still receive; and he that loveth maketh his own the +grandeur that he loves. + +3. Love, and thou shalt be loved. + +4. All loss, all pain, is particular; the universe remains to the +heart unhurt. + +5. Place yourself in the middle of the stream of power and wisdom +which animates all whom it floats, and you are without effort impelled +to truth. + +6. He teaches who gives, and he learns who receives. + +7. Whatever he knows and thinks, whatever in his apprehension is worth +doing, that let him communicate, or men will never know and honor him +aright. + +8. Stand aside; give those merits room; let them mount and expand. + +9. We see the noble afar off, and they repel us; why should we +intrude? + +10. We go to Europe, or we pursue persons, or we read books, in the +instinctive faith that these will call it out and reveal us to +ourselves. + +11. A gay and pleasant sound is the whetting of the scythe in the +mornings of June, yet what is more lonesome and sad than the sound of +a whetstone or mower's rifle when it is too late in the season to make +hay? + +12. "Strike," says the smith, "the iron is white;" "keep the rake," +says the haymaker, "as nigh the scythe as you can, and the cart as +nigh the rake." + +13. Trust men, and they will be true to you; treat them greatly, and +they will show themselves great, though they make an exception in your +favor to all their rules of trade. + +14. On the most profitable lie the course of events presently lays a +destructive tax; whilst frankness invites frankness, puts the parties +on a convenient footing, and makes their business a friendship. + +15. The sturdiest offender of your peace and of the neighborhood, if +you rip up his claims, is as thin and timid as any; and the peace of +society is often kept, because, as children, one is afraid, and the +other dares not. + +16. They will shuffle and crow, crook and hide, feign to confess here, +only that they may brag and conquer there, and not a thought has +enriched either party, and not an emotion of bravery, modesty, or +hope. + +17. The magic they used was the ideal tendencies, which always make +the Actual ridiculous; but the tough world had its revenge the moment +they put their horses of the sun to plow in its furrow. + +18. Come into port greatly, or sail with God the seas. + +19. When you have chosen your part, abide by it, and do not weakly try +to reconcile yourself with the world. + +20. Times of heroism are generally times of terror, but the day never +shines in which this element may not work. + +21. Life is a train of moods like a string of beads, and as we pass +through them they prove to be many-colored lenses which paint the +world their own hue, and each shows only what lies at its focus. + +22. We see young men who owe us a new world, so readily and lavishly +they promise, but they never acquit the debt; they die young, and +dodge the account; or, if they live, they lose themselves in the +crowd. + +23. So does culture with us; it ends in headache. + +24. Do not craze yourself with thinking, but go about your business +anywhere. + +25. Thus journeys the mighty Ideal before us; it never was known to +fall into the rear. + + + + +PART III. + +_SYNTAX_. + + + + +INTRODUCTORY. + + +[Sidenote: _By way of introduction._] + +388. Syntax is from a Greek word meaning _order_ or _arrangement_. + +Syntax deals with the relation of words to each other as component +parts of a sentence, and with their proper arrangement to express +clearly the intended meaning. + + +[Sidenote: _Ground covered by syntax._] + +380. Following the Latin method, writers on English grammar usually +divide syntax into the two general heads,--agreement and +government. + +Agreement is concerned with the following relations of words: words +in apposition, verb and subject, pronoun and antecedent, adjective and +noun. + +Government has to do with verbs and prepositions, both of which are +said to govern words by having them in the objective case. + + +390. Considering the scarcity of inflections in English, it is clear +that if we merely follow the Latin treatment, the department of syntax +will be a small affair. But there is a good deal else to watch in +addition to the few forms; for there is an important and marked +difference between Latin and English syntax. It is this:-- + +Latin syntax depends upon fixed rules governing the use of inflected +forms: hence the _position_ of words in a sentence is of little +grammatical importance. + +[Sidenote: _Essential point in English syntax._] + +English syntax follows the Latin to a limited extent; but its leading +characteristic is, that English syntax is founded upon _the meaning_ +and _the logical connection_ of words rather than upon their form: +consequently it is quite as necessary to place words properly, and to +think clearly of the meaning of words, as to study inflected forms. + +For example, the sentence, "The savage here the settler slew," is +ambiguous. _Savage_ may be the subject, following the regular order of +subject; or _settler_ may be the subject, the order being inverted. In +Latin, distinct forms would be used, and it would not matter which one +stood first. + + +[Sidenote: _Why study syntax?_] + +391. There is, then, a double reason for not omitting syntax as a +department of grammar,-- + +_First_, To study the rules regarding the use of inflected forms, some +of which conform to classical grammar, while some are idiomatic +(peculiar to our own language). + +_Second_, To find out the _logical methods_ which control us in the +arrangement of words; and particularly when the grammatical and the +logical conception of a sentence do not agree, or when they exist side +by side in good usage. + +As an illustration of the last remark, take the sentence, "Besides +these famous books of Scott's and Johnson's, there is a copious 'Life' +by Sheridan." In this there is a possessive form, and added to it the +preposition _of_, also expressing a possessive relation. This is not +logical; it is not consistent with the general rules of grammar: but +none the less it is good English. + +Also in the sentence, "None remained but he," grammatical rules would +require _him_ instead of _he_ after the preposition; yet the +expression is sustained by good authority. + + +[Sidenote: _Some rules not rigid._] + +392. In some cases, authorities--that is, standard writers--differ +as to which of two constructions should be used, or the same writer +will use both indifferently. Instances will be found in treating of +the pronoun or noun with a gerund, pronoun and antecedent, sometimes +verb and subject, etc. + +When usage varies as to a given construction, both forms will be given +in the following pages. + + +[Sidenote: _The basis of syntax._] + +393. Our treatment of syntax will be an endeavor to record the best +usage of the present time on important points; and nothing but +important points will be considered, for it is easy to confuse a +student with too many obtrusive _don'ts_. + +The constructions presented as general will be justified by quotations +from _modern writers of English_ who are regarded as "standard;" that +is, writers whose style is generally acknowledged as superior, and +whose judgment, therefore, will be accepted by those in quest of +authoritative opinion. + +Reference will also be made to spoken English when its constructions +differ from those of the literary language, and to vulgar English when +it preserves forms which were once, but are not now, good English. + +It may be suggested to the student that the only way to acquire +correctness is to watch good usage _everywhere_, and imitate it. + + + + +NOUNS. + + +394. Nouns have no distinct forms for the nominative and objective +cases: hence no mistake can be made in using them. But some remarks +are required concerning the use of the possessive case. + + +[Sidenote: _Use of the possessive. Joint possession._] + +395. When two or more possessives modify the same noun, or indicate +joint ownership or possession, the possessive sign is added to the +last noun only; for example,-- + + Live your _king and country's_ best support.--ROWE. + + Woman, _sense and nature's_ easy fool.--BYRON. + + _Oliver and Boyd's_ printing office.--MCCULLOCH. + + _Adam and Eve's_ morning hymn.--MILTON. + + In _Beaumont and Fletcher's_ "Sea Voyage," Juletta tells, + etc.--EMERSON. + + +[Sidenote: _Separate possession._] + +396. When two or more possessives stand before the same noun, but +imply separate possession or ownership, the possessive sign is used +with each noun; as,-- + + He lands us on a grassy stage, Safe from the _storm's_ and + _prelate's_ rage.--MARVELL + + Where were the sons of Peers and Members of Parliament in + _Anne's_ and _George's_ time?--THACKERAY. + + _Levi's_ station in life was the receipt of custom; and + _Peter's_, the shore of Galilee; and _Paul's_, the antechamber of + the High Priest.--RUSKIN. + + Swift did not keep _Stella's_ letters. He kept _Bolingbroke's,_ + and _Pope's_, and _Harley's_, and _Peterborough's_.--THACKERAY. + + An actor in one of _Morton's_ or _Kotzebue's_ plays.--MACAULAY. + + Putting _Mr. Mill's_ and _Mr. Bentham's_ principles together. + --_Id._ + + +397. The possessive preceding the gerund will be considered under +the possessive of pronouns (Sec. 408). + + + + +PRONOUNS. + + +PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + + +I. NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE FORMS. + + +398. Since most of the personal pronouns, together with the relative +_who_, have separate forms for nominative and objective use, there are +two general rules that require attention. + +[Sidenote: _General rules._] + +(1) The _nominative use_ is usually marked by the nominative form of +the pronoun. + +(2) The _objective use_ is usually marked by the objective form of the +pronoun. + +These simple rules are sometimes violated in spoken and in literary +English. Some of the violations are universally condemned; others are +generally, if not universally, sanctioned. + + +[Sidenote: _Objective for the nominative._] + + + +399. The objective is sometimes found instead of the nominative in +the following instances:-- + +(1) By a common vulgarism of ignorance or carelessness, no notice is +taken of the proper form to be used as subject; as,-- + + He and _me_ once went in the dead of winter in a one-hoss shay + out to Boonville.--WHITCHER, _Bedott Papers._ + + It seems strange to me that _them_ that preach up the doctrine + don't admire one who carrys it out.--_Josiah Allens Wife._ + +(2) By faulty analysis of the sentence, the true relation of the words +is misunderstood; for example, "_Whom_ think ye that I am?" (In this, +_whom_ is the complement after the verb _am_, and should be the +nominative form, _who_.) "The young Harper, _whom_ they agree was +rather nice-looking" (_whom_ is the subject of the verb _was_). + +Especially is this fault to be noticed after an ellipsis with _than_ +or _as_, the real thought being forgotten; thus,-- + + But the consolation coming from devotion did not go far with such + a one as _her_.--TROLLOPE. + +This should be "as _she_," because the full expression would be "such +a one as _she is_." + + +400. Still, the last expression has the support of many good +writers, as shown in the following examples:-- + + She was neither better bred nor wiser than you or + _me_.--THACKERAY. + + No mightier than thyself or _me_.--SHAKESPEARE. + + Lin'd with Giants deadlier than _'em_ all.--POPE. + + But he must be a stronger than _thee_.--SOUTHEY. + + Not to render up my soul to such as _thee_.--BYRON. + + I shall not learn my duty from such as _thee_.--FIELDING. + +[Sidenote: _A safe rule._] + +It will be safer for the student to follow the general rule, as +illustrated in the following sentences:-- + + If so, they are yet holier than _we_.--RUSKIN. + + Who would suppose it is the game of such as _he_?--DICKENS. + + Do we see + The robber and the murd'rer weak as _we_? + --MILTON. + + I have no other saint than _thou_ to pray to.--LONGFELLOW. + +[Sidenote: "_Than_ whom."] + +401. One exception is to be noted. The expression than whom seems +to be used universally instead of "than _who_." There is no special +reason for this, but such is the fact; for example,-- + + One I remember especially,--one _than whom_ I never met a bandit + more gallant.--THACKERAY. + + The camp of Richard of England, _than whom_ none knows better how + to do honor to a noble foe.--SCOTT. + + She had a companion who had been ever agreeable, and her estate a + steward _than whom_ no one living was supposed to be more + competent.--PARTON. + + +[Sidenote: "_It was_ he" _or_ "_It was_ him"?] + +402. And there is one question about which grammarians are not +agreed, namely, whether the nominative or the objective form should be +used in the predicate after _was_, _is_, _are_, and the other forms of +the verb _be_. + +It may be stated with assurance that the literary language _prefers +the nominative_ in this instance, as,-- + + For there was little doubt that it was _he_.--KINGSLEY. + + But still it is not _she_.--MACAULAY. + + And it was _he_ + That made the ship to go. + --COLERIDGE. + +In spoken English, on the other hand, both in England and America, the +objective form is regularly found, unless a special, careful effort is +made to adopt the standard usage. The following are examples of spoken +English from conversations:-- + + "Rose Satterne, the mayor's daughter?"--"That's + _her_."--KINGSLEY. + + "Who's there?"--"_Me_, Patrick the Porter."--WINTHROP. + + "If there is any one embarrassed, it will not be _me_."--WM. + BLACK. + +The usage is too common to need further examples. + + +Exercise. + +Correct the italicized pronouns in the following sentences, giving +reasons from the analysis of the sentence:-- + +1. _Whom_ they were I really cannot specify. + +2. Truth is mightier than _us_ all. + +3. If there ever was a rogue in the world, it is _me_. + +4. They were the very two individuals _whom_ we thought were far away. + +5. "Seems to me as if _them_ as writes must hev a kinder gift fur it, +now." + +6. The sign of the Good Samaritan is written on the face of +_whomsoever_ opens to the stranger. + +7. It is not _me_ you are in love with. + +8. You know _whom_ it is that you thus charge. + +9. The same affinity will exert its influence on _whomsoever_ is as +noble as these men and women. + +10. It was _him_ that Horace Walpole called a man who never made a bad +figure but as an author. + +11. We shall soon see which is the fittest object of scorn, you or +_me_. + + +[Sidenote: Me _in exclamations_.] + +403. It is to be remembered that the objective form is used in +exclamations which turn the attention upon a person; as,-- + + Unhappy _me!_ That I cannot risk my own worthless life.--KINGSLEY + + Alas! miserable _me_! Alas! unhappy Senors!--_Id._ + + Ay _me_! I fondly dream--had ye been there.--MILTON. + + +[Sidenote: Nominative for the objective.] + +404. The rule for the objective form is wrongly departed from-- + +(1) When the object is far removed from the verb, verbal, or +preposition which governs it; as, "_He_ that can doubt whether he be +anything or no, I speak not to" (_he_ should be _him_, the object of +_to_); "I saw men very like him at each of the places mentioned, but +not _he_" (_he_ should be _him_, object of _saw_). + +(2) In the case of certain pairs of pronouns, used after verbs, +verbals, and prepositions, as this from Shakespeare, "All debts are +cleared between you and I" (for _you_ and _me_); or this, "Let _thou_ +and _I_ the battle try" (for _thee_ and _me_, or _us_). + +(3) By forgetting the construction, in the case of words used in +apposition with the object; as, "Ask the murderer, _he_ who has +steeped his hands in the blood of another" (instead of "_him_ who," +the word being in apposition with _murderer_). + + +[Sidenote: _Exception 1_, who _interrogative_.] + +405. The interrogative pronoun who may be said to have no +objective form in spoken English. We regularly say, "_Who_ did you +see?" or, "_Who_ were they talking to?" etc. The more formal "To +_whom_ were they talking?" sounds stilted in conversation, and is +usually avoided. + +In literary English the objective form _whom_ is _preferred_ for +objective use; as,-- + + Knows he now to _whom_ he lies under obligation?--SCOTT. + + What doth she look on? _Whom_ doth she behold?--WORDSWORTH. + +Yet the nominative form is found quite frequently to divide the work +of the objective use; for example,-- + + My son is going to be married to I don't know _who_.--GOLDSMITH. + + _Who_ have we here?--_Id._ + + _Who_ should I meet the other day but my old friend.--STEELE. + + He hath given away half his fortune to the Lord knows + _who_.--KINGSLEY. + + _Who_ have we got here?--SMOLLETT. + + _Who_ should we find there but Eustache?--MARRVAT. + + _Who_ the devil is he talking to?--SHERIDAN. + + +[Sidenote: _Exception 2, but_ he, _etc._] + +406. It is a well-established usage to put the nominative form, as +well as the objective, after the preposition _but_ (sometimes _save_); +as,-- + + All were knocked down but _us_ two.--KINGSLEY. + + Thy shores are empires, changed in all save _thee._--BYRON. + + Rich are the sea gods:--who gives gifts but _they?_--EMERSON. + + The Chieftains then + Returned rejoicing, all but _he_. + --SOUTHEY + + No man strikes him but _I_.--KINGSLEY. + + None, save _thou_ and thine, I've sworn, + Shall be left upon the morn. + +BYRON. + + +Exercise. + +Correct the italicized pronouns in the following, giving reasons from +the analysis of the quotation:-- + +1. _Thou_, Nature, partial Nature, I arraign. + +2. Let you and _I_ look at these, for they say there are none such in +the world. + +3. "Nonsense!" said Amyas, "we could kill every soul of them in half +an hour, and they know that as well as _me_." + +4. Markland, _who_, with Jortin and Thirlby, Johnson calls three +contemporaries of great eminence. + +5. They are coming for a visit to _she_ and _I_. + +6. They crowned him long ago; + But _who_ they got to put it on + Nobody seems to know. + +7. I experienced little difficulty in distinguishing among the +pedestrians _they_ who had business with St. Bartholomew. + +8. The great difference lies between the laborer who moves to +Yorkshire and _he_ who moves to Canada. + +9. Besides my father and Uncle Haddock--_he_ of the silver plates. + +10. _Ye_ against whose familiar names not yet + The fatal asterisk of death is set, + _Ye_ I salute. + +11. It can't be worth much to _they_ that hasn't larning. + +12. To send me away for a whole year--_I_ who had never crept from +under the parental wing--was a startling idea. + + + +II. POSSESSIVE FORMS. + + +[Sidenote: _As antecedent of a relative._] + +407. The possessive forms of personal pronouns and also of nouns are +sometimes found as antecedents of relatives. This usage is not +frequent. The antecedent is usually nominative or objective, as the +use of the possessive is less likely to be clear. + + We should augur ill of any _gentleman's_ property to whom this + happened every other day in his drawing room.--RUSKIN. + + For _their_ sakes whose distance disabled them from knowing + me.--C.B. BROWN. + + Now by _His_ name that I most reverence in Heaven, and by _hers_ + whom I most worship on earth.--SCOTT. + + He saw her smile and slip money into the _man's_ hand who was + ordered to ride behind the coach.--THACKERAY. + + He doubted whether _his_ signature whose expectations were so + much more bounded would avail.--DE QUINCEY. + + For boys with hearts as bold + As _his_ who kept the bridge so well. + --MACAULAY. + + +[Sidenote: _Preceding a gerund,--possessive, or objective?_] + +408. Another point on which there is some variance in usage is such +a construction as this: "We heard of _Brown_ studying law," or "We +heard of _Brown's_ studying law." + +That is, should the possessive case of a noun or pronoun always be +used with the gerund to indicate the active agent? Closely +scrutinizing these two sentences quoted, we might find a difference +between them: saying that in the first one _studying_ is a participle, +and the meaning is, _We heard of Brown_, [who was] _studying law_; and +that in the second, _studying_ is a gerund, object of _heard of_, and +modified by the possessive case as any other substantive would be. + +[Sidenote: _Why both are found._] + +But in common use there is no such distinction. Both types of +sentences are found; both are gerunds; sometimes the gerund has the +possessive form before it, sometimes it has the objective. The use of +the objective is older, and in keeping with the old way of regarding +the _person_ as the chief object before the mind: the possessive use +is more modern, in keeping with the disposition to proceed from the +material thing to the _abstract idea_, and to make the action +substantive the chief idea before the mind. + +In the examples quoted, it will be noticed that the possessive of the +pronoun is more common than that of the noun. + +[Sidenote: _Objective_.] + + The last incident which I recollect, was my learned and worthy + _patron_ falling from a chair.--SCOTT. + + He spoke of _some one_ coming to drink tea with him, and asked + why it was not made.--THACKERAY. + + The old sexton even expressed a doubt as to _Shakespeare_ having + been born in her house.--IRVING. + + The fact of the _Romans_ not burying their dead within the city + walls proper is a strong reason, etc.--BREWER. + + I remember _Wordsworth_ once laughingly reporting to me a little + personal anecdote.--DE QUINCEY. + + Here I state them only in brief, to prevent the _reader_ casting + about in alarm for my ultimate meaning.--RUSKIN. + + We think with far less pleasure of _Cato_ tearing out his + entrails than of _Russell_ saying, as he turned away from his + wife, that the bitterness of death was past.--MACAULAY. + + There is actually a kind of sacredness in the fact of such a + _man_ being sent into this earth.--CARLYLE. + +[Sidenote: _Possessive_.] + + There is no use for any _man's_ taking up his abode in a house + built of glass.--CARLYLE. + + As to _his_ having good grounds on which to rest an action for + life.--DICKENS. + + The case was made known to me by a _man's_ holding out the + little creature dead.--DE QUINCEY. + + There may be reason for a _savage's_ preferring many kinds of + food which the civilized man rejects.--THOREAU. + + It informs me of the previous circumstances of _my_ laying aside + my clothes.--C. BROCKDEN BROWN. + + The two strangers gave me an account of _their_ once having been + themselves in a somewhat similar condition.--AUDUBON. + + There was a chance of _their_ being sent to a new school, where + there were examinations.--RUSKIN + + This can only be by _his_ preferring truth to his past + apprehension of truth.--EMERSON + + + +III. PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND THEIR ANTECEDENTS. + +409. The pronouns of the third person usually refer back to some +preceding noun or pronoun, and ought to agree with them in person, +number, and gender. + +[Sidenote: _Watch for the real antecedent._] + +There are two constructions in which the student will need to watch +the pronoun,--when the antecedent, in one person, is followed by a +phrase containing a pronoun of a different person; and when the +antecedent is of such a form that the pronoun following cannot +indicate exactly the gender. Examples of these constructions are,-- + + _Those_ of us who can only maintain _themselves_ by continuing in + some business or salaried office.--RUSKIN. + + Suppose the life and fortune of _every one_ of us would depend on + _his_ winning or losing a game of chess.--HUXLEY. + + If _any one_ did not know it, it was _his_ own fault.--CABLE. + + _Everybody_ had _his_ own life to think of.--DEFOE. + +410. In such a case as the last three sentences,--when the +antecedent includes both masculine and feminine, or is a distributive +word, taking in each of many persons,--the preferred method is to put +the pronoun following in the masculine singular; if the antecedent is +neuter, preceded by a distributive, the pronoun will be neuter +singular. + +The following are additional examples:-- + + The next _correspondent_ wants you to mark out a whole course of + life for _him_.--HOLMES. + + Every _city_ threw open _its_ gates.--DE QUINCEY. + + Every _person_ who turns this page has _his_ own little + diary.--THACKERAY. + + The pale realms of shade, where _each_ shall take + _His_ chamber in the silent halls of death. + --BRYANT. + +[Sidenote: _Avoided: By using both pronouns._] + +Sometimes this is avoided by using both the masculine and the feminine +pronoun; for example,-- + + Not the feeblest _grandame_, not a mowing _idiot_, but uses what + spark of perception and faculty is left, to chuckle and triumph + in _his or her_ opinion.--EMERSON. + + It is a game which has been played for untold ages, every _man_ + and _woman_ of us being one of the two players in a game of _his + or her_ own.--HUXLEY. + +_By using the plural pronoun._ + +411. Another way of referring to an antecedent which is a +distributive pronoun or a noun modified by a distributive adjective, +is to use the plural of the pronoun following. This is not considered +the best usage, the logical analysis requiring the singular pronoun in +each case; but the construction is frequently found _when the +antecedent includes or implies both genders_. The masculine does not +really represent a feminine antecedent, and the expression _his or +her_ is avoided as being cumbrous. + +Notice the following examples of the plural:-- + + _Neither_ of the sisters _were_ very much deceived.--THACKERAY. + + _Every one_ must judge of _their_ own feelings.--BYRON. + + Had the doctor been contented to take my dining tables, as + _anybody_ in _their_ senses would have done.--AUSTEN. + + If the part deserve any comment, every considering _Christian_ + will make it _themselves_ as they go.--DEFOE. + + _Every person's_ happiness depends in part upon the respect + _they_ meet in the world.--PALEY. + + _Every nation_ have _their_ refinements--STERNE. + + _Neither_ gave vent to _their_ feelings in words.--SCOTT. + + _Each_ of the nations acted according to _their_ national + custom.--PALGRAVE. + + The sun, which pleases _everybody_ with it and with + _themselves_.--RUSKIN. + + Urging _every one_ within reach of your influence to be neat, and + giving _them_ means of being so.--_Id._ + + _Everybody_ will become of use in _their_ own fittest way.--_Id._ + + _Everybody_ said _they_ thought it was the newest thing + there.--WENDELL PHILLIPS. + + Struggling for life, _each_ almost bursting _their_ sinews to + force the other off.--PAULDING. + + _Whosoever_ hath any gold, let _them_ break it off.--_Bible._ + + _Nobody_ knows what it is to lose a friend, till _they_ have lost + him.--FIELDING. + + Where she was gone, or what was become of her, _no one_ could + take upon _them_ to say.--SHERIDAN. + + I do not mean that I think _any one_ to blame for taking due care + of _their_ health.--ADDISON. + + +Exercise.--In the above sentences, _unless both genders are +implied_, change the pronoun to agree with its antecedent. + + +RELATIVE PRONOUNS. + +I. RESTRICTIVE AND UNRESTRICTIVE RELATIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _What these terms mean._] + +412. As to their conjunctive use, the definite relatives who, +which, and that may be cooerdinating or restrictive. + +A relative, when cooerdinating, or unrestrictive, is equivalent to a +conjunction (_and_, _but_, _because_, etc.) and a personal pronoun. +It adds a new statement to what precedes, that being considered +already clear; as, "I gave it to the beggar, _who_ went away." This +means, "I gave it to the beggar [we know which one], _and he_ went +away." + +A relative, when restrictive, introduces a clause to limit and make +clear some preceding word. The clause is restricted to the antecedent, +and does not add a new statement; it merely couples a thought +necessary to define the antecedent: as, "I gave it to a beggar _who_ +stood at the gate." It defines _beggar_. + + +413. It is sometimes contended that who and which should always +be cooerdinating, and that always restrictive; but, according to the +practice of every modern writer, the usage must be stated as +follows:-- + +[Sidenote: _A loose rule the only one to be formulated._] + +Who and which are either cooerdinating or restrictive, the taste of +the writer and regard for euphony being the guide. + +That is in most cases restrictive, the cooerdinating use not being +often found among careful writers. + + +Exercise. + +In the following examples, tell whether _who_, _which_, and _that_ are +restrictive or not, in each instance:-- + +[Sidenote: Who.] + + 1. "Here he is now!" cried those who stood near + Ernest.--HAWTHORNE. + + 2. He could overhear the remarks of various individuals, who were + comparing the features with the face on the mountain side.--_Id._ + + 3. The particular recording angel who heard it pretended not to + understand, or it might have gone hard with the tutor.--HOLMES. + + 4. Yet how many are there who up, down, and over England are + saying, etc.--H.W. BEECHER + + 5. A grizzly-looking man appeared, whom we took to be sixty or + seventy years old.--THOREAU. + +[Sidenote: Which.] + + 6. The volume which I am just about terminating is almost as much + English history as Dutch.--MOTLEY. + + 7. On hearing their plan, which was to go over the Cordilleras, + she agreed to join the party.--DE QUINCEY. + + 8. Even the wild story of the incident which had immediately + occasioned the explosion of this madness fell in with the + universal prostration of mind.--_Id._ + + 9. Their colloquies are all gone to the fire except this first, + which Mr. Hare has printed.--CARLYLE. + + 10. There is a particular science which takes these matters in + hand, and it is called logic.--NEWMAN. + +[Sidenote: That.] + + 11. So different from the wild, hard-mouthed horses at Westport, + that were often vicious.--DE QUINCEY. + + 12. He was often tempted to pluck the flowers that rose + everywhere about him in the greatest variety.--ADDISON. + + 13. He felt a gale of perfumes breathing upon him, that grew + stronger and sweeter in proportion as he advanced.--_Id._ + + 14. With narrow shoulders, long arms and legs, hands that dangled + a mile out of his sleeves.--IRVING. + + + +II. RELATIVE AND ANTECEDENT. + + +[Sidenote: _The rule._] + +414. The general rule is, that the relative pronoun agrees with its +antecedent in person and number. + +[Sidenote: _In what sense true._] + +This cannot be true as to the form of the pronoun, as that does not +vary for person or number. We say _I_, _you_, _he_, _they_, etc., +_who_; _these_ or _that_ _which_, etc. However, the relative _carries +over_ the agreement from the antecedent before to the verb following, +so far as the verb has forms to show its agreement with a substantive. +For example, in the sentence, "He that writes to himself writes to an +eternal public," _that_ is invariable as to person and number, but, +because of its antecedent, it makes the verb third person singular. + +Notice the agreement in the following sentences:-- + + There is not _one_ of the company, but _myself_, who rarely + _speak_ at all, but _speaks_ of him as that sort, etc.--ADDISON. + + O _Time!_ who _know'st_ a lenient hand to lay Softest on sorrow's + wound.--BOWLES. + + Let us be of good cheer, remembering that the misfortunes hardest + to bear are _those_ which never _come._--LOWELL. + + +[Sidenote: _A disputed point._] + +415. This prepares the way for the consideration of one of the vexed +questions,--whether we should say, "one of the finest books that _has_ +been published," or, "one of the finest books that _have_ been +published." + +[Sidenote: One of ... [_plural_] that who, _or_ which ... [_singular +or plural_.]] + + The pale realms of shade, where _each_ shall take + _His_ chamber in the silent halls of death. + --BRYANT. + +Both constructions are frequently found, the reason being a difference +of opinion as to the antecedent. Some consider it to be _one_ [book] +_of the finest books_, with _one_ as the principal word, the true +antecedent; others regard _books_ as the antecedent, and write the +verb in the plural. The latter is rather more frequent, but the former +has good authority. + +The following quotations show both sides:-- + +[Sidenote: _Plural._] + + He was one of the very few commanders who _appear_ to have shown + equal skill in directing a campaign, in winning a battle, and in + improving a victory.--LECKY. + + He was one of the most distinguished scientists who _have_ ever + lived.--J.T.MORSE, Jr., _Franklin._ + + It is one of those periods which _shine_ with an unnatural and + delusive splendor.--MACAULAY. + + A very little encouragement brought back one of those overflows + which _make_ one more ashamed, etc.--HOLMES. + + I am one of those who _believe_ that the real will never find an + irremovable basis till it rests on the ideal.--LOWELL. + + French literature of the eighteenth century, one of the most + powerful agencies that _have_ ever existed.--M. ARNOLD. + + What man's life is not overtaken by one or more of those + tornadoes that _send_ us out of our course?--THACKERAY. + + He is one of those that _deserve_ very well.--ADDISON. + +[Sidenote: _Singular._] + + The fiery youth ... struck down one of those who _was_ pressing + hardest.--SCOTT. + + He appeared to me one of the noblest creatures that ever _was_, + when he derided the shams of society.--HOWELLS. + + A rare Roundabout performance,--one of the very best that _has_ + ever appeared in this series.--THACKERAY. + + Valancourt was the hero of one of the most famous romances which + ever _was_ published in this country.--_Id._ + + It is one of the errors which _has_ been diligently propagated by + designing writers.--IRVING. + + "I am going to breakfast with one of these fellows who _is_ at + the Piazza Hotel."--DICKENS. + + The "Economy of the Animal Kingdom" is one of those books which + _is_ an honor to the human race.--EMERSON. + + Tom Puzzle is one of the most eminent immethodical disputants of + any that _has_ fallen under my observation.--ADDISON. + + The richly canopied monument of one of the most earnest souls + that ever gave _itself_ to the arts.--RUSKIN. + + +III. OMISSION OF THE RELATIVE. + +416. Although the omission of the relative is common when it would +be the object of the verb or preposition _expressed_, there is an +omission which is not frequently found in careful writers; that is, +when the relative word is a pronoun, object of a preposition +_understood_, or is equivalent to the conjunction _when_, _where_, +_whence_, and such like: as, "He returned by the same route [by which] +he came;" "India is the place [in which, or where] he died." Notice +these sentences:-- + + In the posture I lay, I could see nothing except the sky.--SWIFT. + + This is he that should marshal us the way we were + going.--EMERSON. + + But I by backward steps would move; + And, when this dust falls to the urn, + In that same state I came, return.--VAUGHAN. + + Welcome the hour my aged limbs + Are laid with thee to rest.--BURNS. + + The night was concluded in the manner we began the + morning.--GOLDSMITH. + + The same day I went aboard we set sail.--DEFOE. + + The vulgar historian of a Cromwell fancies that he had determined + on being Protector of England, at the time he was plowing the + marsh lands of Cambridgeshire.--CARLYLE. + + To pass under the canvas in the manner he had entered required + time and attention.--SCOTT. + + +Exercise.--In the above sentences, insert the omitted conjunction or +phrase, and see if the sentence is made clearer. + + + +IV. THE RELATIVE _AS_ AFTER _SAME_. + +417. It is very rarely that we find such sentences as,-- + + He considered...me as his apprentice, and accordingly expected + the same service from me _as_ he would from another.--FRANKLIN. + + This has the same effect in natural faults _as_ maiming and + mutilation produce from accidents.--BURKE. + +[Sidenote: _The regular construction_.] + +[Sidenote: _Caution_.] + +The usual way is to use the relative _as_ after _same_ if no verb +follows _as;_ but, if _same_ is followed by a complete clause, _as_ is +not used, but we find the relative _who, which,_ or _that_. Remember +this applies only to _as_ when used as a relative. + +Examples of the use of _as_ in a contracted clause:-- + + Looking to the same end _as_ Turner, and working in the same + spirit, he, with Turner, was a discoverer, etc.--R.W. CHURCH. + + They believe the same of all the works of art, _as_ of knives, + boats, looking-glasses.--ADDISON. + +Examples of relatives following _same_ in full clauses:-- + +[Sidenote: Who.] + + This is the very same rogue _who_ sold us the spectacles. + --GOLDSMITH. + + The same person _who_ had clapped his thrilling hands at the + first representation of the Tempest.--MACAULAY. + +[Sidenote: That.] + + I rubbed on some of the same ointment _that_ was given me at my + first arrival.--SWIFT. + +[Sidenote: Which.] + + For the same sound is in my ears + _Which_ in those days I heard.--WORDSWORTH. + + With the same minuteness _which_ her predecessor had exhibited, + she passed the lamp over her face and person.--SCOTT. + + + +V. MISUSE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: _Anacoluthic use of_ which.] + +418. There is now and then found in the pages of literature a +construction which imitates the Latin, but which is usually carefully +avoided. It is a use of the relative _which_ so as to make an +anacoluthon, or lack of proper connection between the clauses; for +example,-- + + _Which_, if I had resolved to go on with, I might as well have + staid at home.--DEFOE + + _Which_ if he attempted to do, Mr. Billings vowed that he would + follow him to Jerusalem.--THACKERAY. + + We know not the incantation of the heart that would wake + them;--_which_ if they once heard, they would start up to meet us + in the power of long ago.--RUSKIN. + + He delivered the letter, _which_ when Mr. Thornhill had read, he + said that all submission was now too late.--GOLDSMITH. + + But still the house affairs would draw her thence; + _Which_ ever as she could with haste dispatch, + She'd come again.--SHAKESPEARE. + +As the sentences stand, _which_ really has no office in the sentence: +it should be changed to a demonstrative or a personal pronoun, and +this be placed in the proper clause. + +Exercise.--Rewrite the above five sentences so as to make the proper +grammatical connection in each. + + +[Sidenote: And who, and which, _etc._] + +419. There is another kind of expression which slips into the lines +of even standard authors, but which is always regarded as an oversight +and a blemish. + +The following sentence affords an example: "The rich are now engaged +in distributing what remains among the poorer sort, _and who_ are now +thrown upon their compassion." The trouble is that such conjunctions +as _and_, _but_, _or_, etc., should connect expressions of the same +kind: _and who_ makes us look for a preceding _who_, but none is +expressed. There are three ways to remedy the sentence quoted: thus, +(1) "Among those _who_ are poor, _and who_ are now," etc.; (2) "Among +the poorer sort, _who_ are now thrown," etc.; (3) "Among the poorer +sort, now thrown upon their," etc. That is,-- + +[Sidenote: _Direction for rewriting._] + +Express both relatives, or omit the conjunction, or leave out both +connective and relative. + +Exercise. + +Rewrite the following examples according to the direction just +given:-- + +[Sidenote: And who.] + + 1. Hester bestowed all her means on wretches less miserable than + herself, and who not unfrequently insulted the hand that fed + them.--HAWTHORNE. + + 2. With an albatross perched on his shoulder, and who might be + introduced to the congregation as the immediate organ of his + conversion.--DE QUINCEY. + + 3. After this came Elizabeth herself, then in the full glow of + what in a sovereign was called beauty, and who would in the + lowest walk of life have been truly judged to possess a noble + figure.--SCOTT. + + 4. This was a gentleman, once a great favorite of M. le Conte, + and in whom I myself was not a little interested.--THACKERAY. + +[Sidenote: But who.] + + 5. Yonder woman was the wife of a certain learned man, English by + name, but who had long dwelt in Amsterdam.--HAWTHORNE. + + 6. Dr. Ferguson considered him as a man of a powerful capacity, + but whose mind was thrown off its just bias.--SCOTT. + +[Sidenote: Or who.] + + 7. "What knight so craven, then," exclaims the chivalrous + Venetian, "that he would not have been more than a match for the + stoutest adversary; or who would not have lost his life a + thousand times sooner than return dishonored by the lady of his + love?"--PRESCOTT. + +[Sidenote: And which.] + + 8. There are peculiar quavers still to be heard in that church, + and which may even be heard a mile off.--IRVING. + + 9. The old British tongue was replaced by a debased Latin, like + that spoken in the towns, and in which inscriptions are found in + the western counties.--PEARSON. + + 10. I shall have complete copies, one of signal interest, and + which has never been described.--MOTLEY. + +[Sidenote: But which.] + + 11. "A mockery, indeed, but in which the soul trifled with + itself!"--HAWTHORNE. + + 12. I saw upon the left a scene far different, but which yet the + power of dreams had reconciled into harmony.--DE QUINCEY. + +[Sidenote: Or which.] + + 13. He accounted the fair-spoken courtesy, which the Scotch had + learned, either from imitation of their frequent allies, the + French, or which might have arisen from their own proud and + reserved character, as a false and astucious mark, etc.--SCOTT. + + +[Sidenote: That ... and which, _etc._] + +420. Akin to the above is another fault, which is likewise a +variation from the best usage. Two different relatives are sometimes +found referring back to the same antecedent in one sentence; whereas +the better practice is to choose one relative, and repeat this for any +further reference. + + +Exercise. + +Rewrite the following quotations by repeating one relative instead of +using two for the same antecedent:-- + +[Sidenote: That ... who.] + + 1. Still in the confidence of children that tread without fear + every chamber in their father's house, and to whom no door is + closed.--DE QUINCEY. + + 2. Those renowned men that were our ancestors as much as yours, + and whose examples and principles we inherit.--BEECHER. + + 3. The Tree Igdrasil, that has its roots down in the kingdoms + of Hela and Death, and whose boughs overspread the highest + heaven!--CARLYLE. + +[Sidenote: That ... which.] + + 4. Christianity is a religion that reveals men as the object of + God's infinite love, and which commends him to the unbounded love + of his brethren.--W.E. CHANNING. + + 5. He flung into literature, in his Mephistopheles, the first + organic figure that has been added for some ages, and which will + remain as long as the Prometheus.--EMERSON. + + 6. Gutenburg might also have struck out an idea that surely did + not require any extraordinary ingenuity, and which left the most + important difficulties to be surmounted.--HALLAM. + + 7. Do me the justice to tell me what I have a title to be + acquainted with, and which I am certain to know more truly from + you than from others.--SCOTT. + + 8. He will do this amiable little service out of what one may + say old civilization has established in place of goodness of + heart, but which is perhaps not so different from it.--HOWELLS. + + 9. In my native town of Salem, at the head of what, half a + century ago, was a bustling wharf,--but which is now burdened + with decayed wooden warehouses.--HAWTHORNE. + + 10. His recollection of what he considered as extreme + presumption in the Knight of the Leopard, even when he stood high + in the roles of chivalry, but which, in his present condition, + appeared an insult sufficient to drive the fiery monarch into a + frenzy of passion.--SCOTT + +[Sidenote: That which ... what.] + + 11. He, now without any effort but that which he derived from the + sill, and what little his feet could secure the irregular + crevices, was hung in air.--W.G. SIMMS. + +[Sidenote: Such as ... which.] + + 12. It rose into a thrilling passion, such as my heart had always + dimly craved and hungered after, but which now first interpreted + itself to my ear.--DE QUINCEY. + + 13. I recommend some honest manual calling, such as they have + very probably been bred to, and which will at least give them a + chance of becoming President.--HOLMES. + +[Sidenote: Such as ... whom.] + + 14. I grudge the dollar, the dime, the cent, I give to such men + as do not belong to me, and to whom I do not belong.--EMERSON. + +[Sidenote: Which ... that ... that.] + + 15. That evil influence which carried me first away from my + father's house, that hurried me into the wild and undigested + notion of making my fortune, and that impressed these conceits so + forcibly upon me.--DEFOE. + + + +ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. + +[Sidenote: Each other, one another.] + +421. The student is sometimes troubled whether to use each other +or one another in expressing reciprocal relation or action. Whether +either one refers to a certain number of persons or objects, whether +or not the two are equivalent, may be gathered from a study of the +following sentences:-- + + They [Ernest and the poet] led _one another_, as it were, into + the high pavilion of their thoughts.--HAWTHORNE. + + Men take _each other's_ measure when they meet for the first + time.--EMERSON. + + You ruffian! do you fancy I forget that we were fond of _each + other_?--THACKERAY. + + England was then divided between kings and Druids, always at war + with _one another_, carrying off _each other's_ cattle and + wives.--BREWER + + The topics follow _each other_ in the happiest order.--MACAULAY. + + The Peers at a conference begin to pommel _each other_.--_Id._ + + We call ourselves a rich nation, and we are filthy and foolish + enough to thumb _each other's_ books out of circulating + libraries.--RUSKIN. + + The real hardships of life are now coming fast upon us; let us + not increase them by dissension among _each other_.--GOLDSMITH. + + In a moment we were all shaking hands with _one + another_.--DICKENS. + + The unjust purchaser forces the two to bid against _each + other._--RUSKIN. + + +[Sidenote: _Distributives_ either _and_ neither.] + +422. By their original meaning, either and neither refer to only +two persons or objects; as, for example,-- + + Some one must be poor, and in want of his gold--or his corn. + Assume that no one is in want of _either_.--RUSKIN + + Their [Ernest's and the poet's] minds accorded into one strain, + and made delightful music which _neither_ could have claimed as + all his own.--HAWTHORNE. + +[Sidenote: _Use of_ any.] + +Sometimes these are made to refer to several objects, in which case +any should be used instead; as,-- + + Was it the winter's storm? was it hard labor and spare meals? was + it disease? was it the tomahawk? Is it possible that _neither_ of + these causes, that not all combined, were able to blast this bud + of hope?--EVERETT. + + Once I took such delight in Montaigne ...; before that, in + Shakespeare; then in Plutarch; then in Plotinus; at one time in + Bacon; afterwards in Goethe; even in Bettine; but now I turn the + pages of _either_ of them languidly, whilst I still cherish their + genius.--EMERSON. + + +[Sidenote: Any _usually plural_.] + +423. The adjective pronoun any is nearly always regarded as +plural, as shown in the following sentences:-- + + If _any_ of you _have_ been accustomed to look upon these hours + as mere visionary hours, I beseech you, etc.--BEECHER + + Whenever, during his stay at Yuste, _any_ of his friends had + died, he had been punctual in doing honor to _their_ + memory.--STIRLING. + + But I enjoy the company and conversation of its inhabitants, when + _any_ of them _are_ so good as to visit me.--FRANKLIN. + + Do you think, when I spoke anon of the ghosts of Pryor's + children, I mean that _any_ of them _are_ dead?--THACKERAY. + +In earlier Modern English, _any_ was often singular; as,-- + + If _any_, speak; for _him_ have I offended.--SHAKESPEARE. + + If _any_ of you lack wisdom, let _him_ ask of God.--_Bible_. + +Very rarely the singular is met with in later times; as,-- + + Here is a poet doubtless as much affected by his own descriptions + as _any_ that _reads_ them can be.--BURKE. + +[Sidenote: _Caution_.] + +The above instances are to be distinguished from the adjective _any_, +which is plural as often as singular. + + +[Sidenote: None _usually plural_.] + +424. The adjective pronoun none is, in the prose of the present +day, usually plural, although it is historically a contraction of _ne +an_ (not one). Examples of its use are,-- + + In earnest, if ever man was; as _none_ of the French philosophers + _were_.--CARLYLE. + + _None_ of Nature's powers _do_ better service.--PROF. DANA + + One man answers some question which _none_ of his contemporaries + _put_, and is isolated.--EMERSON. + + _None obey_ the command of duty so well as those who are free + from the observance of slavish bondage.--SCOTT. + + Do you think, when I spoke anon of the ghosts of Pryor's + children, I mean that any of them are dead? _None are_, that I + know of.--THACKERAY. + + Early apples begin to be ripe about the first of August; but I + think _none_ of them _are_ so good to eat as some to + smell.--THOREAU. + +The singular use of _none_ is often found in the Bible; as,-- + + _None_ of them _was_ cleansed, saving Naaman the Syrian.--LUKE iv + 27 + +Also the singular is sometimes found in present-day English in prose, +and less rarely in poetry; for example,-- + + Perhaps _none_ of our Presidents since Washington _has_ stood so + firm in the confidence of the people.--LOWELL + + In signal _none his_ steed should spare.--SCOTT + +Like the use of _any_, the pronoun _none_ should be distinguished from +the adjective _none_, which is used absolutely, and hence is more +likely to confuse the student. + +Compare with the above the following sentences having the adjective +_none_:-- + + Reflecting a summer evening sky in its bosom, though _none_ [no + sky] was visible overhead.--THOREAU + + The holy fires were suffered to go out in the temples, and _none_ + [no fires] were lighted in their own dwellings.--PRESCOTT + + +[Sidenote: All _singular and plural_.] + +425. The pronoun all has the singular construction when it means +_everything_; the plural, when it means _all persons_: for example,-- + +[Sidenote: _Singular_.] + + The light troops thought ... that _all was_ lost.--PALGRAVE + + _All was_ won on the one side, and _all was_ lost on the + other.--BAYNE + + Having done _all_ that _was_ just toward others.--NAPIER + +[Sidenote: _Plural_.] + + But the King's treatment of the great lords will be judged + leniently by _all_ who _remember_, etc.--PEARSON. + + When _all were_ gone, fixing his eyes on the mace, etc.--LINGARD + + _All_ who did not understand French _were_ compelled, + etc.--McMASTER. + + +[Sidenote: Somebody's else, _or_ somebody else's?] + +426. The compounds somebody else, any one else, nobody else, etc., +are treated as units, and the apostrophe is regularly added to the +final word _else_ instead of the first. Thackeray has the expression +_somebody's else_, and Ford has _nobody's else_, but the regular usage +is shown in the following selections:-- + + A boy who is fond of _somebody else's_ pencil case.--G. ELIOT. + + A suit of clothes like _somebody else's_.--THACKERAY. + + Drawing off his gloves and warming his hands before the fire as + benevolently as if they were _somebody else's_.--DICKENS. + + Certainly not! nor _any one else's_ ropes.--RUSKIN. + + Again, my pronunciation--like _everyone else's_--is in some cases + more archaic.--SWEET. + + Then everybody wanted some of _somebody else's_.--RUSKIN. + + His hair...curled once all over it in long tendrils, unlike + _anybody else's_ in the world.--N.P. WILLIS. + + "Ye see, there ain't nothin' wakes folks up like _somebody + else's_ wantin' what you've got."--MRS. STOWE. + + + + +ADJECTIVES. + + +AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES WITH NOUNS. + + +[Sidenote: These sort, all manner of, _etc._] + +427. The statement that adjectives agree with their nouns in number +is restricted to the words this and that (with these and +those), as these are the only adjectives that have separate forms +for singular and plural; and it is only in one set of expressions that +the concord seems to be violated,--in such as "_these sort_ of books," +"_those kind_ of trees," "_all manner_ of men;" the nouns being +singular, the adjectives plural. These expressions are all but +universal in spoken English, and may be found not infrequently in +literary English; for example,-- + + _These kind_ of knaves I know, which in this plainness + Harbor more craft, etc.--SHAKESPEARE + + All _these sort_ of things.--SHERIDAN. + + I hoped we had done with _those sort_ of things.--MULOCH. + + You have been so used to _those sort_ of impertinences.--SYDNEY + SMITH. + + Whitefield or Wesley, or some other such great man as a bishop, + or _those sort_ of people.--FIELDING. + + I always delight in overthrowing _those kind_ of + schemes.--AUSTEN. + + There are women as well as men who can thoroughly enjoy _those + sort_ of romantic spots.--_Saturday Review_, London. + + The library was open, with _all manner_ of amusing + books.--RUSKIN. + +According to the approved usage of Modern English, each one of the +above adjectives would have to be changed to the singular, or the +nouns to the plural. + +[Sidenote: _History of this construction._] + +The reason for the prevalence of these expressions must be sought in +the history of the language: it cannot be found in the statement that +the adjective is made plural by the attraction of a noun following. + +[Sidenote: _At the source._] + +In Old and Middle English, in keeping with the custom of looking at +things concretely rather than in the abstract, they said, not "all +_kinds_ of wild animals," but "alles cunnes wilde deor" (wild animals +of-every-kind). This the modern expression reverses. + +[Sidenote: _Later form._] + +But in early Middle English the modern way of regarding such +expressions also appeared, gradually displacing the old. + +[Sidenote: _The result._] + +Consequently we have a confused expression. We keep the form of +logical agreement in standard English, such as, "_This sort_ of trees +should be planted;" but at the same time the noun following _kind of_ +is felt to be the real subject, and the adjective is, in spoken +English, made to agree with it, which accounts for the construction, +"_These kind of_ trees are best." + +[Sidenote: _A question._] + +The inconvenience of the logical construction is seen when we wish to +use a predicate with number forms. Should we say, "This kind of rules +_are_ the best," or "This kind of rules _is_ the best?" _Kind_ or +_sort_ may be treated as a collective noun, and in this way may take a +plural verb; for example, Burke's sentence, "A _sort_ of uncertain +sounds _are_, when the necessary dispositions concur, more alarming +than a total silence." + + + +COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS. + + +[Sidenote: _Use of the comparative degree._] + +428. The comparative degree of the adjective (or adverb) is used +when we wish to compare two objects or sets of objects, or one object +with a class of objects, to express a higher degree of quality; as,-- + + Which is _the better_ able to defend himself,--a strong man with + nothing but his fists, or a paralytic cripple encumbered with a + sword which he cannot lift?--MACAULAY. + + Of two such lessons, why forget + The _nobler_ and the _manlier_ one? + --BYRON. + + We may well doubt which has the _stronger_ claim to civilization, + the victor or the vanquished.--PRESCOTT. + + A _braver_ ne'er to battle rode.--SCOTT. + + He is _taller,_ by almost the breadth of my nail, than any of his + court.--SWIFT. + + +[Sidenote: Other _after the comparative form._] + +429. When an object is compared with the class to which it belongs, +it is regularly excluded from that class by the word _other_; if not, +the object would really be compared with itself: thus,-- + + The character of Lady Castlewood has required more delicacy in + its manipulation than perhaps any _other_ which Thackeray has + drawn.--TROLLOPE. + + I used to watch this patriarchal personage with livelier + curiosity than any _other_ form of humanity.--HAWTHORNE. + + +Exercise. + +See if the word _other_ should be inserted in the following +sentences:-- + + 1. There was no man who could make a more graceful bow than Mr. + Henry.--WIRT. + + 2. I am concerned to see that Mr. Gary, to whom Dante owes more + than ever poet owed to translator, has sanctioned, + etc.--MACAULAY. + + 3. There is no country in which wealth is so sensible of its + obligations as our own.--LOWELL. + + 4. This is more sincerely done in the Scandinavian than in any + mythology I know.--CARLYLE. + + 5. In "Thaddeus of Warsaw" there is more crying than in any novel + I remember to have read.--THACKERAY. + + 6. The heroes of another writer [Cooper] are quite the equals of + Scott's men; perhaps Leather-stocking is better than any one in + "Scott's lot."--_Id._ + + +[Sidenote: _Use of the superlative degree._] + +430. The superlative degree of the adjective (or adverb) is used +regularly in comparing more than two things, but is also frequently +used in comparing only two things. + +Examples of superlative with several objects:-- + + It is a case of which the _simplest_ statement is the + _strongest_.--MACAULAY. + + Even Dodd himself, who was one of the _greatest_ humbugs who ever + lived, would not have had the face.--THACKERAY. + + To the man who plays well, the _highest_ stakes are + paid.--HUXLEY. + +[Sidenote: _Superlative with two objects._] + +Compare the first three sentences in Sec. 428 with the following:-- + + Which do you love _best_ to behold, the lamb or the lion? + --THACKERAY. + + Which of these methods has the _best_ effect? Both of them are + the same to the sense, and differ only in form.--DR BLAIR. + + Rip was one of those ... who eat white bread or brown, whichever + can be got _easiest_.--IRVING. + + It is hard to say whether the man of wisdom or the man of folly + contributed _most_ to the amusement of the party.--SCOTT. + + There was an interval of three years between Mary and Anne. The + _eldest_, Mary, was like the Stuarts--the _younger_ was a fair + English child.--MRS. OLIPHANT. + + Of the two great parties which at this hour almost share the + nation between them, I should say that one has the _best_ cause, + and the other contains the _best_ men.--EMERSON. + + In all disputes between States, though the _strongest_ is nearly + always mainly in the wrong, the _weaker_ is often so in a minor + degree.--RUSKIN. + + She thought him and Olivia extremely of a size, and would bid + both to stand up to see which was the _tallest_.--GOLDSMITH. + + These two properties seem essential to wit, more particularly the + _last_ of them.--ADDISON. + + "Ha, ha, ha!" roared Goodman Brown when the wind laughed at him. + "Let us see which will laugh _loudest_."--HAWTHORNE. + + +[Sidenote: _Double comparative and superlative._] + +431. In Shakespeare's time it was quite common to use a double +comparative and superlative by using _more_ or _most_ before the word +already having _-er_ or _-est_. Examples from Shakespeare are,-- + + How much _more elder_ art thou than thy looks!--_Merchant of + Venice._ + + Nor that I am _more better_ than Prospero.--_Tempest._ + + Come you _more nearer_.--_Hamlet._ + + With the _most boldest_ and best hearts of Rome.--_J. Caesar._ + +Also from the same period,-- + + Imitating the manner of the _most ancientest_ and _finest_ + Grecians.--BEN JONSON. + + After the _most straitest_ sect of our religion.--_Bible_, 1611. + +Such expressions are now heard only in vulgar English. The following +examples are used purposely, to represent the characters as ignorant +persons:-- + + The artful saddler persuaded the young traveler to look at "the + _most convenientest_ and _handsomest_ saddle that ever was + seen."--BULWER. + + "There's nothing comes out but the _most lowest_ stuff in nature; + not a bit of high life among them."--GOLDSMITH. + + +_THREE FIRST_ OR _FIRST THREE_? + +432. As to these two expressions, over which a little war has so +long been buzzing, we think it not necessary to say more than that +both are in good use; not only so in popular speech, but in literary +English. Instances of both are given below. + +The meaning intended is the same, and the reader gets the same idea +from both: hence there is properly a perfect liberty in the use of +either or both. + +[Sidenote: First three, _etc._] + + For Carlyle, and Secretary Walsingham also, have been helping + them heart and soul for the _last two_ years.--KINGSLEY. + + The delay in the _first three_ lines, and conceit in the last, + jar upon us constantly.--RUSKIN. + + The _last dozen_ miles before you reach the suburbs.--DE QUINCEY. + + Mankind for the _first seventy thousand_ ages ate their meat + raw.--LAMB. + + The _first twenty_ numbers were expressed by a corresponding + number of dots. The _first five_ had specific names.--PRESCOTT. + +[Sidenote: Three first, _etc._] + + These are the _three first_ needs of civilized life.--RUSKIN. + + He has already finished the _three first_ sticks of it.--ADDISON. + + In my _two last_ you had so much of Lismahago that I suppose you + are glad he is gone.--SMOLLETT. + + I have not numbered the lines except of the _four first_ books. + --COWPER. + + The _seven first_ centuries were filled with a succession of + triumphs.--GIBBON. + + + + +ARTICLES. + +[Sidenote: _Definite article_.] + +433. The definite article is repeated before each of two modifiers +of the same noun, when the purpose is to call attention to the noun +expressed and the one understood. In such a case two or more separate +objects are usually indicated by the separation of the modifiers. +Examples of this construction are,-- + +[Sidenote: _With a singular noun_.] + + The merit of _the Barb_, _the Spanish_, and _the English_ breed + is derived from a mixture of Arabian blood.--GIBBON. + + _The righteous_ man is distinguished from _the unrighteous_ by + his desire and hope of justice.--RUSKIN. + + He seemed deficient in sympathy for concrete human things either + on _the sunny_ or _the stormy_ side.--CARLYLE. + + It is difficult to imagine a greater contrast than that between + _the first_ and _the second_ part of the volume.--_The Nation_, + No. 1508. + +[Sidenote: _With a plural noun_.] + + There was also a fundamental difference of opinion as to whether + the earliest cleavage was between _the Northern_ and _the + Southern_ languages.--TAYLOR, _Origin of the Aryans_. + +434. The same repetition of the article is sometimes found before +nouns alone, to distinguish clearly, or to emphasize the meaning; +as,-- + + In every line of _the Philip_ and _the Saul_, the greatest poems, + I think, of the eighteenth century.--MACAULAY. + + He is master of the two-fold Logos, _the thought_ and _the word_, + distinct, but inseparable from each other.--NEWMAN. + + _The flowers_, and _the presents_, and _the trunks and bonnet + boxes_ ... having been arranged, the hour of parting + came.--THACKERAY. + +[Sidenote: The _not repeated. One object and several modifiers, with a +singular noun_.] + +435. Frequently, however, the article is not repeated before each of +two or more adjectives, as in Sec. 433, but is used with one only; +as,-- + + Or fanciest thou _the red and yellow_ Clothes-screen yonder is + but of To-day, without a Yesterday or a To-morrow?--CARLYLE. + + _The lofty_, _melodious_, _and flexible_ language.--SCOTT. + + _The fairest and most loving_ wife in Greece.--TENNYSON. + +[Sidenote: _Meaning same as in Sec. 433, with a plural noun_.] + + Neither can there be a much greater resemblance between _the + ancient and modern_ general views of the + town.--HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS. + + At Talavera _the English and French_ troops for a moment + suspended their conflict.--MACAULAY. + + The Crusades brought to the rising commonwealths of _the Adriatic + and Tyrrhene_ seas a large increase of wealth.--_Id._ + + Here the youth of both sexes, of _the higher and middling_ + orders, were placed at a very tender age.--PRESCOTT. + +[Sidenote: _Indefinite article_.] + +436. The indefinite article is used, like the definite article, to +limit two or more modified nouns, only one of which is expressed. The +article is repeated for the purpose of separating or emphasizing the +modified nouns. Examples of this use are,-- + + We shall live _a better_ and _a higher_ and _a nobler_ + life.--BEECHER. + + The difference between the products of _a well-disciplined_ and + those of _an uncultivated_ understanding is often and admirably + exhibited by our great dramatist.--S.T. COLERIDGE. + + Let us suppose that the pillars succeed each other, _a round_ and + _a square_ one alternately.--BURKE. + + As if the difference between _an accurate_ and _an inaccurate_ + statement was not worth the trouble of looking into the most + common book of reference.--MACAULAY. + + To every room there was _an open_ and _a secret_ + passage.--JOHNSON. + +Notice that in the above sentences (except the first) the noun +expressed is in contrast with the modified noun omitted. + + +[Sidenote: _One article with several adjectives._] + +437. Usually the article is not repeated when the several adjectives +unite in describing one and the same noun. In the sentences of Secs. +433 and 436, one noun is expressed; yet the same word understood with +the other adjectives has a different meaning (except in the first +sentence of Sec. 436). But in the following sentences, as in the first +three of Sec. 435, the adjectives assist each other in describing the +same noun. It is easy to see the difference between the expressions +"_a red-and-white_ geranium," and "_a red and a white_ geranium." + +Examples of several adjectives describing the same object:-- + + To inspire us with _a free and quiet_ mind.--B. JONSON. + + Here and there _a desolate and uninhabited_ house.--DICKENS. + + James was declared _a mortal and bloody_ enemy.--MACAULAY. + + So wert thou born into a tuneful strain, + _An early, rich, and inexhausted_ vein. + --DRYDEN. + +[Sidenote: _For rhetorical effect._] + +438. The indefinite article (compare Sec. 434) is used to lend +special emphasis, interest, or clearness to each of several nouns; +as,-- + + James was declared _a_ mortal and bloody _enemy, a tyrant, a + murderer_, and _a usurper_.--MACAULAY. + + Thou hast spoken as _a patriot_ and _a Christian_.--BULWER. + + He saw him in his mind's eye, _a collegian, a parliament man--a + Baronet_ perhaps.--THACKERAY. + + + +VERBS. + + +CONCORD OF VERB AND SUBJECT IN NUMBER. + + +[Sidenote: _A broad and loose rule._] + +439. In English, the number of the verb follows the meaning rather +than the form of its subject. + +It will not do to state as a general rule that the verb agrees with +its subject in person and number. This was spoken of in Part I., Sec. +276, and the following illustrations prove it. + +The statements and illustrations of course refer to such verbs as have +separate forms for singular and plural number. + + +[Sidenote: _Singular verb._] + +440. The singular form of the verb is used-- + +[Sidenote: _Subject of singular form._] + +(1) When the subject has a singular form and a singular meaning. + + Such, then, _was_ the earliest American _land_.--AGASSIZ. + + _He was_ certainly a happy fellow at this time.--G. ELIOT. + + _He sees_ that it is better to live in peace.--COOPER. + +[Sidenote: _Collective noun of singular meaning._] + +(2) When the subject is a _collective noun_ which represents a number +of persons or things _taken as one unit_; as,-- + + The larger _breed_ [of camels] _is_ capable of transporting a + weight of a thousand pounds.--GIBBON. + + Another _school professes_ entirely opposite principles.--_The + Nation._ + + In this work there _was_ grouped around him _a score_ of men.--W. + PHILLIPS + + A _number_ of jeweled paternosters _was_ attached to her + girdle.--FROUDE. + + _Something like a horse load_ of books _has_ been written to + prove that it was the beauty who blew up the booby.--CARLYLE + +This usage, like some others in this series, depends mostly on the +writer's own judgment. Another writer might, for example, prefer a +plural verb after _number_ in Froude's sentence above. + +[Sidenote: _Singulars connected by_ or _or_ nor.] + +(3) When the subject consists of two or more singular nouns connected +by _or_ or _nor_; as,-- + + It is by no means sure that either our _literature_, or the great + intellectual _life_ of our nation, _has_ got already, without + academies, all that academies can give.--M. ARNOLD. + + _Jesus is_ not dead, nor _John_, nor _Paul_, nor _Mahomet_. + --EMERSON. + +[Sidenote: _Plural form and singular meaning._] + +(4) When the subject is _plural in form_, but represents a number of +things to be taken together as _forming one unit_; for example,-- + + Thirty-four years _affects_ one's remembrance of some + circumstances.--DE QUINCEY. + + Between ourselves, three pounds five shillings and two pence _is_ + no bad day's work.--GOLDSMITH. + + Every twenty paces _gives_ you the prospect of some villa; and + every four hours, that of a large town.--MONTAGUE + + Two thirds of this _is_ mine by right.--SHERIDAN + + The singular form is also used with book titles, other names, and + other singulars of plural form; as,-- + + Politics _is_ the only field now open for me.--WHITTIER. + + "Sesame and Lilies" _is_ Ruskin's creed for young + girls.--_Critic_, No. 674 + + The Three Pigeons _expects_ me down every moment.--GOLDSMITH. + +[Sidenote: _Several singular subjects to one singular verb._] + +(5) With _several singular subjects not_ disjoined by _or_ or _nor_, +in the following cases:-- + +(_a_) Joined by _and_, but considered as meaning about the same thing, +or as making up one general idea; as,-- + + In a word, all his conversation and knowledge _has been_ in the + female world--ADDISON. + + The strength and glare of each [color] _is_ considerably + abated.--BURKE + + To imagine that debating and logic _is_ the triumph.--CARLYLE + + In a world where even to fold and seal a letter adroitly _is_ not + the least of accomplishments.--DE QUINCEY + + The genius and merit of a rising poet _was_ celebrated.--GIBBON. + + When the cause of ages and the fate of nations _hangs_ upon the + thread of a debate.--J.Q. ADAMS. + +(_b_) Not joined by a conjunction, but each one emphatic, or +considered as appositional; for example,-- + + The unbought grace of life, the cheap defense of nations, the + nurse of manly sentiment and heroic enterprise, _is_ + gone.--BURKE. + + A fever, a mutilation, a cruel disappointment, a loss of wealth, + a loss of friends, _seems_ at the moment unpaid loss.--EMERSON + + The author, the wit, the partisan, the fine gentleman, _does_ not + take the place of the man.--_Id._ + + To receive presents or a bribe, to be guilty of collusion in any + way with a suitor, _was_ punished, in a judge, with + death.--PRESCOTT. + +[Sidenote: _Subjects after the verb._] + +This use of several subjects with a singular verb is especially +frequent when the subjects are after the verb; as,-- + + There _is_ a right and a wrong in them.--M ARNOLD. + + There _is_ a moving tone of voice, an impassioned countenance, an + agitated gesture.--BURKE + + There _was_ a steel headpiece, a cuirass, a gorget, and greaves, + with a pair of gauntlets and a sword hanging beneath.--HAWTHORNE. + + Then _comes_ the "Why, sir!" and the "What then, sir?" and the + "No, sir!"--MACAULAY. + + For wide _is_ heard the thundering fray, + The rout, the ruin, the dismay. + --SCOTT. + +(_c_) Joined by _as well as_ (in this case the verb agrees with the +first of the two, no matter if the second is plural); thus,-- + + Asia, as well as Europe, _was_ dazzled.--MACAULAY. + + The oldest, as well as the newest, wine + _Begins_ to stir itself. + --LONGFELLOW. + + Her back, as well as sides, _was_ like to crack.--BUTLER. + + The Epic, as well as the Drama, _is_ divided into tragedy and + Comedy.--FIELDING + +(_d_) When each of two or more singular subjects is preceded by +_every_, _each_, _no_, _many a_, and such like adjectives. + + Every fop, every boor, every valet, _is_ a man of wit.--MACAULAY. + + Every sound, every echo, _was_ listened to for five hours.--DE + QUINCEY + + Every dome and hollow _has_ the figure of Christ.--RUSKIN. + + Each particular hue and tint _stands_ by itself.--NEWMAN. + + Every law and usage _was_ a man's expedient.--EMERSON. + + Here _is_ no ruin, no discontinuity, no spent ball.--_Id._ + + Every week, nay, almost every day, _was_ set down in their + calendar for some appropriate celebration.--PRESCOTT. + + +[Sidenote: _Plural verb._] + +441. The plural form of the verb is used-- + +(1) When the subject is plural _in form and in meaning_; as,-- + + These _bits_ of wood _were_ covered on every square.--SWIFT. + + Far, far away thy children _leave_ the land.--GOLDSMITH. + + The Arabian poets _were_ the historians and moralists.--GIBBON. + +(2) When the subject is a _collective noun_ in which _the individuals_ +of the collection are thought of; as,-- + + A multitude _go_ mad about it.--EMERSON. + + A great number of people _were_ collected at a vendue.--FRANKLIN. + + All our household _are_ at rest.--COLERIDGE. + + A party of workmen _were_ removing the horses.--LEW WALLACE + + The fraternity _were_ inclined to claim for him the honors of + canonization.--SCOTT. + + The travelers, of whom there _were_ a number.--B. TAYLOR. + + (3) When the subject consists of _several singulars connected by + and_, making up a plural subject, for example,-- + + Only Vice and Misery _are_ abroad.--CARLYLE + + But its authorship, its date, and its history _are_ alike a + mystery to us.--FROUDE. + + His clothes, shirt, and skin _were_ all of the same color--SWIFT. + + Aristotle and Longinus _are_ better understood by him than + Littleton or Coke.--ADDISON. + +[Sidenote: _Conjunction omitted._] + +The conjunction may be omitted, as in Sec. 440 (5, _b_), but the verb +is plural, as with a subject of plural form. + + A shady grove, a green pasture, a stream of fresh water, _are_ + sufficient to attract a colony.--GIBBON. + + The Dauphin, the Duke of Berri, Philip of Anjou, _were_ men of + insignificant characters.--MACAULAY + + (4) When a singular is joined with a plural by a disjunctive + word, the verb agrees with the one nearest it; as,-- + + One or two of these perhaps _survive_.--THOREAU. + + One or two persons in the crowd _were_ insolent.--FROUDE. + + One or two of the ladies _were_ going to leave.--ADDISON + + One or two of these old Cromwellian soldiers _were_ still alive + in the village.--THACKERAY + + One or two of whom _were_ more entertaining.--DE QUINCEY. + + But notice the construction of this,-- + + A ray or two _wanders_ into the darkness.--RUSKIN. + + +AGREEMENT OF VERB AND SUBJECT IN PERSON. + + +[Sidenote: _General usage_.] + +442. If there is only one person in the subject, the ending of the +verb indicates the person of its subject; that is, in those few cases +where there are forms for different persons: as,-- + + Never once _didst_ thou revel in the vision.--DE QUINCEY. + + Romanism wisely _provides_ for the childish in men.--LOWELL. + + It _hath_ been said my Lord would never take the + oath.--THACKERAY. + +[Sidenote: _Second or third and first person in the subject_.] + + +443. If the subject is made up of the first person joined with the +second or third by _and_, the verb takes the construction of the first +person, the subject being really equivalent to _we_; as,-- + + I flatter myself you and I _shall_ meet again.--SMOLLETT. + + You and I _are_ farmers; we never talk politics.--D WEBSTER. + + Ah, brother! only I and thou + _Are_ left of all that circle now. + --WHITTIER. + + You and I _are_ tolerably modest people.--THACKERAY. + + Cocke and I _have_ felt it in our bones--_Gammer Gurton's Needle_ + + +[Sidenote: _With adversative or disjunctive connectives_.] + +444. When the subjects, of different persons, are connected by +adversative or disjunctive conjunctions, the verb usually agrees with +the pronoun nearest to it; for example,-- + + Neither you nor I _should_ be a bit the better or wiser.--RUSKIN. + + If she or you _are_ resolved to be miserable.--GOLDSMITH. + + Nothing which Mr. Pattison or I _have_ said.--M. ARNOLD. + + Not Altamont, but thou, _hadst_ been my lord.--ROWE. + + Not I, but thou, his blood _dost_ shed.--BYRON. + +This construction is at the best a little awkward. It is avoided +either by using a verb which has no forms for person (as, "He or I +_can_ go," "She or you _may_ be sure," etc.), or by rearranging the +sentence so as to throw each subject before its proper person form +(as, "You _would_ not be wiser, nor _should_ I;" or, "I _have_ never +said so, nor _has_ she"). + +[Sidenote: _Exceptional examples_.] + +445. The following illustrate exceptional usage, which it is proper +to mention; but the student is cautioned to follow the regular usage +rather than the unusual and irregular. + + +Exercise. + +Change each of the following sentences to accord with standard usage, +as illustrated above (Secs. 440-444):-- + + + 1. And sharp Adversity will teach at last + Man,--and, as we would hope,--perhaps the devil, + That neither of their intellects are vast. + --BYRON. + + 2. Neither of them, in my opinion, give so accurate an idea of + the man as a statuette in bronze.--TROLLOPE. + + 3. How each of these professions are crowded.--ADDISON. + + 4. Neither of their counselors were to be present.--_Id._ + + 5. Either of them are equally good to the person to whom they are + significant.--EMERSON. + + 6. Neither the red nor the white are strong and glaring.--BURKE. + + 7. A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or + murder.--ADDISON. + + 8. Neither of the sisters were very much deceived.--THACKERAY. + + 9. Nor wood, nor tree, nor bush are there, + Her course to intercept.--SCOTT. + + 10. Both death and I am found eternal.--MILTON. + + 11. In ascending the Mississippi the party was often obliged to + wade through morasses; at last they came upon the district of + Little Prairie.--G. BANCROFT. + + 12. In a word, the whole nation seems to be running out of their + wits.--SMOLLETT. + + +SEQUENCE OF TENSES (VERBS AND VERBALS). + + +[Sidenote: _Lack of logical sequence in verbs_.] + +446. If one or more verbs depend on some leading verb, each should +be in the tense that will convey the meaning intended by the writer. + +In this sentence from Defoe, "I expected every wave would have +swallowed us up," the verb _expected_ looks forward to something in +the future, while _would have swallowed_ represents something +completed in past time: hence the meaning intended was, "I expected +every wave _would swallow_" etc. + +[Sidenote: _Also in verbals_.] + +In the following sentence, the infinitive also fails to express the +exact thought:-- + + I had hoped never to have seen the statues again.--MACAULAY. + +The trouble is the same as in the previous sentence; _to have seen_ +should be changed to _to see_, for exact connection. Of course, if the +purpose were to represent a prior fact or completed action, the +perfect infinitive would be the very thing. + +It should be remarked, however, that such sentences as those just +quoted are in keeping with the older idea of the unity of the +sentence. The present rule is recent. + + +Exercise. + +Explain whether the verbs and infinitives in the following sentences +convey the right meaning; if not, change them to a better form:-- + + 1. I gave one quarter to Ann, meaning, on my return, to have + divided with her whatever might remain.--DE QUINCEY + + 2. I can't sketch "The Five Drapers," ... but can look and be + thankful to have seen such a masterpiece.--THACKERAY. + + 3. He would have done more wisely to have left them to find their + own apology than to have given reasons which seemed + paradoxes.--R.W. CHURCH. + + 4. The propositions of William are stated to have contained a + proposition for a compromise.--PALGRAVE + + 5. But I found I wanted a stock of words, which I thought I + should have acquired before that time.--FRANKLIN + + 6. I could even have suffered them to have broken Everet + Ducking's head.--IRVING. + + + + +INDIRECT DISCOURSE. + + +[Sidenote: _Definitions_.] + +_447_. Direct discourse--that is, a direct quotation or a direct +question--means the identical words the writer or speaker used; as,-- + + "I hope you have not killed him?" said Amyas.--KINGSLEY. + +Indirect discourse means reported speech,--the thoughts of a writer +or speaker put in the words of the one reporting them. + + +[Sidenote: _Two samples of indirect discourse_.] + +448. Indirect discourse may be of two kinds:-- + +(1) Following the thoughts and also the exact words as far as +consistent with the rules of logical sequence of verbs. + +(2) Merely a concise representation of the original words, not +attempting to follow the entire quotation. + +The following examples of both are from De Quincey:-- + +[Sidenote: _Indirect_.] + +1. Reyes remarked that it was not in his power to oblige the clerk as +to that, but that he could oblige him by cutting his throat. + +[Sidenote: _Direct_.] + +His exact words were, "I _cannot_ oblige _you_ ..., but I _can_ oblige +_you_ by cutting _your_ throat." + +[Sidenote: _Indirect_.] + +Her prudence whispered eternally, that safety there was none for her +until she had laid the Atlantic between herself and St. Sebastian's. + +[Sidenote: _Direct_.] + +She thought to herself, "Safety there _is_ none for _me_ until _I_ +have laid," etc. + +[Sidenote: _Summary of the expressions_.] + +2. Then he laid bare the unparalleled ingratitude of such a step. Oh, +the unseen treasure that had been spent upon that girl! Oh, the untold +sums of money that he had sunk in that unhappy speculation! + +[Sidenote: _Direct synopsis_.] + +The substance of his lamentation was, "Oh, unseen treasure _has_ been +spent upon that girl! Untold sums of money _have I_ sunk," etc. + + + +449. From these illustrations will be readily seen the grammatical +changes made in transferring from direct to indirect discourse. +Remember the following facts:-- + +(1) Usually the main, introductory verb is in the past tense. + +(2) The indirect quotation is usually introduced by _that_, and the +indirect question by _whether_ or _if_, or regular interrogatives. + +(3) Verbs in the present-tense form are changed to the past-tense +form. This includes the auxiliaries _be_, _have_, _will_, etc. The +past tense is sometimes changed to the past perfect. + +(4) The pronouns of the first and second persons are all changed to +the third person. Sometimes it is clearer to introduce the antecedent +of the pronoun instead. + +Other examples of indirect discourse have been given in Part I., +under interrogative pronouns, interrogative adverbs, and the +subjunctive mood of verbs. + + +Exercise. + +Rewrite the following extract from Irving's "Sketch Book," and change +it to a direct quotation:-- + +He assured the company that it was a fact, handed down from his +ancestor the historian, that the Catskill Mountains had always been +haunted by strange beings; that it was affirmed that the great +Hendrick Hudson, the first discoverer of the river and country, kept a +kind of vigil there every twenty years, with his crew of the +Half-moon, being permitted in this way to revisit the scenes of his +enterprise, and keep a guardian eye upon the river and the great city +called by his name; that his father had once seen them in their old +Dutch dresses playing at ninepins in a hollow of the mountain; and +that he himself had heard, one summer afternoon, the sound of their +balls, like distant peals of thunder. + + + + +VERBALS. + +PARTICIPLES. + + +[Sidenote: _Careless use of the participial phrase._] + +450. The following sentences illustrate a misuse of the participial +phrase:-- + + Pleased with the "Pilgrim's Progress," my first collection was of + John Bunyan's works.--B. FRANKLIN. + + My farm consisted of about twenty acres of excellent land, having + given a hundred pounds for my predecessor's goodwill.--GOLDSMITH. + + Upon asking how he had been taught the art of a cognoscente so + suddenly, he assured me that nothing was more easy.--_Id._ + + Having thus run through the causes of the sublime, my first + observation will be found nearly true.--BURKE + + He therefore remained silent till he had repeated a paternoster, + being the course which his confessor had enjoined.--SCOTT + +Compare with these the following:-- + +[Sidenote: _A correct example._] + + Going yesterday to dine with an old acquaintance, I had the + misfortune to find his whole family very much dejected.--ADDISON. + +[Sidenote: _Notice this._] + +The trouble is, in the sentences first quoted, that the main subject +of the sentence is not the same word that would be the subject of the +participle, if this were expanded into a verb. + +[Sidenote: _Correction._] + +Consequently one of two courses must be taken,--either change the +participle to a verb with its appropriate subject, leaving the +principal statement as it is; or change the principal proposition so +it shall make logical connection with the participial phrase. + +For example, the first sentence would be, either "_As I was_ pleased, +... my first collection was," etc., or "Pleased with the 'Pilgrim's +Progress,' I made my first collection John Bunyan's works." + +Exercise.--Rewrite the other four sentences so as to correct the +careless use of the participial phrase. + + + + +INFINITIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _Adverb between_ to _and the infinitive._] + +451. There is a construction which is becoming more and more common +among good writers,--the placing an adverb between _to_ of the +infinitive and the infinitive itself. The practice is condemned by +many grammarians, while defended or excused by others. Standard +writers often use it, and often, purposely or not, avoid it. + +The following two examples show the adverb before the infinitive:-- + +[Sidenote: _The more common usage._] + + He handled it with such nicety of address as sufficiently _to + show_ that he fully understood the business.--SCOTT. + + It is a solemn, universal assertion, deeply _to be kept_ in mind + by all sects.--RUSKIN. + +This is the more common arrangement; yet frequently the desire seems +to be to get the adverb snugly against the infinitive, to modify it as +closely and clearly as possible. + + +Exercise. + +In the following citations, see if the adverbs can be placed before or +after the infinitive and still modify it as clearly as they now do:-- + + 1. There are, then, many things _to be_ carefully _considered_, + if a strike is to succeed.--LAUGHLIN. + + 2. That the mind may not have to go backwards and forwards in + order _to_ rightly _connect_ them.--HERBERT SPENCER. + + 3. It may be easier to bear along all the qualifications of an + idea ... than _to_ first imperfectly _conceive_ such idea.--_id._ + + 4. In works of art, this kind of grandeur, which consists in + multitude, is _to be_ very cautiously _admitted_.--BURKE. + + 5. That virtue which requires _to be_ ever _guarded_ is + scarcely worth the sentinel.--GOLDSMITH. + + 6. Burke said that such "little arts and devices" were not _to + be_ wholly _condemned_.--_The Nation_, No. 1533. + + 7. I wish the reader _to_ clearly _understand_.--RUSKIN. + + 8. Transactions which seem _to be_ most widely _separated_ from + one another.--DR. BLAIR. + + 9. Would earnestly advise them for their good to order this + paper _to be_ punctually _served up_.--ADDISON. + + 10. A little sketch of his, in which a cannon ball is supposed + _to have_ just _carried off_ the head of an + aide-de-camp.--TROLLOPE. + + 11. The ladies seem _to have been_ expressly _created_ to form + helps meet for such gentlemen.--MACAULAY. + + 12. Sufficient to disgust a people whose manners were beginning + _to be_ strongly _tinctured_ with austerity.--_Id._ + + 13. The spirits, therefore, of those opposed to them seemed _to + be_ considerably _damped_ by their continued success.--SCOTT. + + + + +ADVERBS. + + +[Sidenote: _Position of_ only, even, _etc._] + +A very careful writer will so place the modifiers of a verb that the +reader will not mistake the meaning. + +The rigid rule in such a case would be, to put the modifier in such a +position that the reader not only can understand the meaning intended, +but _cannot misunderstand_ the thought. Now, when such adverbs as +_only_, _even_, etc., are used, they are usually placed in a strictly +correct position, if they modify single words; but they are often +removed from the exact position, if they modify phrases or clauses: +for example, from Irving, "The site is _only_ to be traced by +fragments of bricks, china, and earthenware." Here _only_ modifies the +phrase _by fragments of bricks_, etc., but it is placed before the +infinitive. This misplacement of the adverb can be detected only by +analysis of the sentence. + + +Exercise. + +Tell what the adverb modifies in each quotation, and see if it is +placed in the proper position:-- + + 1. Only the name of one obscure epigrammatist has been embalmed + for us in the verses of his rival.--PALGRAVE. + + 2. Do you remember pea shooters? I think we only had them on + going home for holidays.--THACKERAY. + + 3. Irving could only live very modestly. He could only afford + to keep one old horse.--_Id._ + + 4. The arrangement of this machinery could only be accounted + for by supposing the motive power to have been steam.--WENDELL + PHILLIPS. + + 5. Such disputes can only be settled by arms.--_Id._ + + 6. I have only noted one or two topics which I thought most + likely to interest an American reader.--N.P. WILLIS. + + 7. The silence of the first night at the farmhouse,--stillness + broken only by two whippoorwills.--HIGGINSON. + + 8. My master, to avoid a crowd, would suffer only thirty people + at a time to see me.--SWIFT. + + 9. In relating these and the following laws, I would only be + understood to mean the original institutions.--_Id._ + + 10. The perfect loveliness of a woman's countenance can only + consist in that majestic peace which is founded in the memory of + happy and useful years.--RUSKIN. + + 11. In one of those celestial days it seems a poverty that we can + only spend it once.--EMERSON. + + 12. My lord was only anxious as long as his wife's anxious face + or behavior seemed to upbraid him.--THACKERAY. + + 13. He shouted in those clear, piercing tones that could be even + heard among the roaring of the cannon.--COOPER. + + 14. His suspicions were not even excited by the ominous face of + Gerard.--MOTLEY. + + 15. During the whole course of his administration, he scarcely + befriended a single man of genius.--MACAULAY. + + 16. I never remember to have felt an event more deeply than his + death.--SYDNEY SMITH. + + 17. His last journey to Cannes, whence he was never destined to + return.--MRS. GROTE. + + + +USE OF DOUBLE NEGATIVES. + + +[Sidenote: _The old usage._] + +453. In Old and Middle English, two negatives strengthened a +negative idea; for example,-- + + He _nevere_ yet _no_ vileineye _ne_ sayde, + In al his lyf unto _no_ maner wight.--CHAUCER. + + _No_ sonne, were he never so old of yeares, might _not_ marry. + --ASCHAM. + +The first of these is equivalent to "He didn't never say no villainy +in all his life to no manner of man,"--four negatives. + +This idiom was common in the older stages of the language, and is +still kept in vulgar English; as,-- + + I tell you she _ain'_ been _nowhar_ ef she don' know we all. + --PAGE, in _Ole Virginia_. + + There _weren't no_ pies to equal hers.--MRS. STOWE. + + +[Sidenote: _Exceptional use._] + +There are sometimes found two negatives in modern English with a +negative effect, when one of the negatives is a connective. This, +however, is not common. + + I never did see him again, _nor never_ shall.--DE QUINCEY. + + However, I did _not_ act so hastily, _neither_.--DEFOE. + + The prosperity of no empire, _nor_ the grandeur of _no_ king, can + so agreeably affect, etc.--BURKE. + + +[Sidenote: _Regular law of negative in modern English._] + +But, under the influence of Latin syntax, the usual way of regarding +the question now is, that _two negatives are equivalent to an +affirmative_, denying each other. + +Therefore, if two negatives are found together, it is a sign of +ignorance or carelessness, or else a purpose to make an affirmative +effect. In the latter case, one of the negatives is often a prefix; as +_in_frequent, _un_common. + + +Exercise. + +Tell whether the two or more negatives are properly used in each of +the following sentences, and why:-- + + 1. The red men were not so infrequent visitors of the English + settlements.--HAWTHORNE. + + 2. "Huldy was so up to everything about the house, that the + doctor didn't miss nothin' in a temporal way."--MRS. STOWE. + + 3. Her younger sister was a wide-awake girl, who hadn't been to + school for nothing.--HOLMES. + + 4. You will find no battle which does not exhibit the most + cautious circumspection.--BAYNE. + + 5. Not only could man not acquire such information, but ought not + to labor after it.--GROTE. + + 6. There is no thoughtful man in America who would not consider a + war with England the greatest of calamities.--LOWELL. + + 7. In the execution of this task, there is no man who would not + find it an arduous effort.--HAMILTON. + + 8. "A weapon," said the King, "well worthy to confer honor, nor + has it been laid on an undeserving shoulder."--SCOTT. + + + + +CONJUNCTIONS. + + +[Sidenote: And who, and which.] + +454. The sentences given in Secs. 419 and 420 on the connecting of +pronouns with different expressions may again be referred to here, as +the use of the conjunction, as well as of the pronoun, should be +scrutinized. + +[Sidenote: _Choice and proper position of correlatives._] + +455. The most frequent mistakes in using conjunctions are in +handling correlatives, especially _both_ ... _and, neither_ ... _nor, +either_ ... _or, not_ _only_ ... _but, not merely_ ... _but_ (_also_). + +The following examples illustrate the correct use of correlatives as +to both choice of words and position:-- + + _Whether_ at war _or_ at peace, there we were, a standing menace + to all earthly paradises of that kind.--LOWELL. + + These idols of wood can _neither_ hear _nor_ feel.--PRESCOTT. + + _Both_ the common soldiery _and_ their leaders and commanders + lowered on each other as if their union had not been more + essential than ever, _not only_ to the success of their common + cause, _but_ to their own safety.--SCOTT. + + +[Sidenote: _Things to be watched._] + +In these examples it will be noticed that _nor_, not _or_ is the +proper correlative of _neither_; and that all correlatives in a +sentence ought to have corresponding positions: that is, if the last +precedes a verb, the first ought to be placed before a verb; if the +second precedes a phrase, the first should also. This is necessary to +make the sentence clear and symmetrical. + +[Sidenote: _Correction._] + +In the sentence, "I am _neither_ in spirits to enjoy it, _or_ to reply +to it," both of the above requirements are violated. The word +_neither_ in such a case had better be changed to _not_ ... +_either_,--"I am not in spirits _either_ to enjoy it, _or_ to reply to +it." + +Besides _neither ... or_, even _neither ... nor_ is often changed to +_not_--_either ... or_ with advantage, as the negation is sometimes +too far from the verb to which it belongs. + +A noun may be preceded by one of the correlatives, and an equivalent +pronoun by the other. The sentence, "This loose and inaccurate manner +of speaking has misled us _both_ in the theory of taste _and_ of +morals," may be changed to "This loose ... misled us _both_ in the +theory of taste _and_ in _that_ of morals." + + +Exercise. + +Correct the following sentences:-- + + 1. An ordinary man would neither have incurred the danger of + succoring Essex, nor the disgrace of assailing him.--MACAULAY. + + 2. Those ogres will stab about and kill not only strangers, but + they will outrage, murder, and chop up their own kin.--THACKERAY. + + 3. In the course of his reading (which was neither pursued with + that seriousness or that devout mind which such a study requires) + the youth found himself, etc.--_Id._ + + 4. I could neither bear walking nor riding in a carriage over its + pebbled streets.--FRANKLIN. + + 5. Some exceptions, that can neither be dissembled nor eluded, + render this mode of reasoning as indiscreet as it is + superfluous.--GIBBON. + + 6. They will, too, not merely interest children, but grown-up + persons.--_Westminster Review._ + + 7. I had even the satisfaction to see her lavish some kind looks + upon my unfortunate son, which the other could neither extort by + his fortune nor assiduity.--GOLDSMITH. + + 8. This was done probably to show that he was neither ashamed of + his name or family.--ADDISON. + + +[Sidenote: Try and _for_ try to.] + +456. Occasionally there is found the expression _try and_ instead of +the better authorized _try to_; as,-- + + We will try _and_ avoid personalities altogether.--THACKERAY. + + Did any of you ever try _and_ read "Blackmore's Poems"?--_Id._ + + Try _and_ avoid the pronoun.--BAIN. + + We will try _and_ get a clearer notion of them.--RUSKIN. + + +[Sidenote: But what.] + +457. Instead of the subordinate conjunction _that_, _but_, or _but +that_, or the negative relative _but_, we sometimes find the bulky and +needless _but what_. Now, it is possible to use _but what_ when _what_ +is a relative pronoun, as, "He never had any money _but what_ he +absolutely needed;" but in the following sentences _what_ usurps the +place of a conjunction. + + +Exercise. + +In the following sentences, substitute _that_, _but_, or _but that_ +for the words _but what_:-- + + 1. The doctor used to say 'twas her young heart, and I don't know + _but what_ he was right.--S.O. JEWETT. + + 2. At the first stroke of the pickax it is ten to one _but what_ + you are taken up for a trespass.--BULWER. + + 3. There are few persons of distinction _but what_ can hold + conversation in both languages.--SWIFT. + + 4. Who knows _but what_ there might be English among those + sun-browned half-naked masses of panting wretches?--KINGSLEY. + + 5. No little wound of the kind ever came to him _but what_ he + disclosed it at once.--TROLLOPE. + + 6. They are not so distant from the camp of Saladin _but what_ + they might be in a moment surprised.--SCOTT. + + + +PREPOSITIONS. + + +458. As to the placing of a preposition after its object in certain +cases, see Sec. 305. + + +[Sidenote: Between _and_ among.] + +459. In the primary meaning of between and among there is a +sharp distinction, as already seen in Sec. 313; but in Modern English +the difference is not so marked. + +Between is used most often with two things only, but still it is +frequently used in speaking of several objects, some relation or +connection between two at a time being implied. + +Among is used in the same way as _amid_ (though not with exactly the +same meaning), several objects being spoken of in the aggregate, no +separation or division by twos being implied. + +Examples of the distinctive use of the two words:-- + +[Sidenote: _Two things._] + + The contentions that arise _between_ the parson and the + squire.--ADDISON. + + We reckoned the improvements of the art of war _among_ the + triumphs of science.--EMERSON. + +Examples of the looser use of _between_:-- + +[Sidenote: _A number of things._] + + Natural objects affect us by the laws of that connection which + Providence has established _between_ certain motions of + bodies.--BURKE. + + Hence the differences _between_ men in natural endowment are + insignificant in comparison with their common wealth.--EMERSON. + + They maintain a good correspondence _between_ those wealthy + societies of men that are divided from one another by seas and + oceans.--ADDISON. + + Looking up at its deep-pointed porches and the dark places + _between_ their pillars where there were statues once.--RUSKIN + + What have I, a soldier of the Cross, to do with recollections of + war _betwixt_ Christian nations?--SCOTT. + +[Sidenote: _Two groups or one and a group._] + +Also _between_ may express relation or connection in speaking of two +groups of objects, or one object and a group; as,-- + + A council of war is going on beside the watch fire, _between_ the + three adventurers and the faithful Yeo.--KINGSLEY. + + The great distinction _between_ teachers sacred or + literary,--_between_ poets like Herbert and poets like + Pope,--_between_ philosophers like Spinoza, Kant, and Coleridge, + and philosophers like Locke, Paley, Mackintosh, and Stewart, etc. + --EMERSON. + +460. Certain words are followed by particular prepositions. + +Some of these words show by their composition what preposition should +follow. Such are _absolve_, _involve_, _different_. + +Some of them have, by custom, come to take prepositions not in keeping +with the original meaning of the words. Such are _derogatory_, +_averse_. + +Many words take one preposition to express one meaning, and another to +convey a different meaning; as, _correspond_, _confer_. + +And yet others may take several prepositions indifferently to express +the same meaning. + + +[Sidenote: _List I_.: _Words with particular prepositions_.] + +461. LIST I. + + Absolve _from_. Conversant _with_. + Abhorrent _to_. Dependent _on_ (_upon_). + Accord _with_. Different _from_. + Acquit _of_. Dissent _from_. + Affinity _between_. Derogatory _to_. + Averse _to_. Deprive _of_. + Bestow _on_ (_upon_). Independent _of_. + Conform _to_. Involve _in_. + Comply _with_. + +"Different _to_" is frequently heard in spoken English in England, +and sometimes creeps into standard books, but it is not good usage. + + +[Sidenote: _List II_.: _Words taking different prepositions for +different meanings._] + +462. LIST II. + + Agree _with_ (a person). Differ _from_ (note below). + Agree _to_ (a proposal). Differ _with_ (note below). + Change_ for_ (a thing). Disappointed _in_ (a thing + Change _with_ (a person). obtained). + Change _to_ (become). Disappointed _of_ (a thing not + Confer _with_ (talk with). obtained). + Confer _on_ (_upon_) (give to). Reconcile _to_ (note below). + Confide _in_ (trust in). Reconcile _with_ (note below). + Confide _to_ (intrust to). A taste _of_ (food). + Correspond _with_ (write to). A taste _for_ (art, etc.). + Correspond _to_ (a thing). + +"Correspond _with_" is sometimes used of things, as meaning _to be in +keeping with_. + +"Differ _from_" is used in speaking of unlikeness between things or +persons; "differ _from_" and "differ _with_" are both used in speaking +of persons disagreeing as to opinions. + +"Reconcile _to_" is used with the meaning of _resigned to_, as, "The +exile became reconciled _to_ his fate;" also of persons, in the sense +of making friends with, as, "The king is reconciled _to_ his +minister." "Reconcile _with_" is used with the meaning of _make to +agree with_, as, "The statement must be reconciled _with_ his previous +conduct." + + +[Sidenote: _List III_.: _Words taking anyone of several prepositions +for the same meaning_.] + +463. LIST III. + + Die _by_, die _for_, die _from_, die _of_, die _with_. + Expect _of_, expect _from_. + Part _from_, part _with_. + +Illustrations of "die _of_," "die _from_," etc.:-- + +[Sidenote: "_Die_ of."] + + The author died _of_ a fit of apoplexy.--BOSWELL. + + People do not die _of_ trifling little colds.--AUSTEN + + Fifteen officers died _of_ fever in a day.--MACAULAY. + + It would take me long to die _of_ hunger.--G. ELIOT. + + She died _of_ hard work, privation, and ill treatment.--BURNETT. + +[Sidenote: "_Die_ from."] + + She saw her husband at last literally die _from_ hunger.--BULWER. + + He died at last without disease, simply _from_ old age. + --_Athenaeum._ + + No one _died from_ want at Longfeld.--_Chambers' Journal._ + +[Sidenote: "_Die_ with."] + + She would have been ready to die _with_ shame.--G. ELIOT. + + I am positively dying _with_ hunger.--SCOTT. + + I thought the two Miss Flamboroughs would have died _with_ + laughing.--GOLDSMITH. + + I wish that the happiest here may not die _with_ envy.--POPE. + +[Sidenote: "_Die_ for." (_in behalf of_).] + + Take thought and die _for_ Caesar.--SHAKESPEARE. + + One of them said he would die _for_ her.--GOLDSMITH. + + It is a man of quality who dies _for_ her.--ADDISON. + +[Sidenote: "_Die_ for." (_because of_).] + + Who, as Cervantes informs us, died _for_ love of the fair + Marcella.--FIELDING. + + Some officers had died _for_ want of a morsel of + bread.--MACAULAY. + +[Sidenote: "_Die_ by." (_material cause, instrument_).] + + If I meet with any of 'em, they shall die _by_ this hand. + --THACKERAY. + + He must purge himself to the satisfaction of a vigilant tribunal + or die _by_ fire.--MACAULAY. + + He died _by_ suicide before he completed his eighteenth + year.--SHAW. + + +464. Illustrations of "expect _of_," "expect _from:_"-- + +[Sidenote: "_Expect_ of."] + + What do I expect _of_ Dublin?--_Punch._ + + That is more than I expected _of_ you.--SCOTT. + + _Of_ Doctor P. nothing better was to be expected.--POE. + + Not knowing what might be expected _of_ men in general.--G. + ELIOT. + +[Sidenote: "_Expect_ from."] + + She will expect more attention _from_ you, as my + friend.--WALPOLE. + + + + There was a certain grace and decorum hardly to be expected + _from_ a man.--MACAULAY. + + I have long expected something remarkable _from_ you.--G. ELIOT. + + +465. "Part _with_" is used with both persons and things, but "part +_from_" is less often found in speaking of things. + +Illustrations of "part _with_," "part _from_:"-- + +[Sidenote: "_Part_ with."] + + He was fond of everybody that he was used to, and hated to part + _with_ them.--AUSTEN. + + Cleveland was sorry to part _with_ him.--BULWER. + + I can part _with_ my children for their good.--DICKENS. + + I part _with_ all that grew so near my heart.--WALLER. + +[Sidenote: "_Part_ from."] + + To part _from_ you would be misery.--MARRYAT. + + I have just seen her, just parted _from_ her.--BULWER. + + Burke parted _from_ him with deep emotion.--MACAULAY. + + His precious bag, which he would by no means part _from_.--G. + ELIOT. + + +[Sidenote: _Kind_ in _you_, _kind_ of _you_.] + +466. With words implying behavior or disposition, either _of_ or +_in_ is used indifferently, as shown in the following quotations:-- + +[Sidenote: Of.] + + It was a little bad _of_ you.--TROLLOPE. + + How cruel _of_ me!--COLLINS. + + He did not think it handsome _of_ you.--BULWER. + + But this is idle _of_ you.--TENNYSON. + +[Sidenote: In.] + + Very natural _in_ Mr. Hampden.--CARLYLE. + + It will be anything but shrewd _in_ you.--DICKENS. + + That is very unreasonable _in_ a person so young.--BEACONSFIELD. + + I am wasting your whole morning--too bad _in_ me.--BULWER. + + +Miscellaneous Examples for Correction. + +1. Can you imagine Indians or a semi-civilized people engaged on a +work like the canal connecting the Mediterranean and the Red seas? + +2. In the friction between an employer and workman, it is commonly +said that his profits are high. + +3. None of them are in any wise willing to give his life for the life +of his chief. + +4. That which can be done with perfect convenience and without loss, +is not always the thing that most needs to be done, or which we are +most imperatively required to do. + +5. Art is neither to be achieved by effort of thinking, nor explained +by accuracy of speaking. + +6. To such as thee the fathers owe their fame. + +7. We tread upon the ancient granite that first divided the waters +into a northern and southern ocean. + +8. Thou tread'st, with seraphims, the vast abyss. + +9. Eustace had slipped off his long cloak, thrown it over Amyas's +head, and ran up the alley. + +10. This narrative, tedious perhaps, but which the story renders +necessary, may serve to explain the state of intelligence betwixt the +lovers. + +11. To the shame and eternal infamy of whomsoever shall turn back from +the plow on which he hath laid his hand! + +12. The noise of vast cataracts, raging storms, thunder, or artillery, +awake a great and awful sensation in the mind. + +13. The materials and ornaments ought neither to be white, nor green, +nor yellow, nor blue, nor of a pale red. + +14. This does not prove that an idea of use and beauty are the same +thing, or that they are any way dependent on each other. + + +15. And were I anything but what I am, + I would wish me only he. + +16. But every man may know, and most of us do know, what is a just and +unjust act. + +17. You have seen Cassio and she together. + +18. We shall shortly see which is the fittest object of scorn, you or +me. + +19. Richard glared round him with an eye that seemed to seek an enemy, +and from which the angry nobles shrunk appalled. + +20. It comes to whomsoever will put off what is foreign and proud. + +21. The difference between the just and unjust procedure does not lie +in the number of men hired, but in the price paid to them. + +22. The effect of proportion and fitness, so far at least as they +proceed from a mere consideration of the work itself, produce +approbation, the acquiescence of the understanding. + +23. When the glass or liquor are transparent, the light is sometimes +softened in the passage. + +24. For there nor yew nor cypress spread their gloom. + +25. Every one of these letters are in my name. + +26. Neither of them are remarkable for precision. + +27. Squares, triangles, and other angular figures, are neither +beautiful to the sight nor feeling. + +28. There is not one in a thousand of these human souls that cares to +think where this estate is, or how beautiful it is, or what kind of +life they are to lead in it. + +29. Dryden and Rowe's manner are quite out of fashion. + +30. We were only permitted to stop for refreshment once. + +31. The sight of the manner in which the meals were served were enough +to turn our stomach. + +32. The moody and savage state of mind of the sullen and ambitious man +are admirably drawn. + +33. Surely none of our readers are so unfortunate as not to know some +man or woman who carry this atmosphere of peace and good-will about +with them. (Sec. 411.) + +34. Friday, whom he thinks would be better than a dog, and almost as +good as a pony. + +35. That night every man of the boat's crew, save Amyas, were down +with raging fever. + +36. These kind of books fill up the long tapestry of history with +little bits of detail which give human interest to it. + +37. I never remember the heather so rich and abundant. + +38. These are scattered along the coast for several hundred miles, in +conditions of life that seem forbidding enough, but which are accepted +without complaint by the inhabitants themselves. + +39. Between each was an interval where lay a musket. + +40. He had four children, and it was confidently expected that they +would receive a fortune of at least $200,000 between them. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 1: More for convenience than for absolute accuracy, the +stages of our language have been roughly divided into three:-- + +(1) Old English (with Anglo-Saxon) down to the twelfth century. + +(2) Middle English, from about the twelfth century to the sixteenth +century. + +(3) Modern English, from about 1500 to the present time.] + + + + +INDEX. + +THE NUMBERS REFER TO PAGES. + + + A, origin of, 119. + syntax of, 310. + uses of, 124. + + Absolute, nominative, 47. + + Abstract nouns, 20. + with article, 25, 124. + + Active voice, 133. + + Address, nominative of, 47. + + Adjective clauses, 260. + + Adjective pronouns, demonstrative, 90. + distinguished from adjectives, 89. + distributive, 91. + numeral, 92. + + Adjectives, adverbs used as, 116. + as complements, 239. + comparison of, 107. + definition of, 98. + demonstrative, 102. + from nouns, used as nouns, 27. + function of, 97. + how to parse, 115, 116. + in predicate, 239. + not compared, 109. + of quality, 99. + of quantity, 101. + ordinal, 103. + plural of, 106. + pronominal, 104. + syntax of, 303. + + Adverbial clauses, 262. + + Adverbial objective, 48, 242. + + Adverbs, between _to_ and infinitive, 323. + classes of, 185, 187. + definition of, 184. + distinguished from adjectives, 190. + how to parse, 191. + position of, in sentence, 325. + same form as adjectives, 190. + syntax of, 325. + used as adjectives, 116. + used as nouns, 27. + what they modify, 183. + + Adversative conjunction, 194. + + _After_, uses of, 114, 195, 207. + + _Against_, uses of, 207. + + Agreement, kinds of, 275. + of adjective with noun, 303. + of personal pronoun with antecedent, 287. + of relative pronoun with antecedent, 291. + of verb with subject, 148, 316. + + _All_, syntax of, 302. + + _Alms_, 42. + + Alternative conjunctions, 194, 328. + + _Among, between_, 207, 331. + + _An_. See _A_. + + Anacoluthon with _which_, 295. + + Analysis, definition of, 231. + of complex sentences, 264. + of compound sentences, 271. + of simple sentences, 252. + + _And who_, _and which_, 296. + + Antecedent, agreement of pronoun and. See _Agreement_. + definition of, 74. + of _it_, 67. + of personal pronouns, 74, 287. + of _which_, 79. + + _Any_, as adjective, 101. + as pronoun, 90. + syntax of, 300. + + Apostrophe in possessive, 51. + + Apposition, words in, 47, 49, 67, 240. + + _Are_, derivation of, 150. + + Arrangement in syntax, 275. + + Articles, definite, 120. + definition of, 120. + how to parse, 127. + indefinite, 124. + syntax of, 309. + + _As_, after _same_, 294. + uses of, 84, 225. + + _As if_, _as though_, 198. + + _At_, uses of, 208. + + Auxiliary verbs, 148. + + + _Bad_, comparison of, 110. + + _Be_, conjugation of, 149. + uses of, 150. + + _Better_, _best_, 110, 111. + + _Between._ See _Among_. + + _Brethren_, 39. + + _Bridegroom_, 37. + + _But_, uses of, 84, 224. + with nominative of pronoun, 283. + + _But what_, 330. + + _By_, uses of, 210. + + + _Can_, _could_, 161. + + Case, definition of, 46. + + Case, double possessive, of nouns, 54. + of pronouns, 64. + forms, number of, in Old and Modern English, 46. + nominative, of nouns, 47. + of pronouns, 62, 279. + objective, of nouns, 48. + of pronouns, 66, 279. + possessive, of nouns, 49, 278. + of pronouns, 63. + syntax of, 278. + + Cause, clauses of, 262. + conjunctions of, 194, 195. + + _Cherub_, plurals of, 45. + + _Children_, 39. + + Clause, adjective, 260. + adverb, 262. + definition of, 257. + kinds of, 257. + noun, 258. + + _Cleave_, forms of, 158. + + _Clomb_, 157. + + _Cloths_, _clothes_, 43. + + Collective nouns, 18. + syntax of, and verb, 312, 315. + + Colloquial English, 12. + + Common nouns, 18. + derived from material, 24. + derived from proper, 23. + + Comparative and superlative, double, 113, 307. + syntax of, 307. + + Comparison, defective, 111. + definition of, 108. + degrees of, 108. + irregular, 110. + of adjectives, 107. + of adverbs, 189. + syntax of, 305. + + Complement of predicate, 239. + + Complementary infinitive, 248. + + Complex sentence, analysis of, 264. + definition of, 257. + + Compound nouns, plural of, 43. + possessive of, 53. + + Compound predicate and subject, 244. + + Compound sentence, 268. + analysis of, 271. + + Concessive clause, in analysis, 263. + with subjunctive, 143. + + Concord. See _Agreement_. + + Conditional clause, in analysis, 263. + with subjunctive, 138. + + Conditional conjunctions, 196. + + Conditional sentences, 139. + + Conjugation, definition of, 149. + of _be_, 149. + of other verbs, 151. + + Conjunctions, and other parts of speech, same words, 195, 207. + cooerdinate, 194. + correlative, 194. + definition of, 193. + how to parse, 199. + subordinate, 195. + syntax of, 328. + + Conjunctive adverbs, 188. + + Conjunctive pronoun. See _Relative pronoun_. + + Contracted sentences, analysis of, 255. + + Cooerdinate clauses, 269. + + Cooerdinate conjunctions. See _Conjunctions_. + + Cooerdinating _vs._ restrictive use of relative pronouns, 289. + + Copulative conjunction, 194. + + _Could._ See _Can_. + + + Dative case, in Old English, replaced by objective, 66. + + Declarative sentence, 231. + + Declension of interrogative pronouns, 73. + + Declension, of nouns, 51. + of personal pronouns, 60. + of relative pronouns, 80. + + Defective verbs, 160. + + Definite article. See _Articles_. + + Definite tenses, 148, 152. + + Degree, adverbs of, 185. + + Degrees. See _Comparison_. + + Demonstrative adjectives, 102. + syntax of, 303. + + Demonstrative pronouns, 90. + + Dependent clause. See _Subordinate clause_. + + Descriptive adjectives, 99. + + Descriptive use of nouns, 26. + + _Dice_, _dies_, 43. + + _Die by_, _for_, _from_, _of_, _with_, 333. + + Direct discourse, 320. + + Direct object, _vs._ indirect, 48, 242. + retained with passive verb, 242. + + Distributive adjectives, 102. + syntax of, 287, 315. + + Distributive pronouns, 91. + syntax of, 288, 300. + + Double comparative. See _Comparative_. + + Double possessive. See _Case_. + + _Drake_, _duck_, 35. + + _Drank_, _drunk_, 158. + + + _Each_, adjective, 102. + pronoun, 90, 92. + syntax of, 287. + + _Each other_, _one another_, 92, 299. + + _Eat_ (et), 158. + + _Eaves_, 42. + + _Either_, as adjective, 102. + syntax of, 287. + as conjunction, 194. + syntax of, 328. + as pronoun, 90, 92. + syntax of, 300. + + _Elder_, _older_, 110, 112. + + Elements of the sentence, 234, 257. + + Ellipsis, a source of error in pronouns, 280. + in complex sentence, 255. + + _'Em_, origin of, 62. + + _Empress_, 34. + + _-En_, added to plural, 39. + feminine suffix, 32. + plural suffix, original, 38. + + English, literary, spoken, vulgar, 12. + periods of, 33. + + Enlargement of predicate, 241. + of subject, object, complement, 240. + + _-Es_ original of possessive ending, 51. + plural suffix, 40. + + _-Ess_, feminine suffix, 33. + + _Every_, adjective, 102. + syntax of, 287. + + _Expect of_, _expect from_, 334. + + _Expected to have gone_, etc., 319. + + + Factitive object, 48, 235. + + _Farther, further_, 110, 112, 189. + + Feminine, 30. + + _Few, a few_, 126. + + _First_, 103, 112. + + _First two_, _two first_, etc., 308. + + _Fish_, _fishes_, 43. + + _For_, redundant, with infinitive, used as a noun, 212, 238. + uses of, 211. + + Foreign plurals, 45. + + _Former, the_, adjective, 102. + pronoun, 91. + + _From_, uses of, 212. + + _Further._ See _Farther_. + + Future tense, 147, 152. + + Future perfect, 148, 152. + + + _Gander_, _goose_, 36. + + _Gender_, "common gender," 31. + definition of, 30. + distinguished from sex, 30. + in English, as compared with other languages, 29. + modes of marking, in nouns, 32. + of personal pronouns, 60. + of relative pronouns, 80. + + _Genii_, _geniuses_, 43. + + Gerund, distinguished from participle and verbal noun, 177. + forms of, 176. + in syntax, possessive case with, 285. + + _Girl_, 35. + + _Got_, 159. + + Government, definition of, kinds of, 275. + + Grammar, basis of, 12. + definition of, 12. + divisions of, 13. + opinions on, 9. + province of, 10. + + + H, _an_ before, 120. + + _Had better_, _had rather_, 175. + + _Hanged_, _hung_, 159. + + _He_, _she_, _it_, 61. + + _His_ for _its_, 61. + + _Husband_, 36. + + + _I_, personal pronoun, 60. + + Imperative mood, 144. + of first person, 145. + + Imperative sentence, 231. + + Imperfect participle, 173. + + Indefinite adjective, 101. + + Indefinite article. See _Articles_. + + Indefinite pronoun, 93. + + Indefinite use of _you_, _your_, 67. + + Independent clause, 257. + + Independent elements, 245. + + _Indexes_, _indices_, 43. + + Indicative mood, uses of, 136. + + Indirect discourse, 320. + + Indirect object. See _Direct object_. + + Indirect questions. See _Questions_. + + Infinitive, active, with passive meaning, 176. + not a mood, 153. + syntax of, 319, 323. + uses of, 248. + + _-Ing_ words, summary of, 178. + + Interjections, 227. + + Interrogative adjectives, 105. + + Interrogative adverbs, 188. + + Interrogative pronouns, 72. + declension of, 73. + in indirect questions, 85. + syntax of, 283. + + Interrogative sentence, 231, 233. + + Intransitive verbs, 131. + made transitive, 131. + + Irregularities in syntax, 276. + + Irregularly compared adjectives, 110. + adverbs, 189. + + _It_, uses of, 67. + + "It was _me_," etc., 63, 281. + + _Its_, history of, 61. + + + _Kind_, _these kind_, etc., 303. + + _Kine_, double plural, 39. + + _King_, _queen_, 36. + + + _Lady_, _lord_, 36. + + _Last_, _latest_, 110, 113. + + _Latter, the_, adjective, 102, 113. + pronoun, 91. + + _Lay_, _lie_, 170. + + _Less_, _lesser_, 110. + + _Lie_. See _Lay_. + + _Like_, syntax of, 227. + uses of, 226. + + Literary English, 12. + + _Little_, _a little_, 126. + + Logic _vs._ form, in syntax, 276. + + Logical subject and predicate, 245. + + _Lord._ See _Lady_. + + _-Ly_, words in, 190. + + + _Madam_, 36. + + Manner, adverbs of, 185, 188. + conjunctions of, 195. + + _Many_, comparison of, 110, 112. + + _Many a_, 126. + + Mapping out sentences, 256, 265. + + _Mare_, 36. + + _Master_, _mistress_, 34. + + _May_, _might_, 160. + + _Means_, construction of, 41. + + _Mighty_ as adverb, 187. + + _Mine_, of _mine_, 64. + + Modifier, adverb, position of, 325. + + Modifiers. See _Enlargement_. + + _Mood_, definition of, 135. + imperative, 144. + indicative, 136, 137. + subjunctive, 137-144. + + _-Most_, in superlatives, 113, 114, 189. + + _Much_, comparison of, 110, 112, 189. + + _Must_, 161. + + + _Near_, _nearer_, _nigh_, etc., 110, 112. + + Negative, double, 326. + + _Neither_, adjective, 102. + syntax of, 287. + conjunction, 194. + syntax of, 328. + pronoun, 90, 92. + syntax of, 300. + + Neuter nouns, definition of, 30. + or gender nouns, according to use, 30. + two kinds of, 32. + + _News_, 41. + + _No_ in analysis, 246. + + Nominative. See _Case_. + + _None_, syntax of, 301. + + _Nor_, 194, 328. + + _Not a_, etc. 126. + + Noun clause, 258. + + Nouns, 17. + abstract, 20. + become half abstract, 25, 124. + become proper, 25. + formation of, 21. + case of, 46. + collective, 19. + common, 18. + definition of, 17. + descriptive, 26. + gender of, 29. + how to parse, 56. + kinds of, 17 + material, 19. + become class nouns, 24, 125. + neuter, used as gender nouns, 30. + number in, 38. + once singular, now plural, 42. + other words used as, 27. + plural, how formed, 38-41. + of abstract, 41 + of compound, etc. 43. + of foreign, 45. + of letters and figures, 46. + of material, 41. + of proper, 41. + same as singular, 39. + two forms of, 42 + with titles, 44. + proper, 18. + become common, 23. + syntax of, 278. + use of possessive form of, 278, 285. + with definite article, 121. + with different meaning in plural, 42. + with indefinite article, 124. + + Nouns, with no singular, 42. + with one plural, two meanings, 43. + with plural form, singular meaning, 41. + with singular or plural construction, plural form, 41. + + _Now_ as conjunction, 195, 196. + + _Number_, definition of, etc., in nouns. + See _Nouns_. + in adjectives, 106. + in pronouns, personal, 60. + in verbs, 148. + + Numeral adjectives, definite, 101. + distributive, 102. + indefinite, 101. + + Numeral pronouns, 92. + + + Object, adverbial, 48. + definition of, 48. + direct and indirect, 48. + in analysis, 235. + of preposition. See _Preposition_. + modifiers of, 240. + retained with passive verb, 242. + + Objective case, adverbial, dative, 48, 242. + in spoken English, 281. + instead of nominative, 279. + nominative instead of, 282. + of nouns, 48. + of pronouns, 66. + syntax of, 279. + + _Of_, uses of, 213. + + _Older._ See _Elder_. + + Omission of relative pronoun, 87, 293. + + _On_, _upon_, uses of, 216. + + _One_, definite numeral adjective, 101. + indefinite pronoun, 94. + possessive of, 93 + + _One another._ See _Each other_. + + _One_ (_the_), the other, as adjective, 103. + as pronoun, 91. + + _Only_, as conjunction, 194. + position of, as adverb, 325 + + Order, a part of syntax, 275. + inverted, in analysis, 233, 237. + + Ordinal adjectives, treatment of, 103. + + _Other_ with comparatives, 306. + + _Ought_, 161. + + _Our_, _ours_, 64. + + _Ourself_, 69. + + _Oxen_, 38. + + + _Pains_, 41. + + Parsing, models for, 56, 117. + of adjectives, 115, 116. + of adverbs, 191. + of articles, 127. + of conjunctions, 199. + of nouns, 56. + of prepositions, 219. + of pronouns, 95. + of relatives, 80. + of verb phrases, 180. + of verbals, 181. + of verbs, 179. + some idioms not parsed, 56. + what it is, 56. + + _Part from_, _part with_, 335. + + Participial adjective, 100. + + Participial phrase, 247. + + Participle, definition of, 172. + distinguished from other _-ing_ words, 177. + forms of, 174. + kinds of, 173. + syntax of, 322. + uses of, 150, 172. + + Parts of speech, article included in, 119. + words used as various, 27, 28. + + Passive voice, 134. + + _Peas_, _pease_, 43. + + _Pence_, _pennies_, 43. + + Person, agreement of verb and subject in, 317. + of nouns, 59. + of pronouns, 59. + of verbs, 148. + + Personal pronoun, absolute use of, 63. + agreement of, with antecedent, 287. + as predicate nominative, 281. + case of, 62. + compound, or reflexive, 69. + uses of, 70. + definition of, 59. + double possessive of, 64. + _'em_ and _them_, 62. + history of, 61. + objective of, for nominative in spoken English, 63, 281. + syntax of, 281. + table of, 60. + triple possessive of, 64. + uses of _it_, 67. + + Personification, of abstract nouns, 25. + of other nouns, 37. + + Phrase, definition of, 236. + kinds of, 236. + infinitive, 248. + participial, 247. + prepositional, 247. + + Place, adverbs of, 185, 188. + conjunctions of, 195. + prepositions of, 206. + + Plural, of adjectives, 106. + syntax of, 303. + of nouns. See _Nouns_. + of pronouns, 60, 61. + + _Politics_, singular or plural, 41. + + Positive degree. See _Comparison_. + + Possessive, appositional, of nouns, 49. + as antecedent of relative, 285. + double, of nouns, 54. + double, of pronouns. See _Personal pronoun_. + objective and subjective, 50. + of compound nouns, 53. + of indefinite pronoun, 303. + omission of _s_ in singular, 52. + origin of _'s_, 51. + syntax of, 278. + with modified noun omitted, 53. + with two objects, 278. + + Predicate, complement of, 235. + complete, 245. + definition of, 232. + logical _vs._ simple, 245. + modifiers of, 241. + + Prefixes, gender shown by, 32. + + Prepositions, certain, with certain words, 332. + classification of, 206. + definition of, 203. + followed by possessive case, 54, 64. + by nominative case, 283. + how to parse, 219. + objects of, 203. + position of, 202. + relations expressed by certain, 208. + same words as other parts of speech, 187, 195, 207. + syntax of, 331. + uses of, 129, 132, 205. + various, with same meaning, 333. + + Present tense used as future, 147. + + _Pretty_ as adverb, 186. + + Pronominal adjectives, interrogative, 105. + relative, 104. + _what_, exclamatory, 105. + + Pronouns, 58. + adjective, 89. + _all_, singular and plural, 302. + _any_, usually plural, 300. + _each other_, _one another_, 299. + _either_, _neither_, with verbs, 300. + _none_, usually plural, 301. + _somebody else's_, 303. + definition of, 58. + how to parse, 95. + indefinite, 93. + interrogative, 72. + _who_ as objective, 283. + personal, 59. + after _than_, _as_, 280. + antecedents of, 287. + nominative and objective, forms of, 279. + nominative form of, after _but_, 284. + objective form of, for predicate nominative, 281. + objective form of, in exclamations, 282. + possessive form of, as antecedent of relative, 285. + possessive form of, with gerund, 286. + relative, 74. + agreement of, with antecedent, 291. + anacoluthon with _which_, 295. + _and who_, _and which_, 296. + _as_, _that_, _who_, and _which_ after _same_, 295. + how to parse, 80. + omission of, 87, 293. + restrictive and unrestrictive, 289. + two relatives, same antecedent, 297. + syntax of, 279. + usefulness of, 58. + + Proper nouns. See _Nouns_. + + Purpose, clauses of, 263. + conjunctions of, 195. + + Quality, adjectives of, 99. + + Quantity, adjectives of, 101. + + Questions, direct and indirect, adverbs in, 188. + pronominal adjectives in, 105. + pronouns in, 85. + indirect, subjunctive in, 142. + + Quotations. See _Direct discourse_. + + + Rank, adjectives of same and different, 115. + + _Rather_, 189. + + Reflexive pronouns, history of, 69. + how formed, 69. + + Reflexive use of personal pronoun, 68. + + Relative pronoun, 74. + _but_ and _as_, 84. + distinguished from interrogative, in indirect questions, 85. + function of, 74. + indefinite or compound, 83. + omission of, 87, 293. + restrictive use of, 289. + syntax of, 289. + use of, 74. + + Result, clauses of, 263. + conjunctions of, 196. + + Retained object, 242. + + _Riches_, 42. + + + _S_, plural suffix, 40. + + _'S_, possessive ending, 51. + + _Same as_, _that_, _who_, _which_, 294. + + _Sat_, _sate_, 159. + + _Seeing_, conjunction, 195, 196. + + _Self_ in reflexive pronoun, 69. + + Sentences, analysis of complex, 26 + of compound, 271. + of elliptical, 255. + of simple, 252. + complex in form, simple in effect, 259. + + Sentences, definition of, 231. + kinds of, 231. + + Sequence of tenses, 319. + + _Set_, _sit_, 170. + + Sex and gender, 29. + + _Shall_, _should_, _will_, _would_, 162. + + _Shear_, forms of, 159. + + _Shot_, _shots_, 43. + + Simple sentence. See _Sentences_. + + Singular number, 38. + + _Sir_, 36. + + _Somebody else's_, etc., 303. + + _Sort_, _these sort_, 303. + + Spelling becoming phonetic in verbs, 169. + + _Spinster_, 33. + + Split infinitive, 323. + + Spoken English, 12. + + -Ster, feminine suffix, use of, in Middle English, 32. + in Modern English, 33. + + Subject, complete, 245. + definition of, 233. + grammatical _vs._ logical, 67, 245, 258. + modifiers of, 240. + things used as, 237, 258. + + Subjunctive mood, definition of, 137. + gradual disuse of, 144. + uses of, in literary English, 138. + in spoken English, 144. + + Subordinate clause, 257. + adjective, 260. + adverb, 262. + definition of, 257. + how to distinguish, 270. + kinds of, 257. + noun, 258. + other names for, 257. + + _Such_ as adverb, 186. + + _Such a_, 126. + + Suffix _-en_. See _-En_. + _-s_, _-es_, 38. + + Suffixes, foreign, 33. + + Superlative degree, double, 307. + in meaning, not in form, 107. + not suggesting comparison, 109. + of adjectives, 108. + of adverbs, 189. + syntax of, 306. + with two objects, 306. + + Syntax, basis of, 277. + definition of, 275. + in English not same as in classical languages, 275. + + Tense, definition of, 147. + + Tenses, definite, meaning of, 148. + in Modern English, made up of auxiliaries, 147. + number of, in Old English, 147. + sequence of, 319. + table of, 152. + + _Than me_, _than whom_, 280. + + _That_, omission of, when subject, 88. + when object, 87. + relative, restrictive, and cooerdinating, 289, 290. + _that ... and which_, 297. + uses of, 222. + + _That_, _this_, as adjectives, 106. + as adverbs, 186. + history of plural of, 106. + + _The_, as article, 120. + as adverb, 123, 186. + history of, 119. + syntax of, 309. + + _Their_, _they_, 61. + + _Then_, "the _then_ king," etc., 116. + + _There_ introductory, 191. + + _These kind_, syntax of. See _Kind_. + + _These_, _this_, _those_. See _That_, history of. + + _Thou_, _thy_, _thee_, uses of, 61. + + _Time_, adverbs of, 185, 188. + conjunctions of, 195. + prepositions of, 207. + + _To_, before infinitive, 175. + in exclamations, 175. + omitted with certain verbs, 175. + uses of, as preposition, 217. + + _T'other_, _the tother_, 119. + + _-Trix_, feminine suffix, 33. + + _Try and_, _try to_, 330. + + _Two first_, _first two_, etc., 308. + + _Under_, adjective, 114. + + _Upon_, uses of. See _On_. + + _Upper_, 114. + + _Utter_, _uttermost_, 111, 114. + + Verb phrases, 128. + parsing of, 180. + + Verbal noun, 20. + distinguished from other _-ing_ words, 21, 173. + + Verbals, cleft infinitive, 323. + gerund, 176. + how to parse, 181. + infinitive, 174, 248. + kinds of, 172. + participle, 172. + carelessly used, 322. + uses of, in analysis, 247. + syntax of, 322. + + Verbs, agreement of, with subject in number, 312-316. + in person, 317. + auxiliary, 148. + conjugation of, 149. + defective, 160. + definition of, 129. + how to parse, 179. + in indirect discourse, 320. + intransitive, made transitive, 131. + mood of, 135. + of incomplete predication, 150, 236. + passive form, active meaning, 151. + person and number of, 148. + retained object with passive, 242. + strong, definition of, 154. + remarks on certain, 157. + table of, 155. + syntax of, 312. + tense of, 147. + sequence of, 319. + transitive and intransitive, 130. + voice of, 133. + weak, definition of, 154. + spelling of, 169. + table of irregular, 167. + + _Vixen_, 33. + + Vocative nominative, 47. + in analysis, 245. + + Voice, active, 133. + passive, 134. + + Vowel change, past tense of verbs formed by, 154. + plural formed by, 39. + + Vulgar English, 12. + + Weak verbs, regular, irregular, 167. + spelling of, becoming phonetic, 169. + + _Went_, 159. + + _What_, uses of, 223. + _but what_, 330. + _what a_, 105. 126. + + _Whereby_, _whereto_, etc., 85. + + _Whether_, conjunction, 194. + interrogative pronoun, 72. + + _Which_, antecedent of, 79. + as adjective, 104, 105. + as relative pronoun, 75. + in indirect questions, 85. + indefinite relative, 83. + interrogative pronoun in direct questions, 72. + syntax of, 295-299. + _whose_, possessive of, 78. + + _Who_, as relative, 75. + in direct questions, 72. + in indirect questions, 85. + indefinite relative, 83. + objective, in spoken English, 73. + referring to animals, 77. + syntax of, 296, 299. + + _Widower_, 37. + + _Wife_, 36. + + _Will_, _would_. See _Shall_. + + _Witch_, _wizard_, 36. + + _With_, uses of, 218. + + _Woman_, 32. + + Words in _-ing_, 178. + in _-ly_, 190. + + _Worse_, _worser_, 111. + + + _Y_, plural of nouns ending in. 40. + + _Yes_ in analysis, 246. + + _Yon_, _yonder_, 103. + + _You_, singular and plural, 61. + + _Yours_, _of yours_, 64. + + _Yourself_, _yourselves_, 70. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of An English Grammar +by W. M. Baskervill and J. W. 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